Suchergebnisse

Issue 41.5 of the Review for Religious, September/October 1982. ; REVIEW FOR REIolGIOI.IS (ISSN 0034-639X). published every two months, is edited in collaboration with the faculty members of the Department of Theological Studies of St. Louis University. The editorial offices are located at Room 428; 3601 Lindell Blvd.: St. Louis, MO 63108. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOLIS is owned by the Missouri Province Educational Institute of the Society of Jesus, St. Louis, MO, © 1982 by REVIEW FOR REI,IGIOUS. Composed, printed and manufactured in U.S.A. Second class postage paid at St. Louis, MO. Single copies: $2.50. Subscfip!ion U.S.A.: $9.00 a year; $1"/.00 for two years. Olher countries: $10.00 a year; $19.00 for two years. For subscription orders or change of address, write: REVIEW Eou RELIC.IOUS; P.O. Box 6070; Dululh, MN 55806. Daniel F. X. Meenan, S.J. Dolores Greeley, R.S.M. Daniel T. Costello, S.J. Joseph F. Gallen, S.J. Jean Read Editor Associate Editor Book Editor Questions and Answers Editor Assistant Editor Sept./Oct., 1982 Volume 41 Number 5 Manuscripts, hooks for review and correspondence wilh thc editor should be sent to REVII.:W FOR R~:I.,(;~OUS; Room 428; 3601 Lindell Blvd.; St. Louis, MO 63108. Questions for answering should be senl Io Joseph F. Gallen, S.J.; Jesuil Community; SI. Joseph's University; Cily Avenue at 541h SI.; Philadelphia, PA 19131. Back issues and reprints should be ordered from R~:v~:w ~ou REL~(aOUS; Room 428; 3601 Lindell Blvd.; St. Louis, MO 63108. "Out of print" issues and articles not published as reprints are available from University Microfilms International; 300 N. Zeeb Rd.; Ann Arbor, MI 48106. Letters of Gratitude Robert F. Morneau In this article, Bishop Morneau is attempting an experiment, the inspiration of which he explains in his introduction. If his effort responds to a sufficient desire in the audience, he has other letters to other authors already in mind. Bishop Morneau, Auxiliary Bishop of Green Bay, has an office at Ministry to Priests Program; 1016 N. Broadway; De Pere, WI 54115. How many of us, well-intentioned indeed, have been moved to express gratitude for gifts received but, lacking either sufficient discipline or crowded by pressing demands, have failed to properly recognize our benefactors. I stand self-accused! Though trained in younger years to promptly send thank-you notes, distance from gracious family policies has allowed this excellent habit to diminish ,and finally disappear. This present collection of thank you letters, though long overdue, attempts to make restitution; it seeks to halt my proclivity to take things for granted. Several stimuli have served as prods in this present endeavor. One was Flannery O'Connor's The Habit of Being. l found in her collected letters a style of discourse that might be labeled "heart .talk": simple, direct and highly personal Listening in to her conversations with a variety of persons proved to be for me enriching and inspiring. A second stimulus came from a reflection of Henri Nouwen in his sensitive autobiographical piece The Genesee Diary: Meanwhile, it remains remarkable how little is said and written about letter writing as an important form of ministry. A good letter can change the day for someone in pain. can chase away feelings of resentment, can create a smile and bring jo.t, to the heart. After all, a good part of the New Testament consists of letters, and some of the most profound insights are written down in letters between people who are attracted to each other by a deep personal affection, l~tter writing is a very important art, especially for those who want to bring the good news (p. 70-71). A third and most important stimulus comes from a personal desire, i.e., a longing that others might meet some of the people who have touched my life. 641 642 / Review for Religious, Sept.-Oct., 1982 Their wisdom and gifts are too valuable to remain on shelves, collecting dust while our spirits remain famished. These jottings of mine are means to an end. They attempt to draw the reader to lovingly pursue the .full text of each author addressed. The passages 1 have included are merely hors d'oeuvres; the main course lies in the books themselves. Our libraries contain a wealth of material that boggles the mind How to be selective in such a rich mine; what gems to carry out and which to leave behind? The choice, like all choices, causes us joy in the books withdrawn, sorrow at what must be foregone because of our limitations. But then there are other seasons for further reading and future generations to ponder other authors. Three letters are contained in this series. The first is written to Julian of Norwich (b. 1342 - d. 1416). In her masterpiece of spiritual literature, Showings, Julian articulates how God revealed himself in her life. Her work is marked by clarity and depth, compassion and keen sensitivit.v, theological precision and accu-racy. The work is a deep personal witness of how the human heart is touched b), divine love. The second letter is addressed to Simone Weil. She lived from 1909 to 1943. She was a brilliant mathematician and philosopher and became deeply involved in social and political issues. Though attracted to Catholicism, she never was received into the Church. Her writings show deep sensitivity and keen intelli-gence. Ralph Waldo Emerson, an American essayist and poet, is the recipient of the third letter. He lived from 1803 to 1882. His essays are filled with poetic insight and challenging convictions. He was a gifted man who articulated well the inner journey. Hopefully, these letters will draw us into a deeper appreciation of three who journeyed before us. Hopefully, too, we will be challenged to read the primary sources. Julian Norwich, England Dear Julian, I write in gratitude for your spiritual journal which has touched the heart of the human condition in many ~vays. For those who are skeptical of private revelations, and I am one of them, your writings indicate that such workings of God are authentic when received and expressed in grace. I would like to share now some of the themes and reflections that touch my spirit. Your God! Courteous, accessible and familiar! At the heart of such a theology is your intense awareness of a God whose love is personal, a God who waits and longs for us, his people. I noted that you used the adjective "courteous" of God well over fifty .times, driving home the point of his graciousness and intense affectivity. How attractive this is: to be drawn by love to God rather than to be exposed to harsh attributes of anger and wrath. And what a struggle you had to Letters of Gratitude / 645 find the compatibility between wrath in God and his rich courtesy. Yet your sense of sin and the necessity of mercy permeate all your writings. Sin is offensive to God indeed; yet his love comes to our sinfulness in mercy and healing. The God you experienced is indeed the God of Scripture. You are now famous, you know, for calling God "mother." More specifically, you applied this term to Jesus because it is through him that we are reborn and nurtured in our new life. He carries us, as a mother does her child, in fruitful pregnancy. Based on this analogy of birth, nurturing and pregnancy, the only fitting term is "mother." Hopefully, this beautiful image will not be lost because of myopic imagination or airtight theologies. In your life of seclusion, the charge might be made in our age of high social consciousness that you lived a truncated spirituality. However, your reflections constantly call people to virtue, the practical living out in specific ways the love of God experienced in prayer. Moreover, you often use the expression "fellow-Chris-tians" which indicates that you were deeply concerned about all people. Thomas Merton once stated that he never felt so close to God and his fellow pilgrims as when he was in solitude. That paradoxical experience was also part of your life and you shared it with us well. Speaking of well-ness! A constant refrain is that "all will be well." Time and time again you drive us back to the mystery of providence and the demand for trust in the Lord. The great deed of God will be to bring about total healing of .history and creation. We stand too close to pain to realize this but you had. the faith to believe in the darkness. Indeed, faith is the ability to say "I know that you know." Yet in the darkness of our pain and frailty we want all to be well now, unable and unwilling to accept the woe that comes our way. Again you call us to a central spiritual truth: well-being or woe is not the heart of the matter, rather it is doing the will of the Father. In this lies all holiness and peace. You are a good teacher. Through the analogy of a hazelnut (183), you draw together the mysteries of being created, loved and preserved; the image of a knot (284), points out the tremendous bonding between God and ourselves; at the bottom of the sea (193) you remind us of God's continual presence; in the magnifi-cent image of the city (337) you point out how God dwells forever in our inner abode; in the analogy of the king-servant (188ff) we are present with the familiar and personal working relationship between the Creator and his creature. Add to these pictures of wounds, a purse, the ground, a gardener, a citadel, and you bring us through images into insight. These delightful mental "buckets" help us to retain a wealth of truth and theology. Romanticism gives way to realism because you lived constantly in the shadow of the cross and the experience of suffering that such discipleship entails. You longed to taste.the sufferings of Jesus, your Beloved. Thus your spiritual life was a mixture of consolation and desolation; you accepted this as your Savior did in his life. Very helpful is your description of the alternating movements of the spirits and the constant challenge to accept either with equal peace of mind. Our natural inclination is to flee pain, poverty and deprivation; grace allows us to endure and 644 / Review for Religious, Sept.-Oct., 1982 participate in this dark side of life and thereby make great spiritual progress. Attitude of mind is crucial; grace is necessary to train us in proper disposition. The fact that we have little or no control over the alternating spirits deep within adds its own unique cross. Acceptance of this fact is a key to spiritual maturity. In what lies happiness? What is heaven? You respond to these questions with directness and simplicity. Heaven is Jesus: happiness is found in personal relation-ships with our God and his creation. Having things is replaced by being possessed by Love. Being is more significant than doing, though the latter will follow freely when love is embraced. Further, God's bliss is in us--we are his delight, his bliss, his crown. What magnificent mutuality here! God's countenance never changes, his eyes are always filled with love, his smile is graciously upon us. A God who delights in his creatures--you have repeated well the message of the psalmist. Central to our relationship with God is prayer. I really enjoyed your distinction between higher and lower contemplation (339), the former focusing on God's love and causing spiritual joy and delight, the latter gazing upon sin and keeping us in reverential fear and holy shame. What a beautiful balance, a trait that is discernible throughout your writings. Indeed, without contemplation we begin to distance ourselves from our subjective experience and thus from the Lord. Yet he remains ever close; we must be disposed to hear and respond to his slightest touch. Two last points are of great interest to me: the constant reference to divine indwelling and the seeking/finding theme. God has, in his inscrutable providence, decided to make his home within our being. From this flows an incomprehensible dignity that we are challenged to attend to. With such a guest, how reverently we should live! It is because of our blindness and insensitivity that we fail many times to live within this presence. Then too, Julian, you speak of two movements that are of great importance: seeking the Lord and finding him. For you indicate that in the finding we receive consolation and deep joy; in the seeking, the Lord is pleased and delighted. Both are good, yet what is central is the Lord's will. Thus if we are to find the Lord, then we should rejoice in such a grace. Come what may, it is recognizing and doing God's will that determines sanctity. For your lightness of touch, for your sharing of faith vision, for your modeling of prayer, for your gentle humanness, I thank you. With deep affection, RFM Happiness Contentment For until I am substantially united to him, I can never have perfect rest or true happiness, until, that is, 1 am so attached to him that there can be no created thing between my God and me. (183) For this is the loving yearning of the soul through the touch of the Holy Spirit. from the understanding which I have in this revelation: God, of your goodness give me yourself, for you are enough for me, and I can ask for nothing which is less which can pay you full worship. And if I ask anything which is less, always I am in want; but only in you do I have everything. (184) Letters of Gratitude / 845 God's Will Relativity Pleasing God ¯. and therefore we may with reverence ask from our lover all that we will, for our natural will is to have God, and God's good will is to have us, and we can never stop willing or loving until we possess him in the fullness of joy. And there we can will no more, for it is his will that we be occupied in knowing and loving until the time comes that we shall be filled full in heaven¯ (186) But the reason why it seemed to my eyes so little was because I saw it in the presence of him who is the Creator. To any soul who sees the Creator of all things, all that is created seems very little¯ (190) And this vision taught me to understand that the soul's constant search pleases God greatly¯ For it cannot do more than seek, suffer and trust. And this is accomplished in every soul, to whom it is given by the Holy Spirit. And illumination by finding is of the Spirit's special grace, when it is his will. Seeking with faith, hope and love pleases our Lord, and finding pleases the soul and fills it full of joy. And so I was taught to understand that seeking is as good as contemplating, during the time that he wishes to permit the soul to be in labor. It is God's will that we seek on until we see him, for it is through this that he will show himself to us, of his special grace, when it is his will. And he will teach a soul himself how it should bear itself when it contem-plates him, and that is the greatest honor to him and the greatest profit to the soul, and it receives most humility and other virtues, by the grace and guidance of the Holy Spirit¯ For it seems to me that the greatest honor which a soul can pay to God is simply to surrender itself to him with true confidence, whether it be seeking or contemplating. These are the two activities which can be seen in this vision: one is seeking, the other is contemplating. Seeking is common to all, and every soul can have through grace and ought to have discretion and teaching from Holy Church¯ It is God's will that we receive three things from him as gifts as we seek¯ The first is that we seek willingly and diligently without sloth, as that may be with his grace, joyfully and happily, without unreasonable depression and useless sorrow. The second is that we wait for him steadfastly, out of love for him, without grumbling and contending against him, to the end of our lives, for that will last only for a time¯ The third is that we have great trust in him, out of complete and true faith, for it is his will that we know that he will appear, suddenly and blessedly, to all his lovers. For he works in secret, and he will be perceived, and his appearing will be very sudden¯ And he wants to be trusted, for he is very accessible, familiar and courte-ous, blessed may he be. (195-196) And in this my understanding was lifted up into heaven, where I saw our Lord God as a lord in his own house, who has called all'his friends to a splendid' feast. Then I did not see him seated anywhere in his own house; but ! saw him reign in his house as a king and fill it all full of joy and mirth, gladdening and consoling his dear friends with himself, very familiarly and courteo.usly, with wonderful melody in endless love in his own fair blissful countenance, which glorious countenance fills all heaven full of the joy and Citations are reprinted from Julian of Norwich, Showings. trans, by Edmund Colledge, O.S.A., and James Walsh, S.J., © 1978 by The Missionary Society of St. Paul the Apostle in the State of New York, used by permission of Paulist Press. 646 / Review for Religious, Sept.-Oct., 1982 Dryness of Spirit bliss of the divinity. (203) This vision was shown to teach me to understand that some souls profit by experiencing this. to be comforted at one time, and at another to fail and to be left to themselves. God wishes us to know that he keeps us safe all the time, in sorrow and in joy; and sometimes a man is left to himself for the profit of his soul, although his sin is not always the cause. For in this time I committed no sin for which I ought to have been left to myself, for it was so sudden. Nor did I deserve these feelings of joy, but our Lord gives it freely when he wills, and sometimes he allows us to be in sorrow, and both are one love. For it is God's will that we do all in our power to preserve our consolation, for bliss lasts forevermore, and pain is passing, and will be reduced to nothing for those who will be saved. Therefore it is not God's will that when we feel pain we should pursue it in sorrow and mourning for it, but that suddenly we should pass it over, and preserve ourselves in the endless delight which is God. (205) And when we fall back into ourselves, through depression and spiritual blindness and our experience of spiritual and bodily pains, because of our frailty, it is God's will that we know that he has not forgotten us. (307) For our courteous Lord does not want his servants to despair because they fall often and grievously: for our falling does not hinder him in loving us. (245) Our Lord wants us to have true understanding, and especially in three things which belong to our prayer. The first is with whom and how our prayer originates. He reveals with whom when he says: I am the ground: and he reveals how by his goodness, because he says: First it is my will. As to the second, in what manner and how we should perform our prayers, that is that our will should be tuned, rejoicing, into the will of our Lord. And he means this when he says: I make you to wish it. As to the third; it is that we know the fruit and the end of our prayer, which is to be united and like to our Lord in all things. (250-251) II Simone Weil France Dear Simone, l write in gratitude for your essays touching on a wide range of experience: God's presence in our human condition, the plight of the worker, the meaning of affliction, the purpose of s~tudy, the struggle for justice, the future of political and economic systems. You speak from felt experience, keenly analyzing the causes and effects of human proclivities and aberrations. Provocative, inspiring, challeng-ing all, your reflections have touched many minds and hearts; your sensitive spirit has provided both theoretical and practical implications that continue to have impact on our times. Letters of Gratitude A trait that strikes me deeply is your candidness in addressing personal and collective issues. In regard to your spiritual life, you were drawn toward Catholi-cism but felt that you could not accept that stirring because in so doing you would remove yourself from large segments of the human family. While failing to see the logic of your conclusion, 1 respect your unwillingness to compromise, your com-mitment to principle. Your courage is impressive. Besides personal honesty in terms of your own life-style, you take on systems that oppress and exploit the fundamental rights of people. A deep sense of responsibility toward the common good and a powerful vision of human solidarity made you cry out wherever the dignity of people was threatened or.injured. Human respect did not paralyze you; you were willing to pay the price in your hunger and thirst for justice. A related but distinct theme is your profound insight into the philosophic patterns of means-end. The ultimate evil is to reverse the order of reality: turning means into ends (138). This principle explains so much of life. Other authors concur with your observation but from slightly different angles: C. $. Lewis warns of getting caught on Christianity (creeds, codes, cults) and' forgetting about Christ; he notes elsewhere how writers begin to focus more on how they say things rather than the truth which is the end of all discourse. Pope John Paul 11 speaks about techhology enslaving the person whenever humans fail to exercise their proper responsibility over the instruments that they have created. All in all, exploitation and manipulation are the consequences of failing to allow'the goal to govern the process. Such a failure fosters death, not life. By profession you did spend some time teaching. In writing about this most noble vocation you articulated a thesis that all study, by its very nature, is directed toward the love of God and is a preparation for that love. The inner dynamism of the process contains the power of contemplation, that human act of loving atten-tiveness that puts us into intimate contact with reality. All study is an exercisein attention; attention is a form of contemplation: contemplation is essentially a union with reality whose ultimate source is God. In faith we bglieve that all creation in some way manifests the Creator. Thus your thesis has a firm theologi-cal basis. Regardless of the discipline, be it anthropology, sociology or literature, attentiveness to the reality exposed by these studies is indirectly preparing the alert student to love of God. What joy this is for the faith-filled teacher; what a surprise to the atheist who unwittingly leads the searching student into the embrace of God. Shakespeare once wrote: "Expose thyself to feel what wretches feel." You worked in a factory and understood from experience many of the trials of human life. From the inside you struggled with need and pain, small joys and unhappy compensations. Choice, not necessity, drew you into this world. To the extent that you did not need to remain in the w~rld of wretches, possessing the necessary resources both intellectually and materially to exit at will, there was a tinge of unreality in such a choice. Not all the strings were cut. Regardless, you tasted the full range of boredom, anomie and meaninglessness that result from situations in which people are no longer dealt with as persons but are treated as objects or machines. It was from this posture that you prophetically demanded reform in 641~ / Review for Religious, Sept.-Oct., 1982 systems that impinged negatively on the hearts and dignity of people. Your words continue to challenge our generation, caught by a vast technological network that threatens our freedom and enslaves our spirits. A special influence in your life was a poem by George Herbert entitled "Love." While concentrating with great effort on the inner meaning of this distant, sensitive man's beautiful verse, you encountered the Lord. Drawn into the dialogue of the poem your heart was captured and held fast. The intimacy and indwelling articu-lated by HerbertAake us to the heart of faith: a deep personal relationship with God that provides a basis for discipleship. The struggle expressed between the invitation to be with God and one's sense of unworthiness, between resting in the Lord and being busy with one's duties and responsibilities, between allowing God to be God and trying to control the flow of lives--all these apparently were part of your existential experience. In a single short poem, crucial life issues were raised and given a resolution: to live in his presence. Eternal joy is contingent upon our individual responseto this challenge. The ways in which God touched your life were as many as the ways in which he used you to influence others. Your awareness of this sensitive process is de-scribed by the term "instrumentality." Through various persons, seen precisely as channels of grace, the Lord made his presence felt: Fr. Perrin acting as friend-counselor transmitted a sense of faith; Homer writing in The Iliad shared a scope of reality and human interaction that enriched your sense of meaning; close friends, intervening at key moments in your life, made visible divine love in word and deed. Having known the divine presence, you in turn shared, through your finely honed gifts, your interpretation of that experience. The Creator and creature in dynamic mutuality! St. Francis' prayer experienced and lived! All of us who have read your works know firsthand the power, meaning and joy of this instrumentality. Sincerely, R.F.M. Friendship Fear But the greatest blessing you have brought me is of another order. In gaining my friendship by your charity (which 1 have never met anything to equal), you have provided me with a source of the most compelling and pure inspiration that is to be found among human things. For nothing among human things has such power to keep our gaze fixed ever more intensely upon God, than friendship for the friends of God. (19) Everybody knows that really intimate conversation is only possible between two or three. As soon as there are six or seven, collective language begins to dominate. That is why it is a complete misinterpretation to apply to the Church the words "Wheresoever two or three are gathered together in my name, there am I in the midst of them." Christ did not say two hundred, or fifty, or ten. He said two or three. He said precisely that he always forms the third in the intimacy of the tete-a-tete: (23) As always happens, mental confusion and passivity leave free scope to the imagination. On all hand~ one is obsessed by a representation of social life Letters of Gratitude Prayer Joy Presence Unhappiness Expression which, while differing considerably from one class to another, is always made up of m~,,steries, occult qualities, myths, idols and monsters; each one thinks that power resides mysteriously in one of the classes to which he has no access, because hardly anybody understands that it resides nowhere, so that the dominant feeling everywhere is that dizzy fear which is always brought about by loss of contact with reality. (37) The key to a Christian conception of studies is the realization that prayer consists of attention. It is the orientation of all the attention of which the soul is capable toward God. The quality of the attention counts for much in the quality of prayer. Warmth of heart cannot make up for it. (44) The intelligence can only be led by desire. For there to be desire, there must be pleasure and joy in the work. The intelligence only grows and bears fruit in joy. The joy of learning is as indispensable in study as breathing is in running. Where it is lacking there are no real students, but only poor caricatures of apprentices who, at the end of their apprenticeship, will not even have a trade. (48) Not only does the love of God have attention for its substance; the love of neighbor, which we know to be the same love, is made of this same substance. Those who are unhappy have no need for anything in this world but people capable of giving them their attention. The capacity to give one's attention to a sufferer is a very rare and difficult thing: it is almost a miracle; it is a miracle. Nearly all those who think they have this capacity do not possess it. Warmth of heart, impulsiveness, pity are not enough . The love of our neighbor in all its fullness simply means being able to say to him: ~What are you going through?". This way of looking is first of all attentive. The soul empties itself of all its own contents in order to receive into itself the being it is looking at, just as he is, in all his truth. (51) Nothing is more difficult to know than the nature of unhappiness: a residue of mystery will always cling to it. For, following the Greek proverb, it is dumb. To seize its exact shadings and causes presupposes an aptitude for inward analysis which is not characteristic of the unhappy. Even if that aptitude existed in this or that individual, unhappiness itself would balk such an activity of thought. Humiliation always has for its effect the crea-tion of forbidden zones where thought may not venture and which are shrouded by silence and illusion. When the unhappy complain, they almost always complain in superficial terms, without voicing the nature of their true discontent; moreover, in cases of profound and permanent unhappi-ness, a strongly developed sense of shame arrests all lamentation. Thus, every unhappy condition among men creates the silent zone alluded to, in which each is isolated as though on an island. Those who do escape from the island will not look back. The exceptions turn out almost always to be more apparent,than real. (64) No thought attains to its fullest existence unless it is incarnated in a human environment, and by environment I mean something open to the world around, something which is steeped in the surrounding society and is in contact with the whole of it, and not simply a closed circle of disciples Citations are reprinted with permission from the book The Sirnone Weil Reader. edited by George Panichas, © 1977. Published by David McKay Co., Inc. 650 / Review for Religious, Sept.-Oct., 1982 Silence Suffering Joy Instrumentality Idea Suffering Failings around a master. (84) The whole of space is filled, even though sounds can be heard, with a dense silence which is not an absence of sound but is a positive sound object of sensation; it is the secret world, the world of Love who holds us in his arms from the beginning. (87) I am convinced that affliction on the one hand, and on the other hand joy, when it is a complete and pure commitment to perfect beauty, are the only two keys which give entry to the realm of purity, where one can breathe: the home of the real. But each of them must be unmixed: the joy without a shadow of incompleteness, the affliction completely unconsoled. You understand me, of course. That divine love which one touches in the depth of affliction, like Christ's resurrection through crucifixion, that love which is the central core and intangible essence of joy, is not a consola-tion. It leaves pain completely intact . for anyone in affliction, evil can perhaps be defined as being everything that gives any consolation. (92-93) We know that joy is the sweetness of contact with the love of God, that affliction is the wound of this same contact when it is painful, and that only the contact matters, not the manner of it. (107) It is more suitable for some thoughts to come by direct inspiration; it is more suitable for others to be transmitted through some creature. God uses either way with his friends. It is well-known that no matter what thing, a donkey for instance, can be used as agent without making any difference. It pleases God perhaps to choose the most worthless objects for this purpose. I am obliged to tell myself these things so as not to be afraid of my own thoughts. (110) Now, everybody knows from his own experience how unusual it is for an abstract idea having a long-term utility to triumph over present pains, needs and desires. It must, however, do so in the matter of social existence, on pain of a regression to a primitive form of life. (150) ¯ . . for the understanding of human suffering is dependent upon justice, and love is its condition. (181) In private life also, each of us is always tempted to set his own failings to a certain extent, on one side. relegate them to some attic, invent some method of calculation ~hereby they turn out to be of no real consequence. To give way to this temptation is to ruin the soul; it is the one above all, that has to be conquered. (187) III Ralph Waldo Emerson New England Dear Mr. Emerson, I write in gratitude for the brilliant essays that have flown so freely from your generous pen. Few subjects escape your incisive gaze and contemplative spirit. Letters of Gratitude / 65"1 History, personalities, nature, culture, education, politics, religion have all elicited your comments and artistic revelation. Lecture halls in America and Europe still reecho with the sound of your voice; the mind and heart of many a transcendental-ist quiver with awe at your observations. Even the woods and hills of New England have never been the same since your vision of their very essence. The inward journey! If for no other reason than this, your writings challenge our achievement-oriented generation and activistic culture to reexamine its values and life-style. Prime time and energy must be budgeted for personal interior renewal. You model well for us here. Interiority was a way of life which you evidenced by the depth of your writing. Your words come from a source far beyond your own power; one can sense this in the tone of your discourse. Your contemplative stance presents a viable option for many of us desirous of a life-style radically different from the one offered by our culture. Another world that is not primarily concerned with productivity and external achievements is available to anyone who desires it. Your life makes present such a choice and, though fear of the interior life remains, your courageous entrance instills hope. "Self-Reliance" is a most powerful essay. You state that the divine spark resides in all of us and tends to be activated in sporadic moments. All have the potential in varying degress for genius--those with developed artistic skills express that genius in some visible-audible manner. My understanding of your meaning of self-reli-ance is not that we are called to some solitary, stoical, individualistic self-suffi-ciency; but rather, that we are motivated to get in touch with our deepest self, far beyond the superficial narrowness of our surface self and find therein a wealth that is wedded to the life force (what we call in theological terms, God). Such an analysis would imply that not to have self-reliance would be to cut oneself off from the source of existence. Your abhorrence of conformity and false consistency is well taken at this point. A failure to live from internalized values carries the price tag of no personal identity, a price paid by too many. Healthy and authentic self-reliance fosters true identity and its accompanying freedom. Initially, I struggled with your style--philosophic, at times highly abstract and tight. Profundity and clarity are seldom happily married because of the mysterious nature of reality. The closer one is to truth the more difficult becomes its expres-sion. Simplicity gets covered by human discourse. The mental challenge to reach beyond any style is well worth the effort. Your writings contain a spirit of deep tension between the individual and collective whole, between personal freedom and authoritarian structures, between self and institutions. You are clearly committed to the first value in each set, i.e., the individual, freedom and self. This seems so obvious that the advantages and importance of the common good are not given full weight, the necessity of some structures containing an authority is not fully appreciated, the role that a given institution can play in fostering life fails to be properly valued. Your own expe-rience of leaving the institutional ministry may have had much to do with your outlook. Perhaps the delicate balance between complementary sets of values can-not be maintained by a prophetic spirit such as yours. An implicit principle of 652 / Review for Religious, Sept.-Oct., 1982 nature indicates that the development in one direction of our giftedness entails the underdeveloping of others. Such is reality. Thus the experience of your own genius would not allow outer pressures to thwart its expression. The negative and re-straining forces within institutional structures, the decisions of authority and the challenges of social concerns--all thirsting for precious time and energy--weighed so heavily in your judgment that their advantages had to be forfeited. Your piercing intellect cut through what is extraneous in human experience into its heart, the essence of things. In succinct, pithy phrases, you captured principles and patterns of universal significance, thus shedding light on complex experiences and bringing joy to the spirit which perceives but lacks words to articulate its insight. In a single essay many such phrases reside, awaiting discovery by the thirsting soul. For example, in "Compensation" we read: Nature hates monopolies and exceptions. There is a crack in every thing God has made. Fear is an instructor of great sagacity and the herald of all revolutions. Commit a crime, and the earth is made of glass. It is the nature of the soul to appreciate all things. How unfortunate that many have not stopped at your well of late. As a beneficiary of your life-giving water, ! express deep gratitude to you. Your legacy is vast and varied: intellectual excellence of the highest quality, challenging us to develop the rich potential of our minds; historical perspective promoting a contextual vision of life; critical analysis of incisive accuracy, drawing us out of naivete into a sense of healthy criticism; personal integrity as a key goal of growth, demanding that we be true to our own giftedness; enthusiastic living of life, abhorring stagnation and the living of others' scripts; literary expertise ranging from the classic prose to the most lyrical poetry, inviting us to revisit the verbal gems of distant ~pilgrims. These qualities have influenced many: Henry David Thoreau, Emily Dickinson, and countless others. The legacy has not been forgotten. Sincerely, R.F.M. Revelation Perspective We distinguish the announcements of the soul, its manifestations of its own nature, by the term Revelation. These are always attended by the emotion of the sublime. For this communication is an influx of the Divine mind into our mind. It is an ebb of the individual rivulet before the flowing surges of the sea of life. Every distinct apprehension of this central com-mandment agitates men with awe and delight. A thrill passes through all men at the reception of new truth, or at the performance of a great action, which comes out of the heart of nature. In these communications the power to see is not separated from the will to do, but the insight proceeds from obedience, and the obedience proceeds from a joyful perception. (269) The field cannot be well seen from within the field. The astronomer must Letters of Gratitude / 653 Hope Beauty Poet Words Beauty Wisdom Expectation Action Presence have his diameter of the earth's orbit as a base to find the parallax of any star. (285) But the man and woman of seventy assume to know a[[, they have outlived their hope, they renounce aspiration, accept the actual for the necessary and talk down to the young, Let them then become organs of the Holy Ghost; let them be lovers; let them behold truth: and their eyes are uplifted. their wrinkles smoothed, they are perfumed again with hope and power. (289) Though we travel the world over to find the beautiful, we must carry it with us, or we find it not. (309) Too feeble fall the impressions of nature on us to make us artists. Every touch should tbrill. Every man should be so much an artist that he could report in conversation what had befallen him. Yet, in our experience, the rays or appulses have sufficient force to arrive at the senses, but not enough to reach the quick and compel the reproduction to themselves in speech. The poet is the person in whom these powers are in balance, the man without impediment, who sees and handles that which others dream of, traverses the whole scale of experience, and is representative of man, in virtue of being the largest power to receive and to impart. (321) Words and deeds are quite indifferent modes of the divine energy. Words are also actions, and actions are a kind of words. (322) Wherever snow falls or water flows or birds fly, wherever day and night meet in twilight, wherever the blue heaven is hung by clouds or sown with stars, wherever are forms with transparent boundaries, wherever are outlets into celestial space, wherever is danger, and awe. and love--there is Beauty, plenteous as rain, shed for thee, and though thou shouldst walk the world over, thou shalt not be able to find a condition inopportune or ignoble. (341) To finish the moment, to find the journey's end in every step of the road, to live the greatest number of good hours, is wisdom. (350) I compared notes with one of my friends who expects everything of the universe and is disappointed when anything is less than the best, and I found that ! begin at the other extreme, expecting nothing, and am always full of thanks for moderate goods. (351) Therefore all just persons are satisfied with their own praise. They refuse to explain themselves, and are content that new actions should do them that office. They believe that we communicate without speech and above speech, and that no right action of ours is quite unaffecting to our friends, at whatever distance; for the influence of action is not to be measured by miles. (358) Why should 1 fret myself because a circumstance has occurred which hinders my presence where I was expected? If I am not at the meeting, my presence where 1 am should be as useful to the commonwealth of friend-ship and wisdom, as would be my presence in that place. I exert the same quality of power in all places. (358) Reprinted from The Selected Writings of Ralph Waldo Emerson edited by Brooks Atkinson. Pub-lished by Random House, Inc. 654 / Review for Religious, Sept.-Oct., 1982 Truth Joy Life Renewal Faith Avarice Truth is the summit of being: justice is the application of it to affairs. (368) On the other part, rectitude is a perpetual victory, celebrated not by cries of joy but by serenity, which is joy fixed or habitual. (370) Life goes headlong. We chase some flying scheme, or we are hunted by some fear or command behind us. But if suddenly we encounter a friend, we pause: our heat and hurry look foolish enough: now pause, now posses-sion is required, and the power to swell the moment from the resources of the heart. The moment is all. in all noble relations. (378) The criticism and attack on institutions, which we have witnessed, has made one thing plain, that society gains nothing whilst a man, not himself renovated, attempts to renovate things around him: he has become tediously good in some particular but negligent or narrow in the rest; and hypocrisy and vanity are often the disgusting result. (455) The disease with which the human mind now labors is want of faith. (458) A canine appetite for knowledge was generated, which must still be fed but was never satisfied, and this knoffledge, not being directed on action, never took the character of substantial, humane truth, blessing those whom it entered. It gave the scholar certain powers of expression, the power of speech, the power of poetry, of literary art, but it did not bring him to peace or to beneficence. (459) Address: The Contemporary Spirituality Of the Monastic Lectio by Matthias Neuman, O.S.B. Price: $.50 per copy, plus postage. Review for Religious Room 428 3601 Lindell Blvd. St. Louis, Missouri 63108 Poverty, Time, Solitude: A Context for a Celibate Life-style Anthony Wieczorek, O.Praem. Brother Wieczorek's ~Parables and Paradigms" appeared in the July/August issue. He resides presently at the Holy Spirit House of Studies; 4841 South Woodlawn Ave.; Chicago, IL 60615. Celibacy is a dimension of a religious way of life. To be understood, therefore, celibacy must be seen in the context of religious life. The meaning of celibacy arises out of its relationship with the complementary vows of poverty and obedience, as well as out of the significance of communal life, prayer, and basic Christian virtue. Seen out of the context of all these elements, celibacy suffers a deprivation and a distortion. From the outset, it is important to be reminded that celibacy is not simply an ethic. Taken out of its context, celibacy is often reduced to being a moral direc-tive-- a negative moral directive. Celibacy is much more than a set of specific sexual mores; it is an extension of Christian virtue, a continuation of it. The sexual demeanor proper to celibacy rests upon Christian virtues and values such as respect for human dignity, single-heartedness, the sacredness of human life, a deep appreciation for what friendship and love can be, compassion, selflessness, and service. A discussion of celibacy must begin here. Before a decision can be made about living celibately, the question must be considered: What does it mean to live a Christian way of life? Am I willing to live with the restraints and limitations imposed upon me, not by celibacy, but by basic Christian values? Only after a person is willing to try to understand, accept, and live a Christian way of life can the matter of celibacy be addressed. Without this prior realization and commitment, celibacy has no context, no depth of meaning, and is left to be nothing more than just another "Thou shalt not . To see at least some part of the richness and potential of celibacy, it must be 655 656 / Review for Religious, Sept.-Oct., 1982 viewed as a dedication to poverty, a devotion of time, and a dependence upon solitude. Celibacy as a Dedication to Poverty The vow of celibacy stands nearest to the vow of poverty. Hence, it is an understanding of poverty that sheds the most light upon an understanding of celibacy. If poverty as a way of life cannot be embraced, neither can celibacy. Poverty is precisely a way of living. It is much more than not having the money to buy something .To be poor means to be without many of the everyday options and opportunities that people who are not poor have. To be poor means, among other things, to live in a constant situation of restriction and limitedness. A poor person has not the option of going to a movie or a ball game, of eating apple pie or cherry, of going to one restaurant rather than another, of wearing these shoes or those, this coat or that. Very often poor people do not have these options because they do not have the physical resources that allow for them. Yet despite being deprived of these "necessities" the poor can live happy and holy lives. The fact of poverty, the force of its physical reality, compels people who are poor to live according to needs and not simply wants. Poverty can "cleanse" us of the unnecessary. It can put us into a situation where we are able to more clearly distinguish between a need and a want. Poverty can liberate us from the bondage of wants, leaving us free to pursue our true needs, those things without which we cannot fully live a human life. Poverty can be humbling by forcing us to face our needs but it can also teach us that happiness lies not in having every want satisfied but in having our true needs satisfied. Seen in this light, poverty is the paradigm for celibacy. Celibacy is not simply a deprivation, it is a way of life. Therefore, it must be a way of relating. While we can be impoverished in some ways of expressing love, we can be rich in others. After all, intimacy does not depend upon sexual expression any more than a meaningful gift depends upon price. The very restrictedness of our expression can heighten the value of a poem or letter or a simple touch or smile. Celibacy, like poverty, can teach true gratitude for the beauty and preciousness of relationships. Celibacy has the potential to "cleanse" us of what is not essential and let us see what we truly need to both give and receive from people--the trust, the sharing, the dreaming. Celibacy does not demand that we repress our needs. Rather, it points them out in bolder relief and challenges us to distinguish between the frustration caused by the deprivation of needs and that caused by the depriva-tion of our wants. It sometimes requires just as much creativity to live celibately as it does to live in poverty. Do I have the grace to express myself creatively to others? If the limitedness of deliberate impoverishment can be willfully chosen and reason for gratitude in one's life still be found, if one can be satisfied to have needs fulfilled even if wants must go unsatisfied and yet remain appreciative and joyous, then perhaps such a person truly has the grace, the call to live celibately. A Context for a Celibate Life-style / 657 Such a call is a gift. It is the nature of gifts to be both given and received. Therefore, it is quite possible to refuse the gift of celibacy. One of the most common ways of refusing celibacy is by being filled with self-pity. It is not uncommon to hear celibates of all ages bemoan their celibacy the way an amputee bemoans the loss of a limb. Like some amputee victims, celibates can easily become lost in the conviction that they are only half human, that they are not whole. The way to overcome such feelings is not by trying to prove manliness or womanliness. Rather, the challenge is to find worth and dignity in who we are, in the deeper and more lasting qualities of humanness like compassion, the ability to listen, to laugh, to be grateful, to stand outside ourselves at the service of others. Our humanness depends upon our ability to love. That we love and are loved is a need. How we love and are loved is a want. Celibates live in the poverty of not having all their wants satisfied. Celibacy means distinguishing between needs and wants, accepting what cannot be. and finding satisfaction, thanksgiving, and peace in what is. Celibacy as a Devotion of Time One thing that poverty does provide in abundance is time. Being bereft of options does free up large amounts of time. Celibacy likewise provides an abundance of time. The challenge is how that time is to be spent, what our time is to be devoted to. Celibacy, for example, frees us from the time it takes to raise a family, but what does it free us for? Ideally, perhaps, we are freed for prayer, reading, study, even the opportunity to take time to see and wonder and dream. Celibacy also frees us to serve, to be available for people. Yet if all we do is remain available for work and devote little or no time to prayer and reading, we are distorting celibacy by removing it from a critical dimension of its context. A big danger for both celibates and non-celibates is that they give themselves more to their jobs than to God and their families or communities. It is this issue, the proper use of time, that causes one of the biggest consternations for celibates. The tendency toward entrenchment in work can be an escape from intimacy, but it is also true that many of the occupations engaged in by celibates are extremely time-consuming and energy draining. Moreover, it is work which simply must be done. The tension between giving time and taking iime is not lessened by the fact that most celibates do recognize the necessity for being present to community and for entering into solitude with God. A celibate life-style that does not allow for time not only to recreate but also to read and reflect cannot give life to the celibate. Such a life-style will consume that person instead. One of the challenges and disciplines of celibacy is the proper use of time. While celibacy ought to provide time, in practice it often does not. Here, too, celibacy shows a connection with poverty. The poor guard and dispense their resources carefully, So too with the celibate's dispensing of time. Workaholism is as much a threat to celibacy as sexual licentiousness--perhaps 6511 / Review for Religious, Sept.-Oct., 1982 even more so. Our consciences are sensiiive to the issue of sexual restraint but not to making mistresses out of our work. Our culture emphasizes efficiency, produc-tivity, and frowns upon anything that hints of wasting time. Therefore, celibates who find even a little free time quickly and perhaps unconsciously fill it in by doing more. Yet celibacy as a life-style requires time to be set aside not for doing but for being. Time is a gift many celibates refuse to accept because in part they are afraid to take it. Time only makes the loneliness echo more loudly. Time takes away excuses. It confronts us, Yet time in a celibate life-style is essential, for it provides the panorama that enables us to see what we are to move toward. It gives us the opportunity to see and address our needs. Time must be part of every celibate's life, for without that time celibacy loses its context and the solitude that nourishes celibacy cannot be obtained. While celibacy ought to provide time, it is a commod-ity which so few celibates seem to have. Yet time is an essential resource for the celibate for it alone can acquire solitude for us. Celibacy as a Dependence Upon Solitude Celibacy cannot be endured, let alone lived, without the time to enter into solitude with God. Only by freely and gratefully embracing solitude can a person find life in celibacy. Solitude is not loneliness but aloneness, time apart to be alone with oneself and with one's God. Solitude for the celibate is essential for several reasons. Solitude teaches surrender. It strips away the illusion of wants. It is a confrontation with what is real. of what is essential, of what is true. Solitude teaches sight. In the stillness of solitude we see what we would ordinarily have overlooked, assumed, or taken for granted. Through solitude, we are taught to appreciate, admire, and wonder. Solitude teaches sensitivity. Compassion comes from seeing with another's eyes. Solitude makes one hungry to enter into another's life deeply, personally, respectfully, and ge~atly. But often celibates do not embrace solitude. Instead we try to fill in our time with possessions, work. television, and peripheral friendships. Yet it is essential that celibates in particular spend time in solitude so as to spend time with God. In sqlitude we take time to share in God's aloneness. It is in solitude that we can more deeply fall in love with God. If a celibate does not put an effort into being at peace with solitude, into making a friend of solitude, not only does God become a stranger, but we become strangers to ourselves, and celibacy becomes an empty taunt and an ache. Solitude is so important for celibacy because solitude is a quiet moment with God in the privacy and intimacy of one's own heart. Solitude is the backdrop for the silence we need to hear the Word of God. Solitude is the setting for prayer.It directs our life back to God. There is some-thing about solitude that draws us back to center. If we are afraid to spend time with ourselves in the aloneness of our center, we will not come to commune with the silent places of God. The prayer that comes from solitude is the celibate's life blood. Without prayer, celibacy will not. cannot, endure. Without solitude spent with God we become A Context for a Celibate Life-style / 659 strangers to him and so to prayer. Prayer may lead us out of a celibate life-style, but without prayer the apparent emptiness and futility will drive us out of it. Solitude, far from removing us from relationships, prepares us for them. In solitude we have the setting in which to know ourselves, to see ourselves truly, to hear ourselves honestly. To enter into solitude is to venture into the truth of ourselves--be that what it may. With that knowledge we are free to interact with people as persons. With a sense of our own depths we can move toward the depths of others and together with them enter in faith into the depths of God. Conclusion For a full understanding of what celibacy is, it is important that a person move beyond the initial frustration and unnaturalness of living a life of Christian virtues and enter into the discovery of the real mystery and beauty of celibacy. Celibacy centers around accepting solitude, welcoming time, and living in gratitude. It is such things as these that make celibacy seem unnatural. It is not acceptable or typical to be poor, to have time for oneself and for prayer, or to enter willingly into the solitude of one's own soul. To so many, the "unnaturalness" of celibacy is reduced to sexual denial, the deliberate refusal to marry and raise a family. Yet these are only peripheral issues. The seriousness of these issues, however, under-scores the deeper difficulty of celibate life. Celibacy is not only an orientation away from family and spouse (which is hard enough), it must be an orientation toward poverty, time, and solitude. Celibacy itself is neither the sacrifice nor the offering. What we do with celi-bacy is. The beauty and fulfillment in celibacy is found not in what it moves us away from but in what it compels us toward. To find peace and sanctity in celibacy, it is not so important what we purposely and deliberately deny. Rather, it is much more important what we willingly and lovingly embrace. The Celibacy Experience Stephen Rossetti In May, Stephen Rossetti, author of "Psychology and Spirituality: Distinction Without Separation" (July/August, 1981), was awarded his M.A. in Theology from Catholic University, where he plans to continue in the graduate program. His mailing address is: 26 Reed Pkwy., Marcellus, NY 1310g. He who remains in Zion and he that is left in Jerusalem Will be called holy (Is 4:3). Consecrated celibacy is in crisis. The resignation of priests, sisters and brothers, many of them highly respected members of the Church, is no secret. Fear ripples through the ranks of those who have remained, as their closest friends leave to get married. A painful self-analysis naturally follows: Do we really have to be celibate? Why am I the only one left? Will it happen to me? Is celibacy only a vestige of an outmoded spirituality? Why am I still left? Some say the crisis is waning. The Diocese of Buffalo recently reported that its loss of priests and sisters from 1976-81 was only 8.1% and 4.6% respectively, compared to 21.2% and ! 7% from 197 !-76.~ While it seems that fewer are leaving, there are still fewer left in the ranks to do the necessary tasks. It is questionable whether relief is in sight. The continuing decline in priestly vocations in the United States indicates that the crisis is still with us. This past year there has been yet another decline (8.8%) in the number of U.S. theology students studying for the priesthood. These are less than half of the number of the peak years of 1966-67.2 The exodus of priests and sisters is a mult: faceted problem which is more than ~John C. Given, "Buffalo Diocese: Fewer Priests, Nuns Leaving Religious Life," Syracuse Herald- Journal, 30 December 1981, p. A-3. 2"Seminary Enrollment Drops," National Catholic Register, 20 December 1981. 660 The Celibacy Experience / 661 just a crisis in celibacy. However. the internaliTation of celibacy must be seen as a key element in any discussion of the problem. In the first half of this article, i will raise the modern problems with celibacy and look at contemporary attempts to solve this crisis. In this first section, 1 will include such key issues as the essential relationship between mysticism and inter-nalized celibacy, the lack of support for young celibates, a critical look at current discussions about celibacy, and then the important issue of intimacy in a celibate life. In the second half, 1 will attempt to resolve the modern problems with celibacy by returning to the context of mysticism and positing an approach to the subject which is both existential and scriptural. Celibacy and Mysticism In The Psychology of Loving, Ignace Lepp says that the chastity of those consecrated to Christ must be "counterbalanced by a genuinely mystical life." If it is not, there is the risk of psychic damage: The libido cannot be channeled in a different direction without injury to sexuality unless it finds itself entirely consumed in the service of higher psychic activity? There must be, then, a necessary connection between celibacy and mysticism. In our use of the word here, "mysticism" does not refer to extraordinary phenome-na such as visions or locutions, nor does it refer to the highest states of union with God. Rather mysticism, here, means a "genuine though mediated experience of encounter and communication with the personal God."4 In this sense of mystical, the experience is direct and conscious, and it involves God as person. The experience is also mediated. The word mysticism derives from the Greek word mueo. which means to initiate (as into a "hidden" mystery). The mystery can be hidden under, or mediated by, any aspect of life. However, a preeminent place must be given to the classic Christian mediations--which include Scripture, prayer, tradition, and the sacraments--most of all the Eucharist. Hidden within our ordinary life experiences is the presence of Christ. The "mystical experience" is one in which this personal encounter becomes more and more conscious. This encounter becomes stronger as the years pass and celibacy is internalized. The mystical life allows the channeling of sexual and some emotional needs into "higher psychic activity" which results in a mature celibacy. On the other hand, if the mystical life is permitted to atrophy, then a mature celibacy, if not the entire celibate life, will suffer with it. William McNamara, in his latest work, Christian Mysticism: A Psychotheology, believes that the mystical life is indeed atrophying, despite some evidence to the contrary: Hgnace Lepp, The Ps.vchology of Loving. trans. Bernard B. Gilligan (New York: A Mentor Omega Book, 1963), p. 213. 4Karl Rahner, ed., Encyclopedia of Theology: 7he Concise Sacramentum Mundi (New York: A Crossroad Book, The Seabury Press, 1975), p. 1009. 662 / Review for Religious, Sept.-Oct., 1982 It is obvious that we are presently witnessing a psychical revolution, one. in many respects. that has won the approval of science (biofeedback. body consciousness, metapsychiatry. neuroscience, paraphysics, etc.) and one that could, if properly guided, improve our human condition, and expand our human consciousness immeasurably. There is little evidence. however, that a spiritual-mystical renewal is going on. despite Vatican 11 and the subsequent changes in the Church.5 If McNamara is correct, celibacy will be lost. A truly internalized celibacy, that is, a mature celibacy, requires this mystical life. If celibacy does not become mystical, if it does not grow into a mystical vision, then "God's grace" alone will not uphold the celibate. Grace builds and makes possible an authentic Christian-mystical life; it is not a supernatural substitute for our humanity. Celibacy without mysticism may degenerate inlo mere asceticism, which would be ultimately self-destructive for lack of love. McNamara goes on to say that "man is naturally contemplative. But his mystical powers, left unexercised for so long, are seriously atrophied."6 This is a serious loss for all believers since it has a direct impact on the vitality of their faith and on the development of their full humanity. However, for the celibate in particular, this situation is fatal. With an atrophied mystical life, he is likely to reject celibacy for the sake of his "sanity": he will slowly die to ministry: or he will sublimate his sexual desires in non-productive ways. ls McNamara correct in saying that we have let our mystical powers atrophy and thus we have lost an internalized celibacy? The exodus of consecrated celibates points in that direction. At any rate, in the light of the past twenty years, we can slarely say that in the present state of crisis the depth of our commitment is being tested. In previous years it might have been possible to survive in celibacy by relying on secondary supports. Today it is just not possible. Within this crisis, celibates must develop a mature, internalized love of celibacy based first and fore'most on their own mystical vision and growing encounter with the risen Christ. The state of the Church and Western society makes this absolutely necessary. Little Support for Remaining in the Celibate State Our Western culture offers little support for celibacy. In fact, it is, in some ways, the most discouraging culture possible for a celibate. It ignores religion. Our culture is essentially a-Christian (without Christianity). It would be easier to main-tain a celibate commitment in a culture that is hostile to Christianity--as in the days of the early Christians. At least one could then take heart amidst persecution and 'join" on~self to a tightly knit community of brothers and sisters totally dedi-cated to Christ while fighting an obvious, common antagonist. But today's West-ern culture ignores religion and the celibate. Heroism is more difficult in the face of 5William McNamara, Christian Mysticism: A Psychotheology (Chicago: Franciscan Herald Press, 1981), p. 20. 61bid. p. 22. The Celibacy Experience disinterest than of hatred--and celibacy is a heroic life. It receives inspiration from a culture which applauds those who live it. And it flourishes when it is persecuted. But when it is ignored, it is most sorely tried. On a deeper level, however, it is not quite accurate to say that our culture is totally oblivious to Christianity. The words of the Gospel ring true: "He who is not with me is against me, and he who does not gather with me scatters" (Lk 1 !:23). In the final analysis, it is not possible to be neutral to the message of Christ. In whatever form it is presented, explicitly or implicitly, the message of salvation will either be accepted or rejected. Our culture is no exception. Underneath its appar-ent unconcern with Christianity is a subtle barrage of counter-invitations. There are constant overt and subliminal innuendos that cannot fail to tug and tug at the Christian's sexual drives. Our society manifests a sort of cultural passive-aggressive behavior, one that seems tolerant of Christianity but is subtly waging war on its norms. Without Christ, our society loses touch with its deepest need for meaning. According to psychiatrist Viktor Frankl: What is behind the emphasis on sexual achievement and power, what is behind this will to sexual pleasure and happiness is again the frustrated will to meaning. Sexual libido only hypertrophies in an existential vacuum. The result is an inflation of sex . 7 This "inflation of sex" in our society sorely tests the strongest of celibates. The uncommitted are likely to be entrapped. Not only does our culture attack the value of celibacy, new Western attitudes also undermine previous supports for the celibate. There is a new attitude towards authority and tradition: a child-like obedience is not acceptable to the modern mind. As Victor Frankl says, "in contrast to man in former times, he is no longer told by traditions and values what he should do.'~ Likewise, those in the Church accept less and less the fact of canon law and magisterial teaching as being reason enough for remaining celibate. This changing attitude towards authority and tradi-tion is encouraged by the great upheavals within the post-Vatican II Church. The opportunities within such a freedom are great, yet there is also a concomitant increase of danger. Within such a freedom celibates are required to make their commitment their own, with little support from the culture or Church tradition. Concomitant with this rejection of authority and tradition, there is a shift in our concepts, theologies and spirituality. Words such as obedience, sacrifice, ascet-icism and sin are used less frequently. A new model has been substituted which 1 will call the "human growth" model of spirituality. This modern growth-model uses existential concepts such as freedom, human development, holistic growth, and personal responsibility. It understands development in the spiritual life as growth in love and intimacy. It stresses the importance of psychology, self-knowl- 7Viktor E. Frankl, The Unconscious God: Psychotherapy and Theology (New York: Simon and Schuster. 1975), pp. 85-86. ~ Slbid., p. 91. 6 ~4 / Review for Religious, Sept.-Oct., 1982 edge, wholeness and all that is authentically human. This model is no doubt a positive, legitimate step in the progress toward a twentieth-century spirituality. It reacts strongly against a previous tendency to reject humanity in favor of some angelic spirituality. Nonetheless, the model has serious shortcomings, e.g., a failure to relate a mature, self-sacrificing obedience to human freedom. And with the transition from earlier models of spirituality to the human growth model, a problem has developed in our theology of celibacy. On the basis of this model it is not so easy to provide an understanding of a celibate life. Love, marriage, children are all an integral part of what it means to be fully human. Without the sharing of the deepest levels of intimacy, as between husband and wife, it would seem that the human growth of.a celibate must be stunted. Our former theology had several ways of dealing with this lack of full intimacy for celibates. For example, repeating an oft-cited idea on celibacy, the Council Fathers of Vatican I1 stated that celibate priests thereby evoke that mysterious marriage which was established by God and will be fully manifested in the future, and by which the Church has Christ as her only spouse.9 There is a theological truth in these and similar statements, but to the modern mind they seem to mean little. How can a "mysterious marriage" deepen my intimacy? To some it sounds like "magical grace." Such theological categories do not mesh with the modern mind which thinks in terms of intersubjectivity, inti-macy, personal self-gift, loving response, and the importance of concrete, interper-sonal relationships for spiritual growth and for ushering in the kingdom of love and peace. This change in mentality requires a change in theology as well. Some New Approaches to Celibacy In Sacrarnentum Mundi Leonhard Weber says: In the formation of priests and in their further development, many of the supports of celibacy which were hitherto relied on will fall away, having proved themselves unreal or erroneous. They must no longer be appealed to. In their place theologically valid arguments must be used, and new aids which correspond to present realities.~0 Many modern spiritual men and women have grappled with the absence of such new arguments. They generously tried to rework an outdated theology of celibacy to correspond to the needs of today--with limited success. For example, much energy is going into showing that one's sexuality is not stunted by celibacy. This is done by making a distinction between the terms genital and sexual. This is a redefinition of categories according to which the word "genital" is applied to what was usually meant by the word "sexual," and then "sexual" in its broadest sense is taken to mean maleness or femaleness. Thus, modern reflection can say that the celibate is still a fully sexual being--but without genital expression. And so a nun could have a close relationship with a priest, and call it a "sexual" relationship-- 9Walter M. Abbott, gen. ed., The Documents of Vatican.H (Chicago: Follett Pub. Co., 1966), p. 566. ~°Sacramentum Mundi.p. 183. The Celibacy Experience / 665 but denying to it "genital" expression. This definition rightly admits that the celibate is not a neuter being but always remains truly male or female. And so at least it should help to keep celibates from attempting to become sexless angels. But however true the first step, saying "a celibate is still male or female," may be, the next statement, "a celibate is fully sexual but not genital," conveys mean-ings and values that are not as evidently proper. The latter statement blurs the important distini:tion there must be between male-female friendship and male-female romantic intimacy. Just as a married man may have female friends, a nun and priest may indeed be friends. But they may not have a romantic intimacy-- even if they do not engage in "genital" activity.~ The distinction between genital and sexual may do more harm than good if it becomes a permission to cross the line of prudence in relations between celibate men and women. Using the excuse that "our relationship is not genital" stems from a legalistic approach to celibacy which in turn endangers true friendship. In addition, any short-term benefits of the principle will be overshadowed by the further fact that it will only justify the kind of obsession with sexuality that is already present in the Church and in society. To focus on the sexuality of the celibate, in fact, obscures the true nature of celibate witness--which should be to point to the primacy of God's kingdom over passing, though good, temporal values. A better approach would distinguish between intimacy and celibacy more strictly. Modern thought in this area is trying to show that the celibate has the same opportunity for intimacy as the married person. This has become especially important in the light of the 1972 NORC study that found that the American priest in general is an "emotionally underdeveloped adult." This has been cause for alarm in the contemporary spiritual milieu which so closely associates spiritual development with human development. What is often forgotten, however, is that the study pointed out that this makes the priest "much like his fellow citizens on the scale of psychological growth" since the average American male also tested out as emotionally underdeveloped.~2 Nevertheless, this new area of reflection, the relationship between intimacy and celibacy, is also having very beneficial results. Celibacy cannot be used as an excuse for refusing to enter into deep human relationships, relationships that are often painful yet necessary for any human growth. Celibacy cannot be seen as representing an excessively other-worldly piety that shuns human affections as unworthy of a spiritual life. The 1971 Synod of Bishops recognized the importance of such human relations in the life of a celibate when it recommended "human balance through well-ordered integration into the fabric of social relationships: fraternal association and companionship with other priests and with the bishop."~3 ~See Paul Conner, "Friendship Between Consecrated Men and Women?" Review for Religious. Vol. 40 (Sept-Oct 1981), pp. 645-659. I:Ernest E. Larkin and Gerard T. Broccolo. eds., Spiritual Renewal of the American Priesthood (Wash. D.C.: U.S. Catholic Conference. 1973), p. I. 666 / Review for Religious, Sept.-Oct., 1982 Pope Paul VI, in his letter, "Sacerdotalis Caelibatus, "likewise stressed the impor-tance of the celibate relations with the laity. In a moving section of his fatherly letter, Paul VI says: By their devoted and warm friendship [the laity] can be of great assistance to the Church's ministers since it is the laity . . . who are in a position, in many cases, to enlighten and encourage the priest . In this way the whole People of God will honor Christ. promising an assured reward to whoever in any way shows charity toward those whom he has sent (Mt 10:42).~4 In a similar way, the community of the individual religious must supply this same much-needed human warmth and intimacy. The 1980 Plenaria for the Sacred Congregation for Religious and for Secular Institutes stated that the religious community is itself a theological reality, and object of contemplation., it is of its nature the place where the experfence of God should be able to, in a special way, come to fullness and be communicated to others?5 There is no excessive supernaturalism here. The celibate is a person firmly planted on the earth and relating with others in a shared community life. Thus, this modern movement in spirituality which ties celibacy to human intimacy can make a positive but limited contribution to a new theology of celibacy, as well as to the humanity of celibates. But, like the distinction between genital and sexual, this attempt to show that the celibate can be as fully intimate as his married counterpart is not totally convincing. The approach may confuse as much as it helps--as, indeed, I think it has done. There is a qualitative difference between the human intimacy possible in a marriage and the :human intimacy permissible for a.celibate. Paul VI commented on this type of love: "And love, when it is genuine, is total, exclusive, stable and lasting."~6 A human marriage, in its final perfection, is such a close bond that "they are no longer two but one flesh" (Mr 19:6). For the celibate this is not permitted. A marriage relationship, if fully realized, has an exclusivity and a totality of self-giv'- ing which is just not available to the celibate. Indeed, if a celibate were to have such an exclusive relationship with another person, regardless of whether it was genital or not, he hardly could be considered celibate. The great witness of centuries of consecrated celibates must lead us to conclude that another kind of ultimate depth of intimacy is possible for a celibate. But our theology has not yet completely uncovered the depths of this celibate intimacy. Communion Is More Than Communication As the pro.blem of celibacy and intimacy and of other celibate issues continues ~31971 Synod of Bishops, The Ministerial Priesthood; Justice in the World (Wash. D.C.: U.S. Catholic Conference, 1972), p. 24. ~'~Pope Paul VI, Encyclical Letter on Priestly Celibacy--June 24, 1967 (Wash. D.C.: U.S. Catholic Conference), p. 39. ~S"The Contemplative Dimension of Religious Life," L'Osservatore Rornano, 26 January 1981, p. 14. ~6Paul VI, Encyclical Letter, p. 1 I. The Celibacy Experience / 667 to be discussed, the debate on the relevance of celibacy in the modern Church continues. This debate often swings between "lyrical panegyrics and one-sidedly negative criticism."~7 Part of the conservative faction believes that the priest must be celibate. No doubt such a vision of Church and faith would be shaken without a celibate priesthood, despite the tradition of the East. Thus, this position clings to such external forms for security--a need which is especially intense during the post-Vatican II upheavals in the Church. Some of the liberals, on the other hand, blame celibacy for destroying the humanity of priests and sisters--a fact which may have validity in a few cases but which glosses over the dynamic witness of a long history of celibacy within the Church. For example, one priest told me that if he ever started to "die" in the ministry he would get out. This is precisely the image some have of the pre-Vatican II Church. In their eyes, it was a church that so stressed an other-worldly piety that it killed the humanity of its people. This section of the liberal faction traces our celibate theology back to Greek philosophi-cal dualism which is said to dismiss worldly values and exalt spiritual ones: others trace celibacy back to Old Testament law which stated that sexual acts made one ritually impure. There are other ways theologians have accounted for our previous tradition of celibacy. The obvious way out is to maintain one's humanity through human intimacy. Seeing the emotional deadness and brokenness of some of their predecessors, many stress the importance of human'growth for spiritual development. Thus, the stress today is on celibate intimacy and communication. And there is a significant attempt within our religious houses to develop a community intimacy, often with good results. Certainly this is a good thing and should be continued. However, is community enough? Does it answer the heart of the problem? We communicate with others to achieve intimacy and wholeness. At times there is an almost compulsive need to lay ourselves bare in a search to maintain or recover our humanity. Admittedly, a certain amount of this is healthy and necessary for any human life, especially a celibate life. This mutual sharing, this intermediate level of intimacy will indeed help our humanity and thus our spirituality. But it is not the final answer, and it is becoming apparent that it is not enough for an authentic celibacy. Of itself, it does not lead to a mature celibacy. Psychiatrist Conrad Baars (who died last October) also believed there is too much communication and not enough communion. In his basic work, Feeling and Healing Your Emotions, he says: Interestingly. wherever members of a community--religious, prayer group, covenant--use the term [affirmation] most freely and glibly, there seems to be the least amount of true affirma-tion. Such places depress one with their bustling activity--planned togetherness, meetings. expected modes of behavior and participation, carefully scheduled recreation, etc, There seems little opportunity for just being--even less for being different or for wanting to be alone. Underneath the new freedom of behavior is often a hidden agenda of new co~7l'ormism . The sign of "new heart living" is communion; yet. there is still too much cornmunication to ~TSacramenturn Mundi. p. 181. 6611 / Review for Religious, Sept.-Oct., 1982 permit communion and authentic being.~s This sort of excessive communication places a burden on friendships that such relationships should not, cannot carry. We are sharing more and more to satisfy the deepest Iongings of our heart, but in the final analysis we are in danger of silencing these longings with a mass of words and superficialities. In fact, such an approach is contrary to real humanity. To share everything easily actually reveals a lack of intimacy. The work of psychiatrist Viktor Frankl shows the nature of true intimacy: The quality of intimacy so characteristic of love is no less characteristic of religion. It is intimate in two senses: it is intimum in the sense of innermost, and second, it is, like love. protected by shame. Genuine religiousness, for the sake of its own genuineness, hides from the public . The mistake is often made of confounding such shame with neurotic inhibition. Shame. however, is a perfectly natural attitude.~'~ It is not normal nor is it healthy to share the deepest intimacies of love, or of faith, in a casual or even friendly way. To keep such things private, except from the most intimate of soul friends, or from one's spiritual director, is a normal and healthy action. It is a sign of true intimacy. Such an attitude maintains the sanctity of the human person. To violate this sanctity is a grievous affair. This violation would ultimately impair the growth of intimacy by destroying some of the conditions necessary for its growth, such as respect for the human person and the need for individual solitude. During a 1978 lecture to the Unione Internazionale dei Superiori Generali, Henri Nouwen commented on this close link between solitude and intimacy: Solitude leads us to a new intimacy with each other and makes us see our common task precisely because in solitude we discover our true nature, our true self, our true identity. That knowledge of who we really are allows us to live and work in community3o It is precisely this depth of intimacy which is the sign of a mature celibate and it is this depth which should enliven and nourish all the other relations a celibate has, just as the intimacy of marriage should ground and nourish the other relations a spouse has. Is Optional Celibacy the Answer? Optional celibacy seems to be emerging as the moderate position in the Church. For pastoral reasons, and in order to recognize cultural diversity, its concession may be required. This change would be theologically easy, given our present understanding of celibacy as distinct from, and not essential to, Orders. But this distinction, though affirmed in modern times, does not take fully into ISConrad Baars. Feeling and Healing Your Emotions (Plainfield, N.J.: Logos International, 1979), p. 221. ~gFrankl, Unconscious God, pp. 47, 46. 2°Henri J. M. Nouwen, "Solitude and Community," lecture presented to the Unione Internazionale dei Superiori Generali, 4 April 1978. p. 20. The Cefibacy Experience account the reality of the place of celibacy in the Latin Church. With the rise of historical and existential theologies, we are coming to a fuller understanding of the place of the whole human person in our theologizing. Thus, while celibacy is only a canonical duty, it figures as an important element in our "collective memory," or our "story," or again, our western Catholic "identity." Concepts that are appearing in the new theology should make us more hesitant to favor optional celibacy too quickly. Celibacy is more than just a discipline. Rather, it has been woven into our history and thus into our collective memories. In the midst of a Church already suffering a severe identity crisis, the impact of optional celibacy on our "story" should be carefully considered. In addition, a case could be made that in no time of history is celibacy more necessary than today. At first glance the statement seems absurd, but when placed into the total context of the times, when one observes the signs of the times, it gains in its appearance of truth. As stated earlier, our people are under a sexual siege by advertisers, movies, TV and other elements of society. In an age when people are trying harder and harder to become liberated from Christian sexual mores, we are becoming more and more enslaved to sex. Such is precisely the nature of sin and evil. It promises the opposite of what it gives. Our society has promised sexual liberation and has produced just the opposite. The value of celibacy as a sign that shows the relative value (while not negating its intrinsic goodness) of sex is never more needed. Also, given the unity of all in the Mystical Body of Christ, it has likewise been never more important for a few to persevere in the struggle against sexual license in a heroic way for its spiritual aid to all people who are struggling with sexual difficulties within their own vocations. Paul speaks of this union of all in Christ when he says to the Corinthians: "If one member suffers, all the members suffer with it; if one member is honored, all the members share its joy" (I Co 12:26). Nonetheless, the pressure is on the Vatican for optional celibacy. While such a compromise may be necessary, I doubt that it will truly alleviate the problem. (Perhaps rather than making celibacy optional, it would be more to the point for the Vatican to announce that marriage is mandatory for all priests and religious! Then when a select few would flee to the mountains and the deserts, there to listen more intently to the "still, small voice," and thus refuse to marry, these are the ones who should be ordained.) Compromise, while often necessary, can fall into tepid-ity, failing to see that, for the celibate, the Christian message is nothing if not radical. "I am Come to cast fire on the earth and what will 1 but that it be kindled" (Lk 12:49), or again, "But because you are lukewarm, neither hot nor cold, I will spew you out of my mouth" (Rv 3:16). Without such a radical, total commitment, there is no deep intimacy--for the celibate as well as for the married person. Deepest Intimacy Is in Mystery This intimacy is completed only in the deepest levels of the person. This depth is beyond the spoken word; it is beyond verbal communication. It can only be 670 / Review for Religious, Sept.-Oct., 1982 called mystery--a mystery which marvelously opens itself up in the communion of love. Thus the depths of intimacy are experienced as mystery, and as love, for both the celibate as well as the married person. This is the deepest level of personal growth and the truest level of self-knowledge. Some commentators on this deepest level of the person have cited the efforts of Nietzsche. They say that Nietzsche saw this great depth which he called "nothing-ness" and yet he was a courageous man to continue to face his "nothingness" and carry on bravely. This may be courage but it also may be a disguised fear--a fear to really experience this "nothingness" or depth of mystery. Nietzsche stood at the brink of the ocean of mystery and summoned the courage to remain there and look. The Christian is called to go one step further--to dive in! Viktor Frankl put forth a similar idea using the image of a summit surrounded by fog: On his way to find the ultimate meaning of life, the irreligious man, as it were, has not yet reached the highest peak, but rather has stopped at the next to highest . And what is the reason the irreligious man does not go further? It is because he does not want to lose the "firm ground under his feet." The true summit is barred from his vision: it is hidden in the fog. and he does not risk venturing into it, into this uncertainty. Only the religious man hazards it.2~ This depth, this "diving into the ocean" or "climbing through the fog to the highest peak" is open to a married couple united in faith. Such an unspoken depth to their relationship allows the mystery of one to be opened and joined to the mystery of the other, the ocean of one to the ocean of the other. This mystery therefore cannot be opened by the effort of one; it requires two to open it. Love requires union, and this deepest mystery is a union of love. At first glance, this would seem to exclude the celibate because the necessary love is, recalling the words of Paul VI, "total, exclusive, stable and lasting." This love seems denied the celibate who has no partner! Within such a quandary, our theology of celibacy is too often opaque, making little sense to the modern person. We could foist the problem onto "grace," and thus expect a solution from some magical power to hold our humanity in abeyance until the end-times. But this would be a denial of the real nature of the Christian message and a misunderstand-ing of the true nature of grace. Christianity is not essentially a negative religion. If it denies, it does so only to affirm in a more profound way. If God asks for any sacrifice, it is only to return the gift a hundred-fold. And, it seems to me, this is the problem with which modern thought on celibacy must deal--a problem that is especially difficult to solve if we use the growth model of spirituality. Celibacy and Theological Distancing To this point, we have merely opened up several problems in our theologies of celibacy. There seems to be a real difficulty in relating the depths of intimacy and celibacy, despite some modern attempts to do so. The older approaches with their 2~Frankl, Unconscious God. pp. 55-56. The Cefibacy Experience / 671 reliance on grace threaten to skip over our true humanity. What is perhaps lacking in both approaches, what may be largely responsible for the crisis in celibacy today, is a proper starting point. An accumulation of theologizing and reflection has developed an elaborate theological understanding of celibacy, but may have lost contact with its simple yet radical starting point. Paul Ricoeur's warning of cultural distancing may apply to our case: Cultural distance is not only the altering of the vehicle, but also the forgetting of the radical question conveyed by the language of another time. It is necessary to undertake, therefore, a struggle against the.forgetting of the question, that is. a struggle against our own alienation in relation to what operates in the question?2 We may, indeed, have forgotten the "radical question" which underlies the very existence of celibacy. This question must come as an existential question which demands a radical human response. The existential question involves an expe-rience that gives rise to the unusual phenomenon of celibacy. This experience I call the celibacy experience. Theological reflection can help make this experience understandable. It can explain its fruits and it can even help prepare someone for it. But theological reflection cannot impart the experience itself. Celibacy must spring from an expe-rience which begets a radical and total response. In the experience, a radical question is asked, and a radical answer must be given--though the response will have to grow in actualization with time. What we need is an existential model of celibacy, one that starts with human experience. This model must be able to address the concepts of intimacy and humanity in a convincing way. These concepts, though, can only be understood when viewed in the light of the beginning section of this article, when we wrote of mysticism, the internalization of celibacy, and higher psychic functions. An,"Existential Scriptural Approach To find such an existential approach, it is necessary to cut through centuries of cultural and theological distancing and return to Scripture. But our approach should not be to use Scripture. in the usual way of the conventional theologies of celibacy. In these approaches, citations are made of such Pauline passages as: The virgin--indeed any unmarried woman--is concerned with things of the Lord. in pursuit of holiness in body and spirit. The married woman, on the other hand, has the cares of this world to absorb her. , (I Co 7:34). Or again, To those not married and to widows, I have this to say: h would be well if they remain as they are. even as I do myself: but if they cannot exercise self-control, they should marry (I Co 7:8-9). These and other such passages, though, are not the celibacy experience itself, a-'Paul Ricoeur, "The Language of Faith," in Charles Reagan and David Steward, eds. The Philosophy of Paul Ricoeur (Boston: Beacon Press, 1978), p. 224. 672 / Review for Religious, Sept.-Oct., 1982 but only reflections on the experience. It is the mystical encounter with God in Christ that results in these inspired theological reflections. Paul's embrace of the life of consecrated celibacy stemmed primarily from his encounter with Christ. He refers to his own celibacy experience: Am I not free? Am I not an apostle? Have I not seen Jesus our Lord? And are you not my work in the Lord? (1 Co 9:1). To the community at Corinth, Paul claims a direct vision of Jesus which grounds his apostolate; it drives him almost compulsively: Yet preaching the gospel is not the subject of a boast; I am under compulsion and have no choice. 1 am ruined if I do not preach it! (I Co 9:16; see 2 Co 5:14). This experience of Paul was not really one experience, but many: "I must go on boasting, however useless it may be, and speak of visions and revelations" (2 Co 12:!). It is only in the light of such experiences that Paul's celibacy makes any sense. He saw everything else as being of secondary importance compared to his being "grasped by Christ" (Ph 3:i2). Paul says, even more forcefully, "1 have come to rate all as loss in the light of the surpassing knowledge of my Lord Jesus Christ" (Ph 3:8). And it is precisely in this light that Paul recommends celibacy as being a way to devote oneself fully to the things of the Lord--just as it was for him. The authority and very existence of his apostolate depended on these experiences, and they became such a driving force in his life that celibacy was a result of it. Traditional celibacy-literature also quotes a passage from the Gospel of Matthew: Some men are incapable of sexual activity from birth: some have been deliberately made so; and some there are who have freely renounced sex for the sake of God's reign. Let him accept this teaching who can (19:12). This teaching, which supplies the theory to Paul's practice, focuses on celibacy "for the sake of God's reign." Notice again that there is no attempt to show that one should be celibate because Christ was, or that celibacy reflects the marriage of Christ with the Church, or even that celibacy is good because one is more effective for ministry. These are all later theological reflections, no matter how true they may be. They do not ground anyone's celibacy. The),' are not the celibacy expe-rience. Rather, as the Matthean Gospel points out, marriage is renounced "for the sake of God's reign." The passage implies that there is a direct experience of the reign of God. Otherwise, it would be impossible to dedicate oneself to it. In fact, the reign of God became a direct reality in the lives of many of those early Christians, enough of a reality to cause them to renounce a fundamental of human life--marriage. This, then was a powerful experience. This in-breaking of the reign of God is an eschatological experience. It is an in-breaking of the eschaton, or last times, into people's lives. Paul's experience was also truly an eschatological one since in his vision he saw the risen Christ who is himself the Reign of God. This is precisely what a mystical experience is, although it can take many different forms. It is an in-breaking of the eschaton, the reign of The Celibacy Experience / 673 God, the risen Christ into people's lives. There is no mysticism without eschat-ology-- an eschatology that proclaims that the kingdom is already present among us, though in a hidden way. Eschatological Fervor And such an eschatological, mystical experience totally changes one's life. It creates such a powerful force and conversion that it can make one cry out, as it did with Paul, "I am ruined if 1 do not preach [the Gospel]." With this conversion comes a new vision--a mystical vision. This experience gives rise to an eschatolog-ical fervor which makes it easy to believe that the end is at hand. Such was often the case with the prophets who, upon experiencing the greatness of God, saw the depths to which God's creation had fallen, and they cried out for repentance, claiming that God's just punishment was near. In the book of Isaiah, for example, the prophet has a vision of the temple of the Lord. He is overwhelmed with the holiness and power of God while the seraphim cry out, "Holy, holy, holy is the Lord of hosts. ! All the earth is filled with his glory!" (6:3). Isaiah immediately felt his own sinfulness in the face of such holiness: "Woe is me, I am doomed! For 1 am a man of unclean lips, living among a people of unclean lips"(6:5), lsaiah's new vision of the holiness of God and the sinfulness of the people leads to his message of the imminent destruction of Israel by God: "lf there be still a tenth part in it, then this in turn shall be laid waste" (6:13). It was in this same eschatological fervor that Paul believed the kingdom of God to be an imminent reality: I tell you. brothers, the time is short. From now on those with wives should live as though they had none: those who weep should live as though they were not rejoicing: buyers should conduct themselves as though they owned nothing, and those who make use of the world as though they were not using it. for the world as we know it is passing away (I Co 7:29-3 I). This eschatological fervor was the result of Paul's experience of the risen Christ. This was a mystical experience which resulted in a new vision of life, a mystical vision. However, it is obvious to us, and even Paul came to understand, that the time is not short. Two thousand years have passed and Christ has still not come in his glory. But to take this approach, that is, to discount the fervor of the early Christians because their belief in the imminence of the second coming proved to be wrong, is to miss the significance of their times, and the truth of their experience. The early Christians experienced the reign of God breaking into their lives. They were baptized in the Spirit and such a baptism was at times a mystical experience which produced this eschatological fervor. As it is recorded in the Acts of the Apostles: The Holy Spirit came upon [the Gentiles]. just as it had upon us at the beginning. Then I remembered what the Lord had said: "John baptized with water but you will be baptized with the Holy Spirit" II 1:15-16). They may have misinterpreted this mystical vision, this new perception of reality: they may have believed that Christ was coming soon. But this is often the case with intense mystical experiences. St. John of the Cross spoke of these 674 / Review for Religious. Sept.-Oct., 1982 dangers with extraordinary mystical experiences; they are often interpreted on too concrete a level, when they are intended for a higher, more spiritual plane. Perhaps this was the case with the early Christians. They experienced the closeness of Christ and his kingdom. The words of Jesus were passed along to them which pointed to his coming, and they may have interpreted such signs literally. Regardless of the reason for their mistaken view of the second coming, we should not dismiss their eschatological fervor because of it. This fervor is the proper response, just as it was for Amos: The lion roars who will not be afraid: the Lord God speaks who will not prophesy? (Am 3:8). It was this fervor that contained within it the phenomenon of celibacy. Without this experience, celibacy makes little sense. Later theological reflection can try to explain the celibate state, as Paul tried to do, but it cannot recreate the experience itself. But what happens when the fervor wears off'? Paul began to realize that he, too, might die before Christ comes again. The initial celibacy experience that gave rise to the fervor for the reign of God and caused the early Christians to renounce marriage can fade as the years wear on. What does the modern mistress of novices do with her charges once the initial fervor of vocation begins to wane, as it always does? It is then that moderns begin to wonder about their humanity. Will celibacy kill it? The earlier mystical vision fades, and the reality of celibacy as a loneliness without spouse, sex and family presses on the celibate. The stress on intimacy today makes it even more difficult, and there are plenty of TV shows and adver-tisements to remind the celibate of what he is missing. Celibate Intimacy With Christ This initial fervor must be followed by a desert experience, an absence of fervor, as mystical theology points out. But it is precisely within this period of dryness that the mystical vision is secretly growing. It is then that youthful fervor must yield to a new experience that reaches deeper into the person. This new experience is reflected best in the Gospel of John, "the disciple whom Jesus loved": A third time Jesus asked him, "Simon. son of John, do you love me?" Peter was hurt because he had asked a third time, "Do you love me?" So he said to him: "Lord, you know everything. You know well that I love you." Jesus said to him, "Feed my sheep" (21:17). In these spiritual reflections of John's Gospel do we see hinted at a deeper intimacy with Christ. The servant, and friend becomes lover and beloved. Thus we see introduced a new element: the love of Christ. The compulsion to preach is giving way to a deeper relationship with Christ, a relationship of love. The ground of Peter's ministry is this love of Christ. The early eschatological fervor has to give way to this intimate love of Christ, The Celibacy Experience / 675 and this is only possible because Jesus first offers his love. When he asks Peter if he loves him, iris implied that Jesus is first offering his love, and is asking if Peter will respond. Such is the existential approach of Scripture: God offers through Christ, and we must respond. Peter did respond, to the fullest extent. He had exclaimed to Jesus: "We have put aside everything to follow ~,ou!" To this Jesus replied: I give you my word, there is no one who has given up home, brothers or sisters, mother or father, children or property for me and for the gospel who will not receive in this present age a .,hundred times as many homes, brothers and sisters, mothers, children and property--and persecution besides--and in the age to come, everlasting life (Mk 10:28-30). This earlier response of youthful fervor should grow into a mature love. "Although you have never seen him, you love him" (1 P 1:8). Such an unseen love, then, is directly connected with faith. There can be no love of an unseen object unless faith prepares the way. It is the youthful fervor and the later desert expe-riences which produce a faith strong enough to support such a love. It is a faith offer and response of love. This does not make the offer and response, nor the love, any less real. The reign of God has come among us. Christ is still offering the love of God in a real though hidden way. The radical question which underlies the mature celibate experience is still being asked: "Do you love me?" This is real grace--not magical grace. God, in Christ, offering himself to the world--Person to person. Grace is the theological concept which denotes this real exchange within human history. If, as Paul VI said, there must be "a wise sublimation of the psychological life on a higher plane," it is because our sublimation and needs will be met within human history; God's kingdom has come!23 Though we cannot see the object of our exchange, this exchange is nonetheless real. Such is the nature of a faith-love. It is only within such a faith-love context that we can understand the true nature of celibate intimacy. In this offer and response with Christ, the celibate should eventually come to experience, either explicitly or implicitly, the deepest level of love and intimacy, recalling, the words of Paul VI: "Love, when it is genuine, is total, exclusive, stable and lasting." The mature celibate, the one who has internalized his call, has come to respond in this total and exclusive way to Christ. Such is the total self-gift in a marriage; such, too, is the total self-gift in the intimacy of the celibate. It is no accident, then, that later mystical theology came to describe such a relationship as a "spiritual marriage." It is a relationship~ which includes the deepest union. Yet this total and exclusive intimacy between the celibate and Christ does not exclude other relationships. In fact, it depends on other human relationships to make it possible. At the same time, celibate intimacy provides the possibility for the full fruition of these other relationships. However, one cannot completely identify one's intimacy with Christ, with the intimacy one has with others. And without a real intimacy with Christ, these other relationships tend to become 2~Paul VI, Encyclical Letter, p. 22. 676 / Review for Religious, Sept.-Oct., 1982 warped, possessive and destructive. Such an intimacy grows out of the celibate experience. It is not something that is once and for all, but a chain of real encounters that renew and strengthen the individual's original response to the radical question, "Do you love me?" The original, novitiate, eschatological fervor is transformed and strengthened in the desert. Fervor is exchanged for love, and the compulsion to preach is exchanged for peace. The celibate experience is, then, a growing life-experience in and with Christ. It is not necessarily a "Mystical" (big "M") experience, some kind of extraordinary revelation--such as those of Paul who saw the face of Christ. Rather, the celibate experience is a "mystical" (small "m") experience. It is a direct encounter with Christ in which the radical question of love is asked, but it is an encounter that is hidden within the ordinary. McNamara sees that this immediacy of mysticism is nonetheless mediated: It is God whom mystical knowledge perceives immediately and experientially in the historic revelation of Christ~ the sacramental life, and the ecclesiastical organism. It is not contradic-tory to unite indissolubly the immediacy of mystical knowledge to all the Christian mediations.24 Thus the celibate in today's world must be a mystic but not necessarily a Mystic. This mystical relationship, of course, remains beyond words; it is beyond clear, verbal definitions. In it the mystery of God touches the mystery of the human person, and in this touch, the depths of the human person are opened, and he attains to a vision of reality that is mystical. Do You Love Me? It is this experience and the resulting vision which ground the celibate's aposto-late. The celibacy experience, which eventually grows into a total response to the radical question, "Do you love me?" provides the charter and gives life to his or her ministry. Without this growing intimacy with Christ, the celibate's ministry is without an anchor and will drift with every theological and psychological breeze that comes along. Again, McNamara has an excellent insight: People are fed and sustained by a mystical theology; they are amused and confused by any other. Yet they are being led thoughtlessly from one vogue to another. It's so tempting to be faddish, accommodating; to leave our solitary, silent stance before the source of wisdom and become washed out in the 'sauce~ of endless meetings, parties~ dialogues, lectures, conventions.2~ Without a mystical vision the celibate is unlikely to remain celibate for long. Any ministry without a mystical vision is liable only to "amuse and confuse" the people. The people thirst for Christ. It is the authentic Christ they need, yet the temptation is always to grasp false messiahs, even though with the best of inten- 2'~McNamara, Christian Mysticism, p. 16. ~lbid., p. 24. The Celibacy Experience / 677 tions. Mother Teresa wrote a note that said: "Pray for me that 1 do not loosen my grip on the hand of Jesus, even under the guise of ministering to the poor.''~6 Even such a great ministry as serving the poor can become a false messiah without an intimate relationship with Christ. The time has come for Catholic celibates to renew their primary identity as Christians. It is only in a life centered on Christ that true celibate intimacy is realized. It is only thus that liberals, conservatives and moderates can become what the Gospel calls for--radical lovers. And without a radical response to the love of Christ there is no mysticism, and thus no internalized celibacy. The way is not easy. Though the kingdom has already come into the world, it remains hidden. The eschaton is not fully realized in human history. A celibate's relationship with Christ will reflect this incompleteness during this life. Just as "all creation groans and is in agony even until now" (Rm 8:22), the celibate's life must also have many moments of groaning, and a longing for the final fulfillment of God's kingdom. The call of Christ is again sweeping the world: "Do you love me?" Fewer are left: fewer are responding. But there are enough. There is enough leaven for the entire lump of dough to rise. And for the remnant that is left: No more shall men call you ~For~ken," or your land "Desolate," But you shall be called "My Delight." and your land "Espoused.". As a young man marries a virgin, your Builder shall marry you: and as a bridegroom rejoices in his bride so shall your God rejoice in you (Is 62:4-5). -'~'Phyllis Theroux. "'Amazing Grace: Mother Teresa Comes to Calcutta." Washhzgton Post Magazine, 18 October 1981. p. 30. Preparing for the 1983 Synod Stephen Tutas, S.M. In explaining his point in writing this article, Fr. Tutas states: "As a member of the 1980 Synod, I am well aware that the success of the General Assembly depends to a great extent on how well participants reflect the mind of the Church throughout the world." This article simply draws attention to the ~'neamenta published by the General Secretariate of the Synod. Father Tutas, Superior General of the Society of Mary (Marianists) 1971-1981, is presently Director of the Marianist Formation Center; P.O. Box AC; Cupertino, CA 95015. Immediately after the 1980 Synod of Bishops, preparation began for the 1983 Synod. After a lengthy process of consultation, Pope John Paul II designated "Reconciliation and Penance in the Mission of the Church" as the theme for the Sixth General Assembly of the Synod of Bishops which will be held in 1983. The General Secretariate of the Synod then prepared an initial presentation of the theme and sent this to the National Conferences of Bishops for their personal study. This first document is a fifty-four page study in the English edition pub-lished by the Vatican Polyglot Press this past January. The purpose of the docu-ment is "to stimulate reflection in the local churches, to receive information, advice and useful suggestions for the future synodal discussion; to provoke, as soon as possible, a movement of spirits and of prayer which disposes souls to the metanoia which is at the root of the synodal theme." For all these reasons it is very important for religious to take an active interest in the coming synod. It is interesting to note that the General Secretariate is encouraging wide consultation by stating that the publication of this first document "is without limits and not reserved." After analyzing the feedback from this first document, the General Secretariate will later issue a more extensive working paper. As religious we cannot afford to be passive as the preparation for the 1983 Synod moves forward. While the members of the synod have the responsibility of reflecting the mind of the Church throughout the world as they participate in the synod, the rest of us have the responsibility to study the theme of the synod as 678 Preparing for the 1983 Synod thoroughly as we can so that we can be well prepared to enter into the movement promoted by its celebration. Accordingly, in the hope of stimulating further reflection in preparation for the 1983 Synod, I would like to offer some thoughts about the theme that are prompt-ed by my personal study of the initial document. The theme of Reconciliation and Penance in the Mission of the Church was selected from among many topics suggested for the Sixth General Assembly. Towards the close of the 1980 Synod there was a brief.discussion about possible themes for the 1983 sessions. Among the issues mentioned at that time was the Sacrament of Penance. After further consultation, this particular theme was even-tually developed into the much more comprehensive topic that is outlined in this document issued by the General Secretariate. As presented, the theme touches many other topics that had also been proposed as possible themes, such as youth, the Christian laity, the identity of the Church following the changes effected by Vatican I1, the evaluation of liturgicalrenewal, popular piety, spirituality, Catholic education, the training of priests, the role of bishops in the Church, ecclesiology, the future. The study of Reconciliation and Penance in the Mission of the Church can also be viewed in relation to previous synods--especially justice in the world, evangelization in the modern world and catechetics, and of course, it has many implications for the mission of the Christian family in the modern world. The theme echoes many of the concerns expressed in pontifical documents of recent years. Among these, it is significant to recall Pope Paul VI's statement for the World Day of Peace, 1975: "Reconciliation, the Way to PeAce." The synod study is also related to the encyclical letter of Pope John Paul II, "On the Mercy of God" that was published shortly after the last synod. What I find especially attractive about the coming synod is that it is being ¯ presented as a development of the great themes of the Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World. Throughout the synoddocument there are remind-ers that this topic is not to be considered solely in terms of baptized Catholics, but that it is a topic of great importance "for all who seek meaning to existence." This theme is of great importance for the quality of the Christian life; it is also meaning-ful for the world in general. I found the intent of the initial document to speak a message of hope to the modern world very heartening. There is no denial of the injustice in the world today and in the hearts of so many people. The section describing this is particu-larly well expressed. The document speaks of the reality of today's world in contrast to our understanding of God's plan for us and our own response to this plan in our efforts to build a better world. Given the wars, violence, terrorism of our time, the conclusion is that the dominant characteristic of our era seems to have become that of tensions and divisions. It would be quite easy to give in to the feelings of helplessness in the face of the complexity of the problems facing us today. But it is quite clear from the document that the great expectation is that the synod itself will speak a message of hope to the Church and to the world. 61~1~ / Review for Religious, Sept.-Oct., 1982 Much of the theme deals with the basic human need for personal reconciliation with God, with each other, and with ourselves. But what impressed me above all was the emphasis given to the promotion of justice and peace in the world through the call to reconciliation and penance. The document suggests that the synod face the complex reality of tensions and divisions in the world today with confiderlce that there is an answer. We Christians cannot lose hope. In recognizing that the Church is the sacrament of reconciliation, the Church has a new understanding of its pastoral mission in the modern world. 1 am also intrigued by the proposed study of the meaning of change in our lives. The word penance used in the synod document is meant to include the meaning of repentance, understood as conversion. The synod topic offers us an opportunity to focus on the change of mind and heart that Vatican II called for, and on the continual change to which we are called as Christians. The appeal to conversion understood as a change of direction, return, practical change in the way of living, interior change of mentality, metanoia, is clearly and forcefully pre-sented. The Church is seen as "holy and formed of sinners," holy, but always in need of being purified, incessantly pursuing the path of penance and renewal. The message of hope that Christians are called to proclaim in today's world is God's love for his people. It is God who forgives and liberates in order to reconcile all men and women to himself, with each other, with all creation. The dream of a new creation is once again proclaimed, a new creation where there is interior unity and true liberty, where there is a new relationship with other men and women, a new human community founded on justice, a new sense of God living and working in history. The General Secretariate of the Synod, in publishing this first document in preparation for the 1983 Synod, insists that the statements made are "provisional in character and limited and thus it would be useless to make a critique of them or to attempt to perfect the text." But it is an invaluable starting point for all of us as we prepare for the 1983 Synod. From Tablet to Heart: Internalizing New Constitutions--II Patricia Spillane, M.S. C Our last issue carried the first part of this article. In the current issue, Sister Patricia concludes her study of the process of internalization. Sh'e continues to reside at the convent of the Missionary Sisters of the Sacred Heart: 428 St. James Place: Chicago; IL 60614. ~n Part I of this article, we considered how to live more authentically the life we proclaim: i.e., how can our constitutions be planted deep within us, written on our hearts (see Jr 3 !:33)? We reflected on our attitudes toward these constitutions, and on ourselves as the source of attitudinal decisions--spiritually, philosophically, psychologically. If nothing else, by now we should have arrived at an appreciation for the complexity of the problem: that arriving at a true internalization of what is written calls indeed for foundations of rock, and that much labor and struggle are required to build over that! Everyone who comes to me and listens to my words and acts on them., is like the man who, when he built his house, dug, and dug deep, and laid the foundations on rock: when the river was in flood, it bore down on that house but could not shake it, it was so well built (Lk 6:47-49). In the following pages, I will try to indicate some directions which could aid in this foundation-setting for interiorization within religious communities. Of their nature, such foundations are conceptual and theoretical, the underpinnings from which must proceed programs of action once the principles have been clarified. Such foundations need to reflect adequately our reality, a reality that is at one and the same time spiritual, anthropological and psychological. Efforts at internaliza-tion will be hampered without such an integration. Premises already exist in each of these areas since Christianity has been propos-ing such principles for centuries. Respective constitutions incorporate these and give them a unique flavor. 681 61~2 / Review for Religious, Sept.-Oct., 1982 But we each have our own concepts of, and attitudes toward theology, philo-sophy and psychology, both conscious and unconscious. We need to examine our own assumptions in these areas to see how they contrast with what we are called to. Furthermore, with clear premises and principles we can better grasp still further implications: where do we go from here? We can move more securely from the theoretical to the concrete, both individually and collectively, without haphazard experimentation and without facile reaching for faddist solutions. A. Theological Foundations The very word foundation conjures up something solid, firm, lasting, not the ephemeral, fantastic, passing. It is obvious that any theological foundation for the internalization of Christian living must have indeed "Christ Jesus himself for its main cornerstone" (Ep 2:20), the Christ of revelation and of the gospels, as pro-claimed by the Church. What is needed is a theology that integrates both the transcendent and the incarnational, both vertical and horizontal dimensions, both interior life and exterior action. Consequently, we are talking about a Christologi-cal, ecclesial foundation of objective, revealed values that are both normative and attractive, values that can propose objective and inspiring criteria with which we can collectively and individually evaluate and challenge ourselves. Our vision of God must begin with the God of revelation and Scripture, as authentically reflected to us down through the ages by the Church and sacred tradition. Equally essential to this theological vision is its concept of our humanity called to a unique relationship with our Creator as the peak of creation, elevated to unimaginable new possibilities in Christ, yet withal vulnerable and capable of betraying our Creator and Savior. Called to respond, we are still" free to say "no." Therefore, the triplet of grace, sin and concupiscence can never be overlooked (more will be said along this line in the anthropological section below). Such a theology will see the spiritual life as the arena of interaction between nature and grace, the call to personal and enduring transcendence in the name of Christ that begins with baptism and reaches its fulfillment in the Beatific Vision. Such free cooperation with grace is at one and the same time the highest activity to which we are called, that which makes us most truly human and that which ultimately brings us true self-fulfillment as a result of our self-transcendence. However, we do not incarnate such principles in a vacuum. We live in a world of increasing theological pluralism, of the rapid dissemination and impassioned defense of new ideologies--in short, in a world of theological ferment where discernment, critical thinking, and a clear vision of the fundamentals are more essential than ever. As Christians and religious, we must be able to sift and see in what way our, theological thinking may have been infiltrated by certain current trends which can bias and distort the foundation for our attitudinal decision. Discerning Theological ,Trends A group of Christian theologians (including Avery Dulles, S.J.) from nine denominations engaged themselves in precisely this kind of sifting a few years ago From Tablet to Heart in Hartford, Connecticut, resulting in the clarification and designation of thirteen pervasive ideas which they considered to be "false and debilitating."t 1 have grouped some of these into three areas so that it will be apparent how an ade-quately integrated theological foundation implies a counter-cultural stance that is in opposition to each of them. I. Religious language refers to human experience and nothing else, God being humanity's noblest creation . Jesus can only be understoo~l in terms of contemporary models of humanity . An emphasis on God's transcendence is at least a hindrance to, and perhaps incompatible with, Christian social concern and action. Here is clearly seen the polarization of a theology of the supernatural with the theology of secular humanism. According to the latter, "man and world have in themselves an ultimate value'~--a prime example of Frankl's objec!ification of persons and subjectification of values mentioned in Part 1, with the result that we must become our own source of meaning, and evaluate ourselves by subjective criteria. This subjectivism, in turn, gives rise to experientialism: lacking objective guidelines, we can only use our emotions to ratify our experience. God's existence is inferred from subjective religious experience. That which should be effect becomes, instead, the cause of belief and the fountainhead of religion. Von Bal-thazar's comments are appropriate here: It is not that man has to have an experience of God: it is more that God

Issue 31.6 of the Review for Religious, 1972. ; EDITOR R. F. Smith, S.J. ASSOCIATE EDITOR Everett A. Diederich, S.J. QUESTIONS ANI) ANSWERS EDI'I'OR Joseph F. Gallen, S.J. Correspondence with the editor, the associate editor, and the assistant editor, as well as books for review, should be .sen.t to REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS; 612 Humboldt Build-ing; 539 North Grand Boulevard; St. Louis, Missouri 63103. Questions for answering should be sent to Joseph F. Gallen, S,].; St. Joseph's Church; 321 Willings Alley; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19106. + + + REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS Edited with ecclesiastical approval by I~dculty members of the School of I)ivinity of St. Louis University. the editorial offices beihg located at 612 Humboldt Bnilding; 539 North Grand Boulevard; St. Louis, Missouri 63103. Owned by the Missouri Province Educational Institute. Published bimonthly and copyright © 1972 by REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS. Printed in U.S.A. ¯ Second class postage paid at St. Louis, Missouri. Single copies: $1.25. Subscription U.S.A. and Canada: $6.00 a year, $11.00 for two years; other countries: $7.00 a year. $13.00 for two years. Orders should indicate whether they are for new or r~encwal subscriptions and should be accompanied by check or money order payable to REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS in U.S.A. cur-rency only. Pay no money to persons claiming to represent REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS. Change of address requests should include former address. Renewals and new subscriptions should be sent to REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS; P.O. Box6070; Duluth, Minnesota 55802. Manuscripts, editori-al correspondence, and books for review shonld be sent to REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS; 612 tlumboldt Building; 539 North (;rand Boule-yard; St. Louis, Missouri 63103. Questions for answering should be sent to the address of the Questions and Answers editor. NOVEMBER 1972 VOLUME 31 NUMBER 6 CAttAL BRENI)AN DALY, D.D. Prayer in the Modern World [Cahal Brendan Daly, D.D., is the Bishop of Ardagh and lives at Bishop's House; St. Michael's; Longford, Ireland. The article was a lecture at the Carmelite College; Castlemartyr, County Cork and was first published in Mount Carmel, Spring 1972, pp. 204-12; Summer 19"72, pp. 23-35. The article is reprinted here with the kind permission of the editor of Mount Carmel. ] In the New Testament we not only find the example of prayer given us by Our Divine Lord, and the discipline of prayer as it existed in the first Christian community, but we find above all a theology of prayer. In fact, we find the whole message and mission of our Lord Himself presented to us in a context of prayer. The New Testament is, if you like, a whole theology of prayer. It is usual nowadays in modern theology to speak of Christ as the Man for others, and of course He certainly is; but we must not forget that before and above all else Christ is the Man for the Father. Christ is the Adorer of the Father; and it is only then and because of this that He is the Man for others. This is reflected in the commandments given by our divine Lord Himself in the form: "Thou shalt love the Lord thy God" - this is the first commandment; the second, like to it indeed, but nevertheless, second to it, is the commandment to love our neighbor. In an age of horizontalism we do not need to remember this. But there is a crisis of prayer at the present time. It is a crisis, I think, which goes deeper than prayer, affecting faith itself. The contemporary religious crisis is one that involves our very sense of God, the reality of His transcendent Being, and of our relationship with Him. It could hardly be denied, l am afraid that through a one-sided emphasis on this-worldly values, we may be neglecting the direct service of the wholly Other who is God - the rights of man perhaps coming to rival, if not eclipse, in our consciousness, the rights and claims of God. But surely the first thing required of a People of God is "Godliness" - the sense of God which that untranslatable old English word "Godliness" conveys. Worship is God's "Worthship," our acknowledgement of what God is worth, it is our avowal that God is worth a lifetime of our praise, and admiration and adoration, and service and thanks - our attempt to pay tribute to the "worthness" of God. Is the crisis of prayer not just the obverse side of a decline in this recognition of God's "worthship"? But there are several prevalent themes of modern discussion which are contributing, I think, to the modern crisis of prayer. It is suggested, for example, that prayer should be spontaneous and not rule-regulated; that it should be communitarian rather than individual; that it can take the form of a dialogue and service among our fellow men, rather than of silent personal converse with God. The Bishop of Woolwich Perhaps one of the best known exponents of some of these themes is the former 902 Review fox Religious, Volume 31, 197216 Bishop of Woolwich, above all in his book Honest to God. This has a chapter on prayer - a chapter which contains many beautiful and profound things, including as I remember it, the opening sentence which is that "Prayer and Ethics are the two sides of one and the same coin." This I think is a very profound thought, that Christian morality is simply our prayer applied to living and our living is our prayer carried out in act. There are other helpful thoughts as well in that chapter. But the general thrust of the Bishop of Woolwich's thinking is away from the idea of personal withdrawal and aloneness with God: away from the contemplative aspect of prayer at least, to prayer as engagement, prayer as involvement, as dialogue and as service. The Bishop would, I think, regret having to withdraw from the world and the neighbor into what he might be tempted to call the ghetto of aloneness in order to pray. He would prefer to find God and to serve Him and to worship Him in the neighbor, in dialogue and service with the neighbor. Now this of course is excellent, but nevertheless one needs to ask some questions about this. It seems to me that some very penetrating questions have been put to the Bishop about this by a fellow Anglican called Martin Thornton in a little book, which is very impressive to my mind, called TheRock and theRiver. In this book, Martin Thornton remarks that while reading Honest to God,and, above all, this chapter on prayer, he finds himself on practically every page, scribbling in the margin cryptic letters "Y.B.H." and he said almost certainly if his books were being looked over after his death by his executors (or anyone else) they would wonder what on earth "Y.B.H." could mean, but he tells us that they mean "YES, BUT HOW?" The point that he wants to make is that it is magnificent to be able to find God in our neighbor; it is wonderful to be able to be conscious of the presence of God in the neighbor, and to be conscious of the presence of the adorable God in our work, in our apostolate, in whatever. It is possible, but very difficult. How are we going to arrive there? Then Martin Thornton goes on (because he is himself a specialist of the spiritual life, and of the history of mystical theology), to remind us that this is in fact what traditional spiritual writers called habitual recollection or the habitual sense of the presence of God. But, he said, you will find that the saints and the great doctors of prayer have all of them warned us that this is a culmination, a climax of the spiritual effort. It is what mystical writers and saints might hope to arrive at and to achieve fitfully and partially at the end of years and years of disciplined effort. Whereas he fears the Bishop of Woolwich thinks that anyone can do this at the drop of a hat. He says that this is too naive by half- it just does not happen that way. Spontaneity and Discipline The title that Mr. Thornton gives to his book, The Rock and the River, is deliberately symbolic. The river for him is the spontaneity of prayer - the habitual sense of the presence of God always, not requiring certain periods set apart for it, but coming spontaneously and naturally in the course of doing other things. This for him, spontaneity, is represented by the river - the river of the continuous novelty and joy of the finding of God. But the river flows from the rock - a deep Biblical theme - and the rock is fidelity; the rock is constancy; the rock is the discipline of fidelity and constancy in our relations with the constant and faithful God. He insists that all experience, including our own, will tell us that unless we practice this discipline, which Mr. Thornton calls the Rule, the Regula, and unless we are faithful to that discipline, we won't have the spontaneity either. By the regula, he is referring in a general way to the rules of disciplined prayer that have Review for Religious, Volume 31, 1972/6 903 been left to us in all the great spiritual traditions and religious families. Surely he is faithful to human pyschology and pedagogy in that insistence. Surely in this as in any other spiritual domain spontaneity does not come naturally, it doesn't just happen - spontaneity is acquired. If you want to acquire spontaneity in your practice and your love of music, you've got to go through the hard monotonous humdrum discipline of practice. If you do, but only if you do, then you will eventually arrive at an informed but spontaneous enjoyment of music. So it is surely with any other human skill. Spontaneity is acquired by discipline. We should not contrast the spontaneity with the discipline. Similarly it is only at the price of disciplined, controlled and persistent prayer life that we will arrive at habitual recollection, or have joy in the moments of our prayer. The Example of Jesus This is true, as I said, psychologically; it is true pedagogically. But what is much more important is to approach this problem of prayer from the standpoint of the New Testament itself, and what it tells us about the practice of our divine Lord Himself, and the insights it gives us into the place of prayer in the life of Christ and in the life of the Christian. A careful study of Christ's own personal prayer life in the Gospels shows that He adhered strictly to a daily discipline of rule-regulated prayer. The rules were precisely those prevailing in contemporary Jewish piety; but Christ deepened and extended their observance as he did with every detail of Jewish religious practice. Every pious Jew, for example, in Jesus' time recited the Shema, or the Jewish creed, first thing on waking and last thing before sleeping. The words are based on Deuteronomy: "The Lord our God is the one Lord - you shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul and with all your strength." Jesus observed this custom faithfully as did all his disciples. For instance, when the rich young man asked our Lord "What must 1 do to inherit eternal life?" Jesus had only to remind him of the prayer he said that morning. This is what He does in fact when He says to him: "What is written in the law? How do you recite this?" (because the Jew normally recited his prayers aloud). Our Lord was simply asking him: "Do you remember your morning prayer? Do you remember what you said this morning?" This practice of morning and night prayer was regarded as an absolute minimum of religious practice and it is significant that in Jewish thought to omit morning and night prayer would be, in effect, to cut oneself off from the religious community. It was a minimum of recognition of God, a minimum of witness to the transcendence of God, without which one could not be regarded as a member of the praying community, the priestly community, which was the People of God. The pious Jew was further obliged to pray at least six times every day, and this of course is the basis of the Breviary, the Office, the Prayer of the Church, with its afternoon and evening hours. The many references that we find in the Gospels to Jesus' prayer are to be understood in relation to this rule of prayer. When Jesus impresses on the disciples the need to pray continually and never to lose heart, he is not referring, strictly speaking, to acquiring the sense of the habitual presence of God. The word "continually" has a technical meaning. Our Lord is referring to the regular, disciplined, rule-regulated periods of prayer in the course of the day; what He is requiring of them is faithfulness to the daily discipline of fixed times and rules of daily prayer. It is interesting that it is in that very same paragraph of St. Luke's Gospel that Jesus so poignantly asks "When the Son of Man comes, will he find any faith upon the earth?" a question which challenges every one of us always, but 904 Review for Religious, Volume 31, 1972/6 above all now at this time of crisis. It seems to follow from this conjunction that to find faith on earth, according to the teaching of the Gospel, is one and the same thing as to find persevering prayer on the earth. It is also full of deep significance that each single one of Jesus' answers to the temptations of the devil are taken from the Biblical prayer-formulae prescribed for the daily prayer of the Jews. Every one of them is part of what one might call a domestic or personal liturgy of the pious Jew. The lesson surely is that prayer is our defense against the temptations which the devil continually brings against our faith. The Jewish Practice of Prayer We have in recent years had tremendous new light shed upon the prayer life of our Lord from a somewhat unexpected source - a Jew who knows very well the cultural tradition of the Jewish people. That is to say, it has been brought to public attention, because this man I am going to refer to has been of course depending a great deal on the research of more primary scholars. He is himself a more popular writer, but nevertheless one of impressive stature. He is a French Jew called Robert Aron; and he has written a number of books based on his knowledge of Jewish tradition and Jewish religious practice, to illuminate for us the pages of the Gospel. His two best-known books are: Les annbes obscures de Jksus (The Hidden Years of Jesus) and Ainsi priait J~sus Enfant (This ls how the Boy Jesus Prayed). Both are published by Grasset. Now Aron has shown how the whole life of the devout Jew in Jesus' time was saturated with prayer. One of the interesting quotations he gives us from Jewish tradition is: "Whoever enjoys anything whatever in this world without first saying a prayer commits an untruthfulness." The prayer or blessing which preceded and which followed every important act of the day would have been taught to Jesus as a child by His holy Mother and would have been part of His whole human religious psychology. The Apostles were faithful to Jesus' example and to His precepts. The Acts of the Apostles frequently referred to the observance of the fixed hours of daily prayer. St. Paul again and again talks of praying continually, praying without ceasing, praying day and night, praying always. He urges his converts to keep praying, to be "persevering in your prayers." Again I repeat, St. Paul is not talking about habitual recollection. He is talking about fixed and undeviating hours and rules of prayer. What he is urging in all these passages is fidelity to the regular hours of prayer. Indeed the whole of the day was, as I have just said, consecrated for the faithful Jew by prayer; there were prayers of thanksgiving or blessings to accompany every action, function, and happening, whether of work, leisure, or recreation, in everyday life. We know from the Gospels how Jesus observed these blessings, these prayers before and after meals, before journeys, before arrivals, before seasons, before preaching or teaching, before acts of healing, miracles, and so on. St. Paul followed His example when he bids us to be always and everywhere giving thanks to God who is our Father in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ. There is a certain disaffection now from prayer of this kind, from the practice, for example, of blessings before and after meals, before and after journeys and undertakings; but it is salutary to remember that it came directly from Christ our Lord Himself. Of course it certainly is not part of the essence of our faith that we observe a particular set of fixed rules of prayer. Many of you know that this insistence could and sometimes did become a sort of legalism and a sort of spiritual burden which hindered rather than helped progress in prayer. One can bind heavy and insupportable burdens in this matter of devotions, trimmings, added to essential Review for Religious, Volume 31, 1972/6 9O5 liturgical prayer. Nevertheless, it is vital that there should be recalls of the presence of God in the course of one's day, and that in the course of one's life there should be moments of withdrawal from human contacts in order to be alone with God. This I think is absolutely fundamental in Christian life, both from psychological and from deeply theological reasons. Here again the contrast between spontaneity and regulation has been exaggerated and the contrast between love and law in this, as in many other spheres, has been overdone. After all, love creates its own self-imposed laws; and in any sphere you like to take of human relationships, you can easily see this. The man who says he is too busy earning money for his family, or for his wife or fiancee, to have any time to recall her birthday, or to remember her anniversaries, or to think of giving her a present, would be a humbug. Love is made of thoughtfulnesses of this kind. Love is the willing acceptance, the joyful acceptance, of certain patterns of conduct, which manifest our fidelity and which make our love to be real rather than just verbal. Law is the expression of love, and when it is, it is no longer felt as law, it is no longer felt as a burden. This perhaps is why some prayer practices became burdens, because they could not be assimilated into one's love of God. Nevertheless that there should be time for this withdrawal is indispensable, to remember what life is about, and what we are here for, to remember that we are a People of God. Those of us who are committed to the following, the exclusive following of Christ, have special need for these regular moments of intensive recall of who it is that we have chosen, or rather, who He is who has chosen us. Prayer and Eschatology A very meaningful contemporary way of expressing this is to say that these moments of withdrawal are necessary in order to give us an eschatological dimension, an awareness of what it is to be waiting for the Lord to come in glory. Schillebeeckx has some very interesting remarks in his book on celibacy. He suggests that the deepest meaning of celibacy is that a man who is really waiting for the Lord to come in glory has not time to be bothered with all the distractions and so on that are necessary to have a courtship and a marriage and to look after a family. He is too completely absorbed in the thought of the coming of the Lord and in the need of preparedness for the coming Lord to be bothered with anything else but the affairs of the kingdom. This 1 think is a very valid phenomenonological and existentialist explanation of the meaning and the relevance of celibacy. In passing, Schillebeeckx remarks, and 1 think that this too is profound, that this in fact is the basis of the Church's practice of fasting and of self-denial generally. Someone who is really intensely, excitedly waiting for a tremendous event to break through can't think of anything else, he can't think of eating, he doesn't even feel hungry. The Church, knowing that as an eschatological community we ought to have this feeling of excited waiting, on tip-toe of expectation for this great thing to break through, adopts the external behavior-pattern (e.g. not eating)which corresponds to the inner feeling. If we were really waiting for something important to happen, or for someone really loved to come, we couldn't be bothered to be hungry. The Church feels that we can as it were invert the process, induce the appropriate feeling by adopting the relevant behavior. Now it seems to me that in a similar way fixed times and moments of awareness of God are indispensable if we are to have the mentality of a people of faith, of a people of hope, of a people constantly aware that we have not here a lasting kingdom, but we seek one that is to come in Christ, "who is, who was, and who is to come." 9O6 Review for Religious, Volume 31, 1972/6 Jesus, however, was not content with the rule-regulated prayer of the Jews; He deepened it, and He stressed the need for personal commitment rather than conformity, and for interior sincerity rather than routine. Jesus reinforced the rules, but He wrote them on the heart rather than as the Pharisees did on the palm and the forehead. You will remember what seems to us the incredible foolishness of the Pharisees in taking the words of Deuteronomy literally. Deuteronomy says: "You are to write this law on the palm of your hand and carry it perpetually before your eyes so that you shall never waking or sleeping, forget this law." The Pharisees did just that; they wrote sentences of the Law out on bits of paper and carried them in the palms of their hands and wrote them out on a phylactery, and carried it in front of their eyes and thought that this was carrying out the Law. But Jesus wanted the rules to be written on the heart, to be assimilated into our lives, rather than carried out legalistically. He told us therefore to pray to the Father in secret. Jesus' Solitary Prayer Jesus also extended the fixed hours of prayer, turning the regular evening prayer of the Jews into night-long vigils ending only with the dawn. The Gospels are at pains deliberately to emphasize that these were vigils of solitary prayer. The Gospels make a special point of remarking that Jesus left the crowds behind even when they needed Him, even when they clamored for Him and followed pathetically after Him, looking for His help and His healing. Jesus deliberately turned His back on people that needed Him, in order to be alone with His Father - this we must never forget. Here is how St. Mark described it: "That evening after sunset, they brought to Him all who were sick and those who were possessed by devils; the whole town came crowding around the door. In the morning, long before dawn, He got up and He left the house and He went off to a lonely place, and He prayed there. Simon and his companions set out in search of Him. When they found Him they said 'Everybody is looking for you.' " Later, St. Mark continues, after the miracle of the loaves, He Himself sent the crowds away, after saying good-bye to them: "He went off into the hills to pray, and about the fourth watch of the night, He came to His disciples." This was about 3 to 6 a.m. He came to His disciples after hours of vigil, hours of solitary prayer alone by night. "He came to them walking on the water." St. Luke is even more explicit. St. Luke says: "I-Iis reputation continued to grow, and large crowds would gather to hear him, and to have their sicknesses cured, but he would always go off to some place where he could be alone and pray." Not just once, not just a few times, but regularly, habitually, he would "always" go off "to some place where He could be alone and pray." Again, St. Luke writes: "He went out to the hills to pray and He spent the whole night in prayer to God." This was before the vocation, the calling of the disciples. "When day came, he summoned his disciples and he picked out twelve of them and called them Apostles." It is not fanciful, it is theologically accurate, to say that the vocation of each one of us was involved in that vocation of the twelve, for our vocation is only a prolongation of theirs; therefore, our vocation too was included in the prayer of Christ. St. Luke's Theology of Prayer St. Luke shows Christ's whole life as spent in an atmosphere of prayer. Indeed he interprets Christ's whole mission in terms of a theology of prayer. St. Luke's Gospel begins, remember, with prayer in the temple, and it ends with Jesus ascending into Review for Religious, Volume 31, 1972/6 907 lleaven in the posture of prayer, in the gesture of blessing. The blessing is not just any blessing, it is the blessing of the Holy Spirit and the promise of the Father. It is Jesus' prayer that brings this promise to fulfillment; it is Jesus' prayer that brings down the only true blessing, the gift of the Holy Spirit to the world. Then let us never forget that there is a continuity between St. Luke's first Gospel, the Gospel of Jesus Christ, and what we might call his second gospel, the gospel of the Church and of the Holy Spirit, which is the Acts of the Apostles. There is a parallelism of structure between the two. St. Luke's Gospel, his gospel of Jesus Christ, begins with prayer in the Temple and with the Annunciation and it ends with waiting in the temple for the promise of the Father to be given by the blessing of Jesus. The Acts of the Apostles begins again in the Holy City and the Temple where they are to remain continually in prayer, praising God all the time and waiting for the power from on high and for the mission which in the power of the Spirit will send them to the ends of the earth. There is a parallelism between the conception of Jesus and the conception of the Church in St. Luke which is most striking and is theologically very profound. The Gospel begins with prayer in the Temple and the coming of the Holy Spirit, which makes Mary the Mother of Jesus. The Acts of the Apostles opens with a description of the Apostles joined in continuous prayer with Mary the Mother of Jesus waiting for the coming of the Holy Spirit to give birth to the Church. In truth we have to say that St. Luke has a clearly developed theology of prayer in which Jesus' whole life and work are explained in terms of prayer. Now this is not just a personal idea of St. Luke. This is divinely revealed and inspired instruction about the mystery of Christ as a mystery of salvation consummated in prayer. This revelation occurs with particular intensity at four points in St. Luke's Gospel: the Annunciation, the Baptism of our Lord, the Transfiguration, and the Ascension. Now there are remarkable parallelisms between these four scenes, these four theophanies if you like, in St. Luke's Gospel. These elements are constant throughout the Synoptic Gospels of course, but they are presented with particular vividness and explicitness in St. Luke. In each of these scenes we note the manifestation of the shekinah, the cloud of divine glory which everywhere in the Bible marks the awesome presence of God. Again, let me remark in passing that there has been a lot of nonsense talked about the "myths" of the Gospel and the need to "demythologize" the Gospel in order to get at its fundamental truth. Often this turns out to be a parabolic kind of truth, which has nothing to do with facts but is simply a subjective conviction of being addressed by God now, in my existential situation in the present. But what we have in the Gospels is not myth at all, but a technical, theological language. You couldn't expect the sacred writers to use our kind of language wltich has developed in our sort of Greco-Latin culture. Inevitably what they had to use was the theological language of a Semitic culture and particularly of a Biblical people. They used the theological language of the Old Testament. But make no mistake about it, the language of the Bible is not just the simple anthropomorphic talk of a people who knew no better; it is the work of a highly sophisticated and developed theology, with its own clearly recognized theological symbols. One of these is the cloud. The cloud is a theological description of the presence of the all-holy God. We have this cloud of divine glory in all of these scenes that I talked about. One could of course write a whole library of books about the theology of the shekinah in the Old and in the New Testaments. This cloud of divine glory marks above all God's presence in the Tent or Tabernacle where He dwelt among His people in the desert and it marked His presence in the 908 Review for Religious, Volume 31, 197216 Holy of Holies in the Temple of the Holy City. The Transfiguration Now, with this background, let us look first at the scene of the Transfiguration. St. Luke is careful to point out in all these passages that our Lord was in prayer, before the manifestation of the cloud of divine glory occurred. St. Luke is careful, for example, to point out that it was to pray that Jesus took Peter, James, and John up the mountain of Transfiguration, and that it was as He prayed that the fulguration of divine glory pervaded His body. So St. Luke is not telling us only about the actual event in the life of our Lord. He is also, in parenthesis, implicitly telling us about our prayer life as Christians. Here again we have an instance of the great blessings and graces that modern exegesis has brought to the Church. We can see now that the New Testament writers were all the time recalling the actual words, the actual events of the life of our Lord in the context of the Church, in the context of the life of the Church, in the context of the liturgy, and above all in the context of the Holy Eucharist. Therefore we are getting two messages all the time in the New Testament, one about what our Lord did in the past, and one about how the Church experiences her Lord in the liturgy of today. That is one of the reasons why the Gospels are never merely an account of what did happen once, long ago in history. They are always also a revelation, an unveiling, of what is happening now in our liturgy of today, which is essentially the same as the liturgy of the early Church. To return to this scene of the Transfiguration. This was the epiphany of God made one with human flesh in the body of Jesus, and it reveals Jesus as the new Tent, the new Tabernacle, the new Temple, replacing the old Tent, and replacing the existing Temple, and becoming then and for all time the only place where God could be encountered and worshiped in all future history. This incidentally, is why St. Luke smiles as it were at the nffive foolishness of poor old Peter - Peter said: "Let's make three tents." St. Luke is telling us in part: "Poor Peter, don't mind him. He didn't know what he was saying, he didn't know that there is only one tent, not three. There is only one tent where God dwells with men, the Tent of Christ's Body." We enter that Tent in prayer; and every time we pray in the name of Jesus, we enter already into the glory of God present in the Body of His Son. That's why it is good for us to pray. It is good for us to be here in prayer with Jesus in the glory of the Father. Never are we more praying in the name of Jesus than when we are praying in the Mass or before the Blessed Sacrament, because this is the transfigured Body. The Body of Christ in the Eucharist is the Temple, the only Temple of access to the Father. After the radiant glory of God had transfigured Christ's body, the cloud became a dark shadow enveloping Jesus along with Moses and Elias who stood by to acknowledge Him as the author of the new and eternal covenant. Not only here, but frequently, in fact habitually, you find this ambivalence about the cloud of divine glory. It is at once light and darkness. It is radiant blinding light, but also impenetrable, mysterious darkness. These are not contradictory. God's glory is darkness by excess of blinding light. When the light of the sun is at its most luminous, it is fatal to look directly into it, for example during an eclipse. So it is with the radiance of God's light. That is what it means to say God is mystery. At this point, out of the cloud comes a voice - the voice of the eternal Father: "This is my Son, the Chosen One, listen to him." Now we know why the cloud is Review for Religious, Volume 31, 1972/6 909 dark. The darkness is the same as the darkness that covered Calvary at the time of Christ's death. This is not just an astronomical phenomenon; this is mystery, this is revelation, this is the language of Biblical theology. It was the cloud of God's glory that covered Calvary when Christ was dying. Here, in the dark cloud of the Transfiguration we have the revelation of the coming Passion. These words "This is my Son," are taken from the prophet Isaiah and they refer to the Suffering Servant, not just the Son, but the suffering Son. When we are told to listen to Him, we are being told to listen to the lesson of His Passion. Here we have the revelation that Jesus is God's Temple precisely in and because of His Passion. It is because Jesus suffers that He enters into glory and brings us with Him into the Father's glory. Jesus the True Temple This theology of the Temple is, again, a tremendous new insight of recent exegesis and of recent theology. Take for example something that always puzzled us, 1 think, namely the question of what it means that, at the death of Christ, the veil of the Temple is rent in two from the top to the bottom. We must recall that in the Jewish Temple there were separate compartments for different categories of worshipers. There was one for the women who were not allowed to come more than to just the outer precincts. Beyond this there were the ordinary priestly people, the lay men. Beyond this was the place set apart for the priests. Finally beyond the inmost veil, was the Holy of Holies where only the High Priest himself could enter, and he only once a year. Beyond this veil the High Priest dared to enter only backward, for fear of looking at where the glory of God dwelt. But when Christ dies, the veil is torn apart, the curtains are all drawn back. There are no separations, no boundaries, no barriers, any more. We can all come up without distinction, without exclusion into the very presence of divine glory. We do this every day in our Mass and at our Holy Communion. This is one example of the central importance of the theology of the Temple in the reading of the Gospel. But, to return again to the Transfiguration; here we are entering into the heart of the mystery of Christian prayer. When we pray we are made one with Jesus in His prayer. This means we become one with Jesus in His divine Sonship; and over us when we pray the same voice of the Eternal Father is spoken "This is my Son, my Chosen One." Again, another example of the supposedly mythological, but really theological language of the Bible is to be noted in the words, "the heavens were opened." This means that the separation between God and man which sin is, is abolished by the redemption of Christ, and that in Christ we already share in the life of heaven, we are already admitted into the presence of the Father. That is what the opening of the heavens means. This happens in Jesus Christ and happens in our lives every time we pray. Every time we pray, the heavens are opened over us and around us, and we are enveloped with Jesus in the same love with which the Father loves His Son. It is not so much we who pray then, as the Beloved Son who prays in us. Or, as St. Paul says, it is the Spirit of adoption, it is the Spirit of the Son making us sons, who is given us by Christ to pray in us with groanings that are ineffable. All that we have to do when we pray - because we do get discouraged in our efforts and we feel we are making such a poor fist of it - but really all we've got to do is to try to remove the distractions which impede Christ from praying in us. We have only, as it were, to stand back and let Christ pray in us, let the Holy Spirit pray in us, to remove the distractions which impede and try to create the conditions which permit the Son and the Spirit to pray in us. The word "pray-in" is familiar now, but all Christian prayer is really Christ's "pray-in" in us. Christian 910 Review for Religious, Volume 31, 1972/6 prayer is essentially Christ praying in us, and the Spirit praying in us. Therefore in us and through us as we pray glory is given to the eternal Father by the Son in us, through the Holy Spirit in us, as it was in the beginning and is now and ever shall be for ever and ever. St. John's Theology of Prayer We note in passing that this revelation of the meaning and the mystery of Jesus and prayer in St. Luke's Gospel agrees completely with the Gospel of St. John. In the very prologue of St. John's Gospel, we read: "The Word was made flesh and dwelt amongst us." We know that these words are again a reference to the cloud of divine glory and the Tent of God's dwelling, because the words really mean "He pitched His tent [God's Tent] amongst us." These words are not just a description, but also a theology. Christ becomes in His very flesh the temple of true prayer, prayer which really encounters God, really gets through to God, really opens the heavens for us and reconciles man to God; and this is made possible through Christ's Passion. Note that the very first act of faith in Christ is that which is given by John the Baptist immediately afterwards in St. John's Gospel in the form "Look, there is the Lamb of God." This is the first act of faith in Christ, and we repeat it every day at Mass. Another reference to Christ's Passion is found when Jesus later says to the Samaritan woman that worship will not any longer be in any privileged place, but "true worshipers will worship the Father in spirit and in truth." A certain Protestant tradition, not a universal one, but a certain Protestant tradition has tended to interpret this in an anti-institutional and anti-liturgical sense. Worship in spirit and in truth would be something like Quaker worship where there would be no priesthood, no liturgy, and so on. This could not be further from the thought of St. John. St. John is the most sacramental, the most liturgical, the most eucharistic and the most ecclesial of all the evangelists. The words "spirit and truth" refer not to some disembodied deinstitutionalised form of spirituality; they refer to Jesus' own risen Body. There is no contrast between body and spirit. All the related contrasts, so often made nowadays between spirit and institution, between spirit and structure, are alien to the thought of St. John and indeed of the whole of the New Testament. Christ's Body is spirit, Christ's risen Body is life-giving spirit. To worship the Father in spirit and in truth is to worship the Father above all in and through the Holy Eucharist which is the Body of Christ. "Spirit and truth" is Christ's own risen and glorified Body become life-giving spirit. Here St. John is absolutely one with St. Paul. What Jesus is saying here is that His risen Body is the only Christian temple, and that it is only through His Body that we come to God. Therefore, the apex, what the Constitution on the Liturgy calls the source and the summit, of all Christian spirituality, is the Holy Mass, where God's Spirit (in the words of the Eucharistic prayer), "comes upon these gifts to make them holy so that they may become for us the Body and Blood of our Lord Jesus Christ." This is the moment when the words of our Lord to the Samaritan woman are realized and we become "true worshipers of God, the kind of worshipers the Father wants, worshiping Him in spirit and in truth." The Baptism of Our Lord Now, let us turn briefly to the Baptism of our Lord which contains another revelation of the mystery of Christian prayer. St. Luke again characteristically tells us that Jesus, after His own Baptism, was in prayer when heaven opened, and the Review for Religious, Volume 31, 1972/6 911 Holy Spirit came down upon Him, and the voice of the Father sounded over Him: "You are my Son, the Beloved, my favor rests on you." The mystery of our baptism is included in that of the Baptism of our Lord. We are baptized in order to pray - it is as siraple as that. We are baptized in order to pray in union with Jesus and indeed in His very person. Baptism, which the more traditional way of speaking called christening (a much more beautiful terns: christening) is our "oneing" with Christ. "One-ing" is another of those untranslatable old English words which you find in the medieval mystics - oneing with Christ. That is what our baptism means. We never realize this oneness with Christ more than when we pray. When we pray, as the Council puts it, we are "sons in the Son," and the voice of the Father is say-ing over us when we pray, as it said over Christ when He prayed - "You are my Son, the Beloved, my favor rests on you." Prayer is the highest exercise and the supreme fulfillment of our baptism. The baptized People of God are before and above all a praying people. The Ascension Finally we come to the mysteries of Ascension and Pentecost. The Ascension is another manifestation of the mystery of prayer. Jesus ascends to the Father enveloped in the cloud of divine glory. Remember the disciples were not interested in what the weather was like on the day when our Lord ascended, and the whole cloud is not something that happened to be there because it was a nice summer's day. The cloud is also the theological description of the glory of the Father into which Christ entered when He left earthly vision. Jesus ascends to the Father, therefore, enveloped in the same radiant cloud of divine glory that we have seen at the Annunciation, at the Baptism, and at the Transfiguration. He ascends in an attitude of blessing, the attitude of prayer which He keeps forever in heaven in the Father's presence. His blessing is above all else the gift of the Spirit, the outpouring of the Holy Spirit. The priest at Mass is acting in His name, vicariously giving Christ's own Ascension blessing to Christ's people when he says "The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ and the love of God and the fellowship of the Holy Spirit be with you all." In a sense - in a very true sense - the liturgy, the Eucharist above all, is the proof that it is all true. After His Resurrection, Christ invariably greets His people, His community, with the words "Peace be with you." If in our liturgy we can be greeted by His representative with the words "Peace be with you," this is the proof that it is true that Christ has risen and is with us. Nobody can give us peace, nobody has the right to say "Peace" except Christ. Therefore, if peace is given to us, if it is present in our liturgy, this is the proof that it is all true and that Christ is living and is here. Pentecost and Prayer The coming of the Holy Spirit on the infant Church is also linked with prayer. This time it is prayer "together with Mary the Mother of Jesus." 1 have said in passing already that it is certain that St. Luke intends to call attention to the analogy between the conception of Jesus which he describes in the Gospel and the birth of the Church which he describes in Acts. In both the glory, the glory of God and the overshadowing of the spirit, marks the end of the separation between God and man, and it shows that in Christ, in the Church, God has come to live in the very midst of His own and in prayer we infallibly meet Him in Christ and in the Church. Mary the Mother of Jesus is there, with an indispensable place in the mystery of salvation and with an irreplaceable part in the prayer of the Christian. In 912 Review for Religious, Volume 31, 1972/6 passing it might be worth asking ourselves to what extent some of the problems and troubles in the Church today are linked with the manifest and deplorable decline' in devotion to our Blessed Lady. The Our Father I have said that the People of God is above all a people that prays. Now this is shown very clearly in the Evangelists' account of how Christ gave a special prayer, the "Our Father" to His disciples. The disciples had just watched Jesus praying, and when He finished one of them said: "Lord, teach us to pray as John taught his disciples." For the Jews in that particular cultural situation a religious group was identified by its specific form of praying. So the disciples are really asking for a prayer which will mark them as members of Christ's new Messianic people, partakers already of the coming kingdom of God. In answer Jesus gives them the Our Father. Its most striking word is the word Father. Jesus never once prayed without calling God "Father." But what is not usually recognized is that neither the Old Testament, nor Jewish tradition ever addressed God as Father. This is a remarkable fact. It has been brought to our notice by (among others) a Lutheran exegete called Joachim Jeremias. This vocative use of the word "Father" in praying to God is new and unique in the prayer of Jesus and in that of His followers after Him. What is even more striking is that Jesus uses a special term for "Father" in speaking to God, the word "Abba." This is a family word, a child's endearing word for father, "my dear Father." It would be going too far and would suggest something childish to say that He called God "Dada" - "Abba" is a familial, not a familiar term - "my dear Father." Never before in history did any man dare to speak so intimately and so affectionately to God. Jesus in the Gospel, according to Jeremias' count, uses it 177 times. This term is something characteristic of Jesus' own prayer and of Jesus' own attitude to His Father. Jeremias in one of his books called The Central Message of the New Testament regards this as perhaps the central message and says that even if we had nothing else than this to prove the special, absolutely unique Sonship, the divine Sonship and therefore the Divine nature of Christ, His use of the term "Abba" for Father would be enough. This is the supreme manifestation of the unique filial relationship between Jesus and His Father. The disciples never ceased to be amazed at this way of addressing God. They were even frightened by it. They couldn't bring themselves without an effort to repeat the words after Him. The touching effect is that when they say the words after Jesus they always repeat his own words "Abba" in the very language that Jesus used, Aramaic, even when they didn't use or know the language. This explains the odd sort of repetitions, or duplications that you get in St. Paul, "Abba," "Father," the two words mean the same thing; but the disciples could not say "Father" to God without reminding themselves that Jesus said "Abba" and that He ordered them to say it after Him. This was as though to say: "We couldn't say it unless He did and He told us to do so." This is the explanation of our own introduction to the Our Father in the liturgy: "Because of the divine command and following the divine example we dare to say Our Father." I am afraid the translation that ICEL have given here is not a good one. "We pray with confidence." This is not enough. It does not convey the full force of the Latin words, "audemus dicere": "We make bold to say," "We dare to say." This is what the Church has always meant by this introduction to the Our Father. Review for Religious, Volume 31, 1972/6 913 But the Our Father is not just a prayer that we say; it's a prayer that makes itself true as we say it. God becomes our dear Father, and we become His favorite children, in and through and with Jesus Christ when we pray. That is what our prayer is, our sharing in the mystery of the Divine Sonship, our entering into the unique relationship between Jesus and His Father which is expressed by His use of the word "'Abba" - "'my dear Father." The Our Father is the realization of our salvation, it is the proof that we are saved. If we were not baptized we could not say it. That is why every baptized person in the early Church was given the Our Father to learn by heart (which is perhaps a commentary on a certain reaction at the present time against prescribed forms of prayer for children). Here is what St. Paul says to the Galatians: "The proof that you are sons is that God has sent the spirit of his son into your heart, the spirit that cries 'Abba Father,' and it is this that makes you a son." The whole theology 1 have been trying to suggest to you is contained in that sentence - "the proof that you are sons is that God has sent the spirit of his son into your heart, the spirit that cries 'Abba,' 'Father,' and it is this that makes you a son." The kingdom has come when we pray Our Father. The glory of the final coming is already present and we share in that glory in the very heart of the blessed Trinity. Jeremias has said that the Our Father is eschatology making itself true as we say it - eschatoiogy realizing itself - a very profound thought. Infallibility of Prayer 1 have said that the Our Father, and indeed all Christian prayer, makes itself true as we say it by the power and in the person of Christ. Now we are bound by Our Lord's own words to believe that prayer is infallible, that every true prayer is infallibly heard. What then are we to say of unanswered prayer? There can be no answer to this problem, in the light of the Gospel, other than that no prayer is unanswered if it is in the name of Jesus. What Jesus Himself said was: "Whatever you ask the Father in my name, will be granted to you." Note the qualification, "in My Name." If a prayer is in His name truly, truly and really in His name, then it must be answered by the power and promise of our Divine Lord Himself. Jesus said something even stranger; He said: "Whatever you ask the Father in my name, believe that you have already received it, and it will be given to you." Is this some curious, almost pathological form of auto-suggestion? It cannot be. But there is a mystery here and it is the New Testament which gives us the key to this mystery. No prayer is unanswered, because every prayer admits us to the presence and the glory of God. In heaven's name, what else have we to pray for but that? What else do we want but that? Is God not enough for us? Every prayer gives us oneness with Christ, and again, in heaven's name, what are we praying for but that? What do we want, but that? What do we need but that? Is Christ not enough for us? St. Paul said "Since God did not spare his own Son but gave him up to benefit us all, has he not also with him given us everything." Is there anything he has refused? Like Jesus Himself, then, we can thank the Father before our prayers are answered. You remember our Lord, before the raising of Lazarus, said: "I thank You, Father, because You have heard my prayer." Prayer is our privilege before it is our duty. The same is true of our faith. Karl Barth says that what we should be saying now is not, "You are bound to believe," but "You are permitted to believe." The faith is a privilege, not a burden, and so is prayer. All our prayers are answered in Christ - Christ is the answer to our prayer. All our prayers end with "Amen." The word 914 Review for Religious, Volume 31, 1972/6 does not mean so much "may it be so," but rather "it is so." It is so in Christ. Christ is God's Arden to our prayer. St. Paul says: "With Him it is always "Yes" and however many the promises God has made the "Yes" to them all is in Him." And He goes on to say: "That is why it is through Him, that we answer "Amen" to the praise of God." Prayer is in crisis in the modern world. T. S. Eliot in "The Rock" says: Endless invention, endless experiment brings knowledge of motion, but not of stillness knowledge of speech but not of silence knowledge of words but ignorance of the Word all our knowledge brings us nearer to our ignorance. The cycles of heaven in twenty centuries brings us further from God and nearer to the dust. There is a certain truth even though a certain pessimism in what Eliot says. But it is consoling to recall another great man of our time, the outstanding humanist and servant of humanity who was Dag Hammerskjold. It was prayer and specifically the Our Father which inspired Hammerskjold to give his life for others. "Murderous Angels" notwithstanding, Hammerskjold was a very great man. "The only value of a life," says Hammerskjold, "is its content for others; and therefore in my great loneliness, to serve others. How incredibly great is what I have been given and how meaningless is what I have to sacrifice. 'Hallowed be Thy Name, Thy Kingdom come, Thy Will be done.' You wake from dreams of doom and then for a moment you know beyond all the noise and the gestures, you know the only real thing, love's calm unwavering flame in the half light of an early dawn." In this Carmelite setting, I am happy to end by suggesting that this is a contemporary echo of St. Teresa's epilogue of her life of prayer, written on a scrap of paper found after her death in her breviary in 1582: "Let nothing disturb you, let nothing frighten you, All things pass, God never changes, Patience attains all that it strives for. He who has God is lacking in nothing. Only God is enough. Solo Dios Basra." SISTER MARY GARASCIA, C.I'P.S. Prayer and Spirituality ISister Mary Garascia is a member of the Theology Department of Gerard High School; 2252 North Forty-fourth Street; Phoenix, Arizona 85008.1 Introduction It is Fall as these thoughts are being written, and across the nation the past summer produced the usual spate of chapters and meetings which will in turn generate programs and conferences and discussions in the community houses of American religious this apostolic year. Private prayer continues to be one of the most frequently discussed topics, demonstrating the persistent concern felt by many sisters with this area of their religious life. The statements which follow are not a systematic development of the nature or methods of prayer; neither are they original. They are, it is hoped, things which are said too softly or too seldom, and which may help to give discussions of prayer and spirituality a certain perspective. Perspective on Prayer: Prayer as Positive Perhaps the idea that is most often not uttered at the beginning of prayer discussions is that prayer is supposed to be a positive human experience. It should be, in general, enjoyable and easy. Prayer is an experience of contact with God, and the God of Christianity is the Approachable One. Both the Old and New Testaments present God as a departure from the magical-mysterious pagan gods and the philosophical-mystery gods of the Greco-Roman world. God is revealed, instead, to be lover, friend, father, savior. Because that is the way God is, Jesus could respond with the simple and natural Our Father when someone asked Him how to pray. Certainly at times prayer will be difficult because life itself is, at times, difficult. But the times when prayer is a deeply rewarding experience should predominate. A God who must be sought in tortuous ways is not lovable or attractive, nor is He the God of Jesus. The "dark night" of the mystics is not meant to characterize the spiritual life of man. It is only a temporary stage, as all suffering and dying is temporary and is oriented toward resurrection and future life. Probably the first rule of prayer should be to enjoy God, to relax and pray naturally. It should be clear, whenever prayer is discussed, that behind all the words there lurks a God of nearness, approachability, and overflowing generosity. Perspective on Prayer: Prayer and Autobiography Possibly one reason why prayer becomes unnatural or strained is that it becomes separated from autobiography) Each person writes a story with his life. The story IMichael Novak, Ascent of the Mountain, Flight of the Dove (New York: Harper and Row, 1971), pp. 43-87. 916 Review for Religious, Volume 31, 1972/6 is sequential and hopefully has direction and meaning. If a person is religious, his story is also religious. In other words, if he were to tell his story to another, he could not tell it merely in terms of vital statistics, places of residence or employment, achievements, and so on. All these things would be seen by the religious person in terms of a greater reality: the times, places, and experiences when God entered his life, the development of his own religious consciousness. Prayer needs as its ground an awareness and appreciation by the praying person of his own religious story. The person prays not to an unfamiliar God, but to a God whom he has come to know in a process of time and experience, to a God whom he can take for granted on the one hand, and yet to a God who enters his life so constantly and insistently that their relationship is a continual source of awe and rejoicing to him. With this consciousness of story, prayer takes place at the meaning core of the person. It can never become an exercise or a duty because it is always an extension of experience. It will more often be affectively rewarding, as it should be, and natural. An underlying assumption of this point of view is that a person is willing to trust himself and his own religious experiences. This is not to say that man never errs, becoming proud, presumptuous, idolatrous, or that it is not important to imitate others or seek guidance. But there quickly comes a point when the praying person must accept the fact that God has spoken to him, is really calling him in a unique way. Unless he accepts God in this way, believing and accepting his own experience of God, prayer will tend to be marked by insecurity, darkness, distance. Perspective on Prayer: Prayer and Conversion The notion of trusting one's religious experience in order to pray leads to considering how important the quality of religious experience is. All the methods, spiritual systems, directors, and rules with which prayer gets surrounded have only one purpose: to lead the person toward certain basic conversion experiences. These are the peak experiences of the person's religious story, the turning points when the person begins defining himself in terms of his relationship with God, the point of decision to believe in the face of insufficient evidence, the assent to take seriously certain gospel precepts. These conversion points are absolutely essential if prayer is to be more than a passing phenomenon. Once certain conversions have been experienced, changes in the cultural underpinnings of prayer, such as theological upheavals or the declining influence of organized religion, are not perceived as basically threatening to prayer life. Pseudo oppositions like work and prayer, God and neighbor, resolve themselves into situations of healthy and prayer-supporting tension, if they continue to be of concern at all. Preoccupation with how to pray or with the quality of one's prayer tends to disappear, and the person begins, in freedom, to seek out for himself his own prayer rhythm. Finally, through conversion the person becomes capable of handling suffering, the great testing-point of anyone's spiritual life. It is hard to stop being concerned about methods, rules, spiritual systems because of the recent past history of ascetical training which, unfortunately, came to be dominated by the personal spiritualities of Saints Teresa and John of the Cross. Thomas Merton, one of the most serious pray-ers of contemporary America, also said some of the most freeing things about prayer: Systems are fine, up to a point, but all they are for is to help you get to the point where there is no more system, where you deal with God absolutely in your freedom and his Review for Religious, Volume 31, 1972/6 917 freedom.2 There is really no opposition., between praying alone and being with people. Both are true, both are right, and you don't divide one against the other and say it's purely horizontal or purely vertical. It is both horizontal and vertical, and you should follow what is right for you at a given time. When you are dealing with people for as long as it works, go on dealing with people; when you get tired of dealing with people, go pray alone. There comes a time when you just get tired of a particular prayer form unless you have a charism of never getting tired of it! All right, that is your charism, your thing. But most of us should simply follow the natural rhythm of the way we are constituted, and follow the Holy Spirit. There is a time and a place for everything,a Sometimes statements such as Merton's are accepted up to the "yes-but" point. Yes, but is it not possible, if a person really lets himself go, does his own thing, that he may cease to pray, or pray very infrequently? Yes, of course, it is possible, because man always has the option of choosing things which bring him death instead of life. The reasonable person will be aware of the possibility and take reasonable precautions. However, this possible catastrophe will certainly be the unusual and extraordinary case. Every person who walks along a street risks being hit by a car, but only the neurotic stay home. Perhaps this statement sounds facetious, but it is based on some of the assumptions already developed: that prayer is, basically, a happy and rewarding experience and therefore even very busy people will come back to it with the naturalness of a man seeking recreating leisure; that prayer is an outflowing of religious experiences so deep that the idea of a converted man forgetting God would be as unthinkable as the Jews forgetting Jerusalem during the exile.'* Finally, fidelity is not something that can be produced by following a regimen: Fidelity does not come out of a personality we have safely banked. Fidelity arises from our inter-relationship with the flow of life. It is something that comes out of a person who is mature enough to deepen his convictions in moments when they are severely challenged. Fidelity, in other words, is not something that exists because we stay the same. It is a dynamic quality that exists because we are capable of growth and constructive change,s Out of the desire for God and the pleasure of his company will flow a certain discipline. Prayer will be chosen over other things because it is important, at the core of the meaning system of the person. The search for God will seem worthy of time and energy. The person who has experienced conversion will find it hard to forget the experience; he will tend to remain conscious of the possibility of future conversions and will work to keep himself open to conversion. Any worthwhile human endeavor has its built-in asceticism. Someone once pointed out that there are three ways of viewing man: as evil, as good but with certain dangerous impulses which need caution, or as growth-oriented. Everything written above opts for the growth-oriented view of man, who relates to a God of abundance and nearness, and a prayer life which feels good and is guilt free and peace-filled.6 2Thomas Merton, "Prayer, Tradition, and Experience," Sisters Today, February 1971, p. 28"/; see also the same author's "The Life That Unifies," Sisters Today, October 19"/0, p. '71. 3Thomas Merton, "Prayer, Personalism, and the Spirit," Sisters Today, November 1970, pp. 133-4. 4 Psalm 13"/:5-7. 5Eugene Kennedy, In the Spirit, in the Flesh (Garden City: Doubleday, 1971), p. 85. 6George A. Lane, S.J., Christian Spirituality (Chicago: Argus, 1968), p. 92. 918 Review for Religious, Volume 31, 1972/6 Spirituality in Crisis For some time, even years, there has been talk of a prayer crisis; and certainly the universal and continuing concern with prayer among religious would point to the existence of many problems in this area. However, there is another way to see the situation. All types of prayer are problematic these days, personal private prayer, group prayer, formal liturgical prayer. It is possible that the reason why prayer problems are so resistant to solution is that there is an underlying spirituality crisis. There have been so many fundamental changes in Church and culture that prayer has been placed in an impossible position: it is expected to help the person combat secularism, to support his faith, to keep him from becoming lost in work, to save him from mere humanism, to aid him to achieve emotional calm and survive crises, to give meaning to his life, to put him in contact with God, and so on. No wonder there is a prayer crisis. Prayer is carrying the whole burden of what should be the shared task of a viable spirituality. Prayer has come to dominate spirituality when actually prayer is only one function or aspect of a man's spiritual life. Perhaps the best solution to prayer problems is to forget them for a time and turn to the task of finding paths to God which cut through and join together all the reaches of the world of the praying person. Space does not permit a description of forces which have caused a breakdown in spirituality, a discussion of schools of spirituality, or even a definitive definition of the word. As a working definition, spirituality can be thought of as a particular style of approach to union with God,7 an approach which encompasses elements like prayer, penance, activity, and so forth. Personal spiritualities will differ in accord with personality, level and type of intelligence, perception of reality, life experiences, and other individualizing factors. Yet much of a man's approach to God is shaped in common with other men out of the culture in which he lives. Today man's life is the product of a period of cultural erosion of faith and spirituality, and he confronts a world deprived of a generally accepted integrating principle. Many people have come to accept as normal a schizoid world of oppositions:8 individual-community, freedom-law, service-prayer, human-divine, and so on. The need is to seek a more unified approach to God, one in which the whole life of man, rather than mainly his prayer, becomes the point of interaction between man and God. This task belongs to the whole Church, to dialogue, and to time. Below are listed some rather obvious and not at all original areas where the discussion could begin. The reader will want to add others. Sacramentality "To be, so to speak, submerged by the 'divine milieu' of the whole universe., is the fundamental gift for which man can only pray: Lord, that I may see.''8 Seeing the world as a sacrament is a very Christian thing to do, for the Incarnation has transfigured all nature starting with the unique sacredness of the Son of God. A sacramental spirituality is probably the only answer to a world of increasing secularity since the sacramental order of things does not set itself in opposition to the secular order. Man needs, therefore, to come to experience the secular world as 7james Carroll, Prayer from Where We Are (Dayton: Pflaum, 1970), p. 16. 8Thomas Sartory, "Changes in Christian Spirituality," in Life in the Spirit ed. Hans Kiing (New York: Sheed and Ward, 1967), p. 82. Review for Religious, Volume 31, 1972/6 919 a sacred sign. How can this happen? How can man's awareness of and receptivity to signs be increased? In addition to answering these questions, the search for a viable spirituality needs to speak to the problem of evil, suffering, death, frustration, anxiety, and the other negative elements of life in order that these, too, may be sacred contact points. Work Jobs in American society today are regarded as mainly functional: they supply the money to take care of the person's needs. Few people claim to have any great feeling of reverence for or dedication to the goals of their employers. In addition there is an enormous distrust of the society's institutions, a distrust which increases even as more and more people are employed by them. Religious up to the present time have stood in sharp contrast to this picture. However, in the face of open placement, vacations, increased freetime, higher salaries, doubt about institutional apostolates, and so on, there is a need to reaffirm a spirituality of work. Work is not just a means to purchase leisure. The work of a religious is dedicated work. It must be seen as and really be redemptive and fiealing. Religious can bring a permanence of dedication to their work. They are capable of being neutral persons, free of the need to seek power and to manipulate others, a freedom facilitated by the vows. If work is perceived as redemptive, it will no longer divide the spiritual life of the person; it will nourish it. A Renewed Asceticism "To continue to make ourselves present to others requires a possession of ourselves and a sensitivity to our own complexity that all too few people develop.''9 "Growth in maturity requires death to selfishness, irresponsibility, undisciplined instinct so that we may rise to a new life of mature, generous, and trusting freedom.''~° Man today is helped to have deep insights into himself through the advances and availability of education and psycholog)). These resources should make it increasingly possible to choose a way to God which fits the particular personality structure of each individual. But living spiritually requires a tremendous amount of self-discipline which is perhaps not obvious to those who set out to "do their own thing." A person has only a certain amount of time and psychic energy. If these are used on self-defeating or self-destroying activities, there is no possibility of praying well or serving well. Living spiritually means, for example, declaring all out war on the moods and depressions which Americans love to indulge in; it means forsaking jealousy and infighting and competition for status; it means facing old age gracefully; it means ceasing any form of manipulation of others; it means really forgiving other community members for things that happened at their hands in the past; it means facing reality about ourselves. If a person is to be a sign of Christ, he must first be a fairly attractive human person. Christian spirituality should help the person to be in tune with himself and to accept himself and to direct his self. "Prayer, then, takes place by a man's believing acceptance of himself, by laying hold in a discriminating and yet reconciling way, of all the levels of his life, including feelings, sexuality, and the body, to hear the music, not of his own making, which is sounded at the root of his being." i ~ 9Kennedy, In the Spirit, p. 42. 10Andrew Greeley, "The New Agenda," Critic, May-June 1972, pp. 4 I-2. Gregory Baum, Man Becoming (New York: Herder and Herder, 1970), p. 83. 920 Review for Religious, Volume 31, 1972/6 A Communitarian Spirituality Spirituality flows from community. The Biblical concept of salvation is of a saved people and of individuals who work out their holiness within the salvation community. The sociology of knowledge reveals the disturbing truth that man never knows God definitively but only God as he is perceived and defined by men today. Peter Berger says that under the immense array of human projections there are indicators of a reality that is truly other, and that it is important to turn to all religious traditions, past and present, to recapture their "moments of truth," the sacred contact points of each age, their signals of transcendence.12 A spirituality which moves away from absolute and changeless conceptualizations must become grounded in a deep trust in the presence of the Spirit in the living community. Theqe must also be a corresponding willingness to expose oneself to the community for the guidance which saves a spirituality from becoming magical or singular or presumptive, and a willingness to share one's spiritual riches with the community. A communitarian spirituality will be especially needed as the pressing moral issues of the next decade arise, issues for which there are no adequate precedents or philosophical principles and about which Christians cannot afford to remain neutral or undecided. Finally, the spirituality of today must be concerned with creating a society in which the next generation will find it just a little easier to seek God. It is, in fact, within the energy-sapping fight to build a better world for mankind that some of the most profound contacts between God and men take place. Conclusion What has been said about prayer and spirituality is incomplete and ignores most aspects of both topics. Prayer is basically a joyful, simple openness to God, no matter what else it is made out to be; but prayer is in turn dependent on the whole of the spiritual life style of a person. "I have one longing only: to grasp what is hidden behind appearances, to ferret out that mystery which brings me to birth and then kills me, to discover if behind the visible and unceasing stream of the world an invisible and immutable presence is hiding." ~ a 12peter Berger, A Rumor of Angels (Garden City: Doubleday, 1969), pp. 59, 99-112. 13N. Kazantzakis, Saviors of God (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1960), p. 51. JOHN WILCKEN, S.J. Religious Life in the Church I John Wilcken is a professor of theology and lives at 175 Royal Pole; Parkville, Victoria 3052 ; Australia. ] it is probably true to say that religious life has always been a problem in the Church. I do not find this fact either surprising or alarming. I think religious life is of very great importance in the Church -- I am thinking here primarily of the Catholic Church - and it has a tremendously important part to play in the Church's life. Briefly, religious must keep the Church faithful to the radical demands of the gospel. But inevitably religious will sometimes - perhaps often - be unequal to this task, and then their lukewarmness and infidelity will be a source of serious harm in the Church. For both these reasons, that is, the importance of their task and the inevitability that they will at times be unequal to this task, religious are always likely to be a problem in the Church. Where religious are in earnest, they are a problem because they are challenging "vested interests"; where they are lax, they are a trial to those who have the welfare of the Church at heart. Whatever they do, religious must resign themselves to being a problem. This problem was well to the fore in the debates and behind-the-scenes struggles of Vatican I1. The struggle crystallized in what might seem to be a relatively unimportant procedural question, namely whether there should be in the Constitu-tion on the Church a separate chapter on religious) The European group of bishops and theologians who had the leadership at the Council - men like Karl Rahner and Cardinal Doepfner - wanted religious life to be dealt with in the general chapter on the holiness of the Church. Thus they hoped to avoid perpetuating the impression that there are two standards of holiness in the Catholic Church, namely the following of the evangelical counsels in religious life for those who aim at perfection, and the following of the commandments in secular life for those who simply aim at salvation. But the bishops who had been religious and the major superiors of religious orders felt that this would be an undervaluing of the importance of religious life and pressed for a separate chapter on religious. On paper the religious superiors won - there is a separate chapter on religious - but one might consider that the result was really a compromise, since Chapters 5 and 6 of the Constitution on the Church are really one long chapter with an artificial division in the middle. It has been constantly pointed out that the theology of religious has not yet been satisfactorily worked out and that Vatican 11 has certainly not said the last word in this matter. The main treatment of the subject is in paragraph 44 of the Constitution on the Church, a paragraph which is somewhat confused in its Isee the discussion of this in R. M. Wiltgen, The Rhine Flows into the Tiber (New York: Hawthorn, 1967), pp. IO3-9. 922 Review for Religious, Volume 31, 1972/6 structure. It makes a number of different statements not very clearly connected with each other and remains finally somewhat unsatisfactory. One might take from it two propositions which are helpful. The first is this: Furthermore, it [i.e., religious life] not only witnesses to the fact of a new and eternal life acquired by the redemption of Christ. It foretells the resurrected state and the glory of the heavenly kingdom. Religious life is here presented as a form of kerygma: it is a sign of God's kingdom. The second proposition is: Thus, although the religious state constituted by the profession of the counsels does not belong to the hierarchical structure of the Church, nevertheless it belongs inseparably to her life and holiness. The close connection between religious life and the Church is here emphasized; and it is pointed out that the connection is not with the institutional structures of the Church, but with "her life and holiness." There is another quite illuminating reference to religious life earlier in the Constitution on the Church, namely in paragraph 31 where the Council is distinguishing the special contribution of lay people in the world from that of clergy and religious. Here we are told that "by their state in life, religious give splendid and striking testimony that the world cannot be transfigured and offered to God without the spirit of the beatitudes." Once again religious life is presented as a form of kerygma: it is a sign indicating how the world is to be transformed and offered to God. There is also a helpful reference in paragraph 18 of the decree on the Church's missionary activity. It reads: Right from the planting stage of the Church, the religious life should be carefully fostered. This not only confers precious and absolutely necessary assistance on missionary activity. By a more inward consecration made to God in the Church, it also luminously manifests and signifies the inner nature of the Christian calling. This reference I find particularly significant. Once more religious life is seen as kerygma, but the vital importance of this sign is brought out. One gets the impression that the true nature of the Church cannot be manifested to people in mission lands unless religious life is there to reveal her inner life. Once more religious life is seen as belonging inseparably to the Church's life and holiness. Moreover, there is here a mention of diakonia: "precious and absolutely necessary assistance" is conferred on missionary activity. Vatican II has helpful things to say about religious life, but scarcely provides an adequate theology. The close connection between religious life and the nature of the Church is mentioned, but this ecclesiological view is not sufficiently developed. The Council in general tends to adopt a kerygmatic approach to theology and in speaking of religious life stresses the kerygmatic aspect. The aspects of koinonia and diakonia do not get adequate treatment. The term "religious life" is a rather odd-sounding one, and it has recently come trader considerable attack, for example in the book Experiences in Community by Gabriel Moran and Maria Harris.2 The word "religious," meaning someone belong-ing to a community of sisters, brothers, or priests, is simply a translation of the Latin religiosus or religiosa, and perhaps the word is more bearable in Latin. Canon 487 of the Code of Canon Law, which came into force in 1918, gives this description: 2(New York: Herder and Herder, 1968), pp. 54-7. Review for Religious, Volume 31, 1972/6 923 "Fbe religious state is a stable manner of living in community, by which the faithful undertake, besides obedience to the commandments which bind everyone, also the ob~rvance of the evangelical counsels, by vows of obedience, chastity, and poverty. This description comes from a body of law. It portrays a state of affairs that had already existed for many centuries and codifies legally a life structure which had first been worked out in practice. Moreover this description - which is over 50 years old - reflects a theology that is now out-of-date. The clearcut distinction between those who merely seek to obey the commandments and those who undertake the practice of the counsels was rejected by Vatican II which saw the whole people of God as called to perfection {Lumen gentium, no. 40) and recognized that the practice of the evangelical counsels is not restricted to those in religious life (Lumen gentium, no. 39). Briefly, the Code of Canon Law describes a way of Christian life which had in fact existed in the Church for many centuries and describes it in accordance with theological ideas which have now been superseded. The aim of this article is to reflect theologically on this phenomenon known as religious life which exists in the world at the present time and has existed in the Church in varying forms for many centuries. The approach is theological, rather than sociological, although 1 think my conclusions would to a considerable extent be in harmony with the views of such sociologists as Max Weber and Ernst Troeltsch.3 So the starting point for reflection is religious life as it actually does exist and as it has actually existed for so long. It seems to me that what makes religious life important is that in this state of life the gospel message has been lived out in a radical and thorough-going way, thus giving leadership and inspiration to the rest of the Church. This radical interpretation of the gospel need not, of course, be limited to those in religious life. But it has happened, as a matter of history, that in the Catholic Church this thorough-going acceptance of the gospel demands has been a feature of religious life in particular. Those wishing to respond in a special way to the call of Christ have, very frequently, found themselves drawn to religious life, and have seen this kind of life as giving them scope for the following of Christ's call. Now there are, of course, Churches today which do not encourage religious life, and presumably the radicalism of the Gospel message is preserved in them in some other way. I am speaking of those Churches in which religious life is in fact encouraged, notably the Catholic Church. The matter might be expressed in another way. There are certain very important values in the New Testament which have, in fact, been preserved in the Catholic Church largely by means of religious life. Whether they will continue to be preserved in this way may seem uncertain to many people. Clearly the styles of religious life are changing rapidly; and a new form of dedicated Christian life that of the secular institute - has appeared. What seems quite certain is that the fundamental values of the gospel must be, and will be, preserved somehow. Leadership must be given by those who are willing to follow Christ so whole-heartedly that the pattern of their lives will be radically changed. In this way the complete dedication of the whole Church to Christ will be both signified and strengthened. Moreover, the unity of the human race which Christ brought about by His death and resurrection will be exemplified in a community life that triumphs 3See, for example, J. Milton Yinger, "The Sociology of Ernest Troeltsch," in An Introduc-tion to the History of Sociology ed. H. E. Barnes (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1948), pp. 311-2. 924 Review for Religious, Volume 31, 1972/6 over differences of background, character, and natural interests. And the service of mankind which Christ the suffering servant came to render will be continued. That is, leadership will be given in the kerygma, the koinonia, and the diakonia of the Church. To put it another way, the faith, the charity, and the hope of the Church will be strikingly manifested. First, let us consider the role of religious in the kerygma, or proclamation of faith, of the Church. There is, I think, a fairly general consensus among New Testament scholars that the center of Jesus' preaching was His proclamation of the kingdom (or reign) of God. He declared that the definitive intervention of God in history, to wttich the Jews had looked forward so eagerly (see Daniel 7), was near at hand and, indeed, already beginning. God was acting decisively in the world through the preaching and work of Jesus Himself, and men were called to accept this preaching in faith. But the acceptance of this preaching was no small matter because Jesus made radical demands on people, involving a marked change in their way of life. The demands of the Sermon on the Mount were drastic enough, but particular people also received individual calls - Peter, Andrew, James, and John had to leave all to follow Jesus; the rich young man was asked to sell all his goods and give the money to the poor. The followers of Jesus were promised hardship and persecution. Loyalty to Christ had to come before the closest family ties. The Apostle Paul, who is perhaps the New Testament figure about whom we know most, found that his meeting with the risen Christ changed his life out of all recognition. He regarded all his earlier religious privileges as worthless. He led an apostolic life which involved constant labor, hardship, and persecution; and he seems to have regarded his sufferings as precisely the visible guarantee of the genuineness of his apostleship (see 2 Cor 11). He remained unmarried to devote himself fully to the Lord (1 Cor 7). In the apostolic period and during the early centuries of the Church, martyrdom was often looked upon with longing as the crown of the Christian's life. Paul wanted "to be gone and be with Christ" (Phil 1:23). Ignatius of Antioch implored the Roman Christians not to intercede for him with the civil authorities lest his martyrdom be prevented. Cyprian's letters reflect the persecuted Church's extra-ordinary esteem for the glory of martyrdom. Thus the early Church had this consciousness that Christ's preaching called for a radical response - a response that could even be so total as the sacrifice of life itself. This spirit of total self-giving was seen as essential to the Church's life. But the Church was not always persecuted. The possibilities of martyrdom grew less - especially after Constantine had guaranteed to the Christians freedom of worship, and even more so by the end of the 4th century when Christianity had become the sole accepted religion. But the spirit of total self-giving still had to be preserved in the Church. Leadership had to be given by those who undertook the radical living out of the gospel message. The Church's willingness to renounce everything for the sake of Christ still had to be signified and exemplified. St. Anthony, in the middle of the third century, set the example of the renunciation of earthly goods for the sake of Christ. Hearing the gospel of the rich young man one day at Mass, he felt that the words were addressed directly to himself, and he carried out literally the command of Christ. He lived a solitary life in the desert as a hermit. By the beginning of the 4th century, organized religious life had begun with the monastery of St. Pachomius. Thus when the age of persecution was passing and the possibility of martyrdom becoming less, a new way was being discovered of making a total response to the gospel message, namely the living of the monastic or Review for Religious, Volume 3 I, 1972/6 925 eremitical life. This kind of life must be seen entirely in the context of the Church. With the acceptance of Christianity by civil society, there was the danger of too much accommodation to comfortable living. The Church's way of safeguarding itself from this danger was to demonstrate in a striking way that the following of Christ makes total demands on the person. This was signified and exemplified by the monks and hermits. The monastic and eremitical life might be looked on as a social manifestation of the Church's faith in Christ. And there is an added reason why one should see religious life as belonging to the Church as a whole. Recruitment to religious life must come continually from the ranks of the whole Church. A sect can propagate itself, since children born into the families of the sect will presumably follow the beliefs of their parents. On the other hand, monasteries of celibate monks and nuns must draw their recruits continually from the Church as a whole. Thus religious life is a function of the whole Church, manifesting the Church's faith and proclaiming the radical demands made on mankind by the Gospel.* Next 1 want to consider the role of religious in connection with the Church's koinonia. Vatican II speaks of the Church as the sacrament of union and unity: By her relationship with Christ, the Church is a kind of ~crament or sign of intimate union with God, and of the unity of all mankind. She is also an instrument for the achievement of such union and unity (Lumen gentium no. 1 ). There are two aspects of the Church's sacramentality mentioned here: the Church is the sacrament firstly of union with God and secondly of the unity of mankind. The Church must first of all remain utterly obedient to God and closely united with Christ. The vine and branches image brings out admirably the necessity of union with Christ: "I am the vine, you are the branches. Whoever remains in me, with me in him, bears fruit in plenty; for cut off from me you can do nothing" (Jn 15:5). This union with Christ, which is based on faith and love, must be nourished by prayer: the Church must be a praying community. And 1 want to discuss now the union (or koinonia) with God through prayer. The Gospels speak surprisingly often of the prayer of Jesus Himself. Even Mark's account of the early public ministry of Jesus, with the impression it creates of intense activity and of the crowds continually pressing on Jesus(see Mk 1:45; 3:9; 3:20; 4:1), includes several references to His prayer. After the evening of cures at Capernaum, Jesus went off to a lonely place early in the morning and prayed there (Mk 1:35). Again, after the first miracle of the loaves, Jesus sent the crowds away and went off into the hills to pray (Mk 6:46). Matthew and Luke give an account of Jesus' instructions on prayer and record their versions of the Our Father (Mt 6:7-15; 7:7-11 and parallels in Luke). Luke in Acts describes the early Church as a praying community. For example, there is that verse at the end of Chapter 2 which is almost a definition of the Church: "These remained faithful to the teaching of the apostles, to the brother-hood, to the breaking of bread and to the prayers" (v. 42). After Peter and John had been released by the Sanhedrin, Luke describes the prayer of the community (Acts 4:23-31). Paul, in Chapter 12 of Second Corinthians speaks of his mystical experiences when he was caught up into the third heaven (2 Cor 12:1-6). He frequently speaks of his prayer of thanksgiving at the beginning of his epistles (e.g., 4On religious life as sign, see Karl Rahner, "The Theology of the Religious Life" in Religious Orders in the Modert~ World by Gerard Huyghe and others (London: Chapman, 1965), pp. 41-75. 926 Review for Religious, Volume 31, 1972/6 Rom 1:8; 1 Cor 1:4); and he tells the Thessalonians to "pray constantly" (I Thes 5:17). The Church must be a praying community. It must be in union, that is, in koinonia, with the Father and the Son. The Church must be the sacrament of this koinonia, that is, its sign and instrument. But prayer, as we all know, is difficult, and leadership must be given in this matter. In Chapter 7 of First Corinthians Paul at least hints at where this leadership might come from. "An unmarried man can devote himself to the Lord's affairs, all he need worry about is pleasing the Lord" (v. 32), he writes, and a little later he adds, "In the same way an unmarried woman, like a young girl, can devote herself to the Lord's affairs; all she need worry about is being holy in body and spirit" (v. 34). The one freed from earthly cares can devote himself or herself more fully to those of heaven. Then again, the author of First Timothy writes of widows as people who can give themselves fully to prayer: "But a woman who is really widowed and left without anybody can give herself up to God and consecrate all her days and nights to petitions and prayer" (1 Tim 5:5). In fact profound prayer has always been seen as one of the absolute essentials of religious life - and this is true also of the orders founded specifically for external apostolic works. For example, a characteristic phrase to describe the Jesuit is, "contemplative in action," and this phrase indicates that the Jesuit, for all his outside activity, is meant to be a man dedicated to prayer. And of course the great contemplative orders of the Church, Cistercians, Carthusians, and so on, have been centers of prayer and sources of teaching on prayer for the whole Church. Thus one of the vitally important roles of religious life has been to give leadership in prayer, or koinonia with the Father and the Son. The second aspect of the Church's sacramentality mentioned by Vatican II is to be a sign and instrument of the unity of mankind. This function of unifying mankind through the grace of God is very solidly founded in the New Testament. When Jesus was asked, "And who is my neighbour?" He replied with the parable of the Good Samaritan (Lk 10), thus indicating that there is no place in Christian love for any kind of bigotry or prejudice. In the Fourth Gospel Jesus speaks of community charity as the sign of Christian discipleship: "By this love that you have for one another, everyone will know that you are my disciples" (Jn 13:35). Presumably, this love must triumph over natural causes of division, such as differences of temperament, interest, background and so forth. Paul brings out explicitly the fact that Christ has rendered unimportant the natural distinctions between people: "All baptized in Christ, you have all clothed yourselves in Christ, and there are no more distinctions between Jew and Greek, slave and free, male and female, but all of you are one in Christ Jesus" (Gal 3:27-8). Thus Christ came to bring mankind to the unity of charity in spite of the natural causes of division in the world. Vatican II sees the Church as the sign and cause of this unity. I would like to give two illustrations from the New Testament of how this koinonia function of the Church was lived out in practice. One is Paul's collection of money for the poor of the Jerusalem Church. As is well known, this was not simply an act of charity on the part of the Gentile Christian Churches. It was a "peace offering" to the Jewish Christians of Jerusalem, Paul's effort to heal the deep division between the Jewish and Gentile wings of the primitive Church. If the saints of Jerusalem accepted this money offering, Paul hoped that this would represent their full acceptance of the Gentile Christians as brothers in Christ. Differences of culture and tradition could not be allowed to divide the Christian Church. This was a striking and wonderful example of Christian koinonia, and Paul Review for Refigious, Volume 31, 1972/6 927 labored untiringly for its success. The other example of early Christian koinonia is the description in Acts of the primitive Jerusalem community. Luke describes the early Christians as living together, sharing their goods, owning everything in common, and being united heart and soul. Certainly this is an idealized picture. Even the account in Acts gives hints of the divisions that were there from the beginning. There is the Ananias and Sapphira episode, and, more significantly, the dispute between Hellenists and Hebrews in Chapter 6. One might have expected that the Greek-speaking Jews, who had had experience of living outside Palestine in the broader context of the Hellenistic world, would have found it hard to get on with their fellow-countrymen of Palestine, who knew nothing but Jewish culture and tradition. The division seems to have been so sharp that it resulted in the setting up of a separate organization for the Greek-speaking Jews, namely, the appointment of the Seven. Nevertheless, in spite of the very real natural divisions that were there from the beginning, Luke sees this earliest period of the Church's history as exemplifying in a remarkable way the unity and charity that Christ came to bring. Even the division caused by private property seems to disappear, and there is the sharing of possessions and the common ownership of property. There is a joy and fellowship in this group of believers that is seen as a direct result of Christ's resurrection and the coming of the Holy Spirit. The implication seems to be that Christ has destroyed division in the world and brought unity to the human race. Even the account of Pentecost at the beginning of Acts,Chapter 2 confirms this: the coming of the Holy Spirit has destroyed the language barrier. And this fact of the restoration of the unity of mankind does not remain hidden. The phenomenon of tongues at Pentecost was apparent to all and remarked on publicly (Acts 2:7-1 I). Luke tells us a little later that the community of believers was "looked up to by everyone" (Acts 2:47). The infant Church is the sign and the beginning of united mankind. The radical manifestation of this in Luke's account is the sharing of goods and the common ownership of property. What actually happened in this matter of property in the early Church is not clear. Certainly Luke looks upon common ownership as an ideal for the Church, as something that occurred back in the Golden Age, in the Church's first fervor. Presumably, there was some basis in fact for the traditions that came down to Luke. But the practice of common ownership did not last long in the Church at large. The exercise of charity in the matter of material goods certainly did last, and the Christians continued to show strikingly their love and concern for one another: "See how they love one another, and how ready they are to die for each other" (Tertullian). But it is easy for fervor in these matters to grow less: the pull of material possessions is strong, and the causes of division in mankind are both manifold and powerful. Yet the Church must continue to be the sign and cause of unity in the human race. Christ came to make mankind a community of love, and the Church must strive constantly towards this goal. Those who want to give wholehearted obedience to Christ's call to unity and koinonia have felt themselves drawn to community life within the Church. There, property is no longer a division, and the choice of one's fellows is entirely in God's hands: one does not choose one's companions in religious life, but must accept in love the brothers or sisters whom God sends. The love of Christ and the common vocation must triumph over natural differences and antipathies. In this way the koinonia of the Church is lived out in a radical way, and an example of community life is given which may be an inspiration to others. 928 Review for Religious, Volume 31, 1972/6 This is the task of religious. Of course, they often find themselves unequal to the task. There can be bitterness and division in religious communities, just as there can be anywhere else in the world. But the structure of religious life is one which, of itself, calls for a radical living out of Christian koinonia, of Christian charity: one accepts in love the companions whom God sends, regardless of natural antipathies. Christ's love must triumph over natural inclinations. One other point could be mentioned in this connection. Religious are often spoken of as an eschatological sign. For myself, I do not find the relationship of religious to eschatology particularly enlightening - unless one is simply referring to the fact that the Church is essentially an eschatological community and that religious life "belongs inseparably to her life and holiness" (Lumen gentium, no. 44). But it is significant that both the examples of koinonia in the New Testament which I mentioned do seem to have an eschatological dimension: Paul does seem to have seen his collection for the saints of Jerusalem as being in some sense an eschatological event, and the primitive communism of the early Christians was no doubt largely due to their expectation of an early Parousia.5 However, I do not want to stress too much this aspect. Suffice it to say that religious life is essentially eschatological precisely because the Church is essentially an eschatological com-munity. The word diakonia is heard a great deal in theological discussion these days, and the Church is being thought of more and more as the "Servant Church." This function of diakonia is connected with recent writing on the theology of hope and "political theology.''6 The servant Church, the Church concerned with the renovation of the present social order in the light of its hope for the future, necessarily enters into the public life of mankind. The Church can never remain a purely private organization, just as Jesus of Nazareth could not remain simply a private person. The preaching of Jesus - His denunciation of legalism and hypo-crisy, His stress on rightness of heart before God and genuine love of neighbor,His proclamation of the kingdom of God and call to repentance - this preaching soon brought Him into conflict with the upholders of the established order. And His own manner of life - His going out to the sick and the distressed, His forgiveness of sinners and table-fellowship with tax-collectors, His acceptance of the outcasts of society - this manner of life was a disturbance of the normal social order. Yet His great popularity, the crowds that came to hear and be helped by Him, showed that He was a force in the land to be reckoned with. The gospelHe preached, the human values He stood for, made Him into a "radical" in the best sense of the word: one who got to the roots of the problem. He manifested in His own life of service God's universal love for mankind, especially for the sick and suffering. His life and preaching were a dynamic force which was in fact to transform human society - and it was to do this by being continued in the life and preaching of the Church. It is not easy for the Church to preserve this true Christian radicalism. Again, leadership must be given - and in fact it has always been given, for example by many outstanding bishops of the patristic period. But this leadership in social radicalism came to be taken over, to a considerable extent, by religious orders. For example, the Benedictine monasteries gave stability and order to a world falling 5See the discussion of Paul's enterprise in K. F. Nickle, The Collection: A Study in Paul's Strategy (Naperville, Illinois: Allenson, 1966), pp. 129-42. 6See J. Metz, The Theology of the World (New York: Herder and Herder, 1969), especially Chapter 5, "The Church and the World in the Light of a 'Political Theology.' " Review for Refigious, Volume 31, 1972/6 929 into chaos after the decline of Rome. The Franciscans brought the spirit of the gospel and of poverty to a medieval Church weakened by wealth and power. The many teaching and nursing orders founded since the Reformation were established precisely to care for children and sick people who were being neglected. Mother Teresa's Missionary Sisters of Charity were founded to meet the problem of utter destitution in our contemporary world. Meeting the real needs of people who cannot help themselves requires dedication and self-sacrifice; yet it is a vital task for the Church. This task has often been carried out by religious orders. In fact, this is how religious orders came to be founded. A great need is recognized, a gifted founder or foundress gathers together a group of dedicated people, and thus a new religious order arises - this is the general pattern for the foundation of religious orders. And this pattern implies the giving of leadership in the Church's task of reforming and renewing society. It is a manifestation of the Church's hope - hope in the possibilities of this world's social institutions, and confidence that God is in fact working to transform our world. 1 am not saying, of course, that religious orders are the only groups of people that give leadership in this matter of renovating society. Nor would I claim that all religious orders today are clear on their social task - this is far from the case. But I do wish to claim that the essential thrust of a religious order - seen especially at its foundation - involves leadership in the renovation of society. And this, I think, is true even of contemplative orders. They too, in their own way, deeply influence social life. The heart of the Church's life can, I think, be summed up in those three words: kerygma, koinonia, diakonia. Vatican 11 states that religious life belongs inseparably to the Church's life and holiness (Lumen gentium, no. 44). 1 have been trying to expand this statement by showing that the task of religious orders is to give leadership in the Church's kerygma, koinonia, and diakonia. To put it another way: the Church proclaims radical renunciation for the sake of the kingdom, a union with Christ resulting in a living together of human beings in charity despite human divisions, and a service to the world that transforms society. Religious orders were founded precisely in order to give leadership in the putting of this program into practice. Whether an order should survive or not depends, 1 suppose, on whether or not it is still giving this leadership. I would like to make a couple of further comments before going on to a brief discussion of the future of religious life. What I have said about religious may possibly give the impression that it is all a rather emotional affair, and very grim and serious. This is, of course, simply not true of religious life as it is actually lived. Like all Christian living, religious life must be characterized by sober wisdom and a spirit of Christian joy. The New Testament does not have a great deal to say about wisdom - except to say that Christ is our wisdom (Jn !:1-14; 1 Cor 1:30) -and we have to go back to the wonderful sapiential books of the Old Testament. Monastic spiritual writing through the centuries has in fact been filled with healthy, down-to-earth commonsense, and this surely is one of the things that has made possible the survival of religious life. One might mention also the Constitutions of the Society of Jesus, written with such prayer and labor by St. Ignatius Loyola. These have been so influential over the last few centuries precisely because they are so realistic, practical, and wise. Then, in the matter of Christian joy, religious life has been able to survive also because of the spirit of deep happiness that has been preserved there. Trials and problems abound, as they do everywhere in this world, but those who really have a divine call to religious life find in it a joy that they have 930 Review for Religious, Volume 31, 1972/6 never known elsewhere. One might cite St. Teresa of Avila in this connection. In spite of the incredible trials and hardships of her life, she remained a very merry soul, a source of joy and happiness for the communities in which she lived. Finally, something should be said about the future of religious life. There are certainly the prophets of doom. For some people, the age of religious life in the Church is simply over. I do not myself share this view. No doubt there are more stormy days ahead for religious orders in the Church; and they will, of course, continue to change - this is essential if they are to survive. Those that refuse to change, or to change soon enough, will be in a dangerous situation. But it seems to me that religious life in its essentials corresponds so fully to the Gospel message that it will last as long as the Church lasts. No doubt the Christian values preserved and encouraged in religious life could be preserved in other ways; but, given the Church's actual traditions, I cannot see this particular way of preserving them dropping out altogether. Keeping in mind the analysis given in the body of this paper, I would like to outline what seem to me to be the essential elements of religious life which must be preserved in the various changes that are taking place. The first is the celibate life. Jesus called for the willingness to make radical renunciations for the sake of the kingdom even to the extent of changing the whole pattern of one's life. Paul saw the celibate state as extremely helpful for the full dedication of oneself to God (I Cor 7). In fact, throughout the centuries of Christian history people have felt themselves called to make this radical renuncia-tion for the sake of the kingdom. I do not anticipate that this vocation will cease in the Church. Although the eremitical life had its vogue in the early centuries, the Church has found by experience that life in community is more helpful. Not only is there mutual support, but a demonstration is given of the power of Christian love which can transcend the natural barriers between people. But the existence of community immediately raises also the problem of authority. These communities will have to demonstrate to the world that the kind of authority described in the Gospels (e.g., "anyone who wants to become great among you must be your servant" - Mk 10:43) can be lived out in practice. Those called to celibate community life will need to be sustained by a deep spirit of prayer, and their communities will need to be centers of prayer for the whole Church. Prayer is difficult, but essential. The whole Church needs inspiration and instruction from these communities. Property is one of the sources of division among people. Wealth, against which we are so constantly warned in the Gospels, seems constantly to bring with it pride, lack of concern, selfishness, harshness. These communities will need to guard against these dangers by the sharing of possessions and moderate living. Finally, there must be essentially an outward look. These are communities of the Church, peopled by vocations from the Church at large. Religious must give leadership in the humble service of mankind, especially where the needs are greatest. To sum up the picture: celibate life, in community, under an authority of service, prayerful, moderate in style of living, not divided by property barriers, existing for the service, of mankind. In this picture I am merely trying to describe the evangelical essentials. Many other elements will have to come in - such as wider; even world-wide, organization. But if we try to keep our eyes fixed on the essentials, which are firmly based in the New Testament, we are in a better position to see that the changes which do take place are in the right direction. JOIIN CARROLL FUTRELL, S.J. Living Consecrated Celibacy Today [John Carroll FutreU, S.J., is the Director of the Spirituality Program of the Divinity School of St. Louis University; 220 North Spring Avenue; St. Louis, Missouri 63108; an Indonesian translation of this article has appeared in the October 1972 issue ofRohan£ I The meaning and value of consecrated celibacy as a Christian way of life has been severely challenged during the last few years, not only by Freudian or secularized mentalities, but also even by priests and religious who at one time made the permanent commitment to a life of consecrated celibacy. It has been argued that a life of consecrated celibacy is unnatural and inhuman, and that, consequently, no celibate can attain true personal fulfillment and human maturity. The life of celibacy has been attacked as an at least implicit belittling of marriage as a Christian way of life, as contempt for a less perfect vocation for those who are incapable of living the "perfect" life of virginity. The law of the Latin rite which requires celibacy of its priests has been attacked as an unjustifiable act of tyranny denying the basic human right of human fulfilhnent through sexual union to men who wish to be ordained. Undoubtedly, these arguments have had influence upon some persons who have left the priesthood or the religious life in order to marry. These theories also brought about the aberrations of the "Third Way" a few years ago, which was a naive attempt to enjoy affective fulfillment in an exclusive relationship with another individu',d of the other sex through all the bodily expressions of love short of sexu',d union. The purpose of the following reflections is not to discuss or defend the law of celibacy for priests in the Latin rite. This law has been studied and controverted in many books and articles during recent years. It is well to recall, however, that any community has the right and the duty to demand certain qualifications of those members of the community called upon to carry out specific functions within it. A "job description" always includes the qualities which the community feels the persons who are to serve it in particular capacities should possess. It is not, therefore, a violation of human rights that for historical reasons the Church decided that its priests in the Latin rite should be chosen from only those among the faithful to whom the charism of virginity has been given. Whether in the light of contemporary pastoral needs it is a wise decision to retain this law universally is another question. But the issue is one of pastoral discernment, not of violated human rights. The following reflections are concerned, rather, with the meaning of consecrated celibacy as an authentic Christian alternative, a specific and valuable vocation within the Church both for individual persons and for those called to celibate communities. After recalling the basic motivation for celibacy as a Christian way of life, some practical considerations will be offered on the particular challenges in the contemporary world to those persons who feel called to live their lives as 932 Review for Religious, Volume 31, 1972/6 consecrated celibates. First of all, it should be recalled that celibacy is a charism - a special divine gifting of the Holy Spirit to individual persons for the service of the whole People of God and of all mankind. Christ said that only those can make themselves "eunuchs" for the sake of the kingdom of heaven "to whom it is granted" (Mt 19:10-2). In his First Letter to the Corinthians, St. Paul, in his instructions on marriage and virginity, after remarking that he would be happy if all remained as himself celibate, adds that, nevertheless, "everybody has his own particular gifts from God, one with a gift for one thing and another with a gift for the opposite" (7:7). The Holy Spirit pours out a variety of charismatic gifts upon the members of the community of the faithful for the good of the entire body. The foot needs the hand, the hand the eye, the eye the ear (1 Cor 12:12-30). Thus, those who receive the charism of celibacy are given a gift from the Spirit which is authentic and valuable for the whole people. To discern that one has been given this charism and to choose to accept it and to live out its consequences is not a priori~ to destroy the possibility of true human fulfillment and maturity. This depends upon the way a person integrates his celibacy into his growth as a person. Human maturity and fulfillment are no more automatically achieved through sexual union in or out of marriage than they are through consecrated celibacy. There is abundant human evidence to demonstrate this fact. Human beings are totally sexual beings, and to come to human fulfillment we must assume our sexuality in our personal integration through a growing maturity of loving, finally leading us to the full expression of our deepest urge to love - totally self-giving love - which is also what gives human meaning to physical sexual union. But human sexuality is not identical with genitality. There are other authentic ways to express the deepest meaning of human sexuality, which is to enter into personal union with other persons through self-giving love. It is the experience and the expression of personal, self-giving love which is the fulfillment of human sexuality, whether this expression is through physical sexual union or through a life of consecrated celibacy. To discern that one has received the charism of celibacy and to choose to accept it is not a belittling of marriage, whatever may at times have been the mistaken attitudes of certain individuals. It is not as a matter of fact to show contempt for marriage if otte recogtttzes that cottsectated celibacy ts a Christian alternative (chosen by Jesus and by St. Paul also) and that one is called to it. Whether one Christian vocation is "better" or "more perfect" than another is at best a theoretical question, the answer to which depends upon the norms one uses to establish his hierarchy of values. For the individual person, this question is always concrete, existential, and relative: "What is better for me? What am 1 called to through the gifting of the Holy Spirit to me?" The fundamental motive to live a life of consecrated celibacy is the experience through the charismatic gift of celibacy of being called to give all one's love totally and personally to Jesus Christ and to symbolize the totality of this love by foregoing the physically sexual expression of love during one's whole life. Consecrated celibacy, then, is grounded in an all-encompassing personal relationship of love with Jesus Christ, whatever other secondary values it may involve, such as mobility and freedom for apostolic service. The functional value of celibacy cannot be the fundamental reason for living it. For one thing, in certain circumstances. good functional arguments can be given for non-celibate apostles. Furthermore, merely functional motivation will be inadequate for most ~persons to live con- Review for Religious, Volume 31, 1972/6 933 secrated celibacy authentically and deeply for a lifetime. Their celibacy must be experienced as the full exercise of their love for Jesus energizing their love for all other persons. Only a celibacy which is the human expression of deep personal love for and identification with Jesus Christ, Himself a celibate for the sake of the kingdom of heaven, can bring the consecrated celibate to true growth as a mature human person who gradually experiences progressive self-fulfillment through his personal relation-ship with Jesus and his life of witness and service to mankind. He grows to authentic personal development through the experience of being like Jesus and with Jesus a "man for others," who gives away his life in love to all other men and women through his celibacy. Consecrated celibacy, then, is a sign embodied in a human life of the true meaning of all personal love which in every case, including marriage, is realized only through self-giving to the other. Consecrated celibacy also has a unique value as a striking, visible witness to mankind of the depth of the faith and hope of the People of God in the complete fulfillment of the kingdom of God when the Lord Jesus will come again and God will be all in all in the Parousia. Those who, following a charism from the Holy Spirit "bar themselves from marrying for the sake of the kingdom of heaven" (Mt 19: 12), give the same testimony of their whole lives and of all their love to belief and hope in the Paschal good news of Jesus Christ which a martyr gives through his death. Through his life-time fidelity to his commitment of love, the consecrated celibate is a living sign of the Church's belief in the irrevocable promise of God, in His eternal fidelity. The celibate's renunciation of the physical expression of love is proclamation in one human life of the Church's hearing of the word of the Lord that love will never end. Consecrated celibacy is perhaps the most telling testimony of faith in Christ's promise of everlasting life, of life after death. Men can feel that the celibate is a fool, but they must confess that the faith and hope of Christians is powerful indeed, since it can inspire men and women to such a life, to such a love of Jesus who is encountered only in faith, to such a hope in God as the Absolute Future of man. The first practical challenge to the person who feels called to the life of consecrated celibacy is to discern authentically that he truly possesses this charism, a discernment which must be confirmed by the community if his vocation is to enter a religious congregation. A charism is known by its visible effects. The presence of the charism of celibacy is discerned, therefore, by evaluating the psychological, emotional, and spiritual maturity of a person for indications that he is capable of living a life of authentic celibacy. At the beginning of such a life, it is necessarily a matter of judging the foundation within the young person for growth into a full life of consecrated celibacy. One important evidence of possessing this foundation is the fact that he has no great emotional or moral problems in living a chaste life already. It is necessary also to ascertain that his motivation for chastity is based upon a true appreciation of human sexuality at the person's level of human maturity and spiritual development and not upon fearful anxieties or false notions about sexuality. Since the fundamental motive for freely choosing to respond to the charism of celibacy is personal love for Jesus Christ, it must be discerned that the person's desire for this life is rooted in his faith experience of the person of the risen Jesus. The growth and depth and permanence of this charism depends upon the growth and depth and permanence of his personal relationship with Jesus in love, which depends upon his continuing and deepening life of prayer. Thus, he must have 934 Review for Religious, Volume 31, 1972/6 initiated already an ongoing practice of profound personal prayer and be convinced of the need of continuing it and growing in it throughout his lifetime. The second practical challenge to the consecrated celibate is the authentic living out of the consequences of his commitment. Each individual must possess a realistic recognition of the necessary consequences in his concrete life style of commitment to consecrated celibacy. That is to say, he must conduct himself in his interior, personal life and in his external behavior and in his relationships with other people in a way that will guarantee constant and loyal authentic living of his celibacy. The individual exigencies of such a life style are relative to the great variety of temperaments and the psychological and physiological conditions and experiences of individual persons. Therefore, it is impossible to give more than a few very obvious general prescriptions. What is required of each person is absolute honesty with himself before God in discerning his concrete actions in here and now situations, so that he does not permit himself to behave in a way that will "chip away" at his authentic celibacy, rather than in a way that will deepen it and strengthen it. To guarantee this honesty in such a delicate area of life, true openness with a competent spiritual director is of great importance. Particularly, the celibate must be sensitive to "non-verbal" communication - the risk of sending messages to other persons which go counter to a relationship of truly celibate love, even when the verbal conversation is quite in accord with it. A truly honest person who prayerfully reflects upon the authenticity of his living of celibacy develops this sensitivity and will be aware when a relationship is beginning to be dangerous to his own celibacy or detrimental to another person. Most celibates will at times experience "falling in love" with someone. Perhaps even more often, at least after several years of authentically living celibacy, they will experience others falling in love with them, when this is not reciprocal. Here, the celibate's temptation may well be to a subtle form of seduction or manipulation of the other person because of the flattery he enjoys. Any of these situations must be confronted with the means honestly discerned as those demanded in order to maintain true celibacy and true charity. These means might range all the way from non-verbal communication, through discussing the situation with the other person, to the necessity for completely breaking off the relationship. Once more, true prayerful discernment and the help of a spiritual director are necessary to discover what actions are called for in each concrete situation. The consecrated celibate must accept the fact that in freely choosing to respond to this charism he is deciding to live the rest of his life in tension with "the couple that might have been," just as any person who makes a life commitment to a specific personal identity must live in tension with what he might have chosen to become. The "couple that might have been" may be one face or a succession of faces. At certain moments of life, this tension will be felt as a heavy burden, a true cross, especially when one wants to share a great joy or a great grief with another person in the way of sharing that can only develop within the uniquely intimate relationship of marriage. It is perhaps in moments such as these that the celibate is aware of making the least falsified act of love of God that he will make until his ultimate act of love on his owrt death bed. A third practical challenge to the consecrated celibate is to achieve true, human, affective fulfillment within his life of celibacy. Human, affective fulfillment is developed only through the self-transcending experience of love with other persons. Thus, the celibate must have truly complementary relationships of love with other human persons - celibates and non-celibates, men and women. The "incomplete- Review for Religious, Volume 31, 1972/6 935 ness" that seeks completion through self-giving love relationships with other persons is at the root of human sexuality, and the integration of sexuality into consecrated celibacy requires such complementary relationships. What is renounced by choosing to respond to the charism of celibacy is the relationship of exchtsive complementarity with one other human person, as happens in marriage. The celibate must experience the relationship of exclusive complementarity in his personal love relationship with Jesus Christ encountered in faith. This means that the celibate must have a deep pr

Issue 19.3 of the Review for Religious, 1960. ; Councils in Lay Institutes Joseph F. Gallen, S.J. THE LAW of the code and especially that of the constitutions confers an important role on the councils in religious institutes. Almost all constitutions describe thoroughly the duties of tho general council but are unsatisfactory in their treatment ~f the provincial and local councils. This article is an effort to explain simultaneously"th~ principles that govern all councils in lay in-stitutes. The more common name for this office in such institutes is councilor; but many others are found, e.g., assistants, discreets, and consultors. 1. Necessity of councilors (c. 516, § 1). This canon obliges-all superiors general, presidents of federations and confederations, provincial and local superiors at least of formal houses to have councilors. A formal house in a lay institute is one in which at least six professed religious reside (c. 488, 5°). The canon recom-mends that superiors also of smaller houses have councilors. From analogy of law and the enactment of the particular constitutions, superiors of vice-provinces, quasi-provinces, regions, vicariates, missions, and districts should also have councilors.~ The canon does not specify the number of the councilors. From the practice of the Holy See in approving constitutions, there are four general councilors, although a few lay congregations have a greater numberi four or two provincial councilors; two councilors in a formal house, but a few congregations have a larger number; and more frequently one councilor in a smaller house. Monasteries of nuns ordinarily have four councilors. Federations and confederations of nuns have four or six councilors, and regions within such a confederation have two. ~ 2. Manner of designation and requisite qualities of councilors. The general councilors of a congregation and the councilors of a con-federation, federation, region, or monastery of nuns are elected in the respective chapters. The provincial councilors of a congregation are appointed by the superior general with the consent of his council, but in a small number of congregations they are elected in the provincial chapter. Local councilors are appointed by the ILarraona, Commentarium Pro Religiosis, 9 (1928), 418. 129 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Religious superior general or, if the institute is divided into provinces, ordin-arily by the provincial, with the consent of the respective council. The constitutions sometimes enact that this provincial appoint-ment is to be confirmed by the superior general with the delibera-tive vote of his council. The quality universally demanded by constitutions for all ex-cept local councilors is that they be professed of perpetual vows. The age usually required for general councilors of a congregation and those of a confederation, federation, or region of nuns is thirty-five complete years; thirty years is the more frequent norm in monasteries of nuns; and thirty or thirty-five years are often prescribed for provincial councilors. The constitutions rarely enact a determined age for local councilors, and very many do not affirm that perpetual vows are necessary. A few make it clear that perpetual profession is not an absolute requisite by stating that the local councilors are, if possible, to be professed of perpetual vows or that such vows are required at least for the first local councilor. It is incongruous that a religious still in the state of probation and formation should be the councilor of a house. 3. Residence. According to the practice of the Holy See in approving constitutions, all the general councilors should reside with the superior general; but two of them, with the exception of the as-sistant general, may live elsewhere for a just reason, e. g., because of their other work. These must be stationed in houses from which they can .be readily summoned and can attend the meetings. The evident purpose of the practice is that the superior general may have no difficulty in consulting his councilors. Many constitutions contain no prescriptions on the residence of the provincial counci- .lots. At least the assistant provincial and the provincial secretary should reside with the provincial. Some constitutions have the same practice for a provincial council of four members as that described above for the general council. If there are only two provincial councilors, the constitutions frequently state that both or at least one of the councilors must reside with the provincial. The councilors of a confederation, federation, or region of nuns reside in their respective monasteries. 4. Incompatible duties. The general principle of the practice of the Holy See forbids a general councilor to be assigned any employment that would prevent the proper fulfillment of the duties of a coun-cilor. The present practice forbids in particular merely that the first general counc.il0r be bursar or secretary general. The former practice forbade any general councilor to be bursar general, and 130 May, 1960 COUNCILS IN LAY INSTITUTES the Normae of 1901 extended the prohibition to the master of novices (nn. 285, 300). Some constitut!ops~ ~ave the same pro-hibition with regard to the offices of provincial or local superior, any bursar, local councilor, and master of junior professed. A provincial will rarely in fact be a general councilor; but, outside of the case of the assistant general, it is difficult to see how the offices listed above are necessarily incompatible with that of general councilor. A general councilor is very frequently the local superior of the generalate. The judgment of the incompatibility is to be made on facts, i. e., the amount of work in each of the offices and the ease or difficulty with which the other office would permit the religions to be summoned and to attend the ordinary and extraordinary sessions of the general council. Few constitutions mention incompatible duties with regard to the provincial coun- .cilors, but some forbid the uniting of this office with that of pro-vincial bursar or master of novices. 5. Nature of a council (c. 516, § 1). In the constitutions of pontifical lay congregations, the general council is nsually stated to consist of the superior general and the four general councilors. Other parts of the same constitutions repeat frequently that particular matters requirethe consent or advice of the general council. All such expressions are ambiguons. The superior alone governs the con-gregation, province, or house; the councilors as such have no authority. Canon 516, § 1, makes it clear that a councilor is only an adviser of a superior, not an associate in authority. The superior votes in a council but he is not a member of the council; he is the superior, or sole possessor of authority, who has councilors or advisers. In a general chapter the authority is that of the collective body; the chapter itself and as such possesses the authority. All the members of this chapter are on the same level; all are co-possessors of the same authority and co-authors of the enactments of the chapter. Not the presiding superior general, but the general chapter places an act. A council is not a governing body; it possesses no collective authority. The councilors are not co-authors of an act. It is not the council but the superior who places an act, with the consent or advice of his council. It is possible for a particular canon or law of the constitutions to prescribe that the council is to act in the same manner as the general chapter. This mnst be certainly proved, since the contrary is the general principle of canon law. The only canon of this type that can affect lay religions is canon 650, which treats of the dismis-sal of a male religions of perpetual vows. If the majority of the 131 JOSEPH F. CrALLEN Review for Religious council vote for dismissal, it is probable that the superior general must issue the decree of dismissal in a pontifical congregation or forward the matter to the local ordinary in the case of a diocesan congregation. Therefore, the act in this case would be of the general council, not of the superior general. However, this sense is only probable; and it is at least equally probable that the wording of the canon is merely another way of expressing the deliberative vote of the council. Consequently, since it is not certain that canon 650 is an exception, this case also would in fact be handled in the same way as that described above (cf. also n. 16). These same principles apply not only to the councils but also to chapters of monasteries of nuns in the cases for which law demands that the superioress secure the consent or advice of the chapter (cc. 534, § 1; 543; 575, § 2; 646, § 2).2 6. Duties of councilors (c. 516, § 1). The primary duty of the councilors is to cast a deliberative or consultive vote when these are demanded by canon law or the constitutions. When asked to do so by the superior, they are to express their opinions with all freedom, courage, respect, sincerity, and truth (c. 105, 3°). They are likewise to bring to the attention of the superior whatever they sincerely consider to be to the good or detriment of the institute, province, or house. The superior, not the councilors, decides the matters that are to be treated in the council, as is clear from the principle stated in number 5. Councils were introduced to prevent what could degenerate into arbitrary government on the part of the superior. An equally evident purpose was to satisfy the need that all, and perhaps especially those in authority, have of securing advice and obtaining information. In an age that emphasizes ren-ovation and adaptation, the councilors should also be the principal source of progressive ideas to the superior. 7. Obligation of secrecy. According to the practice of the Holy See, an article of the constitutions states that the general councilors must observe secrecy concerning all matters confided to them as councilors in or outside the sessions.3 Another article is usually included that extends this same obligation to all others who have attended any session of the general council. A secret is the know-ledge of something that at least ordinarily should not be revealed. ~Cf. Vromant, D~ Bonis Ecclesiae Temporalibus, n. 39; Vermeersch, Per-iodica, 15 (1927), (61)-(63); Goyeneche, Quaestiones Canonicae, I, 183-89; Michiels, Principia Generalia de Personis in Ecclesia, 494-95; Larraona, Commentariurn Pro Religiosis, 6 (1925), 429-30; Bender, Norrnae Generales de Personis, nn. 376-77,1; Jone, Comrnentarium in Codicem Juris Canonici, I, 121. ~Normae of 1901, n. 280. 132 May, 1960 COUNCIL~ IN LAY INSTITUTES A natural secret arises from the very matter of such knowledge, since its revelation would cause injury or at least sorrow and displeasure to another. A promised secret has its source in a prom-ise, made after the matter was known, not to reveal the matter, whether or not this matter of itself demands secrecy. The confided or entrusted .secret arises from an agreement, given and accepted before any disclosure, that the matter will not be revealed. The agreement may be explicit or implicit. The latter is true of all who possess a confidential office, e. g., doctors, lawyers, priests consulted outside of confession on things appertaining to their ministry, religious superiors, novice masters, councilors, etc. There are degrees in the confided secret. The lowest is the revelation made to a private individual from mere friendship. The next is the revelation to a private individual to secure counsel. The third and highest is the official secret, i. e., a revelation made to a person possessing a confidential office, such as those listed above, and made to him because of this office or learned in the practice of the office. Matters confided to all councilors thus constitute official secrets and are often also natural secrets. Even the official secret may be revealed to prevent a serious injury to the institute, province, or house, or to any individual. The councilors may also reveal such matters to a prudent and learned or experienced person for the purpose of consultation, e. g., to a confessor, a priest skilled in a subject such as canon law or moral theology, or to another prudent and experienced religious. In seeking counsel, the identity of the person concerned is always to be concealed as far as possible. Even if the matter becomes public, the councilors may not reveal what occurred in the council with regard to it, e. g., the opinions or votes given by individual councilors. They are to acquiesce, at least externally, in the judgment of the majority and in the action taken by the superior. This is necessary for the efficient functioning of the council and for effective and peaceful govern-ment. They are not to imply or hint to others that they disagreed with a decision made in council. This is a shirking of the responsi-bilities of an office. The article inserted in constitutions by the Holy See adds that a general councilor who violates this obligation of secrecy is to be seriously admonished by the superior general. If he does this repeatedly, he is to be given a severe admonition and a penance. A violation of secrecy is not in itself a sufficient reason for de-position from office; but, if the violations are very serious, flagrant, a source of lack of confidence, discord, or scandal in the corn- 133 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Religious munity, the councilor may be deposed from his office.4 These principles apply to all other councilors. Canon 105, 2°, empowers the superior, if he believes this prudent and demanded by the sbriousness of the matter, to oblige the councilors to take an oath to preserve secrecy on a particular matter. ~. Frequency of sessions. The almost universal practice of the Sacred Congregation in approving constitutions is that an or.dinary session of the general council is to be held every month. The article adds that more frequent sessions are to be convoked when necessary. A very small number of constitutions prescribe less frequent meetings, e. g., every two or three months. It is very difficult to reconcile such infrequent sessions with the obligation of having all the councilors reside in the motherhouse and with the insistence that they be free of all duties incompatible with the office of general councilor. An ordinary session every month is decidedly the pref-erable norm. An extraordinary session should be called by the superior general for any matter of greater moment. He should consult his councilors frequently, since the practice of the Sacred Congregation places marked emphasis on the office of councilor. These principles are true of all other councils. A monthly ordinary session is also the usual norm for the councils of provinces, houses, and monasteries of nuns. 9. Convocation of the council (c. 105, 2°). When either the delibera-tive or consultive vote is required by canon law or the constitutions, canon 105, 2°, commands the superior to convoke ~11 the councilors who can be present.5 He must therefore, sufficiently ahead of time, inform all the councilors of the place, day, and hour of the session. A convocation is not obligatory when the constitutions or customs determine the place, day, and hour of the meetings. Obviously all other sessions that the superior institutes on his own authority must also be convoked. The secretary may and often in fact does convoke the council at the order of the superior. The councilors should at the same time be given a list of the important matters to be discussed, so that they may properly prepare for the meeting. Unprepared sessions are usually both unsatisfactory and unduly prolonged. 10. Number of councilors required. (a) By the code (c. 163). By the code, a superior has the right to act when at least one councilor is present after all have been properly convoked (c. 163). The 4Cf. Vermeersch, De Religiosis, II, n. 121; Battandier, Guide Canonique, n. 466; Bastien, Directoire Canonique, n. 324. sCf. Vromant, op. cir., n. 40; Jone, op. cir., 120; Michiels, op. cir., 530. 134 May, 1960 COUNCIL~ IN LAY INSTITUTES superior may not act when he alone is present, since there would then be no consent or advice of the council. Therefore, if the constitutions do not demand the presence of a definite number for a session of the council, the superior may act validly and licitly when only he and another councilor are present, The same is true when the president of a session is the assistant or vicar in virtue of a provision of the co~.~titutions or delegation from the superior. It is clear that a session should ordinarily be postponed when only one of four councilors is present. According to the law of the code, the superior has no obligation to substitute other religious for absent councilors. It is not certain: that he may do so licitly or even validly, since the rights of the council devolve after convocation on those~ who are present and these are to be considered juridically as a full council.~ However, because the code does not expressly nor certainly forbid substitu-tion, it is probable that the superior may summon such substitutes. 7 He may use an analogous norm from the code (c. 655, § 1) and select the substitutes with the consent of his council; or he may follow one of the norms of substitution admitted in the practice of the Holy See, explained in (c) below, e. g., by taking the local superior as the first substitute and then, with the consent of his council, selecting the other substitutes from the professed of perpetual vows of the house in which the session is held. (b) By the general law of constitutions. The constitutions of lay congregations very frequently demand the presence of the superior general and two councilors for any session of the general council, and a few require a unanimous vote when only this number is present. Other specifications are also found, e. g., two-thirds of the general council, and three general councilors. The Normae of 1901 (n. 273) seem to suppose that the superior general and at least two councilors are present at any session. These constitutions do not demand that the absent councilors be replaced by substi-tutes, i. e., outside of the matters listed in the following paragraph; and substitution is accordingly regulated by the norms given above. It is not the practice to summon substitutes in such cases. (c) By the law of the constitutions [or appointments and other de-termined matters. Most constitutions of lay congregations, following the Norrnae of 1901 (n. 273), require a full general council for ap- ~Cf. Can. 163; 165; Goyeneche, De Religiosis, 47-48; Quaestiones Can-onicae, I, 26-27; Bastien, op. cir., n. 327; Schaefer, De tteligiosis, n. 586; Pejska, Ius Canonicum Religiosorum, 233. 7Cf. Coronata, Institutiones Iuris Canonici, I, 658, note 3. 135 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Religious pointments to offices. A small number extend this to other matters, e. g., admission to the noviceship and first and fihal profession, dismissal of professed religious, matters that require recourse to the Holy See or the local ordinary, and even for all matters that demand a deliberative vote. Full membership is required in such constitu-tions for the liceity, not for the validity, of the superior's action. If all the members of the council are not present, the ap-pointment, if possible, should be postponed. If it cannot be deferred, the substitutes prescribed by the constitutions are to be summoned. The most common norm of substitution is that the local superior is to be called and, if a second substitute is necessary, the superior general, with the consent of the councilors present, is to choose him from the professed of perpetual vows of the house where the session is being held. If the local superior is already a general councilor or cannot attend, a religious of perpetual vows is to be chosen in this same way as first substitute. Many other norms of substitution have been admitted by the Holy See. For example, the second sub-stitute need not be of the house where the session is held; the first substitute is the secretary general, or the secretary or bursar general; the superior general, with the consent of the councilors present, chooses as substitutes religious professed for at least ten years; one or two professed of perpetual vows; and, finally, a pro-fessed of perpetual vows, preferably the bursar general. It is pos-sible to find constitutions that demand a full council for determined matters but do not provide any norm of substitution. In such cases the superior is to summon substitutes according to one of the norms given above (c. 20). Constitutions rarely mention the necessity of the presence of a minimum number of provincial councilors, of a full council for determined matters, or give norms of substitution for this council. Such provisions, when found, follow those described above for the general council. (d) Non-councilors" attending sessions. The constitutions usually state, at least of the superior general, that he may summon religious who are not councilors to sessions of the council to give information or advice but that he is forbidden to grant a vote to anyone who is not a councilor. Any superior has this same right. Those most likely to be called are the bursars, masters of novices and of junior professed, and supervisors of schools, hospitals, and studies. It is evident that no one has a right to vote in a council or to act as a councilor unless he is such by election, appointment, or by a provision of law. Some constitutions contain the strange provision that persons summoned as above "have only a con- 136 COUNCILS IN LAY INSTITUTES sultive vote." The same is more frequently said of the secretary general, e. g., "If the secretdr~y general'is,not a councilor, he has only a consultive vote." All such persons give information or advice only when requested and merely to help the superior and the councilors to form their opinions, and this may be the sense of the constitutions in question. They do not vote nor act as councilors; this appertains only to the superior and the councilors. Further-more, a secretary of a council is not by that fact a councilor nor should he act as such. He is in the same position as any non-councilor who is summoned to a session. Therefore, he has no right to give an opinion in a council unless this is at least implicitly requested by the superior. 11. Common deliberation (c. 105, 2°). The proper and primary canon on the obligatory consent or advice of a council or chapter is canon 105. The literal translation of this canon is that the coun-cilors or capitulars "are to be legitimately convoked and to manifest their opinions" (c. 105, 2°). The evident translation of the sense of this clause is that "they are to be legitimately convoked and to manifest their opinions in a common deliberation." The canon thus commands absolutely that the councilors or capitulars are to express their opinion in a common deliberation. It is therefore difficult to understand the reason for the statements of some authors that canon 105 does not forbid a councilor to vote through a proxy or by letter or that these are forbidden only for a canonical election (c. 163). From the wording of canon 105, 2°, it is illicit, but not certainly invalid, for a superior to secure an obligatory consent or advice outside of a common deliberation, e. g., through a proxy, by letter, or by interrogating the councilors or capitulars individually and separately and securing in this way their oral consent or advice. 8 The obligation of a common deliberation ceases and the consent or advice may be requested separately when the matter is urgent and a common deliberation is impossible or at-tainable only with unusual difficulty. It is possible for an institute to have a privilege from the Holy See permitting an obligatory vote to be asked separately, 8Vromant, op. cit., n. 40; Vermeersch-Creusen, Epitome Iuris Canonici, I, n. 229; Wernz-Vidal, Ius Canonicum, II, De Personis, n. 33; III, De Religiosis, n. 155; Coronata, op. cir., n. 154; Ojetti, Comfnenta}'ium in Codicem Iuris Canonici, II, 182-83; Fanfani, De Religiosis, n. 66; De Carlo, Jus Religiosorum, 82; Goyeneche, Quaestiones Canonicae, I, 180-82; Cappello, Summa Iuris Canonici, I, n. 201,'4; Pejska, op. cir., 233; Bender, op. cir., n. 417; Bergh, Revue des Cdmmunautds Religieuses, 20 (1948), 78; Chelodi-Ciprotti, Ius Canonicum de Personis, n. 102; Brys, Juris Canonici Compendium, I, n. 296, 2; Sipos, Enchiridion Iuris Canonici, 82. 137 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Religious e. g., by letter. Several authors maintain that the particular law or custom of an institute may permit separate voting.9 The opinion of these authors may be followed, even though it is not easy to perceive the foundation for the opinion. Canon 105, 2°, does not contain a clause permitting the continuance of contrary laws or customs, and it is difficult to see how a contrary immemorial custom or one of a century's duration could not-be prudently removed in this matter (cc. 5-6). The attempt to prove the same doctrine by recurring to canon 101, § 1, 1°, is equally obscure. It is true that this canon explicitly permits particular law to prevail over the common law, but it is a canon that only secondarily and analogously applies to an obligatory consent or advice of a council or chapter. The primary and proper canon is canon 105, 2°, which demands a common deliberation absolutely. The value of the com-mon deliberation is that the reasons and facts adduced by some will clarify the issue in the minds of all. A common deliberation also lessens the difficulty in proposing an opinion Contrary to that of the superior. The superior proposes the matters for discussion. He should give an objective description and explanation of each case, without revealing his own opinion. He then asks the opinions of each of the councilors. It is sometimes enjoined by the constitutions and is often customary for the last in precedence to speak first. The superior is to strive to secure a sincere and complete expression of opinion from all the councilors. Canon 105, 3°, obliges the councilors to express their opinions respectfully, sincerely, and truthfully. The superior should take care lest any more aggressive and vocal members dominate the council. These are not necessarily the most able or prudent. The councilors are to consider all matters objectively; they are not to be motivated by partisanship, faction-alism, anger, pride, stubbornness, or blind adherence to their own opinions. The councilors have full liberty to express their opinions. Their norm is the objective merits or demerits of the question, not what the superior wants. To assure this liberty, it is better for the superior to give his opinion last. The superior must be careful lest his attitude intimidate or discourage the councilors from a sincere expression of opinion. He may never consider the council as a mere "rubber stamp" for his own ideas. ~Maroto, Institutiones Iuris Canonici, I, 556, note 1; Michiels, op. cir., 530; Jone, op. cir., 120; Schaefer, op. cir., n. 582; Cocchi, Commentarium in Codicern Juris Canonici, II, 44; Geser, Canon Law Governing Communities of Sisters, n. 395. 138 ~VIay, 1960 COUNCILS IN LAY INSTITUTES The amount of time given to each matter will evidently vary with its importance and the :ease or difficulty in reaching a decision. The superior determines the duration and the number of times each councilor is to speak. Some constitutions state that an interval is to be allowed, at least on the petition of the majority of~the council, between the session in which a matter is proposed and that in which it is to be decided, unless the matter is urgent. This will o~dinarily occur only in important matters, but it is a norm that prudence itself will frequently demand or counsel. Some constitutions specify the interval as of one day or more, three or more; and three or eight days. 12. Manner of voting. Canon 105 does not impose any determined manner of voting, i. e~, orally, in writing, publicly, or secretly. The code requires a secret deliberative vote for alienations and the contracting of debts and obligations (c. 534, § 1) and for the dismissal of professed of temporary vows in pontifical congregations of men or women (c. 647, § 1). Very few constitutions of lay institutes contain any provision on the manner of voting, even though the Normae of 1901 stated that the deliberative vote was to be secret (n. 273). The varying provisions on the necessity of a secret vote in constitutions are: for all matters; whenever the deliberative vote is required; only for appointments; councilors may request it for an important matter; and when demanded by canon law, the constitutions, or requested by two councilors. The preferable norm is a secret vote whenever the deliberative vote is required. A secret vote is ordinarily taken by means of black and white beads or beans or in some similar manner. 13. Necessity of voting. Whenever the deliberative vote is required, the councilors are actually to vote; and the result of the voting is to be announced to the council. Otherwise the superior could not be certain that he had the consent of his council. The superior also votes. Actual voting may be done but is not necessary when only the advice or consultive vote is demanded. The superior is not obliged to follow even a unanimous consultive vote and he can reach his decision merely from the opinions proposed by the councilorS.1° 14. Number of votes required (c. 101, § 1, 1°). Unless the constitu-ti0ns specify a different norm, the votes are computed according to canon 101, § 1, 1°, i. e.~ a matter is settled by an absolute ~°De Carlo, op. cir., 82. On the fact that the superior also votes, cf. Bastien, op. cir., n. 326; Battandier, op. cit., n. 453; Lanslots, Handbook of Canon Law, n. 394. 139 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Religious majority, which is any number thdt exceeds half the valid votes cast. The constitutions do not contain, either for affairs or ap-pointments, the norm of canon 101, § 1, 1°, that a relative majority suffices on the third balloting. In appointments one person is voted for at a time; and all affairs are so proposed that they can be voted on affirmatively or negatively. Since the superior and the councilors ordinarily constitute an uneven number, a tie is scarcely possible unless one of the members is absent. Canon 101, § 1, 1°, commands a superior to break a tie after the third balloting, and this norm is to be observed when the constitutions are silent on this matter or do not contain a different norm for breaking a tie. In the former practice of the Holy See in approving constitutions, The superior was given the right or was commanded to break a tie after the first balloting. The recent practice gives this right or imposes the obligation only after the third balloting. In breaking a tie, the superior merely declares which side he favors; and he is not obliged to break the tie in favor of the side for which he had already voted. If the constitutions command the superior t~o break a tie after the first or third balloting, he must do so. He is not permitted to put the matter to another vote. The constitutions almost universally demand a full council for appointments and deny the superior the right of breaking a tie in this matter. In this case, a tie proves that the person concerned has not secured the vote of the council. 15. Appointments to office. The council should have a list of those qualified for office. This list is to be renewed at fixed intervals, e. g., every two or three years. Such a method will expedite the selection of superiors and officials and will also help to prevent the constant appointment of the same religions as superiors. In making a par-ticular appointment, the superior proposes the names for discussion. He decides when the discussion is sufficient and then proposes the names individually for voting. 16. Deliberative and consult~ve vote (c. 105, 1°). (a) Deliberative vote. There is no ambiguity in the expression of this vote. It is required whenever the code or the constitutions demand the consent, de-cisive or deliberative vote of the council. The necessity of the vote is also perfectly clear from canon 105, 1°, i. e., a superior acts invalidly when he acts without or contrary to the majority vote in any matter for which the deliberative vote is required. The 140 May, 1960 COUNCILS IN ~.~AY INSTITUTES consent of the council is a necessary positive element for the validity of the act of the superior.~1 Two important distinctions are to be kept in mind. Let us take as an example the erection of a new house, for which the con-stitutions require the deliberative vote of the general council. The superior general is not obliged to propose or to admit the proposal of this matter, since it appertains to the superior to determine whether a particular matter is to be submitted to the council. If he does propose it, the superior general must have the consent of his council validly to erect the house. If he secures this consent, he may erect the house; but he is not obliged to do so. He may abstain from such an action. The law commands him to have the consent of his council to erect the house; it does not oblige him to act according to the consent of the council.12 The second distinction is that canon 105, 1°, commands consent for the validity of an action of a superior when the consent is that of an inferior or inferiors, not when the law commands the consent of a higher authority, e. g., of a higher superior, the local ordinary, or the Holy See. The consent of a higher authority is required for validity only when this is expressly stated in the law in question; otherwise it is demanded only for the liceity of the superior's act.13 (b) Consultive vote. Consultive vote means that the superior is to listen to the opinions of his council. It is clearly stated in the following expressions: with the consultive vote, or with the advice, of the council; having consulted or heard the council; and according to the counsel or advice of the council. The expressions "with the council" and "with the vote of the council" are ambiguous but are to be interpreted in themselves as demanding only a consultive vote. Since the necessity of a vote is restrictive of the rights of a superior, it is to be interpreted strictly. Therefore, if it is doubtful whether any vote is necessary, no vote is necessary; if it is doubtful whether the vote imposed is deliberative or consultive, it is only consultive (c. 19). In constitutions it is preferable to use uniformly ~Can. 1680, § 1; Vromant, op. cir., n. 45; Michiels, op. cir., 504; Larraona, op. cir., 9 (1928), 422; Naz, Traitd de Droit Canonique, I, n. 367. Cf. De Ritibus Orientalibus de Personis, can. 35, § 1, 1°. 1~Michiels, op. cit., 500; Goyeneche, De Religiosis, 47; Quaestiones Can-onicae, I, 185; Jone, op. cit., 118-19; Larraona, op. cit., 9 (1928), 422, note 686; 424; Bender, op. cir., n. 377, 1; Berutti, De Personis, 58; Abbo-Hannan, The Sacred Canons, I, 153; Beste, Introductio in Codicem, 167. ~aMichiels, op. cir., 495; Berutti, op. cir., 56; Jone, op. cir., 118; Bender, op. cir., n. 377, 2; Regatfllo, Institutiones Iuris Canonici, I, n. 206; Scho.enegger, Periodica, 31 (1942), 120~21. 141 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Religious the expressions "with the consent" and "with the advice." Both are clear and brief. 1° An act placed without consultation, i. e., the act requires the advice of a council and the superior does not even request this advice. Such an act of a superior is almost certainly invalid from the wording of canon 105, 1°;~4 but it is still solidly probable that the act is merely illicit, not invalid, until the Holy See has author-itatively decreed otherwise. Therefore, a superior acts validly but illicitly if he acts without seeking the advice of his council when this is required by law. The previous consultation is required for validity whenever a determined law demands the consultation under the expressed sanction of invalidity. This is true of some canons, e. g., 2152, § 1; 2153, §.1; 2159; but no such canon is found in the section on religious. The same sanction is possible but in fact is not imposed by the law of the constitutions of lay institutes. 2° No obligation to follow the consultive vote. The code does not oblige a superior to follow even the unanimous consultive vote of his council; but it is recommended and he is counselled ordinarily to do so, i. e., he is to consider seriously and should not depart from a unanimous vote unless he has a reason that prevails over the vote. The superior is the judge of the existence and weight of such a prevailing reason. It is evident that a superior is always to give due consideration to the advice of his council, especially but not only when it is unanimous; otherwise the office of a councilor and the obligation of seeking advice in such matters would be mere formalities. 17. Matters that require the deliberative or consultive vote. The con-stitutions contain an article that lists what are called the more important cases in which the deliberative vote of the general council is necessary. This article is usually unsatisfactory. It does not list all nor the more important or practical cases of such a vote. The constitutions most rarely include a list of the matters that demand the consultive vote. The list below is based on the present practice of the Holy See and is intended to be complete. This prac-tice is not invariable. In different approved constitutions, the same matter sometimes demands a deliberative vote, a consultive vote, or no vote at all. The list therefore will not be in complete agree-ment with all constitutions, even if they have been recently ap-proved by the Holy See. Some of the matters listed below demand 14Cf. De Ritibus Orientalibus de Personis, can. 35, § 1, 2°. 142 May, 1960 COUNCILS IN LAY INSTITUTES the deliberative or consultive vote from. the law of the code, but in most cases the vote is imposed only by the law of the constitu-tions. It would unnecessarily complicate the question to include this distinction in the list. Some also require recourse to the Holy See or the local ordinary, but this is stated in the chapter of the constitutions that treats of the particular maiter. (a) The superior general must have the deliberative vote of his council in the following cases. 1° The condonation in whole or in part of the dowry of those having degrees or compensating abilities, if such a faculty is contained in the constitutions. 2° The investment of the dowry. 3° Dispensation from an entrance impediment of the constitu-tions. 4° Admission to the noviceship and first profession. 5° The establishment or transfer of a novitiate. 6° The dismissal of a professed of temporary or perpetual vows and the sending of a professed religious immediately back to secular life. 7° The convocation of an extraordinary general chapter for reasons other than those specified in the constitutions, the designation of the place of a general chapter, and the forma-tion of groups of smaller houses for the election of delegates to the general chapter. ' 8° The transfer of the permanent residence of the superior general or provincial. 9° To give a formal precept of obedience to an entire house, province, or to the entire congregation. 10° To appoint a. visitor for the entire congregation or an entire province, at least if the visitor is not a member of the general council. 11° The choice of a substitute for an absent general councilor. 120 The acceptance of the resignation, removal, and deposition of a general councilor, secretary general, bursar general, procurator general, and the appointment of a si~ccessor in these cases. 130 The appointment, transfer, and removal of provincial, regional, and local superiors, their councilors, secretaries, and bursars, of a master or assistant master of novices, the master of the junior professed, instructor of tertians, supervisors of schools and studies, principals of schools, and administrators of hospitals. 143 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Religious 14° Approval of the accounts of the bursar general. 15° The imposition of an extraordinary tax, the alienation of property, contracting of debts and obligations, the making of contracts in the name of the congregation, extraordinary expenses, and other matters of a financial nature according to the norms of canon law and the ordinances of the general chapter. 16° The erection of new provinces; the union, modification, or suppression of existing provinces; the formation, change, and suppression of regions; and the erection and suppression of houses. 17° All matters for which recourse to the Holy See is necessary. 18° All matters remitted to the deliberative vote by the general chapter. (b) The superior general requires the Consultive vote of his council in the following cases. 1° The dismissal of novices. 2° The prolongation of the noviceship and temporary profession. 3° Admission to renewal of temporary profession, to perpetual profession, and exclusion from the renewal of temporary profession or from perpetual profession. 4° The declaration of fact for the automatic dismissal of a pro-fessed religious. 5° Approval of the quinquennial report to the Holy See. 6° Approval of the reports of the superior general to the general chapter. 7° To give a practical interpretation of a doubtful point of the constitutions. 8° All matters remitted to the consultive vote by the general chapter. There is very little in many constitutions on the part of the provincial superior and his council in the acts listed below. There is even more variety in the constitutions that do treat this matter. The admission to the noviceship and professions, the dismissal of novices, the appointment of local superiors, local councilors and bursars, and of the master and assistant master of novices are often made by the provincial with the consent of his council but require the consent or especially the confirmation, ratification, approbation, or approval of the superior general with the deliberative vote of his council. (c) The provincial superior requires no vote of his council for admission to, prolongation of, or dismissal from the postulancy. 144 .May, 1960 COUNCILS IN LAY INSTITUTES (d) The provincial must have the deliberative vote of his council: For the following acts: 1° Investment of the dowry. 2° Admission to the noviceship. 3° To send a professed religious immediately back to secular life. 4° The designation of the place of the provincial chapter and the formation of the groups of smaller houses for the election of delegates to this chapter. 5° To give a formal precept of obedience to an entire house. 6° To appoint a visitor for the entire province, at least if the visitor is not a provincial councilor. 7° The appointment of local councilors and bursars, principals of schools, and administrators of hospitals. 8° Approval of the accounts of the provincial bursar. 9° The alienation of property, contracting of debts and obliga-tions, the making of contracts in the name of the province, extraordinary expenses, and other matters of a financial nature according to the norms of canon law and the ordinances of the general chapter. 10° Other matters according to the enactments of the general chapter. For the following requests to the superior general and his council: 1° The condonation in whole or in part of the dowry of those having degrees or compensating abilities, if such a faculty is contained in the constitutions. 2° Dispensation from an entrance impediment of the constitutions. 3° Admission to first temporary profession. 4° Dismissal of a professed of temporary or perPetual vows. 5° Erection and transfer of a novitiate and erection and suppres-sion of houses. 6° The removal, deposition, and replacement of a provincial councilor, secretary, or bursar; and the appointment, transfer, and removal of local superiors, the master and assistant master of novices, the master of the junior professed, the instructor of tertians, and provincial supervisors of schools and studies. 7° All matters for which recourse to the Holy See is necessary. 8° Other matters according to the ordinances of the general chapter. (e) The provincial superior requires the consult~ve vote of his council: For the following acts: 145 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Religious I° Prolongation of and dismissal from the noviceship. 2° Admission to renewal of temporary profession. 3° The declaration of fact for an automatic dismissal of a professed religions. 4° Other matters according to the ordinances of the general chapter. For the following requests to the superior general and his council: 1° Prolongation of or exclnsion from renewal of temporary pro-fession and exclusion from perpetual profession. 2° Admission to perpetual profession. 3° Other matters according to the ordinances of the general chapter. The treatment of the local council in constitutions is far more varied and unsatisfactory. Canon 653 states: "In the case of grave external scandal or of very serious imminent injury to the com-munity, a religions may be immediately sent back to secular life by a higher superior with the consent of his council or even, if there is danger in delay and time does not permit recourse to a higher superior, by the local superior with the consent of his council and that of the local ordinary." This extraordinary case is the only one in which canon law demands the consent of the local council in a lay institute. The following typical article is a practical summary of what is found in constitutions at the present time. The local superior shall convoke his council every month, or oftener if necessary. Outside of the extraordinary case of canon 653, the local councilors have only a consultive vote except in matters for which the general chapter or the superior general with the consent of his council has decreed that the vote mnst be deliberative. The superior is to discuss with his council the appointment of religions to the local offices and duties not :reserved to higher superiors, the monthly approval of the accounts of the local bursar, financial matters according to the ordinances of the general chapter, the ~material condition and all important matters of the house and its works, the observance of the constitutions, the progress of the religions spirit among the members of the house, and the means to be used to correct abuses and defects that may have crept into the house. Several constitutions impose a deliberative vote for all financial matters. 18. Monasteries of nuns. A monastery is different from a congrega-tion in that the superioress may be obliged to seek the vote of either the council or the chapter (cc. 534, § 1; 543; 575, § 2; 646, § 2). To give again merely a practical summary of what is stated 146 May, 1960 COUNCILS IN LAY INSTITUTES in constitutions, the vote of the chapter is deliberative for ad-mission to the noviceship and temporary profession and consultive for admission to final profession, solemn or simple, and in some monasteries for all the more important affairs of the monastery. The vote of the ,council is deliberative for the dismissal of a novice, investment of the dowry, dismissal of a professed of temporary or perpetual vows, the sending of a professed religious immediately .back to secular .life, appointment and removal of officials of the monastery, alienations, the contracting of debts and obligations, extraordinary expenses; and in some monasteries there is a de-liberative vote previous to that of the chapter for admission to temporary profession. The vote of the council is consultive for the dismissal of postulants; the prolongation of the postulancy, noviceship, or temporary profession; all other important matters of the monastery; and' in some monasteries there is a consultive Vote previous to that of the chapter for admission to perpetual profession, solemn or simple. 19. Federations of nuns. The mother general (president) requires the consent of her council in such matters as the designation of the place of the general chapter; the convocation of an extra-ordinary general chapter; acceptance of the resignation, deposition, and appointment of a successor of a general official; and the erec-tion and suppression of monasteries. The regional mother is obliged to consult her council on such matters as the erection and suppres-sion of monasteries and the possible erection of a common novitiate. It is evideat that the council of a confederation, federation, or region should also be consulted in other important matters. 20. Minutes. There should be a council book, in which the minutes of each session are recorded by the secretary. These are to contain the date, names of the absentees and of any substitutes, all affairs that were discussed, the decisions reached, and the number of votes for and against each decision. The minutes are read and approved by the council at the beginning of the following session. The secretary should add a notation of the vote by which the minutes were approved. The minutes are then signed by the superior and the secretary or, according to some constitutions, by all the councilors. In many congregations the minutes are signed by the superior and the secretary before the approval of the council, and there are also congregations in which this approval is not prescribed. The reading and approval of the minutes are an or-dinary practice in both secular and religious bodies of this nature. 21. The assistant and vicar. The constitutions of lay institutes 147 JOSEPH F. GALLEN ordinarily determine that the assistant takes the place of the superior, whether general, intermediate, or local, when the latter is absent or for any reason whatever is unable to exercise his office. They prescribe with equal frequency that the assistant, as vicar, succeeds immediately but provisionally to the office of superior on a vacancy by death, resignation, removal, or deposition. A vicar has all the powers of a superior, as has also an appointed acting superior. The right to convoke and preside over a council appertains to the superior, vicar, and an acting superior. A few constitutions enact that the general or provincial assistant con-yokes, and presides over the council when the respective superior is sick, absent, or otherwise impeded. Unless expressly forbidden by the constitutions, any superior may also give even general delegation to his assistant to do this (c. 199, § 1); and this power is explicitly stated in some constitutions. It is not the practice of constitutions to make provision for sessions of the local council in the absence or incapacity of the local superior. Any vicar or acting superior, whether general, intermediate, or local, should hold the sessions prescribed by the constitutions, sinve he pos-eesses the authority of a superior. Because his office is provisional and temporary, he should avoid innovations of moment unless these are demanded by the urgency of the matter. 148 The Dictionary of Spirituality R. F. Smith, S.J. THE DICTIONARY OF SPIRITUALITY (Dictionnaire~ de I spiritualit~) is a French reference work devoted exclusively to matters concerned with spirituality. The Dictionary is still in process of being published; three volumes have already appeared, and a large part of the fourth volume has been issued in separate fascicles. The purpose of this article will be to give some idea of the contents of the latest fascicles (nos. 26 and 27; Paris: Beau-chesne, 1959). No attempt will be made here to indicate all the articles included in the two fascicles, but a number of them will be summarized so that readers of R~.v~Ew Fo~t RELm~OUS may have some knowledge of the type of subject matter treated in the Dictionary. As is evident, statements of fact or of opinion are the responsibility of the authors of the various articles in the Dictionary and do not necessarily reflect the views of the editorial staff of the REw~.w. Elevations English spiritual literature does not as a rule use the term elevation as the name of a certain type of meditation book, but both the name and the type have been popular in France; the history of this form of spiritual writing is detailed in the Dictionary from column 553 to 558. The term elevation is actually an ancient one in the history of thought, going back to Plato and other pagan Greek philosophers, the aim of whom was to secure the ~a¢~, or the a~a~7~ (both words mean equivalently elevation or ascent) of the soul to God or at least to spiritual realities. These words were then taken over by Christian writers, and all the more readily since parallel ideas are found in the Bible (see Ps 123:1; 141:2; Col 3:1-2). Hence it is that the traditional description of prayer has always been that of an elevation (or an ascent) of the mind to God. Since the seventeenth century, howev.er, the term elevation has been used in French spiritual literature to denote meditations in which the beauty of the thoughts, the ardor of the feelings, and a certain magnificence of style join forces to lift the soul more easily and gently to the thought of God. Passages of this kind of 149 R. F. SMITH Review for Religious writing are to be found even among pagan writers (for example, the monotheistic hymn of. Aton, some of the passages in Plato and Plotinus); and large sections of the Bible also partake of the nature of elevations (see Jb 36:22-39:25; Tob 13; Is 60-62; Jn 17; Rom 8). So too throughout the course of Christian spiritual literature elevational passages have not been absent, but it was not until modern times that elevations became a separate and self-conscious type of spiritual writing. Cardinal B~rulle gave the greatest impetus to the new form with his frequent elevations, the purpose of which was to bring the spirit of the liturgy into private devotion, The greatest example of elevations is Bossuet's work, Elevations to God on All the Mysteries of the Christian Religion. This type of writing is still frequent among the French, Vandeur and Guerry being, two of the foremost exponents of it today. Elijah Two Carmelite authors (col. 564-72) examine the validity of the traditional association of the prophet Elijah with religious life and with the Carmelite order in particular. The first section of the article remarks that although the Carmelite- tradition of~ the prophet Elijah as the father of monastic life has. not always been based on the soundest reasons, yet the intuition incorporated into the tradition is basically sound; for Elijah is presented in the Bible as a remarkable combination of contemplation and action. Thus, for example, in his dispute with the priesis of Baal on Mount Carmel there is manifested the zeal of Elijah for the worship of the one, true God, even at the possible danger of his. own life. So, too, Elijah shines forth as a man of action in his constant and frequent opposition to the kings whom he regarded as a source of moral corruption for the Israelites. The contemplative aspect of Elijah is shown in the scriptural presentation of him as a man of mystery, removed from other men. His appearancesand disap-pearances are sudden; he lives in solitude, nourished by food pro-vided for him in a supernatural way; the distance between Elijah and other men is strikingly accentuated by his final ascent in a fiery chariot. Finally Elijah is presented as a man who has spoken with God and to whom God has spoken in that small, still voice which is a symbol of God's intimacy with him. The next section of the article considers Elijah and the mo: nastic life. Before the foundation of monastic life, .Greek and Latin fathers rarely referred to Elijah as a model for Christian living; 150 May, 1960 DICTIONARY OF SPIRITUALITY but the fathers of the desert found in him a forerunner of their own way of living, It is in fact in the Life of St. Anthony that is found the first explicit appeal to the example of Elijah as a model of a life lived in the presence of God. This linking of Elijah and the life of perfection continued to grow in the Eastern Church; and in the liturgical feast which was finally accorded Elijah he was hailed with the title usually given to a monk-saint: "terrestrial angel and celestial man." In its beginnings western monasticism did not appeal to the example of Elijah. Later, however, St. Ambrose and St. Jerome expressed the opinion that Elijah could be legitimately considered a forerunner of monastic life; and gradually the monks of the West came to see in the prophet a model for their own virginity, purity of heart, solitude, and life of prayer. Nevertheless there .are but few indications of a liturgical cult to the prophet, and even among the Carmelites the feast of Elijah was a late introduction. It is to be noted that the new preface approved for the feast of the prophet says of him that "he laid the foundations of monastic life." The last part of the article examines the relationship between Elijah and the Carmelite order. During the crusades of the eleventh and twelfth centuries, not a few of the crusaders were drawn to a life of preyer; and some of them settled on Mount Carmel in pursuit of this aim. In 1209 a group of monks living on Mount Carmel re-ceived a rule of life from Albert, patriarch of Jerusalem; later the rule was confirmed in 1226 by Pope Honorius III. These monks became the Carmelites. It is not certain, however, that the monks had come to Mount Carmel out of veneration for the prophet; and their rule does not refer to the prophet as a source of inspiration. It seems more probable that the monks' presence on Mount Carmel gradually led to a devotion to Elijah which eventually became an integral part of the traditions of Carmelite spirituality. The legend of a continuous eremitical life on Mount Carmel from Elijah to the crusaders is alluded to in the Constitutions of the Chapter of London of 1281; and in the fourteenth century the figure of the prophet was linked with the strong Marian tradition of the Carmelites. Elizabeth of the Trinity and Anne Catherine Emmerich Sister Elizabeth of the Trinity (1880-1906) and her life lived in the praise of the glory of the Trinity have been of considerable interest to modern spiritual writers; the Dictionary's brief article 151 R. F. SMITH Review for ReligiOus on her (col. 590-94) delineates the stages of her spiritual progress, At nineteen she found in the writings of St. Teresa of Avila the central orientation of her life: intimacy with God living within her. From that time the aim of her life was to live always in the "cell" which God had built in her heart and one of the most characteristic phrases of her spirituality became that of the "heaven of my own soul." Later the Dominican Father ValiSe taught her to realize the Trinitarian aspect of the divine presence within her, and the reading of the works of St. John of the Cross gave her a full awareness of the transforming effects of the Trin-itarian presence. Meanwhile God Himself had been directing her, leading her through a long, continuous period of aridity and de-pression meant to purify her soul for its final ascent to God. At the end of this period on November 21, 1904, she was led to compose her famous prayer to the Trinity that synthesizes her entire spiritual doctrine. For Sister Elizabeth the fundamental condition of the spiritual life was the ascesis of silence and recollection, a separation from all things that could prevent one from praising God. The essential duty of the spiritual life was to believe in the God who is love and to give Him an adoration of love expressed in an absolute fidelity to His least desire. The model of this life she found in the Incarnate Word, for He is the perfect praise of the glory of the Father. And her final desire in her spiritual life was to join the unceasing praise of the blessed in heaven as that is described in the last chapters of the Apocalypse. Anne Catherine Emmerich (1774-1824) is known today chiefly for the lives of Christ and our Lady attributed to her, but she was also a stigmatist; it is this latter aspect of Anne Catherine that is first discussed in the Dictionary (col. 622-27). Although she possessed a partial share in the stigmata as early as 1799, it was not until 1812 that all the stigmata became apparent in her. Soon after their appearance she was given a full medical and ecclesiastical investigation. The wounds of Anne Catherine, however, yielded to no medical treatment; moreover' continuous medical surveillance established the fact that she fasted from everything except water. Later a governmental examining, board investigated the case and could find no evidence of deception or fraud. In the opinion of the author of the article the stigmata of Anne Catherine must be judged to have been of supernatural origin; a.n.d he quotes with approval the remark of Alois Mager, O.S.B., that the records of the stigmata of Anne Catherine constitute "a rare source for the 152 May, 1960 DICTIONARY OF SPIRITUALITY psychological, religious, and medical study of stigmatisation and other analogous phenomena." The case is not quite so clear, however, with regard to her visions. At the command of her spiritual director, Anne Catherine related her visions from 1818 to 1824 to Clement Brentano; from the notes he took from his almost daily interviews with her, he later published three works on the lives of our Lord and our Lady. Although Brentano himself admitted that Anne Catherine never attributed more than a human value to her experiences, he himself insisted on the historical accuracy of every detail in the works, claiming that Anne Catherine in her visions was actually present at every scene described. Critical study, however, has proved that Brentano actually incorporated into the works he published ac-counts borrowed from other writers. Accordingly in 1927 the Congregation of Rites refused to accept as the writings of Anne Emmerich the volumes published under her name. With regard to the visions actually experienced by Anne Emmerich, the author of the article concludes that it is impossible for anyone today to say whether or not they had a supernatural origin. Devotion to the Infant Jesus The Dictionary's article on devotion to the Infant Jesus (col. 652-82) details the history of that devotion from the earliest times down to our own day. The patristic period of the Church did not in general possess what we would call today a personal devotion to the Infant Savior. Even the liturgical feasts of Christmas and Epiphany did not express such a devotion, for they were primarily instituted to stress religious ideas "and dogmas, and not to com-memorate historical events in the life of Christ. In the earliest history of the Church, the closest thing to a manifestation of a devotion to the Infant Jesus is to be found in the nun~erous pil-grimages to the Holy Land and especially to Bethlehem. With the Middle Ages, however, devotion to the Infant began to grow and to flourish; medieval man, with his taste for the con-crete and his desire for affectivity in his religious life, was led quite naturally to a display of ardent devotion to the appealing figure of the Infant of Bethlehem. The devotion received its first major impulse from St. Bernard; it is in his sermons on the Nativity cycle that are given the first detailed contemplations of the Infant, and there for the first time is His charm described at length. Afterwards St. Francis of Assisi, with his predilection for the 153 R. F. S~I Review for Religious mystery of the Nativity, continued and enlarged the popularity of the devotion to the Infant Jesus. This Franciscan love for the Nativity scene also marked a step forward in the technique of meditation; it was at this time and on the occasion of meditations on the Nativity scene that the Franciscans introduced the method of entering into and becoming a part of the scene meditated on, The ardor with which the devotion was practiced during the Middle Ages can be judged by various indications. It is then that for the first time in the history of Christian sanctity., saints and mystics are given visions of the Infant Jesus. Painters began to depict the adoration of the Infant, thus making the Babe the center of their artistic works. At the same time the use of individual statuettes of the Infant came into existence. Finally, towards the end of the sixteenth century, the Carmelite Francis of the Infant Jesus became the first known person to choose the Infant as his special model. Tl~e frequency with which this title was afterwards used is a dear sign that devotion to the Infant Jesus had assumed the role of an orientating point for the conduct of the spiritual life. The seventeenth century saw another great growth in the devotion. The Infant Christ was a special object of devotion for Cardinal B~rulle who loved to insist that a person interested in the spiritual life could learn from the Infant innocence, dependency, humility, purity, and especially silence. Under B~mlle's influence, the French Carmelite nuns became advocates of the devotion; it was these nuns who popularized the notion that a person must become an infant in order to honor the Infant Word. St. John Eudes introduced a special feast of the Infant (February 6) and composed the oi~ce for it. Olier received a vision of our Lady bidding him to honor the infancy of her Son, and from him the devotion spread throughout the Sulpicians. Towards the end of the seventeenth century, however, devo-tion to the Infant began to decline, possibly because of the con-demnation of Madame Guyon, who had practiced an extreme form of the devotion. In the eighteenth century the devotion was not very prominent, though there was a growth throu~ghout the world in the devotion to the Infant Jesus of Prague. The religious revival of the nineteenth century, however, led to a new growth in the devotion; the extent of this growth can be judged from the number of congregations of religious who placed the name of the Infant Jesus in their official title. The devotion to the Infant Jesus con, tinues to be prominent in the modem Church. St. Teresa of Lisieux practiced the devotion as did the spiritual writer, Dom Vital 154 May, 1960 DICTIONARY OF SPIRITUALI~ Lehodey, whose whole spirituality was centered around the Infant of Bethlehem. Spiritual Childhood The article that is devoted in the Dictionary to a consideration of spiritual childhood or infancy (col. 682-714) is chiefly interesting for the scriptural data that it provides. Spiritual childhood is defined at the beginning of the article as an act of abandon into the hands of the Father made by a soul conscious of its own smallness and radical powerlessness. It is composed accordingly of humility and the consciousness of the divine fatherhood with all the limitless confidence implied by these two elements. This concept of spiritual childhood is to be found in the Old Testament but expressed in different phraseology. It is expressed first of all in the Old Testament theme of poverty. In the early books of the Bible poverty means only the lack of possessior&; but with Isaiah and Sophoniah it adds to this a spiritual meaning, denoting an attitude that is the opposite of pride. This poverty is the theme of some thirty of the Psalms where the poor man is shown to be one whose only wealth is God and who regards himself as an infant in the hands of God. The spiritualisation of this concept of poverty re-ceived its final form in the sapiential books, where the idea of spiritual poverty is completely isolated from its sociological mean-ing and made into a moral-ideal applicable to all, whether rich or poor. This poverty of spirit is a voluntary and total submission to Yahweh with a special emphasis on the smallness and powerlessness and misery of man with regard to his Creator. Poverty in this sense became an essential element in the Jewish religious attitude; it is to be noted that Zechariah (9:9) presented the coming King- Messiah as one who is poor in spirit. The constituents of spiritual childhood are also to be found in another major theme of the Old Testament, that of the father-hood of God. The idea of a divine fatherhood had deep roots in Semitic history; all Semite peoples regarded their national god as the father of the nation. Hence too Yahweh is the father of the Israelites, but in a special sense; since Yahweh is not a national god, but the Ruler of all peoples, His fatherhood of Israel is a special favor given to the Israelite people. Accordingly the prime duty of the Israelites is to honor Yahweh as their father, and He on HIS part must love and protect HIS sons. This loving relationship between God and the Israelite nation is emphasized by another figure of the Old Testament, that of God as the Bridegroom of 155 R. F. SMITH Review for Religious Israel; this figure accentuates the tenderness and intimacy of the union of God with Israel. When we come to the New Testament, it is to be noted that all the elements of spiritual childhood (including the vocabulary) are to be found in Christ's own personal teaching. He makes poverty (in the sense of the Old Testament) the fundamental attitude of His disciples; they must be joyfully aware of their own radical powerlessness with regard to the kingdom and must expect their salvation only from God. At the same time they must address God in their prayers as their Father, and their love for God as their Father demands of them an absolute confidence (see Mk 11:34; Mt 7:7-8; Lk 11:9). Christ also introduced the word child into the vocabulary of the spiritual life. In Matthew 11:25-26 Christ thanks the Father that He has made His revelation not to the wise and prudent, but to little children. The term "little children" is a translation of a Greek word meaning an infant still unable to speak; the doctrine of God, then, is given to those aware of their helplessness and receptive to help from outside of them-selves. Again in Mark 10:14 Christ says that the kingdom of God belongs to children; in this passage Christ's consideration is not directed toward the innocence or simplicity of children, but to their humility, receptivity, and confidence. The kingdom of God is a gift and a grace, and it must be received in the same spirit of de-pendence as the child receives his natural needs from his parents. It is to be noted that in the Gospels two groups of persons are said to possess the kingdom of God: the poor in spirit (Mr 5:3) and children (Mk 10:14). Thereby is made an identification of the poor man of the Old Testament and the way of spiritual childhood.' The poor man of the 01d Testament becomes the child of the Gospel. In the Pauline epistles there is given a sort of negative com-mentary on the word child, as Christ understood it. In his writings St. Paul always gives the word child a pejorative sense, implying childishness and lack of maturity. By so doing, St. Paul is not to be understood as rejecting the way of spiritual childhood, but as forcibly underlining the fact that spiritual childhood or infancy must be carefully distinguished from infantilism, which is not worthy of a Christian. The rest of the article on spiritual childhood or infancy does not add much to the above scriptural teaching. Three things from this section can, however, be noted here. First, growth in the understanding and practice of the way of spiritual childhood 156 May, 1960 DICTIONARY OF SPIRITUALITY developed in the Church under the impulse of devotion to the Infant Jesus. Secondly, it is again emphasized that spiritual child-hood is not childishness but is rather full Christian maturity. And thirdly, the way of spiritual childhood is but the development of the grace given in Baptism by which man is made into a son of God. Education for Sanctity The article (col. 714-27) on the spiritual life of the infant and the pre-adolescent child points out that a child becomes capable of exercising the supernatural powers that were given him in baptism when he reaches the age of reason, that is, when he is capable of an attitude of love and adoration towards God and hence of moral discernment. In many cases, says the author, this period may come quite late, but in well-endowed children who have received good training the age of reason may be reached at the early age of two and a half or three. The presence and growth of the spiritual life in the child can be judged by three signs based on the teaching of St. Thomas in Summa theologiae, 1-2, 112, 5c. These signs are: the child's aptitude for silence and interior recollection; his aptitude to do things for others without expecting a recompense .for himself; and a certain quality of peace and joy in the child's way of acting. The author next considers the various modes in which the child exercises his life of grace. The first way is that of a conversion process, as indicated by St. Thomas in Summa theologiae, 1-2, 89, 6c and ad 3. So St. Teresa of Lisieux experienced a conversion to God at least by the age of three; and Anne de Guign~ at the age of four experienced a conversion from a life of jealousy, anger, and pleasure to a life of love for her neighbor and intimacy with God. Generally this process of conversion takes place on the occasion of the symbols of God that are presented to it. Gradually the child begins to sense the presence and reality of a mysterious Being who is at once very powerful and very lovable and whose name is always uttered by his parents with respect and reverence. The life of grace in children is also expressed in contemplation, and the beauties of nature may well be the means by which the spirit and exercise of contemplation is aroused in them. Children also experience vocation, that is a particular orientation of their life as intended by God. Frequently the exact goal of this orienta-tion remains closed to them, but their life begins to take on a special comportment in accord with God's designs for them (for example, interest in thinking about God or in helping others), and 157 R. F. SMITH they develop a special spiritual climate (for example, joy or com-punction). Finally in this section the author inquires into the possibility of sin. in the infant and small child, concluding that grave sin is rare and practically impossible in children until they reach the ages of seven or eight. In the next part of the article the author considers how a child may be trained so as to allow him to develop the gifts of grace within him. The first requirement is to provide the child with a climate of silence and peace; hence in those training the child there must be calmness and a lack of nervousness, haste, and febrile agitation. The child must also be given a climate of joy, and this will be best achieved if he perceives that those around him regard their Christian life not as a burden but as a privilege. Hence too all religions duties must be presented to the child in a context of gladness. Parents and educators cannot afford to forget that the spiritual life of the child develops largely out of imitation of them. He knows God in the resemblance of those who speak to him about God. From the love of his parents he derives his first idea of the love and providence that God has for him; and the way in which parents and educators pronounce the name of God will be the child's first initiation into the mystery of God. From the beginning the child must be introduced to the fundamental and central truths of the Christian religion: God is great, and He loves us as a father. The communication of religious truth to the child must be made concrete and personal, for the child must be introduced into a living world of reality. Finally the child must be introduced to prayer and must gradually be made a participant in the prayer of his parents and educators. He should be taught the Our Father from the beginning and then other prayers -- short and dense -- drawn principally from the Bible and the liturgy. It is hoped that the above pages will furnish some indication of the kind of article to be found in the Dictionary of Spirituality. The work will be found useful both on the level.of information and on that of inspiration. It should be noted in conclusion that each article of the Dictionary provides bibliographical references for further study and investigation. 158 The Director of the Retreat Hugh Kelly, S.J. ANY PRIEST who has a tree understanding of the Spiritual Exercises will feel a movement of resentment, a desire to protest when he hears himself described as "preaching" a retreat. He can accept "giving" a retreat because the phrase carries the traditional meaning, but he knows that to consider him as preacher is to misunderstand the nature of the Exercises. He has, of course, to deliver conferences; but he must not be merely the preacher. He knows that if he is to be tree to the essential conception of that most distinctive ministry, he must be a director and director even more than preacher. But here a difficulty presents itself to the modem retreat master. There are certain circum-stances in the modem retreat which reduce -- if they do not suppress -- the role of the director. If these are not considered and countered, there is a grave danger that the director may be entirely replaced by the preacher and as a result the value of the Exercises seriously diminished. Before considering the problem presented by modem retreats, it will be necessary to have a clear idea of the role of the director in the Exercises as St. Ignatius understood them. It can be said without exaggeration that the place and function of the director are indicated or supposed in every stage of the retreat. A detailed page-by-page proof of this assertion would occupy too much space ¯ and moreover is not necessary. It will b~ sufficient t9. refer to those parts where the work of the director is most clearly indicated. First of all in position, and even in importance fdr our purpose, come the twenty Annotations, which are a set of practical instruc-tions meant to indicate what. the Exercises are and which are intended t~ help both the director and the exercitant, but chiefly the former. By far the greater part of these twenty are meant for the director. From the beginning they make it clear to him that he is in charge of the retreat, that he is to conduct and control it to such a degree that it can scarcely be conceived without him. He is given detailed instructions as to the manner in which he is to give The Reverend Hugh Kelly is presently stationed at Rathfarnlmm Castle, Rathfarnham, Dublin, Ireland. 159 HUGH KELLY Review for Religious his conferences, to propose the spiritual truths. He is instructed that he is to watch the exercitant so as to get to know his interior reactions, that he is to visit him every day to find out how he is following the meditations, that he is to protect him against those temptations or illusions that will trouble him at certain stages, that he is to impart to him some criteria that will enable him to deal with spiritual experiences, like consolation or desolation. He is also to enlighten and encourage and comfort him. In all this we are very far from the idea of one who merely preaches a set of spiritual conferences; we have a very definite sketch of one whose work is not at all finished when he has ceased to address the exercitant. It is made quite clear that his more important function is to see to it that his message has been received, that it has produced a definite fruit, and that it is carrying the hearer forward on a planned line. Moreover, throughout the course of the retreat, the work of the director is indicated. He is to administer the doctrine ac-cording to the capacity of the exercitant. He is to control the elaborate method and system which constitute a great part of the whole process of the retreat; he has the duty and power to modify, change, omit, retard', hasten, according to the needs of his hearer. This watclfful attention is especially commanded in the business of the election which is the chief work of the whole retreat. The preparation for this decision is the most subtle and delicat~ part of the director's work. He must shepherd the exercitant to this decision in such a way that the latter will be in the most favorable condition, spiritually and psychologically, to make the decision which is most for God's glory. He must enlighten him gradually and skilfully; he must guard him against illusions and errors; he must submit him to strong selected influences; he must dispose him, as it were, in every department of soul; and finally he must instruct him how to manipulate the complex method of election. But in all this elaborate, delicate work the director is, if he is to be true to his proper function, not to impose himself; he is not to urge nor drive nor even to lead. His work is essentially to bring it about, by his skill and prudence, that the exercitant is in the most favorable condition of soul to know the will of God, to feel most surely the attraction of grace, to be freed from inordinate affections in his choice. Hence the director must keep himself in the background; he will arrange the setting, regulate the tem-perature, so to speak, ward off interruptions, induce a suitable 160 May, 1960 DIRECTOR OF THE RETREAT atmosphere. He will then leave the soul face-to-face with God; he will not enter the ring when the decision is being made. This role of the director is clear in the genesis of the Exercises. We know that they record the process and method of St. Ignatius as he passed through the different stages of his conversion and vocation. When he was convinced that he was called to be an apostle, he set about that work in a characteristic way. He was not a preacher, either in natural gifts or with canonical authority. His method was to converse simply with a few hearers in a con-versational tone, to show forcibly and concretely what they were to do to live good Catholic lives, His talks were quite practical: how to examine their conscience, how to distinguish mortal sin from venial, how to make the commandments a living influence in their daily lives. He was concerned that his hearers should apply what he had said to their individual needs. He was primarily a director and not a preacher. When he. came to write down the fruits of his experience, he maintained the chief features of his apostolate: he gave the director the place he himself had played in his work for souls. That distinct place was recognized from the beginning;, and several manuals expounding that role -- called directories -- were composed, one of them by St. Ignatius himself. The chief official directory was drawn up at the desire of Father Aquaviva within forty years of the death of St. Ignatius and was meant to gather up and make permanent the practice and tradition of those who had learned from him. Its purpose is -- as its name indicates -- to lay down what is the function of the director. It is a practical manual, a method of procedure, a set of rubrics, for the conducting of the retreat. Thus the place of the director is fixed as an essential part of the Exercises. The director thus understood has been accepted in the tradi-tion and practice of the reinstated Society of Jesus as well as in the old. But with the lapse of time has come a new kind of religious retreat which does not seem to afford such a place to the director. The type of retreat specifically envisaged by St. Ignatius is one of thirty days, made by a man who probably had no previous exper-ience of spiritual things, for the purpose of coming to a decisio~a about his state of life -- an individual vocation-retreat. The place of a director in such a retreat is obvious and has been described. But the almost universal type of retreat in our time is something quite different; it is given to a religious community, as a prescribed periodic exercise, to those who may have long ago given themselves 161 HUGH KELLY Review for Religious to the service of God and who may well have considerable experi-ence of the spiritual life. The question then arises immediately, Is the traditional role of the director possible or how far is it possible in such aretreat? The question is one that cannot fairly be evaded. We are convinced of the value of the Exercises for the modern apostolate; and this conviction is strongly reinforced by the com-mendation given by Pins XI --' the most splendid testimony given by the Holy See to them. We are convinced of the place the director, that it is something substantial in them. But is a place possible in the modern retreat? The very considerable differences which mark. off the modern retreat from that envisaged by St. Ignatius must inevitably to considerable differences in the manner of giving the Exercises. There will be some obvibus modifications demanded by the conditions. For instance, some of thedoctrines proposed, especially in the beginning of the book, are of an elementary nature --how examine one's conscience, how to prepare for a general confession, and so forth. In our modern community retreat more mature deeper instruction will be expected. In the Directory in Chapter Nine, a considerable freedom is allowed to those who are practiced "in spiritual things." They are allowed to meditate on the subjects which they think useful for themselves or for the purpose they before them in the retreat. In his book La Spiritualit~ de la Com-pagnie de J~su, Father de Guibert discusses some of the changes which the new kind of retreat involves. He points out that those who make a retreat every year the Exercises must be quite familiar and that there is a danger of tedious monotony. overcome that mood of overfamiliarity in the audience and present the Exercises with some measure of freshness, a retreat giver of our day will need to introduce certain "adaptations enrichments." These will generally be the development of basic spiritual ideas of the Exercises, which are capable of hfmite application and development. The question of the director is no less important a problem. The measure and kind of direction prescribed by St. Ignatius an individual inexperienced in the spiritual life and seeking will of God about his state of life would not be appropriate: modern community retreat. That is at once obvious; the problem is to find out how much direction can be given in such a retreat and in what form. The retreat master is dealing with people who have been religions for many years and who may have reached high level of prayer and union with God. The first point to 162 ~Iay, 1960 DIRECTOR OF THE RETREAT noted then is that such people do not need the direction of be-ginners. There could be no need for detailed step-by-step direction, of constant inquiry into" the movements of grace, of warning against temptations and illusions. The stage for such treatment has passed long ago. The second point to be made is that direction need not be continuous. A soul finds itself perhaps at a minor crossroad, about to make a decision which may have considerable consequences; or it may feel attracted to some new method or degree in the spiritual life. Or again a soul needs confirmation, assurance, and encouragement. Such a soul knows that the mere fact of manifesting one's aims, attractions, failures to a sympathetic and competent director will bring light or a warm sense of gratitude and security. The situation of such souls can be easily explained to an experienced director and valuable help derived from such a procedure. That is a true and fairly normal process of direction with souls well advanced. These do not feel the need of constant direction; they will get the help they need with such occasional interview, s. How often does one hear a priest or religious say that a certain retreat marked a stage in their life; and on inquiry it would be explained that the 'deciding influence did not come from what was said at the conference table but from an interview in the confessional. The priest giving the retreat was a trained director; he understood the situation, the needs and capacity of the soul; he gave the advice and enlightenment which the occasion demanded; his help constituted direction in the truest sense. It follows from this that in a retreat according to the method of the Exercises the place of confession is of great importance. It is through the confessional that the director will. do his work; it is there that the general instructions of the conference are applied to the needs and dispositions of the individual. We may have heard retreat masters say that all their work was done at the conferences and that consequently the retreat confession meant for the exer-citant merely the usual weekly confession of rule or at most a brief review of the year since the last retreat. Such an opinion shows a very naive idea of the complexity of the individual soul. It also shows that the director has been replaced by the preacher and that the traditional way of giving the Exercises has been abandoned. That this traditional view is not merely a venerable tradition but still very much a matter of practice is clear from recent works on the Exercises. One article begins by correcting a mistaken view as to the strong point of the whole scheme of the Exercises, the view 163 HUGH KELLY Review for Religious that the value lies primarily, if not entirely, in the rigorous con-nection, the studied progress of ideas. The author points out that such a view takes no account of the interior activity which is suggested and controlled by the director.~ Another article describes in detail the work of finding the will of God pursued by the com-bined efforts of the exercitant and the director. This treatment is not merely historical, but obviously envisages the modem retreat.2 We may take it then that to secure the tree distinctive fruit of a retreat a certain cooperation with the director is generally nec-essary. The soul that is responding more sensitively and generously to the interior movement of the Spiritual Exercises will see the value, ff not the need, of some contact with a skilful director. That contact may be brief, just one or two interviews in the confessional; but such briefmeetings will be truly helpful. They will be sufficient to give assurance about the general direction of the spiritual life and also perhaps sorely needed encouragement to continue to struggle against the paralyzing monotony of fervor maintained. No doubt the experienced soul will be quick to see the application of what the director says in his conferences; but if the troth is one which may have a considerable effect on the spiritual life, then it will be grasped more firmly and fruitfully if discussed with the director. In such a situation it is clear that the preacher has not taken over full control. The influence of the director is felt; it permeates all the stages; it is discreetly active behind the conferences. The director has not merely preached spiritual doctrine; he has tried to apply it. He has not merely instructed; he has actually guided. He has kept in touch with the individual exercitant -- at least with those who have realized the need or benefit of direction. He has a certain idea of how the Holy Spirit is working in that section of his audience, of how His inspirations are being received. In the sixth Annotation St. Ignatius points out that the entire absence of spiritual movements might constitute a suspicious sign. It might well indicate that the exercitant is not doing his duty, is not cooperating by his fidelity to the conditions of the retreat. Consequently he should be questioned with a view to discovering if his aridity is the result of negligence or is due to the action of God. If a retreat consists of a series of lectures, then the work of the preacher is done when he stands up from the table. He is 1Jean Laplace, "L'Expdrience du discernement dans les Exercices de Saint Ignace," Christus, 4 (1954), 28-49. 2Charles Jacquet, "Le rSle de l'instructeur de la retraite," Christus, 10 (1956), 208-24. 164 May, 1960 DIRECTOR OF THE RETREAT not expected to interest himself in the effect of his words on individual hearers. But in .such a situation there is no meaning in the Annotation of St. Ignatius. From what has been said it is clear that in a retreat according to the tradition of the Spiritual Exercises the confessional will play an important part because the work of direction will be done there. From the beginning then the director should make that fact evident. He should do what he can to get the exercitant to speak freely about his interior life. Whether .because of a certain natural reserve or because of a want of practice, many people find it very difficult to open their souls. The skilled director should have acquired means of dealing with these inhibited souls who have been locked up in themselves. There are certain leading questions which may help to split or melt the shell of reserve they have built around their interior life, questions which may set them thinking that the occasion may mean more than the telling of their sins and that there might be some benefit in revealing their state of soul to the gaze of a skilled and sympathetic director. "Are you satisfied with your progress after so many years .of religious life? Do you realize practically what your vocation de-mands of you? Have you been disappointed with religious life? Could you describe your way of prayer? Have you noticed a change in your prayer since the noviceship? What do you think is the strongest attraction which God exercises on you? Are you satisfied with living the daily routine superficially without much advertance to the general purpose of your religious life, which is perfection? Do you realize that perfection consists in charity? What is your idea of being a saint?" Questions like these will often come with a kind of revelation to certain souls. These questions are perhaps a new approach to the spiritual life; they may show a fresh aspect of what had seemed dull and uninteresting. They will often loose tongues which have been atrophied and open up interiors that will benefit greatly by light and air. We may take it that every religious is interested in his spiritual life, that he is prepared to talk about it if he knows how to do so and if he sees that another is taking an interest in him and is prepared to help him. This power of unlocking consciences is a part of the endowment of the director. It will, of course, be possessed in unequal measure; but every priest who gives the Exercises should try to cultivate it. There is another aspect of this attention to direction in a retreat which is worth emphasizing. The obvious handicap which the giver of the Exercises has to start with is the fact that they 165 HUGH KELLY Review [or Religio~8 are well known to his hearers. Most of these have made the Exer-cises before, perhaps many times. The foundation, sin, the kingdom, the standards -- they have been over that road before and know every step of it well. The strategic value of surprise, so sought after in warfare, must necessarily be sacrificed; there can be no surprise -- substantially -- in the Exercises. One who gives a retreat not based on the Exercises is free from this disadvantage. His hearers live in an atmosphere of expectancy. They troop to every new lecture as travelers to a mystery tour. Such a retreat may well be a series of unexpectancies and even surprises. The director of the Exercises, who has to forego this strategic pedagogic advantage, must try to compensate some other way. What he loses on the swings he must make up on the roundabouts. He will, of course, try to give what freshness he can to his meditations; but it is the Exercises he is giving, and for all his ingenuity most of what he says will be well known to his hearers. But he has another resource in his difficulty; a resource that may well make the retreat something really personal and appealing. He must remember that he is a director. He must try to bring the Exercises home to the needs of the individual soul. He must see to it that the retreat is not merely a set of entertaining instructions; but that the exercitant cooperates with the light and grace that are offered. This is the work of direction which, if skilfully per-formed, can more than make up for the familiarity of the matter. The truest benefit and even interest of a retreat will not come so much from the originality of the conferences as from the degree in which the truths have been assimilated and experienced. This statement is but a free translation of the well-known second Annotation of St. Ignatius which states a principle of the highest importance for prayer: "for it is not to know much, but it is to understand and savor the matter interiorly, that fills and satisfies the soul." This savor or taste of spiritual truths, this personal appreciation of the ways of God, does not come as a matter of course with the hearing of a discourse; it presupposes a distinctive personal effort. It will come from a sensitiveness of the exercitant, to which the action of the director will greatly ~ontribute. When it comes it is the true measure of the value of the retreat. It has made new and fresh some truths which were thought to be old and worn. The truths which St. Ignatius strung together in the pattern which constitutes the Spiritual Exercises and which had such an astounding effect on men like Xavier and Faber and Canisius 166 May, 1960 DIRECTOR OF THE RETREAT were not new truths; they belonged to the general Christian tradi-tion. The originality of St. Ignatius is that by means of the pattern and system he has given to these truths he can communicate to others something of the force and power that he himself got from them. His presentation of these truths presupposes the cooperation of the director. A person might read the book without feeling any particular enlightenment or enflaming of soul. The Exercises, if they are to produce their effect, must be given, administered; delivered, not merely read or heard. If that cooperation which St. Ignatius and tradition assigned to the director ceases to be forthcoming, then the Spiritual Exercises will lose one of the chief conditions of their efficacy. Without the work of the discernment of spirits in which the director has a necessary role, the Exercises are nothing, says P~re Laplace. "They will perhaps furnish an occasion for prayer in silence, for learning how to examine one's conscience and make a good confession. These advantages are not to be despised, but it is not necessary to go ~o St.~ Ignatius to get them.''~ The Exercises promise a greater, rarer spiritual benefit, but on condition that they are made in their true conditions. 80p. cir., p. 48. 167 Survey of Roman Documents R. F. Smith, S.J. THIS ARTICLE will give a survey of the documents which appeared in the December, 1959, issues of Acta Apostolicae Sedis (AAS). All page references throughout the survey will be to the 1959 AAS (v. 51). Encyclical on the Missions Under the date of November 28, 1959 (pp. 833-64), John XXIII issued the encyclical Princepspastorum. The new encyllcalwas occasioned by the fortieth anniversary of Pope Benedict XV's apostolic epistle on the missions, Maximum illud; to a large extent the encyclical of the present Pope is a reiteration and confirmation of the mission principles laid down in Benedict XV's document. The first principal division of the encycEcal is concerned with the need of a native hierarchy and clergy in mission lands. John XXIII recalled with gratitude the great increase in native clergy since the publication of Maximum illud. The Pope noted that the first Asian bishop was consecrated in 1923 and that Vicars Apostolic were taken from the native African clergy in 1939. Up to the year 1959, 68 Asian bishops had been consecrated and 25 African bishops. Statistics re-garding native clergy are even more impressive. In 1918 there were 919 native priests in Asia; by 1957 that number had increased to 5,553. In the same year, 1918, Africa had 90 native priests, while by 1957 their number had increased to 1,811. John XXIII then went on to urge the present members of the native hierarchy and clergy in mission lands to exercise their priesthood faithfully. He exhorted them to preach to their people about the dignity and greatness of the priesthood and to urge them to pray the Lord of the harvest to send more laborers into the field. The Vicar of Christ also noted that missionary lands stRl need the help of priests from other countries; such priests are not to be regarded as strangers, because every priest finds his fatherland wherever the kingdom of God is beginning or flourishing. The second principal part of the encylical emphasizes the necessity of a thorough training for the native clergy of missionary lands. This training, the Pope insisted, must first of all provide for the sanctity of the native clergy, for it is chiefly by sanctity that a priest becomes the light of the world and the salt of the earth. After sanctity, the most important thing is a solid and complete intellectual training of the native clergy. In this connection the Pope noted that the seminary training should not take place in localities too distant from the society of other 168 I~OMAN DOCUMENTS men, for the native clergy must be led to understand their people and should be trained to take over their leadership. The seminary training of the native clergy should give adequate time to the study of missiology, according to the wishes and directives of Benedict XV and the following pontiffs. The native clergy should be encouraged to baptize the native culture; like Matthew Ricci, they should be so educated in an under-standing and appreciation of the native culture that they will attract their countrymen to the truth of Christianity. The native clergy should be trained to use all means of mOderu communication for the spread of Christianity, and they should be given studies of social matters so that they will be equipped to establish a Christian social order in their countries. In concluding this part of the encyclical, John XXIII warned the native clergy that like all priests their first love must be for the whole world and not for their own country; otherwise they will be tempted to love their earthly fatherland more than their heavenly one. The third part of the encyclical is concerned with the native laity of missionary countries. It is not sufficient, the Holy Father emphasized, to convert and baptize large numbers of persons; they must also be trained to work for the present and future increase of the Church. The number of Christians, he said, is insignificant if their quality is low and if they do not bear fruit. Christian education must show the laity the greatness and grandeur of their faith so that they will be inspired to the practice of virtue and of the apostolate. A true Christian must realize that his first and fundamental duty is to be a witness to the truth that he believes and to the grace which has transformed him. It is in the light of this, remarked the Pope, that one must understand the words of St. John Chrysostom: "No one would be a pagan, if we were worthy Christians" (Tenth Homily on i Timothy, Migne PG, v. 62, col. 551). This testimony of the laity, the Pope added, must be given not only by individual Christians but also by the Christian community as such. This will be done especially by a manifestation of that Christian charity which surpasses all distinctions between nations and languages and embraces all men, whether friend or enemy. The fourth principal part of the encyclical considers the training of the laity in the apostolate. This training, the Pope said, should begin from the earliest moments with special emphasis on it at times like the occasion of the administration of the sacrament of confirmation. The Pope praised the work of lay catechists, saying that their work is perhaps the most important apostolate exercised by laymen. He also called for the establishment of Catholic Action on the missions, but warned that it must be adapted to the conditions and necessities of each country. He also noted that Catholic Action does not exclude the possiblity that laymen themselves have varying degrees of direction and administration in it; indeed members of the laity who show signs of leadership should be educated for such direction and administration. The laity must be taught that the influence of Christian doctrine must be manifested in 169 R. F. SMITH Review for Religious the area of public questions, especially those concerning schools, as-sistance to the poorer classes, and the administration of public affairs. The Pope also called for the formation of lay groups in missionary countries to study doctrinal, social, and apostolic matters. In con-cluding this section of the encyclical the Pope urged laymen of the entire Christian world to give serious consideration to means and methods of helping their fellow laymen of missionary countries who have just been converted; and he exhorted bishops to give adequate care to laymen from the missions who may be studying in their dioceses. In the fifth and concluding part of the encyclical, the Holy Father asked the entire Christian world to continue and to increase their aid to the missions. He also urged bishops to allow priests who have a vocation to the missions to follow their desire, even when there is a scarcity of priests in the diocese. In the same way bishops should be ready to let outstanding laymen of their dioceses go to the missions. The final paragraphs of the encyclical are devoted to encouraging missionaries in those countries which are presently persecuting the Church. Allocutions and Messages On November 22, 1959 (pp. 903-7), the Holy Father addressed a gathering of Italian seminarians. In the course of his speech to them the Pontiff offered them a three-point program of life. As future priests they must be characterized first of all by purity of heart. This, he said, has an attractiveness that is irresistible for souls. This purity ofheart, he continued, is the atmosphere in which every serious vocation lives. It is an indispensable conditon for a disinterested service of one's neighbor; .it prepares the incomparable joy of long periods of prayer at the foot of the tabernacle; and it adorns the priest with the attrac-tiveness of Christ Himself. The second need for the priest, the Pope continued, is strength of character. The priest, he pointed out, requires a steellike quality of character and will, for he must engage in a con-tinuous struggle against his passions and his egoism. Future priests must be able to resist the attractions and seductions of the world, and they must be masters of themselves in every situation. Finally, the Pope said, the last mark of a priest must be the ardor of his charity. Charity, he noted, is the fulfillment of the law; hence it is necessary for the faithful fulfillment of one's daily duties, whether these be large or small Charity sustains a priest's obedience to his bishop and makes him Serve his diocese without thought of earthly and human returns. It is also this charity, he told his audience, that will keep a seminarian from giving way in the face of the difficulties he finds in his life of prayer and study. On November 18, 1959 (pp. 867-70), John XXIII add~ressed a gathering of ecclesiastical censors of books. He told them that their work was directed to the discovery of genuinely human and Christian 170 May, 1960' I~OMAN DOCUMENTS values and to the rejection of error and the danger of error. Accordingly their work is a real .pastoral: occupation, participating in the solicitude of the Church to guide and instruct her children in truth. The Pontiff told his listeners, that they must possess a sane realism as well as an apostolic sense and told them to avoid an intransigent severity which scourges but does not encourage. Finally he'suggested to them that their motto in their work should be the ancient phrase: Unity in necessary things; liberty in uncertain things; charity in everything. On NoVember 29, 1959 (pp. 909-11), the Vicar of Christ radioed a message~ to the First National Congress of Cuba and the General As-sembly of the Catholic Apostolate. He told his listeners (who had just received Communion in a body) that since they had just taken the Bread which is Christ, they must have but one heart and one soul, being conscious of themselves as the sons of the one Father. The face of the earth, he continued, would be changed if true charity reigned in the hearts of men. Hatred, he added, brings only the bitter fruits of death, while love establishes social peace. On November 10, 1959 (pp. 865-67), the Pontiff addressed members of the Food and Agriculture Organization. He told his listeners that they were engaged in a true work of mercy, for their purpose is to assist the most unfortunate of human beings -- those who are hungry. He also told them that theexistence of their organization is one of the great signs of the awakening of social consciousness and responsibility in the modem world. The Pope concluded his allocution by praising the combination of realism 'and optimism that marks the work of the organization. On December 6, 1959 (pp.' 908-9), the Pope gave a short address to President Eisenhower, then visiting the Vatican. Miscellaneous Documents Under the date of May 29, 1959 (pp. 871-74), the Sacred Congrega-tion of Rites approved the introduction of the cause of the Servant of God, Guido Maria Conforti (1865-1931), archbishop-bishop of Parma, founder of the Pious Society of St. Francis Xavier for Foreign Missions. By a decree of the Sacred Congregation of the Council issued on Decem-ber 3, 1959 (p. 918), the privilege was granted to all Catholics to change the fast and abstinence of December 24 to December 23. On November 23, 1959 (p. 921), the Sacred Apostolic Penitentiary announced that a partial indulgence of three hundred days could be gained once on the wedding day only (cf. 1960 AAS, v. 52, p. 62) by married couples who with contrite heart kiss the marriage ring 6f the wife and say the follow-ing prayer or one similar to it: Grant, O Lord, that loving You we may love each other and that we may live in accordance with Your holy law. On August 8, 1959 (pp. 915-18), the Sacred Consistorial Congrega-tion published the list of faculties and privileges which have been granted to the Church in Latin America and in the Philippine Islands. 171 VIEWS, NEWS, PREVIEWS Review for Religious The privileges and faculties listed in the document will be in force until December 31, 1969. On November 17, 1959 (p. 920), the Sacred Congregation of Seminaries and Studies declared that a university entrusted to the diocesan clergy or to a religious family depends on the same congregation, even if the university has not been granted canonical erection. Finally the Secretary of State issued on November 16, 1959 (pp. 875-76), the statutes which are to regulate the activity of the newly founded Vatican Film Library. The purpose of the library will be to collect movies and television films concerning the following topics: the Pope, his representatives, and the Roman Curia; apostolic and charitable activity in the Church and cultural works promoted b~ Catholics; the religious life of the world; all works of high artistic and human quality. Views, News, Previews Correction: Missionary Servants AN,V, EieDwIsT, ONRewIAs,L P EreRviReOwRs, ,p iang teh 2e 8J,a oncucaarsyi oisnseude t hoef tfhoell oRw~i.nvgx ~in.w- , formative letter from Fathe~ David O'Connor, M.S.SS.T.: "Surprise and laughter, mixed with a little downright masculine indignation, was the response to our Congregation being referred to as the Missionary Sisters of the Most Holy Trinity! Actually, our oi~cial title is Missionary Servants of the Most Holy Trinity (M.S.SS.T.). We have 230 priests and brothers engaged in missionary works and activities in fourteen states (mostly in the Southern dioceses), the District of Columbh and Puerto Rico. Our motherhouse is now in Silver Spring, Maryland. Our sisters community, Missionary Servants of the Most Blessed Trinity (M.S.B.T.), has its motherhouse in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Over five hundred sisters labor in missionary, hospital and charity work throughout the United States, Puerto Rico and Cuba. They have a modern, distinct habit without the customary veil. The sisters have charge of the charity bureaus in many dioceses and arch-dioceses in the eastern section of our country. It was never the inten-tion of the founder, Father Thomas A. Judge, C.M., to establish two religious congregations. His interest and attention were given to foster~g the lay apostolate among souls who wished to dedicate themselves to this type of work for the Church. When some of these began to live a community type of life, they asked him to petition the proper ec-clesiastical authority to erect them as a religious community. Along with his two religious communities, the lay apostolate group in our Missionary Cenacle family continues to grow and expand. There are well over 1,500 members active in many sections of the country." 172 May, 1960 VIEWS, NEWS, PREVIEWS Summer Institutes and Courses Catholic University of America: The Mari~logy Program will be offered for the fourth time in the 1960 summer session. Registration dates are Jtme 22 to 25; classes begin June 27 and end with examinations, August 4 and 5. Courses are open to both undergraduates and graduates, with credits applicable towards degrees inthe field of religious education. A certificate is awarded those who complete a full two-summer program in the theology of our Blessed Lady. The lectures are under the direction of the Reverend Eamon R. Carroll, O.Carm, assistant professor of sacred theology at Catholic University and past president of the Mariological Society of America. Scheduled for 1960 are: "Advanced Mariology" (two credits) covering privileges of the Virgin Mary such as freedom from inherited and personal sin, fullness of grace, assumption, queenship, and the current question of the Mary-Church relationship; and "Marian Doctrine of Recent Popes" (two credits) covering analysis of papal statements of the past century, such as the Ineffabilis Deus of Plus IX, on the Immaculate Conception, the major rosary encyclicals of Leo XIII, the Ad diem illum of St. Pius X on spiritual motherhpod, the LUX veritatis of Plus XI on divine maternity, the Munificentissimus Deus of Pius XII on the assumption, and the Grata .recordatio of John XXIII on the rosary. A folder with full informatioK is available from the Registrar, The Catholic University of America, Washington 17, D.C. Dominican College, San Rafael, California: Registration for the summer session will take place on June 25 and 26. The session will close on August 3. An extensive undergraduate program leads to the Bachelor of Arts degree. The degree of Master of Arts may be gained in the fields of education,_ English, biochemistry, history, and religion. The graduate program in theology is under the direction of the Domin-ican Fathers of the Holy Name Province. The classes are open to grad-uate students who wish to benefit from them as well as to those who are taking the full program. For the summer of 1960, Father P. K. Meagher, O.P., S.T.M., will give a course in the Epistles of St. Paul; Father J. P. Kelly, D.P., S.T.M., courses in liturgy and ascetical theology; Father John Fearon, O.P., S.T.L., a course in canon law. Four courses will be available for those interested in the Confraternity of Christian Doctrine. Workshops are planned in drama, children's literature, music, and physical education. Religious who wish an M. A. degree from the Catholic University of America may take courses and satisfy all requirements at the Pacific Coast Branch on the Dominican College campus. Three large dormitories are available for sisters, and a new dining room for sisters, priests, and brothers. For the summer session announcement, write to Sister M. Richard, O.P., Dominican College, San Rafael, California. For~lham University: The Tenth Annual Institute on Religious and Sacerdotal Vocations will be held on the campus of Fordham University 173 VIEWS, NEWS, PREVIEWS Review for Religious on Wednesday, July 13, and Thursday, July 14. Priests, religious, and the laity interested in stimulating, encouraging, and promoting voca-tions to the priesthood or religious life are invited to be present. The Fifth Annual Workshop for the Mistresses of Novices, Postulants, and Junior Professed will be held from Monday, July 18, until Friday, July 22, inclusive. The lecturers will be the Reverend Martin J. Neylon, S.J., Novice Master, St. Andrew-on-Hudson, Poughkeepsie, New York; Reverend Edmund J. Hogan, S.J., Chairman of the Department of Theology, Fairfield University, Fairfield, Connecticut; Reverend Joseph G. Keegan, S.J., Department of Psychology, Fordham Uni-versity. The topics to be discussed will be: The Adjustment of the Novice, Prayer, Emotional Maturity in Religious. The Fourth Annual Workshop for Local Superiors will be held from Monday, July 25, until Friday, July 29, inclusive. The lecturers will be Reverend Edmund J. Hogan, S.J., Reverend Joseph G. Keegan, S.J, and Reverend John F. Gilson, S.J., Vice-Chairman, Division of Educational Psychology, Measurements, and Guidance, School of Education, Fordham Uni-versity. The topics to be discussed will be: Prayer, Emotional Maturity, The Spiritual Ideal of the Local Superior. Address all communications to: Reverend John F. Gilson, S.J., Director of Institutes and Workshops, Fordham University, New York 7, New York. Gonzaga University, Spokane, Washington: The summer session for 196o will include three two-week institutes for sisters: "Writings of St. John of the Cross" conducted by Fathers Louis Haven, S.J., and Michael McHugh, S.J., from June 20 to July 1; "Understanding Human Nature," by Fathers Van Christoph, S.J,, and John Evoy, S.J., from July 5 to July 15; "The Last Things," by Fathers Joseph Conwell, S.J., Leo Robinson, S.J., and Vincent Beuzer, S:J., from July 18 to July 29. There will also be a two-week institute for priests from July 18 to 29 in the mornings, on psychological guidance, conducted by Fathers John Evoy, S.J., and Van Christoph, S.J. 'For information about the second year of the Master of Arts program in Sacred Theology (five summer cycle) write to the Reverend Joseph Conwell, S.J., Chairman, Gonzaga University, East 502 Boone Avenue, Spokane 2, Washington. Immaculate Conception Seminary, Conception, Missouri: A pastoral institute will be held this summer for priests and clerics in major orders, both diocesan and religious. The full coursewill'run for eight weeks, June 19 to August 14; however, any number of two-week periods may be attended. The institute is designed to furnish instruction beyond the regular four-year course in theology. For the religious who attend, the days of class may count toward the days of formal instruction required by the apostolic constitution Sedes sapientiae and the annexed Statuta generalia. For information on the institute write to: Director of the Pastoral Institute, Conception Seminary, Conception, Missouri. 174 May, 1960 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Saint Joseph's College, Rensselaer Indiana: An Institute of Liturgical Music, largely modeled after,the Corso Ordinario of Gregorian Chant of the Pontifical Instittite 6f Sacred Music in Rome~, has been initiated. The institute will be held every summer; this year, from June 20 to July 30. The program is open to priests, brothers, sisters, seminarians, lay men' and lay'women. It will offer a comprehedsive program of theory, chant, polyphony~ organ, and so forth, leading to the Bachelor of Arts d'~gree in Liturgical" Music for those students Who have a bachelor's degree from a recognized college or university, or to a Certificate in Liturgical Music for tho~e who do not have a bachelor's degree. All courses in chant and polyphony will be taught by instructors who have been schooled in the Pontifical Institute of Sacred Music in Rome. The faculty Will include Fathe~ Lawrence Heiman, C.PP.S., of St. Joseph's College and chah~nan of the Institute;, Father Eugene Lin-dusky, O.S.C,, of Crosier Seminary, Onamia, .Minnesota; and Mr. Noel Goemanne, choir director and organist'at St. Rita's Church, Detroit, Michigan. Fathers Heiman and Lindusky hold degrees from the Pon-tifical Institute in Rome, Mr. Goemanne, a former student of Flor Peeters, holds a Laureate from Lemmens Institute in Mechelen, Bel-gium. Further',Inform~tion may be obtained by writing to Father Lawrence Heiman, C.PP.S., St. Joseph's College, Rensselaer, Indiana. ( uestions and Answers [The following answers a~e given by Father Joseph F. (~allen, S. J., professor of canon law at Woodstock College, Woodstock, Maryland.I The following questions and ariswers are a continuation of the series on local houses and local superiors which was begun in the March, 1960, issue of the RsvI~.w. 15. We are a clerical exempt order. We have a parish, high school, and'college under the one religious superior. Therefore, there is only one canonically erected house and only one moral person. What permissions do we need to transfer the college classrooms to a location two miles distant from the present location but within the same diocese? Must we have a further permission later when the college faculty begins to reside at the new location while re-maining, however, under the authority of one and the same local superior as at present? This is a question of a separated establishment (c. 497, § 3). Sep-arated establishments, whether built or opened, that is, to be constructed or used as such in a building already constructed, demand for validity the special written permission, of the ordinary of the place of the estab-lishment. For validity, the permission must be in writing; and the argument is the same as that given in Question 11. This permission 175 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Review for Religious of the ordinary is sufficient for any institute, even if exempt (cf. Question 13). The permission is special in the sense that it must be distinct from that given for the canonically erected house to which the establishment is attached. These establishments may be for any purpose whatever, for example, all types of schools; hospitals; clinics; orphanages; homes for the aged, the poor, or delinquents; recreation centers; places for the education of candidates for the institute, and so forth. Their two distinctive notes are that they are separated from and are part of the canonically erected houses to which they are attached. If they are not separated, for example, to be located on the same grounds, no permission of the local ordinary is necessary, unless such a work was excluded in the permission for the religious house. Separation was defined in Ques-tion 2. If they are to be canonically erected houses, all the formalities described above in Questions 11-13 are necessary. All strictly filial houses obviously come under the. present heading, since they are merely separated establishments in which the religious reside. Authors frequently presume that all such establishments are filial houses, that is, that the religious reside in them. This is not always true, for example, as in the present question, religious have begun colleges at a distance from their house without residing in the college for a considerable period after its opening. No added permission would be necessary to begin residence in such a case, since this is not a formal external change in the establishment nor in itself anything that demands an immediate change of the establishment into a canonically erected house. If a small school is opened by a parish or diocese and sisters residing in another house are engaged simply to teach in it, the special permission of canon 497 is not required, because the institute itself did not build or open this establishment. The special permission will be necessary if and when the sisters are to reside in the small house as a filial house. It is more probable that a separated establishment or filial house should be located at least within the same diocese as the canonically erected house of which it is part, since the canon demands a special written permission for either of these, that is, one distinct from that given for ,the canonically erected house, and thus appears to state that the same local ordinary is to give both permissions. Several' authors exclude a long distance between the canonically erected house and its dependencies. They argue that otherwise the dependence would be apparent rather than real and that the members of the filial house would not be able to exercise their rights in the canonically erected house (cf. Question 6). Neither of these arguments appears to be certain. The dependence of the filial house is less when the authority of the one in charge is delegated by a higher superior, as may be done and is the practice in centralized institutes. It is certainly the practice of religious institutes to locate especially filial houses at a distance and in other dioceses, and constitutions approved by the Holy See contain no general 176 May, 1960 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS norm contrary to this practice. When a separated establishment or filial house is to be located in

The 6th International Week of Science, Technology and Innovation, is an event organized by Universidad Francisco de Paula Santander Cúcuta and Ocaña, aimed at the academic - scientific community and the productive sectors of the region, whose purpose is the dissemination of the advances in research and extension of institutions of the National and International scope, through research groups and seedbeds, promoting the participation of the productive sectors in research, extension, technological development and innovation activities that strengthen the University - Company - State relationship and the exchange of experiences with researchers from the National and International level. ; La VI Semana Internacional de la Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación, es un evento organizado por la Universidad Francisco de Paula Santander Cúcuta y Ocaña, dirigido a la comunidad académico - científica y los sectores productivos de la región, cuyo propósito es la difusión de los avances en investigación. y extensión de instituciones del ámbito Nacional e Internacional, a través de grupos de investigación y semillero, promoviendo la participación de los sectores productivos en actividades de investigación, extensión, desarrollo tecnológico e innovación que fortalezcan la relación Universidad - Empresa - Estado y el intercambio de experiencias con investigadores desde el nivel Nacional e Internacional. ; Programación Aplicación de la metodología de valorización del estado organizacional veo asociada al modelo de acompañamiento rural de la escuela de liderazgo, asociatividad y desarrollo comunitario eladc en norte de santander Apoyo a la internacionalización del sector cacao en norte de santander a través de establecer estrategias de posicionamiento y protección de la marca somos cacao s.a.s. con base en las certificaciones requeridas por el gobierno de colombia Costos de producción: innovaciones y prácticas estratégicas de las mipymes manufactureras Cultura y obligaciones tributarias: un análisis en el sector comercial El impacto de marketing digital en la competitividad las empresas del sector de restaurantes en la ciudad de cúcuta y su área metropolitana El manejo de personal ante la actitud hacia el compromiso organizacional en las empresas del sector hotelero de cúcuta colombia Estrategias laborales de utilización del tiempo libre para estudiantes ufps Fundamentos conceptuales de la estrategia en los negocios internacionales: caso café galavis, cúcuta, colombia Modelo de evaluación externa para la cadena de valor de cacao en norte de santander San cayetano, un destino turistico en norte de santander desde el marketing social Sucesión generacional de las empresas familiares. una mirada desde la literatura mototaxism as an occupational alternative to unemployment Lineamientos pedagógicos para la formación del contador público en la gestión ambiental, desde la accion docente Videoclip como herramienta de promoción turística, caso: municipio de arboledas, norte de santander Análisis del rol de las mujeres administrativas en la resolución de conflictos del sector cooperativo en ocaña, norte de santander Diagnóstico de capacidades emprendedoras con enfoque de economia naranja en aprendices sena cedrum Incidencia del uso de las tic en los resultados académicos La nueva competencia geopolítica por el cáucaso sur y sus complejos conflictos internos Análisis socio-económico de las comunidades indígenas y rom reconocidas por la alcaldía municipal de san josé de cúcuta Auditoria forense, técnica esencial en la prevención de contravenciones en el manejo financiero del sector bancario de ocaña Caracterización del desempeño financiero en las empresas del sector hotelero en el municipio de san josé de cúcuta-colombia para los periodos 2014-2017 Certificación halal como estrategia de internacionalización de productos agrícolas de norte de santander El perfil del emprendedor en tiempo de crisis Estandarización de procesos administrativos y operativos en la fabricación de productos textiles bajo el paradigma de los manuales de procedimientos Impacto socio-económico, político y ambiental de los asentamientos humanos en la periferia de la ciudad Inversiones sostenibles: agroecoturismo Representaciones sociales de los modelos gerenciales que poseen los empresarios de los clubes deportivos de fútbol de la ciudad de cúcuta – norte de santander Panorama actual de la educación superior a distancia en iberoamérica Realidad socioeconómica de la población migratoria venezolana en cúcuta Gestión del conocimiento como estrategia competitiva en las organizaciones entre colombia- finlandia Estudios de la inteligencia sobre la educación para la innovación El proceso de enseñanza en las ciencias contables de la ufps-cucuta La innovación como elemento competitivo de las organizaciones de china La economía sostenible como factor crucial de la localización de plantas industriales en colombia Apropiación y construcción territorial campesina en el catatumbo: zona de reserva campesina y territorios agroalimentarios campesinos Caracterización de semillas con especies nativas propias del catatumbo como eje estratégico para la conservación y manejo agroecológico de la zona Evaluación del endocarpio de coco (cocos nucifera) como sustrato en el cultivo de orellana (pleurotus ostreatus) en el municipio de villa del rosario, norte de santander Propiedades mecánicas del adobe mejorado con cal y ceniza volante, como empleo en ladrillos de construcción ambientalmente sostenible en tierra Reconstrucción de series de tiempo de precipitación mensual en clima tropical Estructura de los escarabajos coprófagos en la evaluación del estado de conservación en el bosque seco del jardín botánico jorge enrique quintero arenas de la universidad francisco de paula santander ocaña Calidad del agua en la producción de las unidades piscícolas en los municipios del zulia, san cayetano y villa del rosario Comparación de sistemas de evaluación seminal en el parámetro de motilidad (sca® versus imagej®) en semen porcino Diagnóstico de sistemas de producción caprino en el área metropolitana de cúcuta (norte de santander) Efecto de diferentes niveles de inclusión de harina de chachafruto (erythrina edulis), sobre el desempeño productivo y la sobrevivencia de juveniles de cachama negra (colossoma macropomum) Elaboración y caracterización fisicoquímica de la harina de banano bocadillo (musaaa simmonds) Estandarización de diferentes concentrados de sucrosa. en la vitrificación de semen ovino Evaluación de la viabilidad de semillas de capsicum annuum usando la prueba de tetrazolio Identificación de factores que han conllevado a la disminución del rebaño caprino en el área metropolitana de cúcuta Integración de datos georreferenciados, multiescala y multidisciplinares para caracterizar espacialmente la respuesta fenotípica del caballo criollo de la orinoquía La apicultura como estrategia de conservación de la biodiversidad y alternativa productiva de la ganadería doble propósito con uso de sistemas silvopastoriles del bosque seco tropical Uso de la analítica de datos en el estudio epidemiológico de la fiebre aftosa. aplicación en el departamento del cesar Conservación del caballo criollo de la orinoquía y desarrollo de una línea de caballo de tropa para el ejército nacional de colombia Determinación de la edad óptima de pastoreo para la estrella africana (cynodon plectostachyus) en un sistema lechero tropical. Diseño de una planta de producción de células bhk-21 para la obtención de la vacuna leucemia felina vlfe usando superpro designer Efecto del concentrado autólogo de plaquetas en las velocidades espermáticas en semen ovino Evaluación de la funcionalidad del almidon de arracacha (arracacia xanthorrhiza) en galletas tipos finas Evaluación de los impactos ambientales derivados de la actividad de minería de arcilla o carbón a partir de una propuesta metodológica Evaluación ex ante de un proyecto de conservación y desarrollo a partir de "pseudognaphalium" (vira vira) en bogotá-colombia Impacto de los extremos de variabilidad climática en la comunidad de macroinvertebrados acuáticos en el cauce principal del río pamplonita en el periodo (2000 – 2014) Impactos agropecuarios en el catatumbo ocacionados por la conflictividad social pre-factibilidad de la producción de bioplástico a partir de almidón extraido de cáscaras de platanos por fermentación aerobia del hongo rizophus oryzae Validación de la metodologia para la estimacion de la biomasa total de la vegetacion arborea de la comuna 9 del municipio san josé de cucuta Simulación de un bioproceso a escala industrial para la producción del hongo medicinal ganoderma lucidum mediante la herramienta computacional superpro designer Simulación mediante cfd de la hidrodinámicagenerada por una turbina rushton a diferentes velocidades de agitación en fluidos no-newtonianos Sensibilidad de plantas de tomate a salinidad por nacl y fusarium oxysporum Evaluación de las propiedades fisicoquímicas, microbiológicas y organoléptica de de cupcakes apartir de moringa stevia y cocoa. Aislamiento e identificacion de cepas nativas productoras de exopolisacaridos a partir de productos autoctonos arnr 16s como herramienta aplicada en la caracterización molecular de géneros y especies de bacterias Aspectos a tener en cuenta en el proceso de vigilancia epidemiologica relacionada con el riesgo biológico Biodegradabilidad y toxicidad de lixiviados de rellenos sanitarios tratados por fotocatálisis heterogénea, usando tio2 en un colector parabólico compuesto Concentración de cultivos microalgales empleando un electroflotador open-access . Efecto de la altitud y tamaño de explotaciones ganaderas sobre aspectos productivos y reproductivos en la region sur-occidental de norte de santander Efecto de la fuente de carbono en un proceso de fijación biológica de nitrógeno utilizando efluentes piscicolas Estimación de la huella hídrica verde y azul en la producción de caña de azúcar (saccharum officinarum) orgánica. caso de estudio: zona centro del valle del cauca Estrategias de adaptación al cambio climático y de prevención ante la ocurrencia de desastres socio-naturales a partir de la percepción de los habitantes del municipio chitagá Evaluación de dos fuentes de calcio sobre parámetros de calidad de cascara del huevo en reproductoras cobb avian 48 en condiciones comerciales Evaluación de la capacidad de biorremediación de aguas postconsumo de piscicultura mediante el uso de microalgas y cianobacterias Evaluación de la toxicidad de extractos de plantas medicinales contra spodoptera exigua Evaluación de un sistema de riego automatizado para el control de humedad en el proceso de compostaje Evaluación del bienestar animal en proyecto piscicola de la universidad francisco de paula santander ocaña Evaluación del sistema de tratamiento agua potable san fernando – eficiencia y calidad Identificación del potencial agroindustrial del municipio de tibú desde indicadores del desarrollo sostenible Inducción de genes pr1 y mpk1 asociados a resistencia en papaya inoculada con prsv Medición del bienestar animal en el aprisco de la granja experimental de la universidad francisco de paula santander ocaña, mediante el protocolo welfare quality® Medición del bienestar animal en el sistema de producción avícola de la granja experimental de la universidad francisco de paula santander ocaña ufpso, mediante el protocolo welfare quality® Microorganismos rizosféricos asociados al ciclo del carbono en el cultivo de arroz, norte de santander Potencial biotecnológico de una cepa de oscillatoria sp termotolerante para la producción de colorantes Protocolo de cosecha y determinacion de metabolitos de interes industrial en microalgas Protocolo para el mantenimiento de cepas y escalamiento en la producción de microalgas de interés industrial Protocolo para la bioprospección eficiente de microalgas y cianobacterias termotolerantes Protocolo para la extracción de ficobiliproteínas (apc, c-pc, pe) de cianobacterias termotolerantes Sostenibilidad y responsabilidad social: factor determinante de buenas prácticas en el sector microempresarial, ocaña-colombia Tratamiento de aguas contaminadas con glifosato utilizando electrocoagulación Elaboración de yogurt funcional a partir de remolacha (beta vulgaris) y leche ultrasonificada Solución por métodos numéricos de la ecuación del calor asociada a la transferencia térmica en polímeros Caracterización mineralógica de material arcilloso de la formación guayabo a diferentes por difracción de rayos x Impacto de la interdisciplinariedad en las investigaciones científicas Análisis descriptivo de las concepciones sobre storytelling en matemáticas Historia de las vías férreas de cúcuta, en el currículo de matemática financiera Impacto del programa jóvenes en acción en la formacion inicial de educadores en matematicas Efecto de la velocidad de centrifugado sobre las propiedades anticorrosivas de los recubrimientos de bismuto-titanio obtenidos vía sol-gel en sustratos de 316l Análisis térmico, ftir-atr y frx de nidos de avispas de colombia Comportamiento térmico de las cenizas de carbón provenientes de la combustión en hornos colmena y su potencial uso como nutriente tecnológico en la elaboración de bloques cerámicos extruídos Factores actitudinales de los estudiantes que inciden en la enseñanza del calculo diferencial bajo el enfoque ontosemiótico Variables críticas que condicionan la competitividad de la cerámica artesanal en norte de santander bajo la dinámica de su cadena productiva Evaluación en laboratorio del grado de infección de burkholderia glumae en semillas de arroz Valores y servicios ambientales de los árboles urbanos desde el enfoque de la purificación del aire Análisis del recurso solar y eólico en tres zonas específicas del departamento de norte de santander Desarrollo experimental de mezclas para la obtención de materiales compuestos de suelo cemento y residuos de demolición, conformados a través de prensa manual: una alternativa para la sostenibilidad a partir del reuso de materiales de construcción La participacion y el dialogo en la construccion de paz territorial Medición de la calidad y eficacia de la participación ciudadana en el catatumbo con aplicación de la metodología siriri (alianza ufpso-fip) Aprendizaje basado en problemas (abp) para el desarrollo de competencias científicas en biología Objetivos para garantizar la efectividad del principio de oportunidad en colombia El exodo transfronterizo: y el cambio en las dinámicas sociales, economicas y politicas -municipio de cúcuta-san antonio (estado táchira) Módulo de refugio temporal madera pet + acero reciclado: ensambles mpet+ar Factores asociados a las pruebas saber 11° en las instituciones educativas del municipio de pamplona Análisis del cumplimiento del enfoque de gestión responsable desde la perspectiva de los sistemas de gestión de calidad y ambiental Estudio comparativo de la aplicación de tecnologías colaborativas en el desarrollo de ambientes de aprendizaje Evaluación del ova big toy, herramienta para la enseñanza del ingles en niños de primaria Imaginarios sobre ciudadanía de frontera: un abordaje desde las distintas miradas de los sectores sociales que convergen en la ciudad cúcuta El uso de las tic y su inclusión en las prácticas pedagógicas de los docentes del programa de enfermería ufps Caracteres multiculturales e intuicionistas del emprendimiento en la ciudad fronteriza san josé de cúcuta y los signos de enfoque diferencial para la administración local Hipótesis normativa para una eficaz protección del medio ambiente en colombia Narrativa visual de la migración de venezolanos, caso: puentes internacionales francisco de paula santander y simón bolivar Incorporación de los sistemas educativos lego y fischer technik como recursos de juego didácticos en la enseñanza de la matemática en grados séptimo del colegio isidro caballero delgado del municipio de floridablanca en santander colombia El concepto de inclusión en la educacion superior: acciones demostrativas y buenas prácticas. caso de estudio, institución francisco de paula santander Animación digital como herramienta para el aprendizaje de niños con discapacidad auditiva, caso: cuentos y fábulas infantiles Estrategias de intervención en el proceso "enseñanza de la historia" museo casa natal del general francisco de paula santander Software educativo para el apoyo del aprendizaje de la asignatura fundamentos de programación Las nuevas dinamicas de la movilidad humana en la frontera colombo-venezolana caso: venezolanos El uso de instagram como herramienta de branding en las empresas de calzado en norte de santander Percepciones de los migrantes fronterizos sobre su representación mediática en los contenidos informativos emitidos por canales de televisión nacionales La arcilla y su influencia en la arquitectura representativa del sector centro como elementos de identidad de la ciudad de san josé de cúcuta Reconstrucción de la memoria histórica en el catatumbo a partir de la producción audiovisual sobre la masacre de santa inés, vegas de motilonia y planadas el 24 y 25 de diciembre de 2004 Análisis del contexto del aula para fortalecer las habilidades integradas en inglés como lengua extranjera a través de la enseñanza basada en tareas en el grado séptimo de la institución educativa integrado juan atalaya Eficacia de la ley 1561 de 2012 para otorgar títulos de propiedad al poseedor material de bienes inmuebles urbanos y rurales y sanear la falsa tradición en el municipio de cúcuta De la práctica y la investigación a los syllabus en ingeniería. Una experiencia de actualización permanente de la cátedra. La investigación formativa como desafío en la educación superior. caso: semillero de investigación en mantenimiento – universidad francisco de paula santander Práctica pedagógica de los docentes y las competencias y procesos matemáticos de los estudiantes en educación media y superior: alineación mediante un modelo de ecuaciones estructurales Factores que influyen en el bienestar y satifaccion en la vida de los inmigrantes en la zona de frontera Desde el enfoque socio crítico: el restablecimiento de los derechos de los estudiantes en condición de víctimas de las instituciones educativas del municipio de san josé de cúcuta, norte de santander 2018-2019 Vacíos de protección y riesgos psicosociales en el marco de la migración venezolana: un análisis desde lo documental Incidencia en la seguridad personal frente a la regulación de los delitos informáticos en la universidad de pamplona sede villa del rosario Estrategia socioeducativa para la prevención del dengue en el municipio de los patios Permanencia académica en un grupo de estudiantes de la universidad francisco de paula santander Las barreras en el acceso a la justicia para las mujeres victimas del conflicto en norte de santander. El caso de la fundación myriam castrillón Comisiones de la verdad y derecho a la verdad en la jurisprudencia de la corte interamericana de derechos humanos La incidencia de las dinámicas urbanas y territoriales en la transformación de la ciudad. el caso de la avenida 1 éste de la ciudad de san josé de cúcuta La comunicación como acción de motivación-productividad en las organizaciones Rendimiento académico en matemáticas y objetos interactivos de aprendizaje-oia Implicaciones sociales del celular en la vida cotidiana de los jóvenes universitarios Estudio de la compactación con calor aplicada sobre fardos de paja para el diseño de soluciones constructivas estructurales Consulta popular minera y competencias de las entidades territoriales (muncipios) La pérdida de oportunidad en la responsabilidad médica del estado Derechos humanos y resocialización en colombia: una cuestión de política criminal Modelo pedagógico transdisciplinario en las carreras de ciencias administrativas y económicas: un cambio de paradigma Una mirada a las concepciones sobre la formación docente: programa de licenciatura en educación infantil. Corporación universitaria minuto de dios – Colombia Análisis de la percepción que presentan los docentes, administrativos y estudiantes de la universidad de pamplona sobre la rsu en sus ejes: campus responsable, formación profesional y ciudadana, gestión social del conocimiento y participación social Transformaciones de la dinámica de familias venezolanas asistidos por la propuesta la casita solidaria Construcción de cultura y territorio en el municipio de tibú por jóvenes víctimas del conflicto Percepción de la discriminación por razones de orientación sexual en estudiantes de trabajo social en la ufps cúcuta Catálogo arquimod (ver lo que hemos sido capaces de hacer) Excepción de inconstitucionalidad frente a la conservación de la supremacía constitucional en colombia Energía renovable para la población vulnerable del barrio el paramo en el municipio villa del rosario estudio de la eficacia de la defensa ejercida por los defensores publicos en los procesos penales en el municipio de villa del rosario análisis desde el principio del enfoque diferencial de las mujeres trabajadoras sexuales migrantes en el municipio de cúcuta y zona de frontera niños y niñas migrantes en zona de frontera e inclusión en las instituciones educativas en el municipio de san jose de cùcuta análisis jurisprudencial en relación de los derechos humanos en la población migrante venezolana región del catatumbo: almas atrapadas entre las memorias del olvido y el dolor población migrante entre fronteras analisis de la transculturación y adaptación de los migrantes venezolanos en el municipio de san josé de san josé de cúcuta realidad fronteriza e impacto social de la migración de población venezolana en el municipio de san josé de cúcuta. (2016-2018) el impacto de la salud pública en las mujeres migrantes de venezuela en estado de gestación en el municipio san josé de cúcuta en el año 2016-2019 liderazgos de las mujeres gramaloteras a partir del proceso de reasentamiento al nuevo casco urbano formación de conciencia política en la niñez juguemos por la igualdad saberes de los yerbateros sobre medicina tradicional en el municipio de cúcuta durante el primer semestre del 2020 la restitución de tierras como reparación transformadora en la construcción de paz 437 estrategia educomunicativa para la prevención del acoso escolar en el colegio instituto técnico patios centro 2-sede patios centro uno uso de la guadua para viviendas de interés social frente a sistemas constructivos tradicionales en la ciudad de cúcuta heterotópia de género: reflexiones desde las mujeres trabajadores informales avances teórico-metodológicos del estudio de factores asociados a los resultados de las pruebas saber pro en los estudiantes de ingenieria civil de la ufps reconstrucción de memoria histórica de las mujeres desplazadas en el barrio ciudad rodeo, cúcuta, mediante la elaboración de un monumento representativo optimización estructural y arquitectónica desde lógicas topológicas a soluciones constructivas de arquitectura en tierra reconstrucción de memoria histórica a través de la creación del libro de relatos para narrar las experiencias de vida de las mujeres víctimas del conflicto armado residentes en el barrio ciudad rodeo, cúcuta-colombia estado del arte de instrumentos de evaluación sobre estilos de aprendizaje en publicaciones científicas internacionales protección a los derechos colectivos y del ambiente en villa del rosario y cúcuta frente a la emisión de agentes contaminantes por el transporte público responsabilidad estatal frente a la vulneración de los derechos humanos a mujeres víctimas de violencia sexual en el conflicto armado interno en colombia mineria tradiconal una mineria especial proteccion laboral a pastores y religiosos revisión de literatura sobre computación cuántica aplicada propuesta de un laboratorio steam bajo el enfoque industria 4.0 en la ufps sistema de control de un estacionamiento basado en tecnología rfid comparacion de momentos flectores producidos por carga gravitacional en losas de concreto reforzado armadas en dos direcciones obtenidos por diferentes metodos de analisis prototipo para la adquisición de señales cardiacas aplicaciones alternativas ambientalmente sustentables del carbón de norte de santander recubrimientos de dioxido de titanio mediante rf-magnetron sputtering sobre sustratos geopolimericos a base de metacaolines automatización de un sistema hidropónico nft para la optimización de la producción de hortalizas de hoja en la casa rural villa fonseca del municipio de salazar de las palmas n. de s. herramientas y algoritmo para la identificación de personas con procesamiento de señales cálculo del valor de variación del asentamiento de consolidación por efecto de modificación de cargas estructurales en zona de amenaza sísmica alta. caso de estudio: san jose de cucuta, colombia diseño e implementación de un banco para la detección de fallas en motores trifásicos mediante el uso de inteligencia artificial estudio comparativo de modelos empíricos para el cálculo de la evapotranspiración potencial en la región andina colombiana diseño y analisis de transductores fotonicos para aplicaciones de biosensado extracción de características sobre regiones de interés en mamogramas digitales adaptación de una bacteria nativa compatible con acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans y acidithiobacillus thiooxidans para desulfurar carbón a nivel de laboratorio análisis de variables ambientales para el diseño de circuitos de medición para sistemas solares fotovoltaicos análisis de un escenario de radio sobre fibra como propuesta para soportar los requerimientos de la red 5g software de reconocimiento facial para el control de acceso del personal a los laboratorios de investigación del programa de ingeniería de sistemas de la universidad francisco de paula santander prototipo de un panel modular compuesto a partir de calcín y grafeno, para la configuración arquitectónica de una envolvente pivotante captadora de energía diseño del sistema de riego auto-suficiente y sostenible para zonas verdes en la universidad francisco de paula santander, mediante el uso del software arduino y labview modelo dinámico lineal y no lineal de un dedo robótico para una prótesis de mano modelación y simulación hidráulica de las zonas de desbordamiento de la quebrada tanauca mediante hec-ras en la provincia de pamplona, norte de santander diseño, desarrollo e integración de un chatbot en organizaciones para la mejora en la atención usando inteligencia artificial como servicio en la nube diseño de protesis transfemoral mecanica graduable responsabilidad social empresarial como estrategia de impulso al emprendimiento e innovación en la ciudad de san josé de cúcuta condiciones de vulnerabilidad del contexto socioeducativo de la región del catatumbo que inciden en el aprendizaje de las matemáticas percepción social de estudiantes con discapacidad auditiva y sus docentes sobre la educación inclusiva en una universidad privada de cúcuta el deporte como una herramienta para la construcción de paz territorial en el pos-acuerdo de paz, en cúcuta zeolitas sódicas y potásicas a partir de cenizas volantes provenientes de la combustión del carbón de la termoeléctrica termotasajero s.a.s estudio para la viabilidad de una zona franca en áreas del posconflicto en el municipio de ocaña, norte de santander estudio sobre el impacto del consumo de energía en las ips de san josé de cúcuta desde el análisis del plan de uso eficiente de ahorro de energía implementado tratado de integración progresista de asociación transpacífico (cptpp) evolución e implicaciones para colombia dentro del contexto de inversión aplicación de un sistema de realidad virtual para la práctica en los procesos de importación y exportación en los estudiantes de comercio internacional de la ufps oportunidad de los supermercados y almacenes de cadena instalados en cúcuta por la crisis venezolana la efectividad de la legislación y desarrollo reglamentario en el progreso fronterizo cucuteño situación actual de la zona franca-cucuta como alternativa de productividad para la generacion de empleo las buenas prácticas para la internacionalización de la miel de abeja de asoarimaan oferta exportable del municipio de teorama del departamento de norte de santander como alternativa para el desarrollo socieconómico retos y oportunidades del sector agricola de norte de santander en el mercado asiatico plan de internacionalización para la miel producida por la asociación asoarimaan del corregimiento buena esperanza, municipio de cúcuta comercio internacional de norte de santander y santander frente a las políticas comerciales colombianas después de la salida de venezuela de la comunidad andina de naciones entre 2006-2018 caracterización del sector mipymes formal e informal de la ciudad de san josé de cúcuta evaluación de las propiedades fisicoquímica del caliz de la physalis peruviana (uchuva) en la elaboración de ungüento antiinflamatorio establecimiento de un cultivo de scenedesmus sp en fotobioreactores de 2 l para la producción de carotenoides de interés comercial a partir de efluentes piscicolas análisis de la tasa de cambio en la cobertura natural presente en la ronda hídrica del río pamplonita en su paso por el casco urbano del municipio de cúcuta microencapsulación mediante secado por aspersión del aceite contenido de las hojas de mora (rubus glaucus) diseño experimental para la cuantificación de biomasa aérea a partir de ecuaciones alométricas en ecosistemas de bosque muy seco tropical, sometidos a baja intervención antrópica validacion del software open casa, sperm motility track v. 1.0 y bgm de imagej en semen de porcino evaluación del efecto de la composición del medio de cultivo sobre la propagación in vitro de híbridos de phalaenopsis determinación de la calidad fisiológica de la semillas de linum usitatissimum l. utilizando el test de tetrazolio pisum sativum un bioindicador eficaz para evaluar el efecto citotoxico del hipoclorito de sodio factores de riesgo relacionados con la adherencia al tratamiento en pacientes con hipertensión arterial, centro de salud once de noviembre calidad de vida del cuidador informal del paciente con alzheimer de la clínica stella maris de cúcuta en el primer semestre del año 2019 percepción de la eutanasia en docentes de la universidad francisco de paula santander durante el segundo semestre del 2019 diseño y aplicación de un programa de intervención en seguridad y salud en el trabajo, basado en los factores de riesgos laborales, en salones de belleza / peluquerías de cúcuta 2019 autoconcepto en adolescentes una mirada desde la migración - ii semestre de 2018 y i semestre de 2019 construcción de un sistema automatizado para conformar equipos de trabajo definición de los parámetros para el diseño de un prototipo clasificador de tipos de mente beneficios del pensamiento triádico en los estudiantes de ingeniería mecánica de la universidad francisco de paula santander, ocaña identificación del tipo de mente de los estudiantes de primer semestre de ingeniería civil mediante el pensamiento tríadico en la universidad francisco de paula santander ocaña límites a la libertad de prensa en el municipio de ocaña, norte de santander dificultades de aprendizaje alrededor del algebra elemental en estudiantes de octavo grado actitudes y creencias de estudiantes de matemáticas y su correlación con el uso de las tic análisis de optimización topológica aplicada a espacios arquitectónicos. diseño desde la teoría de grafos enseñanza del concepto de derivada: una propuesta desde la ingeniería didáctica fortalecimiento del programa de prevención de la violencia escolar e intrafamiliar a través de la ejecución del proyecto mediadores en resolución de conflictos perteneciente a la casa de justicia barrio la libertad en las instituciones educativas simón bolívar y misael pastrana borrero de san josé de cúcuta incidencia en la seguridad personal frente a la regulación de los delitos informáticos en la universidad de pamplona sede villa del rosario política de participación social en salud (ppss) desde las competencias ciudadanas como herramienta para la gestión pública de programas y servicios de la e.s.e hospital universitario erasmo meoz representaciones gráficas de una función, ¿ayuda o problema en los jóvenes universitarios? una mirada al contexto penitenciario de las fuerzas militares, estudio de caso: trigésima brigada del ejército nacional de colombia (brigada treinta) felicidad y autoestima como bases esenciales para el desarrollo personal de los estudiantes del colegio universitario san carlos factores que influyen en el bienestar y satifaccion en la vida de los inmigrantes en la zona de frontera estrés laboral en las madres cabezas de hogar vinculadas al comercio informal en cúcuta norte de santander diseño de un estetoscopio digital para el análisis de taquicardia supraventricular analisis de calidad en el ciclo combinado buscando aprovechar el calor residual y control de agentes contaminantes analisis de estructuras de disipacion de energia para mitigar el impacto producido por flujo de avalanchas análisis del desempeño mecánico y de porosidad de una matriz de concreto reforzado con diferentes porcentajes de fibras de tereftalato de polietileno (pet) reciclado caracterizacion de las curvas de un motor de ignicion por compresion a diferentes factores de operación caracterizacion de sistemas de desarrollo esp32 para adquisicion de datos caracterización termo-física y mecánica de un cemento geopolimérico a base de cenizas volantes para diferentes relaciones si/al control de conmutación de baterías para un sistema de carga y descarga elaboración de un pan funcional a partir de harina de centeno (secale cereale) con adición de cúrcuma (curcuma longa) evaluación de la eficiencia de un sistema de refrigeración que opera con distintos refrigerantes evaluación de las propiedades mecánicas, morfológicas y estructurales de tabletas cerámicas con y sin recubrimiento de magnetita usando proyección térmica oxiacetilanica prototipo de cerradura electrónica para el control de acceso mediante huella dactilar y rfid prototipo electrónico para la actualización del sistema de desarrollo "de lorenzo dl3155e24" recubrimientos de poliestireno postconsumo para modificacion de tension superficial 547 rediseño y simulación del rodete y los alabes de la turbina pelton de la universidad francisco de paula santander sistema de cultivo hidropónico semiautónomo diseño e implementación de un sistema de caracterización de un transistor fet con interfaz gráfica de usuario en matlab sistema integrado de desplazamiento entre zanjas basado en sistemas embedidos diseño e implementacion de un sistema de caracterización de dispositivos electrónicos de tres terminales para la medición de la capacitancias internas cπ y cμ caracterización de genes productores de proteasas y quitinasas de hongos entomopatógenos aislados de suelo a caracterización fisicoquimica del raquis de palma de aceite para su aplicación en el uso de nuevos productos agroindustriales efecto de la adición de concentrado autólogo de plaquetas sobre las subpoblaciones espermáticas en semen ovino remocion de coliformes totales y fecales presentes en agua mediante la aplicación de nano particulas de plata tratamiento de aguas contaminadas con glifosato utilizando electrocoagulación utilización de tierras diatomáceas recicladas de la industria cervecera como medio de transporte de macronutrientes estandarización de procesos administrativos y operativos en la fabricación de productos textiles bajo el paradigma de los manuales de procedimientos factores de apoyo social en los pacientes con trastorno bipolar, episodio depresivo sin síntomas psicóticos, en una clínica de la ciudad en el último trimestre del año 2018 selección de un nuevo material refractario determinación del efecto de los fragmentos de bosque urbano sobre el co2 producido por las fuentes móviles en el municipio de ocaña norte de santander desarrollo de una mezcla asfáltica reciclada (rap) en cúcuta analisis comparativo de los tipos de pretratamientos usados en el bagazo de la caña de azúcar diseño de un modelo de gestion de logistica inversa en el sector de muebles en la ciudad de san jose de cúcuta y el área metropolitana identificación de la avifauna, tomando como criterio taxonómico el canto influencia del uso del grano de caucho triturado (gcr) sobre la resistencia bajo carga monotónica en una mezcla drenante caracterización morfológica y térmica de cerámica plastica modelado de la gestión del conocimiento en docencia universitaria empleando dinámica de sistemas desarrollo de un sistema de supervisión de las variables de temperatura, presión y humedad en un biodigestor con el fin de visualizar el balance de energía de la ufpso diseño de la estrategia de control de una celda electrolítica para producir hho como combustible complementario desarrollo de un sistema automatizado para el banco de prueba de soldadura mig modelo numérico de detección de fugas para sistema de tuberias evaluación de un sistema de comunicaciones óptico modulado en desplazamiento de fase empleando multiplexación por división de frecuencia estrategias de producción limpia para las empresas del sector cerámico del área metropolitana de cúcuta aplicación móvil de reconocimiento óptico de caracteres (ocr) en el proceso de tabulación de registro de información de la asociación de padres de hogares comunitarios de bienestar familiar de la comuna siete de san josé de cúcuta análisis de volátiles en el proceso de fermentado de cacao, mediante el uso de una matriz multisensorial o nariz electrónica para el control de calidad del producto en norte de santander cúcuta procesamiento de datos implementado python para identificar clúster asociados a muestras de cacao seco sano e infectado con monilia en norte de santander análisis de la estructura intelectual y la evolución de la investigación en el concepto de universidad inteligente: un análisis bibliométrico modelado 3d aplicado a las plantas del vivero de la universidad francisco de paula santander ocaña análisis y control de humedad del suelo a través de un sistema soportado por sensores en el jardín botánico "jorge quintero arenas" de la universidad francisco de paula santander ocaña portable energy: desarrollo de un multigenerador eléctrico portátil a base de energía fotovoltaica y energía cinética efecto de la polaridad del solvente durante la electrodeposición de asfaltenos de petroleo extrapesado colombiano en presencia de un campo magnético y nanoparticulas magnéticas determinación del índice de compresión a partir de propiedades de plasticidad en los suelos cohesivos residuales de la ciudad de ocaña, norte de santander modelo dinámico lineal y no lineal de un dedo robótico para una prótesis de mano análisis y modelación del transito vehicular en las intersecciones semaforizadas de la avenida 10 del municipio de los patios, colombia gestion del alcance en proyectos de desarrollo de software desarrollo de una aplicación web para la asignación de citas, historias clínicas y facturación utilizando la metodología cmmi (capability maturity model integration) para el hospital de los patios técnicas de medición y análisis del fenómeno de envejecimiento en asfaltos y mezclas asfálticas análisis técnico y económico para evaluación de pavimento flexible entre método convencional y nueva tecnología desarrollo de un sistema embebido configurable para la adquisicíon y monitoreo de un proceso termico – neumatico utilizando una plataforma raspberry pi métodos para la recuperación de aceites lubricantes automotrices usados: revisión del estado de arte propuesta metodologica para la optimizacion de la producción en pequeñas empresas mineras de carbon en norte de santander diseño de un sistema de perfilación de férulas mediante el escaneo 3d de muñeca, brazo y tobillo para fines de impresión 3d evaluación de parámetros mecánicos y de durabilidad de una mezcla asfáltica tipo mdc-19 con inclusión de chamota como reemplazo en agregados de 3/8" simulación computacional del proceso de alivio de tensiones residuales en cilindros para glp identificación del tipo de mente de los estudiantes de primer semestre de ingeniería civil mediante el pensamiento tríadico en la universidad francisco de paula santander ocaña desarrollo e implementación con herramientas tecnológicas de la información y comunicación (tic) para dar solución a requerimiento a diferentes sectores empresariales recuperación de oro desde minerales refractarios auroargentíferos usando una bacteria nativa químicamente compatible con acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans bancas paramétricas [diseño generativo de mobiliario] validación del modelo matemático de una bomba centrífuga barnes de 0.25 hp análisis de componentes principales en cromatogramas para diagnósticar cáncer de próstata análisis de las redes neuronales artificiales en función de base radial para ser empleadas en la extracción de bordes de imágenes aéreas análisis y estimación de la radiación solar en la ciudad de cúcuta usando estadística inferencial aplicación web para la administración de la infraestructura de red y telecomunicaciones del campus central de la universidad francisco de paula santander en la sede cucuta determinación del índice de compresión a través de las propiedades de plasticidad de los suelos de la ciudad de ocaña, norte de santander caracterización del docente y el estudiante de educación superior en la planificación, dinámica de la clase y evaluación caracterización física y funcional del intercambiador de calor con fines de detección y diagnostico de fallos competencias gerenciales de los gerentes de las empresas de del sector ladrillero de villa del rosario como ventaja competitiva comunicación vía bluetooth para la emulación del control de un sistema de iluminación en proteus professional 8.1 a través de una aplicación móvil desarrollo de un prototipo mecatrónico con realimentación háptica para un simulador de actividades de entrenamiento de la cirugía laparoscópica en animales caninos diagnóstico y análisis del impacto social del uso de dos tipos de infraestructura de vivienda de tipo horizontal en poblaciones vulnerables caso de estudio, cúcuta, colombia diseño de envolventes arquitectónicas paramétricas diseño de un sistema de emulación de movimiento robotizado de mano de bajo costo diseño de un sistema de medición de material particulado mediante un vehículo aéreo no tripulado diseño de un sistema de percepción del impacto de choques mecánicos y golpes en el cerebro dureza de recubrimientos de si-ti-zr fabricados por la técnica de sol-gel sobre sustratos de aluminio aa2024-t3 efecto del número de reynolds sobre la relación de coeficientes aerodinámicos de un aerogenerador sin aspas amplificador electrónico portátil con energía solar para el análisis de la variabilidad de la frecuencia cardiaca en campo estimación de la radiación solar utilizando redes de neuronas artificiales autoreparación del concreto y el impacto en el futuro de las construcciones evaluation of the use of biomaterials for the manufacture of biodegradable films alternatives for critical points of vehicular accident according to statistical analysis estudio de patología para la rehabilitación del teatro juan atalaya en san josé de cúcuta, colombia estudio de seguridad vial mediante la implementación de comparendos por medios técnicos y tecnológicos en la autopista san antonio, villa del rosario, colombia evaluación estimada de derrames de crudo ocasionados por acciones subversivas al oleoducto caño limón coveñas experiencias significativas en los procesos de movilidad académica en un programa de ingeniería industrial factores de riesgo de la desercion estudiantil del programa de ingenieria industrial en una universidad publica gerencia creativa para el desarrollo del marketing social gestión del riesgo frente a movimientos telúricos en construcción de edificaciones en san josé de cúcuta impacto socioeconómico y nivel de emprendimiento en los graduados de un programa de ingeniería industrial la educación inclusiva y las tecnologías en las prácticas pedagógicas medición de parámetros en líneas de transmisión con sistemas embebidos metodología del cálculo de la exergía en la chimenea de una caldera pirotubular de 10bhp metodología para la selección de perfiles aerodinámicos de aerogeneradores a bajo número de reynolds microstructure and morphology of wc-18co coatings obtained by thermal spray by flame modelo de simulación de eventos discretos, para mejorar los tiempos de espera en los servicios de urgencias de un hospital público modelo matematico de un intercambiador de calor tipo tubo y coraza pbx ip como herramienta de integración de servicios de comunicaciones para la ufps basado en las mejores prácticas de itil percepción empresarial del impacto de los trabajos de grado desarrollados por un programa de ingeniería industrial en el área metropolitana de cúcuta plataforma web para la gestión de protección y adopción de animales en condición de calle en la ciudad de cúcuta y su área metropolitana predicción del precio del petróleo mediante redes de neuronas artificiales propuesta de mejoramiento de las zonas de estacionamiento vehicular y de motos de la ufps cúcuta empleando simulación prototipo para control de asistencia académica de manera remota con tecnología rfid resistencia a la compresion de concretos con adicion parcial de polietileno de alta densidad simulación bidimensional del flujo de aire sobre un perfil aerodinámico sg6043 a bajos números de reynolds mediante la simulación computacional simulación de un alabe de aerogenerador para bajas potencias y velocidades software de registro de asistencia usando mecanismos de hardware libre con comunicación nfc "agile sheduling" generación automática de la planificación de la entrega "release planing" asignación de historias de usuario a los desarrolladores usando algoritmos genéticos la tecnología una alternativa creativa en el proceso enseñanza- aprendizaje en los deportes sobre ruedas caracterización espectroscópica y fisicoquímica de la gulupa passiflora edulis sims de la provincia de pamplona, norte de santander asociación entre el conocimiento de los factores de riesgo y las condiciones de salud vocal en docentes universitarios ansiedad, depresión y autoconcepto en mujeres diagnósticadas con cáncer de mama autoconcepto en adolescentes una mirada desde la migración - ii semestre de 2018 y i semestre de 2019 estilos de vida en jóvenes estudiantes de fisioterapia de dos universidades de bucaramanga, colombia diseño y aplicación de un programa de intervención en seguridad y salud en el trabajo, basado en los factores de riesgos laborales, en salones de belleza / peluquerías de cúcuta 2019 impacto del programa cuidado de enfermería a las puérperas y su recién nacido egresados de una institución de salud del municipio de cúcuta decálogo de seguridad vial para la disminución de los riesgo en los usuarios viales en una empresa ubicada en la intervención pedagógica mediada por las tics en la enseñanza y el aprendizaje del cuidado de personas con enfermedad crónica cuidado humanizado de enfermería desde la experiencia de los pacientes: metasíntesis en búsqueda de la humanización de la unidad de cuidados intensivos nivel de conocimiento sobre sífilis gestacional en mujeres gestantes que asisten a la unidad básica de comuneros, en el segundo trimestre del año 2019 la espiritualidad de los cuidadores en el contexto de la alta complejidad memoria histórica en los trabajadores de salud en la zona del catatumbo, un abordaje desde la bioética para la deliberación descripción del uso tradicional de plantas medicinales en el mercado del municipio de sardinata, norte de santander prevalencia de molestias osteomusculares y calidad de vida laboral en el personal de enfermería de un centro quirúrgico de la ciudad de cúcuta en el primer semestre de 2019 perfil cognitivo de los pacientes con trastorno afectivo bipolar activo y en remisión en el hospital mental rudesindo soto en el segundo trimestre del 2019 perspectiva del cuidador entrenado en pacientes con enfermedad renal cronica desde tres dimensiones estado serológico igg e igm frente a toxoplasma gondii y factores de riesgo relacionados, en gestantes de primer trimestre atendidas instituciones de salud de cúcuta, colombia análisis dimensional del riesgo percibido por la exposición a radiaciones ionizantes del activo intangible del sector salud ; International scientific commiteeI Prof. Ricardo Santiago Puca Molina Universidad Nacional de la Patagonia Austral, Argentina Prof. William J. Ugarte Guevara Universidad de Uppsala, Suecia Prof. Antoni Bosch Pujol Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, España Prof. Libardo Flórez Villamizar Universidad Pedagógica Experimental Libertador, Venezuela Prof. Jimmy Jefferson Túllume Salazar Gerente General - ICACIT / Coordinador IEEE YP Region 9, Perú Prof. Maura Olivia García Pineda Universidad Tecnológica de Querétaro, México Prof. Carlos Humberto Sierra Becerra Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos, México Prof. Ramona Moliné Escanilla Institute of Audit and IT-Governance Prof. Anderson Sandoval Amador Universidad Nacional del centro de la provincia de Buenos Aires, Argentina Prof. Ely Dannier V. Niño Basque Center on Materials, Applications and Nanostructures (BCMaterials), Leioa, Spain; Fundation of Researchers in Science and Technology of Materials, Colombia. ; National scientific commitee Prof. Octavio Andrés González Estrada Universidad Industrial de Santander, Bucaramanga Prof. Fredy Humberto Vera Rivera Universidad Francisco de Paula Santander, San José de Cúcuta Prof. Oscar Javier Rodríguez Riveros IEEE Colombia / Universidad de San Buenaventura, Bogotá D.C. Prof. Elkín Gélvez Almeida Universidad Simón Bolívar, San José de Cúcuta Prof. José José Barba Ortega Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogotá D.C. Prof. Hugo Fernando Castro Silva Universidad Pedagógica y Tecnológica de Colombia, Tunja Prof. Nelson Afanador García Universidad Francisco de Paula Santander seccional Ocaña ; Organizing commitee Universidad Francisco de Paula Santander- UFPS Jhan Piero Rojas Suarez Olga Marina Vega Angarita Judith Del Pilar Rodriguez Tenjo Liliana Marcela Bastos Osorio Nydia María Rincón Villamizar Mawency Vergel Ortega Edwin Alberto Murillo Ruiz Giovanni Mauricio Baez Sandoval Gloria Esperanza Zambrano Plata Jessica Lorena Leal Pabón Marling Carolina Cordero Díaz Andrea Cacique Dixon Alirio García Carrillo Universidad Francisco de Paula Santander - Seccional Ocaña Torcoroma Velasquez Perez Ana Melissa Rodríguez Chinchilla Lady Sánchez Jácome Nelson Fernando Gaona Díaz Didier Camilo Gaona Sánchez ; 6th ed

Introducción
Con frecuencia se ven en la Ciudad de Buenos Aires adultos mayores de 60 años que se desenvuelven solos en diferentes actividades diarias que van desde pasear su perro, caminar y cruzar las calles, hasta realizar las compras de alimentos. Desde la observación cotidiana, se percibe que un alto índice de la población es de edad avanzada y tienen sus propias necesidades, por lo cual se selecciona este grupo poblacional como consumidor de estudio en esta investigación. Con relación a esto la especialista en longevidad Norma Tamer en "La perspectiva de la longevidad" expone:

La revolución de la longevidad, herencia de finales del siglo XX, sumada al rápido crecimiento de la población en la primera mitad del siglo XXI, nos muestran el horizonte de la transformación demográfica mundial, un mundo que envejece con profundas consecuencias para cada uno de los aspectos de la vida individual y comunitaria, nacional e internacional, con repercusiones que se proyectan, a su vez, a todas las dimensiones de la existencia humana, social, económica, política, cultural, psicológica y espiritual (2008, p. 92)1
Asimismo, ante la situación de salud en esta población, los Doctores Marcia Ávila, Edgar Vázquez y Mónica Gutiérrez plantean en "Deterioro cognitivo en el adulto mayor" que:
Con el incremento de la esperanza de vida, han aumentado la incidencia y prevalencia de enfermedades que aparecen en edades avanzadas, lo que unido a la revolución demográfica del mundo occidental, con un crecimiento explosivo de la población mayor de 65 años, hace que las dimensiones del problema se tornen "epidémicas" en la primera mitad del siglo XXI. Resulta de gran interés investigar aquellas enfermedades que causan incapacidad física y se asocian con el deterioro intelectual, pues afectan directamente la calidad de vida del paciente (2007, p. 2)2 .
De igual forma, entre los problemas de salud en edades avanzadas se encuentra la disminución o perdida de la capacidad visual que se afecta por diferentes síntomas como la edad o enfermedades. Este factor se destaca ya que puede influir en la legibilidad de la comunicación gráfica, en este caso por medio de las etiquetas.
Entretanto, saber comunicar un mensaje específico es de gran importancia para no fallar en la transmisión de la información y que le llegue al consumidor de manera acertada. Siguiendo esta línea, por medio del diseño gráfico se comunican mensajes desde las diferentes piezas gráficas como las etiquetas o envases-etiquetas que tienen un doble objetivo, por un lado el de informar al consumidor sobre el producto y por el otro el de vender por si mismos el producto, por lo cual en la elaboración del diseño gráfico se analizan diferentes aspectos como la distribución de los textos, el tipo y tamaño de letra, tamaño de logotipo, colores, imágenes que pueden ser ilustraciones y/o fotografías, listado de ingredientes, entre otros datos según el producto, además si las piezas gráficas se componen de textos e imágenes logran llamar más la atención y quedan en la mente de los consumidores que recordarán más fácil el producto a diferencia de las que se componen sólo de texto. En conclusión, la pieza gráfica debe ser funcional y cumplir el propósito de comunicar el mensaje claro y específico, además de verse estéticamente agradable. Cada una de las diferentes piezas gráficas es un medio de comunicación. En relación con esto La Casa Editorial El Tiempo describe en El libro de la convivencia que:
El inmenso poder e influencia que poseen los medios de comunicación en las sociedades actuales obliga a quienes hacen uso de ellos en calidad de emisores o receptores obrar con un gran sentido de la honradez, la responsabilidad y el análisis crítico, ya que todo cuanto se transmite a través de ellos causa un profundo impacto en la comunidad (2006, p. 97).
De igual forma, al tener clara la situación visual de los adultos mayores y entender la comunicación a través del diseño gráfico, en esta investigación se analiza la importancia de la comunicación a través de las etiquetas de los envases de los productos lácteos expuestos en góndolas en grandes supermercados, en tanto que este segmento poblacional tiene el derecho de visualizar y entender claramente la información de los productos. Por lo cual, las etiquetas son de gran importancia porque cumplen diferentes funciones como identificar, clasificar y seleccionar el producto que contiene un envase, además en ellas se encuentran los datos del producto que se le proporcionan al consumidor para que sea de su conocimiento, tales como: contenido, cantidad, tabla nutricional, instrucciones de uso y almacenamiento, contraindicaciones, fecha de vencimiento, entre otras características que se tienen en cuenta, según sea el caso, por salud, para conservar en buen estado el producto y/o para utilizarlo de la manera adecuada, de igual forma las instrucciones son más claras cuando se acompañan de gráficos y facilitan el uso del producto, además de estas funciones, la etiqueta con un buen diseño que muestra la calidad del producto y los beneficios que ofrece le vende al consumidor. En relación con este tema el Ingeniero José Antonio Rodríguez en el Manual de ingeniería y diseño de envase y embalaje señala:
Indudablemente uno de los factores que hace más atractivo un envase es el diseño gráfico y los colores de los elementos impresos en el mismo. Incluso la impresión lograda en un empaque deja en segundo término al diseño mismo del empaque. Lo anterior es común apreciarlo cuando vemos un envase de tipo genérico, éste puede ser realzado y diferenciado por el uso de una etiqueta que lo hará diferente dependiendo de la calidad del papel, del diseño gráfico y por supuesto de la impresión lograda. No es raro provocar la primera compra de un producto por la motivación del atractivo generado a través de la etiqueta, esta no sólo informa al consumidor, sino que también lo atrae, algo que sin duda es una gran ventaja, considerando la gran cantidad de productos que existen en un supermercado, y el que nuestro producto compite desde un pequeño espacio contra la lealtad que el consumidor tiene a su marca preferida y ante la inusual actitud del consumidor a comprar productos desconocidos (2007, p. 11:1).
En cuanto al mercado en general y al tener en cuenta que las etiquetas son el primer estímulo que tiene un consumidor dentro del supermercado al observar un producto, para esta investigación por medio de la herramienta de recolección de datos como es la observación, se seleccionan los productos lácteos que más llevan los adultos mayores en las marcas líderes de Argentina, La Serenísima y SanCor en su actividad de compra en un supermercado de la ciudad dentro de una destacada localidad con el fin de analizar las etiquetas de esos productos como caso de estudio.
El problema se plantea en la aplicación de los elementos gráficos dentro de un espacio reducido y en muchas ocasiones con saturación de información. Los profesionales encargados de elaborar las piezas gráficas de comunicación visual, en este caso las etiquetas de los productos lácteos, analizan cuál es la disposición más acertada de los diferentes elementos en la composición gráfica, además de tener presente las normas legales de información que se asignan por ley en las etiquetas (ver capítulo dos), esto implica dejar un espacio menor en la pieza gráfica de comunicación para la información general del producto. Como consecuencia se trabaja con un tamaño de letra reducida para tener en la etiqueta todo lo requerido a nivel legal y de información propia del producto, esto puede generar en algunos casos piezas contaminadas visualmente por la cantidad de información e imágenes, que afectan al segmento poblacional de los adultos mayores que en general ya no cuentan con una buena visión por su avanzada edad.
Por lo tanto ¿El diseño gráfico y los elementos tipografía, color e imagen dificultan o facilitan la legibilidad y la comunicación visual entre los adultos mayores y las etiquetas de los envases de los productos lácteos expuesto en góndolas en grandes supermercados? A causa de la aplicación de estos elementos en el espacio reducido de las etiquetas, por su tamaño o disposición y sin olvidar que este sector poblacional se encuentra con dificultades de salud visual.
Se analiza en esta investigación la oportunidad de comunicación visual que generan el diseño gráfico y la aplicación de los elementos tipografía, color e imagen en este segmento creciente de consumidores, a través de las etiquetas de los envases de los productos lácteos, ya que su capacidad visual se ve reducida por la edad o por posibles enfermedades que le dificultan o limitan el sistema de visión para adquirir por si solos la información de los productos y su reconocimiento. Por lo tanto, en primera instancia se estudia a la población de los adultos mayores en diferentes aspectos y se puntualiza en los adultos mayores en Buenos Aires. Se investiga sobre la comunicación y el diseño gráfico como medio para transmitir información, además de las etiquetas de los envases de los productos de consumo cotidiano y desde los tres elementos gráficos nombrados anteriormente. Se analizan y relacionan aspectos tanto positivos como negativos de la aplicación de los tres elementos del diseño gráfico a trabajar, el uso del medio de comunicación como es la etiqueta y su utilidad para el consumidor. Además es de interés para esta investigación conocer la percepción de la comunicación gráfica de los adultos mayores y percibir si se cumple la funcionalidad de entregar desde las etiquetas como caso de estudio la información legible, clara y acertada a las necesidades de este grupo de consumidores y que no creen falsas expectativas de los productos. Finalmente se analizan en esta investigación las etiquetas de seis productos lácteos en dos marcas líderes en Argentina.
Objetivo general
El objetivo general propone investigar qué lugar cumple el diseño gráfico y la disposición de los elementos tipografía, color e imagen en las etiquetas de los envases de los productos lácteos, expuestos en góndolas en grandes supermercados, en relación con la legibilidad y la comunicación con el público mayor en Buenos Aires.
Objetivos específicos
Los objetivos específicos intentaran indagar sobre los adultos mayores, sus características y dificultades visuales; reflexionar sobre la realidad social de los adultos mayores frente a la oportunidad de comunicación que genera el diseño gráfico en esta población creciente de consumidores, en este caso, a través de la etiqueta del envase de un producto lácteo; y analizar en las etiquetas de los envases de los productos lácteos expuestos en góndolas en grandes supermercados los elementos gráficos tipografía, color e imagen como parte de la transmisión de un mensaje.
Hipótesis
La hipótesis plantea que la disposición de los elementos tipografía, color e imagen en el diseño gráfico de las etiquetas de los envases de los productos lácteos expuestos en góndolas en grandes supermercados afectan la legibilidad y la comunicación con el segmento poblacional mayor de 60 años. (Buenos Aires, 2013 - 2015).
Estado de la cuestión
Los Doctores Marcia Ávila, Edgar Vázquez y Mónica Gutiérrez describen en "Deterioro cognitivo en el adulto mayor", que en los últimos años se ha hecho más importante el estudio de los procesos de cambio demográfico y epidemiológico. Una de las razones es el envejecimiento poblacional que se extiende y aumenta su velocidad en diferentes territorios del mundo. Además, los servicios sociales y de salud cambian frente a una variación que surge en relación con la cantidad de personas que en un mismo lugar se enferman, como también en la medida de personas fallecidas con respecto al total de la población (2007, p. 1-2)3 .
Además, los Doctores Ávila, et.al., exponen que4 :
En América Latina y el Caribe la transición demográfica, de comienzo reciente, se caracteriza por su rapidez siendo un proceso generalizado, todos los países de la región marchan hacia sociedades más envejecidas. En 1950 sólo el 5.4% de la población tenía 60 años o más, en el 2002 se estimó un 8%, mientras que para el 2025 se estima un 12.8% de la población en este grupo y para el 2050 el 22%, mientras la población en general crece en un 1.5%, la población mayor de 60 crece en un 3.5%. El 75% de las personas que nacen hoy en América Latina y el Caribe serán adultos mayores y un 40% sobrepasarán sus 80 años. De manera que en un siglo el porcentaje de adultos mayores se cuadruplicará, (2007, p. 2).
De acuerdo a la Psicóloga Mariela Mociulsky en Los nuevos viejos: la revolución de la tercera edad, comenta que las personas, con el transcurrir de los años, son impactadas en su estructura de vida por los cambios que surgen a través del tiempo. Entre los primordiales se ubica la extensión de la expectativa de vida. Se citan otros cambios, tales como la actitud y las necesidades de vida, que sugieren renovar constantemente las estrategias dirigidas a los nuevos perfiles de consumo, los cuales se analizan para lograr frente a ese nuevo segmento el propósito del mercado, (2010)5 .
Por su parte las Psicólogas Berta Gutiérrez, Carolina Reyes, Nieves Schade, Claudia Sepúlveda y Marcela Uribe señalan en Comparación entre adultos mayores y adultos: emoción, nivel socio-cultural, percepción de la capacidad de la memoria y ejecución en tareas de memoria, que el aumento de la población de los adultos mayores con el paso de los años se muestra como un reto para los profesionales que se interesan por el bienestar de este grupo de consumidores para que vivan de la mejor manera esta etapa y su desarrollo (2003, p. 98).
Asimismo, uno de los problemas a los que se refieren las anteriores psicólogas tiene que ver con una función, la cual cuenta con diferentes estudios.
La memoria es uno de los temas preocupantes de la vejez, especialmente su posible pérdida. Los adultos mayores mencionan que se le olvidan las cosas más que antes, los nombres de las personas, el lugar donde dejan las cosas e incluso si han apagado la llave del gas, etc. Esto es vivido como la sensación de un proceso de deterioro, el anuncio de una patología y por ende un problema de autonomía (Schade, 2002), (2003, p. 98)6 .
Según, el investigador José Tomás Romero en Discriminación y adultos mayores: un problema mayor indica que la población de los adultos mayores desde la cultura, la sociedad y la economía son excluidos por considerarse un grupo de personas que se caracteriza por ser las más enfermas, ineficientes e improductivas. Además de la creación de estereotipos sociales que no se presentan en igualdad de condiciones para todos. Esto permite que se devalúe a un segmento de la población y que se aumente la desvalorización. Por lo tanto, una de las etapas del ciclo de vida del ser humano como es envejecer, se convierte en amenaza y degradación, por esto las personas no la aceptan completamente (2005, p. 58)7 .
En este sentido se puede pensar que los adultos mayores dentro de la estructura de la sociedad hace varios años atrás no tenían su propio lugar, por consiguiente no eran tenidos muy en cuenta, pero el paso del tiempo y los cambios que surgen generan que este segmento creciente de la población tenga cada vez mayor importancia junto a sus propias necesidades, para llevar una mejor calidad de vida, creándose nuevos productos y servicios pensados específicamente en este grupo de personas o para facilitarles la información y uso de los productos y servicios.
Finalmente, vale la pena destacar que por su parte, Tamer enuncia que a nivel internacional se dieron dos eventos que tuvieron amplia repercusión en el discurso declaratorio de un modelo de envejecimiento con calidad de vida, sin dependencia física, psíquica y social, sino identificándolo con autonomía personal y esperanza de vida sin discapacidad.
El primero de ellos, el Año internacional de las personas mayores (1999) instaló el concepto de una sociedad para todas las edades e implicó cuatro dimensiones: el desarrollo individual durante toda la vida, las relaciones multigeneracionales, la relación mutua entre el envejecimiento de la población y el desarrollo y la situación de las personas de edad. Ese acontecimiento atravesó el espacio geográfico de las naciones y contribuyó a promover la conciencia de la situación, como también la necesidad de impulsar la investigación multidisciplinaria y la acción consecuente en materia de políticas gerontológicas en todo el mundo.
El otro evento, el Plan de acción internacional sobre el envejecimiento (Madrid, 2002) por su parte, planteó como objetivo "garantizar que en todas partes la población pueda envejecer con seguridad y dignidad y que las personas de edad puedan continuar participando, en sus respectivas sociedades, como ciudadanos con plenos derechos". En este caso, el plan de acción de la asamblea mundial vino a sustentar la necesidad de que tal envejecimiento con calidad de vida sea una opción no sólo para los países desarrollados, quienes parcialmente lo están logrando, sino también extensiva a los países en vías de desarrollo, en donde parece prácticamente inalcanzable.
Ante ello, el interés por el estudio de la vejez desde una visión interdisciplinaria se expande y tiende a avanzar presuroso en el conocimiento de los mecanismos de un envejecimiento activo (2008, p. 92-93)8 .
Se pone por caso para esta investigación el estudio de los adultos mayores por ser una población en constante crecimiento y con una historia que va desde lo social hasta lo polí- tico. Es de interés este consumidor que genera cambios en las diferentes estructuras social, económica y política, cambios que no son ajenos a su condición de vida y por lo cual los profesionales en diferentes áreas, como en este caso los diseñadores gráficos y de comunicación visual, analizan y renuevan las estrategias para que este segmento poblacional con necesidades específicas no tengan mayores dificultades en esta etapa de la vida para adquirir un producto y utilizarlo aún si presenta dificultades en la salud. Esto los coloca en igualdad de condiciones a otros consumidores y les brinda una calidad de vida al poder ser autónomos en sus actividades diarias como la compra de alimentos.
Por otro lado, autores como Wong, Arroyo, Ambrose, Harris y Swann indagaron sobre temas como el diseño gráfico y los procesos a seguir para un desarrollo acertado en los procesos, otros temas que reflexionan son el diseño creativo y el mensaje visual.
En esta línea, el multifacético Wucius Wong en Fundamentos del diseño comenta sobre el diseño que va más allá de embellecer la apariencia de "algo" como piensan algunos, también tiene el propósito de cumplir una función específica dentro de un proceso de creación visual y con exigencias prácticas. Por lo cual el consumidor al observar una pieza gráfica recibe un mensaje determinado.
Igualmente, Wong resume que "un buen diseño es la mejor expresión visual de la esencia de "algo", ya sea esto un mensaje o un producto. (…) Su creación no debe ser sólo estética sino también funcional" (2012, p. 41).
Por su parte, el investigador Roberto Gamonal Arroyo indica en Reseña de diseño gráfico y comunicación de Daniel Tena Parera (especialista en artes gráficas), que el especialista propone por un lado un método que es creativo y por otro un análisis instrumental del Diseño Gráfico. En el método creativo el especialista sugiere sobre el diseñador gráfico y el proceso que a su criterio propone siga cada profesional en el desarrollo de cada proyecto al que se enfrenta. El proceso está compuesto por tres etapas que son fundamentación, conceptualización y aplicación (2005, p. 266).
Igualmente en el análisis instrumental de los mensajes gráficos, Tena hace un aporte que define una manera adecuada de presentar los productos ante el consumidor.
Para ello toma como referencia el concepto de "estado estético" utilizado por Max Bense y que reconvierte en una formulación gráfica que proporciona al lector percepciones visuales que le provocan una actitud de preferencia frente al producto gráfico. Esta investigación la desarrolló en su tesis La influencia de la composición gráfica en la elección de un bloque de texto escrito (Gamonal, 2005, p. 266)9 .
Según, el Diseñador gráfico Gavin Ambrose y el editor Paul Harris en Fundamentos del diseño creativo reflexionan que hace tiempo el diseño creativo se encontraba a su parecer en una categoría de "edad de oro", aun cuando no se contaba con muchas practicidad, ni medios. Señalan también estos autores que cada vez crecen más las fronteras del mundo de la imagen gracias a dos factores: por un lado el desarrollo tecnológico y por el otro lado por la población que se extiende en el mundo de las imágenes. Asimismo indican sobre el diseño creativo que es la composición de diferentes elementos gráficos que buscan dentro de un conjunto cumplir con su funcionalidad de ser efectivos por su relación y adecuación para aportar al producto en su finalidad (2006, p. 6-7).
A su vez, el Diseñador gráfico Alan Swann en Diseño y marketing plantea que el mensaje visual que cumple la funcionalidad de transmitir un mensaje es uno de los principales objetivos al desarrollar un trabajo de diseño gráfico. Este mensaje para ser efectivo debe crearse aplicando los elementos gráficos y las combinaciones adecuadas dentro del formato correcto (1991, p. 6) y en Bases del diseño gráfico expone que el diseñador gráfico tiene por función resolver de manera novedosa y acertada los problemas de comunicación concernientes según el caso a los productos, conceptos, imágenes y organizaciones. El autor además destaca que el diseño hace parte cada vez más relevante en la sociedad aportando al desarrollo cultural y artístico (1990, p. 6).
Por lo que se refiere en esta investigación se estudia el área del diseño desde el ámbito gráfico y a partir de los elementos que hacen parte de la composición de un proyecto gráfico que tiene como finalidad la transmisión de un mensaje específico y así analizar desde una pieza gráfica como es la etiqueta si se cumple con el objetivo de esta disciplina adecuadamente y dirigida al consumidor de manera funcional y acorde a sus necesidades, sin olvidar que además de crear una pieza gráfica atractiva, transmita el mensaje visual de manera acertada al consumidor en este caso a los adultos mayores.
En cuanto a la comunicación los investigadores Christian Baylon y Xavier Mignot en La comunicación reflexionan que el término conlleva una multitud de significados por los diversos empleos que se le da en un contexto, por ejemplo al decir "el sistema de comunicaciones telefónicas es caro", se refiere a la transmisión de una señal o "entre las dos habitaciones existía una comunicación", es decir por el corredor o quizá una puerta. Sin embargo, estos investigadores puntualizan al comentar que comunicar se entiende como "la interrelación de las mentes humanas o, si se prefiere, de los cerebros humanos". Igualmente expresan que la comunicación es la transmisión de una imagen por medio de los diferentes medios de comunicación, sin embargo no niegan que la comunicación es el intercambio de información entre las personas y que el lenguaje es el medio de comunicación por excelencia (1996, p. 13-15).
Por su parte el Diseñador Jorge Frascara en El diseño de comunicación plantea que a través de la percepción que compromete la acción de búsqueda y construcción de significado se comienza la comunicación y a raíz de los estímulos visuales estructurados como proceso de interpretación. Asimismo comenta que se entiende la fortaleza de un mensaje visual por la fuerza que le da el canal aun cuando su contenido carezca de interés ya que las personas son principalmente visuales (2006, p. 69-70).
Igualmente, Frascara describe que:
Percibir implica buscar, seleccionar, relacionar, organizar, establecer conexiones, recordar, reconocer, identificar, jerarquizar, evaluar, descartar, aprender e interpretar. Cuanto más sean considerados los estilos cognitivos del público para la organización de los estímulos, tanto más fácil será la interpretación del mensaje. De aquí la importancia de la pertinencia y la organización de los componentes visuales usados en un mensaje gráfico, y de su adaptación al estilo perceptual y cognitivo del público buscado (2006, p. 71).
Asimismo sobre el estímulo, Frascara indica que en el visual la imagen efectúa uno tan poderoso que logra sobresalir del contexto en el que se ubique (2006, p. 67).
Siguiendo esta línea los investigadores Baylon y Mignot puntualizan en la comunicación por la imagen y comentan que por medio de la imagen la comunicación es más eficaz ya que se multiplica y logra llegar a más destinatarios. Igualmente los avances que se generan en los medios de comunicación han provocado con mayor fuerza la utilización de mensajes con las imágenes. En este contexto y "en un artículo sobre la retórica de la imagen, Roland Barthes señala la importancia de los mensajes propiamente lingüísticos que a menudo la completan", por ejemplo en una señal donde además de mostrar el gráfico de prohibido está la palabra escrita. Además Baylon y Mignot señalan que un grupo de semiólogos se especializan en el estudio de la imagen como objeto de codificación que ayuda a la comprensión de un contexto (1996, p. 169-170)10.
En este sentido y al unir los términos anteriores se puede decir que la comunicación grá- fica es un medio visual por el cual se transmite un mensaje específico a un público determinado e implica imágenes como parte de la solución a proyectos de comunicación visual. Dicho mensaje específico es claro, estético y funcional si se aplican y combinan acertadamente en el proceso los diferentes elementos gráficos visuales como las formas, el color, la tipografía, las texturas y las imágenes.
Por consiguiente es relevante analizar en esta investigación la interrelación entre el consumidor y un producto en el supermercado al comunicar el mensaje a través de una pieza gráfica y estudiar si ese lenguaje visual compuesto de la palabra escrita en las etiquetas de productos lácteos se complementa o refuerza con la imagen como parte del medio de la comunicación gráfica e informa al consumidor sobre el producto de manera apropiada. Además la imagen permite que el mensaje visual llegue a más personas porque ayuda en la comprensión de dicho mensaje específico del producto. Asimismo el proceso en esta comunicación se desarrolla con signos que se tienen en común con el consumidor como por ejemplo el mismo idioma.
Al entender el diseño gráfico y la comunicación visual, se estudian en esta investigación tres elementos visuales de gran importancia, ya que por medio de ellos se efectúan los mensajes visuales que se transmiten por un medio de comunicación, en este caso la etiqueta. Un punto a tener presente con respecto a los diferentes elementos gráficos y la comunicación es que para que el mensaje sea efectivo, además de una buena selección de los elementos, es importante su combinación como se dijo anteriormente.
Con respecto a esto reflexiona Swann que:
Es importante que entendamos la naturaleza exacta y los mensajes visuales de los elementos contenidos en un diseño. Muchos diseños fracasan en su objetivo, no a causa de que los elementos individuales no estén bien concebidos, sino porque su uso conjunto no ha sido considerado con suficiente cuidado. (…) Tampoco es posible crear un diseño efectivo disponiendo los elementos escogidos de una única manera. Es necesario intentar varias permutaciones antes de poder tomar la decisión final (1991, p. 18)11.
El primer elemento visual que se analiza en esta investigación es la tipografía la cual existe hace varios siglos y cada día toma mayor importancia gracias a los avances tecnológicos que facilitan su aplicación en la comunicación visual.
La tipografía es el medio por el que se da una forma visual a una idea escrita. La selección de la forma visual puede afectar de forma drástica a la legibilidad de la idea escrita y a la sensación que despierte en el lector debido a los cientos, por no decir miles de familias tipográficas disponibles (Ambrose y Harris, 2006, p. 57)12.
El segundo elemento visual que se analiza en esta investigación por su importancia es el color, elemento primordial para llamar la atención e identificar un producto. Los colores hablan del propósito de transmisión del mensaje en una pieza gráfica y sensibilidad de un espectador. El contraste es uno de los factores para captar la atención.
Con respecto a este elemento el Diseñador gráfico David Dabner en Diseño gráfico, fundamentos y prácticas señala,
El color desempeña un papel importante en la toma de decisiones en diseño gráfico, ya que añade variedad, sensación y una dimensión espacial. Los colores seleccionados para un diseño no sólo provocan reacciones psicológicas y emocionales, sino que además tienen que apoyar y realzar los aspectos formales (2005, p. 9).
El tercer elemento visual que se analiza en esta investigación es La Imagen ya que es un elemento primordial en el ámbito del diseño y la comunicación, por ser una parte del mensaje visual que los consumidores pueden capturar e interpretar con más facilidad.
Dentro de la imagen se encuentran, por un lado la fotografía y por el otro la ilustración. La fotografía anteriormente no se involucraba con el diseño gráfico, esporádicamente eran contratados los fotógrafos para participar de un proceso gráfico, sin embargo con el pasar del tiempo se fue integrando la actividad fotográfica al punto que pasó a ser como los otros elementos visuales, un contenido importante en la disciplina del diseño gráfico. Aun cuando todos los elementos visuales están al mismo nivel de importancia, en algunos periodos la fotografía predominó a otros elementos como la tipografía y la ilustración. Siguiendo esta línea, la ilustración es versátil y contiene una gama muy variada de estilos atractivos y adaptables a las necesidades de cada proyecto, por ejemplo con frecuencia para publicaciones de periódicos se trabaja con ilustraciones a blanco y negro (Swann, 1991, p. 38, 44)13.
Finalmente la unión del diseño gráfico y los elementos visuales nombrados anteriormente junto a la comunicación, facilitan el análisis de una de las piezas gráficas importantes en la presentación y comunicación visual de un producto, la etiqueta.
En primer lugar, se describe la comunicación de masas donde los investigadores Baylon y Mignot señalan que especialistas en el tema mediante procesos transfieren los diferentes mensajes empleando los diversos medios de comunicación como la prensa o la televisión que además, comprenden la evolución social.
Actualmente, en el siglo XXI se desarrollan medios de comunicación modernos que permiten que la información llegue de forma inmediata, gracias a la avanzada tecnología que además incluye a todo tipo de personas al facilitarles la comunicación en igualdad de condiciones (1996, p. 180-181).
En conclusión los investigadores Baylon y Mignot indican que:
En gran parte, la investigación tradicional sobre la comunicación de masa se centra en el trayecto recorrido por un mensaje desde el agente emisor al sujeto receptor, y sobre la respuesta de este último al mensaje en tanto que estímulo. Desde este punto de vista, se sitúa en el mismo plano la campaña conducida por una agencia de publicidad, la difusión de los conocimientos por la televisión escolar y el discurso radiotelevisado de un político. Se suele descomponer al proceso de comunicación en cinco factores: ¿Quién dice qué a quién, por qué canal y con qué efecto? (1996, p. 181).
En esta misma línea una de las piezas gráficas que hace parte de la comunicación de masas es la etiqueta que los diseñadores Adrian Lebendiker y Analía Cervini en La seducción de un buen envase. Cómo sumar ventas a través de un packaging atractivo y funcional, describen como uno de los principales medios de comunicación visual por ser normalmente el primer incentivo que tiene el consumidor. Por otro lado si existe una contraetiqueta, el consumidor tiene la posibilidad de adquirir información más puntual del producto (2010)14.
En este sentido la etiqueta como medio de comunicación el investigador Steven Sonsino en Packaging. Diseño, materiales, tecnología describe que:
Las etiquetas y el etiquetado tienen una larga historia. Los boticarios romanos se cree que vendían las hierbas en pequeños tarros que llevaban el nombre de la droga y el vendedor. Los vinos se vendieron en jarras marcadas hasta que se introdujeron las botellas transparentes en el siglo XVII; entonces se colgaban etiquetas hechas con plata o marfil alrededor del cuello de las botellas (1990, p. 64).
Igualmente el investigador Sonsino comenta que en el siglo XVI es cuando los productos se comienzan a empacar en papel, pero se desconoce aspectos como quién marca el empaque por primera vez con la finalidad de identificar el producto o quién imprime por primera vez una etiqueta para ser pegada en el envase. Este avance se aceptó y creció entre las industrias detallistas.
Sin embargo la etiqueta tiempo atrás carecía de un valor promocional, el cual comenzó a tomar fuerza el siglo pasado en el momento que "los cosecheros franceses empezaron a imprimir escenas de la vendimia en sus etiquetas, que con anterioridad sólo llevaban un texto". De igual manera Guinness que es una fábrica de cerveza en Irlanda inició por ese mismo tiempo a utilizar un arpa como imagen para promover las ventas en Dublín.
Finalmente, más allá de la historia de las etiquetas y el etiquetado, se destaca que los dos en el presente siglo XXI muestran una evolución y las etiquetas son cada vez más sofisticadas, además de atractivas y económicas en su producción. También la impresión de alta calidad que se aplica cada vez con mayor frecuencia permite que los envases sean más atractivos (1990, p. 64)15.
Por lo tanto para esta investigación se selecciona esta pieza gráfica de comunicación para analizar ya que como se expresó anteriormente la etiqueta es uno de los principales medios de comunicación por ser lo primero con lo que interactúa un consumidor y se estudia si cumplen con la función de informar un mensaje específico sin mayor dificultad, además de vender el producto al consumidor, en este caso a los adultos mayores.
En este sentido, el doctor en Ciencias Económicas y Empresariales, Ildefonso Grande Esteban en Marketing estratégico para la tercera edad plantea que a consecuencia del envejecimiento de la población, las empresas han reestructurado sus actividades. Se muestran casos de diferentes marcas que han reformulado o desarrollado parte de su producción para dicho segmento como General Motor, empresa de autos que fabrica en Estados Unidos la marca Oldsmobile. Es una marca muy reconocida y aceptada por el segmento de los adultos mayores que encuentra en este auto fiabilidad, robustez y comodidad. Pero la empresa tuvo que generar una nueva campaña de lanzamiento de la imagen ya que en los últimos años se comenzó a percibir que el auto era para personas mayores disminuyendo las ventas. La campaña publicitaria logró un éxito total y aumentó nuevamente las ventas de la General con el mensaje: Una nueva generación de Olds, (1993, p. 57).
Asimismo, Silver Threads es un establecimiento donde los adultos mayores encuentran prendas sólo de colores llamativos y con precios asequibles. La razón por la cual las prendas no tienen colores oscuros, es porque los consideran depresivos para su target. Adicional a esto cuenta con un servicio de transporte especial para los adultos mayores. Stew Leonard es una red de establecimientos que también ofrece el servicio de transporte a las personas mayores (Grande, 1993, p. 58-59).
Finalmente McDonald´s, fabricante de hamburguesas que modificó sus estrategias comerciales y cambió su oferta en los últimos años, al adaptarse a los gustos y necesidades de los adultos mayores al ofrecer productos como hamburguesas de pescado o pollo, bajos en calorías. En Estados Unidos para captar el mercado de este segmento poblacional, ofrece hamburguesas sin colesterol, sin sal y papas cocidas en lugar de fritas. De igual manera efectuó ajustes en la decoración y la música de fondo, guiándose por los gustos de estos consumidores. Además cuenta con camareros que se encuentran cerca de su jubilación para atraer a aquellos que prefieren ser atendidos por personas de su edad (Grande, 1993, p. 59).
Por último, después de observar a los adultos mayores en Buenos Aires y que una gran parte de ellos se desenvuelven solos en diferentes actividades diarias como desplazarse por la ciudad, resulta de interés analizar cómo esta población creciente de consumidores se relaciona con la legibilidad y la comunicación visual de las etiquetas de los envases de los productos lácteos expuestos en góndolas en grandes supermercados.
El análisis que se realiza en esta investigación puede generar un impacto en el trabajo que se desarrolla tradicionalmente en la comunicación gráfica, al entender que el enfoque en el diseño gráfico y la comunicación visual hasta el momento no involucran mucho a este grupo de consumidores que aumenta proyectándose como un mercado potencial con sus propias necesidades. Este análisis puede llevar a las empresas de diseño, a los diseñadores y comunicadores a estudiar el proceso que se lleva en los diferentes proyectos.
Desde esta perspectiva se indica que no se encuentran muchas indagaciones sobre proyectos dirigidos a los adultos mayores en relación a los productos de primera mano o de uso cotidiano que le faciliten a este grupo de consumidores adquirir y utilizar sin mayores dificultades, por lo tanto, esta investigación abre un horizonte del conocimiento poco explorado sobre el tema y se propone como un aporte con enfoque social al incluir a los adultos mayores como consumidores con sus propias necesidades, asimismo tener presente a este segmento poblacional como mercado en auge.
Según lo anterior, es de gran importancia ampliar los conocimientos que se tienen sobre los adultos mayores y su condición de vida, además analizar la oportunidad de comunicación visual que genera el diseño gráfico y la aplicación de los elementos tipografía, color e imagen en este segmento creciente de consumidores, a través de las etiquetas de los envases de los productos lácteos expuestos en góndolas en grandes supermercados, además de tener presente su capacidad visual para adquirir por si solos la información del producto y su reconocimiento.
Orden de la investigación y justificación
La presente investigación sobre la legibilidad y la comunicación visual de las etiquetas de los envases de los productos lácteos con el público mayor en Buenos Aires se divide en tres capítulos y la metodología.
En el capítulo I se realiza la investigación sobre el grupo de consumidores mayores de 60 años, las etapas por las que pasa a nivel cronológico, físico, psicológico y social con el fin de entender las necesidades a las que se enfrenta este grupo consumidor desde diferentes aspectos que van desde la salud hasta su incorporación en la sociedad. Otro punto a investigar en este capítulo es la disciplina que se dedica al estudio de este grupo poblacional como es la gerontología para poder conocer un poco más sobre los adultos mayores y finalmente se investiga sobre los adultos mayores en Buenos Aires y las políticas públicas para conocer el crecimiento de este segmento en la población de la ciudad autónoma a través de los años y lo que está pasando con ellos desde el aspecto sociopolítico. Cada uno de los anteriores factores permiten conocer realmente a las personas con edad avanzada para entender cómo se comunican y lo que necesitan para comprender los mensajes visuales que se transmiten desde las etiquetas.
En el capítulo II se realiza la investigación sobre el diseño gráfico y la comunicación visual. Además de los elementos visuales tipografía, color e imagen con la finalidad de entender la importancia de su aplicación y combinación en una pieza gráfica para la transmisión de un mensaje específico a un público determinado. También se estudian los pasos a seguir en un proyecto gráfico para que la percepción de la comunicación visual, cumpla la funcionalidad de entregar la información legible, clara y acertada en este caso desde la etiqueta de los envases de los productos lácteos expuestos en góndolas en grandes supermercados y que no creen falsas expectativas. Otro punto de investigación en este capítulo son las etiquetas como medio de comunicación y las normas para la rotulación, para conocer y entender que papel cumple esta pieza gráfica de comunicación y como se crea desde el aspecto legal. Estos conocimientos son relevantes para lograr los objetivos de cada proyecto gráfico que se desarrolle y se apunte de manera acertada al grupo objetivo con deseos y necesidades propias.
En el capítulo III se realiza la investigación sobre el marketing y la industria láctea ya que las etiquetas como caso de estudio son de tres productos lácteos: leche, yogur y queso en dos marcas líderes en Buenos Aires: La Serenísima y SanCor. Se tiene presente además en este capítulo la demanda en el mercado de la ciudad y el marketing social. Es importante conocer cómo se comporta la comunicación visual a través de las etiquetas de los alimentos que son una base fundamental de la vida para las personas y por esta razón es necesario adquirirlos para su nutrición. En este aspecto la comunicación si no es clara puede llegar a confundir a los consumidores con las características de los productos que pueden contener ingredientes que no son adecuados para ellos.
Por último se realiza una recolección de datos por medio de dos técnicas para obtener una respuesta frente a la hipótesis planteada en esta investigación. La metodología es realizada con el fin de conocer la oportunidad de comunicación visual que se genera desde el dise- ño gráfico y la disposición de los elementos tipografía, color e imagen en las etiquetas de los envases de los productos lácteos expuestos en góndolas en grandes supermercados en relación con la legibilidad y la comunicación con el público mayor en Buenos Aires. Los métodos para la recolección de datos a trabajar son dos:
• La técnica de la observación en los adultos mayores que se encuentran en su actividad de compra en el supermercado Carrefour del barrio de Recoleta con el fin de conocer cuál es la leche, el yogur y el queso que más llevan en las marcas La Serenísima y SanCor. Las etiquetas de los envases en esos productos son seleccionadas para continuar con el siguiente método de recolección de datos.
• La técnica de la entrevista que se divide en dos partes, por un lado están las entrevistas que se realizan a diferentes profesionales de diseño gráfico y comunicación visual especializados o con experiencia en packaging quienes describen un análisis con criterio profesional desde sus conocimientos y experiencia sobre la comunicación gráfica que genera en los adultos mayores las etiquetas de los envases en los productos lácteos seleccionados como caso de estudio desde la tipografía, el color y la imagen si la tienen. Por otro lado están las entrevistas que se realizan a los consumidores mayores de 60 años en el barrio la Recoleta con el fin de conocer sus opiniones sobre qué les genera la comunicación a través de las etiquetas de los envases de los productos lácteos seleccionados, que valoran de esta pieza de comunicación visual, si comprenden la información y qué influye en su decisión de compra, entre otros.
Finalmente se realiza el procesamiento de datos y criterio de análisis para obtener los resultados de la observación y las entrevistas sobre la legibilidad y la comunicación con el segmento poblacional mayor de 60 años que se genera con la disposición de los elementos tipografía, color e imagen en el diseño gráfico de las etiquetas de los envases de los productos lácteos seleccionados.
Líneas temáticas
La presente investigación se enmarca en dos de las 7 líneas temáticas organizadas por la Facultad de Diseño y Comunicación de la Universidad de Palermo.
La línea principal es Medios y estrategias de comunicación: en esta investigación se analizan seis etiquetas como medio de comunicación visual y se tiene presente la oportunidad de comunicación que se genera desde el diseño gráfico y la disposición de los elementos color, tipografía e imagen en las etiquetas de los envases de los productos lácteos expuestos en góndolas en grandes supermercados en relación con la legibilidad y la comunicación con el público mayor en Buenos Aires.
Asimismo, una segunda línea para esta investigación es Empresas y marcas: se realiza el análisis de seis etiquetas de productos lácteos en leche, yogur y queso en dos marcas lí- deres en el mercado de Buenos Aires, La Serenísima y SanCor, además se tiene presente la demanda en esta investigación. Se analiza si la comunicación que transmiten las seis etiquetas del caso de estudio se conectan a las necesidades y expectativas de los consumidores mayores de 60 años y si ellos pueden adquirir sin mayor dificultad los productos en su actividad de compra dentro de un supermercado porque entienden de qué se trata el producto y los beneficios del mismo.
Notas
1. Disponible en http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=26961007
2. Disponible en http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=181517998004
3. Disponible en http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=181517998004
4. Según cálculos de Naciones Unidas, en 1950 había alrededor de 200 millones de adultos mayores, que aumentaron en 1975 a 350 millones, mientras que para el 2000 la cifra aumentó a 600 millones (10 % de los habitantes del planeta) y para el 2025 pueden ser 1.100 millones lo que significa un aumento del 224% a contar de 1975. Se prevé que durante ese mismo período la población total mundial aumentará de 4100 millones a 8200 millones, o sea, un 102%. Por lo tanto, en el 2025 las personas de edad avanzada constituirán el 15% de la población mundial y para el 2050 el 20%, que se estima en alrededor de 2.000 millones de ancianos. El envejecimiento demográfico es el gran desafío del tercer milenio, (p. 2).
5. Disponible en http://www.mercado.com.ar/notas/informes/367042/los-nuevos-viejos
6. Disponible en http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=26400106
7. Disponible en http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=32513408
8. La perspectiva de la longevidad: un tema para re-pensar y actuar. Revista Argentina de Sociología. Disponible en http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=26961007
9. Disponible en http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=129413737022
10. La comunicación.
11. Diseño y marketing.
12. Fundamentos del diseño creativo.
13. Diseño y marketing.
14. Colección Diseño e innovación para PYMES y emprendedores. Agencia Clarín.
15. Packaging. Diseño, materiales, tecnología.

INDICE CAP.1 Premessa 1 DALLA RESPONSABILITA' DEL MEDICO ALLA RESPONSABILITA' SANITARIA 1. La responsabilità in generale 2 2. Responsabilità civile, contrattuale ed extracontrattuale 3 3. La responsabilità medica 9 4. La responsabilità del medico 10 5. La responsabilità della struttura sanitaria 12 6. Il sistema a doppio binario 14 7. La "spersonalizzazione" del rapporto 17 8. Il problema della responsabilità del medico dipendente dalla struttura 19 CAP. 2 RESPONSABILITA' CONTRATTUALE ED EXTRACONTRATTUALE 1. Il problema della distinzione dell'ambito applicativo delle regole sulla responsabilità 25 2. Lo stemperarsi dei profili di differenza 36 3.L'incremento dei punti di contatto 37 4. La zona grigia tra illecito e contratto 41 CAP.3 LA NATURA DELLA RESPONSABILITA' DEL MEDICO DIPENDENTE DALLA STRUTTURA SANITARIA 1. La tesi della natura extracontrattuale 46 2. La tesi della natura contrattuale 50 3. La tesi della responsabilità contrattuale da contatto sociale 56 4. Evoluzione giurisprudenziale dopo le S.U. della cassazione e consolidamento della tesi della responsabilità contrattuale da contatto sociale 72 CAP.4 LA NATURA DELLA RESPONSABILITA' DEL MEDICO DOPO LA LEGGE BALDUZZI 1. La ratio della legge e il contesto socio-economico nel quale si inserisce 79 2. Problematiche inerenti l'art.3 87 3. Ricadute dottrinali e giurisprudenziali 98 BIBLIOGRAFIA 111 1. Giurisprudenza di legittimità 116 2. Giurisprudenza di merito 118 CAP.1 DALLA RESPONSABILITA' DEL MEDICO ALLA RESPONSABILITA' SANITARIA Premessa. La presente tesi si propone di affrontare la responsabilità civile del medico approfondendo uno dei profili più dibattuti, la natura della responsabilità, che è stata anche oggetto del predetto intervento normativo. A tal fine nel primo capitolo verrà trattato il passaggio dalla responsabilità del medico alla responsabilità sanitaria, facendo attenzione ai profili evolutivi della dottrina e della giurisprudenza, con uno sguardo rivolto alla spersonalizzazione del rapporto medico-paziente; nel secondo capitolo l'attenzione sarà rivolta alla natura della responsabilità, cercando di definire le linee di confine e le varie problematiche inerenti la prestazione medica; nel terzo capitolo verranno esaminate le varie tesi a supporto della diversa configurazione della natura della responsabilità del medico dipendente dalla struttura sanitaria e infine nell' ultimo capitolo verrà posto l'accento sul contesto socio-economico della legge Balduzzi e le varie problematiche inerenti l'art. I poteri riconosciuti al privato che si ritiene danneggiato dall'altrui condotta spaziano dalla tutela per equivalente alla tutela in forma specifica, previo riconoscimento del suo diritto. 2. Responsabilità civile, contrattuale ed extracontrattuale. Volendo delineare le caratteristiche, o meglio il presupposto principale, alla base della responsabilità civile, vediamo che quest' ultimo si sostanzia nell' esistenza di un "danno risarcibile". L'opera di Sacco confutò la tesi dell' identificazione tra ingiustizia del danno e lesione di un diritto soggettivo assoluto, mostrando le varie sfaccettature che può assumere in pratica il requisito dell' ingiustizia del danno, al di là della lesione del diritto della vittima. Schlesinger invece contrastò l'impostazione tradizionale affermando che l'atipicità stessa dell' illecito, portasse l'istituto della responsabilità civile, al di là della protezione dei diritti assoluti . Basti pensare all' interesse del contraente che quando entra in un rapporto contrattuale non pretende solo la prestazione che è oggetto del contratto ma ha interesse anche a non subire pregiudizio alla propria persona e alle proprie cose che indirettamente entrano automaticamente nella stessa prestazione contrattuale. A mio avviso emblematico è a tal riguardo il caso del medico dipendente che, pur essendo legato alla struttura da un rapporto di lavoro, avente ad oggetto il suo obbligo di prestazione medica, si trova esposto ad una molteplicità di rischi e pericoli legati proprio allo svolgimento della sua prestazione. In passato la responsabilità medica si declinava come responsabilità del medico, ponendo al centro del giudizio la colpa professionale dello stesso sul cui accertamento veniva basata la responsabilità solidale di medico e di strutture; oggi, la responsabilità sanitaria è innanzitutto responsabilità della struttura sanitaria e porta alla ribalta l'attività di assistenza sanitaria e con essa il rispetto dei livelli di qualità e appropriatezza clinica delle prestazioni sanitarie oltre che degli standard organizzativi e strutturali , . Oggi si parla sempre più correntemente di responsabilità medica o medico-sanitaria per sottolineare che alla responsabilità del singolo professionista si aggiunge quella della struttura sanitaria o ospedaliera presso la quale il medico presta la propria attività. Al di là della terminologia, il mutamento più significativo si è realizzato nella disciplina della responsabilità sempre più complessa e articolata tanto che si è parlato di un nuovo sottosistema della responsabilità civile . Nell' arco di qualche decennio, come vedremo si è passati dall' affermazione della natura extracontrattuale della responsabilità al principio del concorso ed infine alla natura schiettamente contrattuale. 4.La responsabilità del medico. In origine la responsabilità medica nasce e si afferma come responsabilità professionale del medico. La cornice normativa era composta da poche norme di portata generale sulla responsabilità civile(artt.1218 e 2043 c.c.) ed una norma di parte speciale che, dedicata alla responsabilità del professionista intellettuale(artt.2236 c.c.), si trova nell'ambito della disciplina del contratto d'opera professionale . Nell' evoluzione giurisprudenziale la responsabilità medica è stata declinata come responsabilità sanitaria di medici e strutture che ha dato luogo alla creazione da parte dei giudici di regole di responsabilità solo modellate sull' atto medico. Si è arrivati infatti a dare autonomia al "fare organizzato" della struttura rispetto al "fare professionale" del medico. Nell' ottica dell' attività di assistenza sanitaria, di cui è debitrice la struttura nei confronti del paziente, non si può più parlare di somma delle prestazioni dei singoli medici. L'opera creativa della giurisprudenza ha dapprima cercato di definire questo "contatto sociale", che da essere considerato la fonte di meri obblighi di protezione senza obbligo primario di prestazione diviene fonte di un "contratto di fatto" sulla base del quale è possibile individuare in capo al medico un obbligo di prestazione ; successivamente cercando di assimilare e ricondurre all' obbligo di prestazione da parte del medico quell' obbligo di assistenza sanitaria di cui è debitrice la struttura, sulla base del contratto stipulato con il medico. Nel panorama dei soggetti operanti nel settore sanitario si iscrivono anzitutto le Aziende Unità Sanitarie Locali, costituite dalla legge di riordino del sistema sanitario nazionale, sono aziende con personalità giuridica pubblica e autonomia imprenditoriale, che operano mediante atti di diritto privato, e che sono vincolate al rispetto del principio della economicità della gestione e alla redazione del bilancio d'esercizio, rimanendo in ogni caso soggette al potere di controllo delle Regioni(art.3) . n. 502/1992. La natura contrattuale della responsabilità della struttura sanitaria sia pubblica che privata, nei confronti del paziente, è oggi pacificamente condivisa da dottrina e giurisprudenza, non semplicemente sulla base della stipulazione di un contratto. Alla luce di tali considerazioni parrebbe preferibile una definizione della natura della responsabilità dell'istituto di cura in termini di responsabilità ex lege: la struttura sanitaria, ai sensi della legge 833/1978, è , infatti, legislativamente obbligata allo svolgimento dell'attività di "assistenza medica", con la conseguenza che il non corretto esercizio della stessa costituirebbe inadempimento di una obbligazione legale. Il sistema cd. a " doppio binario", costituisce il periodo intermedio dell'evoluzione dottrinale e giurisprudenziale dell'intera disciplina, nel quale alla responsabilità della struttura sanitaria si riconosceva origine contrattuale, mentre a quella del professionista si attribuiva natura aquiliana. In capo al medico gravava solo una responsabilità extracontrattuale, per violazione dei doveri inerenti alla professione, ex 2236 cod. civ., concorrente con quella contrattuale dell' ente. Un doppio binario in cui incanalare la responsabilità aquiliana del medico e quella contrattuale della struttura come responsabilità solidali in cui al medico era riconosciuta la possibilità di valersi di un beneficio di preventiva escussione della struttura sanitaria ogniqualvolta esso sia in grado di dare prova di una "non grave violazione" delle regole desumibili da protocolli scientifici, linee guida, raccomandazioni . Se la qualificazione extracontrattuale della responsabilità di quest'ultimo appariva corretta sul piano metodologico, al contempo risultava troppo riduttiva: ravvisare, infatti, nel medico un "quiusque de populo"significava non tenere conto del rapporto che si instaura direttamente tra quest'ultimo e il paziente . Inoltre, veniva a determinarsi un concorso improprio tra responsabilità aquiliana del medico e contrattuale dell'ente con conseguente bipartizione del regime giuridico applicabile, nonostante la responsabilità dell'ente avesse matrice unica ed esclusiva nell'esecuzione non diligente o errata della prestazione sanitaria da parte del medico. A questo punto era utile definire quando si conclude il rapporto contrattuale tra ente e paziente; secondo l'impostazione tradizionale , è la stessa accettazione del paziente ai fini del ricovero o di una visita ambulatoriale a segnare la conclusione del "contratto d'opera professionale" tra il paziente e l'ente ospedaliero, il quale assume a proprio carico, nei confronti del paziente,l'obbligazione di svolgere l'attività diagnostica e la conseguente attività terapeutica, in relazione alla specifica situazione patologica del paziente preso in cura. A questo rapporto contrattuale il medico rimane del tutto estraneo, venendo ad instaurarsi con il malato solo un rapporto "giuridicamente indiretto". Di qui la conclusione che "la responsabilità del predetto sanitario verso il paziente per il danno cagionato da un suo errore diagnostico o terapeutico è soltanto extracontrattuale, con la conseguenza che il diritto al risarcimento del danno spettante al paziente nei confronti del medico si prescrive nel termine quinquennale stabilito dall'art. La "spersonalizzazione" del rapporto che intercorre tra medico e paziente va di pari passo con l'evoluzione dell'attività medica. Proprio sulla figura del "malato" infatti e non più sulla cura della "malattia" dovrebbe concentrarsi il lavoro del medico e di tutti gli altri operatori sanitari. 8. Il problema della responsabilità del medico dipendente dalla struttura La responsabilità del medico verso l'ente è strettamente legata al tipo di rapporto che intercorre tra i due soggetti, mentre sostanzialmente irrilevante è la natura pubblica o privata della struttura. I problemi in merito alla responsabilità del medico alle dipendenze della struttura muovono dal non sempre agevole inquadramento di quest'ultimo all' interno del complesso iter organizzativo che vede il coinvolgimento di altre figure sanitarie e di altri fattori interni come apparecchiature e l'erogazione di servizi ad essi correlati. A questo punto analizziamo il caso in cui, il medico, nello svolgimento del suo incarico, provochi un danno al paziente. Quest'ultimo potrà agire in giudizio nei confronti del datore di lavoro del medico, struttura pubblica o privata, in quanto il suo rapporto è con l'istituzione, alla quale è ricorso, in base alla disciplina della responsabilità contrattuale; A sua volta l'istituzione convenuta in giudizio, può rivalersi civilmente con l'azione di regresso ai sensi dell' art. 2055 c.c. :" Responsabilità solidale.- Nel dubbio, le singole colpe si presumono uguali", nei confronti del proprio dipendente per i danni che sia stata costretta a risarcire al terzo, danneggiato in conseguenza della colpa professionale del medico, così pure può chiamarlo nel processo ove è citata in giudizio. Tornando, solo brevemente al quantum di diligenza richiesto al medico dipendente dalla struttura, la norma di riferimento è l'art. 2104 del c.c., che recita:"Diligenza del prestatore di lavoro.- Altrettanto emblematico si rivela poi il percorso giurisprudenziale in tema di qualificazione della responsabilità del medico operante in una struttura sanitaria, infatti in tale settore si è registrato un progressivo abbandono della prospettiva extracontrattuale, ritenuta inappropriata in quanto l'assenza di un contratto non può determinare una variazione del contenuto dell' obbligo del medico che rimane pur sempre quello di cui all' art. 1176 secondo comma c.c. Il fondamento normativo della responsabilità del singolo operatore è individuato prevalentemente nell' art. 28 Cost., anche se non mancano riferimenti all' art.1228 c.c. . Medico ed ente sarebbero legati da un contratto di cui il paziente è terzo beneficiario , da ciò discende la sua possibilità di attivarsi contrattualmente anche nei confronti del medico per far valere la non diligente esecuzione della prestazione . In una posizione a se si colloca la sentenza della Corte di Cassazione n. 589 del 1999 che propone un nuovo approccio alla problematica mediante il ricorso alla teoria dell' obbligazione senza prestazione basata sul rapporto contrattuale di fatto o da contatto sociale tra medico e paziente . L'attività del medico incide su di un bene costituzionalmente garantito (art.32 Cost.) ed, inoltre, il medico è vincolato al rispetto di una disciplina deontologica particolarmente pregnante . CAP.2 RESPONSABILITA' CONTRATTUALE ED EXTRACONTRATTUALE 1.Il problema della distinzione dell'ambito applicativo delle regole sulla responsabilità. La differenza tra responsabilità contrattuale e responsabilità extracontrattuale si basa su una diversità strutturale che pone la prima in esito alla violazione di un obbligo funzionale alla realizzazione del diritto e la seconda in esito alla lesione tout court di un diritto . Si pensi al mancato rispetto del vincolo ad attuare il trasferimento del diritto nei contratti ad efficacia reale. Il primo secondo cui:"L' accettazione del paziente nell' ospedale, ai fini del ricovero oppure di una visita ambulatoriale, comporta la conclusione di un contratto d'opera professionale tra il paziente e l'ente ospedaliero, il quale assume a proprio carico, nei confronti del paziente, l'obbligazione di svolgere l'attività diagnostica e la conseguente attività terapeutica in relazione alla specifica situazione del paziente preso in cura ". Siccome a questo rapporto contrattuale non partecipa il medico dipendente, che provvede allo svolgimento dell' attività diagnostica e della conseguente attività terapeutica, nelle vesti di organo dell' Ente ospedaliero, la responsabilità del sanitario verso il paziente per il danno provocato da un suo errore diagnostico o terapeutico è soltanto extracontrattuale; immediata conseguenza quindi è che il diritto al risarcimento del danno, spettante al paziente nei confronti del medico, si prescrive nel termine quinquennale. Un secondo, più recente, orientamento faceva, invece, rientrare la responsabilità del sanitario in ambito contrattuale, assumendo che detta responsabilità, così come quella dell'ente, avrebbe "radice nell'esecuzione non diligente della prestazione sanitaria da parte del medico dipendente, nell'ambito dell'organizzazione sanitaria. Pertanto, stante questa comune radice, la responsabilità del medico dipendente sarebbe, come quella dell'ente pubblico, di natura professionale" . Detto inquadramento tende, peraltro, ad appiattire ed omologare la responsabilità della struttura a quella del medico; infatti, se da un lato dava importanza al contratto stipulato tra paziente e struttura, tanto da "attirare" nel regime contrattuale anche l'operato del medico, dall'altro individuava, quale unica fonte di danno, l'eventuale comportamento imprudente/negligente del professionista, così trascurando tutte quelle altre possibili cause di danno derivanti dall' inadempimento, da parte dell' ente, di obbligazioni di cui solo quest' ultimo è debitore (es. igiene, controllo dei macchinari, organizzazione del personale). Si deve peraltro segnalare che la Suprema Corte era giunta al riconoscimento della natura contrattuale della responsabilità del sanitario dipendente anche tramite altra via, ovvero tramite l'accoglimento della teoria, di origine germanica, del "contratto con effetti protettivi a favore del terzo". Secondo questa impostazione, in alcuni contratti, accanto ed oltre al diritto alla prestazione principale, sarebbe garantito ed esigibile un ulteriore diritto a che non siano arrecati danni a terzi estranei al contratto. La natura della responsabilità quindi, deve essere individuata non sulla base della condotta ( negligente o meno) in concreto tenuta dall'agente, ma sulla base della natura del precetto violato; sia la responsabilità del medico, sia quella dell'ente ospedaliero hanno entrambe una "radice comune" nell'esecuzione non diligente della prestazione, ma ciò non comporta necessariamente che entrambe le responsabilità siano di natura contrattuale, non potendosi escludere che un fatto, l'attività professionale del medico appunto, integri, da un lato, una responsabilità contrattuale a carico di un soggetto (ente ospedaliero) e, dall'altro, una responsabilità extracontrattuale a carico di un altro soggetto, autore del fatto (medico). Escluso, dunque, di poter fondare la natura contrattuale della responsabilità del medico sulla "radice comune" dell' esecuzione non diligente o sul rapporto di dipendenza tra medico ed ente, l'orientamento di cui trattasi individua la ragione della natura contrattuale degli obblighi di cura dovuti dal medico a favore del paziente nel "contatto sociale" che si instaura tra detti due soggetti; la disamina di tale teoria sarà trattata nel terzo capitolo, per il momento ci apprestiamo ad analizzare alcuni aspetti problematici. Secondo questa lettura, l'attività professionale del medico implica l' adempimento di obblighi di conservazione della sfera giuridica altrui che nascono dall'affidamento inevitabilmente generato dalla stessa professionalità. Con riferimento ai carichi probatori, secondo questa teoria che fonda la responsabilità del medico sul "contatto sociale" con il paziente, "in base alla regola di cui all'art. Parallelamente al descritto iter relativo alla responsabilità del sanitario, si è assistito al riconoscimento di una totale autonomia della responsabilità dell'ente rispetto a quella del medico curante. 1228 c.c., per l'inadempimento della prestazione medico-professionale svolta direttamente dal sanitario, quale suo ausiliario necessario . Detta lettura, che costituisce un ritorno al passato inquadramento della responsabilità del medico, trova il proprio fondamento normativo nell' art.3 del recente provvedimento legislativo n. 189 dell' 8 novembre 2012 di conversione del c.d. "Decreto Sanità" (d.l. 13 settembre 2012,n. 158), secondo cui: "L'esercente le professioni sanitarie che nello svolgimento della propria attività si attiene a linee guida e buone pratiche accreditate dalla comunità scientifica non risponde penalmente per colpa lieve. In tali casi resta comunque fermo l'obbligo di cui all' art. 2043 del codice civile…". Nel rinvio all' art. 2043 c.c., parte della dottrina legge, infatti, la volontà del legislatore di prendere posizione ,nella disputa sulla natura contrattuale o extracontrattuale della responsabilità del sanitario, a favore di tale ultima impostazione; sul punto si tornerà in maniera più accurata e approfondita nel capitolo quarto. Ne risulta una riduzione ad unità della responsabilità di diritto civile, questa volta all' insegna del modello contrattuale. Quanto al primo aspetto, costituisce principio giurisprudenziale ormai consolidato che la responsabilità extracontrattuale concorre con quella contrattuale ogniqualvolta all'inosservanza di una previsione negoziale si accompagni la violazione del generale dovere del neminem laedere . La tesi contraria fa perno principalmente sulla "specificità" della tutela creditoria, ovvero sul diritto del creditore alla prestazione che "assorbirebbe", in altre parole, la generica pretesa ad una condotta non dannosa da parte del debitore. In tal caso, dunque, il paziente potrà, quale creditore insoddisfatto, invocare la responsabilità contrattuale; ma al tempo stesso, ricorrere alle regole di responsabilità aquiliana. E' stato in proposito osservato che in sostanza , la funzione del cumulo della responsabilità medica risponde all'esigenza di offrire tutela al diritto alla salute, senza sottrarla al regime aquiliano anche in quei casi in cui la lesione sia stata la conseguenza di un inadempimento, ma nel contempo adottando per la valutazione della condotta medica uno standard unitario, valevole sia per la responsabilità contrattuale che per quella aquiliana, desumibile dal criterio della diligenza professionale ex. art. 1176 c.c. . Si parla di "obblighi di protezione", considerati autonomi rispetto all' obbligo di prestazione, oltre che sul piano della struttura, anche su quello della fonte: nascono dalla legge anche quando fonte dell' obbligazione sia il contratto . La questione rimane aperta e le possibilità configurabili sono tre: a) unicità di natura della responsabilità contrattuale e di quella aquiliana, c.d. reductio ad unum della responsabilità di diritto civile ; b) tertium genus tra contratto e torto; c) tradizionale bipartizione della responsabilità di diritto civile. In dottrina inoltre, di fronte al dilagante fenomeno della c.d."ipertrofia del contratto" , due sono le strategie elaborate: quella della c.d. "terza via" , diretta a far confluire al suo interno tutte le ipotesi tipiche di responsabilità che non rientrano né nel modello extracontrattuale né nel modello contrattuale; e quella della riscoperta, per dir si voglia della portata generale del principio del neminem laedere, in una prospettiva di graduale superamento dell' antinomia tra modello contrattuale e modello extracontrattuale di responsabilità . CAP.3 LA NATURA DELLA RESPONSABILITA' DEL MEDICO DIPENDENTE DALLA STRUTTURA SANITARIA 1. La tesi della natura extracontrattuale. Un primo orientamento riconduce la responsabilità del medico inserito all' interno di una struttura sanitaria(sia essa pubblica o privata) all' alveo extracontrattuale. A tal proposito è utile far riferimento alla sentenza che ha segnato i caratteri di questa, ormai anacronistica configurazione. Parte nel contratto d'opera professionale, e nel conseguente rapporto obbligatorio, è l'ente ospedaliero ed esso soltanto, non anche il medico dipendente che provvede in concreto allo svolgimento dell' attività diagnostica e della conseguente attività terapeutica. In sede di conclusione del contratto e di esecuzione della dovuta prestazione professionale, di fronte al paziente si pone esclusivamente la soggettività giuridica dell' ente ospedaliero, nel quale il medico dipendente si immedesima per effetto del rapporto organico, sì che non rileva, nell' ambito e sotto l'aspetto dell' attività diagnostica e terapeutica, il suo status di soggetto di diritto, essendo egli organo per mezzo del quale l'ente ospedaliero adempie la prestazione professionale che è il contenuto dell' obbligazione assunta a proprio carico con la conclusione del contratto ."Quanto all' ente ospedaliero, l'attività è dovuta nei confronti del paziente, quale prestazione che l' ente si è obbligato ad adempiere con la conclusione del contratto d'opera professionale. Quanto al medico dipendente, l'attività è dovuta nei confronti dell' ente ospedaliero nell'ambito del rapporto di impiego pubblico che lo lega all' ente e quale esplicazione della funzione che è obbligato a svolgere" . Non è configurabile una responsabilità contrattuale del medico dipendente da ente ospedaliero, verso il paziente, in conseguenza dell' errore diagnostico o terapeutico da lui commesso. Il quale errore, però, rileva, cioè sotto il profilo della responsabilità extracontrattuale . La qualificazione contrattuale della responsabilità del medico dipendente, pur in mancanza di un vincolo negoziale diretto col paziente, è variamente argomentata e costituisce attualmente la questione più complessa della materia. Così, pensando alla prestazione medica o meglio al fine ultimo e sperato di quest' ultima, il "risultato della guarigione", certo non dovuto, pensiamo alla malattie tumorali in fase terminale, indica e seleziona le terapie adeguate al suo (sperato) conseguimento. Il richiamo all' obbligazione senza prestazione, nella sentenza della cassazione n. 589 del 1999 e successive pronunce, appare forse il più problematico fra i tentativi di fondare la responsabilità diretta del medico dipendente da una struttura ospedaliera. Detto ciò, vediamo che obblighi di protezione, obbligazione senza prestazione e contratto con effetti protettivi a favore di terzo, sono inidonei a render conto della complessità di contenuto del rapporto medico-paziente e della sua attuale evoluzione. Limitarsi al profilo della responsabilità aquilliana quindi significherebbe farsi sfuggire il dato più significativo e caratterizzante, il modo in cui oggi realmente si atteggia il rapporto medico-paziente. 3. La tesi della responsabilità contrattuale da contatto sociale. Troppo riduttivo e alquanto garantista appare restringere la responsabilità del medico nell'alveo della responsabilità contrattuale, infatti difficilmente poteva configurarsi un rapporto contrattuale tra medico e paziente, tale da identificare un eventuale danno come inadempimento contrattuale. La responsabilità del medico per i danni cagionati dall' espletamento dell' attività sanitaria ha, pertanto, comunque natura contrattuale, ma derivante dalla posizione di garanzia che il sanitario assume nei confronti del paziente a seguito dell' affidamento che quest'ultimo ripone in colui che esercita una professione protetta avente a oggetto il bene, costituzionalmente tutelato, della salute. La cassazione inoltre è intervenuta anche in tema di responsabilità professionale del medico-chirurgo, affermando più volte che sussistendo un rapporto contrattuale , quand'anche fondato sul solo contatto sociale, in base alla regola di cui all'art. Natura contrattuale ha quindi la responsabilità del medico ospedaliero anche in caso di inesistenza di un pregresso rapporto obbligatorio col paziente poiché con quest' ultimo, nel momento in cui il sanitario decide di intervenire, si instaura un rapporto contrattuale di fatto . La giurisprudenza quindi, come più volte sottolineato in precedenza, operava una distinzione tra la responsabilità della struttura sanitaria, ritenuta da inadempimento a seguito dell' accettazione del paziente nell' ospedale, ai fini del ricovero o di una visita ambulatoriale con l'obbligazione di compiere l'attività diagnostica e terapeutica in relazione alla situazione patologica del paziente preso in cura, dopo il pagamento del ticket, ipotizzando la conclusione di un contratto d'opera professionale tra paziente ed ente ospedaliero, mentre la natura della responsabilità del medico, dipendente e pagato dalla struttura pubblica, nei confronti del paziente, per danno cagionato da un suo errore diagnostico o terapeutico, veniva qualificata extracontrattuale, con esclusione della colpa lieve nei casi di negligenza o imprudenza . La tesi contrattualistica della natura della responsabilità del medico dipendente dalla struttura sanitaria è stata variamente argomentata da dottrina e giurisprudenza, sino ad essere cristallizzata, sotto un peculiare profilo, dalla nota pronuncia n.589/99 della Suprema Corte. Secondo un primo orientamento , la responsabilità contrattuale del medico dipendente troverebbe fondamento nell' art.28 Cost.; tanto la responsabilità dell' ente, quanto quella dell' operatore sanitario troverebbero, cioè, radice nella medesima condotta, ossia nell' esecuzione non diligente della prestazione sanitaria. Detta impostazione riduce al momento terminale, cioè al danno, una vicenda che non incomincia con il danno, ma si struttura prima come "rapporto, in cui il paziente, quanto meno in punto di fatto, si affida alle cure del medico ed il medico accetta di prestargliele" . La prima esperienza applicativa di questa teoria riguarda la responsabilità da contatto sociale del medico strutturato e le note difficoltà di inquadramento del rapporto tra ente, medico e paziente. Come già accennato il primo riconoscimento della validità del contatto sociale come fonte di responsabilità è avvenuto nella nota sentenza della Suprema Corte n. 589 del 22 gennaio 1999, ed ha ad oggetto la responsabilità del medico dipendente di un ente ospedaliero pubblico per il danno cagionato ad un paziente da un'errata diagnosi, con conseguente non corretto trattamento terapeutico. Più controverso è stato individuare la natura della responsabilità del medico dipendente. In alcune sentenze la Suprema corte ha peraltro optato per una responsabilità contrattuale del sanitario. Ciò perché si inseriva la prestazione del medico nel quadro del rapporto privatistico tra ente gestore e paziente, e si rilevava la diretta relazione che lega detta prestazione all' aspettativa del privato richiedente il servizio, ravvisandosi una responsabilità contrattuale sia dell' ente ospedaliero che del medico da cui questo dipende . Questo orientamento parte dal presupposto che, attraverso l'immedesimazione organica tra l'ente pubblico ed i suoi dipendenti, i danni causati all' assistito dall' esecuzione non diligente della prestazione del medico dipendente sono fonte di responsabilità diretta per l'ente gestore del servizio sanitario. La riconduzione in schemi contrattualistica anche della responsabilità del medico dipendente si desume poi dall' art. 28 della cost. che contempla, unitamente alla responsabilità dell' ente, quella del dipendente, essendo entrambe tali responsabilità fondate sull' esecuzione non diligente della prestazione sanitaria del medico. L'unicità del fondamento comporta quindi che anche quella del medico sarebbe una responsabilità contrattuale di natura professionale . È stata, infatti, definita un sottoinsieme della responsabilità civile o un settore multidisciplinare all' interno del quale vige un regime giuridico speciale , . L'atipicità del modello di responsabilità medica si desume anche dal fatto che, pure quando è stata collocata all' interno della responsabilità aquiliana, ad essa sono stati applicati comunque istituti propri della responsabilità contrattuale, quali la distinzione tra obbligazioni di mezzo e di risultato, il criterio della diligenza professionale, il richiamo a regole di causalità materiale, la limitazione di responsabilità di cui all' art. 2236 c.c. 4. Evoluzione giurisprudenziale dopo le SU della cassazione e consolidamento della tesi della responsabilità contrattuale da contatto sociale. Da ciò ne consegue che la responsabilità dell' ente gestore del servizio ospedaliero e quella del medico dipendente hanno entrambe radice nell' esecuzione non diligente o errata della prestazione sanitaria da parte del medico, per cui, accertata la stessa, risulta contestualmente accertata la responsabilità a contenuto contrattuale di entrambi , ovviamente tale qualificazione non discende dalla fonte dell' obbligazione ma dal contenuto del rapporto . 2236 c.c., essere allegata e provata dal medico ; a proposito della responsabilità professionale da contratto o contatto sociale del medico, la Corte in una pronuncia afferma che al fine del riparto dell' onere probatorio, il paziente danneggiato deve limitarsi a provare il contratto o contatto sociale, e l'aggravamento della patologia o l'insorgenza di un' affezione ed allegare l'inadempimento del debitore, astrattamente idoneo a provocare il danno lamentato . Ancora, in tema di responsabilità professionale del medico, ove pure quest' ultimo si limiti alla diagnosi e all' illustrazione al paziente delle conseguenze della terapia o dell' intervento che ritenga di dover compiere, allo scopo di ottenere il necessario consenso informato, ha natura contrattuale e non precontrattuale e quindi ne consegue che a fronte dell' allegazione, da parte del paziente dell' inadempimento dell' obbligo di informazione, è il medico gravato dell' onere della prova di aver adempiuto tale obbligazione .Dalle varie pronunce si evince come la sentenza n. 589 del 1999 ha sicuramente trovato un riscontro favorevole nella successiva giurisprudenza. Ricondurre all' alveo della responsabilità contrattuale da contatto sociale la responsabilità del medico dipendente ha però senz' altro esposto la professione medica alla cd. medicina difensiva. E' evidente che l'estensione ai medici del servizio sanitario nazionale della responsabilità contrattuale , che riduce notevolmente le possibilità di difesa da ingiuste o non provate accuse di violazione del contratto, non potrà che accelerare questo orientamento delle compagnie di assicurazione. La responsabilità del medico sembra concretizzarsi non all' atto dell' assunzione di un obbligo, ma in esecuzione dell' obbligazione sanitaria e quanto al suo contenuto, questo si atteggia come una normale obbligazione che richiama comportamenti destinati a produrre un risultato utile per il creditore. Come visto, nel tentativo di ricostruire il rapporto medico-paziente come autenticamente contrattuale vediamo come nella prestazione del medico nei confronti del paziente ciò che sembra sfuggire è l' accordo tra le due parti che deve precedere l'esecuzione della prestazione. Per quel che concerne, poi, il criterio della risarcibilità del danno, esso, a prescindere dalla natura della responsabilità individuata, viene sempre limitato all' interesse a non subire danni alla salute. La lesione dell' interesse positivo al contratto può venire in considerazione, in particolare, nel caso in cui si possa individuare in maniera distinta sia un interesse alla prestazione migliorativa, che un interesse alla prestazione conservativa. CAP. 4 LA NATURA DELLA RESPONSABILITA' DEL MEDICO DOPO LA LEGGE BALDUZZI 1. La ratio della legge e il contesto socio-economico nel quale si inserisce. Nel capitolo precedente abbiamo visto come attraverso l'espediente del contatto sociale, come fonte di protezione tra medico e paziente, si compie una perfetta omologazione in punto di disciplina della responsabilità del medico a quella della struttura e viene salvaguardata, in nome della radice comune delle due responsabilità, l'unitarietà del regime di regole applicabile ad entrambi. Dal "fatto illecito del medico", che negli anni 80 aveva sorretto la configurazione di un regime unitario di regole di responsabilità, si trascorre oggi alla "non diligente esecuzione della prestazione sanitaria da parte del medico dipendente nell' ambito dell' organizzazione sanitaria" . In tal modo si individua nell' "operato professionale", in cui si incardina il "fare" del sanitario/dipendente della struttura, quel "fatto dannoso comune" che sorregge la responsabilità solidali di medici e strutture. Quindi la responsabilità del medico dal paradigma della responsabilità professionale fondata sulla colpa, trascorre al paradigma di una responsabilità semi-oggettiva in quanto la prova liberatoria ad esso richiesta non è quella dell' assenza di colpa bensì quella specifica dell' evento straordinario ed eccezionale che è stato causa di danno alla salute . Tutto ciò perché nell' interpretazione che ormai si impone in giurisprudenza con riguardo alla ben nota regola probatoria contenuta nell' art. 1218, nel riferimento anche all' inesatto adempimento di obbligazioni che hanno per oggetto un fare professionale del medico, l'intero carico probatorio si sposta sulla struttura e sul medico e senza distinzioni di sorta si richiede ad entrambi come prova liberatoria, a fronte dell' allegazione dell' inadempimento da parte del paziente, non la prova dell' assenza di colpa bensì quella dell' evento straordinario ed eccezionale che è stato causa del danno alla salute del paziente . Si giunge cosi a considerare esigibile dal medico "strutturato", oltreché dall' ente, quel "risultato conseguibile, secondo criteri di normalità, da apprezzarsi in relazione alle condizioni del paziente, all'abilità tecnica del primo, e alla capacità tecnico-organizzativa dell' ente" , del quale entrambi sono chiamati a rispondere fino alla prova di quell' evento imprevisto/imprevedibile/non prevenibile, che è stato causa dell' insuccesso del trattamento sanitario o del mancato miglioramento della salute del paziente. Oggi il medico, se dipendente di struttura, nonostante nelle massime si continui a declamare la sua responsabilità per colpa al pari degli altri professionisti intellettuali, diviene oggi "garante della salute" del paziente rispondendo di qualsiasi insuccesso della terapia fino al limite della complicanza non prevedibile o non prevenibile, e ciò anche nei casi in cui l' insuccesso sia riconducibile a fattori risalenti all' organizzazione . Ovviamente si parla sempre di responsabilità da violazione di obblighi che, a prescindere dalla fonte, vuoi da contatto sociale vuoi da contratto, vengono comunque ricondotte all' art. 1218, salvo differenziarsi sui contenuti della prova liberatoria posta a carico del medico. Per il primo, si richiede l' identificazione della causa, eccezionale e non prevedibile con la diligenza ordinaria, che sia stata all' origine dell' insuccesso del trattamento e/o del danno alla salute del paziente; per il secondo, che svolge la sua opera al di fuori di un'organizzazione sanitaria, si ritiene essere sufficiente, come prova liberatoria, quella della corretta esecuzione della prestazione o comunque del fatto che l'inadempimento non sia stato causa del danno. Ovviamente nel nostro sistema ciò è avvenuto, senza abbandonare il modello unitario di disciplina della responsabilità di medici e strutture che si regge su un fatto dannoso comune come presupposto fondante entrambe le responsabilità; modello che se in passato ha condotto ad omologare la responsabilità della struttura a quella del medico, oggi, in una inversione di tendenza, fa si che sia la responsabilità del medico ad adeguarsi in punto di disciplina, a quella della struttura. In questo clima dunque la nostra classe medica è stata attratta dal vortice della medicina difensiva, della quale abbiamo avuto modo di parlare all' inizio del paragrafo. L'obiettivo del legislatore è, allora, quello di farsi carico con misure concrete del problema, tentando di porre un freno al dilagare del contenzioso giudiziario e dei costi connessi. A completare il quadro l'estrema specializzazione di ogni operatore sanitario, insieme alla crescente difficoltà di aggiornamento e alla complessità della strumentazione moderna; lo svolgimento del lavoro in equipe e all' interno delle strutture sanitarie; la presenza di norme sempre più dettagliate e l'enfatizzazione del diritto alla salute, che ha fatto salire il livello di attesa di un risultato favorevole. In tale contesto si inserisce l' art. 3 del decreto legge 13 settembre 2012 n. 158, come modificato dalla legge di conversione 8 novembre 2012, n.189, articolo specificamente dedicato alla "responsabilità professionale dell' esercente la professione sanitaria", che pare riportare la responsabilità del medico nella disciplina dell' illecito. L'art 3 del decreto legge stabiliva: Al comma I, che :"Fermo restando il disposto dell' art. 2236 del codice civile, nell'accertamento della colpa lieve nell' attività dell' esercente le professioni sanitarie il giudice, ai sensi dell' art. 1176 del codice civile, tiene conto in particolare dell' osservanza, nel caso concreto, delle linee guida e delle buone pratiche accreditate dalla comunità nazionale e internazionale.". Al comma quarto che: "Fatto salvo quanto previsto al comma I, la responsabilità civile per danni a persone, causati dal personale sanitario medico e non medico, occorsi nell' ambito di una struttura sanitaria pubblica, privata accreditata e privata è sempre a carico della struttura stessa". - In tali casi resta comunque fermo l' obbligo di cui all' art. 2043 del codice civile. Il giudice, anche nella determinazione del risarcimento del danno, tiene debitamente conto della condotta di cui al primo periodo"; Il comma quarto è stato, invece rimosso dal testo legislativo finale. Inoltre parte della dottrina, tra cui l'autore N. Todeschini, affermano che il legislatore avrebbe introdotto una mera lex specialis, per i soli dipendenti del sistema medico sanitario, senza tener conto che la responsabilità del medico fa parte delle "responsabilità nei servizi sanitari"; sottolineando anche come il ritorno all' applicazione della disciplina sull' illecito aquiliano, più gravosa per il paziente in ordine all' onere probatorio ed ai termini di prescrizione, volta a ridurre il contenzioso sulla responsabilità del medico,indebolirebbe sia il diritto alla salute, sia il diritto ad essere curati dal servizio sanitario, sia la stessa tutela della salute . Volendo passare in rassegna le due versioni della norma vediamo come il legislatore abbia inteso perseguire il proprio obiettivo focalizzando l'attenzione sulla "colpa professionale" del medico, così restituendo all' elemento soggettivo, troppo spesso trascurato nelle decisioni dei giudici, un ruolo centrale nella responsabilità del medico. Questa scelta definita da molti autori "demolitiva", da un lato, lascia intendere che per l'ente continuino a valere quelle regole già coniate prima dell' entrata in vigore della recente modifica; regole all' insegna di una responsabilità semioggettiva, che trova il proprio limite nella dimostrazione dell' evento imprevisto ed imprevedibile che abbia causato il mancato miglioramento del paziente; dall' altro lato, porta a ritenere che la volontà del legislatore di dettare una norma dedicata esclusivamente alla responsabilità del medico, significhi, implicitamente, aver ammesso che il regime applicabile al sanitario deve considerarsi disciplinato da regole separate ed autonome, sia con riguardo alla fonte, sia alla natura della responsabilità, rispetto a quelle indirizzate alla struttura. Come emerge dalla lettura proposta del comma 1, dell'art. 3, si ritiene che il legislatore, con l'ultima versione dell' articolato, abbia operato una "scelta di campo" a favore della natura extracontrattuale della responsabilità del medico, con le relative conseguenze in tema di elemento soggettivo, termine di prescrizione ed onere della prova . 3 della l. 8.11.2012 come disposizione, espressamente dedicata a disciplinare la responsabilità degli "esercenti la professione sanitaria", rivela dunque, nel silenzio serbato nei confronti di chi è oggi il protagonista chiave nel giudizio civile e cioè la struttura che è anche solidalmente responsabile con il medico, di voler guardare alla responsabilità del medico, in modo del tutto autonomo dalla responsabilità della struttura, confermandone il suo inquadramento nell' ambito delle responsabilità professionali da status. 3 del decreto sanità, nel riferimento alla prova di una diligenza, qualificata dall' applicazione delle L.G., con importanti implicazioni sulla quantificazione del risarcimento del danno in termini di riduzione, abbia inteso, nel rinvio all' art. 2043 c.c., far gravare sul paziente la prova della colpa medica all' insegna di un non dovuto o non richiesto dalle circostanze del caso, adeguamento alle L.G., che solo al medico compete individuare tra le diverse accreditate dalle Società scientifiche. Molti autori sostengono in definitiva che la norma del decreto Balduzzi sia "precettiva" con riguardo alla colpa penale e al criterio di quantificazione del danno in sede civile, mentre è una norma "interpretativa" con riguardo alla colpa civile del medico; la sua rilevanza nella gerarchia delle fonti consiste nell' evidenza di riassegnare un ruolo centrale alla responsabilità da fatto illecito, in linea con la tradizione, e conferma l'intuizione dottrinale dell' attualità, per così dire, del paradigma della responsabilità professionale fondata sulla colpa . In senso favorevole a una restaurazione del sistema vertente sulla natura aquiliana della responsabilità del medico, il Tribunale di Varese, nella sentenza 26 novembre 2012, n.1406, si è pronunciato motivando il revirement in forza di una maggiore coerenza con i nuclei ispiratori della disciplina di riforma sanitaria. Ciò in considerazione dell' aumento esponenziale e spesso pretestuoso del contenzioso nei confronti dei sanitari. Viene sottolineato anche il fatto che se il richiamo all' art. 2043 c.c. imponesse l'adozione di un modello extracontrattuale, l'applicazione rigorosa della norma ne comporterebbe l'applicazione anche alle ipotesi pacificamente contrattuali, quali i rapporti fra pazienti e medici liberi professionisti, dal momento che il primo periodo dell' art. 3, comma 1, secondo periodo della legge Balduzzi, in conformità con la collocazione sistematica e con la ratio dell' intervento legislativo, ha il solo scopo di richiamare la disposizione cardine espressione del principio del neminem laedere e del conseguente obbligo di risarcimento del danno conseguente alla violazione del suddetto principio. 3 del decreto legge 158/2012 scolpiva la responsabilità contrattuale della struttura sanitaria pubblica, e dei medici pubblici dipendenti, il novellato art. 3 della legge di conversione, opta per la soluzione opposta, facendo scomparire ogni riferimento esplicito alla qualificazione in termini contrattuali della responsabilità del medico pubblico dipendente, con il chiaro ed indubbio riferimento all' art. 2043. Come abbiamo già visto poi la legge di conversione, ribaltando la norma del decreto legge che faceva una chiara scelta in tema di responsabilità risarcitoria del medico pubblico dipendente, richiama espressamente i criteri della responsabilità aquiliana, ritenendo che la responsabilità civile del medico non debba rifarsi ad una responsabilità da inadempimento con gli indubbi vantaggi del paziente in tema di prescrizione ed onere della prova, ma alla responsabilità aquiliana. In altri termini, al fine di contenere gli oneri risarcitori della spesa pubblica, il nuovo art. 3 della l. 189/2012, intende intervenire sul "diritto vivente", operando una scelta di campo finalizzata al valore del risparmio e non della salute del paziente. Il Tribunale di Torino non utilizza la teorica del contatto sociale e quindi rigetta la domanda del paziente per i danni subiti in ospedale, nel caso di specie la frattura del femore, per non aver fornito la prova della colpa delle parti convenute, e quindi del fatto illecito. Tralasciando i riscontri penalistici, per il caso di colpa lieve, che per molti è limitata alla sola imperizia e non anche alla negligenza e imprudenza, la persistenza della stessa responsabilità civile va riportata all' art. 2043 c.c., infatti la norma sottolinea come :" In tali casi resta comunque fermo l'obbligo di cui all' art. 2043 c.c. Ovviamente il giudice nella determinazione del risarcimento del danno terrà conto della condotta del medico richiamata nel primo periodo dell' art. 3, e quindi anche se l'esercente si attiene alle c.d. L.G. e alle buone pratiche accreditate dalla comunità scientifica, nel momento in cui provochi dei danni al paziente, sarà tenuto al risarcimento danni ex art. 2043; se poi verrà accertato che la sua attività sia stata condotta con negligenza e imprudenza e non solo imperizia, risponderà anche in sede penale. Tutto ciò fa si che la paziente abbia stipulato, al momento dell'accordo con il medico dr. Le due sentenze ribadiscono che la responsabilità del medico, così come quella della struttura sanitaria, ha ancora natura contrattuale; anche l' obbligazione del medico dipendente dall' azienda sanitaria nei confronti del paziente, seppur fondata sul contatto sociale, costituisce vincolo contrattuale. La tutela del paziente passa in primo piano senza però sfociare in eccessive estensioni della responsabilità, civile e penale, che in passato hanno fomentato il ricorso alla medicina difensiva. Il richiamo all' art. 2043 c.c. all' interno dell'art.3 della legge Balduzzi è stato letto da molti autori come un vero e proprio fondamento normativo della responsabilità del medico ospedaliero di natura extracontrattuale. A conferma di questa prima interpretazione sono intervenute numerose sentenze, tra le quali è utile ricordare quella del tribunale di Milano che afferma come: Sembra corretto interpretare la norma nel senso che il legislatore ha inteso fornire una precisa indicazione nel senso che, al di fuori dei casi in cui il paziente sia legato al professionista da un rapporto contrattuale, il criterio attributivo della responsabilità civile al medico (e agli altri esercenti una professione sanitaria) va individuato in quello della responsabilità da fatto illecito ex art. 2043 c.c., con tutto ciò che ne consegue sia in tema di riparto dell' onere della prova, sia di termine di prescrizione quinquennale del diritto al risarcimento del danno". La tesi che però oggi è prevalente in giurisprudenza è quella che qualifica come "contrattuale" la responsabilità medica, per agevolare la posizione del paziente, responsabilità che nasce non dal contratto atipico di spedalità, che riguarda il rapporto del paziente con la struttura, bensì dal "contatto sociale" istituito tra medico ospedaliero e paziente. In conclusione del presente lavoro appare opportuno richiamare alcune novità contenute negli articoli 6 e 7 del ddl sulla responsabilità professionale n. 1324 dell' 8 luglio 2013. La prima novità si lega a una delle critiche mosse alla legge Balduzzi: avere fatto un riferimento troppo generico alla colpa. Inoltre, per quello che ci interessa più da vicino, dalla natura "extracontrattuale" della responsabilità in capo all' esercente la professione sanitaria sono esclusi i liberi professionisti . 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LANGUAGE SHIFT AND MAINTENANCE AMONG CHINESE COMMUNITY IN SURABAYA: A CASE OF NON-MIGRANT COMMUNITY Rizky Silvia Putri Sastra Inggris, Language and Arts Faculty, State University of Surabaya Rizky2790@gmail.com Drs. Slamet Setiawan, MA, Ph.D English Literature, Faculty of Languages and Arts, State University of Surabaya slametsetia@yahoo.com Abstrak Bahasa Inggris merupakan bahasa Internasional dimana semua orang di dunia mengenal bahasa Inggris. Surabaya, sebagai kota besar di Indonesia menjadikan bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa yang penting untuk dipelajari dan hal ini juga mempengaruhi area kerja dimana Bahasa Inggris adalah salah satu syarat untuk dikuasai oleh tenaga kerja. Fenomena ini membuat orang-orang mempelajari bahkan bahasa Inggris dipilih sebagai bahasa yang harus mereka kuasai. Penelitian ini berfokus pada komintas Cina di Surabaya yang memilih bahasa Inggris and menunjukan tanda untuk bergeser ke bahasa Inggris dan pemertahanan bahasa Indonesia. Keluarga yang dipilih yang mempunyai potensial untuk berbicara bahasa Inggris dan kemungkinan bergeser ke bahasa Inggris. Penelitian ini mempunyai tiga tujuan: 1.) untuk mendeskripsikan bahasa yang digunakan oleh keluarga-keluarga Cina, 2.) untuk mengetahui factor-faktor yang menyebabkan keluraga-keluarga Cina memilih bahasa Inggris, dan 3.) untuk mengidentifikasi bagaimana keluarga-keluarga Cina mempertahankan bahasa Indonesia. Penelitian lapangan dipilih dalam penelitian ini. Penemuan dalam penelitian ini menunjukan bahwa factor dalam memilih bahasa Inggris dari pada bahasa Mandarin dan Indonesia menunjukkan tanda pergeseran ke bahasa Inggris. Ini karena bahasa Inggris mempunyai peranan yang penting dalam factor pergeseran bahasa: sifat dan nilai, social, demografi, dan ekonomi dan politik. Pemilihan bahasa Inggris karena beberapa factor juga sebuah tanda dari tiga keluraga Cina untuk bergeser ke bahasa Inggris: era modern, komunikasi, pendidikan, kehidupan mendatang, dan bahasa kebiasaan. Walaupun begitu, bahasa Indonesia sebagai bahasa ibu dan bahasa mayoritas yang digunakan oleh orang Surabaya dipertahankan. Sikap yang positif yang ditunjukkan oleh para orang tua dan anak-anak menunjukkan cara dalam mempertahankan bahasa Indonesia. Kata Kunci: pemilihan bahasa, pergeseran bahasa, pemilihan bahasa Abstract English is an international language where people around the world know English. Surabaya as urban and multilingual city in Indonesia put English as an important language to be learnt and it gives affect in working area where English one of language requirements where employees must able to speak it. This phenomena make people learn even choose English as one of language that they must mastered. This study focuses on Chinese community in Surabaya who chooses English and shows the precursor to shifts into English and the maintenance of Indonesian. The families have been chosen as they are potential agent to speak English and show the possibility to shift into English. The study has three goals: 1.) To describe the language is used by Chinese Family in Surabaya, 2.) To find out the factors that contributes Chinese family in choosing English, and 3.)To identify how do the Chinese Family maintain the Indonesian. Qualitative research approach has been chosen in this study. The instruments used were questionnaires and interviews. The findings of the study show that the factors of choosing English rather than Mandarin and Indonesian by three Chinese families as multilingual families show the precursor of shifting into English. This is because English has an important role to the factors of language shift: attitude and values, social, demographic, and economic and politic. The choice of English because of some factors also the precursor of these three Chinese families to shift into English: modern era, communication, education, future life, and language habit. However, Indonesian as mother tongue and majority language that is used by Surabaya people is maintained. The positive attitudes that are shown by parents and children show the way in maintaining Indonesian language. Keywords: Language choice, language shift, language maintenance INTRODUCTION English as an international language is nothing new in this modern world. Sharifi (2009: 2) said in general that English as an international language refers to a paradigm for thinking, research and practice. It marks a paradigm shift in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL), SLA and the applied linguistics of English, partly in response to the complexities that are associated with the tremendously rapid spread of English around the globe in recent decades English has been categorized as an important language for non-native English speakers and the application of learning English for education even starts from in the very young age, for example in Surabaya. English has been taught in every school and needed almost in every working area. Surabaya is known as urban city which the center of business, industry, trade, and center of education. This is one of the most favorable places where businessman or business woman begin their career, place of education, and for job seeker. Surabaya is the second larger city after Jakarta and the capital of the province of East Java, and with total of population reaching over 3 million which make Surabaya is called as an urban city (http://www.surabaya.go.id/profilkota/index.php?id=22). While Lowenstein (1977:23) said that In general, populations in places of 2,500 or over were urban; those in places of less than 2,500 were rural This makes English become an important language choice by people in Surabaya and perhaps people will try to learn English to get a better future in life because the competition is real in urban areas. Chinese is one of ethnics which exist in Surabaya for a very long time ago. The first language brought in Surabaya was Mandarin because the Chinese at the first time was the result of migration. Meanwhile, the elder did not teach Mandarin as well as language inherited. This is happen because they do not living in China where Mandarin position as first and dominant language spoken. So, the situation is Mandarin does not function as the first language for young generation in Surabaya. In addition, it is considered too difficult with all its grammars, pronunciations, and intonations. It is said by Constance's letter in Liu (2005:140) wrote that English was easier than Chinese because English only had twenty-six letters while Chinese had many characters and did not have a spelling system. So, the language most spoken by Chinese in Surabaya today is Indonesian and it is considered as mother tongue that inherits to the next generation. In this case, Chinese people, who see a future must be a better future and life will think that English is needed to be learnt because there would be a competitor in urban city and must follow the modern era which make English is used almost in every places whether written or oral. Besides getting an English subject at school, parents might also put their children to the course, learning English and use it at home in daily communication. This use of language is chosen and spoken because of some favors. This is leading Chinese community tend to shift Indonesian into English. It is when people use a particular language in a particular area because of some favors. Chaer and Agustina (1995: 190) said that language shift is usually happened in a country or in an area which gives a big hope for the better social economic life. There are three research questions; (1) what language is used by Chinese family in Surabaya, (2) what factors that contribute Chinese family choose English?, (3) how does the Chinese family maintain the Indonesian language?. The purposes of this study are to identify the language used by Chinese family in Surabaya and the factors that contribute the families choose English. This study is expected to be able to enrich linguistics study dealing with phenomena of language shift among Chinese people in Surabaya. This study uses three members of Chinese family in Surabaya and focuses only with non-migrant communities which mean that they have been living for the next of three generation after the first Chinese ethnic who had been migrated in Surabaya. The topic language shift and it is not something new. It was already done by other ethnics who moved in Surabaya as migrants. The situation of choosing a new language in a new domain where they live in right now, make the use that language in order to be able in communicate with people in new domain. This situation makes them shift their ethnic language to other language because of some favors and the ethnic language on the other hand does not use in the new are where the majority of language used is in the place they live in now. This study was conducted by Wijayanti and Windarti about language shift that happen to migrant majorities. The first study was conducted by Wijayanti's (2008) of "language shift and maintenance found in bataknese families in surabaya" indicated that the Bataknese who lives in Surabaya shift to a new and maintain the old one. She also wants to describe the social contexts which are responsible for language shift and language maintenance by Bataknese in Surabaya. Wijayanti divided the informants into two groups: young and old generations of Bataknese in Surabaya which were chosen in random whom might represent their community in Surabaya. The young generation represented language shift while the old generation represented language maintenance. While the second previous study was conducted by Windarti's (2007) of "A Study of Language Shift among Flores People in Surabaya" is concerned about the shift of Flores language because of the speakers' movement to another place (in this case, Flores people move to Java). Although the Flores people have very good ability to master Flores language, they have very positive attitude towards Flores language, and they also have such organization Flores family in Surabaya, most of the Flores people (parents) have never taught Flores language to their children. It is because Flores people think that it is unnecessary to teach Flores language in Surabaya. In addition, Windarti's study took ten Flores families as the informants, who were divided into two categories, original Flores families (OFs), and mixed marriage Flores Families (MMs). Both of previous study above concerned about the language shift which occurs to the speaker who migrate to the another city and shift the language to majority language that is Surabaya language. Migration is the position which showing that most people who migrate to another city will use the language use in the place they migrate to. While in this study is concerned about the choice and the intensity of using English language that make three Chinese families tend to shift into English. The status of English in the world is one of factors that lead them to choose English. The subjects were 3 families consist of parents and children. The children here is represented their community who potential to choose English as language communication. The parents represented the figure that supported the children to use English and maintain Indonesian as mother tongue and majority language spoken by Surabaya people. There are some theories that are used in this study, but there are five main theories that support to answer the three research questions in this study. The first theory is about multilingualism that is said by Quay in Auer and Lie (2007: 45) that with the greater mobility of people and consequent cross-linguistic and cross cultural relationship, an increasing number of children are growing up with early exposure to two languages in the family. Indeed, more than two languages may be in the linguistic repertoire of the family, rendering a case of family multilingualism, the second is about the ability of multilingual that is said by Sridhar in Wardhaugh (2006: 96) who says that Multilinguals develop competence in each of the codes to the extent that they need it and for the contexts in which each of the languages is used. The third is theory about factors of language choice by Setiawan (2013) suggests the certain reasons for language choice in bilingual or multilingual society from the city parent's view: Emblematic value, strategic reason (politeness), pragmatic reason. The fourth is about factors contribute language shift by Holmes (2001) who says that there are several factors that contribute to language shift: Values and attitude, social, demographic, and economic and political. The last is about language maintenance by Chaer and Agustina (1995: 193) who explain that language maintenance is the matter with the attitude to be consistent in using a language among other languages. RESEARCH METODE Qualitative or field research design is used in this study which mean to showing of human phenomena in the social interaction. The qualitative study is based on the quality which means to examine social meanings and grasp multiple perspectives in natural setting. According to Neuman (2007: 278), field research is based on naturalism, which is also used to study other phenomena (e.g. oceans, animals, plants, etc.). It involves observing ordinary events in natural settings, not in contrived, invented, or researcher-created-settings. The subjects in this study were 3 Chinese families in Surabaya who were born in Surabaya and living for the next of three generation for the first migration in Surabaya. The three Chinese families were multilingualism who able to speak three languages: Indonesian, Mandarin, and English. In this case, Indonesia was their mother tongue, not Mandarin. The sources of the data in this study were 3 Chinese families in Surabaya. They were parents and children. The data were information and opinion from each member and its parents. The data of research question number one, two and three are opinion and information about language used, factors contribute language shift, and the way of maintaining the Indonesian. The data are gotten from observation, Interview and questionnaires that are given to the subjects of the study; parents and children. Since the subjects of this study were humans, the writer collected the data in the form of written and oral words from the subjects being observed. Besides that, the instruments and tools were used to support to the data collection technique. There are two kinds of techniques applied in this study; questionnaires, interview. The three instruments were used to answer the three research question; (1) language used by Chinese family in Surabaya, (2) factors contributes language choice, and (3) the maintaining of Indonesian language. After that the data that had been obtained will be transcribed, and then classified the data. The last process is analyzing the data with the theory used in this study. RESULT AND DISCUSSION In this section, it collects all the data findings in result section and to be related with the theories provided. The data has founded is Multilingualism, Factors contribute language choice and the effort in Maintaining the Indonesian Language. Result In this section, it presents all data analyses gotten by related to research question number one, two, and three. In this part, there is no theory to be discussed which relate to the result. It will answer three research questions; language used, factors contribute language choice, and maintain Indonesian language. Then, the result is explained in the following parts: Language Used by Chinese Families in Surabaya The three Chinese families were known as multilingual families because they were able to speak in three languages; Mandarin, Indonesian and English. These languages have its position and function towards these families. The position and function of these languages will be explained below: Mandarin Language Mandarin was one of languages that were used by three Chinese families in Surabaya. Mandarin still considered as minority language and not all people in Surabaya understood and wanted to spoke this language. As the result, Mandarin was only spoken by people who able to speak this language, such us Chinese who worked at international Chinese company and Mandarin teacher who used Mandarin in teaching and learning method in school and Mandarin course places. It had been spoken also by the elder who had been living in Surabaya in past time but it did not now. The children also argued that Chinese was important but they did not speak it because they were not living in country where Mandarin is positioning as Majority. This opinion was gotten from the subject of the study that both children and parents were giving the same opinion about their ethnic language. The conversation is written below: Data 1: Mother A: menurut saya bahasa Mandarin itu penting karena menunjukkan identitas kami sebagai orang Cina. Tapi bahasa Mandarin jarang dipakai jadi saya tidak ngomong dengan bahasa Mandarin. Dan juga menurut saya bahasa Mandarin terlalu ribet dan sulit. Saya cuman bisa sedikit tapi hanya dipakai sama saudara dan temen. (I think Mandarin is important because it shows our identity. But, I also understand that it is not a majority language to be spoken in Surabaya because in here people use Indonesian. And it is also considered to be difficult. I only speak a little with my sibling and my friends). In this case, mother A only used Mandarin with her friends but only a little. This was because she did not speak well and it was too difficult. Mandarin language was only a sign to show her identity. Indonesian Language Indonesian language is the majority language that is spoken by people in Surabaya. Since Mandarin did not inherit to the three Chinese families, Indonesian was known as their mother tongue. Mother tongue is the language that is used and taught by parents to their children in daily activities and the result of mother language usually comes up as the first language of the children and parents. The evidence of Indonesian language as mother tongue for Chinese family can be seen on the information of each parent below. Table 1. The evidence of Indonesian language that is used as mother tongue Mother A Mother B Mother C bahasa indonesia ya bahasa ibu dikeluarga kami. Soalnya dari kecil orang tua ngomongnya ya pakek bahasa Indonesia. (Indonesian is our mother tongue because it inherits by my parents). dari kecil saya pakek bahasa Indonesia, soalnya orang tua kalo ngomong ke kita ya pakek bahasa Indonesia. (I use indonesia since I was a kid because my parents also speak Indonesian to us). I was speaking Indonesian when I was a kid because parents taught that language to me. Meanwhile, we are living in Surabaya, so we must understand about Indonesian. From the table above, it proved that the three Chinese families used Indonesian as mother language because they were living in the area where Indonesian was used by people surrounding. In addition, the old generation also taught them spoke Indonesian. So, Indonesian was recognized as Chinese mother tongue. English Language English was the language that was also used by three Chinese families. English was becoming their language because it had an important role in many aspects: education and job opportunities. It was also known as International language and positioned as foreign language. English was one of foreign languages that are taught at every school since a long time.it was seen that Child C learnt English since she was a child. And it was also her language used. Data 2: Child C: yeah,, My parents taught me English since I was a child. They also sent me to English course. From the information above, English was her language used. It was proven that she her parents taught her English when she was a child and they also sent her to English course. It means that she used English as one of her languages used. On the other hand, English became a dominant language used by three Chinese families in Surabaya. It was argued by Family A and B that English must become the children's dominant language. They are stated as follow: Data 3: Father A: kami sudah terbiasa ngomong pakek bahasa Inggris. Itu sudah terbiasa karena digereja dan tempat kerja ya bahasa inggris yang dpakai. Di rumah kami juga ngomong pakek bahasa inggris. ya biar tambah lancar aja apalagi sama anak saya. Wajib itu mbak, meskipun gak setiap hari. (we used to speak in English. it is so because I speak it in church and working place because English is used there. I also speak English at home. it is because we will be fluent in it, especially with my children. It is a must even not in everyday communication). English became a dominant language to family A because they used to speak English almost in many domains: church, home, and working area. Father A supported his statement that English was also used at home in order to fluent their family English speaking. And it was strongly said that "wajib itu mbk meskipun gak setiap hari (it is a must even not in everyday communication)". So, from the statement above, English is recognized as their dominant language. It was proven that three Chinese families were multilingual families because they were able to speak in three languages; Mandarin, Indonesian, and English. Indonesian was their mother tongue because it is inherited through generations. Mandarin was their ethnic language that is functioned to show their identity, and English was used as their dominant language use. In this case, they are considered as multilingualism, this is the ability of speaking more than two languages Factors of Choosing English Language There were several factors why did three Chinese families choose English as their language communication. The factors are represented in the form of tables which consists of; modern era, communication, education, future carrier, and language habit. Here are some factors why did these families choose English. Modern Era See the advanced of high technology in modern era, it is proven that there so many communication tools with high technology that are used to interact with other people in order to get an easy ways to communicate with them. High technology facilitates the people to interact with people who live in foreign country. The three children were used English to chat with their foreign friends through social media. In this case, high technology helped them to interact with people who had long distance. The table below shows about English as language choice to interact with their foreign friends through social media. Table 2. Language Choice by Child A, B, and C in Modern Era Child A Child B Child C I like to speak in English with my foreign friends in social media. In social media, I am used to speak English with foreign friends. I have chat friends from Singapore. She is the daughter of dad's friend. I am used to talk with her in English. So, I like it. From the information on the table above, high technology was useful for three children to communicate with their foreign friends. English was usually used in high technology. It meant that social media was one of the result of high technology that used English as main language in the display. So, with the ability of speaking English by the children is helping them in using the technology to communicate with their foreign friends through social media. Communication The choice of language in a communication is affected both for speakers and addressees. It means that the language is chosen in order to get an effective ways to communicate with one to another. Three Chinese families used English in some domains and with certain addresses. It means that they used English with people who spoke English too. It was also said that the used of English was chosen because in some domains English was used. In this case, all people used English in church domain. Family B, on the other hand used English in church, working area, and home. This was because English was the language choice in church and working area, while it was their language used at home. Mother B showed that she spoke English in church, home, and working area. Data 4: Mother B: saya ngomong bahasa Inggris di rumah, tempat kerja, sama Gereja. Dirumah saya biasanya bicara sama suami sama anak-anak juga. Kalau ditempat kerja, saya ngomong pakek bahasa inggris sama GM soalnya dia dari India. Jadi bahasa kita ya Inggris sebagai penghubung. Kalau di gereja biasanya ya ngomong bahasa inggris sama head church sama temen-temen aja. (I speak English at home, working area, and church. I speak English with my husband and children. I also speak English at the office with general manager. This is because he is from India and English is our language. If it is at church, I speak English with the head of church and fellows). The intensity of using English language was a precursor for the family to shift into English. This was because English had become their dominant language used. Education Education sometimes becomes a place where English is used in state and public school but it is most used in international school. This was shown by three children of Chinese families who schooled at international language. The use of English was crucial in there and this was an obligation of each student to speak in English. Table 3. Language Choice by Child A, B, and C in Education Child A Child B Child C I speak English at school with teachers and friends. At school, I speak English with my teacher and friends I speak English at schools with teacher and friends The choice of English in school area is obvious. This is because it is the dominant language used in school. The school of three children is international school and English is language used in there. English is used to communicate with teacher and students in the classroom and used with friends outside the class. Future Carrier Future carrier always becomes a crucial part for someone to choose a language that gives a big role to the successful in working area. English is the language that gives a big contribution in future carrier. Most companies use English as one of language requirements for applicants who want to apply and get a job. Consider that Surabaya was urban city, big chance to get a good job in big companies. English must be the language that requires in there. It was argued by mother A that English was one of languages that were needed in big companies. Data 5: Mother A: pasti itu mbak. Karena pekerjaan sekarang banyak yang menggunakan bahasa inggris. Di Surabaya banyak sekali perusahaan-perusahaan yang syarat diterima untuk bekerja salah satunya adalah menguasai bahasa inggris. (ofcourse, this is because there are so many jobs that use English. in Surabaya, there are companies where one of conditions that the applicants can be accepted is able to speak in English). Saw Surabaya as urban city made mother A concerned about choosing English as one of language used in her family. This was because there were big companies that choose English as requirement for applicant who wanted to enter it. It was supported by her child who saw English as an important language for good job carrier in Surabaya. Data 6: Child A: because Surabaya is a big city after Jakarta and it is recognized as urban city where everything is in here. Everything means good education, good job, beautiful house, good technology, etc. It was argued by child A that in Surabaya had everything; good education, good job, beautiful house, good technology, etc. it means that to get all of them she must has a view to pass all of these. By learning English was one of steps to pass it because when she mastered it, she could work wherever she wanted. Language Habit The use of language in everyday communication will make this as language habit. Language habit can be a result of dominant language because it is the language used that is almost spoken. English was spoken at home as daily language because the parents wanted the children fluent their English. Father A showed that the using of English at home would make his family used to speak it. Data 7: Father A: iya. karena dengan memakai bahasa inggris dirumah kami jadi terbiasa untuk berbicara bahasa inggris.(yes, because with using English at home we will use to speak English). English was spoken in home domain where it was a crucial place to the acquiring the language that became the habit. It was supported by his child who used English as language habit because that was the perfect way in practicing of English. Data 8: Child A: Because practice makes perfect and if we think that English is important, we need to use it every day Child A said that the using of English for everyday communication was important. The used of English was showed as the real practice to make it perfect because it was because her daily language. The tendency of choosing and using English make English become the language habit. This is because they want to master English by using it as daily communication which makes English as their language habit. The factors of choosing English language show that English has an important role. The spread of English in many aspects make these three Chinese families choose English over other languages. The intensity of using English language show a precursor for these families to shift into English and it is unavoidable that these families will shift into English when they start to abandon their mother tongue and choose English as their new language. On the other hand, the precursor of shifting into English was also shown by three Chinese families because of some factors; attitude and values, social, demographic, and economic and political. The factors that give these three Chinese families precursor to shift into English will be explained below. Attitude and Values Attitude is one of the factors to occur the language shift. The choice of a language where dominant language is chosen than mother tongue will give a big tendency to them who tended to shift into English. It is show by Family A, B, and C who agreed that English has a high value. Table 4. Father A, B, and C's opinion about the value of English language Father A Father B Father C People will see us as an educated people. Because English is considered as international language and it is important. It will show our family background. It is also the language in the world that is used by various people. The spread of English in the world is admitted. So, at least, people must learn English for better future. See the Value of English and the attitude of each family make English has high status. This is because the important of learning English is no doubt. The tendency of using English is one of ways that will make them look educated which shows their background of family and by seeing the value of English these families showed the positive attitude by teach their children even used it in everyday communication. Children themselves showed the precursor of shifting into English by used in daily. Demographic Demographic is also the one of factors that contributes Chinese family who tended to shift into English, especially for the children. Moreover, English is used in big and international companies. So, people must able to speak English as one of requirements in get in that companies. All families agreed that demographic was one of factors that made them learning English in order to get a better job among other people who come to Surabaya to find a better job too. It was shown by mother A that English was one of ways to compete with other job seekers. Data 9: Mother A: intinya mbak, saya ingin anak belajar bahasa inggris agar bisa mendapat pekerjaan yang bagus. Karena banyak orang yang datang ke Surabaya untuk mencari pekerjaan. Jadi ya, dengan bahasa Inggris kami bisa berkompetisi.(the point is, I want my children to learn English in order to get a good job. There are people who come in Surabaya to get a job, so only with English we can compete with them). From the opinion that was said by mother A, it proved that the competition in urban city was real. This was because there were many people who came from another city to get a good job in Surabaya. So, the only way to compete with them was able to speak in English because in big companies must use English as one of the requirement. If people wanted to be a success people, they must start it from big companies where so many chances could be found. Chinese people, with all their vision and to see the future must being the best future was about a competition in urban city. People who live in urban city with such kind of opportunities will make Chinese people not give up upon everything. Economic and Political Economic and political factors are considered as an obvious factor in language shift. From the data gotten, economic aspect gave a big contribution for three Chinese families who tended to shift into English. Child C went to international school and English course to fluent her English ability. Data 10: Child C: I go international school and having various kinds of friends. I also go to English course to learn English. My parents said that by learning English I will be a successful person and get much money so I can make them proud of me. It was seen that by studying English since the children was a kid will let them ready to the get a better life by having a good job. Social Social gives a big contribution to the shifting of one language to dominant language used. English was used by people in wider community; Church, working area, and environment. All parents and children were used English in church. The communities (addressee) in church were used English too to communicate with others. It happened to family C who tended to shift into English. Besides school and church, environment and working area were the area where family C used English as their daily language. It happened because some of their neighbors were mixed marriage couple. Data 11: Child C: I also speak with my friend, Farah. She lives next two blocks from my house. Her family is from Singapore. The tendency of using English by all families in certain domains and addresses in some situation make them tended to shift from Indonesian into English. The obvious way is showed by the children. The condition where English is used in certain domains and situations see the precursor of language shift where English replaces Indonesian. The choices of English as communication tool and the intensity that are shown by three Chinese families show the precursor of language shift. This is because they use English almost in their daily language. The factors of language shift also become the precursor by three Chinese families to shift into English. Language maintenance towards Indonesian Language by Chinese Family in Surabaya Chinese families were living in Surabaya where Indonesian is the majority language used by people in Surabaya. However English comes to Surabaya and influence all aspects in it, still, the majority language that was spoken in Surabaya was Indonesian. It was shown by family A who cared about Indonesian language as majority language in Surabaya. It was supported a reason given by Mother A: Data 12: Mother A: iya lah mbak. Semua harus bisa bahasa Indonesia, soalnya kita kan tinggal di Surabaya. terus kalo mau kemana-mana ya dominan nya pakek bahasa Indonesia. (Yes, of course. All my family must able to speak in Indonesian because we are living in Surabaya. If we want to go somewhere, the dominant language that is spoken is Indonesian). The positive attitude towards Indonesian was showed by the family. It was shown that Indonesian is important to be learnt and spoken. Chinese family, especially parents inherits Indonesian to their children. This is because they are living in Surabaya. The positive attitude toward Indonesian that is spoken at home makes its language long- maintained. Discussion In Discussion section, it collects all the data findings in result section and to be related with the theories provided. The data has founded is Multilingualism, Factors contribute language choice and the effort in Maintaining the Indonesian Language. Those data that have been related to the theories provided will be discussed below: Language Used by Chinese Families The finding shows that both parents and children of Chinese families were able to speak in three languages; Mandarin, Indonesian, and English. Indonesian was their mother tongue because it inherited to their children. Mandarin was their ethnic language that was learnt in order to show their identity, and English was their dominant language used among three Chinese families because the intensity of using English was more than Indonesian and Mandarin. In this case, they are considered as multilingualism because they able to speak more than two languages. Quay in Auer and Lie (2007: 45) said that with the greater mobility of people and consequent cross-linguistic and cross cultural relationship, an increasing number of children are growing up with early exposure to two languages in the family. Indeed, more than two languages may be in the linguistic repertoire of the family, rendering a case of family multilingualism. Factors of Choosing English Language There were some factors that contributed three Chinese families chose English language in their daily communication. They were modern era, communication, education, future carrier, and language habit. High technology was useful for three children to communicate with their foreign friends. English was usually used in high technology. It meant that social media was one of the result of high technology that used English as main language in the display. So, with the ability of speaking English by the children is helping them in using the technology to communicate with their foreign friends through social media. In communication factor, these families chose English to communicate to because the addressees had the same potential of speaking English and because of some reasons made these families chose English; working area and neighborhood. The intensity of using English language could precursor them tend to shift into English. This was because English had become their dominant language used. In addition, the families chose English to communicate to because the addressees had the same potential of speaking English and because of some reasons made these families chose English; working area and neighborhood. Schooled in international language was the reason by three Chinese children to choice English in education area. This was because it was the dominant language used in international school. English is used to communicate with teacher and students in the classroom and used with friends outside the class. In future life factors, it was said by the three Chinese families in Surabaya that they were trying many ways to prepare their children to have a good quality of life in future. By studying English since the children was a kid, put them in international school and English course will let them ready to the get a better life by having a good job in the future. It was shown by the three Chinese families that the tendency of choosing and using English in certain domains and addresses in some situation make English became the language habit. This was because they wanted to master English by using it as daily communication which made English as their language habit. Setiawan (2013) suggests the certain reasons for language choice in bilingual or multilingual society from the city parent's view: Emblematic value, strategic reason (politeness), pragmatic reason. And the factors of language choice by Chinese families is related with the pragmatic reason that is connected to practical purposes; modern era, communication, education, future carrier, and language habit The intensity of using English is the precursor that is shown these families to shift into English which was also shown by three Chinese families in some factors; attitude and values, social, demographic, and economic and political. The factors that give these three Chinese families precursor to shift into English will be explained below. Attitude and Values Saw the important value of English made Chinese families showed the positive attitude towards English language. This was because English was considered as international language which has high value in the world. The attitude of parents by put their children to the international school showed that the important of English was obvious. It is supported by Holmes (2001:61) that when second language has status of an international language, it can contribute to positive attitude towards the language and it is chosen by the speakers over first language. This positive attitude toward the value of English made these families tended to shift into English. Demographic Consider that Surabaya is urban city, English is used in big and international companies. So, people must able to speak English as one of requirements in get in that companies. It was shown by three Chinese families who learn English to compete with other people in order to get a good job. With many populations and the competition in big city are reasons for these families to learn English. Holmes (2001:59) said that resistance to language shift tend to last longer in rural than urban areas. This is partly the fact that rural groups tend to be isolated from the centers of political power for longer. Economic It was found that three Chinese families in Surabaya were trying many ways to prepare their children to have a good quality of life in future.by studying English since the children was a kid will let them ready to the get a better life by having a good job. It is supported by Holmes (2001:58) that economic is the factor that leads community to shift from using one language to another language by seeing an important reason for learning the second language to get a good jobs. Social The tendency of using English was showed by all families in certain domains and addresses in some situation make them shift the Indonesian into English. It is supported by Myers-Scotton (2006) that in case after case, when a younger generation is exposed to a more dominant language in the nation than the L1 (through schooling and school peers) and it is hard to stop a shift to that second language by the next generation. The effort in Maintaining the Indonesian Language The important figure to maintain Indonesian is parents. And all three Chinese family has already shown the effort to maintain Indonesian by inherit it to their children. And the most obvious effort was that the use of Indonesian in home domain, even only a little. This is one of the ways to maintain Indonesian. Children used it to appreciate the Indonesian speakers and the appropriate ways of language contact with Indonesian speakers. The positive attitude toward Indonesian makes its language long- maintained. It is supported by Chaer and Agustina explain that language maintenance is the matter with the attitude to be consistent in using a language among other languages (1995: 193). CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION In this chapter, there are two sections that are displayed. Those are conclusion and suggestion. The conclusion is drawn based on the results and discussions that relate to the statement of the problem in this research in the chapter 4 which also presented. In addition, the suggestion is the section to give any information or advice that will lead the further researcher related to the area of language shift and maintenance in specific and sociolinguistic in general. Conclusion Three Chinese families are known as multilingual families because they are able to speak in three languages; Mandarin, Indonesian, and English language. Mandarin is known as their ethnic language because it has a function to show their identity. Indonesian is known as their mother tongue because it inherits through generations. English, on the other hand is known as their dominant language because the intensity of using English was more than Mandarin and Indonesian. Regards to the multilingual family, they use the three languages in different domains and addressees. There are some factors that support these families choose English as language in communication. They are modern era, communication, education, future carrier, and language habit. In addition, the choice of English because of those factors gives a precursor for these three Chinese families, especially for the children. It is also shown that they tend to shift into English. The factors contribute language shift appear in three Chinese families that show the precursor to shift into English. The factors are attitude and values, social, demographic, and economic and political. The choice of English becomes the precursor of these families to shift into English. The shifting may be happen if the children show the negative attitude towards Indonesian which can be said that they abandon their mother tongue and replace it with the new language. The positive attitude that is showed by three Chinese families is the way to maintain Indonesian. Besides, Indonesian language is known as mother tongue of each family, it is considered as the majority language used by Surabaya people. So, these make three Chinese families maintain Indonesian language. Suggestion Through this study, it can be seen language shift can occur to anybody and any situation even the process to become shifting. Language shift and maintenance are the obvious situation that can happen to all people in a city, country, even village. It is just the way and effort of every people to shift or maintain their language from the changing of culture, language, or even economic. The researcher hopes that the study of Language shift and maintenance by non-migrant community; Chinese families in Surabaya who show the precursor of language shift would help the next researchers to find more phenomena about language shift and maintenance that is done by other ethnics who come from non-migrant community in Surabaya. The next researcher may use the theory from Joshua A. Fishman about language shift. REFERENCES Chaer, A., & Agustina, L. (1995). Sosiolinguistik Suatu Pengantar. Jakarta: Rineke Cipta. . Holmes, J. (2001). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. England: Pearson Education Limited. Liu, H. (2005). The Transnational History of a Chinese Family: Immigrant Letters, Family Business, And Reverse Migration. US: Rutgers University Press. Loewenstain, L. K. (Ed.). (1977). Urban Studies: An Introductory Reader (Second Edition ed.). United States of America: The Free Press. Myers-Scotton, & Carol. (2006). Multiple Voices: An Introduction to Bilingualism: Blackwell Publishing. Setiawan, S. (2013). Children's Language in a Bilingual Comunity in East Java. Germany: Scholars' Press. Sharifian, F. (Ed.). (2009). English as an International Language: Perspectives and Pedagogical issues Great Britain: MPG Books Ltd. Wardhaugh, R. (2006). An Introduction to Sociolinguistic (FIFTH EDITION ed.): Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Wijayanti, R. D. (2008). language shift and maintenance found in bataknese families in surabaya. Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Unpubliced. Windarti, L. (2007). A Study of Language Shift Among Flores People In Surabaya. Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Unpublished. http://www.surabaya.go.id/profilkota/index.php?id=22

In the 15-years I have served in the United States Army, the focal point of my tactical and academic study has been almost entirely centered on the Middle East and its unique cultural complexities. As an Infantryman, I was embroiled in the early efforts to prevent a Sunni-Shia civil war in post-invasion Iraq, while also hunting down al-Qaeda operatives under the leadership of Abu Musab al-Zarqawi. A year later, during General Patraeus's troop surge, I was in the urban sprawl of Northwest Baghdad fighting not only a Sunni insurgency, but also the Iranian-backed Jaysh al-Mahdi, comprised of local Shia militia groups. In 2010, I led a battalion reconnaissance team in the Arghandab River Valley of Afghanistan against the Taliban near the very birthplace of their Salafi-jihadist movement. In subsequent years, following my graduation from the Special Forces Qualification Course, I served in the 5th Special Forces Group (SFG) on a variety of missions in support of Operation Inherent Resolve in Turkey and Syria. As a fluent Arabic speaker, I was heavily involved in early efforts to train and equip the Free Syrian Army for its fight against the Islamic State. Following this deployment, I served as a liaison officer to the United States Embassy and Turkish General Staff in Ankara, having daily interaction with foreign dignitaries, defense attachés, and military officials in strategic level planning and coordination efforts. I culminated my time with 5th SFG as the assistant operations sergeant of a detachment fighting the Islamic State in Syria. My understanding of the culture of jihad, the various jihadist groups operating throughout the Central Command (CENTCOM) area of responsibility, and the intricacy of Middle Eastern problem sets as a whole, has come from years of dedicated cultural analysis, in-depth study of Sunni and Shia Islam, and field experience from the strategic to the tactical level. It is because of this experience that I am compelled to discuss the culture of jihad in the 21st Century. ; Winner of the 2020 Friends of the Kreitzberg Library Award for Outstanding Research in the College of Graduate and Continuing Studies Degree Completion category. ; 1 The Culture of Jihad in the 21st Century Michael J. Bearden Norwich University SOCI401: Cultural and Anthropology Studies Dr. Timothy Maynard April 30, 2020 2 The Culture of Jihad in the 21st Century In the 15-years I have served in the United States Army, the focal point of my tactical and academic study has been almost entirely centered on the Middle East and its unique cultural complexities. As an Infantryman, I was embroiled in the early efforts to prevent a Sunni-Shia civil war in post-invasion Iraq, while also hunting down al-Qaeda operatives under the leadership of Abu Musab al-Zarqawi. A year later, during General Patraeus's troop surge, I was in the urban sprawl of Northwest Baghdad fighting not only a Sunni insurgency, but also the Iranian-backed Jaysh al-Mahdi, comprised of local Shia militia groups. In 2010, I led a battalion reconnaissance team in the Arghandab River Valley of Afghanistan against the Taliban near the very birthplace of their Salafi-jihadist movement. In subsequent years, following my graduation from the Special Forces Qualification Course, I served in the 5th Special Forces Group (SFG) on a variety of missions in support of Operation Inherent Resolve in Turkey and Syria. As a fluent Arabic speaker, I was heavily involved in early efforts to train and equip the Free Syrian Army for its fight against the Islamic State. Following this deployment, I served as a liaison officer to the United States Embassy and Turkish General Staff in Ankara, having daily interaction with foreign dignitaries, defense attachés, and military officials in strategic level planning and coordination efforts. I culminated my time with 5th SFG as the assistant operations sergeant of a detachment fighting the Islamic State in Syria. My understanding of the culture of jihad, the various jihadist groups operating throughout the Central Command (CENTCOM) area of responsibility, and the intricacy of Middle Eastern problem sets as a whole, has come from years of dedicated cultural analysis, in-depth study of Sunni and Shia Islam, and field experience from the strategic to the tactical level. It is because of this experience that I am compelled to discuss the culture of jihad in the 21st Century. 3 Since its beginning in circa 610 CE, when the prophet Muhammad ibn Abdullah was visited by the angel Gabriel in a cave near Mecca, Islam has shaken the foundations of the Middle East and remained in a state of near-perpetual conflict with the Western world. Islam is an Arabic term most closely relating to the English words submission or surrender. Mujahedeen, or holy warriors, spread this new religion by the sword throughout Asia, forcing the "submission" of thousands, and have hardly been at peace with their neighbors since. Centuries later, in the two decades following the attacks on the World Trade Center and Pentagon in the United States, radical Islam's stance against the West has altered the diplomatic landscape between the world's great powers, fundamentally changed the United States' national strategic direction, and caused youth from all walks of life to sacrifice the best years of their lives in holy war to protect the supra-national community of Islam. From the invasion of Afghanistan to the subsequent invasions of Iraq and Syria to the ongoing peace talks with the Taliban, diplomatic and military efforts to eradicate jihadists from the Middle East have to-date been nearly ineffectual. Not only have these efforts failed to contain or defeat jihad, but at times have served to strengthen Islamic extremists' resolve in their call to arms against the West. Because jihad is such a fundamental part of the Islamic faith, it can never be "defeated" in the sense of traditional military eradication of an enemy force, but it can be confronted, contained, or refocused, as this paper will address. I argue that enabling local solutions and promoting education, alongside tailored surgical strike and security cooperation operations where necessary, are the keys to confronting, containing, and countering jihad. 4 Background Defining Jihad and Salafism Jihad is a transliterated form of the Arabic word meaning to struggle or to strive. In the traditional teachings of the Islamic faith, jihad is broken into two distinct categories: Greater jihad and lesser jihad. Greater jihad includes the personal struggle against selfish desires, emphasizing discipline and morality, as well as the struggle against Satan and the forces of evil. It includes jihad of the heart, jihad of the mind, and jihad of the tongue, involving praise for those who follow the will of Allah and correction for those who have gone astray (Gorka, 2016). The second category, lesser jihad, is viewed as the struggle against the enemies of Islam and the defense of its people. Lesser jihad is commonly referred to as Jihad of the Sword. Gorka (p. 60) reveals that, over time, this category of jihad has been used as justification for at least seven different subsets of holy war: 1. Using holy war to build an empire 2. Going after apostate regimes or individuals 3. Revolting against non-pious Muslim leaders 4. Fighting against the forces of imperialism in Muslim lands 5. Countering the West's pagan influence 6. Guerrilla warfare against a foreign invader 7. Using jihad as justification for terrorist attacks against civilian targets In a broad sense, lesser jihad can be viewed as offensive or defensive martial action. On the offensive side, jihadists use religion to justify building an empire, such as the Islamic State, attack apostate regimes, like those of the Taliban against Afghan government forces, and use terrorism against civilians, like the attacks on the World Trade Center. This offensive action 5 often takes jihadists beyond the borders of the ummah, or the people of Islam, striking fear into hearts of unbelievers around the globe. The defensive variety, especially in recent history, has most often correlated directly with the use of guerrilla warfare against foreign invaders, such as al-Qaeda's attacks on the international military coalitions that invaded Afghanistan and Iraq. This radical view of Islam is mostly practiced by those who follow the way of the Salafi, or the pious predecessors from the time of Muhammad, who experienced Islam in its purest form. It is believed that the first three generations who practiced the teachings of the prophet Muhammad are the ones who all Muslims thereafter should try to emulate. Themes of Salafism focus on complete adherence to sharia law, the fight against apostate Muslim regimes, and the spread and protection of Islam and its followers. At its core, Salafism is a very traditionalist view of Islam and has been practiced by multiple 21st Century terrorist organizations. The terms jihad and Salafi have shared such a close relationship in the last few decades that they have become nearly synonymous, at times described as Salafi-Jihadism or Jihadi-Salafism (Gorka, 2016; Nilsson, 2019) What Cultural Influences Lead One to the Path of Jihad? Before the attacks on 9/11, the largest call to jihad answered by the international Muslim community was in response to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979. Stopping the spread of communism and defending the ummah against the atrocities of Russian ground forces was seen as a noble and just cause for young Muslim men, and not just among Muslims (Gorka, 2016; Nilsson, 2019). Many nations, including the United States, funded, equipped, and trained the Afghan mujahedeen (those who conduct jihad) for the fight against the Soviet empire. Jihad in the 21st Century has been viewed in a much different light, as it is most closely associated with acts of extreme violence against Western nations. While the piles of rubble that used to be the 6 World Trade Center smoldered, and a gaping hole scarred the wall of the Pentagon, people of the world were forced to ask themselves, "How could a person do this? Why would someone take their own lives and thousands of others in the name of Allah?" Religious Justification for Jihad. Though jihad has become almost entirely associated with Islamic holy war, the term itself is still simply the Arabic word for striving. Struggling against one's selfish desires, striving to maintain traditional values, and defending a community against a common enemy are not just Islamic concepts, they are universal to most tightly-knit cultures. Similarly, Christians and Jews are taught self-discipline, adherence to moral codes, and defending their belief against enemies of their faith. So, why has the Islamic flavor of this common cultural theme become so violent, causing deep unrest around the world in our modern era? Verses from the Qur'an can begin to unpack why horrific public executions, suicide bombings, and advocating for generalized violence against non-Muslims may be justifiable in jihadist culture. The Qur'an (2015) lays out the following decree in chapter 9, verse 29: Fight those from among the People of the Book who believe not in Allah, nor in the Last Day, nor hold as unlawful what Allah and His Messenger have declared to be unlawful, nor follow the true religion, until they pay the tax with their own hand and acknowledge their subjection (p. 208). My personal study of Islam and conversations with Muslims in the field revealed that this bit of prose has been used as motivation and justification for jihad by groups like al-Qaeda, the Taliban, the Islamic State, and Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham of our modern age. Some of the following themes are evident in the translation: 7 • Jews and Christians are recognized as People of the Book, but are required to accept the following—Allah as the one true god, sharia as the acceptable law, and Islam as the one true religion. • If Jews and Christians refuse to accept these statutes, they must pay a tax called the jizyah to show their subjugation. • If they refuse to do either of these, they are to be put to the sword (p. 208). Salafi-jihadist groups such as the Taliban and Islamic State have tried to revive the jizyah tax in areas under their control. Likewise, hundreds of Christians, Jews, and even Muslims who refuse to adhere to strict sharia law have been publicly executed. This vehement enforcement of arcane Islamic law is seen as a return to the purest form of Islam, as pious as the first few generations who followed the Prophet Muhammad. Another common religious cultural theme that ties these jihadist organizations together is a message of religious oppression. They preach to young Muslims that the Islamic world is under siege by the West and that their god, their value systems, and their way of life are being threatened by the evils of capitalism and democracy (Venhaus, 2010). In joining organizations like al-Qaeda or the Islamic State, young men from across the globe find a sense of purpose and direction in their cause to protect the ummah. This theme is manifested in the teachings of Anwar al-Awlaki, the spiritual leader of al-Qaeda and the father of home-grown terrorism in the United States. He calls on Muslims living among those in the West: How can your conscience allow you to live in peaceful coexistence with a nation that is responsible for the tyranny and crimes committed against your own brothers and sisters? How can you have your loyalty to a government that is leading the war against Islam and Muslims? Hence, my advice to you is this, you have two choices: either hijra [migration 8 to an Islamic land] or jihad. You either leave or you fight. You leave and live among Muslims or you stay behind and fight with your hand, your wealth, and your word. I specifically invite the youth to either fight in the West or join their brothers on the fronts of jihad: Afghanistan, Iraq, and Somalia (as cited in Gorka, 2016). This way of thinking is also captured in chapter 9, verse 5 of the Qur'an (2015): Kill the idolaters wherever you find them and take them prisoners, and beleaguer them, and lie in wait for them at every place of ambush. But if they repent and observe Prayer and pay the Zakat, then leave their way free (p. 204). When taken literally, as they are by followers of Salafi-jihad, scriptures such as these leave no choice. To these men who have committed themselves fully to the ways of the pious ones, they are compelled to become shahid, or martyrs in the protection of the ummah. The Qur'an promises paradise for those who do: Surely, Allah has purchased of the believers their persons and their property in return for the Garden they shall have; they fight in the cause of Allah, and they slay and are slain—a promise the He has made incumbent on Himself in the Torah, and the Gospel, and the Qur'an. And who is more faithful to his promise than Allah? Rejoice, then, in your bargain which you have made with Him; and that it is which is the supreme triumph (p. 222). The concept of becoming a martyr in the struggle for Islam is romanticized by jihadist groups, like al-Qaeda and the Islamic State, and even state governments in local programming. In Lebanon, Mothers of Martyrs are interviewed to share the stories of their sons' glorious end while fighting abroad against the infidels (Venhaus, 2010). The Qur'an itself calls this sacrifice the supreme triumph for a jihadist, striving for the glory of Allah. 9 Though enforcing the jizyah, publicly executing those who do not follow sharia law, and seeking opportunities to kill infidels through suicide attacks represent a very small, extremist cultural sect of Islam, each of these practices is still justifiable if one looks to the Qur'an. This could be viewed as no different than a rural Pentecostal church in the Deep South who maintains strict standards for how women must dress and act: it all comes down to interpretation and a community's willingness to subjugate themselves to these standards. Spiritual leaders of jihadist groups in the 21st Century have used the Qur'an as continued justification for a variety of cruel, inhumane, and brutal actions that served to shock the West. The holy book of Islam acts as the essential glue, binding together all facets of Arab and Islamic culture. Artistic Inspiration for Jihad. A far cry from the harsh proclamations of the Qur'an, Arabic poetry predates Islam by centuries and serves as a bedrock of Arabic culture across the Middle East. Early desert nomads composed poems mostly in mono-rhyme and in one of sixteen standard canonical measures, which made them easy to commit to memory (Creswell & Haykel, 2015). Naturally, this beautiful form of cultural expression has found a home in the modern jihadist movement, where it has become an inspiration for new recruits to join the cause and crucial in the sustainment of those already fighting infidels abroad. Creswell and Haykel assert that although analysts have generally ignored this facet of jihadist culture, it is woven deeply into the fabric of modern Islamic extremism. Osama bin Laden, most recognized as the former head of al-Qaeda, was also a highly-celebrated jihadist poet. Without question, his lyrical genius inspired young Arabs with stories of a return to the heroic and chivalrous past of Islam. One of his most famous works celebrates the martyrdom of the 9/11 hijackers. This is a theme among modern jihadist poetry, which preserves the tales of suicide bombers, the conquered apostate regimes of Iraq and Syria, and the glories of jihadist heroes (Creswell & Haykel). Likewise, in a 10 group of individuals who have each traveled far from home to defend Islam against the kuffar, these poems help to establish a sense of cultural identity, strengthening their wartime bond and solidifying their resolve. In seeing the videos of the Islamic State as they carved a path of destruction across large swathes of Iraq in early 2014, it may be difficult for one to believe that its members were motivated by the rhythmic lines of jihadist poetry. It is hard to accept that the same young fighter who is willing to behead an infidel for all the free world to see, could also be found passionately reciting lines celebrating the glorious return of an Islamic caliphate. During its rise, the Islamic State capitalized on the lyrical talent of a Damascus-born woman named Ahlam al-Nasr. In her first broadcast, called the Blaze of Truth, she sang each one of her 107 works a cappella, in accordance with the Islamic State's ban on musical instruments. The video was uploaded to Youtube, receiving thousands of views and further shares on multiple social media platforms (Creswell & Haykel, 2015). In the early days of the group's brutal campaign in Iraq, al-Nasr celebrated victory in Mosul as a new dawn for the country: "Ask Mosul, city of Islam, about the lions— how their fierce struggle brought liberation. The land of glory has shed its humiliation and defeat and put on the raiment of splendor" (as cited in Creswell & Haykel, 2015). Her choice of words helps one sense her deep passion for jihad, hidden within the lines. Mujahedeen are called lions and liberators. Mosul is called both a city of Islam and a land of 11 glory that, because of its liberation, has been released from the chains of shame and can now live in the splendor and pride of its former renown. Poetry has succored those serving in times of war for hundreds, even thousands of years. In the same manner, this key element of artistic cultural expression has helped bind together the modern jihadi movement, capturing the heroic deeds of martyrs who would otherwise remain nameless and unrecognized by the outside world. Serving in lands far away from home, young jihadists find inspiration, strength, and a renewed sense of identity in these haunting bits of rhyme. Social Pressure to Join Jihad. Abdullah Anas was an Algerian who served as one of the mujahedeen in Afghanistan in the 1980s and spent several years studying under Abdullah Azzam, the Palestinian "Father of Resistance to the Soviets" (Gall, 2020). Working to help Algerians achieve nonviolent change in their government, Anas, now in his 60s, has spent a life living and working among jihadists. To Anas, jihad is a fundamental principle of Muslim culture through which mujahedeen receive rewards in heaven: "I will never denounce jihad. As a Muslim, I know this to be a noble deed—where man can be the most beastly" (Gall). In a study of three Swedish jihadists, with experiences ranging from 1980s Afghanistan to the modern fight in Syria, Nilsson (2019) suggests that one of the fundamental social justifications for joining jihad is the sense that Islam and Muslims are collectively under attack. This, again, is a theme that applies to more than just the modern jihadist movement: Americans lined up in droves outside recruiting stations following the attacks on Pearl Harbor and decades later after September 11, 2001. Following the invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq, many Muslims from around the world began to see this not as just the West going after the 9/11 conspirators, but as a global attack on Islam. Each day, fresh news stories of coalition soldiers' crimes against 12 Muslim civilians and pictures of burning villages continued to motivate men to join the fight to protect the ummah from the foreign invaders. Nilsson contends that since most jihadists are very young, in their teens and early twenties, they are very susceptible to the influences of close friends and social groups. Safet, a young Muslim living in Sweden, was pressured by a friend to join the Islamic State in Syria, saying that he became convinced by his friend Ahmed that the group was fighting to protect Muslims (Nilsson). However, after realizing that the Islamic State was actually killing other Muslims in a practice called takfir, or excommunication, Safet became disillusioned and returned to Sweden (Nilsson). From the fight against the foreign invaders in the early 2000s in Afghanistan and Iraq, to the struggle for the establishment of an Islamic caliphate in 2015, it seems jihadists have most often been motivated by the need to protect the international Muslim community. Aside from the social responsibility of defending their faith and people, the need for adventure also seems to permeate the ideations of young men seeking to join a jihadist group. One of Nilsson's (2019) most interesting theories is that jihad is not the radicalization of Islam, but rather the Islamization of radicalism. Individuals who are already naturally predisposed to such adventurous or nihilistic behavior get caught up in the social dynamics of their time, ending up in a jihadist movement. Venhaus (2010) explains that in interviews with over 2,000 al-Qaeda prisoners from Iraq to Guantanamo Bay, he found that young Muslim men sought the cause of jihad for a number of normal social pressures felt by normal teens worldwide: "Revenge seekers need an outlet for their frustration, status seekers need recognition, identity seekers need a group to join, and thrill seekers need adventure" (Venhaus). The Effects of Social Media and Technology on Jihad. In the modern era, news is no longer bound by the time it takes for an article to be published, printed, and distributed across 13 great distance in a community. Social media platforms like Facebook, Youtube, Twitter, and Instagram have made sharing news instantaneous. Additionally, the advent of the smartphone, which acts simultaneously as a hand-held computer, high definition camera, and telephone with nearly world-wide coverage has forever changed the media landscape. In the era of modern jihad, one can post a single video that moves the minds of thousands in a matter of seconds. Following the 2003 invasion of Iraq to topple Saddam Hussein's regime, news stories of atrocity among the efforts of coalition troops over the next decade served to further the cause of local and foreign jihadists to protect the ummah from these invaders. Accidental bombing of civilians, mistreatment of the prisoners at Abu Ghraib, and a general ignorance toward Muslim culture were fueled by social media and smartphone technology. Venhaus (2010) claims that throughout this early phase of the war in Iraq, al-Qaeda very rarely had to actively recruit, their global brand was aggressively promoted through satellite television, internet chat rooms, and social media platforms; willing candidates sought them out. This use of media continued to be perfected by jihadist organizations like the Islamic State, who published a digital magazine called Dabiq, named for the ideological capital of the proposed caliphate, which rallied Muslims to jihad through stories of glory and heroism in the cause for Islam. The Islamic State also posted grisly execution videos, with stunning music and production value, including super high-definition shots of their brutality. Publications and videos such as these could be copied, saved, shared, and re-shared before any sort of government intervention could stop them. Creswell and Haykel (2015) reveal that jihadists were running a massive, secret network of social media websites and fake accounts that could be rapidly assembled and dissembled by hackers. The effects of social media and technology on modern jihadist culture are easy to understand, but challenging to measure in scope and reach. Just as easily as videos of Islamic 14 State propaganda or poetry can be shared, so too can stories of coalition force atrocities in Afghanistan and Iraq. This has put strategists in a unique position, where it is nearly impossible to control the narrative. Unfortunately, the story that breaks first is still the one that is liked and shared the most, even if the truth comes out after. Effects of Western Culture on Jihad. Rapid globalization, including the widespread diffusion of the internet and technology into the Middle East in the last two decades has continued to foment jihadist hatred for the West. Personal conversations with multiple Muslims in Iraq and Afghanistan revealed that the decadence, lavish richness, and sinful lifestyles portrayed by Western movies and media served to fuel the fires of disdain among the pious Salafi-jihadists. Additionally, Muslim men living in Western nations following the attacks on the World Trade Center were ostracized and feared by society, often leading them to an eventual radicalization process. Being denied a peaceful coexistence because of continued Western misperception, caused many young Muslims to become angry and seek community and brotherhood among other Muslims experiencing the same problems. Venhaus (2010) notes that out of the over 2,000 captured jihadists interviewed, more than 30 per cent of them sought al-Qaeda because they were angry. Under the tutelage of local al-Qaeda mentors, the frustrations of these young men were then turned upon their neighbors through careful instruction and manipulation. They were taught to see the West as the enemy of Islam, with hundreds of the ummah being harmed by their military coalitions in Afghanistan and Iraq each day. They were instructed in the ways of the pious ones who came before them, inspiring them to turn from the sinfulness of their Western neighbors and take pride in their newfound self-discipline and righteousness in the eyes of Allah. Eventually, many of these young men would travel to their 15 ancestral homelands to join the struggle, or conduct terrorist attacks on their own Western communities. Analysis A Unique Challenge Given the litany of reasons one might join jihad, the incredibly complex cultural and social environment, and the fluidity of the modern jihadist movement, how can the United States begin to contain this problem? The reasons one individual might join a jihadist cause are as various and sundry as why one might choose to join any movement or profession over another. As Nilsson (2019) and Venhaus (2010) have detailed, there appears to be no singular marker: one could be an extremely religious or a passive Muslim, rich or poor, single or married with a family, have a completely stable social life or be isolated with no friends. Jihadists can be from any country, any walk of life, and usually do not widely broadcast their intentions prior to taking part in acts of violence for the cause of Islam. It is because of the near-impossibility of clearly identifying a pattern of distinguishable cultural markers that make it such a challenge for the United States government and its allies to address the threat of jihad. Targeting an individual before they become a jihadist or before they commit a terrorist act has been one of the most formidable challenges of our time for military and law enforcement professionals alike. Usually, the much simpler job is finding a jihadist who has allowed their communications discipline to slip before an act, or catching them in a pitched battle on foreign soil. In order to protect citizens of the West and East alike against jihadists' aims, the United States Government must be prepared to confront, contain, and counter the jihadist narrative "left of bang," before an attack occurs. 16 The Global War on Terrorism: Taking the Fight to the Jihadists. In the months that followed September 11, 2001, President George W. Bush deployed Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) paramilitary officers and US Special Operations Forces (SOF) to find, fix, and finish pockets of al-Qaeda militants being harbored by the Taliban in Afghanistan. A fierce campaign of relentless aerial bombardment and mounted assaults by the forces of the Afghan Northern Alliance led to a swift and decisive defeat of al-Qaeda and the Taliban. With Kabul and Kandahar in allied hands, and an interim government established under the leadership of the Pashtun Hamid Karzai, the future of a free and prosperous Afghanistan seemed assured, but what came to be known as The Long War had only just begun. Trillions of dollars, thousands of lives, and 19 years later, the United States and its allies have been forced to the negotiating table with the Salafi-jihadist Taliban. Likewise, after Saddam Hussein's continued disregard for international law, threats against the United States, and open violence against his own people, the administration of President Bush decided again to pursue a military option. Much like Afghanistan, the coalition was led by CIA operatives and SOF operators, coordinating airstrikes on key positions in a tactical display of American firepower affectionately titled Shock and Awe. However, unlike Afghanistan, a massive conventional invasion followed the bombing campaign, bent on toppling the Baathist regime and finding Saddam's chemical weapons stockpiles. What followed was a series of policy failures, leading to a steady influx of jihadists partnering with local insurgents seeking to oust the foreign invaders and protect the ummah from the atrocities of the kuffar. In my professional opinion, Iraq is still recovering from the decade-long military occupation, cleaning up the destruction left by the Islamic State, and on the brink of civil war due to concerns about being an Iranian puppet state. 17 Ineffective Military Methods to Combat Jihad Operation Iraqi Freedom. During my first combat rotation as an Infantryman in the Triangle of Death in southern Iraq in 2005-2006, I experienced the initial rumblings of a civil war between the Sunni and Shia Muslims in Iraq, each wrestling for power in a post-Saddam world. I was also witness to the inundation of foreign jihadists, joining the ranks of al-Qaeda in Iraq under the leadership of Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, who at times headquartered in my area of operations. As I analyze our highly-kinetic and aggressive initial campaigns years later, I can see that the coalition's fight, first against Saddam, then against al-Qaeda, only bolstered jihadist motivation. In being a foreign invader, we inadvertently created a jihadist resistance movement, bent on the removal of their occupiers. Kilcullen (2010) explains this dilemma by explaining that focusing on the wrong metrics in a fight against insurgents can be deceptive: If you kill 20 insurgents, they may have 40 relatives who are now in a blood feud with your unit and are compelled to take revenge. Again in 2007-2008, I was deployed to Iraq as an Infantry squad leader to the sacred city of Khadimiyah in Northwest Baghadad. This was during the famous troop surge, meant to fix the ongoing problems with stability throughout the country. Being in the home of the beautiful Shrine of the Seventh Imam, it was a predominantly Shia area. Over the course of 15 months, my unit fought several engagements against Iranian-backed Shia militias and worked on project after project to strengthen local civil infrastructure, all while maintaining the utmost discretion against damaging homes or creating civilian casualties. Yet again, although we had conducted a nearly perfect counterinsurgency fight, it seemed that Kilcullen's insurgent math still applied: Fighting the jihadists only served to create more unrest within the population, no matter if we were restoring essential services and reducing damage to homes or not. 18 Operation Enduring Freedom. Nearly a decade after the fall of al-Qaeda and its Taliban hosts, I was deployed to the mountains of Afghanistan from 2010-2011. Stationed along the Arghandab River, just north of Kandahar, we were in the heart of the Pashtun Taliban. Again, the same story remained true: We fought the Taliban jihadists almost daily, but could not seem to win over the true key terrain in a counterinsurgency fight: The hearts and minds of the people. The Taliban would harass our unit's base of operations with a few pop shots as we called them, which would unleash a massive response in firepower and resources. Thousands of rounds of machine gun ammunition would be fired into the farm fields surrounding our Combat Out Post (COP), squads would be sent in pursuit of the attackers, and helicopters would spend hours scouring the terrain in an attempt to heap justice on the insurgents. This massive effort against so few served to erode the unit's motivation, exhaust our supplies, and alienate the civilian population whose homes and fields had been damaged in the process. Reflections on Personal Combat Experience. After years of combat experience and deeply studying Muslim culture, I can now see how the mistakes the coalitions made early-on in both operations only fueled the fires of insurgency, resistance to foreign occupiers, and generalized hatred for the West. Porch (2013) argues brilliantly that US counterinsurgency doctrine made the same mistake as its imperialistic predecessors of centuries before: Believing that military action was a proper vehicle for providing Middle Easterners with Western values, as well as a foundation for governance, social programs, and economic transformation in a region. This became evident in my own experience, realizing that no matter what sort of social, infrastructure, or economic programs ran alongside our military efforts, the people of both Afghanistan and Iraq felt the enormous social weight of being occupied by a foreign power, rendering these efforts nearly ineffectual. On the contrary, local and foreign jihadist movements 19 capitalized on each and every mistake of coalition forces, increasing their recruitment and resolve against the West. Though our military may have been winning every major battle against the jihadists, our policy makers and field commanders made the fundamental mistake of believing that these non-Western nations lived in some sort of time-warp, in which the adoption of Western democracy, rule of law, and capitalism would allow them to thrive as a nation (Porch). Effective Military Methods to Combat Jihad Surgical Strike and Precision Targeting. A unique feature of the Global War on Terrorism was the US military's continued perfection of covert strike operations with surgical precision deep into enemy safe havens. This was put on display in the rout of al-Qaeda by CIA and SOF in Afghanistan, in the kill/capture missions against the Baathists in the deck of cards in Iraq, and later in the killing of Osama bin Laden in Pakistan and Sheik Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi in Iraq. Having the ability to appear out of nowhere in the middle of the night, kill or capture an intended target with zero damage to infrastructure or civilian casualties, and leave within minutes of arrival struck fear into the hearts and minds of jihadists across the globe. The success and efficacy of this type of operation was acknowledged in the 2015 National Military Strategy, which stated: "The best way to counter VEOs [violent extremist organizations] is by way of.military strengths such as ISR, precision strike [emphasis added], training, and logistical support" (p.11). Likewise, President Obama's massive expansion of the use of drones, which could watch individuals for days and execute a precise strike that only touched the intended target, has continued to sow fear and deny jihadists' freedom of maneuver on a global scale. The US military and its allies have only continued to master these types of operations throughout the 20 fights in Afghanistan, Iraq, Syria, and other locations. The jihadists know this, and realize that one wrong move at any time could mean disaster. Security Cooperation. An additional theme that has spelled the end for jihadists throughout the globe has been the training, advising, and equipping of security forces and partners within Afghanistan, Iraq, Syria, and other nations. Enabling the host-nation military to handle jihadist movements on their own helps the United States military work itself out of a job. US Army Special Forces are uniquely suited to accomplish this mission: With specialized training, language capability, and cultural understanding, they are able to train foreign security forces through a variety of Principle Tasks. These tasks include Foreign Internal Defense, which focuses on a holistic approach to internal security and protection of citizens against lawlessness and insurgency, and Security Force Assistance, which can be focused internally or externally against threats to a nation's stability and security. The success of these mission sets was evident in 2014, during my own experience with the Afghan Commando Kandaks' continued fight against the Taliban and in closely following the Iraqi Counterterrorism Service's efforts against the Islamic State. Both of these forces, built from the ground-up by US Army Special Forces have continually fortified weak conventional military force operations against jihadist groups in their respective nations. Muslim Youth Efforts Against Jihad Globalization, though it has been proven to bolster the jihadists' narrative against the West, has also been beneficial to the movement against jihad itself. Because youth of the world have access to technology that allows them to see the atrocities and lies associated with global jihadist organizations, they are beginning to turn the tide. During the Islamic State's rise to power in Iraq and Syria, Muslim youth from across Europe travelled to join the jihadists in their 21 fight against the West. However, groups of Muslim youth also spoke up to counter this narrative. In 2015 the Muslim Youth League, an anti-Islamic State cultural movement, declared a holy war against all extremist organizations (Dearden, 2015). The group called on all Muslims to stand united against those who have hijacked Islam and misrepresented the faith. Through engagement work in schools and communities, as well as a robust online campaign, the Muslim Youth League is fighting back against jihadist propaganda that bids young Muslims join the Islamic State and other extremist groups (Dearden). Since the time of this publication, the Muslim Youth League has spread to several countries throughout the Middle East, Asia, and Europe, each with their own social media presence, outreach programs, community events, and websites. Local Government Efforts Against Jihad In the years following the Islamic State's spread across Iraq and Syria, the United Kingdom has developed a robust strategy to help at-risk Muslims avoid the radicalization process. The program itself is called Contest, and includes four distinct categories: Prevent, Prepare, Protect, and Pursue (British Broadcasting Corporation [BBC], 2017). Police departments and social organizations have built relationships with doctors, faith leaders, teachers and others, who are required to report suspicious persons to the proper authorities. In response to these reporting requirements and recommendations, over 7,500 reports were filed between 2015-2016, with one in 10 being actionable intelligence for government and police forces (BBC). In 2015 alone, over 150 people, including 50 children, were kept from traveling to conflict zones in Iraq and Syria (BBC). The strategy has of course drawn criticism, for fear that it will further alienate Muslims from their local communities, but it presents as an excellent plan of action for identifying individuals who are at risk beyond just using traditional signals intelligence and 22 surveillance techniques. It does more than just target the individual, it also seeks to reform them through education, outreach, and community programs. Counterarguments You Can Kill an Idea. I have heard the opinion throughout my time in the military that jihad and the idea of Islamic supremacy can be completely eradicated. The example most often given is that Nazism, including the idea that the Aryan race was superior to all others, was effectively destroyed by a global military campaign. This argument is weak. The Nazis represented a very small portion of German culture, including among those serving in the military, so it was relatively easy to contain once there was an overwhelming military victory by the Allies. However, although the German Army of the 1940s was defeated militarily, the idea of white supremacy lives on in small social groups throughout the world to this day. The Ongoing Taliban Peace Talks. I have colleagues throughout the military who are convinced that the current negotiations with the Taliban are a key indicator of success in our two decades at war against the Salafi-jihadist group. The issue with this is that temporary cease fires have already been violated several times, leading one to believe that the strategic level leadership's messages are simply not reaching their subordinates or that local factions are not adhering to the agreement. Trusting that radical Muslim extremists will not allow Afghanistan to become a future safe haven for other jihadists, as it has in the past, is simply unrealistic. Believing some sort of quasi peace deal is going to miraculously pacify an organization that hates everything the West stands for is misguided. My own experiences throughout the Middle East have proven that the spirit of jihad and hatred will live on in Afghanistan. The Islamic State is Nearly Defeated. Multiple global media outlets continue to run stories about the dismantling of the Islamic State, as though the battle is won. Though Sheik Abu 23 Bakr al-Baghdadi has been killed, and the proposed Islamic caliphate was never fully realized, it would be naïve to think that the Islamic State's jihad is over. The movement will metastasize and take on new forms in other parts of the globe: It is already happening. Jihadists are continually leaving the battlefields of Iraq and Syria, headed back to their former homes in mainland Europe. As these individuals reenter the diaspora, the concern is that they will radicalize other individuals and conduct terrorist attacks within the continent. Conclusion The reasons an individual seeks to join a jihadist movement are deeply rooted in personal social dynamics, the security situation of their country, and a multitude of other religious, cultural, and economic factors. I agree with Venhaus (2010) and Gorka (2016) who assert that there is no singular military operation or strategy that can bring about a decisive victory against something so intangible as why one might join the modern jihadist movement. Use of the US military as a vehicle for the establishment of Western democracy and nation-building efforts in tribal nations like Afghanistan and Iraq only served to invigorate the jihadists' call to arms. Jihad is not something that can be eradicated completely by military force. Jihad must be confronted, contained, and countered through a comprehensive approach that empowers state and non-state actors to develop local solutions and directs expeditious military applications only where completely necessary. Recommendations Promote and Protect the Muslim Youth Leagues In order to truly create a cultural paradigm shift in Muslim youth at risk of radicalization, groups like the Muslim Youth League (BBC, 2017) should be promoted by governments worldwide as a bastion of true and peaceful Islam. While they should no doubt be supported, 24 governments must also protect these organizations from becoming targets for violent acts of terrorism or influence operations by jihadists. Through a combination of deep cultural understanding and positive messaging, the Muslim Youth League has already shown its effectiveness in the United Kingdom and beyond. Because the youth of each nation understand the social pressures and cultural influences that may lead one to seek jihad, they can effectively develop tailored, local solutions to persuade at-risk individuals. The Muslim Youth Leagues are on the front lines of countering the jihadist worldview, taking a stand and declaring war on jihad and its misrepresentations of Islam. Enable Local Solutions for Local Problems This should be accomplished through unified government action that involves all the United States' instruments of national power including diplomacy, information sharing, military action where necessary, and economic stimulus as needed. The specific issue with efforts like these, is that they cannot be accomplished during what is perceived by locals as a military occupation. This was proven true in Afghanistan and later in Iraq. Despite massive efforts to rebuild infrastructure, aid in agricultural processes, build schools, and organize community projects, the United States and its allies were still viewed as pushing Western values and democracy on nations through military occupation. As much as possible, we must limit our military presence in areas that are ripe for developing a jihadist movement, or in ones that are recovering. I have seen firsthand that government efforts against jihadist organizations or at-risk communities have often been fragmented, poorly staffed, and uncoordinated. Venhaus (2010) suggests the creation of an agency that is staffed, trained, funded, enabled, and equipped for strategic communications, calling it the United States Strategic Communications Agency. An 25 agency like this could ensure that a comprehensive national communications strategy is developed and achieved, with a focus on enabling local community efforts to counter the jihadist narrative. By promoting social outreach, religious education, and community programs, this agency could bolster the efforts of community leaders and stifle jihadist aims in their areas. Support Religious Education and Reintegration Reintegration programs in Saudi Arabia, Indonesia, Singapore and elsewhere have successfully rehabilitated former jihadists through religious education (Venhaus, 2010). Countering the apocalyptic world view of jihadist groups like al-Qaeda and the Islamic State requires local religious leaders who understand their community's issues to band together and refute the extremist narrative. Through careful, patient, and individually-tailored instruction, Muslim religious leaders can invalidate each and every one of the extremists' claims. Individuals who turn to jihad are often seeking this type of direction, they just find it in the wrong places. Counter Threats with Tailored Military Force Packages Continued themes among the military failures in counterinsurgency and counterterrorism operations during the early years of the Global War on Terrorism are indiscriminate use of force, lack of cultural understanding, and hyper-focus on tactical gains while failing at the strategic level. US government nation-building efforts on the backs of the military cost our country trillions of dollars, thousands of lives, and years of frustration, bogged-down in an endless quagmire of misunderstanding. US Army Special Forces are selected, trained, equipped, and enabled to clandestinely handle complex problem sets in denied or politically-sensitive environments. Each Special Forces Group is regionally-aligned, with Operational Detachments developing deep cultural understanding through Area Studies and continuous relationship-building with regional state and 26 non-state actors. Special Forces operators understand the complex cultural and security situations in their areas of responsibility and have the language capability and strategic understanding to operate with complete independence of outside support. Frankly, if given the authority and autonomy to do their jobs, Special Forces can coerce, disrupt, or overthrow jihadist organizations unilaterally, or train, advise, and equip foreign security forces to accomplish this task on their own. This can all be done independent of a large, slow, and expensive conventional military occupation. Organizations like al-Qaeda must be kept in a state of constant fear and uncertainty. US Special Operations Forces are uniquely suited to this task. Through structured, rapid application of military force, SOF can find, fix, and finish intended targets with surgical precision. This has proven true in the capture of Saddam Hussein and the elimination of Osama bin Laden and Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, among numerous other targets throughout the Global War on Terrorism. Continuing to deny safe havens through short, precise applications of combat power is crucial and does not rely on a conventional military occupation of the target area. Operations such as these, characterized by discriminate use of force and strategic impact, should be the main avenue for denying the relative safety, security, and freedom of maneuver of jihadist organizations. 27 References British Broadcasting Corporation (2017, June 4). Reality check: What is the prevent strategy? Reality Check. https://www.bbc.com/news/election-2017-40151991. Creswell, R., & Haykel, B. (2015, June 1). Battle lines: Want to understand the jihadis? Read their poetry. The New Yorker. https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/06/08/battle-lines-jihad-creswell-and-haykel. Dearden, L. (2015, March 21). Young British Muslims declare own jihad against ISIS and other terrorists who 'hijack' Islam. Independent. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/young-british-muslims-declare-own-jihad-against-isis-and-other-terrorists-who-hijack-islam-10146534.html. Dempsey, M. (2015). The national military strategy of the United States of America 2015: The United States military's contribution to national security. The Joint Staff. https://www.jcs.mil/Portals/36/Documents/Publications/UNCLASS_2018_National_Military_Strategy_Description.pdf. Gall, C. (2020, January 31). From armed struggle to peaceful protest, a road still to travel: A veteran of the Afghan jihad working for nonviolent change in Algeria. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/31/world/middleeast/from-armed-struggle-to-peaceful-protest-a-road-still-to-travel.html. Gorka, S. L. (2016). Defeating jihad: The winnable war. Regnery Publishing. Kilcullen, D. J. (2010). Counterinsurgency. Oxford University Press. Nilsson, M. (2019, 18 June) Motivations for jihad and cognitive dissonance: A qualitative analysis of former Swedish jihadists. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2019.1626091. 28 Porch, D. (2013). Counterinsurgency: Exposing the myths of the new way of war. Cambridge University Press. Qur'an (M. Ali, Trans.; 7th ed.) (2015). Islam International Publications. (Original work published ca. 1537). Venhaus, J. (2010). Why youth join al-Qaeda. Special Report, 236(1), 1-12. https://www.usip. org/sites/default/files/SR236Venhaus.pdf.

Transcript of an oral history interview with John H. "Jack" Pimm, conducted by Sarah Yahm in January 2015, as part of the Norwich Voices oral history project of the Sullivan Museum and History Center. John Pimm was a member of the Norwich University Class of 1945; his education was interrupted by his military service in World War II. His interview includes recollections of both his time as a student at Norwich University and his service overseas during the war. ; 1 Mr. John H. "Jack" Pimm, NU 1945, Oral History Interview January , 2015 Sullivan Museum and History Center, Norwich University Interviewed by Sarah Yahm Transcribed by C.T. Haywood, NU '12 February 5, 2015 SY: Did that work? Is that comfortable? JP: Yeah. Sure. SY: Okay, terrific. [coughs] So if you could just start by telling me your full name. JP: My full name is John H. Pimm, P-I-M-M, SY: And you go by Jack? JP: Yeah, Jack is my— SY: And where were you born? And when you were born? JP: I was born on January 10, 1924, in Hamden, Connecticut, which is a suburb of New Haven, Connecticut. SY: Yup, I have driven through it, I think. And you know [coughs] something I've been asking everybody who's served in the military was did you play war as a kid? Did you think about going to war? Did you play out in the woods and pretend that you were fighting? JP: Well when I was, my dad got me a .22 single shot which I still have when I was nine-years-old, and I lived in a rural community so there were plenty of woods around and we didn't play war, we played hunting anything that'll move. We shot at woodchucks, squirrels, birds, everything. That was our sort of what we did. SY: So [coughs] how did you end up at Norwich? JP: Well, I graduated from Wethersfield High School in the class of '41, and actually my mother had her friend whose son went to Norwich. I looked at Norwich. I could've to the University of Connecticut or one of the options was I was thinking of going to Pratt & Whitney in the apprentice toolmakers group but I went to Norwich and I thought that was kind of neat so that's how I ended. SY: Yeah what about it did you think was neat? JP: Well I sort of—the military appealed to me, you know, and being in those days there was no superhighways it was a long drive or you went up on the Montrealer which went from Hart—I was living in Wethersfield, Connecticut at the time and that's the train that went through to Montreal and made stops in Northfi—they would stop in Northfield if there's anybody who wanted to get off so. So that's how I happened to go there. SY: That train still exists. JP: It is still there? SY: [coughs] Yeah I've taken it, I've taken it from New York to Montreal.2 JP: Well ok, good. SY: So yeah, well what was your experience like at Norwich when you first got there? Do you remember your first impressions? Do you remember being a Rook and what that was like? JP: Well I was a little, you know I didn't realize that you went through one semester of hazing which you did and that was ah [chuckles] some of it was we thought pretty rough actually. There were a couple of the freshmen when they started getting hazing quit school, so but I thought it was just something you went through and actually some of the guys that were the worst hazers in the sophomore class became good friends after it was over, so. SY: What was the hazing like? JP: Well you had to wait on the upperclassmen. You had to drill every night. One of the exercises was standing with your back to the wall holding a rifle out in front where you thought you were going to drop dead. But that went on every night. And it's just the upperclassmen inspected your room, you know, and we stood reveille. Your bed had to be made by then and if you didn't make it tight enough you were screamed at, and they just tried to make it miserable which they mostly succeeded in doing. SY: Did you ever think about leaving? JM: No. SY: You didn't, why not? JP: I just thought it was part of the thing to do and I knew it was going be over so, you know. SY: And so when you think about Norwich now, what do you think about? I think you mentioned horses to me when you talked the other—? JP: Well it was the horse cavalry when I went there. They had 180 horses and you had riding lessons one day a week and then troop drill another day. You know there was roughly, what, 160 in a troop? And the lower field which I don't know what it is now but that used to be troop drill so that was pretty neat. They let us use the horses on the weekend to ride out into the mountains, and the hills around there for a couple of hours at a time. I had a particular horse, I remember her name was Lacey, that I used to ride and my, a buddy of mine his name was Ken Clary, he's since died, he and I used to ride weekends when we could. So it was kind of a fun thing. SY: And you said something about how you had to make sure the upperclassmen didn't jam your spurs? What happened? JP: Well when you were in troop drill of course you'd be four in line and you'd be in the middle and the favorite thing is upperclassmen, mostly the sophomores, would turn their spurs and try to jam 'em into your horse so that you'd, the horse'd leap forward you know and then when you'd leap, when the horse leaped forward they'd holler at, "Get back in line," you know, so it was a favorite. SY: Did that ever happen to you? JP: Yeah. SY: Yeah. JP: Yeah, it was, it was at the time I thought it was pretty exciting but it was different, let's put it that way. 3 SY: Yeah, so, do you remember where you were when you heard about Pearl Harbor? JP: Ah, well I'm sure I was in, I can't tell you the name of the place but it was on the in the barracks where we were when I heard about it, yeah. Newspapers were not something handed, we had to, I—we had to be told about by somebody else so… SY: You didn't have radios either? JP: No. We didn't have radios either. SY: So you weren't getting any news? JP: No. I remember the most exciting thing about it was that the, commandant at the time I can't even remember what his name was but he used to. We had guards all night. I don't know what we were guarding, anyway but and they carried .45s, the standard issue .45 and when Pearl Harbor happened they issued ammunition for the first time and that I guess what happened is some guy got up to go to the john and the guard said you know, "Halt, where you are," and he said, you know, "Screw you," and the guy fired a shot in the air and the next day they took all the ammunition away. That was the last time. SY: Yeah, I bet they did, JP: Yeah that was the last time that happened, yeah, SY: Yeah, I bet it was. So okay, so at that point you probably knew you were going to war? JP: Well yeah, they hadn't, they announced the draft after that you know and we had to register. Everybody who was eighteen had to or over up. I think they registered eighteen to thirty-five. SY: So did you go down to Northfield to register, did somebody come to campus? JP: I honestly don't remember where we registered, yeah. SY: But then, but you decided you're going to enlist, right? Or the whole school did, how did that work? JP: Ah [chuckles] I remember the date, it was September 14, 1942 they marched us all down the Armory and said, "You're enlisting in the Army," and we did, that was it. SY: How did you feel about it? JP: Well everybody else was doing it so you know. Being eighteen you knew you'd be one of the first to go. So I, you know, it's just part of what it was that's all. SY: Do you remember, I think that the Army also took the horses from Norwich and conscripted them, do you remember that? The horses being marched off campus? JP: No I don't. I don't remember when that happened. SY: I saw picture of it actually, JP: Oh really, SY: Just the other day, yeah. So okay, you enlisted and then what happened, where'd you go? JP: Well they, we enlisted and then we were called up and I had to report Fort Devens, Mass., from there. Let's see, we went by train to a camp outside of St. Louis where we went through a bunch of tests and orientation they called it and they shipped us up to the University of Nebraska in Lincoln and then, we're 4 here again. I was a mechanic in the Mechanical Engineering Department. The guys who were mechanical engineering and myself were shipped down to Columbia, Missouri to the University of Missouri there and we were bunked in the SAE House there on the University of Michigan. And there were four or five guys from Norwich, there was a lot of guys from the Michigan State there and oh we registered to take what we were supposed to take in engineering and the…the manger whatever you want to call, the dean of mechanical engineering found that we had taken the courses the Army wanted us to take. So he signed us up for our continuing education so we got to take courses that would have been in our junior year at Norwich. SY: Oh, that's exciting, JP: Yeah, so. SY: Yeah, so okay, so then, you were getting ready to ship overseas I would imagine? JP: No, we stayed there until the spring of '44 and then they disbanded that program. We were shipped to Camp Swift, Texas where, we were in entered, not all of us, most of went in different directions. Some of the guys went to infantry divisions, I went Camp Swift, Texas and was put in the 1252nd Combat Engineer Battalion. SY: And what does that mean, what were you guys gonna be doing in the war? JP: Well combat engineers you, we did all, in some cases we went in ahead of the infantry. We did river crossings, we did a lot of demolition work, I specialized in demolition learning how to use TNT and various other. You didn't have dynamite that was too too unstable, but we did a lot work with TNT and other type of explosive and I can't remember what it was. But other than that it was standard infantry. We did a lot of, [chuckles] we did awful lot of hikes, we did a lot of shooting, that's when you qualify. It was no big deal for me 'cause I shot a rifle my whole life and let's see. SY: And [coughs] so tell me about how you went over to Europe, JP: Well in, let's see. I think it was in the end of July, we were shipped by rail to, it took a couple of days to do it to Camp Kilmer, New Jersey from there Camp Kilmer, New Jersey is close to, close to New York, cross the Hudson River there and I remember they gave us, if you live nearby you were given a twenty-four hour leave, and this buddy of mine he actually lived in Des Moines, Iowa, but he said he lived in Connecticut so the two of us went to New York City and my mother actually came down to New York City and met us late and we had dinner at the Alm—at one of the, what do you call it, the Almanac's oh not Almanac…. SY: Oh where Dorothy Parker used to go, you were talking about the.I can't remember what that's called, JP: Automats, Automats that. SY: Oh one of the Automats oh… JP: Yeah, my brother, older brother who was a tail gunner in a B-24 his girlfriend who had gone through even in high school was a dancer in Broadway. She was dancing in Pal Joey with Van Johnson and can't think of the other guy's name. Anyway, we got to see her and see my mother for a minute and went back to camp. And then the next morning they took us to the 42nd Street Ferry in Wee… SY: 42nd Street Ferry? I've never heard of such a thing. 5 JP: In Weehawken, New Jersey on the, so we went to the 42nd through, street ferry and we took the ferry across to a dock and there we were surrounded by MPs 'cause they were afraid some of the guys would bolt and we were loaded. And interesting enough the 42nd Street Ferry, when I a kid, my grandmother lived in Weehawken, New Jersey and when my brother and I were like twelve and ten, ten and twelve. My dad would get us a dime each and we would walk down to the ferry and ride back and forth on it all day. So I, it's the same ferry that took us across to the, and the ship's name was the, it was an English troop ship called the Tameroa and the Tameroa you know we thought it was a dump but, we were, we left there went out by the Statue of Liberty, and joined a convoy. We went north I think and we picked up a convoy that I'm told was one of the largest convoys that ever went across. So this is in, I think it was in early August and… SY: Do you remember what you were thinking when you riding the Weehawken Ferry? When you were passing the Statue of Liberty, I mean you were what nineteen, something like that? JP: Let's see, I was twenty, I was an old one, SY: You were twenty, what did you remember what you were thinking when all that was happening? JP: Well, some of the guys kept thinking, do—will we come back or not? You know that was a little bit. SY: So you were thinking about that? JP: Yeah, yeah it was pretty, well you're with a bunch of guys so you know anyway, and I remember the convoy because we had four destroyers circling and escorting us on. I was told afterwards that two of the ships were sunk by the Germans, but I didn't know that at the time. It took us three weeks to get to England and that, what I remembered the food was horrible. For breakfast they had boiled bacon, have you ever heard of that? SY: No, I never heard that, JP: That was terrible, yeah, SY: Only the British could do something so terrible with bacon. JP: Yeah, and we landed finally at Southampton, England and from there we were trucked, or went by train to Torquay, which was on the southern coast, which was actually a, I learned afterwards was a resort area and we were billeted there. The Tameroa interestingly enough left us and was going someplace and was sunk two days after we got off at, which we saw was great 'cause we thought it was a worst piece of junk we ever rode in but, it was a very, you know, it was like a Liberty Ships, and it was, it was a pretty rough. I didn't go below, I was on guard duty four on and eight off so I was on from midnight till four in the morning and then noon to four with another fellow and, we were, it was our job to keep the aircraft gunners who sat in those special seats where there were two twenty millimeter cannon on each side of them to keep them awake, 'cause those guys would get in there and try to sleep, you know, so we had to keep them awake, that was our job. SY: What did you guys talk about for midnight to four in the morning on the dock of the ship? JP: Well actually the guy I was with had a beautiful voice and he would sing that song, "Lilli Marlene," SY: Ah, do you remember it? Do you want to sing a little bit of it? 6 JP: No, [laughs] but I have a record of it, with Marlene Dietrich. She sang in the English and in German, it was a German song too with the English. The English adopted it and there was a gal, an English gal by the name of Vera Lynne who sang it. We heard later, anyway. SY: And so he used to sing that? JP: Yeah he used to sing and that helped us keep us awake because we had to walk. We had a one set of guns that on one side and the other, on the other side, so that was… SY: You never went below deck 'cause it smelled so bad? JP: Yeah, there were too many guys, sick throwing up down there, so it was not very pleasant, yeah. SY: So how long were you in England? JP: Ah, well we were in England until December. They had a shortage of ammunition so I guess that's what's held us from going across the Channel and we went, so went across the Channel in December of '45 when the Battle of the Bulge started. SY: So describe that to me, JP: Well, we went back to Southampton we were loaded into a troop ship and taken across the English Channel and then they loaded us, we went off. They had these rope nets that went over the side down to what they call it an LCVP, landing craft, personnel and we went into a place above La Havre the beach. We were not under, we were supposedly under sniper fire but none of our guys that I knew got hit. And we landed in France and that was the start of our, we were involved with the, we were later assigned to the 6th Armored Division, Patton's group who who ah brought them up. Patton was originally, I think in southern France and he brought a column of tanks up to help on the Battle of the Bulge so we were involved in that. SY: So that was your first experience with combat, huh? JP: Yeah, I got to tell you the most exciting thing that I remember was New Year's Eve and on New Year's Eve the Americans with their artillery and all let go big time and big flares and the Germans did the same thing. So the sky was absolutely white there for a few minutes at midnight. SY: And and it was, was it like celebratory? I mean so that everybody celebrating. That's it's sort of like the Christmas Truce in World War I a little, right? JP: Yeah I don't think we were celebrating. I just thought that we—yeah we were celebrating, that we made 'till—to to January 1, 1945, yeah. SY: And they were too? JP: Yeah, right, so…. SY: Yeah, in that moment did you think about them as soldiers like you? Did you it humanize them a little bit? JP: Not really, SY: Not really, yeah? 7 JP: No, we 'cause we knew they were trying to kill us and we were trying to kill them. So it was real simple. SY: And it wasn't like the fighting stopped it was just that you—g JP: No, S: You looked at the skies for a few minutes? JP: Right, yeah, just tell everybody no, 'cause I can't remember wearing a watch or anything like that. SY: Right, so this was trench warfare, essentially, huh? You weren't— JP: Well we weren't in trenches we were in foxholes, SY: [coughs] So what was that like? JP: Well you'd dig, well you'd hoped you got in a fox, you, normally there were two of us together, you hoped you didn't get in with a guy that was too tall because you'd have to dig the foxhole too deep. But we were moved up to I think the Our River where we, we were very thin it was snow, we were doing this in the snow and I remember one time and the Germans were deadly with their mortar fire. We lost a lot of guys with that. SY: Yeah, JP: And you got a…. SY: Did you lose any close friends? JP: Yeah, one kid that I really, was in my squad and he was a pretty neat guy. Well he was a student from someplace in Iowa, and he went, I'm not sure. So in a particular mortar fire we both dove under a Jeep and he was hit in both legs and I wasn't and I remember he cruelly said, "Jack, I can't move my legs," and he said, "Give me my wound pills." So he carried what they call wound pills, which were sulfur type pill. Penicillin hadn't been discovered then. So we, I gave him sulfur and a drink of water to get it down and then the medics got him out of there. You got to appreciate there were no heli—the only reason way to guy who was wounded out was by stretcher to a point where you could put him on a Jeep the Jeeps had a, they'd take two, two stretchers in the front and two in the back and that's the way they got him back to the nearest aid station or field hospital. But I remember this one place where we were so thin that we would take the machine guns most of the air cooled, we did have water cooled guns too, and we'd fire bursts of them and then we'd run about fifty yards further up and fire 'em and try and convince the Germans there were a lot of us and there weren't, there were only us few. And they said, "You know, stop 'em if you can, if you can't they'll go through, so just let 'em go." So…. SY: How long were you fighting there? Was it a couple of weeks, right? JP: Yeah well yeah. Yeah I think the worst of it were over by the middle of, or the latter part of January. I remember one thing that I thought was funny afterwards is this other guy and I were in this foxhole and you could hear all this noise and we thought the whole German army was attacking us. And we were issued hand grenades and I threw I would say five or six hand grenades as fast as I could and then it all quieted down and the next morning when I looked out to see what happened and we killed a bunch of rabbits. So… SY: Huh, 8 JP: So… SY: Really? JP: Yeah… so, that was… SY: What did you think in that moment looking at the rabbits? JP: [laughs] I thought, those poor bastards, you know, SY: Right, right, JP: Yeah so…. SY: Oh my God, you guys you must have been terrified in that foxhole? JP: Well you got, you know, mostly you were cold. We had grabbed sheets out of the houses and tried to use them as camouflage over us because of to, blend in with the snow you know so. SY: Mhmm, JP: So, SY: Did you have, did you have enough boot—were your boots okay? Did you warm clothes or were you just freezing? JP: Well our clothing was pretty limited, we all had a blanket that we somehow wrapped up around us or tried to. The boots were, we had standard issue boots but it wasn't till later in January we were pulled back they gave us shoe packs that had rubber on the bottom, you know, the L.L. Bean type of shoe where our feet were then, then finally warm. There were a lot of guys that got frozen feet and loss—lost a couple of toes as long as you didn't lose your big toe, you were alright. SY: I was just gonna say, did they send you home for that or no? JP: No, no SY: No they didn't send you home for that? Huh, okay. So you never, you didn't get wounded during the Battle of the Bulge? But yet did you have, it sounds like you had some near misses though? JP: Yeah, I had some near misses, they, there was a lot of small arm fire and machine guns, the Germans have what they call a Burp gun which is probably a, which was fired faster. We were had the M1s where we had eight cartridge clips and you could fire as you could pull but the Germans had sort of an automatic weapon, I guess somewhat like a Tommy gun, but the Tommy gun was old, you know and heavy, so. SY: Was combat what you thought it would be or was it very different than what you'd expected? JP: It probably pretty much the way we had, you got to appreciate that we did, we shot, other than firing the machine gun through for effect our rifles we shot one we saw somebody to shoot at. We didn't just fire intermittently yeah. I see in the movies or the way they do now they fire bursts and stuff like that and general direction, we didn't do that. We fired at individuals who were firing at us so. It wa… SY: So that was what you, so was what you expected it was? JP: Yeah, yeah. We had been trained liked you know, part of our infantry training had been with bayonets so we were prepared to the fact that we'd have a close close warfare we never got to the point where we 9 had to use the bayonets and eventually it's something like, they gave us gas masks and we trained for gas masks a lot. And finally threw 'em away 'cause you got to get rid of anything that was too heavy to carry you know, so. SY: Right, I mean those were sort of World War I that they were sort training you a little bit for World War I? JP: Yeah right, SY: Yeah that makes sense. Do you remember what you would joke about to keep your spirits up if you sang and what you sang things like that? JP: No I don't remember much singing. SY: What about jokes? JP: Well there were a couple of guys that, and I don't remember what they were there were some guys that were really happier that other guys we had one guy we called, "Happy," and he was we thought a little nuts, he had come into our outfit as a replacement after being in the Aleutians so I thought you know how bad can it be. But and I had another friend in our platoon, I remember his name was Eddie Indamowicz and he had been in the Aleutians, came home, and was there forty-five days and sent our outfit as a replacement and thought how bad can it get, you know? SY: And what? JP: I said, I thought he had it as bad as here could get, you know? SY: Yeah, JP: Yeah, SY: Yeah. Hey did you have any good luck charms to keep you safe, things you would do, superstitious things you would do to keep yourself safe in battle? JP: No, I didn't have any of that. SY: You didn't have any of that. Okay, so then the Battle of the Bulge ended, do you remember the ending, do you remember the Allied victory? JP: No, no it wasn't like that, it's just that I remember one of the things was that there. Germans had a lot of horses and their tanks were much superior, their Tiger tank was much better than our Sherman tank, I thought and but they ran out of fuel and they used horses to try to aim their guns and the American artillery knocked, killed a lot of horses. So that it for a while everywhere you went as you went through you saw dead horses so. I didn't know they were good to eat at the time we were living on K Rations and K Rations and D Bars so yeah… SY: And did people eat them later? JP: Well horse meat is a standard fixture in Paris, in France yeah they eat 'em all the time. SY: So okay, so how did you, so how did it all end for you at the Battle of the Bulge? When did you, you guys kept walking right? Through Czechoslovakia and through Germany? 10 JP: Well we did a lot of. Part of our deal was clearing mine fields and clearing the roads ahead of the tanks. So we went ahead of the tanks to make sure they, the Germans had what the call a teller mine that would, they would plant and it was our job to clean them out before that time and so we did that under fire which wasn't too healthy. We were the outfit that helped breached the Siegfried Line which was the German pillbox line and under fire from the tanks. My job was to climb on top of the pillbox and use what they called a shape charge to blow a hole in it and then we'd drop grenades and try to kill all the Germans inside the pillbox, and then when they came out a lot of them, I didn't know one particular case which is a large pillbox they came out and with their hands up of course and except for the SS lieutenant who said he would not surrender so we killed him. But in one case there was a guy in our I guess he was 3rd platoon whose family was German and he spoke regular German and he went, we went into the pillbox and he got on the phone it was connected to other pillboxes and told them that he was a commandant for German and to surrender and we surprise, we were surprised that we had gone by a pillbox and hadn't even seen it was so well camouflaged and two guys came walking out that with their hands up. So we thought that unusual, yeah. SY: Wow JP: Yeah, SY: Wow, huh. JP: So. SY: Interesting, okay so, so you reached the Siegfried, the Siegfried Line. JP: Siegfried, yeah, yeah, SY: And then you just kept walking? JP: Well or on trucks or on the tanks, we rode on the tanks, too. We were involved with the Rhine and I think that was towards the end of March, right. I'm not sure of the dates here. It's been so many years ago. But I was in the first wave at Saint Goarshausen across the Rhine and they had given us motors to we took part of the 89th Division across and in the first wave we had some gun fire and not too much and got over and got into the town and then it was all rifle fire. I remember shooting a women that was firing at us and I don't know whether I killed her or not but anyways stopped firing. But the second wave in the second wave the Germans opened up from above one of those castles and I'm told they killed 100 guys. So it was a bloody thing, so… SY: Wow, yeah, JP: But we secured the town and slept in the German beds that night [chucklses] so it was good. And then it… SY: Really? JP: Yeah, then the next morning I got up and one of the guys came into me and said, "Jack, look there's a deer up there, about 150 yards away," and actually there are two of them and I shot them both and they came down the mountain and we had a guy who was a, knew how to butcher 'em. So we cut him into steaks and soaked them in red wine and ate 'em night, they were really good. SY: Mhmm….probably the best thing you'd eaten in a very long time? JP: Yeah, right, yeah. 11 SY: Yeah, yeah, what was the, what did the countryside look like that you were moving through? JP: Well, it was mostly, when we went through the German farms, and German's place, like that they, the German people came right out and repaired their their land because you know we kind of beat it up. They didn't, the French didn't seem to do that and I don't know, they had been at us so long that they thought it would continue to you know be messed up. But you know it was a lot of riding. I remember once riding in we were riding in six by sixes, trucks and we had a squad in each truck and we were strafed by a—they rode what they had what they call cat eyes on the front of us. Front of the truck where the enabled the driver to see the next truck in front of them and course you couldn't have headlights or anything like that. And we were strafed and they pulled over quickly and we all jumped out and ran as far away as we could but there were two guys who were replacements and they dove, dove under the trailer we were pulling and afterwards when it was over and we climbed back into the truck. They said, "You guys were crazy running like like that." And he said, "We jumped on this trailer." And he said, "Yeah but that trailer had 700 pounds of TNT in it." I said, "You'd gone to smithereens if they ever had." So in that particular thing they, their machine guns went through the windshield but right between the two guys that were riding there and didn't kill the other one. So I thought that was kind of different. SY: Wow, JP: Yeah, SY: So, so tell me about Buchenwald, JP: Well the concentration camp was freed by, I don't— either the 82nd Airborne or the 101st one of the first of those two airborne division. We came in afterwards and ah— SY: Afterwards, JP: Well it couldn't have been too long afterwards because the kilns were still hot where they cremated the bodies and there were wagon loads of bodies that had been gassed, just piled like cordwood on a thing. There were some gas… SY: It must have been there, just a day or two after the first Americans got there? JP: I'm sorry I didn't hear you Sarah. SY: I said, it must have been just a day or two after the first Americans got there? JP: Oh yeah, SY: If the bodies were still there, JP: Oh yeah the bodies were still there and the crem—the kilns were still hot too, so. There were guys skinny as could be and were had been that were prisoners there and we gave 'em our K Rations so they'd have something to eat you know they had, I think, and afterwards I heard that the general in charge of that section marched all of the people from Weimar which this is a town outside of the concentration down there to show what had been going on 'cause they acted like they didn't know what was, which I don't think was true. But… SY: I ah, yeah I've read that, I've read that too, that he made everybody— JP: Yeah, SY: Everybody from Weimar walked through 12 JP: Yeah, yeah, SY: And that somebody laughed and he made them all do it again actually. JP: Yeah, SY: He made them do a second tour. So did you, did you know what you were walking into before you got there? JP: No, SY: So how did you all figure out what was going on, do you remember your first thoughts? Do you remember what you said to each other? JP: We just couldn't believe it. We couldn't after all we had no knowledge of, you know our communications we had no communications we didn't know about the concentration camps or things like that and there was no newspaper or there was. You just went where you were told you know followed so forth. So I didn't have any particular, I thought it was horrible and just it added to hating the Germans a little more you know? SY: Yeah [coughs] how long were you there? JP: Oh just a matter of hours. SY: Really? JP: Then we moved on, yeah sure. There was nothing for us to do there, they were some of the other, I guess they moved in a soup kitchen and things like that to feed the people who were left and sorted it out, so…. SY: Did any of the inmates speak English? Did you have conversations with any of them? JP: No, no. SY: And the kilns were still hot, did you see smoke or had they…? JP: No they were just hot, they just were cooling down and so forth. They wanted cigarettes the prisoners you know we had cigarettes. We were issued a carton a week of cigarettes and then all the K Rations, these K Rations had five cigarettes in it so when we gave the K Rations they thought that was just unbelievable to have cigarettes. SY: Were they, were they smoking them or trading them? JP: Oh no, strictly smoking them, strictly smoking. SY: So you pulled out of Buchenwald [coughs] and did you talk about with each other? JP: Oh yeah, sure. SY: What you say? Do you remember the conversations? JP: No, not I remember, you know our whole thing was moving on, moving on. When we were, we were in Patton's Army and I remember back in I think in early February we were pulled back from the line and were put through we'd been in the same clothes since December and we obviously all smelled pretty well and what do you when sleep in the—eat, sleep, in the same clothes a lot and they had what they called a13 Shark, shower group and we would rack our equipment our arms and take off all our clothes and heave 'em into a bin and then you'd go into a, they had forty-eight showers set up and you got one minute a rinse, one minute a soap, and one minute a rinse again and that was it. And then you'd… SY: You probably still smelled? JP: Yeah and then you got all new— new clothes and I remember we had a, what would you call it a clipper that you could use in and we'd give each other's haircuts with this clipper to 'cause you know that was the only thing you could do and you know it was easier to have shorter hair under your helmets. SY: So what you do after Buchenwald? JP: Well, we moved on. Did a lot of clean up and with the tanks and so forth and actually we moved up for it and we were ready for a assault crossing, got across the Danube when in May when the war was declared over. So we moved on and they took us into a place called Ejar, E-J-A-R, Czechoslovakia and we built a bridge there over a railroad crossing or something like that, a bridge that would carry the tanks into that and we stayed there and then we were pulled back because the Russians took over that territory. Hey, can you excuse me a minute? I'll be right back. Oral history pauses, with background noise, and then resumes JP: Hi, I'm back, SY: Hi, you're back, JP I'm back, yeah that was quick, SY: Excellent, JP: Too much too much coffee, SY: Too much coffee, I know that problem. Okay, so it seems like we're getting to the end, close to the end of the war. So where were you on VE Day? JP: On VE Day we were in, I think we were in Czechoslovakia. We'd gone there, they stopped the fighting I think on one day and then couple of days later they it was it a fish hole. So we had moved into Czechoslovakia. Then let's see they moved us the Russians came and took over our positions in Czech and we moved back to Austria and actually we moved back and we had a deluxe accommodations which was a guest house which is a small hotel and we took it over and our platoon, and I remember another guy and I actually had a bed to sleep in and we had [airplane flies in background] you know by then they had ah they were set up with a cook, the cooks and all we had meals, real meals and all. SY: How long had it been since you'd slept in a bed? JP: Well [chuckles] a long time I guess since I was in England. SY: Since you were in England, JP: Yeah, SY: Wow. So [coughs] do you remember when, how did you hear that, how did you hear, about, the victory? 14 JP: Oh it came down from our headquarters they came through and told us all about it, you know it would get a platoon of us together and tell us you know the war was basically over as far as we were concerned. SY: And what would you, what did you do? JP: Well we thought that was great. I think we probably drank you know, we confiscated all kinds of wine and beer and liquor and we drank it all up. [chuckles] Yeah so that was it, SY: You probably had a big party, and so then, then what happened? So you know victory's been declared and the war is basically over it's over in Europe and so where'd they send ya? JP: They moved us back to Marcé and there our equipment was checked over. Some of the guys who had the highest points like the fellows who had been in the Aleutians were taken away from our unit and we had replacements come in and they told us basically that we were sailing for the Philippines. So we were actually on the boat, there were four boats in the group I was in. It's started out and I was in the last one to leave and we ran into a bad storm and they put us in back of the Canary Islands for a day that's what I heard anyway for the worst of it to get through and we were in the middle of the ocean when the war in Europe was declared over and but the first three boats in our group went through the Panama Canal to the Philippines and we were diverted into Boston we were had been scheduled to be a part of landing in Tokyo which was scheduled for November 1, 1945. So that we put… SY: And so you heard that the bomb had been dropped while you were on the boat? JP: Yeah, yeah, SY: Yeah and they announced that you? JP: Yeah, yeah, SY: Yeah, and that's why you got diverted to Boston? JP: Yeah, yeah, SY: Were you relieved? JP: Yeah, well in a way, I at the time we knew we were going to the Philippines but we didn't know. It was until fifty years later that we found out that we were part of the landing group into Tokyo. SY: How did you find it out? JP: Well they didn't release those orders until 1995 and a friend of mine who was with the 4th Marine Division who I still talk to he was able to get a hold of the orders and we found out that we were, the Philippines was where the gathering place for the landings were in that's where we were scheduled to go. The guys in…. SY: No idea that you were on your way? JP: No, SY: That's interesting, JP: No, no the guys that went through the canal all the way to the Philippines they ended up playing cards for three months and then they came and brought them back. So…15 SY: And you guys went to Boston, and what was it like when you arrived in Boston? JP: It was nothing we arrived at Boston, we went get—we were I think we took us to Myles Stand—either Myles Standish, or Fort Devens and were given thirty day leave and then we were on leave they gave us another thirty or forty-five days and then they told us to report back to. I was supposed to report back to Devens in the middle of December for discharge and I got back there and they said, "You got the mumps," so I was sent into the hospital and was there for three weeks and then was discharged the first week in January. SY: Was it hard to adjust to life back home? JP: Well it, you know all the guys I knew. Buddies of mine were same age bracket we'd all been in the service together so we you know, we were with them and actually when I got out of the service on a Thursday and my father worked for the Southern New England Telephone Company and he came home on Friday and said, "You have a job starting Monday." So I didn't have, so I worked for the telephone company and I had checked with Norwich and the semester started in February. So I went back to college in February and my, one of my old roommates there, his name was Ken Clary. He and I roomed together until he spoiled it and got married. Yeah and anyway…. SY: What was it like to back at school after having been at war? JP: Well we were, when we came back to Norwich we came back as civilians we did—we were not in uniform. They had a Cadet Corps but as far as we were concerned we were strictly there to complete our education and I lived for a while in one of the dorms and then we I moved I was in SAE and I moved to the SAE House for rest of the time I was there. SY: I've heard from other, from other things from other people and from things I've read that it was, it was kind of, that Norwich didn't seemed to be equipped for returning veterans? JP: No I would say that. They seemed they gave me so much credit so I had only had another year to go and my and they sort of rushed us through to get rid of us I felt. But that's alright. SY: Why do you think they did that? JP: Well they wanted to be back to their Corps of having you know a complete complete military again and that's what I thought anyway. But… SY: Did you consider staying in the military or going back in or were you done after you came back from the war? JP: Well you know my brother was a tail gunner in a B-24 he completed his fifty-six raids or fifty-four and the spring of '45 actually spring of '44 and he had been in same length of time as I had and we thought nah that you know what I was in couldn't couldn't get any better so and we talked about staying in but we both decided on hell with it let's get out of here. So then we did. SY: Yeah, both of you together? JP: Yeah, yeah, SY: So somebody described to me there was a basically like a trailer park off campus, where the vets lived? JP: Maybe they were the married vets but not, 16 SY: Married vets yeah, do you remember that or no? JP: I remember there was a, yeah there was some Quonset huts they built and they put hardwood flooring in them and a guy by the name of Bill Peck who was a friend of mine and I had been in actually he, Bill and I had been in University of Missouri together. Although I don't know where he went after that, he went to an infantry. But he and I went down there looking for a jobs and they said, "Do you know to put in hardwood flooring?" and Bill said, "Oh sure," and he didn't know either that's what we did and that was one of the jobs we had. SY: And that was where the married veterans lived? JK: Yeah, right, yeah, yeah, yeah, SY: Hmm…interesting, interesting. So how often do you, did you talk about the war? Did you talk about the war with your friends and family when you came back throughout the rest of your life? Or has it been something you didn't think about that much? JP: I really didn't think about it that much. Sometimes you know, some of it comes back to you but I was able to get it off my mind. I had other things to think about too. SY: Yeah. So tell me briefly about what you did after you graduated from Norwich? JP: Well after I graduated from Norwich, my dad wanted me to work for telephone company and I didn't want to do that 'cause I couldn't stand the manager that I talked to at the Bridgeport office. He had told me how he's start me at a certain salary and after six months I'd be reviewed and all this kind of stuff and be taken care of for the rest of my life. And that didn't appeal to me. And I had an uncle who worked for Hartford Empire who make glass making machinery and as an engineer I had an opportunity to go to Saudi Arabia but that you had to sign a two year contract and I didn't want to do that and actually the fellow that lived across the street from me was a guy by the name of Bob Keeeny, and Bob and I had grown up together from seventh grade or seven-years-old on and he but he had gone. He was going to Wesleyan University and had gone in the V whatever it is program there, had graduated and like June of '45 and then sent to San Diego and he was on the Indianapolis when it was sunk and he died on that. But his father owned this plumbing company, plumbing manufacturing company and he asked me if I wanted to come to work over there so that's where I started working and I started working selling for them and working as their in their sales management group. SY: And then you stayed in sales management for the rest of your career, right? JP: Yeah, well pretty much I went. I left that company and went to Bridgeport Brass Company and here again I was sale manager of the copper water division and the plumbing division and they decided they would move that division from Bridgeport, Connecticut down south for better wages and so forth and so I got to be the manager and we moved the company to Moultrie, Georgia which is fifty miles north of Tallahassee and I went down there with four of the guys we hired, set the company up moved all the machinery down from Bridgeport and hired 300 people. So it was down there for four years and from there I told them you know that I didn't want my kids living in the south. I had three kids and the schools are just, were, the day, the year we got there they added the twelfth grade to the high school and so they offered me a job working out of New York in their international division so I did that for three or four years I forget which yeah. SY: Excellent. So how do you think your time at Norwich influenced your later life? 17 JP: Well it's hard to say. I guess I guess one of the early things that, in Norwich you learned real quick to obey orders and that's one of the things that I [chuckles] kept with me all through the Army and even in business you learn to who is the boss and who is you supposed to tell. Do what they tell you, you know that type of thing. SY: Did you also learn how to be a leader? JP: I would say so, yeah, yeah. SY: And what about this idea of citizen soldier or service, is that something you think about or relate to as you're sort of gone through your life? JP: Well as opposed to the volunteers that they have now you mean? SY: Yeah, I mean I guess it's just—No I mean, not the actually opposed to that, I mean, I guess the premise of the citizen soldier of the founding of the school was the idea of people who were both educated and also in the military. So it's sort of combining the liberal arts, right? With the military training at the same time? JP: Well, I think that's, I think that the military training is something that you'll lives with you the rest of your life. My son's, son or his wife or present wife's has a son who is a senior in high school and thinking about going on to college obviously and he said he'd liked to work in the State Department and I suggested he go to Norwich because you know he would have to complete there and then be in the service for four years. But I thought, I said "that will be the best background you'll ever had for working for the State Department." And but after getting that information and finding that they get up at 5:30 every morning he was no longer interested in that. SY: [laughs] What about as you've gone through your life and watched the U.S. enter into other wars, how do you feel about your war versus the wars that followed? JP: I think our war was very different in that we had sort of lines of demarcation. We knew who the Germans and who were the Allies versus now. They seem to have people coming at 'em from different directions and coming across the Pakistan border and things like that. I think it's a very different, and the method of fighting is very different you know everything is automatic weapons, automatic weapons. We didn't have that stuff, it was more of an individual fight. SY: Hmm…interesting. JP: Yeah, SY: Well I don't' think I have any more questions for you. JP: Okay, SY: Is there anything you want to add in that you didn't get to talk about? JP: No I think we covered everything, yeah. SY: I think we've covered everything. You sound kind of tired too. I'm a little tired, we've been talking for a long time. JP: [laughs] Yeah, no yeah, I see it's almost 11:30 here yeah so. Well I appreciate the invite. How did— SY: Thank you so much for talking. 18 JP: Yeah, are you, will you have a recording of this, is that right? SY: Yeah we'll have a recording of this that we'll send you and then we'll also ah have a transcript that we'll send you. JP: Oh great, great, 'cause my son— SY: Listen to it and then if there's that something factually wrong or something that you want to keep private, you can tell me and then we'll edit that out. JP: Yeah, now— SY: So that's, so you'll getting stuff in the mail from me, JP: Yeah I didn't tell you any of the nasty stuff, so. SY: Oh yeah, why not? JP: Or any of the sexy stuff [laughs] SY: Any of the what? JP: Any of the sexy stuff, SY: Oh well those are all the important stories for oral history, you should tell me some of them now. [laughs] JP: I thought one of the things that was really interesting is that and course we went—and a lot of our training in basic was how to avoid getting social diseases, you know? SY: Right, JP: And the other thing was that the Army seemed to recognize that was the guys all needed to have their sexual relations and in Marcé in the Stars and Stripes they said there's 20,000 pros, plus 7 semi pros and amateurs here in town so. SY: So you guys on your time off would wander into town? JP: It was available yeah, so that's all. No other than that not too much. SY: That sounds great. And it was France? JP: Right, right, SY: Which was exciting for a young American man? JP: Yeah, yeah, SY: Yeah, JP: Right, SY: Yeah, were there any moments when you had real ethical dilemmas? Where you really struggled with something with an order that you didn't want to follow? JP: No, 19 SY: Something like that? No? JP: No, no I didn't have any of that, so. Anyways thank you so much for your interest. SY: Thanks for telling your story, I really appreciate it. JP: Okay, I'll look forward to it hearing from, SY: Okay, alright have a good day, JP: Thank you bye. SY: Bye, bye.

Jayeson Vance Leading Tour at Alcatraz, 2012 ; Business at the Crossroads - Ogden City is a project to collect oral histories related to changes in the Ogden business district since World War II. From the 1870s to World War II, Ogden was a major railroad town, with nine rail systems. With both east-west and north-south rail lines, business and commercial houses flourished as Ogden became a shipping and commerce hub. ; The following is an oral history interview with Jayeson Vance. The interview was conducted on October 10, 2013, by Lorrie Rands. Jayeson discusses memories of Ogden and 25th Street. ; 35p.; 29cm.; 2 bound transcripts; 4 file folders. 1 videodisc: digital; 4 3/4 in. ; Oral History Program Jayeson P. Vance Interviewed by Lorrie Rands 10 October 2013 Oral History Program Weber State University Stewart Library Ogden, Utah Jayeson P. Vance Interviewed by Lorrie Rands 10 October 2013 Copyright © 2014 by Weber State University, Stewart Library Mission Statement The Oral History Program of the Stewart Library was created to preserve the institutional history of Weber State University and the Davis, Ogden and Weber County communities. By conducting carefully researched, recorded, and transcribed interviews, the Oral History Program creates archival oral histories intended for the widest possible use. Interviews are conducted with the goal of eliciting from each participant a full and accurate account of events. The interviews are transcribed, edited for accuracy and clarity, and reviewed by the interviewees (as available), who are encouraged to augment or correct their spoken words. The reviewed and corrected transcripts are indexed, printed, and bound with photographs and illustrative materials as available. Archival copies are placed in Special Collections. The Stewart Library also houses the original recording so researchers can gain a sense of the interviewee's voice and intonations. Project Description Business at the Crossroads - Ogden City is a project to collect oral histories related to changes in the Ogden business district since World War II. From the 1870s to World War II, Ogden was a major railroad town, with nine rail systems. With both east-west and north-south rail lines, business and commercial houses flourished as Ogden became a shipping and commerce hub. After World War II, the railroad business declined. Some government agencies and businesses related to the defense industry continued to gravitate to Ogden after the war—including the Internal Revenue Regional Center, the Marquardt Corporation, Boeing Corporation, Volvo-White Truck Corporation, Morton-Thiokol, and several other smaller operations. However, the economy became more service oriented, with small businesses developing that appealed to changing demographics, including the growing Hispanic population. ____________________________________ Oral history is a method of collecting historical information through recorded interviews between a narrator with firsthand knowledge of historically significant events and a well-informed interviewer, with the goal of preserving substantive additions to the historical record. Because it is primary material, oral history is not intended to present the final, verified, or complete narrative of events. It is a spoken account. It reflects personal opinion offered by the interviewee in response to questioning, and as such it is partisan, deeply involved, and irreplaceable. ____________________________________ Rights Management Special Collections All literary rights in the manuscript, including the right to publish, are reserved to the Stewart Library of Weber State University. No part of the manuscript may be published without the written permission of the University Librarian. Requests for permission to publish should be addressed to the Administration Office, Stewart Library, Weber State University, Ogden, Utah, 84408. The request should include identification of the specific item and identification of the user. It is recommended that this oral history be cited as follows: Vance, Jayeson, an oral history by Lorrie Rands, 10 October 2013 , WSU Stewart Library Oral History Program, Special Collections, Stewart Library, Weber State University, Ogden, UT. iii Jayeson Vance Leading Tour at Alcatraz 2012 Abstract: The following is an oral history interview with Jayeson Vance. The interview was conducted on October 10, 2013, by Lorrie Rands. Jayeson discusses memories of Ogden and 25th Street. LR: Today is October 10, 2013 doing a phone interview with Mr. Jayeson Vance who is currently residing in San Francisco, about 25th street and Ogden. My name is Lorrie Rands and I will be conducting the interview. Jayeson, I, again, appreciate your time and your willingness to help us out with this. Let's begin with the simple basics of when and where were you born? JV: I was born at the old St. Benedict's hospital on 29th and Polk in Ogden, on June 26, 1947. LR: Where did you reside, where was your home in Ogden? JV: Our home was, when I was a boy, we were, first we lived in a post war housing, emergency housing for the GI's. My dad was at Hill Field as an Air Force Sergeant, an Army Air Corp Sergeant. That was at the old Bonneville Park, as they used to call it. It was an old cinder block, post war or emergency housing that, I don't know who paid for, probably the federal government. Then they, at some point around 1950 or 51, they destroyed those homes and we, my dad was able to get a home on 1362 Hudson, between 5th and 6th on, at just above Harrison, and we were just a quarter block below Polk. That's where I spent my early years and then we later moved to 108 Harrison, at first and Harrison. LR: So was Harrison at that time, was it paved all the way through? 1 JV: Yes, Harrison was paved, Hudson was primitive, it was unpaved, thank you for asking. We actually did not even have a phone in the house and my mother had to walk to Hudson and Polk, to a little phone booth as did all the neighbors in order to place a phone call. Actually, it seems funny now, and the street was dirt and it had a curb and gutter but it didn't have the sidewalks and it didn't have, you know, it was very primitive. It was like living out on the frontier in a way, and my grandfather used to say, "You can hear the coyotes at night up there where you live." He lived on 256 Harrisville Road which is still there, that structure is still standing. LR: You grew up then in that part of Ogden? JV: Yea, on that northeast bench, I went to Ben Lomond High and then my dad had gone to Weber and my mother, actually my mother was a USU graduate. I just said, "Well," I couldn't decide what to do after I graduated from Ben Lomond, so I decided on Weber, which was a great choice. I was pleased with, I always thought it had the best—a lot of people say about Weber that we had better professors than bigger schools because you didn't have teaching assistants teaching classes, you had Ph.D.'s teaching classes quite often and so I think in some ways we got a much better education at Weber than people maybe at the University of Utah had in some ways, so anyway, it was a good time to go to Weber. I briefly was the sophomore class president for a brief while, filled in for Mike Howe I believe was his name, cause he couldn't finish his term. My name at that time, I changed my name in 1982, and my born name was Clark Walker. So that's always strange, and I have to explain that, that I 2 changed my name. I was one of those kids that had kind of an identity crisis and so my legal name is Jayson P. Vance. I don't know how much you want to know about my personal life, but just to explain, if you look me up, you'll find me under Clark Walker. Weber State records, well, except I changed my diploma reads Jayeson Vance now, so I had that changed. LR: So, I'm just curious, why did you choose Jayeson Vance? JV: It was just one of those things that I had a friend who was a counselor, which said, "It's time for a change." I had just left a federal job and I wanted a new start in life and she said, "This would be a good time to change." She had done this to, she had changed her name and she said, "I don't know, it's great," and she was able to persuade me that I should do it. Then once you do that, and we'd had a house so we had to change the mortgage records so then and I had to go to court, to district court and officially change my name by law. I can't ever use the old name again and legally, so anyway, I have, for better or worse, that's my name. So I just have to accept that. In some ways I felt shouldn't be changing that because it's my family history, but then as I researched my family history, I found out that my father's father, who was an English immigrant during World War I, which is kind of odd, how do you get to where my father was born in California? It's a long story, but his father deserted the family, his name was reputedly, Sylvester Hodgson Walker. He deserted this mother and this infant boy, who was my father and said, "I'm a British subject, I don't want to have a kid." And he ran off to Canada, and he said, "You can't touch me, I'm a British subject." I don't even really know the man's name, I never saw a picture of him 3 and it's one of these great mysteries of life that I would love to see at least what he looked like and how did he end up in California during World War One. The British would have wanted any young man to be in the Army or something and so it's a—was his name really Walker, you know, all these mysteries like that. I didn't feel troubled about dropping the name Walker, so that's, anyway, we got off on a tangent. LR: No, that's great, I asked so, let's go ahead and go back then. You said that your dad worked at Hill Field as a sergeant in the Army Air Corps, what did your mom do? JV: My mother was a teacher in her later years, well, when they were first married she was a school teacher, then she dropped her job as a teacher to be a house wife and about 1959 she went back to Ogden public schools, worked at Edison school teaching second grade. Her name was Bonnie Ruth Murphy Walker and she passed away this month, just earlier this month, ten years ago the start of this month, she's been dead 10 years now. The family is all gone, my brother, my father and my mother are all gone and my wife and I live here. LR: You're kind of cutting out on me. JV: Oh, maybe if I hold the microphone up closer here. LR: I'm not sure if it's you or if it's me. That seems to be better, okay. I hate it when I get off on my flow. As you were growing up, what were some of the things you liked to do for fun? JV: I used to draw maps of the city actually. I loved history form early on. I read Land Mark Books, I was a boy scout. I got an Eagle Scout Award, I was an Eagle 4 Scout. I was very interested in police and crime, the FBI. I wanted to be an FBI agent at one time and I studied the history of, I was reading adult literature written for adults about the FBI, you know like the FBI story by Glen Whitehead I think it is, when I was twelve. I was trying to—it was not easy to read—but I was trying and I was just obsessed with that stuff and I saw the world very black and white, in a very black and white way. I remember giving—I had some really conservative, very, very conservative opinions about law and order and I wanted to—we had some milk stolen and I wanted my mother so badly to call the police department because I wanted to look at a real policeman in the face and we hardly had any crime in that area. I was so excited that was my amusement, anything to do with law and order or police, any TV show, Texas Rangers or Broderick Crawford, who starred in California Highway Patrol or anything like that. The Lone Ranger and all that stuff, I just loved all that. We played Army, it was post World War Two so we had, almost everybody I knew was the son or the daughter of a GI or a sailor from World War Two or a Marine. We had tons of Army Men and toys about World War Two and I had a whole Army and Navy set of toys that I just spent hours with. Then we would—the little kids in the neighborhood—we'd organize into tiny army, little army training things. Then I would build little model cities in the back yard with rocks and build a highway. I had a lot of fun doing that. I made a model of Ben Lomond peak at one time in my back yard out of clay and rocks and so I had a lot of fun as for Mount Ben Lomond and all that. I tried to make of Ogden out of rocks but it was a little over whelming. 5 LR: I'll bet. So did you ever have the chance to meet any Ogden Police officers when you were younger? JV: Yea, one of my friends, Gary Greenwood, became a police officer in Ogden and he and I were golfing buddies for quite a while, and I met him, just before I moved out of Ogden—I got married and moved away, I remember seeing him in his uniform with his shoes all polished. I was so proud of him and I so wished that I could be like him, be a policeman, but I never became a policeman, I became a park ranger. Not quite the same, but he was just kind of an inspiration when I saw him standing there with his highly polished shoes and his nice neat uniform and he was very proud of it, rightly so. I lost track of him, I would like to talk to him again but I tried to locate him on the internet and he was a probation officer for a while and I couldn't find any more about him. I haven't, if you know him or anybody knows him, I would love to talk to him. He was a great guy. I'm just joining the auxiliary law enforcement team here for the San Francisco police, I just applied to join that. It's a volunteer position, but my fantasy, my interest in crime and law and order has been lifelong. I guess it's no wonder I ended up on Alcatraz. LR: Did you ever hang out downtown? JV: Yea, we did, one of my stronger memories, my father would take me, well my father was a—after he left the Army Air Corps, he became a postman at the main post office and then later Gorder's station as they used to call the post office over there on the bench. He was, his route was the businesses along 25th and along Washington. He was the downtown postman, and he would drive all the 6 packages, they didn't have a UPS, and he would do all the package deliveries all over downtown. He was a gun lover, he loved guns and there was a gun shop on 25th that he loved to go to. He knew 25th very well, he knew the Porters and Waiters Club, he took me into the Depot Drug and there was some girly magazines one time. Oh, it was a little embarrassing, I was going through puberty. Oh we looked at those girly magazines a little bit, but that was among little things like that that I remember. Depot Drug was a hive of activity. It was scary, it was frightening, but it was exciting also. They had these barrels of toys. I loved anything with a plastic army man, or army soldiers like that, and they had just piles of that stuff. Even in the front window, or I think it could even have been on the sidewalk, I could remember my heart just pounding about it, and I only got to go in there a couple of times, but it was a just a hive of excitement. There was also a fear about 25th of course, the legend of all the possibility of heroin and prostitution and all those things that were going on around there. I could even I guess sense it in my father that he was a little bit on edge, but he never had anyone bother him or threaten him in any way while he was delivering mail. He had some rude business people that were pretty rude to him, you know, kind of abusive, but he didn't ever have any threats. He was very close with the black community in Ogden, he knew a lot of the black folks and he was very pro civil rights and he felt that they had gotten the bad end of the deal. The Porters and Waiters Club was famous, of course, for the railroad porters that worked on the Union Pacific that brought Jazz to Ogden. 7 It was also a street of sin certainly. Later in life, my best man at my wedding was Arnie Jacobson and his father was chief Jacobson of the Ogden police. Arnie told me some stories, but these are now second hand stories that he got from his father, so I don't have direct access to that information but it came through Arnie. His father put on black face because they didn't have any black police officers and went down onto 25th to purchase heroine, because the dealers on 25th were black. They did make some arrests and the Ogden police were known as the toughest police in Utah because of the street, because of patrolling 25th street they had to be tougher than the Salt Lake police, according to Arnie anyway. They would have this annual football, I believe football game between the Ogden Police and the Salt Lake police and the Ogden police would always win because they had to be tougher, even though it was a smaller department by far than the Salt Lake department. It really had quite a story there, I mean you could write a lot of, I could easily see someone writing a novel or a historical novel about it. Maybe that's what I should do, I don't know. Then my mother told me about working at the Union Laundry but she did all that Union Pacific linen as a young woman. She was a pretty young brunette and her father, Clarence Murphy, would warn her, he was a Union Pacific engineer. "Now Bonnie, you get down to Washington Boulevard and get on that street car and you run to Washington Boulevard," or somebody told her, or she told me that she was so scared on 25th that she ran all the way from Wall Avenue to Washington Boulevard as fast as she could run to get to Washington Boulevard to where she felt safe, and then get on the street car to go north to 8 Harrisville Road where they lived. She had a palpable fear of that street but she again never had anything happen to her so it just, there's a lot of stuff about that street. I've seen that, I don't know you've probably seen that DVD that that fellow put out about the history of Ogden I imagine. Are you aware of that one? LR: Yes, The one that was in 2007 or 11, not too long ago? Yes. JV: They explained that, I guess they alleged that Al Capone may have been on 25th, which I've never found any—I tried because I studied Al Capone quite a bit having been on Alcatraz where he was locked up for about five years, and I've never found any evidence, have you? To support that he was ever there. LR: I haven't, the only thing I have heard about are the rumors. JV: Yea, it's just legendary. When I worked on Alcatraz we'd have people from Canada and Saskatchewan Province was a place where he was reputed to have been. Oh, Al Capone, you hear this all the time, in Wisconsin he went to honey lodges and it is conceivable that he may have been in Ogden that he was really on, and it was called Little Chicago at one point. It was one of the nick names of Ogden, of that area of Ogden as you may know already. Of course, today, it's a very different street than it was and I'm looking at a picture of it right now, a modern picture. I guess there were some movies made there with that famous noddle parlor sign? LR: Yea, the Star Noodle, the one with the dragon? JV: There was a little China town there too of course, from the Chinese workers on the railroad. My grandfather, as a boy, his mother died when he was a youngster and his father was of course a railroad worker too, an engineer, and he was 9 basically raised himself on the streets. This would have been about 1900 or 1905 around in that era, used to run opium on a bicycle around China, the little Ogden, and helped these opium dealers. It was legal at that time to sell opium, and he would, as reprehensible as it sounds now, would sell opium to the Chinese, and make a little money that way, because they didn't have much money. He and his sister and his father, no mother, were kind of, you know, they had some kind of rough edges in his early years, and he remembered being pretty mean to some of the Chinese as a teenage boy, pulling there queue's. They used to wear their hair in queue's on the back of their head, doing some mean things like that and of course the Chinese were abused everywhere. Out here in San Francisco they were abused even more. The word Chink was frequently passed around. It was a racist time it was not fun to be black or Chinese in those days. It was rough for a lot of people. LR: So did you ever witness any of that discrimination in that part of Ogden? JV: No, that was way before my time. I think it went underground, I'm sure there was a feeling that Asians were odd or you know, they were kind of a curiosity. I don't remember. We used to eat at the Utah Noodle Parlor a lot and have the other—I forget the other noodle parlor name on Grant there. We used to, and we enjoyed all the food, the chop suey and all those things. So you'd hear little remarks like that, that were racists but it was, and of course it was. My grandfather had actually been a member of the Klan when he was a youngster. He had no education, he was brought up on the streets and he picked up whatever he picked up, and he picked up a lot of racists attitudes. I remember he, as a young 10 man—he wasn't that in his older years—but as a young man, there was a Klu Klux Klan Chapter there in Ogden. The Klan was all over the United States if you study the history of the Klan and it was very powerful in the early twenties and that's about the time he was starting his family. My grandfather was out there on Harrisville Road, but he I guess they had some Klan meetings up on the foothills in the early twenties where they burned crosses and stuff up on the foothills above. You can imagine how it must have felt to be a black person and see that going on, especially a tiny minority, there in that part of the world. A feeling, you must have been pretty much an emotional, a very unpleasant emotional experience anyway for a black or an Asian too. I think they were pretty mean to Asians, the Klan was, as well. He never said much about that, he did express racist attitudes which were part of that generation, occasionally. I had that wonderful contrast in my father who just really loved the black folks in Ogden. Marshall White, the police officer who was killed there, who was a hero of the police department. After they finally got a black officer, and then he got killed, but it was a rough town. There was somewhat open prostitution, if I remember, right along parts of Grant Avenue and Lincoln Avenue. Even in my early years, even as late as maybe 19, probably about 1970 even, there was still open prostitution going on, it was very limited, but it was there. As I've studied the street I know there was a back alley that ran heroin and a tunnel that ran heroin from the depot all along, I think on the north side of the street. Maybe that tunnel is still there, I've seen 11 some references that indicate that the tunnel went all the way to the Ben Lomond Hotel apparently. Are you aware of that? LR: I'm aware more of the rumors. JV: I saw something online about historic tunnel tours of Ogden and they, if I remember correctly were going into the basement of the Ben Lomond Hotel and somebody was leading a ghost tour or something like that. They were able to go under Washington Boulevard possibly and they said, "Well, who knows." Of course they want to enlarge everything and make it more exciting so they bring in Al Capone and all that. The danger of history is always that somebody tries to enlarge things or exaggerate things. I was never able to see that myself and I didn't even know, I'd heard rumors about it but I've never been in it. LR: Well I know that most of the businesses now have closed up there tunnels, so most of the people we have talked to, yea, it's possible, but now they're all closed up so. But yea, we've had a lot of references to them, a lot of people that remember being down in them, but none actually going form Ben Lomond to the depot. We can't actually verify that, so. It's fun to hear about though. JV: Well that was the big fancy hotel, I guess the Ben Lomond was built about 1927, and being a big, the highest building in town and anybody who wanted a prostitute probably would have wanted to bring them in underground into the hotel or something like that, or wanted maybe drugs and happened to be at the hotel. It does kind of make sense if you were in the, in the world of vice and you had money enough to stay in a nice room there and you wanted something, knowing the hotel business as I do, because I worked with it for a while here, 12 there are people in the hotels are bribable a lot of times, and if you want—they want some cash and if you have the cash, they'll find a way to get you what you want. Who knows, I wouldn't be surprised, I don't have any evidence of it, but I wouldn't be surprised if there was something like that going on. LR: I wouldn't be surprised either. Do you remember any of the people that used to live or work on 25th street? JV: Yes. Well, my mother worked at the Union Laundry I guess it was called as a— this would have been—she was born in 1919, so it would have been roughly around the time she graduated from Ogden High in 1938. So she was working at the Union Laundry, and that's where that tale about running down the street as fast as she could run, her heart pounding came from, that era. And then my grandfather, Clarence Patrick Murphy, a real Irish name, half Danish, but in fact his mother was Danish. He was working there from about age 16 and he was born about 1885 I believe, so he would have been there about 1901 and he was already working as a fireman as a teenage boy. He couldn't finish school, at Sacred Heart School on upper 25th where he went. He would bend over all the way to Wyoming shoveling coal. He told a tale later that even as a 16 year old boy of working with his back bent to shovel coal all the way from Ogden to Evanston and back just almost constantly shoveling coal to get up that grade to that high plateau in Wyoming. It was not the life that any of us would want to live I am sure, to spend back breaking hours to make a living. He was a devoted member of the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineman and Firemen throughout his life and was a lifelong democrat of course, because of the 13 Democrats alliance with the labor unions. He was also one of the shop stewards of the Union Pacific in his later years. He also worked on the old Oregon Shortline Railroad, which was, he fondly would say, "Oregon Shortline," and his eyes would drift off as he thought about it. I guess the Oregon Shortline was, ran from Ogden to Pocatello, if I'm not mistaken, and didn't obviously it didn't go all the way to Oregon. He was the switching engineer which would be, he would build trains by bringing cars from one train and hauling them to join another train and then back and forth all day in the yards of Ogden. He'd go over those yards, and of course today, there's even I guess some activity there, but back in those days the yards were just a hive of energy and the sound of the rails and the squeaking of the iron against iron and you would hear all the noises associated with all that. The station where I went as, this would have been approximately 1955. My grandmother, my California grandmother, my father's mother, would come up from across the Lucin Cutoff across the Great Salt Lake on the Union Pacific from Promontory Point to West Weber and she would, we'd meet her at the Union Station whenever she'd come to visit us. That's where I got to see the Union Station quite a bit as a boy. There would be three or four taxi cabs, several cars coming and going and people were dressed—in those days the women wore gloves and hats and high heels all the time and the men wore business suits and big fedora hats. The railway express, REA railway express agency had a large outlet in the foyer of the station. 14 Just going in to the foyer of the Union Depot was to me, one of the most exciting things of my childhood because I would go in there and look around and seeing people coming and going, people making orders and carrying tickets, porters carrying baggage and porters with red caps on and white uniforms and white jackets. All black men, the only black people I had ever seen at that time in my life were down in the depot. Sorry, I get a little emotional sometimes when I'm talking about these things. I have to take a breath here for a moment. There was a very busy barbershop with an old fashioned striped aprons that, or whatever they called those things that they, smocks, that they would put around people being, having their hair cut. They had the talcum powder brushes and the barber clipping away furiously, and people in a hurry to get on, "I don't want to miss my train," and all those things. The station itself, getting inside was just, it seemed like the biggest building I had ever seen in my life at that time, probably was, and it, the big chandeliers and it was just, in its heyday was just packed with passengers and train schedules and the public address system announcing what was going on. I didn't even know what the people were doing as a boy, I had no concept of what riding a train was because we didn't actually get on the trains, so we never went out on the platforms and so all I saw was just the results of all that. What I observed was a little confusing because I didn't put it together that these people are coming from California or Chicago or wherever it may be. This really was the junction city of the Mountain West and it really was a big deal. It was so sad to see the old down town, as I'm sure you've heard from a 15 lot of people, to see what happened to that wonderful downtown on Washington Boulevard. Again, that's another subject for a book you could write about, Washington Boulevard in its heyday. Beuhler Bingham and B and B Clothiers, the Blue Door and all those fabulous clothing stores and Fred M. Nye that were able, because the economy was so powerful then with Hill Field and the Army Depot and the Naval Supply Depot and all those things, and then the railroad. Everybody was making money and it was sort of the golden age of Ogden. I guess from about the end of World War Two till roughly the time I graduated from Ben Lomond, about 1965, for about those twenty years that downtown district was just thriving. There was Watson and Tanner and 24th street was almost equal to Washington and its level of commercial activity and it was a really nice feeling to the town. There wasn't a lot of crime for the most part, you didn't hear about a lot of—we had, my mother had a friend, Officer Keith Burkdahl, who was a policeman. I remember she got—I guess one of the early beat nicks, there were a handful of beatniks I guess, in Ogden, that maybe were smoking marijuana and this guy hit her at 25th and Monroe. It was at night and he had dark glasses on, and he had sideburns and this would have been 1955 or 56 around the time Elvis was big. We just thought that was so bizarre that this fellow was dressed in this leather jacket and he had sideburns and he had dark glasses on and it's nighttime, you know, why are you wearing—it is kind of odd even now. Keith Burkdahl investigated this because my mother happen to. His wife was a good friend of my mothers and he was a patrolman and so he said, "Yea, we caught 16 this guy and arrested this guy." They finger printed him and everything. I was excited by that. It was, there were some rough characters in Ogden and who knows maybe he was using heroin or something too, or maybe he was associated with 25th street, but we never found out. Whenever I would encounter the Ogden police, I can remember in 1956, the Ogden Police had four brand new blue Fords that they got and they all, they had no markings, anywhere on the car. They were painted, I think, if I remember correctly they were a dark royal blue and they had just about the size of a coffee cup, maybe a large coffee cup, on top was a red, just a red light, and that's all, and a radio antenna, and not anywhere on the car did it say police, anywhere. It just is so funny to look back at that, we'd walk through City Hall Park and of course that was the police station back then. It was in the back of the city hall building, and you'd walk through city hall park and I'd see maybe eight or nine Fords with that bubble light on top, and maybe a couple of unmarked cars. That was the, such as it was, the Ogden police at that time. There's another story, you could do the history of the Ogden Police because they must have some tales to tell if you come across one of the retiree's from the Ogden police or somebody, the son of a police officer, I'd bet you'd get some great stories. Arnie Jacobson might be a good source because his dad. I don't know what became of him, I haven't been in touch with him in years, but his dad, I know was the chief about 1970, they had the police radio in their house because his dad was the chief, so he would hear all the radio calls in Ogden as a 17 boy. You get into some personal information sometimes, but he got run out of the house. LR: Well speaking of growing up, did you ever attend any of the theaters downtown? JV: Yes, the movies? LR: Yes. JV: Yea, we loved the Orpheum, thank you for reminding me. The Orpheum and the Egyptian, but the Orpheum even more so, it was sadly destroyed. The most exciting, fun thing we ever did I think was about 1959 and Ogden was just in its glory days at that time. We, there was a girl next door, Susanne Sylvester, who I had a crush on, and I forget who else. Anyway, we were all about 12 or 13 years old and our parents escorted us, and we got all dressed up and went to, I put on a tie and a sports coat and the girls were dressed up and we just, we just thought that was the most fun we had ever had. We went to the Orpheum and saw a movie, I can't remember what the movie was now. It was just going to the theater down, either the Egyptian or the Orpheum was just one of the special things about that time in life when you are coming of age. I think for almost anyone who was there at that time would remember it well. LR: So is that the theater that had the Popeye Club? JV: I don't know. You know, I don't know about the Popeye Club. Actually when you said that it was the first time I've heard that term. LR: Oh really, okay. JV: I must have missed out. LR: It might have been Paramount. I get my theaters mixed up, I apologize. 18 JV: The Popeye Club, maybe the Paramount was, Popeye Copper Club, Ogden, or Popeye—it says here, I am doing a little web search. I remember the Paramount was where the Paramount Bowl was, is that right? LR: I'm not sure. JV: Where the river, by the river bridge? Where the Ogden sign, is that right? LR: I'm honestly not sure, I thought it was downtown myself. I know the Orpheum and the Egyptian were. I thought the Paramount was too, so. JV: Let's see here, we had a friend who lived right by the Ogden bridge, the Ogden sign, where the Ogden sign in on the east side of Washington. There was this very interesting neighborhood there that reminds, as I got older and look back at it, I thought, "Oh my gosh, that's a lot like big city's back east." It reminded me of, in some ways. I remember the Paramount Bowling alley. When you said Paramount I thought more of a bowling alley then I did of a theater. Then there was a drive in too, and there may have been called the Paramount, there was the Riverdale Drive-in, and there was a drive-in on the south end of town was the Riverdale and going up towards North Ogden was, that Harrisville area there was a drive-in out that way, the North Point Drive- In. The drive-ins, of course, when you're a teenager in those days, it was where all the necking and all that went on. Exciting dates or all the wishful thinking for boys mostly was going on. I know there was a Paramount theater, maybe if I put movie theater, Ogden Utah, my search engine isn't generating a lot right now on that. Let's see, as it opened on the, oh, here it says, "The Paramount theater opened as the 19 Alhambra theater, March 17, 1915 with a concert by the Ogden Tabernacle Choir." There's one reference there, its Cinema treasure. Oh, here we go, 2429 Keisel Avenue. LR: Ah, that's right. JV: Oh, the Alhambra. So here is a, I vaguely remember this photo, I mean this store front. It's located on Keisel, just off of, I think just off 24th, because that looks like the Fred J. Keisel building. LR: Yes, it would have been on the opposite, it would have been closer to 25th. It's actually not there anymore, they tore it down. JV: Yea, I bet it's gone. That's my granddad's era for sure, those old street lights and globe street lights and the old early automobiles. LR: What are some of your favorite memories of downtown Ogden then? JV: Well, to be honest, it was the pretty girls you would see. You would see very, very pretty girls, you'd see dozens of girls that would just you know, traffic stop kind of thing where you'd go, "wow." It was also just the feeling that it was exciting, it was a pleasant city. There was a lunch counter near 25th and Washington, Keeley's Café. You'd go in, it was a bustling café, downtown café—going in and having lunch there. There was also a toy shop near there, and my grandfather doted on me, I was his favorite, out of the five grandchildren I was the oldest one and he liked, I don't know, he and I just bonded and he would take me in as a boy and bought me a pistol set, a cowboy pistol set from this store and I don't know the name. It was a toy store near the Broom hotel and it had just all kinds of cowboy toys all 20 over the walls, and this was a pretty big, pretty large, you know, reasonably large toy store and he bought me this holster and toy gun and toy bullets and I think it was probably one of my happiest moments in childhood. Then going on that date to the Orpheum was another one. The Utah Noodle Parlor was always fun to go to and having the big butterfly shrimp that they still make I think, I think they're still there somewhere. LR: No, they actually closed down. JV: Oh, they closed down? LR: Yea, it hasn't been that long, but Utah Noodle is no more. JV: Oh, that's too bad. That was a great tradition, but I guess Jimmies Flower shop is still there probably. That was a great flower shop. I didn't know the Glassman's, I guess you've come across A L Glassman, the name A L Glassman, but he was the operator of the Orpheum it says. Have you come across the Name Ira Huggins? He was the great attorney, probably the most famous attorney in Ogden. LR: I'm not sure. JV: Ira Huggins was—my mother would speak of him very fondly. I found a URL here, its Cinema Treasures, and it has a lot about the Paramount Theater, 2429 Keisel. This might be a page you want to look at it. It's Cinematreasures.org/theaters/26282, [some of the information that follows come directly from this website.] This is a lot of information I wasn't aware of here about the publisher . Glassman, of course, owned the Standard Examiner and apparently owned this theater also at some point and one of its premier 21 attractions was Cecil B. De Mill, The Ten Commandments. In 1925 it was leased by Public Theaters and renamed Paramount Theater so it started as the Alhambra, I guess. Glassman also owned the Orpheum but he bought the Alhambra in 1923 and then, according to this web site, during the summer months, Orpheum Vaudeville moved to the Alhambra, so they had Vaudeville, wow, now that's very interesting. In 1925 the Alhambra was leased by the Publix Theaters and renamed Paramount Theater, so that's where they got the Paramount. It underwent a complete renovation and seating was reduced to 1900 one of its premier attractions was Ten Commandments. Not the one in the 1950s but the original. By 1927 the theater was under the direction of Brooklyn-born Louis Marcus, who also owned major theaters in Salt Lake, including the Capital and other theaters in Idaho. Fanchon & Marco "Ideas" supplemented the screen attractions at the Paramount. With the demise of the American Theatre in Salt Lake in 1929, the Paramount boasted being Utah's largest theatre. Wow, I didn't know any of this. In 1929 Marcus said he was selling his interest to Publix Theaters and retiring. He was elected mayor of Salt Lake from 32 and served four years and died in 1939. 1934 it came under the ownership of Paramor Theatres who also operated the Orpheum Theatre, Lyceum Theatre and Colonial Theatre. The local Ogden Theatre was an independent. So there is quite a story there of just the theater industry in Ogden. In July of 1954, Paramor Theatres completed renovations which gave it all new seating and a 42' by 21' screen. In time for Christmas 1954, a new marquee and Paramount vertical sign in addition to the Formica snack bar 22 was added to the interior. And that's when "White Christmas" came out with Bing Crosby. So, you'll probably want to look at that website for sure. LR: Yea, I wrote it down so I'll be able to. JV: It's not that much information but it has this one wonderful old photo of the Alhambra. LR: Hmm, that's cool. JV: Yea, also, I would recommend to you to see UCR.edu. LR: Right, I wrote that down too. JV: Yea, and if you can't—that website is a little obtuse—it's something like digital newspaper survey and it's California papers, but remarkably, like I say, especially the San Francisco papers, have lots and lots of Ogden's lore and stories, especially around the time of 1890 to 1930, which would be of great value to anyone doing research at the university there. Then you can form a partnership with the UC Riverside, maybe the two schools could maybe get together on helping each other, because I know that educators always need support and they have to help each other and there is always the threats of budget cuts and things like that. I know he was, that fellow at UC Riverside was saying, "Oh we've got to prove to the regents of the university that we are doing something of value to the community so that they won't shut us down." I wrote, personally when I was a park ranger, wrote a couple of paragraphs saying how much value I've gotten out of it. You're able to, or course with your printer on your computer, you're able to print stories up if you want, or photos. They also have photos too, because you're looking at the actual paper and you can see the old historic ads. 23 LR: Right, that's fun. JV: Yea, it's really fun. You sound like you're a history lover too, so you'd have a field day with that probably. LR: I have two more questions if that's alright JV: It's been a lifelong love for me. ___________ being a park ranger, it was one of the great joys of being a park ranger was being able to give history tours, you know how it's just limited to Alcatraz history, which has quite a colorful history of course. LR: I know it's kind of getting, this has kind of gone long, but I have two more questions if that is ok. JV: Yeah, sure. LR: My first one is, you talked about your grandfather being involved in the Klan in Ogden, do you know much about that? JV: No, he was, I think he was a little ashamed of it. He, I know, it's really unfortunate I can't ask any of these folks any questions or maybe my aunt, who is still alive might know something about it. She lives in Portland, Oregon. I could ask her but she would have been embarrassed about it too. I know that he talked in racial terms about when he would watch the prize fights, Gillette Prize fights on television and he would, there was definitely a palpable racism present when he would—see a black man fighting a white man or something in a Prize fight. The only reason I know about the Klan was that my mother told me that, he didn't tell me himself he was a member of the Klan. I think he was embarrassed. He was certainly not proud of it. 24 I heard, now, I'm trying to place where I heard the recollection by some, probably from my mother, that they had put some burning crosses up on, I think the north east bench, up around, somewhere around where Ben Lomond High stands today. Up on 7th or 7th street, upper 7th street probably or somewhere where it would be seen for miles around or hoped anyway. Just to terrorize the poor black folks a little more, and probably it would have been, I'm sure they didn't like Asians either, or Jews of course. There were a handful of Jewish people too in Ogden so those groups would have been not too thrilled, I'm sure, to see that. I could try and ask Aunt Patty, she's Jennings Olsen's sister by the way, my aunt. He was the professor there at Weber for many years. She may know something about it also, and if you want, I could call you back if I'm able to find out more. The KKK was organized in all 48 states in the 1920s per public television documentary. LR: It's just a curiosity. I will leave that entirely up to you. It was just a—really, someone who was involved, so I wouldn't complain but I don't want you to feel like you have to do that or anything. JV: Well, I'm always willing to help, it's fascinating. What I have found with history and the more you dig, the more interesting it is. LR: Well this is true, I agree. JV: You reminded me of that little neighborhood around the Ogden sign there on the east side of Washington that, I wish I could relive that. Also there was something— I went to visit a friend who lived right there. There was a little alley that shot off of Washington and I think it said Paramount Bowl and it was across 25 from Bigler's Desert Inn, which was an old structure that is no longer there either. We fished in the Ogden river briefly, just once, it only happened once, I went to see him and we fished in the river. It was kind of odd, it seemed like, because here it is almost like in downtown but also almost like out in the country at the same time. It was a really nice little district there that I haven't seen any photos of, but I can picture it in my head as I close my eyes I can see it. There were store fronts right the river and I think a concrete fence or something against the river bank itself, but I'm sure it's all gone now. All that's left is the historic sign there now, but it's fun to reminisce anyway. LR: Well, my last question is this, how has Ogden changed since you were growing up here, do you think? JC: It had that timing, you know, 24th and Washington was the heart of the city and it was the heart of Ogden, it really was like the heart. It was just like a human body has a heart, it was the heart of the city and it was a thriving heartbeat. I remember a young boy yelling, "Standard," and he used to actually hold up the newspaper in his arm and wave it and people would run up and buy a newspaper. It was from the Bon Marché store which was at 22nd to about 26th or 27th along Washington, was just bustling with traffic, excitement. The ladies were dressed in their finest clothes and men were dressed in business suits, and not everyone dressed that way, but it was certainly a thriving place and then along 24th, almost the same scene. It's just sad to see that, well it's happened to many cities; it's not just Ogden, that the core of the city got gutted and changed irreparably. It's too bad 26 that it couldn't have been like what was done with Trolley Square in Salt Lake where they at least maybe changed the buildings, but don't gut every, just don't tear everything completely. The W. T. Grant store was a big deal on 24th and Washington and there was the Kiesel building and the Eccles building and the First Security Bank building and it had this little sky line and it was just, I don't know, it just seemed like a really, really positive. Overall, 25th kind of gave you the vice and a little excitement and drama, which was also kind of fun, and it just kind of was a really nice place to grow up. It sort of represented America, to me. I wrote a little article when I was a boy about it and I took a world book and I followed the outline they used to write about Chicago or New York and I just took every element, and Ogden had it all, in miniscule amounts. It had a little Asian neighborhood, it had a black neighborhood, it had everything in America and it was a, in a microcosm, it was the country. It's sad to a, I'm sorry, LR: It's okay. JV: Makes me feel bad to see that all that is lost. I know there is some of it there still. The Egyptian Theater is still there, but, LR: You're right, most of it is gone. JV: We would get, to go down to Washington Boulevard was a big deal and we would put on our best clothes and we would, yea, it was just a big deal. Even when I started working at the highway department on 17th and Wall or near, just off Wall, at the Utah Highway, Utah Road Commission, we looked forward to driving along Washington Boulevard just for the fun of seeing people on the street and seeing 27 all the excitement that it used to represent. I don't know, it's just, thank you for letting me share all that, and if I can come up with some more goodies I'll certainly call you. Also you're always welcome to call me if you need any more that I can provide, and thanks again for what you are doing. LR: Well, thank you for being so willing to help us out, I appreciate that, and for your stories, they've been wonderful and I appreciate you're willingness to work with us and to do this. We've been on the phone now for almost an hour and 20 minutes so I appreciate your time and your willingness, it means a lot. JV: Well great, Okay Lorrie, keep in touch, and any time I can be of assistance, who knows, maybe your or I or both of us may write books about it, who knows. LR: That would be fun. JV: It's worthy of some good books, I can think of three right now that would be worthy books about that era. But anyway, have a great day. 28

Van Summerill, July 16, 2013 ; Business at the Crossroads - Ogden City is a project to collect oral histories related to changes in the Ogden business district since World War II. From the 1870s to World War II, Ogden was a major railroad town, with nine rail systems. With both east-west and north-south rail lines, business and commercial houses flourished as Ogden became a shipping and commerce hub. ; The following is an oral history interview with Van Summerill. The interview was conducted on July 16, 2013, by Sarah Langsdon. Van discusses his memories of Ogden and 25th Street. ; 34p.; 29cm.; 2 bound transcripts; 4 file folders. 1 videodisc: digital; 4 3/4 in. ; Oral History Program Van Summerill Interviewed by Sarah Langsdon 16 July 2013 Oral History Program Weber State University Stewart Library Ogden, Utah Van Summerill Interviewed by Sarah Langsdon 16 July 2013 Copyright © 2014 by Weber State University, Stewart Library Mission Statement The Oral History Program of the Stewart Library was created to preserve the institutional history of Weber State University and the Davis, Ogden and Weber County communities. By conducting carefully researched, recorded, and transcribed interviews, the Oral History Program creates archival oral histories intended for the widest possible use. Interviews are conducted with the goal of eliciting from each participant a full and accurate account of events. The interviews are transcribed, edited for accuracy and clarity, and reviewed by the interviewees (as available), who are encouraged to augment or correct their spoken words. The reviewed and corrected transcripts are indexed, printed, and bound with photographs and illustrative materials as available. Archival copies are placed in Special Collections. The Stewart Library also houses the original recording so researchers can gain a sense of the interviewee's voice and intonations. Project Description Business at the Crossroads - Ogden City is a project to collect oral histories related to changes in the Ogden business district since World War II. From the 1870s to World War II, Ogden was a major railroad town, with nine rail systems. With both east-west and north-south rail lines, business and commercial houses flourished as Ogden became a shipping and commerce hub. After World War II, the railroad business declined. Some government agencies and businesses related to the defense industry continued to gravitate to Ogden after the war—including the Internal Revenue Regional Center, the Marquardt Corporation, Boeing Corporation, Volvo-White Truck Corporation, Morton-Thiokol, and several other smaller operations. However, the economy became more service oriented, with small businesses developing that appealed to changing demographics, including the growing Hispanic population. ____________________________________ Oral history is a method of collecting historical information through recorded interviews between a narrator with firsthand knowledge of historically significant events and a well-informed interviewer, with the goal of preserving substantive additions to the historical record. Because it is primary material, oral history is not intended to present the final, verified, or complete narrative of events. It is a spoken account. It reflects personal opinion offered by the interviewee in response to questioning, and as such it is partisan, deeply involved, and irreplaceable. ____________________________________ Rights Management Special Collections All literary rights in the manuscript, including the right to publish, are reserved to the Stewart Library of Weber State University. No part of the manuscript may be published without the written permission of the University Librarian. Requests for permission to publish should be addressed to the Administration Office, Stewart Library, Weber State University, Ogden, Utah, 84408. The request should include identification of the specific item and identification of the user. It is recommended that this oral history be cited as follows: Summerill, Van, an oral history by Sarah Langsdon, 16 July 2013 , WSU Stewart Library Oral History Program, Special Collections, Stewart Library, Weber State University, Ogden, UT. iii Van Summerill July 16, 2013 Abstract: The following is an oral history interview with Van Summerill. The interview was conducted on July 16, 2013, by Sarah Langsdon. Van discusses his memories of Ogden and 25th Street. SL: This is Sarah Langsdon and I'm here interviewing Van Summerill about his memories of the theaters in Ogden at his home in Ogden, Utah. It is July 16, 2013. Van, why don't you go ahead and tell us a little bit about when and where you were born? VS: I was born in Ogden, Utah. I've lived here all my life except when I was in basic training for the National Guard and that was at Fort Ord, California and I don't call that living particularly, in the old barracks and such. I was born in the old Dee hospital and lived just a block away from it all my youth on Van Buren just off of 24th Street. So, close to downtown, and close to the Hospital Drug Store that we'd go and get root beer floats and things as kids. SL: Did you have any siblings? VS: Yes, one brother, who's four years younger than I and a sister who's seven years younger. SL: What do you remember about going to the Egyptian Theater as a child? VS: Oh I have very vivid memories. The only thing I don't recall is exactly when I started going. I imagine my parents would have let me go to the kids' shows by myself maybe when I was seven or eight. That would have been about 1949 or 1950. That did two things, it kept us entertained—I'm speaking of my brother 1 when he got old enough to go with me. My sister, I don't remember her ever going to the show with us, because she was much younger and the kids shows at The Egyptian started at 9:30 on Saturday mornings, they were called "Kiddie Shows." Admission was 20 cents and I remember lining up in front of the Egyptian, some days in a lot of fresh, overnight snow. When you were a little kid, it seemed like it took forever to stand in line and work your way up to the box office and finally get in. Of course, we had to buy a soft drink or candy or something before the show started. Then, wow, did we ever have the entertainment. There was always a feature film and serial chapter with a weekly cliff-hanger ending. That's where I was introduced to, "The Little Rascals," the "Our Gang Comedies," "Laurel and Hardy," "The Three Stooges," "Abbott and Costello," to name a few. They had all kinds of short subjects and cartoons and cartoons and cartoons. I remember the big curtain would then come down momentarily and then magically rise again, and the screen had disappeared. I didn't know at the time where it went. Out would come a tall distinguished man, Ted Kirkmeyer, who was the manager of the Egyptian and probably had more influence on my life than, in some ways, than my parents—even my own father. They had contests on the stage and they drew lucky ticket numbers and gave away things such as Hi-C orange juice in cans. The final giveaway was a bicycle each week. I was a shy kid and scared to death that my ticket number would be called and I'd have to go up on stage. It didn't dawn on me at the time that I was the only one that knew what my ticket number was and I could just—if 2 they called it, just ignore it. But, I was always terrified I was going to be called on stage. I always remember Mr. Kirkmeyer would say to the 1,200 youngsters packed in the Egyptian after the drawings, "Now, boys and girls, I have a pin in my hand, it's just a straight pin, and if it's quiet enough in here, if you kids are quiet enough that I can hear this pin drop, we'll have five more cartoons." Well, the place turned into a morgue. I mean, you could hear everybody breathing except the ones holding their breath so they wouldn't make any noise, and he'd drop this pin and then the drama would build. Finally, he would say, "I heard the pin, there's five more cartoons." Well, that was like hitting the jackpot, so on would come the cartoons nearly drowned out by 1,200 appreciative yells and squeals. The Saturday morning Kiddie Matinees were where I watched my favorite cartoon character, Mighty Mouse. Mighty Mouse cartoons were shown at the Egyptian because they were released by 20th Century Fox and the Egyptian was a Fox theater. They also ran RKO Radio Pictures, which meant Walt Disney's cartoons were screened all the time too. That was before Buena Vista Releasing Corporation was formed; before RKO went out of business. The cartoon mainstays were: Pluto, Goofy, Donald, Mickey and Minnie, Mighty Mouse, and Heckle and Jeckle. I remember them well. I was also introduced to some of the great old Vaudevillians; Leon Errol, for one. He made a series of 18 minute short subjects for RKO. Also, a man by the name of Edgar Kennedy, famous for the, "Slow Burn." He also appeared in many Laurel and Hardy movies. 3 I remember one Saturday they showed, "Mighty Joe Young," which was made by the people who created, "King Kong." The stop motion animation was even better than it was in, "King Kong." They made the gorilla smaller, he wasn't as big, but he was still larger than life. I was fascinated by that show. It was basically the same story as, "King Kong," they captured a gorilla and brought him back to America to perform at a night club. He misbehaves, they're after him to kill him because of the danger that he presented to the people. I was just fascinated with the night club movie set. It had a long bar and this thick glass window in back of it. There were lions roaming around back and forth behind the big window. This film sparked this young boy's imagination more than any other. I remember there was a soft drink machine in the lobby. You'd put in, I think 20 cents, and the cup would drop down and then you'd push a flavor button. Well, I made, what I guess you would call a "suicide" because I'd push orange and then I'd push coke and then I'd push root beer and then 7-Up and then back and forth and back and forth. I thought that made the best drink. But my very favorite movie treats were ice cream bon-bons. They were the most expensive of everything the Egyptian sold. I think they were 25 cents for five ice cream bon-bons in an elongated cardboard box. And the thing I remember most about them, it didn't bother me, but the chocolate initially kind of tasted like the cardboard So anyway, I grew up going to the kids' shows and then I started noticing that there were all these announcements coming of Cinema Scope. That would have been in 1953. I remember one day after the kids' show—I always waited out in front of the theater for Dad to come pick me up. He had less than a mile to 4 drive to come and get me, but I knew that the regular movie starting shortly on this particular day was in Cinema Scope, and I wanted to see what it was. So, I just sat in the auditorium and no one came by to make me leave. So, on comes this wide Cinema Scope picture and I thought, "Oh, so that's what this is all about." Pretty soon I was tapped on the shoulder and it was my dad, who had gone around the block, I don't know how many times, and finally had to park the car and come in to see what had happened to me. I remember the remodeling in 1951, it was completed in December that year and it was a very nice job. By 1951, television competition was beginning to devastate attendance numbers at theaters. Fox's solution was to spend millions of dollars on their theaters, update them and redecorate them. They generally did an excellent job on the Egyptian, in spite of painting over some of the original colors, particularly on the lobby ceiling. But I remember going to the Egyptian the first day after the grand opening. I had never paid attention to the old original doors, but I did notice that there were brand new doors. They were all glass in simple aluminum frames, which in retrospect cheapened and clashed with the Egyptian art. To this day, I remember stepping through those doors and smelling the new paint. Looking around, I could tell some areas where they had repainted. Some I wasn't sure, but I knew it was different. The carpet felt as if it was two inches thick, very comfortable and very plush. The stage treatment was awesome. There were two new curtains installed and the front drape was what is called a Venetian curtain that rises in graceful scallops. Immediately behind the Venetian was a blue-gray curtain that opened sideways from the center, which 5 was called a traveler, or title curtain. So the audience never saw a blank screen at the movies. The studio logo would appear on that blue-gray curtain and then it would start to open sideways. At the end of the picture, the projectionist would time it so that just as the fade out on, "The End." That curtain would close again and then the Venetian curtain, gracefully descended. It was a fantastic addition to the Egyptian. SL: Did you go every weekend throughout the entire year or was it mostly summers? VS: No, I think it was generally in the winter and I honestly can't tell you how often, but I know we didn't go every weekend, but went enough that I saw my fill of cartoons and it seemed like I'd come home every Saturday with a headache. But what I used to like to do while I was waiting for my dad to come pick me up was stand out next to the box office. At that time, I was just tall enough to see in the box office side window. I liked to watch the cashier punch the keys on the change machine and watch the coins roll down a narrow trough and into a small dish-shaped container from which the customer could easily retrieve their change. In those days, adult tickets in the evening were 65 cents. Students got in for 50 cents if you had a student discount card and kids were 20 cents. That would have been the same for the Orpheum across the street. The Paramount was cheaper to go to and it was down on Kiesel, almost directly in back of the Egyptian. I think their price for kids was 15 cents anytime. I don't remember exactly what the adult fare was, but it was generally a little cheaper than the Egyptian and the Orpheum because it was considered a second rate theater, as was the Ogden Theater. 6 SL: Van, what do you remember about the former manager of the Egyptian? What was his name? VS: Ted Kirkmeyer was the manager when I was a kid and going to the movies there. He was later promoted to city manager in Salt Lake for Fox. He left Ogden in 1957 and then it was Bill Souttar. But, I kept in touch with Ted right up until his death and then Nellie, his wife, right up until she passed away. They both lived well into their nineties and Nellie told the story, Ted was sitting there listening— he was a very quiet, almost a shy person, when I'd go visit them and so Nellie was doing the talking—but she said that one Saturday morning it snowed the whole time that kids show was going on. It ended and the regular afternoon matinees started at 1:00. It was well after that mid-afternoon that this very upset woman called the theater and asked to speak to the manager and so Ted came on the phone and said, "This is Mr. Kirkmeyer," The woman said, "I'm so upset, my boy spent all his bus money on candy and then had to walk home in the snow storm and he just barely got home." Nellie said that the incident bothered Ted so much all week that he made it a point when he was up on the stage to explain to the audience that next Saturday, which could be as many as 1,200 kids in those days, just what happened to the young man. He said, "Now, boys and girls, I never want you to be in that position and I don't ever want this to happen again to any of you, so if you find yourself in a position where you don't have bus money to get home, my name is Mr. Kirkmeyer, my office is out in the lobby. You come and see me and I'll make sure you have money to ride the bus." 7 Nellie said, "Before Ted could get down off the stage and back out into the lobby, there was a line of kids that formed across the lobby and down the aisle in the theater waiting to collect their money for the bus." She said, "Ted didn't say anything, he indeed passed out whatever it took to ride the bus then—ten cents or whatever it was—to every single one of those kids that was in that line." Ted would never start a show or open the box office until he had a vase with a long-stemmed rose bud in the box office. He was just a class act. In fact, he was awarded the exhibitor of the year, but I think it was in 1938 or 1937, somewhere in there before he came to Ogden to run the Egyptian—I think he was still in Colorado. He was named motion picture exhibitor of the year by Darryl F. Zanuck himself, president of 20th Century Fox. The award was given to Ted in Paris, France. I have a picture of Ted and Zanuck and it's funny because Ted just towers over this little Darryl Zanuck. Ted Kirkmeyer paid attention to details. He had an eye for the ladies as far as having attractive young ladies work in his theaters. I have the pictures to prove it. Theater managers could win cash prizes and even vacations with photographic proof of what they did special to promote movies in their theaters. So, from time to time they would have a photographer come in and document promotion activities. One time, Ted had his staff of young ladies in swimming suits and they were photographed demonstrating ways of fighting fires if one happened to break out in the theater. They are holding fire extinguishers and containers of this and that retardant. It ended up a cheesecake instruction poster to my mind. 8 In 1948, the Miss Ogden Pageant was held in the Egyptian at Ted's urging. Miss Ogden went on to become Miss Utah and represented the state in the Miss America pageant. Ted was a great showman and someone that instilled in me a love of theater buildings. You want to hear about Bill Souttar too? SL: Sure. VS: Ted Kirkmeyer was promoted by Fox Intermountain Theaters to district manager over all Fox theaters in Salt Lake City. Then, out of the Midwest, came Bill Souttar, who was in so many ways, the exact opposite of Ted in management style. He could be bombastic. He seemed to be at his worst when we were the busiest at the theaters. It brought out, I don't know, nerves or something in him, but the way he reacted sometimes to the public, I thought, was amusing. I worked as Mr. Souttar's assistant manager for eight months at the age of 19 and I could always tell when he and Madge, his wife, had a disagreement at home before he came to work. It kind of slopped over, he kind of took it out on the staff. I saw him fire ushers on the spot for chewing gum, for having their hands in their pockets, or for the most grievous sin of all, sneaking popcorn out of the machine and eating it. So, he could be tough to work for, but after I quit as assistant manager at the Egyptian, it wasn't long before I went back as a part-time doorman one or two shifts a week just because I wanted to be in that building and part of that industry. When I went for National Guard basic training in California, Bill Souttar wrote me several times, keeping me informed what was going on at the Egyptian. 9 Eventually, I found myself in a situation where I was a quasi-assistant manager a lot of times. Mr. Souttar went through several assistant managers, so there were occasions in between I would be asked to fill in. I remember one New Year's Eve in particular. The lobby was filling up with people coming for the late show which was to begin about 10:00 p.m. It was timed to start so that somewhere in the movie, just minutes before midnight, the projectionist would insert a countdown to the New Year film clip. Precisely at midnight, the words to, "Auld Lang Syne," would come on the screen for the audience to sing. But anyway, the doorman noticed these two guys coming into the lobby and they were "happy." They were really happy, they had they're arms around each other singing to the top of their lungs and weaving side-to-side on their way to the doorman's stand. This particular doorman was kind of a wimpy guy anyway and didn't want to confront these drunks, so he hurried over to the office door, "Mr. Souttar, Mr. Souttar, come out here quick." So, Bill came out and stopped these guys and said, "Boys you're going to have to go back and get your money refunded because we can't let you in. You're a little bit under the weather, shall we say, and we'll get you a refund." Well, they said, "No, no, we're okay," and started arguing to the point where Bill had to get forceful with them and physically started nudging them back to the box office. About that time, I turned and was looking inside the theater at everybody standing around the concession stand who, in turn, were looking at what was going on with Souttar and these two guys out by the box office. The first thing I knew, I see everybody in unison go, [gasp], and I turned around just in 10 time to see Mr. Souttar's glasses go flying one way and he went flying the other. Well, those guys, I don't know what he said to them, but one of them knocked Bill for a loop. But other than a small cut on his nose, he was okay. It broke his glasses though. The hardest part about that deal for me was trying not to laugh when he came back in the theater. Of course, the staff loved it because, like I said, he was a tough nut to work for and he sometimes tested your ability to love your fellow man, so to speak. So, we're in the lobby kind of, "Hehehehe," and then all of a sudden, this booming voice out of the office, "Van, come in here." I thought, "Oh no, now I really have to control myself." Anyway, I went in the office and Bill says, "You're going to have to count tonight's money because my glasses are broken and I can't see." By the way, Mr. Souttar opted not to press charges against the two drunks. SL: How did you start working at the Egyptian Theater? VS: When I was 19, I must looked like I was about 15. I was in college, but I was downtown for a dentist appointment. After seeing the dentist I thought, "I'll go to a matinee movie." So I bought a ticket to the Egyptian, as I walked in Mr. Souttar saw me. He said, "What are you doing out of school?" I said, "Oh, I had a dentist appointment and decided to come to the movie afterward. I'm out of high school anyway; I'm in college." He'd seen me around and we chatted from time to time. He said, "I've got a position open if you're interested." I asked, "What's that?" Bill said, "Assistant manager." I felt that I would be in seventh heaven having that job and immediately accepted the offer. 11 VS: I was 1962. Candy girls were making 65 cents an hour; the box office girls likely were making about 15 cents more an hour than I was. I figured I was working about 50 hours a week, for 60 dollars. So, I wasn't making a heck of a lot of money but was spending a lot of time in that theater. When you're in the movie business, you work when everybody else plays. I recall an incident that happened at the Egyptian about this time that played out like a movie script. I was in the lobby one day and I just half-noticed a man come up to the box office—nothing unusual about that—then he walked away. Shortly, I noticed two guys at the box office and one of them looked as if he flashed a badge to the cashier. As they walked away, I approached the cashier and asked, "What's going on there?" The cashier said, "That's was the FBI, and they're tailing the person who just was at the box office. I said, "Oh, that one that just walked away/" She nodded. I asked if the suspect was coming back. The cashier told me he bought a ticket to the next show. Within a few minutes, here comes four or five other agents, in the front door and they were stationed all over the theater. They had questioned the cashier, so they knew they had about a half an hour before the next show started, so they got these guys all situated, and I thought, "Woah, this could be exciting." So then, in comes the guy, and goes in the theater and we're just all on pins and needles. This really livened up the night, but if that weren't enough, all of a sudden, we heard sirens coming down Washington Boulevard, and all these fire trucks stopped in front of the Egyptian. I walked out front to see what was going on. Schubach Jewelry Store occupied the north commercial space in the Egyptian building, adjacent to the lobby and the 12 box office. (On the south side was Standard Optical then). Anyway, Schubach Jewelry had this big diamond above their window that was covered with light bulbs that blinked and glittered. One of the guys that was staking out the theater in a car across the street saw that sign catch on fire, so he called the fire department. While I'm standing out front, I notice one particular man. He was just opening his wallet to buy tickets, and a couple of firemen rush by him hauling a hose into the Egyptian. The second fireman has one of those big axes, so this guy is looking at them, then he's looking at his wallet and he's trying to decide whether he's going to buy a ticket under the circumstances. I don't remember whether he bought tickets of not. Anyway, the movie went on and we were all waiting to see what happens next, and the suspect walks out, down the street, obviously being tailed, and that was the end of that. We never found out what was going on. There are always funny stories in theaters, funny things that happen. Mr. Souttar told me this story, and I don't know whether it happened at the Egyptian. He came to Ogden from the Midwest, out of Fox Midwest Theaters to manage the Egyptian. He said one day the custodian came in with a set of false teeth he found in the heater and Souttar told him, "Well, put them in the lost and found box," which he did, and then a couple of days went by and finally a man came in and asked, "Did you find a pair of false teeth in the theater?" Mr. Souttar nodded, "Yes, we did, and I'll have someone get them for you. May I ask how you happened to leave your false teeth here?" He said, "Well, I was watching the 13 movie and my teeth start hurting, so I took them out and put them on the chair next to me." Now, can imagine, something that's going in your mouth, resting on a theater seat next to you? SL: What other movie theaters did you end up working in? VS: The training theater for the Union, (I didn't really have to train very long because I had near-lifetime experience with 16mm film) was The Movie, a little theater built in what had been the Ben Lomond Hotel dining room. It was off of 25th Street. It was a nice room. The Stephens, I think they were brothers, or father and son, had built one of Ogden's first drive-ins, the Mt. Ogden, in 1948, located where the South Ogden Costco is now and K-Mart before that. I don't think there was just one reason why it was decided to move the drive-in. One was that Sears moved in across the street and the parking lot lights were interfering with the picture at the Mt. Ogden. Anyway, the North Star Drive-In, on the old highway to Brigham replaced the Mt. Ogden in about 1960. Then, Stephens ventured into building that little theater in the hotel, but anyway, that was the Union Projectionists training theater. After I was trained in the Union and working the Wilshire in South Ogden and the Northstar Drive-In, I still filled in position there for a while. We were running, "Jeremiah Johnson," I remember and I looked at the picture on the screen and the CinemaScope lens was a little crooked. What happens if you turn that lens just a little bit? It forms a parallelogram, where the two sides are parallel to each other, same thing for top and bottom. But the picture was running slightly uphill. I thought, "I'm going to fix that," so I started messing with that lens and the lens fell out of the projector. Luckily, it fell in the window sill. I quickly 14 checked and it was okay, but I was so nervous and shaking I had difficulty putting it back in its slot. Luckily, there were only a handful of customers in the place. I did most of my projecting work at the Wilshire. It was on Harrison Boulevard in South Ogden and was supposed to be the cornerstone of a mall to be built by John Hinckley, who also owned Hinckley Dodge. They built the theater first, but the mall was never built. I worked Saturday nights, which is unusual for a part-time projectionist to work the busiest night; normally the head projectionist works that night. I enjoyed that shift because it was busy and there were usually a lot of people there. I also worked a little bit at the Orpheum downtown. I'm glad I was able to do that because, of course, it's gone and has been for a long time. I happened to work opening day of Jaws, which of course was the big picture of the year. The place was packed for the first show and the rest of the say, and so I always remember that. The North Star; I didn't much like working the drive-in. I remember coming home from a shift one night and it was getting light. I was as if the sun would come up any minute. In the middle of summer, when your days are long, you have two extra-long movies. They always run the first movie, then the second and then run the first one again. That as one of those nights, so the birds were chirping and I was just getting home. Aaron Farr, our Union's business agent and one of the old timers, told this story: Aaron was a projectionist at the Northstar one night. He kept hearing these strange sounds and couldn't figure out what the heck they were. He decided they were coming from outside the booth. He discovered there was a carload of young guys who were drinking beers and 15 trying to throw the empty beer bottles through the projection room portal. Had they succeeded, the projector could have been damaged. Surprisingly, the Browning Fine Art Auditorium was Union house even though they ran just 16mm rather than the standard 35mm. We used to show travel logs and all kinds of things. I even met the movie star Charleston Heston who augmented his lecture with film clips. I also met the grandson of comedian, W.C. Fields, who showed scenes from his grandfather's films. That projector in the Fine Arts center was a German machine which threaded from the opposite side. It was somewhat confusing. I always panicked when I had to work there just because of the fact that it was such a different machine. SL: Did you ever work at the Ogden? VS: Oh yes. Besides the Egyptian, the Ogden was Peery's other theater. They leased them both to Fox and so it was also under the jurisdiction of Bill Souttar. When you were assistant manager at the Egyptian, you were kind of the manager of the Ogden Theater, which operated mostly on weekends, especially in the summer. Just weekends because the drive-ins killed the downtown theaters in the summer. Fox booked more money on a Sunday running Spanish films than the Egyptian did running first rate, first run movies. Even back then, there were that many transient far workers who labored summers in the area. Sometimes those people would talk, we knew they must be talking about us, but we didn't know for sure what they were saying. Hopefully it was nice. The staff was instructed to always be courteous. One time, I looked in on the screen, it was a Spanish language film of course, but it took place in India. 16 It just struck me so funny; here are all these Indians with turbans on their heads and they're speaking Spanish. The Ogden was a poor stepsister to the Egyptian. The screen had long since ceased to fly in the loft, so it was on wheels. Promoters tried everything in there to make a profit and they'd book either boxing matches or wrestling matches. To tell you the truth, I don't know which. They'd push that screen to the back of the stage and set the mats and ropes in place. Then afterwards, bring the screen back into position. But in moving it back and forth, all the black masking across the bottom became frayed and torn. It was a mess. The old gentleman— Chris—who was a projectionist had come out of retirement to run these Spanish movies. That's all he did. He'd lock himself in that projection booth for the one o'clock show and stay in there all day and run movies. I looked in the auditorium, it was intermission one day. Out of ten or so lights that shined on the stage curtains, four had light bulbs that were working. I remember the curtain motor was out of adjustment, so the curtains stopped about two feet short of closing. You could see the frayed black masking on the bottom, and to top things off, Christ, was playing 45 rpm Spanish records on a 78 rpm record player, resulting in the singer sounding like a Hispanic Minnie Mouse. I remember thinking, "So this is show business, huh?" But I loved that old theater. The Ogden had quite the history. It opened in December of 1909 as a legitimate theater. It wasn't a vaudeville house. It was for traveling plays that came through town. There was a trunk up in one of the dressing rooms there. It was just like you see in the movies—these theatrical trunks with the stickers from all over the 17 country and perhaps the world posted on it. I had half a notion to just go in and take it. I never did. They tore the theater down and I was lamenting to Mr. Souttar one day about that trunk. He says, "Well, why didn't you ask? You could have taken it." Those old theaters have an odor to them, not necessarily a bad one, and a patina to them, unlike new ones and restored ones. I learned to love that smell. The Paramount smelled that way, the Ogden had carpet in front of the concession stand that had been there since probably the forties that had so much soda pop and God knows what else spilled on it, it was glazed over. I mean, you could see the pile and the pattern, but you couldn't move it. It wouldn't move, it was just that solid—like a rock. SL: Where was The Ogden located? VS: The Ogden was located across 25th Street from the Ben Lomond. Well, not quite directly. East of the Ben Lomond where a motel sits now was an old hotel, the Ogden Hotel. It was five or six stories high and it looked like it had a lot of indigent people living there because whenever I glanced that way, there were always older men sitting in chairs in the lobby. When I was in high school, I went to the Ogden every week. They were running American International Pictures, a studio specializing in Schlocky, cheap horror movies and they were always double features. In my film collection, I have an American International Picture called, "Invasion of the Saucerman." It's these little green men, although you don't know they're green because the picture is black and white. When they got agitated, needle-like tubes would come out from 18 under their fingernails and they'd shoot the victim full of alcohol and they'd be drunk—sometimes to the point that they'd die. I remember they even stabbed a cow. Anyway, that was the cheap and silly second feature to go with, "I Was a Teenage Werewolf," which starred Michael Landon. I saw more crap, but at the time, enjoyed it at the Ogden Theater every Saturday afternoon. The Ogden was what they called a move over theater for the Egyptian. For instance, if a certain movie was held over at the Egyptian and there was commitment to bring in a new picture to the Egyptian on a certain date, the old picture—if still profitable—would be moved to the Ogden. The Orpheum did the same with the Paramount. A lot of times you'd open the Friday night paper, the day films often changed, and it'd say, "Held over, moved over." I remember they did that with, "Gypsy," with Natalie Wood. It was playing at the Orpheum for weeks. It moved down to the Paramount and had a successful run there. I remember the year, "The Apartment," won several Academy Awards, as did, "Elmer Gantry." Those pictures hadn't played in theaters for a while; they'd come out earlier that year. The two pictures were so honored, the studio rushed them back out as a double feature. It was the longest double feature I've ever been to in my life, both shows were well over two hours each. But, they looked into the Paramount and mobs of customers showed up. The staff was dumbfounded. They were not prepared to handle that many people. There hadn't been that size crowd in there for years. They had to hurry ushers up to the balcony to dust seats off that hadn't been used for a decade or so. That was an exciting night. I loved seeing all those people in the Paramount. 19 SL: Did you ever meet Harm Peery, when you were working? VS: No, I didn't. I remember that he died; I think I was in junior high maybe. I've got a copy of his obituary in my files, but I can't remember exactly when he died. SL: What would you say your favorite theater was that you worked? VS: Well, no question, for many reasons, the Egyptian, of course, has always been my favorite. As far as working, I so enjoyed the Wilshire. When I first started there it was a single theater, same size as the Egyptian, about 850 seats. Eventually, two two smaller 350 seat theaters were added off the lobby, so they were like spokes off the lobby. There were three separate projection booths all accessed in the lobby, so I got to do a lot of people watching and walking around constantly looking in on each booth. That was when the film platter system came into prominence where the films were all spliced together and laid flat on a great big platter. Sometimes those things didn't work the way they were supposed to. I recall one time, obviously you could only be in one of the booths at any time, in each booth a third of the time, technically, there's no other way about it. The Wilshire had run Barbara Streisand's version of, "A Star is Born," for months. For some reason, that picture was bigger in Utah than anywhere else. I was making my rounds and I walked in the booth where that film was running, and a loose splice, had gone down through the projector and was on its way back to go up on the platter when it split in half. It split the film in half, so when I walked in, instead of a film 35 millimeters wide, there was a little strip about the size of the 16 millimeter winding on the platter and the other half was piling up on the floor 20 about two feet deep. So, with the platter system, all I could do was stop it, discard the split segment, then splice the two halves together, missing about ten minutes of the movie. The Wilshire had just hired a new manager. I don't know why they hired this kid. He was likeable enough, but for whatever reason, he was a lousy manager. He didn't order a replacement reel for several days, if not a week or more. So, people, every show would come out and say, "There's part of this movie missing." The incident that finally got him fired was this: There was a protocol that management had to follow taking the days deposit in the zipper money bag to the bank. You always were accompanied by another staff person. Well, this manager never followed that. At that time there was a temporary bank set up in a mobile home at the edge of the Wilshire property. Somebody obviously had been staking the place out. The manager—alone—was walking over to the bank when a car starts up across the parking lot, and the wheels screech and this car is heading right for him. As the car zoomed up to him, the manager up and threw the bag of money into the open car window. That was the last seen of the money and the last day the young man was employed at the Wilshire. SL: Van, do you have any memories about 25th Street or downtown Ogden, other than the theaters? Any stores you remember going to? VS: Well, the story went like this, and I don't know whether it was true or not. I tend to believe it was true, that Ogden, in the late fifties, was, I don't know what you'd call it, whether it was a test city for fashion, for teenager's fashions, or what, but 21 we had some great clothing stores here. Individual, local stores. I loved the old Penney's building, which sat where that unsightly new Wells Fargo building is at Washington Blvd and 24th Street. That old Penney's building was originally a ZCMI most of its early life, then it was Wright's Department Store and finally Penney's. It was an old, old building and I remember the elevator was operated by a Penney's employee. When first in college, Irene White, a coed of mine, was one of the elevator girls there. I remember looking at the tiny little seat that she had to sit on that ever so slightly protruded from the wall. It was just kind of like a little shelf that must not have been very comfortable. I remember the pneumatic tubes, through which they'd send the cash for change and things, through those pipes all through that place. Then, of course, the code for the telephone. Each station had so many bell rings, "Bing, bing, bing," or whatever. So I remember that. The men's stores, Buehler-Bingham, occupied street-level space of what was then the Eccles Building. There was Block's, Levin's and Fred M. Nye's. I don't know why they tore the Nye's building down, kitty-corner across the street from the Egyptian. That was the nicest store. The downtown mall killed that and the local clothing stores. 25th Street; my dad had stories about 25th Street. Lear Summerill worked for the gas company for 43 years. He started in the Mountain Fuel Supply Company office and retired as District Manager. They would not let the gas men go down 25th Street alone. They'd have to go in pairs. All the stories about 22 underground tunnels everywhere; I have seen no proof whatsoever. Individual basements, were sometimes connected side-by-side with doorways. I have heard there is or was a tunnel that ran under Washington Boulevard between the old First Security Bank building and the Eccles Building, but know of no 25th Street tunnels. I remember one New Year's Eve, when we were kids, two neighbors, and I were playing on the phone and got the crazy idea to call a 25th Street bar. We dialed up the Porters and Waiters Club. My neighbor was on the phone and this woman answered. My neighbor asked, "Could ya'll check to see if my husband's in there?" She said, "Well, honey, what's your husband's name?" "Charles." "Just a minute…Is there a Charles in here?" Luckily, no one named Charles came to the phone. We thought that was the funniest thing that ever was. Now, having learned about the Porters and Waiters Club, and the important role it played in the world of Jazz and all the great musicians and singers who stayed and performed there, I only wish I could have witnessed some of it firsthand. During the 1940's, my parents would park on lower 25th Street to watch the characters who would go up and down that infamous street. My memories are mainly of Washington and "dragging that boulevard" and the drive in restaurants, we would make a turn-around to do it all over again. There was A&W and Mason's, to name a couple. There were other who's names escape me, but I remember most had car-hops. Where Warren's Drive-In is, at Wall Avenue and Riverdale Road, that was Rusty's. KLO was a top 20 station then and a pretty popular station. They set up, 23 right on that corner a broadcast booth. It had big windows all the way around and the big DJ on the weekends was named, "Big Pete." He used to broadcast from that booth out there at Warren's. I always thought he was kind of silly. KLO studios were up in the Ben Lomond Hotel on the seventh floor, I think it was. They'd been there since the forties and a friend of mine knew all these radio personalities there, so we were up there on a Saturday night and I remember going in a room that was the record library with hundreds of 78 rpm from the forties. I know that KLO in the forties had studios both in Salt Lake and Ogden. I was told that when KLO moved out of the hotel, no attempt was made to save that library. There were probably some valuable old records there. SL: How did you get involved in the restoration of the Egyptian Theater? VS: I wrote a "call to arms" letter published in the Standard-Examiner in March of 1985 that resulted in the formation of the Friends of the Egyptian, Inc., which would later become known as the Egyptian Theatre Foundation. This is my 40th year as a member of the Theatre Historical Society of America. Attending their national yearly conventions, I have visited between 800 and 900 theaters across the country and Canada. I had seen many times what would happen to the Egyptian if no attempt was made to save the Ogden's movie palace. It would be destroyed. In 1973, my first year I was a member of the Theatre Historical Society, I was asked to write an article about Peery's Egyptian for publication in their quarterly, "Marquee." And so I did. I had been researching the Egyptian since my high school days. 24 It is amazing how many theaters across the land end up parking lots, here in Ogden too. I knew we were about to get another parking lot. As a long time Theatre Historical Society member, over time, I discovered there usually are predictable signs to the probably fate of these theaters. An ugly fate was becoming a real possibility for the Egyptian. So, I was compelled to write the letter to the editor. The organizing meeting was held in special collections at Weber State in March of 1985. So, it took twelve years to save, raise the necessary funds and restore the Egyptian Theater. The Theatre Historical Society folks approached me about having the convention in Utah. Past conventions had been in Toronto, even London, not to mention, Chicago, San Francisco, Los Angeles, Boston, New York, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Seattle, and now they're coming to Utah. The only way we could line up enough theaters was to tour the northern Utah theaters and then bus through eastern Idaho and western Montana, and end up in Missoula. That's the most busing the society had ever done. I worried about that, but, you know, the scenery was so spectacular the members loved it. Our convention was originally scheduled for 1995, but was postponed twice in order for the Egyptian to be completed. The Utah convention finally took place in 1997. We made it so the Egyptian was the last theater that we visited in Utah before heading north. Our volunteer staff got a standing ovation when all was said and done. SL: What do you remember about some of the other theaters being torn down, since the Egyptian is the only one that's still standing? 25 VS: I remember three of them being torn down. I have some pictures of the Ogden Theater as a pile of rubble. Workers knocked a hole through the side of the Paramount. I took a couple of friends down there one really cold, gloomy February day. I took several minutes of movies in there. That the Orpheum collapsed was no surprise to me. Actually, it was the Orpheum apartments that collapsed which were in front of the Orpheum. The person who owned and was remodeling the Ben Lomond Hotel insisted he had to have an entrance and parking where the apartments and theater were located. It was controversial at the time, debris shoots jutting out from south-side hotel windows. That debris had nowhere to go but on the roof of the five-story high Orpheum Apartments. You pile enough demolition debris on the roof, of course the building is going to collapse. I got a phone call, somebody called me and said, "You've got to get downtown, the Orpheum apartments have collapsed. Upon arriving, the first thing I did was look up at those windows. All those chutes had disappeared inside. I had real mixed feelings about the Orpheum. Everything historic had long been lost and forgotten. There was no record of what that building originally looked like inside. On the other hand, if they saved the Orpheum, I thought, the bigger nightmare would be tearing down that hotel. I really would have liked to have seen the Paramount stay, but I've often asked myself if the Paramount and the Egyptian were both standing, which one would you pick to save? That would have been a tough decision. Ogden couldn't support two historic theaters. SL: How has Ogden changed since you were young? 26 VS: Well, there's no more drinking fountains on the downtown sidewalks as there used to be. It's changed, it has changed so much. When I was in high school, it was a vibrant downtown. It took me a long time to figure out what happened to this town. A major factor was the coming of the freeway. It is my understanding that Eisenhower's main reason for building the freeways was to facilitate moving troops and military equipment around during the Cold War. But what happened when you put the freeway in? Salt Lake City all of a sudden is a half hour closer to Ogden. It killed the railroads and this was a railroad town. All of the businesses that are connected to the railroad, the stock yard and everything else. SL: Well, thank you, Van. I appreciate you taking the time out. VS: Well, you're welcome. 27

Dean W. Hurst ; The Weber and Davis County Communities Oral History Collection include interviews of citizens from several different walks of life. These interviews were conducted by Stewart Library personnel, WeberState University faculty and students, and other members of the community. The histories cover various topics and chronicle the personal everyday life experiences and other recollections regarding the history of the Weber and Davis County areas. ; 78p.; 29cm.; 2 bound transcripts; 4 file folders. 1 sound discs: digital; 4 3/4 in. ; Oral History Program Dean W. Hurst Personal History 13 April 2003 i ii Oral History Program Weber State University Stewart Library Ogden, Utah Dean W. Hurst Personal History 13 April 2003 Copyright © 2013 by Weber State University, Stewart Library iii Mission Statement The Oral History Program of the Stewart Library was created to preserve the institutional history of Weber State University and the Davis, Ogden and Weber County communities. By conducting carefully researched, recorded, and transcribed interviews, the Oral History Program creates archival oral histories intended for the widest possible use. Interviews are conducted with the goal of eliciting from each participant a full and accurate account of events. The interviews are transcribed, edited for accuracy and clarity, and reviewed by the interviewees (as available), who are encouraged to augment or correct their spoken words. The reviewed and corrected transcripts are indexed, printed, and bound with photographs and illustrative materials as available. Archival copies are placed in Special Collections. The Stewart Library also houses the original recording so researchers can gain a sense of the interviewee's voice and intonations. Project Description The Weber and Davis County Communities Oral History Collection includes interviews of citizens from several different walks of life. These interviews were conducted by Stewart Library personnel, Weber State University faculty and students, and other members of the community. The histories date back to the early settlement of North Ogden, and cover various topics including the History of Fort Buenaventura, city government affairs, controversial issues, Latinos in Ogden, personal everyday life experiences and other recollections regarding the history of the Weber and Davis County areas. ____________________________________ Oral history is a method of collecting historical information through recorded interviews between a narrator with firsthand knowledge of historically significant events and a well-informed interviewer, with the goal of preserving substantive additions to the historical record. Because it is primary material, oral history is not intended to present the final, verified, or complete narrative of events. It is a spoken account. It reflects personal opinion offered by the interviewee in response to questioning, and as such it is partisan, deeply involved, and irreplaceable. ____________________________________ Rights Management All literary rights in the manuscript, including the right to publish, are reserved to the Stewart Library of Weber State University. No part of the manuscript may be published without the written permission of the University Librarian. Requests for permission to publish should be addressed to the Administration Office, Stewart Library, Weber State University, Ogden, Utah, 84408. The request should include identification of the specific item and identification of the user. It is recommended that this oral history be cited as follows: Hurst, Dean, a personal history by Dean W. Hurst, 13 April 2003, WSU Stewart Library Oral History Program, University Archives, Stewart Library, Weber State University, Ogden, UT. Dean W. Hurst ca. 1967 1 Abstract: Dean W. Hurst shares his recollections of growing up in Ogden, Utah and his involvement with Weber State College in a personal history interview held on April 13, 2003. Dean's involvement with Weber began as a student before being drafted into the military in February of 1945 and sent to Ft. Douglas where he was trained as a paratrooper assigned to the 517th Airborne. Following his military service, Dean returned to Weber State and became actively involved in the alumni association. In 1967, Dean began his career at Weber State College as the Director of Alumni and Development Director and progressed to the position of Vice President of College Relations. He retired from Weber State University in 1991. Dean shares stories of his childhood as well as his family and friends and the memorable experiences throughout his life. DH: I have found that memories belong to those that have them. Two people who remember the same incident often remember it in different ways. What I'm going to talk about may be a little different than your memories, but allow me the privilege of having them as I remember. I don't remember much about the circumstances of my birth, I have to rely on what Mother told me. I was born on December 4, 1926 in Ogden, Utah delivered by Dr. Merrill. My brother, Farr, was born at the hospital and suffered a somewhat traumatic experience. Mother decided to go the whole nine yards at home as she later did with both Jimmy and Bonnie Lee. At the time, Dad had been burned in a fire, so my birth was particularly difficult in the nature of the birth and the fact that Dad was not expected to live for the first 3 months from the time that he was burned. It happened the day after Thanksgiving and I was born 2 within a week of that time. It was 3 months later that Dad gave me a blessing. He was almost crippled to the point that he couldn't walk, but was able to walk down the aisle at church and give me a church confirmation blessing. Another circumstance that made it difficult for Mom was that Farr had fallen down the basement steps and put his teeth through his lip. Also, Grandmother, who was assisting Mother, had come down with influenza or some terrible sickness and was out of her head telling Mother that we were going to have to amputate Dad's legs and that he was going to die anyway. So, Mother had a screaming baby who was left in another room adjacent to her bedroom. I developed pneumonia and nearly died at that point. Mother told me that I didn't eat and developed what could have turned into the beginning stages of rickets. The family story is that Aunt Annie, who delivered my cousin Jack six months later, ended up nursing me. So, my Aunt Annie was my nurse in the period of time when Mom was sick and didn't have enough milk. We grew up in an area probably as ideal as any person could ever want. I know that there were homes that were bigger or more luxurious, but our home at 2940 Ogden Avenue was utopian for a boy to grow up. It was in the middle of the block between 29th and 30th Street and Washington and Adams. Grandfather Hurst bought a number of pieces of property within the area so there were areas large enough to play games like football and baseball. We had great ball games there. There were a number of trees that we could build tree houses in. There was room to dig undergrounds and we always seemed to have a supply of lumber. I don't know where we got it all, but I do remember taking some out of an 3 old fence. There were old buildings and whatever the situation, there always seemed to be something we could build for any of the undergrounds or tree huts. We had an ideal family relationship with our grandparents. Grandparents Hurst lived just immediately next to our home for a number of years. Aunt Annie and Uncle Herb were across the street. Aunt Lydia and Uncle Earn were just up the street from us too. At one period of time, there was Uncle Leonard and Aunt Floss and Aunt Velma and Uncle Jim. It was like a communal order. I don't remember having a key to the door or a lock. It was kind of an "open house." I've mentioned Aunts and Uncles, but I haven't talked about cousins. There was Jack, Gene, Fern, Lavar, Bob, Shirley, Keith, and Jerry. Later, Jim, Annette and Bonnie came along. I remember a Dutch family that lived in a home that Grandpa built, the Koolmans. We used to take our grass clippings from our lawn to feed their chickens. Harold White lived across the street and was probably my oldest and closest friend up until the time we were teenagers and had begun to differ a little bit in some standards. I had more of a religious inclination than Harold did, but he was a good friend. His younger sister, Carol, is one of Bonnie's closest friends and remains so to this day. It was an ideal place not only for the home, but for our extended family. At Easter, we would go to Little Mountain and roll Easter eggs. (I haven't got the symbolism of that yet because they'd generally break into pieces rolling them down the hill.) A favorite place was East of Ogden, right where the Mt. Ogden Golf Course is now, where we would picnic and barbeque. I had a great time as a child. I remember one Easter we drove out to the sand hills, which was 4 another fun place across the Ogden River next to a place called Salamander Pond. There was a beautiful little glen called Sylvan Hollow. It's totally gone now; you can't even see a remnant of it. They made a garbage dump out of it. A lot of the old scenes of childhood have since gone, but one time we went there on a rainy Easter and ate our Easter eggs in the car. We had great night games in the neighborhood. We'd play, "Run Sheep, Run," "Ice Man," and "Kick-the-Can," with all the neighborhood kids and cousins. Another thing during those depression years that was so much fun was mulligan stew. We would get a gallon bucket and build a fire from whatever we could find from the neighbor's fence or place. We'd get the BB gun and go over to a pigeon loft in an old chicken coop and "plink" off a pigeon or two that we could put in our mulligan stew. It consisted of whatever anybody could bring; an onion, potatoes, carrots, etc. Squab was pretty good, but you don't see it on menus much anymore. Years later, I was talking with a girl that lived adjacent to us named Beverly Shipley and as we commented on the old neighborhood the first thing she said was, "I remember those mulligan stews." I didn't think she'd remember, but she remembered making a fire and putting potatoes in it so they would get blackened husks and you'd rip that open and eat the potato out of it. We had a lot of great times. We were having a little bonfire and roasting marshmallows out in the yard right next to our house. Our oldest cousin, Lavar, was there and his marshmallow caught on fire. Lavar flipped it and the marshmallow hit Gene Swaner in the eye. How he survived childhood I don't understand. He seemed to be on the wrong 5 end of any accident and he had cuts, bruises, and abrasions all over his head, cheek and elbows. It was just accidental, but I can remember that flaming marshmallow hitting him in the eye and it stuck. It was like a ball of hot tar in there. I don't remember how we ever had the capacity to build that tree house in the big box elder tree behind our garage, but it was well-built. It had to be at least 25 feet above ground. It had a deck, a bench, four sides, and a trap door in the middle where you could climb in from the bottom. We even carpeted it. Where in the world did we get the piece of asphalt roofing that we put over the roof? I don't remember where we got all the material. One day, we came home and some wretch had knocked the hut down and pushed it out. We never did know who did it. It was remarkable when I think about how we got up that high, put the pieces in place and built it. Of course, we had carpenter families. We grew up in the radio days before the days of television. We grew up to the strains of, "Who's that little curly locks, the one with all the auburn locks, who can it be? It's Little Orphan Annie," or "Ranfrue of the Mounties." We'd listen to those and have our secret decoder rings. We thrived on the ones later at night, "Myrt & Marge," "I Love a Mystery," and "The Great Gildersleeve." Those were great radio days as I recall. Neither Mother nor Dad had the means to give us special music lessons or anything. Farr had a little bit of a knack for singing and I remember Farr and Fern sang "Santa Lucia." They did well and sang in harmony. I had absolutely no musical talent. Mother taught me readings that she learned from her mother. My 6 favorite readings are probably the ones from Edgar A. Guest such as, "Pa Shaved Off His Whiskers." ("I haven't had such jolly fun for 40,000 years I laughed and laughed until I thought my eyes were running out in tears. There never was a mother's son that had such jolly roaring fun as children have begun since pa shaved off his whiskers.") I remember that particularly well and many other verses because during that time Dad grew a beautiful beard. Bonnie had just been born when Dad shaved off his whiskers and she didn't recognize him. She doesn't remember that, but we sure did. She was used to Dad with a great set of full whiskers and his derby hat on. I went on to learn a whole host of Edgar A. Guest poems that I can't even find copies of anymore. A favorite was, "Little Orphan Annie." ("Little Orphan Annie came to our house to stay, to wash the cups and saucers up and brush the crumbs away and to shoo the chickens…etc.") I had two great loves in my life. As a child, my preoccupation was cowboys. I can remember getting Mom and Dad to drive me down to Wall Avenue where I could see a picture of a cowboy with Levi's on made by Scowcroft's Never Rip Overalls. One of my earliest recollections was Grandmother Hurst made me a little holster to hold a cap gun and Grandmother Salt made me a pair of chaps. I wanted a rocking horse and I remember going to the old Emporium and there was the most beautiful rocking horse. It was a dapple gray with a beautiful black harness with red trim. I wanted that horse and I asked for it from Santa Claus, but I didn't get it. Mother and Dad were so concerned. These were difficult years. We were not poor, but there were tough 7 times. Dad built a rocking horse and I have to say I have felt bad all of my life that I can't remember it. Mother and Dad have described it to me. He made it out of an old log and it had a little saddle in the middle. The rocking horse I do remember was the old rocking chair in the front room. To me, it looked like a horse with the arm rest where I could sit. I made a pair of spurs with rubber elastic tubing and a nail in it. I spurred that horse for 40 miles over hill and dell. I can remember Mom and Dad scolding me about that. Anyway, that was my rocking horse. I also had a great love of drawing and I'd use up reams of paper that Farr had for school. I could be anything in the world that I wanted on paper. I could draw pictures of the army, cowboys, Indians, soldiers, airplanes, and my imagination could just run rampant. I had an imaginary friend whose name was Bim. He was my companion as a young kid. He was the sheriff of the town, I was his side kick and together we rode the range. School and church were very much a part of my childhood years and I can remember Primary and the days that we went and I still remember "SHSK," Spiritual Health Service Knowledge. I can still sing, "Oh we are the boy trail builders…" I did that in church a while ago and had half the congregation singing along with me. I always enjoyed church. I was noisy and disruptive and I had a lot of teachers that would have been happy to kick me out of the class. Grelden Nelson used to bribe me with candy. I remember some really had a hard time with me. I don't believe I was mean, I was just overly energetic. 8 There was one very spiritual thing about my baptism. I was baptized in the old 17th ward. It had a baptismal font. I used to think of this often because I was on the high council at the college stake when Alan Hall was a bishop. His office was built over the old baptismal font. I used to sit in that meeting and remember what, to me as an 8-year-old, was a very spiritual experience. A lot of people say they don't remember their baptism or anything that happened. It was memorable for me. As I was waiting to be baptized, I looked up at the font and saw a dove that illuminated with a neon light. I thought that was really cool. I heard the story about Jesus going into the water and the Father speaking, "This is my beloved son," then having the Holy Ghost descend as a dove. Many years later, I went into that old baptismal font and I wondered what happened to that dove. I asked someone and the person shook his head and said, "There never was, never is, and never has been anything like that." I told that story to a person one time that came up to me after and said, "You had the sign of the dove given to you at that time of baptism." I didn't particularly think of it as a child, but as an adult I thought, "I can accept that." Maybe a skeptic would say that it was just what I thought of in my childlike mind and imagination. To me, it has always been a very real and very personal experience. We enjoyed a host of things as young kids growing up. We could get free buttermilk at the old Cream of Weber Dairy on Adams Avenue. The old Alahambra Theatre was built on Kiesel Avenue. It became the Paramount Theater later, but it was the Alahambra originally. The Lyceum Theater on 25th Street is still there. The Popeye Club at the Paramount was a dime or 15 cents 9 and we could see half a dozen cartoons, two double features and a host of other things. Mother and Dad would send us off on Saturday morning and we wouldn't come back until the evening. We'd get out of the Ogden Theater on 25th Street and stop to get a cold glass of buttermilk free out of the spigot at the old dairy. It was real buttermilk with chunks of butter floating around the ice cold whey. Those are great memories I have. I remember fishing with the families at Bull Run, Lost Creek, and Chalk Creek. We had to put the old Model-T Ford in Rucksel Gear and take it up in reverse because it didn't have enough power to get up the steep hills. I loved the outdoors. I remember a lot of hiking with cousins and fishing with uncles and Dad, who was always the champion fisherman. One time, Uncle Herb and Dad came back and Uncle Herb had one more fish than Dad, so Dad took his fishing pole out to the river to catch one more fish just to catch up. There were always those kinds of fun competitions. We would hike up to Malan's Peak or Waterfall Canyon which was one of our favorites. We hiked to Mt. Ogden Peak and I think that got us some training for later hikes to Ben Lomond when Mother and Dad were taking care of the girls' camp in North Fork Canyon. I was exposed to work early. We would chop firewood for the stove and at one time we had to paint the house. I don't know how good a job we did. Ours was a lovely home even though it was small. Aunt Lydia and Uncle Earn lived there at one time when they were finishing their home. Uncle Herb and Annie also lived there once. Including their family and ours, there would have been 12 people living there at one time with one bathroom upstairs and very limited water 10 sources. We laughed about the fact now that we were on a septic tank and many times had to use other means. In that time, people just didn't bathe more than once a week. We just didn't have the water. We didn't have an indoor toilet until I was 9 or 10-years-old. I remember well the births of my younger sister and brother. I remember praying so hard for a sister. She was an answer to our prayer. Following each of their births, I was shocked to see my brother and sister for the first time when their eyes were totally blackened with silver nitrate. It used to be put in the eyes of all the children as prevention for venereal disease. It was mandated by law at that time. Their eyes were just an absolute black like they had put charcoal in them. I enjoyed school. I remember going to school the first time and Farr showed me the ropes. Mother started me a little early, which I don't think was that good for me. She thought I was ready for school, but it put me almost a year behind in growth so I was smaller than most of the kids. If you look at my class pictures, particularly through junior high school, I was much smaller and it made it difficult for competing in school and athletic events. There was a stigma about being six to eight months younger than the girls in my class. I don't think I was as sharp mentally either. She did it because she thought I was ready. I think she wanted to get me out of the house. I struggled in some classes in school though. I really suffered thinking I must have been dumb because I had a hard time with algebra. It was easier for me to just freehand geometry than to try to figure out all the angles and curves. I really struggled. I had a teacher in the 5th grade named 11 Mary Jensen. She recognized in me a certain talent for art. I began to feel I had something that made me as good as the rest of the kids. I was recognized along with Beverly Shipley as the best artist in the 5th grade. That kind of carried me through a number of classes. I also followed up with a lot of drama for which I had a natural inclination. When I was four or five years of age, Mom and Dad needed a child to be in a play they were in. It was a story about a kidnapped child and I was to be the kidnapped child. I didn't have to say anything. After they brought me on, the dialogue went on for three acts and to show my total dramatic ability, I went to sleep. I slept through the entire performance. At the end, I was supposed to wake up and run to Momma when she came in. I didn't wake up for my dramatic scene. I slept right through it. I gave readings of the poems that Mother taught me earlier in my childhood all over the city. I remember Mother taking me to MIA's, competitions, road shows and any number of shows while I did my bit. I remember doing readings of: "Castor Oil of all the Nasty Stuff," "Gee Whiz, That is the Very Worst There Is," "Pa Shaved Off His Whiskers," and "Ma Fixes Things." Those poems carried me through until my junior high school days when I really got into more heavy poems. They had contests at the city schools. I did a reading of, "Penrod and Sam," which was a classic. Penrod's friend, Sam, was tongue-tied, so Mrs. Dobbs taught me how to be tongue-tied by rolling an elastic band on my tongue. I did the reading of "Penrod and Sam" and won a contest as well as, "Willis McPrang," and "Cleaning His Garage." The poem that took me from beginner to 12 stellar was Alfred Noyse's, "The Highway Man." I won a local contest with that and it was one of Mother's favorites. My first date was with a pretty girl named Betty Dawn Agey. I think that was in the eighth grade. The Ageys lived right next to Grandma and Grandpa Salt on 30th Street. It was just one of those dates where we went to a school party. My first serious date was with a girl named Carol Moyes. I was student body president and I finally had the guts to ask a pretty girl to a dance. She remains a very special friend to this day. She's lost her husband and occasionally we'll meet. Carol Moyes was the first girl I ever kissed. When I was 15-years-old, a number of big things happened in life. I was going to rehearse for a school play and they announced that Pearl Harbor had been bombed. In that same spectrum of time, I went to work at Lowe's Hardware because the men had all gone to war and they were hiring kids at just 15-years-old. I was doing a man's work and worked there for a period of time before going to work for Tanner's clothing store. During the war, I worked at the Naval Supply Depot. I met Laurence Burton at Ogden High School. He had a great impact on my life. He was a very popular guy in school and we were in the school play together. We wrote a little take off of Hamlet called, "Hamlet: Prince of Denmark." We put it on in high school and had Mrs. Chambers help us with it. Laurence and I became very close friends in high school and into college. I went to college at Weber while I was waiting to be drafted. My birthday was December 4th and I graduated from Ogden High School in June of 1944. I worked at the supply depot in the summer while waiting to go in the military. I 13 took classes in aerodynamics, theory of flight, learned about pseudoadiobatic charts in preparation for the Army Air Force Cadet program. You could join when you were 17 and when you turned 18 you automatically went into flight school. The war was beginning to wind up at the beginning of that time and others who had gone in a little bit before me were put in gunnery school. I wanted to fly. Laurence and I got out of the program and tried to go into the Navy. I passed the first battery of tests and went on to the physical tests and found out that my eyes were not good enough. So, I was out of the Air Force, Army and the Navy. My cousin, Dick Salt, had the idea to go into the Merchant Marines, so I joined and prior to leaving I double checked with my draft board and they said, "Dean, your draft notice will be in the mail by December 5th, the day after your birthday and they'll take you out of the Merchant Marines." I got out of the Merchant Marines and my actual draft notice didn't come until February. It ended up being a blessing in disguise because the guys that went into the Merchant Marines were drafted back into military service when they came home. I left in March and went to Ft. Douglas. I volunteered for the Marines, but the quota was full. I tried to get into the Navy and there was no opening there. The only option left was the infantry and I thought, "Anything but the plain infantry." I remembered seeing a fellow walking down the street with jump boots and the Airborne patch on his shoulder and thought, "That's cool." So, I volunteered for the paratroops. I went through basic training at Camp Maxey in Texas. I was an acting sergeant all through infantry basic and an expert infantryman which was the highest honor you could get at that time. I was very 14 serious. I wanted to be a good soldier and I wanted to save my life. I figured the harder I worked, the better prepared I would be for the jump school. I knew it was going to be hard and wanted to succeed. My original group of trainees went overseas and ended up in the last campaigns in Okinawa. In later years, I talked to a couple of the guys in my outfit that had seen action. Two of the fellows that I knew had been killed in Okinawa. I met a paratrooper walking up the street and I went up to him and said, "Hey, I joined the paratroopers too." He said, "You dumb son of a.," I found out that he was an old shot up veteran who had been in combat. He must have been with the 11th Airborne. He was probably hurt in one of the jumps there. When I learned the quota for jump school was full, I thought that I wouldn't be going. One of my sergeants pulled strings and got me in and only three of us in that whole group ended up going to the paratroops. It turned out great. The period of time I spent in training gave me a chance to develop some real challenges physically. The most frightening thing in jump school at Fort Benning, Georgia was jumping from the 275 foot towers. They pulled us up, hit a release and the parachute dropped. I'll never forget the older troopers singing, "There was blood upon the risers, there was brains upon the chute." I thought, "I'll go through training to prove I can do it. I just won't jump." I went through all of the stages, packed the chutes and learned everything. When the first jump came I thought, "If I don't feel like it, I won't go." I looked up and there was a fellow still standing there and the jump master said, "What's the matter soldier?" He said, "Well, I don't think I'll jump." The jump master said, "I think you better jump and then if 15 you don't want to anymore you don't have to." He said, "I've never been up 1,500 feet in the air and that doesn't stop me from being scared." The jump master said, "You're going to jump." He grabbed him, turned him around and threw him out the door. I looked out the window as he went out and he was like a cat just flailing around. I thought, "Well, I guess I'll jump." So I did. I was assigned to the 517th Airborne. The war ended while we were making a practice jump. We were training for an invasion of Japan and we were making a night simulated combat jump when they announced the atomic bomb was dropped. We knew that the official surrender hadn't been signed, but the war was over. That night, Johnny Barnes, who slept above me, was killed on a night jump. It was just one of those accidents that happen in the Airborne. I had a lot of fun in the service and had some good friends. I was a member of the honor guard. We paraded in Philadelphia, Boston and probably one of the highlights of my Army career was being in the New York World War II victory parade. The 82nd was chosen to be the honor guard for that. We paraded all the way up to 5th Avenue under a confetti parade. It was a great thrill. The whole town came out for us and it was a marvelous experience. I met a fellow by the name of Bob Curran while I was in the service. Bob was a paratrooper who had made the Rhine jump in the 17th Airborne. We became good friends and he became interested in the L.D.S. church. He had a dog named Trooper and we felt we should make him a fully qualified parachutist, so I jumped with him. I dang near killed myself in that jump because I was coming in frontwards and I was afraid the bag with the dog had pulled out from the opening of the parachute and 16 was right over my knees. I was afraid that in my landing position I'd drive my knees and squash the dog, so I reversed myself with the risers facing backward which is the worst position. I came in and there was no way of flexing anything. I hit heels, butt and head as the bag smacked me in the face. I heard the dog make one little yelp. It knocked me out for a minute and when I came to I opened the bag and that dog looked dead as could be and I thought, "Oh boy, I killed the dog." Then it shook its head and opened its eyes. There was a Catholic kid from Philadelphia named Bob Titus, and the last jump I made in the service he and I jumped together. He was a bit of a nut and totally opposite from me. He was a bit of a drinker, a smoker, a party guy, and a staunch Catholic. We just had some other things in common and we were good friends. I didn't see him again for years and one day while I was working at Hill Air Force base, there was a phone call and they said, "Is this the Dean Hurst who was in the 82nd Airborne Division?" I said, "Yes." He said, "This is Bob "Catholic" Titus, I just flew in and I wondered if I could come by." Bob had stayed in the service, went to flight school and was flying P-51's. He had been shot down over Korea. He had just landed at Hill Air Force Base. We had a fun get-together. We talked and laughed about the old days and I was really impressed. Thirty years later, I was at home and the phone rang and he said, "Is this the Dean Hurst that was in the 82nd Airborne Division?" I said, "Yes." He said, "This is General Titus." Bob Titus became one of the most highly decorated generals and was a Wing commander in Vietnam. I have yet to talk to an Air Force man that doesn't know of Bob Titus. He was at the end of his career at the 17 academy in Colorado Springs and he was doing some consulting at Hill AFB and brought his wife. She was a sweet lady. Carol and I took them to dinner and we began to correspond and send Christmas cards. One year, I didn't hear from him, so the next time I saw the General at Hill I asked, "What do you hear from Bob Titus?" He said, "You didn't hear? He died suddenly one year ago." He was a heavy smoker. Who would think that a relationship as divergent as that was would exist? That was just one of the great military experiences I had. I came back from the military and went to Weber College. I was very active as yearbook editor. Laurence and I developed a little routine called, "The Act," in which we did a song and dance routine. We put that on all over the place and had a great time. I met a girl I fell "desperately in love" with named, LouJean Sneddon. Unfortunately, she didn't fall as hard for me as I fell for her. That was another one of those blessings in disguise. I chose to go on an L.D.S. mission. I had been interviewed for a mission before with the bishop and I told him I felt I'd already served a mission. Later, I met a friend by the name of Don Belnap and he told me he had just accepted a mission call. I don't know why we make our minds up at certain times, but I knew right then that's what I should do. I was interviewed by elder Mark Peterson. I was very close with a group of Hawaiian kids in infantry basic, so when they asked where I wanted to go on the mission I said, "I'd like to go to Hawaii, but I'll go wherever I'm called." When my mission call came, it was to the Central Pacific Mission. I found out the headquarters was in Honolulu and of course that delighted me. When I'd left the Hawaiian kids after basic I said, "One day, I'll come and see you." The word spread and I bumped 18 into two or three of the guys. I still call a Hawaiian kid named Samuel Kaupuiki, who lives on Lanai and keeps me up with what happened after I left basic training. When I returned from my mission, I continued my schooling in art at the University of Utah and studied with some great teachers. My G.I. Bill ran out and I dropped out of school thinking it was going to be just for that summer. I went to Hill Air Force Base to be interviewed for a temporary summer job and found out there was an art job open which had some great opportunities. I took that job and ended up making it a career. I didn't go back to school until later when I took some additional classes at night school. I was very active in the alumni association both at Ogden High and Weber College. I became very active in the association in 1952 and that has never ended as far as involvement with Weber State. I was working at Hill Air Force Base when a good friend, Rulon Garfield, introduced me to Carol Watkins on blind date. I had just bought a beautiful new car. My first car was a little 1930 Model A Ford that I bought for 35 dollars. It had been used as a chicken coup, so I had to take the entire interior out and fix it up. I sold that first car for 100 dollars and then bought a 1932 Ford Coupe with a rumble seat. I painted it, fixed it up and sold it for 200 dollars and bought a 1939 Ford. Later, I traded it for a 1951 Ford Victoria with a continental kit on it. Carol though it was a Cadillac and I thought any girl that thought a Ford was a Cadillac was my kind of girl. I never dated another girl. I can't say the same about Carol not dating another fellow, but she was much younger and was attending school 19 at Utah State and I courted her while she was in college. We got married a year later and had our first child nine months later. Carol had gone from queen of the school and Miss Utah State to diapering babies nine months later. It was difficult to go through that transition. We lived in grandparent Watkins basement where Kevin was born and were there a short period of time while we were building a little home on Maple Drive. Dad and I built it and I did a lot of the work on that myself. I left Hill AFB at that time and began working for Pierson, Kearney and Hurst, an advertising and art agency. I'd been in an advertising agency that "Pony" Halverson and I started called Halverson Hurst Advertising and Art Agency. I was working five jobs. I was also working for Tanner's for Men, at the Cal Pack with Wes and Jack Swarner and doing freelance artwork on the side, so life was pretty busy. I probably didn't do any of them as well as I should have, but I worked really hard during that time. We built a little home on Maple Drive and lived there for nine years. We built it for $12,000 and sold it for $17,000. I worked for Pierson, Kearney and Hurst for 13 or 14 years and loved my time there, but after my 40th birthday I had an impression in the middle of the night that I should contact Weber College. I didn't know why and I thought when I'd wake up in the morning that impression would be gone. I put it off for a period of time, but then I called the college and oddly enough, President Miller answered the phone. I said, "President Miller, I don't really know why I'm calling you. Is there any kind of job up there that I could be doing?" He said, "Well, it's interesting that you'd call. There is a job that we are in the process of finalizing 20 and your name came up, but we didn't think we could hire you away." I said, "Well, what is it?" He said, "It is the Director of Alumni and Development Director." I didn't know a lot about that, but I knew Weber and a lot of people in the city. I said, "What are you offering?" He gave me a figure and I said, "I will never take a job for less than what I'm making. If you could make that a little bit higher, I'd be interested." He said, "I can't offer you the job, but you would certainly be a candidate at that price." I interviewed the following day, was offered the job and that started my career at Weber State. I took the job in January of 1967 and retired in 1991. I went from Executive Director of Alumni to the Director of College Relations and later Assistant to the President and then Vice President of College Relations. In that capacity, I had alumni, fundraising, public relations, development, the athletic program, the director of the Dee Events Center, the Director of the Browning Center and campus security. Elizabeth Dee Shaw knew my mother and lived in the old 10th Ward. The Dee's and the Barker's and their families lived there on the other end of town. They were entrepreneurs along the likes of David Eccles. Thomas "Grandpa" Dee had developed several businesses and a number of other enterprises. His granddaughter, Elizabeth, had inherited a considerable amount of money. She married a man named Donnell Stewart and they had no children. They kind of adopted us as a result of me serving as bishop. I interviewed them for a mission and we became very close. We traveled with them extensively through Asia and Europe. Donnell sponsored me in the Rotary Club of Ogden in which I've been very active. 21 Elizabeth and Donnell gave millions of dollars to Weber and I was instrumental in setting up a number of trusts that focused money from that source into the university and community and have served on those foundations since. We've since poured millions of dollars into the community and another 50 million to Weber. In addition to the opportunity of raising money, I met a lot of great people. I was on a first name basis with Val Browning. He was a marvelous guy who was a million dollar donor several times over. J. Willard Marriott Sr. was another great guy. I went to school with his son, Bill Marriott, at the University of Utah. I went to Mr. Marriott's home in Maryland to pick up a check for a million dollars. I knocked on the door and he answered the door himself. It impressed me that there was no security. He answered the door in a sweater with a sleeve that was broken out in the elbow. He was very unpretentious. He and his wife were just salt of the Earth people. The Eccles' family was also great. I met people like David Kennedy who was the secretary to the treasury. I had dinner with Charleston Heston, Edgar Bergan, Shirley Chisom, John Wooden, Elliott Richardson, and Gordon Liddy. The students would have them come as speakers and would wisely ask someone to go along with them to make sure the proper protocol was maintained. All of those were marvelous opportunities. The one who stood out as the celebrity that I enjoyed the most was Neil Armstrong. During the schools' Centennial Celebration I had the opportunity to meet him at the airport and drove him to the Marriott Hotel in Ogden. Following his remarks at commencement, I drove him back to the airport and had a chance to visit with him one-on-one. 22 The period of time I served as Bishop from 1969 to 1972 was probably the most difficult period of time in our marriage. I think it was a result of a number of things. It was a transition period for me at work and as bishop. It was a tough time and I mention that because I think we outgrew it and boating helped. Carol had never had a great opportunity of camping like we had as kids, and we didn't have a lot in common. The outdoor adventures that I loved weren't of interest to her and it took a toll on us a little bit. She became very active in music, which I admit I resented. I wanted total time and effort and acceptance and everything that went along with it. The boating helped give us something in common. She turned into a heck of a boater. She could cook up meals and our boating experience really helped us heal. I loved Lake Powell and some of the fondest memories I'll ever have are the times we shared with the family. All of you here know that same love we had for Lake Powell and I've had my boat on Jackson Lake, Flaming Gorge and Willard Bay. Those were great times. We traveled extensively. We went to Asia we went to China, Japan, New Zealand, Australia, Bali, and the Philippines. Later, I went with the Rotary conventions to Holland, Germany, France, Luxemburg and all over England. We had a marvelous time with friends traveling to England. We traveled to Mexico where we all got the "Montezuma's Revenge." We had some tremendous experiences there. Tahiti had always been a dream because I remember as a kid, Rudean Allred had gone to Tahiti and the idea of going to Tahiti was always a dream. I ended up getting a couple of weeks there and Carol didn't want to go. 23 She lacked the desire to go, so I went with my son, Kevin. We had a great time there. I've had a few strange illnesses, I had a burst appendix and one time, I fell out of a tree and dislocated my shoulder. I had a kidney stone on Memorial Day that I will never forget, bypass surgery with five coronary bypasses and in Hawaii on the anniversary date of my open heart surgery ended up with an upper GI obstruction and had to go to the hospital at 2:00 in the morning after a 911 call by my wife. That was a challenge to be in a strange city and to get me there. We finally got that straightened out. I had cataract surgery and wear hearing aids that don't work. We've been pretty much through the gamut. I am also a cancer survivor, but that's another story. I want to conclude by telling two or three of the miracles in my life and I'm sure that there are many more. I don't think any of us are aware when angels protect us. I think of Mother saying, "Don't climb the cliffs at the waterfall," and we climbed the cliffs. I remember hitting a piece of dynamite with a hammer to see what would happen. I would jump off the chicken coops with a parachute made out of a bedspread and I can't imagine why I didn't break anything. I think when the roll is called up yonder; we can look back in time and see some of the things where it was only through divine intervention that we survived. I wanted to mention this and one other thing in closing. I always felt like I wasn't the best dad. I think back and I remember spanking one of the kids and I don't even remember what it was over, but I remember my hand print on the little bare bottom and it hurts me to even think about it now. It's bothered me and I 24 don't recall ever spanking the kids when I felt it wasn't justified. I really appreciated Boyd Packer's talk about grandparents. I think I am a better grandparent than a dad. I really love my grandkids, we only have six grandkids, but I love them with all my heart. Some of them have special needs and different challenges, but I made up my mind that I was going to be a good grandpa and other than times of discipline, I've really enjoyed them. I've been more of a companion and played with them when they were younger. They're growing up to be teenagers now and I'm having a tough time because I can't get down to that same level. I like to think that I was a good grandpa. I wanted to tell another story that was a foundation to my testimony. I was on my mission and I hadn't been out too long. I was a little discouraged and hadn't received a letter from home for a long while. I had been working hard with little success and we tracked down to a home one time and knocked on the door and a little Japanese woman came to the door and we introduced ourselves. She suddenly went hysterical and started to cry and weep inconsolably. The more we tried to find out what was wrong, the harder she wept. We had been invited into the home and sat down when she started to cry. It bothered us so much that we finally just had to get up and walk out. Later, I called Sister Okimoto, who was a member of the church and didn't live too far from this woman. I said, "We don't know what happened, we didn't want to offend her." Sister Okimoto went and visited her. She met us later and said, "This woman had been very concerned over which church to join and had just knelt down and prayed that she might know which church to join when there was a knock at the door and she opened it 25 up and there were two Mormon missionaries." That was really impressive to me. I was transferred out of that area and I don't know whether she ever did join the church or not. Another experience I had on my mission was a lesson that wasn't so much the testimony of seeing a miracle as much as a testimony of faith and unity. On New Year's Day, we were having a district president's convention and President Weig asked an old Hawaiian fisherman if we could help him with his Hukilau. It was a tradition for him to take his nets out and the fish he caught on New Year's Day was his tithing for the prior year. That was how he paid it. There were ten or twelve of us and it turned out to be a boisterous sea and the waves were very high. Some of the missionaries didn't want to go out, so Brother Kalili said, "If you don't have the unity and the faith that we could go out and succeed, I won't do it." We all went away and prayed about it and when we had the impression that we were all together we went back and told him that. He said, "If you are united, we will do it." We took the nets out and I was assigned to go out and keep the nets off the coral. As we were pulling the nets in, I began to see what I thought were sharks. As we got to shore, the net began to catch on some big boulders and I'd go down to see what they were and all of a sudden a big head came out. It was a huge sea turtle. The word got out that we caught a mess of fish that was too heavy to pull in. There was over 100 yards of netting extending out in the ocean. All of a sudden, the native villagers all came out and helped the elders pull the nets to shore. We had caught four sea turtles, which in that time were in high demand. The Japanese and the Chinese would eat them, 26 but the Hawaiians would not. Those represented a major source of income in addition to a ton of fish that we caught in those nets. We couldn't even pull them all in. It was a miracle in the understanding that unity and faith are inseparable and there was a lesson taught. That event has gone down in the history. If you go to any of the older people in Laie, they remember that event. All the missionaries were invited to the next Hukilau. I want to tell one other quick story. When we were living on Washington and 36th Street, Carol was teaching piano to a little girl named Mary Kimball who had a twin brother named Tommy. They lived across the street and they were an inactive L.D.S. family. Tommy came over to the house one day and said, "Mrs. Hurst, come quick. I just shot Mary." Carol went over to find the scene, which was horrific. There was little Mary lying in a pool of blood on the kitchen floor. Her brother had played with a rifle that the father had borrowed to go deer hunting. He chambered a round and accidently fired it. The bullet went through her wrist, struck her abdomen and disemboweled her. Pieces of her intestine and stomach were all over the kitchen wall. Mary was totally conscious laying there and said to Carol, "Mrs. Hurst, don't let me die. Please don't let me die." Carol called the ambulance and at first they went by and she thought, "They're not going to stop," but they backed up. They came in, picked up her insides, put them back in the cavity of her stomach, covered her with gauze and took her to the hospital. No one expected her to live. She did barely survive and about a week later her mother called and asked, "Would you come and give a prayer for Mary?" I called Carol's father and 27 we went up to the hospital where her mother went in first and came out crying. She said, "I don't know whether we should do this. She is in so much pain. I don't know whether I want to prolong it." I said, "Bernice, do you want her to live or not?" She said, "I want her to live." I said, "We will administer to her." So we administered to her and Eddis anointed her and I sealed the anointing. I can see the scene in my mind's eye as clear today as it was then with the blessing I delivered. Here was this little child in a semi-reclining position in the bed and there was no part of her body that didn't have a tube or a wire or something in it. She just looked like a specimen stuck on a board and she was unconscious. I gave her a blessing and felt prompted to give her a blessing of health and strength, but the unusual thing that I said was that she would not only live, but that she would be a mother. I finished saying that, sealed the blessing and as I walked out the door, I turned to Brother Watkins and said, "I don't know why I said that." Well, she lived and went through many operations. She had a plastic tummy and I remember I was working at Tanner's Store when the nurse came in and said, "Mary had her first BM." That was a sign that Mary was functioning and her body was working. I waited for another 12 years as she went on to survive. She was homecoming queen at Weber College and a beautiful little blonde lady. Later, she was married. One day, I picked up the paper and read that Mary had just delivered a child. She had three children. They later said that the odd thing about that wound was that it tore her stomach up, but it didn't touch her female organs. 28 In conclusion, all of those are factors in that I have been blessed all my life with the testimony that I know that God lives and Jesus is the Christ. I appreciate my membership in the church because I don't know that I would have had the temperament to join had I not been born in the gospel. I have been eternally grateful that I was privileged to be born into a family that taught me those gospel principles. I have enjoyed, loved, appreciate and testify and do so in the name of Jesus Christ whose resurrection and atonement I value and appreciate so much, and do so in His name, Amen.

VON TANNENBERG BIS HELLINGFORS. POLEN. RUMÄNIEN. VON DEN KARPATHEN ZUM KAUKASUS. DIE SERBISCHE-MAZEDONISCHE FRONT. ITALIENFRONT. DER ORIENT Die unsterbliche Landschaft (-) Von Tannenberg bis Hellingfors. Polen. Rumänien. Von den Karpathen zum Kaukasus. Die serbische-mazedonische Front. Italienfront. Der Orient (I. / 1935) ( - ) Einband ( - ) Titelseite ( - ) Impressum ( - ) Von Tannenberg bis Helfingfors ( - ) Vorwort ([1]) Ostpreußen (1) [2 Abb.]: (1)Das Wahrzeichen des deutschen Ostens, die Marienburg, im 14. Jahrhundert als Sitz des Hochmeisters erbaut. (2)Landschaft aus dem nördlichen Ostpreußen, Gegend Gumbinnen, dem Schauplatz der ersten Kämpfe an der Ostfront. (1) [2 Abb.]: (1)Schloß und Dom Marienwerder. (2)Das Ordensschloß Heilsberg. - Beide Burgen wurden bereits um die Mitte des 13. Jahrhunderts erbaut. (2) [2 Abb.]: Das mit ausgedehnten Wäldern bedeckte Seengebiet im Süden und Südosten des Landes wurde der Schauplatz der großen Schlachten in Ostpreußen. (3) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ostpreußisches Dorf. (2)Auch in der Landeshauptstadt Königsberg erinnert der 1333 ursprünglich als Wehrkirche erbaute Dom an die große Kampfzeit des Ordens. (4) Der Russeneinfall / Tannenberg (5) [2 Abb.]: Alarm! (5) [3 Abb.]: Die nach Westen führenden Straßen waren bedeckt mit Flüchtlingen, die ihr Vieh und auf hochbeladenen Wagen ihre bewegliche Habe mit sich führten. (6) [2 Abb.]: Ostpreußen sollte geräumt werden! Die Truppen traten den Rückmarsch zur Weichsel an. (7) [2 Abb.]: (1)Hindenburg beobachtet auf dem Schlachtfelde den Verlauf des Gefechts. Hinter ihm Ludendorff und der Oberstleutnant Hoffmann. (2)"Im Kampf für deutsches Wesen, deutsches Recht starb hier der Hochmeister Ulrich von Jungingen am 15. Juli 1410 den Heldentod." - Denkstein zur Erinnerung an die Schlacht von Tannenberg im Jahre 1410. Die vernichtende Niederlage des Ordensheeres brachte den deutschen Osten für Jahrhunderte unter slawische Herrschaft. (8) [3 Abb.]: (1)Die alte Dorfkirche von Tannenberg. In ihrer Nähe weilte Hindenburg mit seinem Stabe am 24. Juli 1914. (2)Besuch Hindenburgs auf dem Gefechtsstande des Generalkommandos des XX. Armeekorps, das sich mehrere Tage lang allein des russischen Ansturms zu erwehren hatte, bis auf beiden Flügeln die Umfassung der russischen Front wirksam wurde. (3)Truppenverbandplatz in der Nähe Tannenbergs. (9) [Abb.]: Zerstörte Kirche in Soldau. (10) [2 Abb.]: (1)Neidenburg. Das Ordensschloß selbst blieb wie durch ein Wunder fast unversehrt. (2)Wo blühende Gehöfte standen, ragten jetzt nur noch die Schornsteine aus den Trümmern. (11) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Bauer kehrte zum Hof zurück (2)Der Handwerker nahm seine Arbeit wieder auf. (12) [2 Abb.]: (1)Im zerstörten Ortelsburg wurde zwischen zerschossenen Häusern wieder Markt abgehalten. (2)Russische Gefangene halfen unter Aufsicht deutscher Soldaten beim Wiederaufbau der zerstörten Dörfer. (13) [2 Abb.]: (1)Lyck wurde in dieser Zeit halb zerstört. (2)An der mit größter Beschleunigung befestigten masurischen Seenkette beiderseits Lötzen brach sich der russische Ansturm. Die Stadt selbst entging so der Zerstörung. (14) [2 Abb.]: (1)Etagenförmig gebaute Unterstände vor Lötzen, in denen die Russen im Winter 1914/15 hausten. (2)Ein von den Russen zur Verteidigung eingerichtetes Gehöft. (15) Die Winterschlacht in Masuren (16) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die größten Schwierigkeiten bereitete die Nachführung von Munition und Proviant. Tausende Schlitten waren vorsorglich bereitgesetellt. (2)Feldbäckereikolonne auf dem Marktplatz in Pillkallen vor dem Ausmarsch (16) [2 Abb.]: Auf verschneiten Wegen begann im Norden über Stallupönen, im Süden über Johannisburg der Vormarsch. (17) [Abb.]: Zum zweiten Male wurden die Russen aus dem Lande gejagt. - Ostpreußen war endgültig frei! (18) [2 Abb.]: Rastlos ging die Verfolgung durch Schnee und Eis weiter. Wieder, wie bei Tannenberg, nahmen die beiden deutschen Flügeltruppen die auf Grodno zurückflutenden russischen Massen (in doppelseitiger Umfassung) in die Zange. In den Wäldern von Augustow und Suwalki wurden sie umzingelt und gefangengenommen. (19) [2 Abb.]: In Augustow und in Suwalki strömten ungezählte Tausende von Gefangenen zusammen. (20) [2 Abb.]: (1)In die Gefangenschaft (2)Nach der Schlacht im Augustower Forst. (21) [2 Abb.]: (1)Straße im zerstörten Gerdauen. Im Hintergrund die im 15. Jahrhundert erbaute Pfarrkirche. (2)Dieselbe Straße nach dem Wiederaufbau, vom gleichen Standort aus aufgenommen. (22) Der Feldzug nach Litauen (23) [3 Abb.]: (1)In frischem Draufgehen jagten die deutschen Reiter den schwachen Feind vor sich her. (2)Es öffnet sich das weite Land. (3)Durch die nachfolgende Infanterie wurde der Anschein erweckt, daß hier, im äußersten Norden, eine große deutsche Offensive geplant sei. (23) [2 Abb.]: (1)Bauerngehöft in Litauen, aus Holz gebaut und mit Stroh gedeckt. (2)Litauische Bauern in ihrer charakteristischen Tracht. (24) [2 Abb.]: (1)Litauische Landstadt: Hauptstraße in Rossijeni. Bezeichnend ist die holprige Straßenpflasterung und der Bürgersteig mit Holzbelag. Wie fremdartig wirkt dieses Straßenbild im Vergleich mit dem in Ostpreußen und Kurland! (2)Litauische Juden, die vielfach noch streng an ihren alten Trachten festhalten. Sie bilden einen hohen Prozentsatz der polnisch-litauischen städtischen Bevölkerung. (25) [2 Abb.]: Gefechtsbilder aus Schaulen. (26) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Bevölkerung war nur schwer zu bewegen, die brennende Stadt Schaulen zu verlassen. (2)Schließlich wurde die Stadt aufgegeben. - Doch das Täuschungsmanöver war geglückt. (27) [2 Abb.]: (1)Blick über Stadt und Hafen Libau. (2)Mächtige Steindämme schützen den künstlich ins Meer hinausgebaute Hafen. (28) Der Feldzug nach Kurland im Sommer und Herbst 1915 (29) [2 Abb.]: Baltische Landschaft. Der starke Einfluß deutscher Kultur tritt in der Bauart der Dörfer Kirchen und Gutshäuser und in der Bewirtschaftung des Bodens deutlich zutage, wenn auch die Deutschen nur eine dünne Oberschicht der Gesamtbevölkerung bildeten. (29) [2 Abb.]: (1)Mitau. Das Stadtbild ähnelt durchaus dem einer kleinen deutschen Residenz. Mitau war der kulturelle Mittelpunkt der deutsch-baltischen Bevölkerung Kurlands. (2)Bis zur äußersten nördlichen Spitze Kurlands drangen die deutschen Truppen vor: Der zerstörte Leuchtturm von Domesnäs. (30) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ein Langrohrgeschütz in den Wäldern vor Riga. (2)Landschaftsbild von der Dünafront. Die deutschen Stellungen lagen auf dem niedrigeren linken Ufer. (31) Die Eroberung Rigas im September 1917 (32) [2 Abb.]: (1)Brückenschlag bei Uexküll südlich Riga. (2)Übergang über die Düna auf einer Pontonbrücke. (32) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nach kurzem schweren Kampf gaben die Russen Riga preis. Über die gesprengte Eisenbahnbrücke machierten deutsche Truppen in die Stadt ein. (2)Riga, nach Petersburg die bedeutendste Stadt an der russischen Ostseeküste, zugleich die Hauptstadt des Baltentums. Blick auf Stadt und Düna. (33) [2 Abb.]: (1)Vor der Rigaer Petrikirche. (2)Das "Schwarzhäupterhaus" in Riga, eines der ältesten Gebäude der Stadt, Gildehaus der Rigaer Kaufmannschaft. (34) [2 Abb.]: (1)Russische Küstenbatterie in Dünamünde, nördlich Riga. (2)Russische Waldstellungen im Jakobstadter Brückenkopf, der wenige Wochen später erstürmt wurde. (35) Die Besetzung von Ösel (36) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Transportflotte im Libauer Hafen. (2)Infanterie geht an Bord. (36) [3 Abb.]: (1)Erkundungsfahrt eines Zeppelinluftschiffes. (2)Verladen der Pferde. (3)Während der Überfahrt. (37) [2 Abb.]: (1)Anlandbringen der Infanterie. (2)In großen Kisten werden die Pferde von Bord gelassen und auf Prahmen an Land befördert. (38) [2 Abb.]: (1)An der Landungsstelle. (2)Das alte Ordensschloß Arensburg auf Ösel. (39) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eroberte Küstenbatterie größten Kalibers bei Kuivast auf der Insel Moon. (2)Das Wrack des zwischen der Insel Moon und dem estländischen Festland in Brand geschossenen russischen Panzerkreuzers "Slawa". (40) [2 Abb.]: (1)Uralte Holzkirche skandinavischen Charakters auf der von nur wenigen Fischerfamilien schwedischer Abkunft bewohnten Insel. (2)Auch die Tracht der Bewohner der einsamen Insel erinnert an ihre skandinavische Herkunft. (41) Der Feldzug nach Livland im Februar und März 1918 (42) [2 Abb.]: Auf dem Vormarsch nach Dorpat. (42) [3 Abb.]: Kämpfe mit Bolschewistenbanden in der Gegend von Dorpat. (43) [3 Abb.]: (1)Das estnische Reval am finnischen Meerbusen gelegen, war neben Petersburg und Riga eine der wichtigsten Handels- und Hafenstädte an der russischen Ostseeküste. - Alte Stadtbefestigung und St. Olaikirche. (2)Narwa, zwischen Peipussee und finnischem Meerbusen, spielte als Festung in den Kämpfen des Deutschen Ordens und der Schweden und Russen eine wichtige Rolle. Im Weltkrieg endet hier der deutsche Vormarsch. - Blick von Narwa auf die alten ehemaligen Festungswerke. (3)Dorpat, der geistige Mittelpunkt Livlands, war seit alters her eine Hochburg deutscher Wissenschaft. - Blick über den Embach auf den Kaufhof, das Rathaus und die Universität am Fuße des Domberges (44) Nach Finnland (45) [3 Abb.]: (1)Vereiste Minensuchboote. (2)Die frühe Jahreszeit erschwert die Landung. - Im Packeis vor dem Hafen Hangö. (3)Die deutsche Transportflotte im Landungshafen Hangö. (45) [2 Abb.]: (1)Beschleunigung des Vormarsches durch Benutzung von Draisinen. (2)Die finnischen Freischärler übten schnelle Justiz: Standrechtliche Erschießungen von aufgegriffenen Rotgardisten. (46) [2 Abb.]: (1)Bayrische Gebirgsartillerie im Kampf mit Rotgardisten. (2)Bei Lathi und Tavastehus erreichte die roten Truppen ihr Schicksal. Sie wurden von den deutschen und finnischen Truppen umzingelt und gefangengenommen. - Gefangenenlager bei Lathi. (47) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der finnländische General von Mannerheim dankt den deutschen Truppen für die treue Waffenhilfe. (2) (48) [4 Karten]: (1)Umgebung v. Danzig (2)Königsberg (3)Ostpreussen (4)Baltische Staaten ( - ) Polen ( - ) Vorwort ([1]) Der Feldzug im südwestlichen Polen, Herbst 1914 (1) [Abb]: Südpolnische Landschaft in der Gegend von Kielce, halbwegs zwischen Kattowitz und Iwangorod, an den nördlichen Ausläufern der Lysa Gora. Das Gelände ist hier hügelig und auf weite Strecken stark bewaldet. - Die deutschen Truppen marschierten bei schlechtem Oktoberwetter und hatten unter dem ungünstigen Zustand der Wege sehr zu leiden. (1) [2 Abb]: (1)Polnische Landschaft. - Auf schlechten Wegen marschierten die Deutschen in Gewaltmärschen auf Iwangorod und Warschau. (2)Czenstochau. Blick von dem berühmten Kloster der "Schwarzen Mutter Gottes" auf die Stadt. (2) [2 Abb]: (1)Endlose Züge flüchtender Bauern, die ihre ärmliche Habe auf ihren Wagen mit sich führten, bedeckten die Straßen. (2)Sie fanden ihre Dörfer bei der Heimkehr oft genug als Trümmerstätten wieder. (3) [Abb]: Durchmarsch österreichischer Truppen durch Radom. Zwischen Radom und Iwangorod spielten sich schwere Kämpfe ab. (4) [2 Abb.]: (1)Weiter nördlich gelangten die deutschen Divisionen bis nahe an die Fortlinie von Warschau heran. Um bei dem trostlosen Zustand der Wege den Vormarsch zu beschleunigen, benutzte die Truppe, wo es irgend möglich war, die Bahndämme. (2)Rastendes Kavallerieregiment. - Die Industriegebiete Südpolens waren für Kavallerieverwendung meist sehr ungünstig. (5) Die Kämpfe in Westpolen (6 - 7) [2 Abb.]: (1)Lodz, die größte Industriestadt Polens, liegt mit ihrem Wald von Fabrikschornsteinen breit gelagert in der polnischen Ebene. Der rechte Flügel der russischen Angriffsgruppe wurde im Raum von Lodz durch den deutschen Gegenstoß völlig umfaßt und schien verloren. (2)Durch russische Verstärkungen, die aus Warschau herbeieilten, trat die Wendung der Schlacht ein. Der deutsche Umfassungsflügel. jetzt selbst umzingelt, mußte sich bei Brzeziny durch die Russen durchschlagen. - Das Gelände am Südrand von Brzeziny. (6 - 7) [2 Abb.]: (1)Während der Schlacht von Lodz. - In den erbitterten Kämpfen gingen zahlreiche polnische Ortschaften in Flammen auf. (2)Deutsche Bagagen in einem Jagdschloß in der Nähe von Lowicz. (8) [2 Abb.]: (1)Sochaczew, eine Stadt an der Bzura, die wiederholt im Brennpunkt schwerer Kämpfe stand. Sie wurde während der Operationen von Lodz und in den anschließenden Stellungskämpfen im Winter 1914/15 zum großen Teil zerstört. (2)Rawa, südlich von Skierniewice. Im Vordergrund die Ruine einer alten polnischen Burg. (9) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Stellungen an der Bzura. Der durch die Flußniederung führende Weg ist mit Bohlen belegt. Es war dies in dem an Steinen armen Land oft die einzige Möglichkeit, die Wege in einen kriegsbrauchbaren Zustand zu bringen. (2)Brückenkopfstellung auf dem Ostufer der Bzura, die durch einen Brückensteg mit dem diesseitigen Ufer verbunden ist. (10) [2 Abb.]: (1)Russische Stellungen am hohen Uferrand der Rawka. Sie hatten durch ihre Lage eine außerordentliche Widerstandskraft. (2)Gestürmter russischer Graben mit Gräben gefallener Russen, kenntlich gemacht durch Russenmütze und Heiligenbild. (11) [3 Abb.]: (1)Russische Massengräber an der Rawka, ein in seiner schlichten Einfachheit erschütterndes Bild, das Zeugnis ablegt für die Schwere der Kämpfe an der Bzura und Rawka. (2)Die deutschen Kriegerfriedhöfe redeten eine andere Sprache. Sie wurden mit größter Sorgfalt und Liebe gepflegt. (3)Nach dem Sturm. - Die Verluste der Russen, die sich meist mit großer Zähigkeit schlugen, waren oft ungewöhnlich schwer. (12 - 13) Das nördliche Polen (14) [2 Abb.]: (1)Prasznysz. - Bis hierher fließen wiederholt die deutschen Truppen vor, um das südliche Ostpreußen zu decken. (2)Verbranntes Dorf südlich Mlawa. Nur die aus Stein gemauerten Essen ragen aus den Schutthaufen noch empor. (14) [2 Abb.]: (1)Landschaftsbild an der Strwa, nördlich Plozk. (2)Russische Winterhütten. Die russischen Unterstände bestanden in der ersten Zeit nur aus ganz primitiven Erdhöhlen. (15) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die polnischen Bauerngehöfte befinden sich auf einer wesentlich niedrigeren Kulturstufe als die benachbarten deutschen. (2)Kirchgang. - Ebenso wie die meisten Häuser, sind auch die Kirchen in den polnischen Dörfern häufig aus Holz gebaut. (16) [2 Abb.]: (1)Bauernstube. Das Bild zeigt die primitive Wohnkultur des polnischen Bauern und die Dürftigkeit seines Hausrats. (2)Keine polnische Stadt ist ohne die Juden zu denken. Oft bilden sie ein Drittel, ja die Hälfte der Gesamtbevölkerung. (17) Sommeroffensive 1915 - Die Kämpfe am Narew. (18) [2 Abb.]: (1)Das kleine polnische Städtchen Makow nördlich des Narew (südöstlich Prasznysz) nach der Besetzung durch die Deutschen. (2)Deutsche Fuhrparkkolonnen überschreiten auf rasch wiederhergestellter Brücke und Zufahrtstraße den Narew bei Roshan. (18) [2 Abb.]: (1)Narewlandschaft. (2)Der Marktplatz der kleinen Narewfestung Pultusk. Die Stadt hatte durch die Kämpfe nur wenig gelitten. (19) Der Kampf um Warschau - Iwangorod (20 - 21) [3 Abb.]: (1)Der Weichselübergang bei Ryczywol zwischen Iwangorod und Warschau. (2)Vor Iwangorod: zerstörte Brücken und gewaltige Explosionen und Brände kündigten den nahenden Deutschen die kampflose Preisgabe der Festung an. (3)Weiter östlich befanden sich deutsche Truppen bereits im Vormarsch in Richtung Brest-Litowsk. - Deutsche Kavallerie überschreitet westlich Cholm den Bug. (20 - 21) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eine der beim Abzug der Russen zerstörten Weichselbrücken in Warschau. (2)Rastlos wurde die Verfolgung fortgesetzt. Der Bau von Kriegsbrücken vollzog sich in wenigen Stunden. (22) [2 Abb.]: (1)deutscher Wachtposten vor der Warschauer Zitadelle. (2)Blick vom Warschauer Weichselfort auf die Eisenbahnbrücke und die Straßenbrücke. Ihre Erneuerung kostete viel Zeit. (23) [2 Abb.]: (1)Unter lebhafter Anteilnahme der Bevölkerung zogen die deutschen Truppen am 6. August in das geräumte Warschau ein. (2)Deutsche Soldaten vor einem der gesprengten Warschauer Forts am Morgen der Einnahme. (24) [2 Abb.]: (1)Prinz Leopold von Bayern nimmt vor der russischen Kathedrale in Warschau die Parade der deutschen Truppen ab. (2)Der Schloßplatz in Warschau. rechts das alte polnische Königsschloß, in dem während des Krieges das deutsche Generalgouvernement seinen Sitz hatte. Links das Denkmal des Königs Sigismund III. (25) [3 Abb.]: (1)Blick auf die Nordostfront von Nowogeorgiewsk. Das Bild ist vom Nordufer des Narew in der Nähe der Wkramündung aufgenommen. (2)Abtransport gefangener Russen aus der Zitadelle, nach Übergabe der Festung. Im Hintergrund ausgebrannte Kasernen. (3)Blick von der Betonbrustwehr eines Forts in das völlig offene, für einen Infanteriekampf schwierige Vorgelände. (26 - 27) [2 Abb.]: (1)Grabenstreiche eines Werkes der Nordostfront. Nowogeorgiewsk war, wie das Bild zeigt, ganz modern ausgebaut. (2)Zerstörte russische Batterie im Zwischengelände zwischen den Forts. Die deutsche Artillerie hatte glänzend gewirkt. (28) [2 Abb.]: (1)Vernichtende Wirkung schwerster deutscher und österreichischer Geschütze auf ein neuzeitliches russisches Betonwerk. (2)Ein völlig zerstörtes Werk. Der Panzerbeobachtungsturm ist aus dem Beton herausgerissen und beiseite geschleudert. (29) An der Njemenfront. (30 - 31) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die in der Sumpfniederung des Bobr liegende, fast unangreifbare Festung Osowiec mußte sich, durch den Vormarsch südlich des Narew im Rücken bedroht, im August ergeben. (2)Njemenlandschaft. Blick auf Olita, eine kleinere Sperrbefestigung zwischen Rowno und Grodno. (30 - 31) [2 Abb.]: (1)Fliegeraufnahme der Stadt Grodno. Grodno war neben Nowogeorgiewsk und Rowno die modernste Festung Rußlands. (2)Die Zerstörung der auf mächtigen Pfeilern ruhenden Eisenbahnbrücke konnte zwar nicht den Vormarsch aufhalten, erschwerte aber den Nachschub ungemein. (32) [2 Abb.]: (1)An Stelle der zerstörten Eisenbahnbrücke wurde zunächst eine hölzerne Ersatzbrücke über den Njemen gebaut; sie bildete ein Ruhmesblatt der deutschen Eisenbahnkompanien. Die Brücke führte in 32 Meter Höhe über den Fluß. (2)Von den Russen gesprengte Betonbrustwehr in einem grodnoer Fort. (33) [2 Abb.]: (1)Blick auf Rowno, die Hauptstadt Litauens, das den nördlichen Eckpfeiler des russischen Festungssystems an der Weichsel und am Bobr-Narew bildete. Es wurde am 17. und 18. August nach kurzer Beschießung aus schwerstem Geschütz gestürmt. (2)Das Njemental bei Rowno mit der gesprengten Eisenbahnbrücke. (34) [2 Abb.]: (1)Älteres Rownoer Fort. Ein Treffer aus schwerstem Geschütz hat hier genügt, um das Mauerwerk in Trümmer zu schlagen. (2)Rowno hat im Krieg Napoleons gegen Rußland im Sommer 1812 eine wichtige Rolle gespielt. Von hier aus trat der französische Kaiser den Vormarsch gegen Rußland an. Nur Trümmer seines Heeres kehrten im Winter auf Rowno zurück. Zur Erinnerung hat man auf dem Marktplatz eine gußeiserne Pyramide aufgestellt. - Im Hintergrund das Rathaus, dessen weißer spitzer Turm das Stadtbild überragt. (35) Die Verfolgung durch Polen und Litauen im Herbst 1915 (36) [2 Abb.]: (1)Blick auf Wilna; neben Riga und Warschau der bedeutendste Ort Westrußlands. Die an den Ufern der Wilija und Wileika schön gelegene Stadt ist im Stellungskrieg 1916-18 unzähligen deutschen Soldaten als Hauptetappenort bekannt geworden. (2)Wilna ist berühmt durch seine Kirchen. - Die orthodoxe Hauptkirche, ein gutes Beispiel moderner russischer Kirchenbaukunst. (36) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die St. Annenkirche, eins der schönsten Bauwerke auf polnisch-litauischem Boden, und die Bernhardinerkirche. (2)Die Ostrabrama, mit einem wundertätigen Muttergottesbild, über einem Straßendurchgang gelegen, genießt in Wilna ganz besondere Verehrung. Zu jeder Tageszeit sieht man vor ihr die Gläubigen auf dem Straßenpflaster knien. (37) [2 Abb.]: (1)Bialystok ist mit seiner überwiegend jüdisch-proletarischen Bevölkerung der unerfreulichste Typ polnischer Mittelstädte. (2)Straßenleben in Bialystok. Gemüsemarkt. (38) [2 Abb.]: (1)Im Urwald von Bialowies. Der ungeheure Waldkomplex war Jagdgebiet des Zaren. Er enthielt selten gewordene Wildarten. - Die unerschöpflichen Holzvorräte dienten in den Jahren 1915-1918 den Bedürfnissen der deutschen Kampffront. (2)Zahllose Holzflöße fanden auf dem Njemen, der schon im Frieden eine wichtige Transportstraße für die Holzausfuhr Polens war, den Weg auch nach Deutschland. (39) [2 Abb.]: (1)Das von den Russen vor ihrem Abzug in Brand gesteckte und von einem Teil der Einwohner verlassene Brest-Litowsk. (2)Vor den brennenden Lagerräumen der Zitadelle von Brest-Litowsk. Deutsche Soldaten retten die bedrohten Vorräte. (40) [2 Abb.]: (1)Das Südtor der Zitadelle, die dem Oberbefehlshaber Ost bis zum Ende des Krieges als Hauptquartier gedient hat. (2)Im Winter 1917/18 wurde Brest-Litowsk weltberühmt durch die dort stattfindenden Friedensverhandlungen zwischen den Mittelmächten und Sowjetrußland. - General Hoffmann im Gespräch mit Mitgliedern der Friedenskommissionen. (41) Stellungskrieg im Raum Pinsk-Dünaburg 1916 - 1918 (42 - 43) [3 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Blick von Pinsk in die Sumpfebene zwischen dem Pripjet und der Jasiolda. (2)Rokinolandschaft. Auf weiten Strecken genügten für die Bewachung der fast ungangbaren Sümpfe blockhausartige Befestigungsanlagen. (3)Stützpunkt auf einer Sumpfinsel an der Szczara. (42 - 43) [2 Abb.]: (1)Landschaft bei Smorgon. Im Hintergrund sind die zerschossenen Fabrikanlagen der Stadt Smorgon erkennbar. (2)Russischer Stellungskrieg im Winter. (44) [2 Abb.]: (1)Auch außerhalb der Sumpfgebiete mußten die Stellungen oft wegen des hohen Grundwasserstandes aufgesetzt werden. (2)Nach Ausbruch der russischen Revolution im Februar 1917 kam es auf vielen Teilen der Front zu Verhandlungen, häufig auch zu Verbrüderungsszenen von Schützengraben zu Schützengraben zwischen deutschen und russischen Soldaten. (45) Vormarsch in Weißrußland im Frühjahr 1918 (46) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Minsk, die Hauptstadt Weißrußlands. (2)Unten: Truppenparade in Minsk. (46) [2 Abb.]: (1)Bobruisk, eine veraltete Festung, am Ufer der sumpfigen Beresina, eines Nebenflusses des Dnjepr. (2)Der Dnjepr ermöglicht einen weit ins Innere Rußlands sich verzweigenden Schiffsverkehr. - Schiffsanlegestelle in Bobruisk. (47) [Abb.]: Deutscher Posten an der Demarkationslinie gegen Sowjetrußland im Sommer 1918. Blick über Orscha in die weite russische Ebene. (48) [Karte]: Polen ( - ) Rumänien ( - ) Vorwort ([1]) Der Siebenbürger Kreigsschauplatz (1) [2 Abb.]: (1)Siebenbürgen, in das vor Jahrhunderten deutsche Bauern aus dem Westen und Süden des Reiches eingewandert sind, hat in zahlreichen Städten und Dörfern bis heute seinen deutschen Charakter bewahrt. - Schäßburg, neben Hermannstadt und Kronstadt ein Mittelpunkt deutschen Lebens und deutscher Kultur. (2)Siebenbürger Landschaft: Blick von der Törzburg in das Burzenland bei Kronstadt. Die Törzburg liegt am Nordeingang des von Kronstadt über die Transylvanischen Alpen nach Campolung und Pitesti führenden gleichnamigen Passes. (1) [2 Abb.]: (1)Rosenau, eine der noch vom Deutschen Orden im 13. Jahrhundert errichteten Burgen. Die Bauart der Dorfstraße ist kennzeichnend für die Siebenbürger Sachsendörfer. Die Gehöfte haben eine geringe Straßenfront, die Giebelseite des Wohnhauses liegt nach der Straße zu. Die rundbogenförmige Toreinfahrt führt in den schmalen Wirtschaftshof. (2)Die Kirchen der Sachsendörfer sind mit Ringmauern und Wehrtürmen umgeben. Sie dienten in Kriegszeiten der gesamten Dorfbevölkerung als Zufluchtsort. - Kirchenburg in Tartlau, deren Bau um Anfang des 13. Jahrh. begann. (2) [2 Abb.]: (1)Siebenbürger Dorfanlage: Fliegeraufnahme von Honigberg. Wenige breite Straßen führen zum Mittelpunkt des Dorfes, der Kirche. Auch auf diesem Bild ist die schmale Straßenfront der Gehöfte erkennbar. Die deutschen Ortsteile sind von denen der Ungarn und Rumänen streng geschieden. Sie heben sich durch Stattlichkeit und Behäbigkeit hervor. (2)Das Schloß von Fogaras. Die gewaltigen Mauern und Türme, die das Schloß umschließen, weisen auf die häufigen Einfälle der Mongolen und Türken hin, gegen die sich die Siebenbürger Deutschen und Ungarn schützen mußten. (3) [2 Abb.]: (1)Gebirgslandschaft am Roten-Turm-Paß. Durch dieses Gelände führte die Umgehungsbewegung des deutschen Alpenkorps und der ihm beigegebenen österreichisch-ungarischen Gebirgsformationen in den Rücken der bei Hermannstadt kämpfenden 1. rumänischen Armee. (2)Rundbildaufnahme der Fogaraser Alpen zwischen Hermannstadt und Kronstadt. Das Überschreiten der schroff ansteigenden Gebirgswände war für Truppen mit Kanonen und Trains nur auf den wenigen Paßstraßen möglich, die das Gebirge überqueren. (4 - 5) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ausgeladene deutsche und österreichisch-ungarische Truppen in Versammlung in Gegend Mühlbach, südlich von Karlsburg. (2)Das Kampfgelände bei Heltau, südlich Hermannstadt. Im Hintergrunde die Vorberge der Transylvanischen Alpen. (6) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die ersten rumänischen Gefangenen in der Schlacht bei Hermannstadt. (2)Der Zustand des Schlachtfeldes ließ über die Panik des Rückzuges keinen Zweifel. (7) [2 Abb.]: Oben und unten: Aufstieg des Alpenkorps ins Gebirge. Der Marsch erfolgte unter Zurücklassung aller Fahrzeuge auf Hirtenpfaden, deren Sicherung die Rumänen nicht für nötig gehalten hatten. (8) [2 Abb.]: (1)Das Wetter war Ende September im Hochgebirge bereits sehr wechselnd. Zeitweise herrschte schon empfindliche Kälte. (2)Der Rote-Turm-Paß hat seinen Namen nach einem aus der Türkenzeit stammenden, rot angestrichenen mächtigen Turm. Der Paßübergang wird durch das Tal der nördlich der Transylvanischen Alpen entspringenden Aluta gebildet, die das Gebirge quert und dadurch einen ungemein bequemen Verkehrsweg zwischen Ungarn und Rumänien herstellt. (9) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der sächsische Obergespan begrüßt in Anwesenheit des Erzherzogs Karl die in Hermannstadt einziehenden Truppen. (2)Marktplatz mit Rathausturm in Hermannstadt. Die Stadt erweckt durchaus den Eindruck einer deutschen Mittelstadt. (10) [2 Abb.]: (1)Blick auf das malerisch inmitten bewaldeter Höhen gelegene Kronstadt. In der Stadtmitte die berühmte Schwarze Kirche mit ihrem mächtigen Dach, das "am weitesten gegen Südosten vorgeschobene Denkmal germanischer Baukunst in Europa". (2)Die Törzburg, ein von den Kronstädtern im 14. Jahrhundert zur Beherrschung des Gebirgspasses erbautes Kastell. (11) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Geisterwald ist ein bewaldeter Gebirgsausläufer der Fogaraser Alpen zwischen Fogaras und Kronstadt. Die Rumänen versuchten hier vergeblich, den deutschen Vormarsch gegen Kronstadt aufzuhalten. (2)Blick auf das Gefechtsfeld von Kronstadt. Die Aufnahme ist von der Brücke östlich Helsdorf gemacht worden. Kronstadt liegt etwa 3 km südlich vom Standort am Fuße des Gebirges durch die Bäume verdeckt auf der rechten Bildseite. (12 - 13) Der Durchbruch der westlichen Walachei (14 - 15) [3 Abb.]: (1)Der Szurdukpaß bildet wegen seiner geringen Steigung neben dem Rotenturmpaß die beste Verbindung zwischen Rumänien und Ungarn. Die Rumänen erwarteten hier keinen ernsten Angriff mehr, nachdem sie in den schweren Kämpfen bei Petrosenv zu Beginn des Feldzuges in diesem Gebiet einige Vorteile errungen hatten. - Das Gefechtsfeld der 9. Armee bei Bumbesti am Südende des Szurdukpasses. Die Straße tritt hier aus dem Hochgebirge. (2)Der Paß verläuft in dem tief eingeschnittenen und engen Tal des nördlich des Gebirges entspringenden Jiuflusses. (3)Gebirgslandschaft aus dem Gebiet des unweit westlich des Szurdukpasses über das Gebirge führenden Vulkanpasses. (14 - 15) [3 Abb.]: (1)Das Gefechtsfeld bei Targu Jiu. (2)Biwakplatz deutscher Truppen auf der Südseite des Szurdukpasses. (3)Verlassene rumänische Stellung im Gebirge. (16 - 17) Der Übergang über die transylvanischen Alpen (18) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Rumänische Panzertürme im Törzburger Paß. - (2)Unten: Übergang über die Aluta bei Caineni im Rotenturmpaß. (18) [2 Abb.]: (1)Bei Calimanesti am Ausgang des Rotenturmpasses weitet sich das Tal der Aluta und senkt sich zur walachischen Ebene. (2)Blick von Gebirgshöhen in Gegend südlich Kronstadt auf die rumänischen Südhänge der transylvanischen Alpen. (19) [2 Abb.]: (1)Predeal, ein auf der Paßhöhe gelegener Villenort, der in den wochenlangen Kämpfen fast völlig zerstört wurde. (2)Am Südausgang des Predealpasses liegt Sinaja, die Sommerresidenz des rumänischen Königs. Das Schloß in Sinaja. (20) [2 Abb.]: (1)Südlich von Sinaja führt die Paßstraße hinab in das Erdölgebiet von Campina. Der Anblick der zahllosen Bohrtürme und des von schwarzen Öllachen getränkten Bodens war für die aus dem Hochgebirge kommenden Truppen sehr überraschend. - Es dauerte Monate, bis die unbrauchbar gemachten Bohrlöcher wenigstens teilweise wieder ergiebig wurden. (2)Ploesti, südlich Sinaja, wichtiger Bahn- und Straßenknotenpunkt zwischen Kronstadt und Bukarest. Hier durchbrachen im Dezember deutsche Truppen erneut die rumänische Abwehrfront und ermöglichten den Vormarsch auf Buzau und Braila. (21) Die Dobrudscha (22 - 23) [3 Abb.]: (1)Norddobrudschalandschaft: Blick auf das östliche Donauufer bei Cernavoda. (2)Bulgarische Truppe auf dem Vormarsch in der Dobrudscha. (3)Die berühmte Brücke über die Donau bei Cernavoda, eine der größten Kunstbauten der Welt. (22 - 23) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben Konstanza. Blick von der Mole auf die Stadt. (2)Unten: Die riesigen Getreidesilos im Hafen. (24) [2 Abb.]: Oben und unten: Konstanza von der Seeseite. - Tagelang waren Stadt und Land weithin durch die brennenden Öltanks in Rauch und Asche gehüllt. Die ungeheure Hitze machte die Einschränkung der Brände unmöglich. (25) Donauübergang und Vormarsch auf Bukarest (26) [Abb.]: Bei dichtem Nebel begann am 23. November der Brückenschlag. Feldmarschall v. Mackensen wohnte dem Übergang selbst bei. (26) [2 Abb.]: (1)Bei Kustschuk wurde später ein zweiter Übergang hergestellt. - Im Vordergrund eine Flotille österreichischer Donaumonitore, die sich an der Bekämpfung der rumänischen Batterien auf dem Nordufer während des Übergangs beteiligten. (2)An der Landungsstelle bei Kustschuk. - Das Zusammenwirken der Verbündeten Truppen vollzog sich meist reibungslos. (27) [2 Abb.]: (1)Donaulandschaft unmittelbar westlich Svistov. Man hat von dem mehrere hundert Meter hohen Ufer auf der südlichen Flußseite einen weiten Blick über die Donauniederung mit ihren zahllosen Nebenarmen, Altwassern und Sümpfen und über die walachische Ebene. (2)Blick auf das Kampfgelände bei Calugareni, südlich des Argesch, wo die Rumänen dem Vormarsch der Donauarmee noch einmal entgegentraten. Es kam während der Schlacht zu einer schweren Krise, die mit Mühe durch das Eingreifen der 9. Armee behoben wurde. (28 - 29) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Reiterpatrouille in einer walachischen Stadt. (2)Der Verwundetentransport gestaltete sich oft sehr mühsam und qualvoll. (30) [2 Abb.]: (1)Brückenbau über den Argesch bei trübem Novemberwetter. (2)Vormarsch auf Bukarest. (31) Vormarsch zum Sereth (32) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Vormarsch zur Serethfront. (2)Unten: In Focsani. (32) [2 Abb.]: (1)An den Kämpfen in den Südkarpathen waren auch türkische Truppen beteiligt. - Türkische Artillerie bei Focsani. (2)Fliegeraufnahme von Buzau, halbwegs Ploesti-Focsani. Auch hier waren zahlreiche Öltanks in Brand geraten. (33) [2 Abb.]: (1)Durch den Regen sind die Wege grundlos geworden. Nur mittels Ochsenbespannung sind die Fahrzeuge vorwärts zu bringen. (2)Ganz besondere Schwierigkeiten hatte der Lastkraftwagen auf den fast unbrauchbar gewordenen Straßen zu überwinden. (34) [2 Abb.]: (1)Jägerradfahrerkompagnie auf dem Schloßplatz in Bukarest. (2)Aufziehen der deutschen Hauptwache in Bukarest. Das große Gebäude rechts war als deutsches Soldatenheim eingerichtet. (35) [2 Abb.]: Oben und unten: Auf dem Schlachtfeld zwischen Buzau und Rimnicul Sarat. (36) [2 Abb.]: (1)In den Kämpfen an der Susita, nördlich von Focsani zusammengeschossene rumänische Batterien. (2)Kameraden. (37) Die Militärverwaltung in Rumänien (38) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Der deutsche Landsturm nahm gern selbst die Sense zur Hand. (2)Unten: Erntearbeit. (38) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Rumänische Bauern bei der Flachsernte. (2)Unten: Heimkehr von der Erntearbeit. (39) [2 Abb.]: (1)Verkauf rumänischer Stickereien. (2)Rumänische Bauern auf dem Markt. (40) [2 Abb.]: (1)Pferdemarkt. (2)Rumänien ist das Land der Zigeuner. (41) Stellungskrieg an der Donau-Sereth-Karpathenfront 1917/18 (42) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Führer der 9. Armee, General von Falkenhayn, besichtigt im Winter 1916/17 die Stellungen in den Südkarpathen. (2)Österreichisches Proviantdepot in einem Südkarpathendorf. (42) [2 Abb.]: (1)Karpathenlandschaft. - Rechts am Hang: Unterstände für einen Bataillonsstab. Links: Endstation einer Drahtseilbahn. (2)Russische Gefangene aus den Südkarpathenkämpfen. (43) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Braila. (2)Unten: Fliegeraufnahme von Braila. (44) [2 Abb.]: (1)Bei Tulcea beginnt das eigentliche Donaudelta. Blick von dem steilen Südufer auf das Mündungsgebiet der Donau. (2)Blick auf das Städtchen Tulcea. (45) [2 Abb.]: (1)Donaulandschaft zwischen Braila und Tulcea. (2)Donaudeltalandschaft. (46) [2 Abb.]: (1)Bauerngehöft in der Norddobrudscha. (2)Schützengraben am Donauufer. (47) [2 Abb.]: (1)Türkischer Posten an der Donau. (2)Bis zum Frieden von Bukarest stand der deutsche Soldat auch in diesem abgelegenen Winkel Europas auf treuer Wacht. (48) [Karte]: Der rumänische Feldzug ( - ) Von den Karpathen zum Kaukasus ( - ) Vorwort ([1]) Die Kämpfe in den Karpathen 1914/15 (1) [2 Abb.]: Oben und unten: Österreichische Stellungen in der Gegend des Dunajez im westlichen Galizien im Winter 1914/15. (1) [2 Abb.]: (1)Den ganzen Winter hindurch wurde in den Karpathen erbittert gekämpft. Die Österreicher behaupteten sich nur mit Mühe. (2)Die Stellungen folgten den Hauptkämmen des Gebirges. Die Berghänge waren mit ausgedehnten Waldungen bedeckt. (2) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Anstieg zu den Stellungen war überaus beschwerlich, da es den Soldaten an der nötigen Gebirgsausrüstung fehlte. (2)Die Ablösung der vorgeschobenen Posten verlangte in dem unübersichtlichen Waldgelände schärfste Aufmerksamkeit. (3) [2 Abb.]: (1)Auf dem Wege zum Duklapaß, dem Hauptübergang der Beskiden. (2)In den Karpathendörfern hinter der Front spielte sich ein lebhaftes Kommen und Gehen von Kolonnen und Trains ab. (4) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Winterkrieg in den Karpathen: Österreichische Stellung auf dem Gebirgskamm. (2)Munitionsempfang. (5) [3 Abb.]: (1)Karpathenlandschaft aus dem Kampfraum der Südarmee. Die Bergformen der Waldkarpathen erinnern an das deutsche Mittelgebirge. - Charakteristisch für das dortige Gelände ist die Auflösung des Waldes in einzelne Baumgruppen und Waldparzellen. (2)Deutsche Artilleriekolonne auf dem Vormarsch zur Front. (3)Karpathenwinter. - Eingeschneites Gehöft in den Waldkarpathen. (6 - 7) [3 Abb.]: (1)Rundbild des Kampfgeländes am Zwinin I und Ostrog, das erst nach langem erbitterten Ringen von den Deutschen genommen wurde. Zwischen beiden liegt das Orawatal, das bei den Kämpfen eine große Rolle spielte. (2)Deutsche Schützengräben am Nordhang des eroberten Zwinin. (3)Der Gipfel des Zwinin. (8 - 9) Die Gorlice-Offensive 1915 (10 - 11) [3 Abb.]: (1)Rundbild des Kampfraumes um Gorlice. Hier war die Haupteinbruchstelle der deutschen 11. Armee. Das Gelände kennzeichnet sich als weitgeformtes Hügelland mit flachen Höhenzügen und breiten Tälern. Ackerflächen wechseln mit Waldzügen (2)Gorlice nach dem Angriff. Im Vordergrund ein quer über die Straße gezogener russischer Schützengraben. Links vor dem Haus verwundete Russen. Auf der Straße hält eine aufgesessene Munitionskolonne. Im Hintergrund Brandwolken. (3)Die vordersten stark zerschossenen Häuser von Gorlice. Das Bild ist wenige Stunden nach dem Sturm aufgenommen worden und zeigt die Spuren der schweren Kämpfe. Vor den Häusern liegen noch die Leichen der gefallenen Russen. (10 - 11) [3 Abb.]: (1)Rundbild des Kampfgeländes etwa fünf Kilometer südlich Gorlice. - Diese Aufnahme wurde, ebenso wie die anderen Rundbilder, durch eine deutsche Vermessungsabteilung für kriegsgeschichtliche Zwecke im Jahre 1917 hergestellt. (2)Nach dem Sturm: Aufbruch zur Verfolgung. (3)Vormarsch: Deutsche Infanterie schließt sich aus der Schützenlinie wieder zur Marschkolonnen zusammen. (12 - 13) [3 Abb.]: (1)Verfolgungskämpfe: Blick in das Tal der Ropa bei Biecz, nordöstlich Gorlice. (2)Vormarsch österreichischer Kavallerie gegen den San. (3)Österreichische Infanterie auf der Verfolgung in Richtung Przemysl. (14 - 15) [2 Abb.]: (1)Vorbeimarsch des 4. Garderegiments z. F. vor Prinz Eitel Friedrich, dem Kommandeur der I. Garde Infanterie-Division. (2)Ein deutsches Garderegiment, auf rastloser Verfolgung in Galizien, durchwatet bei Sulatvcze das Flüßchen Swica. (16) [2 Abb.]: (1)Österreichischer Meldereiter zieht bei jüdischen Ortseinwohnern Erkundigungen über den Feind ein. - Die galizischen Juden bildeten im Kriege ein Element von zweifelhafter Zuverlässigkeit, das häufig auch den Feind mit Nachrichten versorgte. (2)Bei den Verfolgungskämpfen erlitten die Russen, die die nachdrängenden Deutschen mit Geschick und großem Opfermut immer wieder aufhielten, starke Verluste. - Das Bild zeigt eine russische Nachhutstellung und gibt einen Begriff von der Härte der vorausgegangenen Kämpfe. Der flüchtig ausgehobene Graben ist mit Toten und weggeworfenen Gewehren wie besät. (17) [2 Abb.]: (1)Abtransport russischer Gefangener aus Przemysl (2)Blick auf die galizische Landeshauptstadt Lemberg, die im Juli 1915 durch den Vormarsch der österreichischen und deutschen Karpathenarmee befreit wurde. (18) [2 Abb.]: (1)Durchmarsch deutscher Truppen durch Zolkiew. (2)Auf dem Vormarsch nach Tzernowitz: Bau einer Kriegsbrücke über den Dnjestr. (19) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ungarische Kavalleriepatrouille in einem südpolnischen Dorf. (2)Einmarsch österreichischer Truppen in Lublin, wo 1914 eine der großen Entscheidungsschlachten geschlagen worden war. (20) [2 Abb.]: (1) (2)Die fast völlig zerstörte Stadt Josefow an der Weichsel (Südpolen). Im Hintergrunde Kriegsbrücke aus Pfahljochen. (21) Stellungskämpfe in Galizien in den Jahren 1916 und 1917 (22) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Hinter der Front: Soldaten im Ruhequartier. (2)Unten: Straße in einem ruthenischen Dorf in Ostgalizien. (22) [2 Abb.]: (1)In den ruthenischen Bauernhäusern fanden die deutschen Soldaten in der Regel behagliche und saubere Unterkunft. (2)Einrücken einer österreichischen Batterie in eine in der Nähe der Kampffront gelegene ostgalizische Stadt. (23) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Wolhynische Winterlandschaft. (2)Unten: Schneeschmelze. (24) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Wolhynisches Gehöft. (2)Unten: Russischer Soldatenfriedhof in Wolhynien. (25) Die Offensive in Zloczow (26) [2 Abb.]: (1)Gefechtsstand eines Divisionsstabes an der von Zloczow nach Tarnopol führenden Straße (23. Juli 1917). (2)Nach gelungenem Durchbruch setzte eine rastlose Verfolgung ein: Deutsche Truppen durchschreiten ein ostgalizisches Dorf. (26) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Lysoniahöhe bei Brzezany spielte in den Kämpfen eine wichtige Rolle. Im Hintergrund russische Stellungen. (2)Die verlassene russische Hauptstellung südöstlich Brzezany am Fuß der Lysoniahöhe und an der Straße nach Podhajce. (27) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Artillerie wetteifert mit der Infanterie im Drange der Verfolgung; diesmal sollte ein Ende gemacht werden. (2)Auch die schwere Artillerie wollte nicht zurückbleiben. Schwieriger Übergang einer Mörserbatterie über einen Bachlauf. (28) [2 Abb.]: (1)Das ostgalizische Land litt schwer unter den Schrecken des Krieges. In Brand geschossenes Dorf; auf der linken Bildseite zahlreiche Geschoßtrichter erkennbar. Im Dorfe sind anscheinend Tücher als Erkennungszeichen für die Flieger ausgelegt. (2)Marktplatz in dem fast völlig zerstörten Podhajce. Eine Eigentümlichkeit bildeten die vielfach mit Blech gedeckten Dächer. (29) [2 Abb.]: (1)Blick auf das eben geräumte, in Rauchwolken gehüllte Tarnopol. Die Stadt hatte durch die Kämpfe schwer gelitten. (2)Deutsche truppen im Vormarsch durch Tarnopol, in dem sich schon wieder lebhaft der Trieb zu Handel und Geschäft regt. (30) [2 Abb.]: (1)Biwak deutscher Truppen auf der Zlota-Gora-Höhe. Ein sehr glücklich erfaßter Moment: Alles ist in voller Tätigkeit. (2)Östlich vom Serethfluß, an der russischen Grenze, wurde die Verfolgung angehalten. Es lag nicht im Plan der deutschen Obersten Heeresleitung, dem Feind nach Rußland hinein zu folgen. - Rast deutscher Truppen am Ufer des Sereth. (31) Die Besetzung der Ukraine im Frühjahr 1918 (32) [2 Abb.]: (1)Mit Maschinengewehr ausgerüsteter deutscher Kraftwagen auf Erkundungsfahrt. (2)An vielen Stellen versuchten bolschewistische Banden Widerstand zu leisten. - Zerschossenes russisches Panzerauto. (32) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ein mit leichtem Funkgerät ausgerüsteter deutscher Panzerkraftwagen nimmt funkentelegraphische Verbindung auf. (2)Die deutschen und österreichischen Kriegsgefangenen erhielten zum größten Teil die Freiheit zurück. Sie fuhren auf überladenen Zügen den einrückenden Truppen entgegen. Das Bild zeigt sie noch in ihrer russischen Lazarettbekleidung. (33) [3 Abb.]: (1)Blick von dem auf dem Steilufer des Dnjepr gelegenen Alt-Kiew auf die am flachen West- und Ostufer liegenden Stadtteile. Die beiden über den Dnejpr führenden zerstörten Brücken sind (Frühjahr 1918) noch nicht wieder hergestellt. (2)Das berühmte Kloster Lawra, eine der heiligsten Stätten Rußlands, zu dem jährlich zahllose Pilger wallfahrten. (3)Am 6. Juni 1918 ereignete sich in Kiew, wahrscheinlich durch Bolschewiken verursacht, eine ungeheure Explosion, der die dort lagernden Munitionsvorräte zum Opfer fielen. Die Fliegeraufnahme zeigt die durch die Explosion verursachten Brände. (34 - 35) [2 Abb.]: (1)Straßenleben in Kiew. - Die "breite Natur" des Russen äußert sich auch in der für europäische Verhältnisse ungewöhnlichen Weiträumigkeit der Straßen. - Charakteristisch sind die zahlreichen Droschken, die die Straßenränder säumen. (2)Die Uspensky-Kathedrale im Kloster Lawra. (36) [2 Abb.]: (1)Truppenparade vor dem österreichisch-ungarischen Armeeführer Böhm-Ermolli am Hafen von Odessa. - Die Österreicher hatten den südwestlichen Teil der Ukraine besetzt, in dem Odessa, der russische Haupthafen am Schwarzen Meer, liegt. (2)Die Quarantänestation am Hafen in Odessa. (37) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Hafen von Sewastopol. Am jenseitigen Ufer erbeutete russische Kriegsschiffe. Im Hintergrund die Marinekaserne. (2)Balaklawa, ein Städtchen unweit südlich Sewastopol, das durch die Kämpfe im Krimkrieg (1854) berühmt geworden ist. (38) [2 Abb.]: (1)An der Küste der Krim, die man die "russische Riviera" nennt, liegen höchst malerische Villenorte: Alupka bei Jalta. (2)Die russischen Zaren hatten sich an der schönsten Stelle der Küste, bei Livadia, ihre prunkvollen Schlösser erbaut. (39) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Soldaten auf der Krim: Truppenfähre über eine Meerenge. (2)Tatarisches Bauerngehöft. (40) [2 Abb.]: (1)Marktplatz einer südrussischen Stadt. (2)Typisches Bild einer russischen Bahnstation während des Krieges. (41) [2 Abb.]: (1)Blick auf Charkow, die Hauptstadt der östlichen Ukraine. (2)Floßbrücke über den Don bei Rostow, unweit der Flußmündung in das Asowsche Meer. (42) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nowotscherkaffk am Don: Triumphbogen zur Erinnerung an die Kriege 1813 - 1815. (2)Aus dem Gebiet der Domkosaken: Deutsche Kompanie hält in einem Kosakendorf Appell ab. (43) Die Besetzung der Kaukasusländer (44) [2 Abb.]: (1)Tiflis, die Hauptstadt von Georgien. Hier hatte der deutsche Militärbevollmächtigte für die Kaukasusländer seinen Sitz. Die Stadt ist rings von hohen Bergwänden umgeben und wird von der "brausenden Kura" durchflossen. (2)Straßenleben in Tiflis. (44) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Kura, die die Stadt in starkem Gefälle durcheilt, hat sich ein teifes Bett in den Felsboden gegraben. (2)Ankunft deutscher Truppen in Tiflis. (45) [2 Abb.]: (1)Feierlicher Trauerzug für den während der deutschen Besatzungszeit in Tiflis verstorbenen georgischen Metropoliten Hieron II. In dem Prunk der Gewänder zeigt sich das Streben der orthodoxen Kirche nach höchster Prachtentfaltung. (2)Deutsche Kolonne auf dem Vormarsch im Kaukasus. (46) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Kaukasus, einer der großen Grenzwälle Asiens und Europas, bildet zwischen dem Elbrus und dem Kasbek einen fast lückenlosen riesigen Gebirgskamm von 3000 - 5000 Meter Höhe. - Fliegeraufnahme der kaukasischen Gebirgswelt. (2)Georgische Reiter in ihrer Nationaluniform. (47) [Abb.]: Der Kasbek, der in ewiges Eis gehüllte höchste Berg des Kaukasusgebirges, unweit der von Tiflis nach Wladikawkas führenden Grusinischen Heerstraße, erhebt sich bis 5600 Meter. (48) [Karte]: Polen ( - ) [2 Karten]: (1)Mittleres Russland (2)Kaukasusfront ( - ) Die serbisch-mazedonische Front ( - ) Vorwort ([1]) Der Donauübergang (19) [Abb.]: Besonders heftig waren die Kämpfe um den Besitz der Stadt Belgrad, die sich auf einer Hügelkette am Südüfer der Donau und Save über die flache ungarische Ebene erhebt. Der wichtigste Punkt der Flußverteidigung war hier der Kalemegdan, die aus den Türkenkriegen bekannte Burg, seit Jahrhunderten das Wahrzeichen der Stadt. Auf steilem felsen hoch über der Einmündung der Save in die Donau gelegen, beherrscht sie weithin die Stadt und ihre Umgebung. Ihre Widerstandskraft erlag jedoch bald der Wirkung deutschen und österreichischen schweren Geschütze. (19) [3 Abb.]: (1)Übergang österreichischer Truppen über die Save westlich Belgrad. Der Charakter der Landschaft auf dem Nordufer der Save und Donau - weite und wenig bewaldete Ebene - sowie das Anstauen der Truppen vor dem Flußübergang ist gut zu erkennen. (2)Übersetzen deutscher Truppen auf Fähren über die Donau bei Ram in der Morgedämmerung des 7. Oktober. Das Südufer des Flusses steigt steil zu beträchtlichen Höhen an. Trotz der schwierigen Uferverhältnisse vollzog sich der Übergang hier am besten. (3)Rechts unten: Das Dorf Ram kurz nach dem Übergang der ersten Truppen. Der Ort ist als Truppenverbandplatz eingerichtet. Die Sanitätssoldaten sind dabei, Landesfuhrwerke zum Rücktransport der Verwundeten zu requirieren. (20 - 21) [3 Abb.]: (1)Der Übergang bei der alten Türkenfestung Semendria glückte nur an einer der beiden Übergangsstellen, und zwar östlich der Semendriainsel (auf der linken Bildseite an dem bewaldeten Ufer erkennbar). Hier wurde später die auf dem Bild sichtbare Kriegsbrücke gebaut. - Das weitere Vorgehen der deutschen Truppen geriet in das versumpfte Gelände zwischen der Morawa-Mündung und der Stadt. - Vorne links zwei österreichische Donaumonitore. (2)Links: Die Übergangsstelle auf der Ostseite von Belgrad. Im Vordergrund die ungarische Stadt Semlin. Dahinter eine große flache Insel im Mündungsdreieck der Donau und Save. Im Hintergrund Belgrad mit dem Burghügel des Kalimegdan. Die hier angesetzten Truppen stiegen nördlich Semlin auf Pontonfähren, fuhren die Donau abwärts und landeten links von der Insel am Fuß des Kalimegdan. (3)Rechts: Herstellung einer für die schwersten Lasten bestimmten österreichischen Kolonnenbrücke über die Donau, nahe bei Belgrad. Das Bild läßt das Einfahren der aus je vier großen Kähnen bestehenden Brückenglieder mit Hilfe von Dampfern erkennen. - Es laufen zwei getrennte Fahrbahnen über die Brücke, für jede Fahrtrichtung eine. (22 - 23) Der Vormarsch durch Serbien bis zur Schlacht auf dem Amselfeld (24) [2 Abb.]: (1)zerstörte Moravabrücke bei Cuprija. - Die schnelle Wiederherstellung der Eisenbahnbrücken über die Save und die Morawa war zur Gewinnung einer Eisenbahnverbindung nach der schwer bedrängten Türkei von höchster Wichtigkeit. (2)Unten: Abtransport serbischer Gefangener vom Schlachtfeld. sehr bezeichnednes Bild: Ein deutscher Musketier voraus, hinter ihm ein langer Zug von gefangenen, von denen neimand daran denkt, fortzulaufen oder zurückzubleiben. (24) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Die Wege waren infolge andauerenden Regens grundlos geworden. Oft mußten sich lange Reihen von Soldaten vor die Seile spannen, um Geschütze und Fahrzeuge vorwärts zu bringen. - (2)Unten: Deutsche Truppen beziehen in einem kleinen serbischen Landstädtchen Quartier. (25) [2 Abb.]: (1)Freudige Begegnung: Erstes Zusammentreffen der im Moravatal vormarschierenden deutschen Truppen mit bulgarischer Kavallerie bei Paracin. (2)Typisches Bauernhaus in Nordserbien: flach nach den vier Seiten abfallendes Ziegeldach; loggiaartige Hausveranda. (26) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die durch den Regen hochangeschwollenen Gebirgsbäche verursachen auf den Gebirgswegen vielfach Zerstörungen. Landeseinwohner mußten, um den Kolonnenverkehr in Gang zu halten, zur Hilfestellung aufgeboten werden. (2)Serbische Flüchtlinge. - Angst vor der Rache der Bulgaren trieb in den Kampfgebieten viele Bauern von Haus und Hof. (27) [3 Abb.]: (1)Blick auf das Tal der Westmorawa und auf das hoch aufsteigende Gebirge südlich des Flusses. Im Hintergrunde die Stadt Kraljevo, bei der, aus dem Gebirge kommend, der Ibarfluß in die Westmorawa mündet. (2)Mitte: In dem engen, von hohen Gebirgen umschlossenen Ibartal läuft eine wichtige Straße nach Süden in die Gegend von Mitrovitza-Pristina und von hier aus weiter über das Umfeld nach dem südwestlichen serbien. Der Weg führte beschwerlich an Steilhängen und Abgründen entlang. (3)Rechts: Kolnnenverkehr in dem unweit der Einmündung der Westmorawa in die Morawa gelegene Krusevac. - Die Tragtierkolonnen bewährten sich in dem schwierigen Gelände Serbiens besser als das Armeefuhrwerk. - Die auf dem Platze stehende griechisch-katholische Kirche ist ein charakteristisches Beispiel neuserbischer Bauart. (28 - 29) [2 Abb.]: (1)Landschaftsbild vom Amselfeld. - (2)Unten: Bulgarische Infanterie auf dem Schlachtfelde während einer Gefechtspause. (30) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nach gewonnener Schlacht: Österreicher auf der Verfolgung. - (2)Unten: Bulgaren am Weißen Drin (Nordalbanien). (13 [31]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Der kranke serbische König Peter flüchtete, auf einem Sessel getragen, zusammen mit seinem Generalstabschef, dem General Putnik, über das Gebirge zur albanischen Küste. - (2)Unten: In die Gefangenschaft. (14 [32]) [Abb.]: Der österreichische Vormarsch in der unwegsamen montenegrinischen Gebirgslandschaft war außerordentlich mühsam. (15 [33]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Österreichische truppen auf dem Vormarsch durch Plewlje im nördlichen Montenegro. - (2)Unten: Ein Teil der Albaner schloß sich den Österreichern an. Albanische Freischärler auf dem Vormarsch gegen die Hafenstadt Durazzo. (16 [34]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eine Truppenfähre über den weißen Drin. Im Hintergrund eine der charakteristischen hochgewölbten steinernen Bogenbrücken, die für den Truppenverkehr umgebaut wird. - (2)Unten: Ein harter Winterfeldzug. Im Schneesturm. (17 [35]) Der mazedonische Kriegsschauplatz: das Etappengebiet (18 - 19 [36 - 37]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die wichtigste Stadt im nordöstlichen Mazedonien, Üsküb, bis vor wenigen Jahren noch türkische Provinzhauptstadt, hatte in den kurzen Jahren der serbischen Herrschaft ihren Charakter nur wenig geändert. Mit dem überaus bunten Gemisch ihrer Bevölkerung, ihren Moscheen und Basaren machte sie noch durchaus den Eindruck einer orientalischen Stadt. - (2)Unten: Weiter südlich hatte Prilep, eine malerisch zwischen hohen Gebirgen gelegene Stadt als zentraler Mittelpunkt der Hauptkampffront von Monastir und am Cernabogen besondere militärische Bedeutung. (18 - 19 [36 - 37]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die noch aus der Zeit des alten Serbenreichs stammende Brücke bei Üsküb. Im Hintergrunde die Zitadelle, die während des Krieges hauptsächlich als Lazarett benutzt wurde. (2)"Kurschumly Han", eine ehemalige Karawanserei in Üsküb. Die unteren Räume des zweigeschossigen, viereckig geschlossenen Arkadenhofs dienten als Magazine und Ställe, die oberen als Wohnräume für die durchreisenden Kaufleute. (20 [38]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Blick auf das Zigeunerviertel. Die winzig kleinen, in bunten Farben angestrichenen Häuser ziehen sich regellos am Hange des Burghügels hinauf. Das Leben der Zigeuner, die heute fast durchweg in bürgerlichen Berufen ihren Lebensunterhalt verdienen, spielt sich noch immer nach eigenen Sitten und Gebräuchen und in strenger Absonderung von der übrigen Bevölkerung ab. (2)Zigeunertracht. - Die Zigeunerinnen fallen durch die grellen Farben ihrer Tracht stark unter der übrigen Bevölkerung auf. Sie tragen bunte Tücher und Pluderhosen, die an den Knöcheln eng geschlossen sind. (21 [39]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Türkischer Friedhof bei Üsküb. Die Form der Grabsteine läßt erkennen, ob der Bestattete ein Mann oder eine Frau war. Die Grabsteine der Männer tragen eine Erhöhung in Form eines Turbans. Bei den Frauen fehlt dieses Kennzeichen. (2)Gemüsemarkt bei Üsküb. - In den mazedonischen Landstädten entwickelte sich ein lebhafter, für alle Teile befriedigender Handelsverkehr zwischen den deutschen Besatzungsbehörden und den Bauern, die ihre Erzeugnisse auf den Markt brachten. (22 [40]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Mazedonische Frauen und Mädchen beim Rundtanz (Rolo). (2)Unten: Volkstrachten der Männer. (23 [41]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Für die Kampffront beiderseits des Vardar-Flusses war Veles der Hauptort des Etappengebiets. Die Stadt steigt zu beiden Seiten des engen Flußtals an den Hängen empor. - (2)Unten: Bulgarische Truppen überschreiten den Vardar. (24 [42]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ein mazedonisches Wohnhaus in Veles. Im Unterstock der übliche offene Handwerksladen, der in der Nacht durch Holzläden geschlossen wird. Der obere Stock hat eine gedeckte Veranda, die für viele häusliche Verrichtungen und als Schlafplatz dient. Am Oberstock des Nachbarhauses läuft eine für ähnliche Zwecke bestimmte offene Holzgalerie entlang. - (2)Unten: Die Vardaenge von Demir Kapu südwestlich Veles. Der Vardar durchbricht das Gebirge in einem sehr engen Tal. Bei Demir Kapu treten die Felswände so dicht zusammen, daß der Raum für die Bahn künstlich geschaffen werden mußte. (43) [2Abb.]: (1)Kriegsbrücke über den Vardar. - (2)Unten: Der Babunapaß war ein wichtiger Gebirgsübergang zwischen Veles und Prilep. (44) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Auf den steilen mazedonischen Gebirgsstraßen kam man am besten mit Büffel- und Ochsengespannen vorwärts. - (2)Unten: Typische Handwerkerstraße in einer mazedonischen Kleinstadt. (45) [2 Abb.]: (1)Von Prilep aus führte eine Drahtseilbahn über hohe Gebirge hinweg nach dem an der Bahnlinie Nisch - Saloniki gelegenen Gradsko. Diese Verbindung war, mangels einer Eisenbahn, für die Versorgung des Kampfgebietes von Monastir von ganz besonderer Wichtigkeit. (2)Unten: Straßenbild in Prilep. (46) [Abb.]: Kleinere Moschee, wie man sie in den mohammedanischen Dörfern Mazedoniens häufig trifft. - Der Niedergang der türkischen Herrschaft auf dem Balkan hinterläßt seine Spuren auch in dem Verfall vieler mohammedanischer Gotteshäuser. (47) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ein charakteristisches Bild aus dem mazedonischen Gebirge: Hirte, der lediglich durch seinen Schafpelz und eine Decke gegen die Unbilden der Witterung geschützt, monatelang mit seiner Herde unter freiem Himmel lebt. (2)Unten: Mazedonischer Bauer, der sein in der Kampfzone liegendes Heimatdorf verlassen muß. Beachtenswert ist der schöne Wuchs und die freie stolze Haltung dieses kräftigen und gesunden Menschenschlags. (48) [2 Abb.]: (1)Trauerandacht an serbischen Kriegsgräbern. (2)Unten: Flüchtlinge vor einem mazedonischen Bauerngehöft. (49) Die Kampffront Albanien (50) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Straßenbild aus Mitrowitza. (2)Unten: albanische Gebirgslandschaft westlich des Ochridasees. (50) [2 Abb.]: (1)Durazzo, der wichtigste albanische Hafen am Adriatischen Meer. Südlich der Stadt begann die albanisch-mazedonische Kampffront. - (2)Unten: Prizrend. Das Bild gibt eine Vorstellung von dem bunten Straßenleben und den Volkstrachten einer kleinen südserbischen Stadt. Die Bevölkerung ist zum größten Teil albanisch und mohammedanisch. (51) Die Front am Ochrida- und Presbasee (52 - 53) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Der Ochridasee mit der Stadt Ochrida. Im Hintergrund die albanischen Berge. (2)Unten: Blick auf das Nordwestufer des Presbasees. (52 - 53) [3 Abb.]: (1)Der Hauptgipfel des Peristeri, der, die Ebene von Monastir mächtig überragend, sich zu einer Höhe von 2500 m erhebt. Der Berg bildete den Schlüsselpunkt der Stellungen zwischen dem Presbasee und der Cernaniederung. (2)Blick auf die Stadt Ochrida. (3)Am Ufer des Ochridasees. (54 - 55) [3 Abb.]: (1)Gesamtansicht von Monastir, der Hauptstadt des südlichen Mazedonien. Die Stadt mußte im Jahre 1916 während der Herbstschlacht in Mazedonien der Orientarmee überlassen werden. (2)Mit deutschen und bulgarischen Fahnen geschmückte Straße von Monastir beim Einzug des bulgarischen Königs. (3)Die hart umkämpften bulgarischen Stellungen auf den zur Ebene von Monastir abfallenden Hängen des Peristerigebirges. (56 - 57) Der Frontabschnitt Cernabogen (58 - 59) [3 Abb.]: (1)Der Cernabogen von Süden gesehen. - Der halbkreisförmige Lauf der Cerna, die zunächst in der Ebene von Monastir nach Süden fließt und dann in kurzem Bogen sich nach Norden zurückwendet, ist auf dem Bild deutlich erkennbar. Links die Ebene von Monastir. Rechts die Senke, in der die Cerna das Gebirge in nordöstlicher Richtung durchbricht. - Der Versuch der Bulgaren, hier den Ansturm der Orientarmee im Herbst 1916 aufzuhalten, mißlang. (2)Blick von Westen (aus Gegend Kenali) auf den Cernabogen. Das Bild zeigt die üppige Vegetation in der Flußniederung der Cerna. (3)Blick auf das Gebirgsmassiv des Kaimakcalan. Der Schneeberg im Hintergrund ist der Hauptgipfel des Kaimakcalan. (58 - 59) [3 Abb.]: (1)Blick von Bobiste, einem nordöstlich der Höhe 1050 gelegenen 130 Meter hohen Gipfel, auf die endgültige von den verbündeten gehaltene Kampfstellung im Cernabogen. Hinter der Höhe 1050 ist die Ebene von Monastir sichtbar. (2)Die Höhe 1050. - Auf der anderen Seite der Ebene von Monastir ragt die mächtige Bergkette des Peristeri empor. (3)Die Stellung auf dem "Stabsberg". Links führt ein sehr schmaler Grat zu dem Felsengipfel der Höhe 1050. (60 - 61) [3 Abb.]: (1)Landschaftsbild aus der Cernaebene nördlich von Monastir. Im Hintergrund der schmale Gebirgskamm der Seleska Planina, der sich zu beiden Seiten von der Cerna umflossen, nach Süden zieht. Das Gebirge erreicht in dieser Gegend Höhen von 1500 m. Sie spielten während des bulgarischen Rückzugs im Herbst 1918 eine erhebliche Rolle. - Im Vordergrund ein bauernhof typisch mazedonischer Bauart. (2)Bulgaren beim Bau ihrer rückwärtigen Stellungen im Cernabogen, an den Hängen des Bobiste. Nur durch Sprengungen und mit Hilfe von Stemmeisen und Spitzhacken gelang es, in das harte Gestein einzudringen. (3)Bulgarische Befehlsstellung im Cernabogen. Die Anlage des Telephonunterstandes läßt auch hier die Schwierigkeiten der Felsbearbeitung erkennen. Der Unterstand ragt halb aus dem Felsboden heraus und ist nur durch Steinanschüttung geschützt. (62 - 63) Die Vardafront (64 - 65) [2 Abb.]: (1)Landschaft in der Gegend von Ghevgeli, der amzedonischen Bahnstation an der griechischen Grenze. Im Hintergrunde links der Vardarfluß. Nach rechts zu steigen die zum Gebirgsstock des Dudica hinüberführenden Bergzüge an. - Auf den Hügeln im Vordergrunde sind Geschützstände und Depotanlagen erkennbar. (2)Die Stellungen am Doiransee, östlich des Vardar, standen zeitweilig im Mittelpunkt heftiger Kämpfe, ohne daß es den Truppen der Alliierten gelang, hier wesentliche Vorteile zu erringen. (64 - 65) Die Strumafront (66) [2 Abb.]: (1)Gefechtsstand eines bulgarischen Stabes im Belasiza-Gebirge. (2)Die kleine griechische Stadt Ziliahovo, östlich des Tahinosees. (66) [2 Abb.]: (1)Griechische Bauern. Auch hier, wie in vielen anderen Landstrichen des Balkan, wird noch mit dem Holzpflug gepflügt. - Das Auftauchen der Pinie, die im Inneren des Landes nur selten zu finden ist, weist darauf hin, daß diese Landschaft schon unter dem Einfluß des Mittelmeerklimas steht. (2)Griechische und türkische Bevölkerungstypen auf dem Marktplatz der 1916 von den Bulgaren eroberten Stadt Drama. (67) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Türkische Kamelkolonne an der Tränke. - (2)Unten: Türkische Soldaten im Biwak in der Gegend von Drama. (68) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: In der Etappe: Mit Ochsen bespannte Fuhrparkkolonne. - (2)Unten: Die Hafenstadt Kawalla am Ägäischen Meer. Blick auf die nur durch einen schmalen Damm mit dem Festlande verbundene Altstadt und auf das Kastell. (69) [Abb.]: Deutscher Soldatenfriedhof bei Prilep. ( - ) [3 Karten]: (1)Die Kämpfe in Serbien (2)Albanien südl. Teil (3)Die Kämpfe in Mazedonien ( - ) Italienfront ( - ) Vorwort ([1]) Am Isonzo (17) [Abb.]: Das "Becken von Flitsch", ein fruchtbares Hochgebirgstal zwischen mächtig sich auftürmenden Felswänden, breitet sich, dem oberen Isonzo in ost-westlicher Richtung folgend, zwischen den Gebirgszügen des Monte Rombon und Monte Canin und dem Krnmassiv. - Das zur Zeit der deutsch-österreichischen Herbstoffensive 1917 aufgenommene Bild gibt Flitsch von Südosten wieder. Hinter dem halbzerschossenen Ort erhebt sich der Monte Canin. Die Hänge rechts führen zum Rombon hinauf. In den Wiesen diesseits von Flitsch sind die vordersten italienischen Stellungen erkennbar. (17) [2 Abb.]: (1)Blick von der Hochfläche von Bainsizza-Heiligengeist nach Norden auf den Krn (rechts) und auf die Gebirgsgruppe des Monte Canin (links). Im Vordergrunde die Berge von Tolmein und Sta. Luzia. Das Absinken des Gebirges von Norden nach Süden ist auf diesem Bild deutlich erkennbar. (2)Landschaft aus dem Kampfgebiet des Krn. Auf halbem Hange Drahthindernisse und Gräben. Vorn links eine Flankierungsanlage (18) [2 Abb.]: (1)Mühsam mußte das Kriegsgerät, im Sommer oft auch das Trinkwasser, durch Tragtiere auf die Gipfel geschafft werden. In den schweren Schneestürmen des Winters mußte der Transport bisweilen wochenlang ganz aussetzen. (2)Kampfgrabenbesatzung im Hochgebirge. - Gefährlicher fast noch als die Durchschlags- und Sprengwirkung der Geschosse war die Steinsplitterwirkung. (19) [2 Abb.]: (1)Charakteristisches Bild einer Kampfgrabenbesatzung in 2000 Meter Höhe. - Zur Abschwächung der Steinsplitterwirkung ist die Brustwehr mit Sandsäcken belegt. - In der Mitte des Bildes eine Schulterwehr gegen Flankenfeuer; die Steinpackung wird durch Bretter und Drahtgeflecht zusammengehalten (2)Für die Bereitschaften wurden oft tiefe Höhlen in den Fels gesprengt. - Eine behagliche Mittagsstunde. (20) [2 Abb.]: (1)Hinter der Stellung. - Wasser war im Sommer auf den Berggipfeln des Krn eine Kostbarkeit. Mühsam wurde es in Fässern durch Tragtiere hinaufgebracht. - Hier erlaubt der kleine Gebirgssee sogar den Luxus des Wäschewaschens. (2)Ein "bombensicheres" Stabsquartier im Krngebirge. Der Steinbruch ist zu einer Offiziersmesse mit Tischtüchern und Geschirr, mit gedieltem Boden und Ziersträuchern umgestaltet. - Ein Idyll, das freilich mit den ersten kalten Herbststürmen sein Ende fand. (21) [2 Abb.]: (1)Stellung auf der Hochebene von Bainsizza-Heiligengeist. An Stelle von Gräben hat man sich hier mit aufgesetzten Mauern aus Feldsteinen begnügt. (2)Halb zerstörtes Kampfgebiet im mitteleren Isonzo. (22) [2 Abb.]: (1)Kampfstellung auf der Hochebene von Bainsizza-Heiligengeist. Auch hier haben starke Sandsackpackungen gegen die Steinsplitterwirkung Verwendung gefunden. Die Anlage läßt erkennen, daß auf diesem Teil der Front längere Zeit Kampfruhe geherrscht hat. Auffallend ist der hohe Aufbau der Beobachtungs- und Maschinengewehrstände (2)Im rückwärtigen Gebiet: Die Berge sind hier bereits niedriger, die Hänge flacher. Der Antransport des Kriegsgeräts zu den vorderen Stellungen erfolgte nicht mehr durch Tragtiere auf Saumpfaden, sondern auf Gebirgsstraßen durch Fuhrparkkolonnen. (23) [2 Abb.]: (1)Unten: der Kampfraum von Görz von Süden, von der Hochebene von Doberdo aus, gesehen. Im Vordergrunde, am Fuß der Hochebene, das Wippachtal; in der Mitte des Bildes, von den niedrigen Höhen der Podgora (links) und San Marco (rechts) eingerahmt, die Stadt. Dahinter der Monte Sobotino und Monte Santo (rechte Bildseite) und weiterhin die Südhänge der Alpen. - Aus der Lage der rings von Bergen umschlossenen Stadt ergibt sich, daß ihr Besitz nur von beschränktem strategischem Wert war; viel wichtiger war der Besitz der Berge. (2)Blick in südlicher Richtung auf Görz. Im Vordergrund der Isonzo zwischen den Hängen des Monte Sabotino (rechts) und des Monte Santo (links). Hinter der Stadt der langgestreckte Nordhang der Hochfläche von Doberdo mit San Michele (rechts), an deren Fuße sich, noch sichtbar, der Isonzo entlang windet. (24 - 25) [3 Abb.]: (1)Schweres Feuer auf die österreichischen Stellungen bei Sankt Peter und San Marco hart östlich Görz am 1. November 1916. Das Bild ist ungefähr vom gleichen Standpunkt aufgenommen wie das vorige. (2)Das halb zerstörte Görz im Sommer 1916, kurz vor der Eroberung durch die Italiener. Im Hintergrund das alte Kastell. (3)Sankt Peter, wenige hundert Meter südlich des Görzer Kastells auf einer Anhöhe gelegen, ein Wahrzeichen der Stadt, weithin sichtbar, fiel dem italienischen Feuer im Jahre 1916 zum Opfer. (26 - 27) [3 Abb.]: (1)Flammenwerferangriff im kahlen Karstgebiet. (2)Maschinengewehr im Feuer. (3)Die Hochfläche von Doberdo. Blick von der Hermada, einer Hügelgruppe am Südrande der Hochfläche, nach Nordwesten in Richtung auf das Vallone, auf das Dorf Doberdo und den Monte San Michele. Die Hochfläche hat eine durchschnittliche Höhe von 200 m. Die Entfernung vom Standort bis Doberdo beträgt 8,5 bis Jamiano 4, bis zum Monte San Michele etwa 10 km. (28 - 29) [2 Abb.]: (1)Artilleriekampf. (2)Kampfgelände auf der Hermada bei S. Giovanni. (30) [2 Abb.]: (1)Blick von der Hermada auf die Sdobba, das Mündungsgebiet des Isonzo. Im Hintergrund rechts die Stadt Monfalcone, links das Adriatische Meer. (2)Küstenlandschaft am Adriatischen Meer: Das während des Krieges fast völlig zerstörte Schloß Duino am Südrande der Hermada. (31) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der junge Kaiser Karl im Gespräch mit dekorierten Mannschaften bei einem Besuch an der Kampffront von Doberdo. - Typisches Bild einer Doline auf der Karsthochfläche, mit etwas angeschwemmtem Boden, auf dem sich nur eine mäßige Vegetation entwickelt. (2)Conrad von Hötzendorf, der österreichische Generalstabschef, bis zur Thronbesteigung Kaiser Karls allmächtig in der k. u. k. Armee, auf einer Besichtigungsreise an der Isonzofront. Conrad wurde von Kaiser Karl seines Amtes enthoben und mit dem Kommando der österreichischen Front in Tirol betraut. (32) Die österreichische Offensive in Südtirol (33) [2 Abb.]: (1)Blick auf Rovereto im Etschtal. Im Vordergrund das im 13. Jahrhundert errichtete Kastell Dante. (2)Österreichische Kampfstellungen an der Südtiroler Grenze im Raum Vielgereuth - Lafraun. Am Horizont über den Wäldern die italienischen Grenzstellungen. (33) [2 Abb.]: (1)Feuervorbereitung für die Frühjahrsoffensive. - Österreichische Langrohrbatterie. (2)Sturm der österreichischen Infanterie auf die italienischen Grenzstellungen nördlich Asiago. - Beide Bilder zeigen gut den landschaftlichen Charakter des Angriffsgeländes. (34) [2 Abb.]: (1)Vorbringen von Gebirgsschützen durch die Sturmtruppen (2)Ein durch österreichisches Artilleriefeuer völlig zerstörtes italienisches Panzerwerk. (35) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nach der Offensive: Die neuen italienischen Stellungen östlich von Asiago, hart südlich des Monte Meletta. Man erkennt vier hintereinanderliegende Grabensysteme. Die dunklen Streifen vor den Gräben sind die Drahthindernisse. (2)Das Gelände westlich von Asiago in Richtung Arsiero. Die Aufnahme wurde von dem italienischen Werk Campolongo aus gemacht. Auf der rechten Bildseite das schroff abfallende Tal des Astico. In der Bildmitte die dunsterfüllte Assaschlucht; diesseits von ihr die österreichischen, jenseits die italienischen Stellungen. - beide Bilder stammen aus dem Jahre 1917. (36) Im Kampfgebiet der Hochalpen (37) [Abb.]: Auf der Dolomitenstraße zwischen Welschnofen und Karerseepaß, im Hintergrund der Latemar. Als einzige west-östliche Querverbindung war diese Straße von hohem strategischem Wert. (37) [2 Abb.]: (1)Im Ortlergebiet. - Rundblick vom Monte Cevedale (Zufallspitze) auf die Ortlergruppe. (2)Im Gebiet der Adamellogruppe. - Blick vom Monte Pasquale nach Süden. (38 - 39) [Abb.]: Auf den höchsten Bergzinnen, die nur durch geübte Bergsteiger bezwungen werden konnten, nisteten die Tiroler Scharfschützen sich ein. (40) [2 Abb.]: (1)Österreichische Alpentruppen beim Aufstieg. (2)Unten: Vor einer Gletscherspalte. (41) [Abb.]: An der Dolomitenfront: Übersicht über die Marmolatagruppe. Das Bild gibt eine Vorstellung von der Großartigkeit der Gebirgslandschaft, in der die Kämpfe sich abspielten. Zugleich aber läßt es die Beschränkungen erkennen, unter denen der Gebirgskrieg hier stand. Da, wo Gebirgswände unersteiglich emporstarrten, gab es keine durchlaufenden Stellungen und keine regelrechte Besatzung, sondern nur eine Art Feldwachstellung. An den Gebirgsscharten und an den Hängen, wo feindliche Annäherung und Angriff möglich waren, wurden Stützpunkte angelegt, deren Verteidigungsanlagen und Unterkunftsräume in den Fels oder in das Gletschereis eingesprengt waren. Es entstanden auf diese weise kilometerlange Tunnels und ganze unterirdische Kasernements. - Einzelne Geschütze in Felskasematten bestrichen der Länge nach das während der Nacht unter Scheinwerferbeleuchtung liegende Vorgelände. - Für den Transport der Verpflegung und der Kampfmittel spielten die über schwindelnde Abgründe bis zu den höchsten Gipfeln hinaufgeführten Drahtseilbahnen eine entscheidende Rolle. (42 - 43) [2 Abb.]: (1)Fahrt mit einer Drahtseilbahn in den Dolomiten. (2)Österreichische Patrouille in der zerklüfteten Eiswelt des Marmolatagletschers. - Nur ausgebildete Bergführer können diese schwierigen Patrouillengänge unternehmen. (44) [Abb.]: Artilleriebeobachtungsstand auf einer der Felsspitzen des Adamellogebiets. (45) [Abb.]: Die italienischen Stellungen in den Dolomiten am Zwölferkofel. Der Verlauf der Stellungen ist durch die eingezeichneten Linien besser kenntlich gemacht. - Das Strichnetz in diesem und einigen der folgenden Bilder zeigt, daß diese Aufnahmen von einer Kriegs-Vermessungsabteilung stammen. (46 - 47) [2 Abb.]: (1)Italienische Truppen beim Stellungsbau im Hochgebirge. (2)Österreichische Gebirgskolonnen-Batterie auf dem Wege zur Frontstellung. (48) [2 Abb.]: (1)Auf Saumpfaden. (2)Rast in der Hochgebirgssonne und - Entlaufen. (49) [2 Abb.]: (1)Auf der Marmolata. Unterstände am rückwärtigen Hange. - Die Leiter an der mittleren Felsspitze endigt an einem durch den Felsen hindurchführenden Beobachtungs- oder Maschinengewehrstand. Auch der in den linken Felsen gehauene Unterstand scheint unmittelbaren Kampfzwecken zu dienen. (2)Im ewigen Eis der Marmolatagruppe. - Geschütz in einer ausgebauten Gletscherhöhle. Die ins Eis gebrochene Öffnung feindwärts ist mit Sandflächen und Bohlen geschützt und halb geschlossen. (50) [2 Abb.]: (1)Von den Gletscherhöhlen aus wurden Eisstollen gegen die feindliche Stellung vorgetrieben, dabei mußten tiefe Gletscherspalten, wo sie die Stollenquerten, überbrückt werden. (2)Unten: Mineure bei der Arbeit. Verdämmen der Bohrladung. - Selbstverständlich wurden beim Bau der Stollen die modernsten Mittel der Technik verwendet: elektrisches Bohrgerät, künstliche Luftzuführung. (51) [Abb.]: Der Col di Lana, "Blutberg" genannt, zwischen der Marmolatagruppe und den Drei Zinnen, wurde von den Italienern unterminiert und in die Luft gesprengt. Es war die erste große Gipfelsprengung. Die Sprengstelle zwischen den beiden Berggipfeln ist an der gewaltigen Schutthalde deutlich erkennbar. Rechts und links von ihr führen die österreichische und italienische Stellung in das Tal hinab. - Auch hier sind die Stellungen durch eingezeichnete Linien hervorgehoben. (52 - 53) Die deutsch-österreichische Offensive in Oberitalien (54 - 55) [4 Abb.]: (1)Wenige Gebirgsstraßen standen für den Anmarsch und Vormarsch der deutschen und österreichischen Angriffstruppen zur Verfügung. Nur durch schärfste Straßendisziplin war es möglich, den Marsch der Truppenmassen und den gewaltigen Kolonnenverkehr ohne Stocken und ernste Reibungen durchzuführen. (2)Rast deutscher Truppen an einer der Paßstraßen. Um diese Zeit lag in den höheren Gebirgsregionen bereits Schnee. (3)Trommelfeuer auf die italienischen Stellungen. (4)Abschuß eines 30,5-cm-Mörser, des schwersten Geschützes der k. u. k. Artillerie. Man ahnt die ungeheure Lufterschütterung. (54 - 55) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Soldaten beobachten bei Sta. Luzia das Artilleriefeuer. (2)Unten: Die vernichtende Wirkung der Spreng- und Gasmunition zwang einzelne italienische Soldaten, ihre zerstörten und vergasten Gräben zu verlassen und zu den österreichischen Stellungen hinüber zu laufen. (56) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Hinter einer Wand von Rauch und Feuer stürmen die deutschen Truppen 9 Uhr morgens über das Tal des Isonzo. (2)Unten: Die ersten Gefangenen - froh, dem Tode entronnen zu sein - werden durch die vordersten Stellungen zurückgebracht. (57) [3 Abb.]: (1)Vormarsch der deutschen 12. Infanteriedivision nach Karfreit. (2)Blick in das Isonzotal aus der gegend südlich Tolmein. Der Infanterieangriff ist bereits im Gange, das Abwehrfeuer der Italiener ist schwach. Die Aufnahme gibt einen Eindruck von dem trüben regnerischen Wetter und der geringen Sichtigkeit, die den Italienern das Erkennen des Marsches der Deutschen im Tal von Karfreit außerordentlich erschwerte. (3)Das Aufmarsch- und Angriffsgelände der deutschen Truppen im Tal des Isonzo zwischen Karfreit und Tolmein. (58 - 59) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Die feindlichen Stellungen am Kolovratrücken westlich Tolmein, gegen die die Deutschen über das breite Isonzotal hinweg anstürmen mußten. (2)Der Monte Matajur, ein Berggipfel von über 1600 Meter Höhe, Schlüsselpunkt des Eingangs in das Tal des Natisone und damit in die Oberitalienische Ebene. (60) [2 Abb.]: (1)Das Natisonetal. Am Hange italienische Barackenlager. (2)Wirkung eines Volltreffers in eine italienische Munitionskolonne auf der Vormarschstraße nach Cividale. (61) [2 Abb.]: (1)Auf dem Paßübergang. (2)An der dampfenden Feldküche. (62) [2 Abb.]: (1)Abtransport gefangener Italiener. (2)Ein Trunk nach anstrengendem Marsch. (63) [2 Abb.]: (1)Rechts: Cividale. Über dem Natisone steigen die Türme des uralten Doms und des ehemals deutschen Benediktinerklosters Sta. Maria in Valle empor. (2)Unten: Der Marktplatz von Cividale. Im Hintergrunde der Dom. (64) [2 Abb.]: (1)Udine. Die Piazza Vittorio Emanuele. (2)Die deutsche Ortskommandantur im Rathaus von Udine, das eine Nachahmung des Dogenpalastes in Venedig darstellt. (65) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Dom von Udine mit seinem mächtigen achteckigen Turm. Im Vordergrund der Marcuslöwe von Venedig, zu dessen Staatsgebiet Udine lange Zeit gehörte. (2)Auf der Vormarschstraße von Udine zum Tagliamento. (66) [2 Abb.]: (1)Am Tagliamento. Das etwa 1000 m breite Flußbett führt meist nur wenig Wasser, schwillt aber bei Regenwetter plötzlich mächtig an. Das Ufer, mit Heeresgerät aller Art bedeckt, trägt deutlich die Spuren der Panik beim Übergang der italienischen Truppen. Die Brücken wurden am Westufer von den Italienern gesprengt, die dadurch Teilen ihrer eigenen Truppen den Rückzug abschnitten. (2)Zahllose Pferdekadaver bedeckten das Flußbett. (67) [2 Abb.]: (1)Auf der Straße von Cadroipo zu den Tagliamentobrücken. Ein Bild, das mehr sagt als unzählige Worte. (2)Italienische Gefangene in einem Lager bei Cividale. Im Hintergrund die Stadt und die Vorberge der Alpen. (68) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Vormarsch über den Tagliamento. (2)Pioniere beim Bau einer Kolonnenbrücke über die Meduna, einen Fluß zwischen dem Tagliamento und der Piave. (69) [2 Abb.]: (1)Dem Oberlauf der Piave folgend erreichten die Verbündeten Belluno. (2)Straße in Belluno. (70) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Truppen rückten in Vittorio ein, die Stadt, nach der die Italiener ein Jahr später ihren leichten Sieg über die moralisch zusammengebrochene und sich auflösende österreichische Armee benannten. (2)Unten: Luftbildaufnahme von der oberen Piave. Auch hier, wie beim oberen Tagliamento, ein breites Geröllbett, das bei normalem Wasserstand nur von dünnen Wasseradern durchzogen wird. Bei Regenwetter ist es von tosenden Wassermassen gefüllt. - Die Kraft der verbündeten Armeen reichte nicht mehr aus, auch dieses mächtige natürliche Hindernis noch zu überwinden. Die deutsch-österreichische Offensive fand hier ihr Ende. (71) [Abb.]: Soldatenfriedhof auf dem Pordoijoch (2250 m) in den Dolomiten. (72) [2 Karten]: (1)Italien. Nördliche Hälfte. (2)Unteres Isonzogebiet. ( - ) Der Orient ( - ) Vowort ([1]) Am Bosporus (3) Fahrt ins Heilige Land (5) An der Palästinafront (8) Im Zweistromland (17) Bosporus und Dardanellen (23) [Abb.]: Eine weit in das Land einschneidende Bucht, das "Goldene Horn", seit alters her der Hafen von Konstantinopel, teilt die Stadt. Südlich der Bucht liegt das alttürkische Stambul, nördlich die mehr europäischen Stadtteile Pera und Galata. Das Bild zeigt den Blick über die das Goldene Horn überquerende "neue Brücke" auf Stambul. Links an der Brücke (Schiffsbrücke, die geöffnet werden kann, um den Schiffen den Eingang in den Hafen zu ermöglichen) befinden sich die Anlegestellen der Lokaldampfer. Aus der Häusermasse von Stambul heben sich heraus: die Gebäude des ehemaligen Kriegsministeriums mit dem schlanken Turm (rechts), in denen sich jetzt die Universität befindet; weiterhin die Suleiman-Moschee, die Jeni-Valide-Moschee (am Ende der brücke) und die Bajesi-Moschee (links von der Brücke). (23) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Achmedie-Moschee ist eins der gewaltigsten Bauwerke Konstantinopels und der islamischen Welt überhaupt. Sie wird von sechs hochragenden Minaretts flankiert. Zahllose Nebenkuppeln türmen sich übereinander zur Hauptkuppel empor. (2)Blick von der Stambuler Seite auf das Hafenviertel Galata, auf Pera und den Bosporus. Am Ufer ziehen sich die in schneeweißem Marmor gebauten Paläste der Sultane und der Großwürdenträger entlang. Links das Goldene Horn. (24) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Übersetzen einer deutschen Fliegerabteilung über den Bosporus. - Die für Palästina und Bagdad bestimmten deutschen Truppen verließen in Konstantinopel den Balkanzug und bestiegen in Skutari, auf der kleinasischen Seite den Zug der anatolischen Bahn. (2)Türkische Infanterie erwartet in einer der Straßen des Hafenviertels Galata die Verladung nach den Dardanellen. Ein charakteristisches Bild: Da während der Dardanellenkämpfe die Unterkünfte für die in und um Konstantinopel zusammengezogenen Truppenmassen nicht annähernd ausreichten, lagen die Truppen oft tagelang auf der Straße. (25) [2 Abb.]: (1)Französisches Munitionsdepot bei Sidd el Bahr. Im Hintergrund die halbzerstörten alten türkischen Befestigungen. (2)Küste an der Halbinsel Gallipoli. Vor dem Ufer liegen gestrandete oder während der Kämpfe versenkte Schiffe. (26) [2 Abb.]: (1)Australische Kampfreserven in einer dicht hinter der Kampffront bei Sidd el Bahr liegenden Schlucht. Das Bild läßt den Charakter der Landschaft Gallipoli - steile, mit Buschwerk bewachsene Hänge und tiefe Schluchten - gut erkennen. (2)Australische Lager in der Bucht von Anzak unweit Ari Burnu. An der Küste sind Landebrücken gebaut. Links Feldlazarett mit dem Rote-Kreuz-Zeichen. In der Bildmitte Stapelplätze für Munition und Proviant. Rechts oben Truppenzeltlager. (27) Durch Anatolien und Syrien (28) [2 Abb.]: (1)Haidar Pascha, der Anfangsbahnhof der anatolischen Bahn bei Skutari, brannte 1917 mit ungeheuren Vorräten nieder. (2)Auf der anatolischen Hochebene. - Die von den Deutschen erbaute anatolische Bahn, die von Konstantinopel bis Konia führt, überwindet die Geländeschwierigkeiten der kleinasiatischen Gebirgslandschaft auf sehr zahlreichen Kunstbauten. (28) [Abb.]: Typische Landschaft im Taurusgebirge. - Die anatolische Hochfläche wird nach Osten abgeschlossen durch den Taurus, ein Kalkgebirge, das in tiefzerissenen schluchten nach der kilikischen Ebene abfällt. Dem Durchmarsch von Truppen hat dieses Gebirge von jeher große Schwierigkeiten entgegengesetzt. Die alte Straße, die schon von Alexander dem großen benutzt worden ist, hat auch im Weltkrieg vielen deutschen, österreichisch-ungarischen und türkischen Truppen als Marschweg gedient. Bemerkenswert ist der hier an unzugänglichen Stellen noch vielfach erhaltene Baumbestand. (29) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Kamelkolonne auf dem Marsch über das Taurusgebirge. (2)Unten: Verladung des Kriegsmaterials auf Kamele. (30) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Lager einer deutschen Kraftfahrabteilung in Bozanti. (2)Unten: der Eingang zum Taurusgebirge bei Bozanti. (31) [2 Abb.]: (1)Bau eines Eisenbahnviadukt im Taurusgebirge. (2)Unten: Die Burg Aleppo, die sich auf einem aus der Ebene steil aufsteigenden Hügel mächtig erhebt. (32) [2 Abb.]: (1)deutsche Kraftwagenkolonne auf der durch das Amanusgebirge führenden Heerstraße. (2)Blick vom türkischen Friedhof auf Aleppo. (33) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Der Bacchustempel, das am schönsten erhaltene Bauwerk der Ruinenstadt. (2)Unten: Fliegeraufnahme des Tempelbezirks von Baalbek. (34) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Fliegeraufnahme auf die Ebene zwischen dem Libanon und dem Antilibanon und gegen die Schneeberge des Libanon. (2)Unten: Burgeingang in Aleppo. Die Burg stammt aus der Zeit der Kreuzzüge, wo sie eine wichtige Rolle spielte. (35) [3 Abb.]: (1)Blick auf Damaskus; im Hintergrund die steil in die Wüstenebene abfallenden Hänge des Antilibanon. Die Stadt ist mit einem Gürtel blühender Gärten und fruchtbarer Gemüsefelder umgeben. Damaskus zeigt im Stadtbild merkwürdige gegensätze halb orientalisch, halb europäisch gerichteter Kultur. (2)Truppentransport durch das Antilibanongebirge. (3)Blick auf die Küstenstadt Haifa vom berge Karmel aus. (36 - 37) Das Heilige Land (38) [Abb.]: Bethlehem. - Am Weihnachtstag vor der Geburtskirche. (38) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nazareth, bekannt als Wohnort der Eltern Jesu. - Das große Gebäude auf dem Hügel war im Jahre 1918 das Hauptquartier des Generals von Falkenhayn, der die türkische Heeresgruppe in Palästina und Mesopotamien kommandierte. (2)Tiberias, ein Städtchen in Galiläa, am See Genezareth. (39) [2 Abb.]: (1)Turm an der Nordostecke der Stadtmauer ("Storchenturm"). - (2)Unten: Blick vom Ölberg über das Kidrontal auf Jerusalem. (40) [Abb.]: Fliegerbild der Stadt und ihrer nächsten Umgebung. Aus der enggedrängten Häusermasse haben sich die mohammedanischen Gotteshäuser, die Omarmoschee und die Aksamoschee (ehemaliger Tempelplatz), heraus. Die christlichen Heiligtümer, die Grabeskirche und die Erlöserkirche, liegen in der Mitte der alten Stadt. Nach dem unteren Bildrand zu, zwischen der Stadtmauer und dem Ölberg, verläuft das Kidrontal und das Tal Josaphat, erkennbar an den Terrassenrändern der Hänge. (41) [2 Abb.]: (1)Typisches Araberdorf am Rande der Syrischen Wüste. Die Bauweise ist, den Lebensformen entsprechend, sehr primitiv. (2)Fliegeraufnahme einer palästinischen Berglandschaft. Das Bild läßt die dort häufige Schichtbildung deutlich erkennen. (42) [Abb.]: Ramle oder Ramleh, kleinere arabische Stadt, an der Straße und der Eisenbahn Jafa - Jerusalem, aber bereits innerhalb der Küstenebene gelegen; im Kriege wichtiger Etappenort hinter der Sinaifront. Die enggedrängte Bauweise, gartenlos und baumlos, ist charakteristisch. trotz dürftiger Verhältnisse sind die Häuser von alters her massiv gebaut, weil das Bauholz fehlt. Fenster sind verhältnismäßig selten, dagegen fällt die häufige Anwendung von Kuppeln auf. (43) An der Sinaifront. (44) [2 Abb.]: (1)An der Grenze zwischen Palästina und Sinai. Kamelreiterkolonne begegnet aus der Stellung zurückkommender Infanterie. (2)Wüstengebirge zwischen dem Südende des Toten Meeres und dem Meerbusen von El Akaba. Die Täler sind durch Sand halb ausgefüllt. Die Vegetation fehlt fast völlig. Einzelne ausgetrocknete Wasserinnen sind im Sandfelde erkennbar. (44) [Abb.]: Fliegeraufnahme einer großen englischen Kamelreiterformation in der Kolonne zu vieren. Im oberen Teil des Bildes, zum Teil durch die Wolkenschatten halb verdeckt, sind Truppenlager erkennbar. Das Bild gibt eine Vorstellung, über welche Transportmöglichkeiten die englische Truppenleitung verfügte. Sie standen in keinem Verhältnis zu den türkischen. (45) [2 Abb.]: (1)Türkische Marschkolonne in der Sinaihalbinsel auf dem Weg zum Suezkanal. Rechts ein höherer Kommandostab. (2)Wasserstelle Magdaba im Wadi El Arisch, einem trockenen Flußtal im nördlichen Teil der Sinaihalbinsel. (46) [2 Abb.]: (1)Artilleriekolonne überschreitet den Wadi El Arisch. - Als Zugtier diente vorzugsweise der Büffel. Jedoch war seine Verwendbarkeit in der Wüste beschränkt, da er zu seiner Erhaltung zeitweise Gelegenheit haben muß, ins Wasser zu gehen. (2)Charakteristisches Bild einer Palmenoase in der Sinaiwüste mit einer im Schwarm reitenden Beduinenhorde ("Stammesreiter"), gemischt aus Pferde- und Kamelreitern. Der militärische Wert dieser arabischen Reiterschwärme war gering. (47) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Frage der Erschließung von Wasser spielte an der Palästinafront eine äußerst wichtige Rolle. Bei den Expeditionen gegen den Suezkanal in den Jahren 1915 und 1916 traf man in dieser Hinsicht sorgfältige Vorbereitungen. An einigen Stellen wurde durch Grabungen Wasser festgestellt und durch Handpumpen in Pontons gefördert, die als trinkbehälter für die Kamele und Pferde bestimmt waren. Trotzdem blieb der Marsch durch die Wüste ein großes Wagnis. (2)An die Stelle der mit Pferden bespannten Munitionskolonne, die in der Wüste meist versagte, trat die Kamelkolonne. (48) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Suezkanal bei Tussum südlich Ismailie. - Nachdem es unter großen Schwierigkeiten gelungen war, die Wüste Sinai zu durchqueren, versuchte man, den Kanal mit Truppen zu überschreiten. Im hohen Sandufer sind noch die Stellen erkennbar, wo die Pontons zu Wasser gelassen wurden. Die Versuche mißlangen infolge überlegener feindlicher Gegenwehr. (2)Bis tief nach Ägypten hinein flogen die an der Suezfront angesetzten deutschen Flieger. Das Bild zeigt eine Fliegeraufnahme der Pyramiden von Gizeh in der Nähe von Kairo. Zugleich gibt es eine eindrucksvolle Vorstellung von dem gegensatz der toten lybischen Sandwüste und des sehr fruchtbaren Niltales, die unmittelbar aneinanderstoßen. (49) An der Palästinafront (50) [Abb.]: Gefechtsbild aus dem Gebirgsgelände. Die Formen, an anderen Stellen von großartiger Öde und Wildheit, sind hier sanfter. Doch lassen die breiten Felsbänke erkennen, daß eine Bearbeitung des Bodens oder ein Eingraben auf größte Schwierigkeiten stößt. Im Vordergrund zwischen den natürlichen Mauern der Kalkriffe australische Schützen. (50) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Soldaten in einer dem unmittelbaren Kampfe entzogenen Schutzstellung. Auch hier ließen sich tiefe Unterstände häufig nicht herstellen. Man begnügte sich daher mit aufgespannten Zeltbahnen zum Schutz gegen die Sonnenstrahlen. (2)Türkische Feldartillerie in Feuerstellung in der Küstenebene. Leichte Wellen und Dünen, zwischen denen flache Mulden verlaufen, boten die Möglichkeit guter Beobachtung und gewährten zugleich ausreichende Deckung. Auf Eingraben konnte bisweilen völlig verzichtet werden. Hier sind Haufen von Hirsestroh zur Tarnung benutzt worden. (51) [3 Abb.]: (1)Ansicht von Tul Karm. Arabische Landstadt am Gebirgsrande halbwegs zwischen Jafa und Haifa. Hier befand sich im Frühjahr und Sommer 1918 das Hauptquartier der 8. türkischen Armee. - Im Hintergrund die weite Fläche der Küstenebene. (2)Deutscher Trupp mit leichtem Maschinengewehr. Dort, wo das Gebirge an die Küstenebene stieß, boten sich häufig überhöhende, die Ebene weithin beherrschende Stellungen, die ohne besondere Vorbereitungen ausgenutzt werden konnten. (3)Entladen eines Dampfers an der freien Küste. Die Landestelle (Nahr Sukrer) liegt etwa 20 km südlich Jafa. Da der Engländer die See vollkommen beherrschte, war es ihm möglich, dem Vormarsch nach Norden mit Dampfern zu folgen und am flachen Strande auszuladen. Arbeitskräfte standen ihm reichlich in dem "ägyptischen Arbeitskorps" zur Verfügung. (52 - 53) [Abb.]: Jordanlandschaft in der Gegend nordöstlich von Jerusalem. der Ort im Vordergrund rechts ist Jericho, das etwa 10 km nördlich vom Toten Meer liegt. Diesseits des Flusses die Berge von Judäa, jenseits die Höhen von Ammon. - Das Bild gibt eine sehr deutliche Vorstellung von der Eigenart der palästinensischen Landschaft. (54 - 55) [2 Abb.]: (1)Mit deutschem Sanitätsmaterial beladene Kamelkarawane. (2)Im östlichen Palästina: Türkische Tragtierkolonne rastet auf einer Talstraße an einem der Nebenflüßchen des Jordan. (56) [2 Abb.]: (1)Fähre bei Ed Damije, etwa 40 km nördlich vom Toten Meer. Für die Operationen war der von Norden nach Süden fließende Jordan umbequem. Die Anlage von festen oder schwimmenden Brücken wurde indessen durch den Holzmangel und durch die ganz ungenügende Ausstattung des türkischen Heeres mit Kriegsbrücken-(Ponton-) Material verhindert. (2)Eine der wenigen, auch für schwere Lasten brauchbaren Kriegsbrücken über den Jordan in der Gegend südlich des Sees Genezareth. Hin und wieder fanden sich Furten, die einen Übergang auch außerhalb der Brücken gestatteten. (57) [Abb.]: Englisches Zeltlager, für etwa ein Bataillon, im südlichen Palästina. Die Engländer zogen solche Zeltlager dem Wohnen in den unsauberen Fellachendörfern vor. Sie waren der Fliegererkundung freilich nur schwer zu verbergen und wurden häufig bombardiert. - Die auf dem Bild erkennbaren Befestigungsanlagen scheinen älteren, vielleicht türkischen Ursprungs zu sein, da sie z. T. schon zugeweht sind. Auf dem untern Teil des Bildes lange Drahthindernisse. (58) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eine türkische Kavallerieabteilung auf dem Marsche in der Küstenebene von Gaza, südwestlich von Jerusalem. (2)Deutscher Beobachtungsposten bei Tell Nimrin im Ostjordanland, da, wo die von Es Salt nach Jericho und Jerusalem führende Straße aus dem Gebirge in die Talebene des Jordan eintritt. Alte verfallene Befestigungsbauten, wie der hier sichtbare Turm, sind in dieser Gegend, die früher eine stärkere Besiedlung aufzuweisen hatte, nicht selten. (59) [2 Abb.]: (1)Miltärzug auf einer Station der Hedschas-Bahn, die Damaskus mit Medina verbindet. Bei der spärlichen Besiedlung und dem äußerst geringen örtlichen Verkehr dienen solche oft mitten in der Wüste liegenden Haltestellen vorzugsweise der Wasser- und Brennstoffversorgung. Die Hedschas-Bahn führt größtenteils durch Gelände, dessen Bevölkerung feste Wohnsitze überhaupt nicht kennt. - Die europäisch gebauten Bahngebäude wirken in dieser Landschaft fremd. (2)Apell einer Kompanie des nur aus wenigen tausend Mann bestehenden "Asienkorps" in Amman (Ostjordanland). Der Kompanieführer prüft den Zustand der Segeltuchstiefel, die neben dem schweren Marschschuh zur Ausrüstung gehörten. (60) [Abb.]: Charakteristisches Landschaftsbild südlich des Toten Meeres. Derartige aus den Mergelbergen tief herausgewaschene Schluchten bilden in dieser Gegend die einzigen Verkehrswege und besaßen als solche auch militärische Bedeutung. (61) [Abb.]: Die Kamele sind, während sie auf dem Boden liegen, beladen worden. Links oben auf dem Bilde beginnt bereits der Abmarsch der vordersten Teile der Kolonne. - Die Lastkamele marschieren im Durchschnitt mit 150 kg Last 12 Stunden, und legen dabei Entfernungen von 40 bis 50 Kilometer zurück. - Das Bild gibt eine Vorstellung von der Menge der Tragtiere, über die die Engländer zu Beginn ihrer Offensive verfügten. Sie sicherten ihnen eine große Beweglichkeit. (62) [2 Abb.]: (1)Englisches Kamelreiterkorps auf der Verfolgung nach dem Durchbruch in der Küstenebene westlich Jerusalem. Die Marschkolonne wird in beschleunigter Gangart in Deckung geführt. Dort sitzen die Schützen ab und entwickeln sich zum Angriff gegen die deutsch-türkischen Truppen, die den Rückzug decken; die Kamele bleiben unter Bewachung zurück. (2)Australische Kavallerie trifft auf der Verfolgung in Schenin südlich Nazareth am Südrand der Ebene Jesreel ein. (63) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die scharf nachdrängende Kavallerie erreichte frühzeitig den See Genezareth. Von hier aus ging sie weiter in Richtung Damaskus vor. - Man sieht auf dem Bild die nach Norden führende Straße, auf der lange Reiterkolonnen marschieren, während im Vordergrund mehrere Schwadronen, zuvorderst anscheinend eine M.-G.-Schwadron, rasten. (2)Auf der Verfolgung. - Die Pferde der zum Schützengefecht abgesessenen Reiter werden der Schützenlinie nachgeführt. (64) [Abb.]: Englisches Truppenlager in der Gegend von Damaskus. Man sieht, wie eine große, aus allen Waffen zusammengesetzte Abteilung sich nach der Verfolgung zur Rast anschickt. Bei Damaskus brach der letzte türkische Widerstand zusammen. Bald darauf erreichten englische Truppen Aleppo und durchschnitten dort die Bagdadbahn, die Lebensader der Bagdadfront. (65) Die Bagdadfront (66) [2 Abb.]: (1)Östlich Aleppo überschritt die Bagdadbahn bei Djerablus den Euphrat. Im Vordergrund ein deutscher Flußleichter. (2)Die alte Schiffs- und Steinbrücke über den Tigris bei Mosul. Gegenüber die Ruinen der einstigen Weltstadt Ninive. (66) [2 Abb.]: (1)Mardin, ein wichtiger Etappenort an der Grenze zu Mesopotamien. Über Mardin führt der Weg von Mosul durch Armenien ans Schwarze Meer, den die deutschen Kraftwagenkolonnen im Herbst 1918 auf ihrem Rückzug benutzten. (2)Kriegstransport deutscher und türkischer Soldaten auf dem Euphrat bei Der es Sor. Die prahmartigen Schiffsformen stellten ein geeignetes Transportmittel auf dem Euphrat und Tigris mit ihren zahllosen Untiefen und Stromschnellen dar. (67) [2 Abb.]: (1)Bereitstellung einer auf Tragetiere verladenen deutschen Funkerformation in Bagdad zum Abmarsch nach Kut el Amara. (2)Kut el Amara am Tigris, wo sich im Frühjahr 1916 eine englisch-indische Division den Türken ergeben mußte. - Blick auf die durch Artillerie und Fliegerbomben zerstörten Straßen mit ihren schönen alten Bäumen und Gärten. (68) [2 Abb.]: (1)Bagdad. Im Vordergrund die Kazimen-Moschee, ein moderner Bau aus der ersten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts. (2)Englisch-indische Truppen ziehen im Frühjahr 1917 in das eroberte Bagdad ein. (69) [Abb.]: (70) [4 Karten]: (1)Türkei, Syrien u. Nord-Irak (2)Smyrna und Umgebung (3)Palästina (4)Jerusalem ( - ) Einband ( - ) Einband ( - )

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R.R. mm 46 THE MERCURY. A PHANTASY. CHARI.ES WELSEY WEISER, '01. ; 5 WO spirits floating through the air Leave their mark of passing there. The spirit of the scentless spring, And summer's scented spirit bring Their breath of life and breath of love, And wave ethereal wings above The weary brow. With soothing hand They stir to life the waiting land. The azure sky, the sun and flowers, The bursting bud of woodland bowers, The tender grass, the songsters' strain Compose for life love's sweet refrain Of fellowship. (lI 'Tis evening and the twilight gray Creeps o'er the half-forgotten way, As passing on in pensive mood, Through the ancient hemlock wood, I see beneath the massive trees, Fanned by the evening breeze, A stalwart man reposing lay Beside the lonely grassy way. Tall and brawny, noble., fair, With beaming eyes and wavy hair, He forms a picture good to see— Nature's perfect mastery Commanding all. He speaks—the tones in clarion notes Upward through the branches float. He smiles—and wins with glances bright, Fellowship's most welcome light. "Nature," says he, "perfect, strong, Note and strive for ; and prolong Your days ; and usefulness, and peace, And love, from life shall ne'er cease." I fain would speak, but wake to see 'Tis only a bright phantasy Wrought by Spring-tide on the mind, That seeks in life and love to find The perfect whole. I V* . THE MERCURY 47 "RABBI BEN EZRA." ABDEL R. WENTZ, '04. [Graeff Prize Essay.] ROBERT Browning's Rabbi Ben Ezra is a transcript from the natural experience of a human soul. The struggle between lower and higher ideals has already been fought on the battleground within the soul. The conflict between faith and doubt is over. Faith stands victorious. We have here por-trayed a picture not of action but of a soul in intellectual fer-mentation, the concomitant of action. The poet speaks from emotional imagination in expressing the wish of his soul to be in touch with the infinite. And the passion here described is one that is universal to mankind and one that is deepest and most widely felt in loving human nature. Other poets have attained the same depth of thought, a number have expressed somewhat the same ideas as are here set forth, but probably no poem stands in exactly the same relations as Rabbi Ben Ezra. We propose, therefore, to inquire briefly concerning the Rabbi and his part in the poem, to examine in a general way Brown-ing's philosophy of life as unfolded in the body of his religious poetry, to analyze the thought of this poem and see how the philosophy of life is here set forth, to ascertain what relation the poem sustains to the teachings of Christianity, and to make some observations concerning its rhetorical composition. Abraham ben Meir ben Ezra is the full name of the Rabbi to whom Browning assigns this monologue, but he is more commonly known as Ibn Ezra. Born in Toledo, Spain, about 1088, he started to travel early in life and visited all parts of western and southern Europe and northern Africa. His last days were spent in Rome and here he died in 1167. He was an earnest student of astronomy and won much fame not only as an astronomer but also as an astrologer and physician. In him the Platonic philosophy had an able advocate. Wherever he went he became distinguished for his great learning and his varied accomplishments, but his chief renown seems to have I im 48 THE MERCURY. been as grammarian, biblical commentator, and poet. But great as was the scholarship of the Rabbi, his piety was even greater. From all his writings and from the account of his life we gather that he was a man of extraordinary spiritual rectitude under the complete guidance of the word of God. Such was the man to whom Browning here attributes the philosophy of life. So thoroughly is Ibn Ezra adapted to the expression of such a philosophy and so well do the sentiments here expressed ac-cord with the writings of the Rabbi that the question has been raised whether Browning meant Rabbi Ben Ezra to serve as a statement of his own philosophy or that of Ibn Ezra. There are, indeed, a number of Jewish elements contained in the poem ; as, for instance, the abiding trust in a central righteous-ness. But Browning was specially fond of weaving such ele-ments into the woof of his thought; in fact, in his own nature, both spiritual and intellectual, he was not entirely free from cer-tain Jewish characteristics. Moreover, a great many of his il-lustrations and traditions are taken from among the Jews and no other English poet, with the single exception of Shakespeare, commands for the Jew the same admiration and compassion that Browning does. It seems only reasonable therefore that the poet in presenting his own views concerning life should draw some of his less important ideas from the writings of the Rabbi and thus weave into the poem sufficient coloring to ac-count for the idiosyncrasies of the individual whom he has chosen to give expression to those views. But the strongest proof that Rabbi Ben Ezra expresses Browning's own theory of life, lies in the fact that it is prac-tically a recapitulation of the very sentiments expressed in many of his other poems, as witness Sordello, Abt Vogeler, Saul, The Pope, A Death in the Desert, Reverie, and quite a number of others, all of which develop the same life-philosophy as Rabbi Ben Ezra does. Just as Cicero made use of the venerable Cato as his lay figure in setting forth his views on "Old Age," so Browning has used different personages to develop his philoso-phy, in each case adapting some of the incidentals to the indi- » ■ > THE MERCURY. 49 * * vidual personage. In Jochanan Hakkadosh we have another instance where Browning uses a Jew as his mouthpiece to give utterance to his theory of life. And in the poem under con-sideration he has placed this theory in the mouth of the Rabbi for no other purpose than merely to furnish it with a back-ground; for Browning himself explained of Sordello: "My stress lay on the incidents in the development of a soul; little else is worth study." Being assured then that Rabbi Ben Ezra is merely a restate-ment of Browning's theory of life, it may be well before pro-ceeding to the thought analysis of the poem to try to gain some idea concerning his philosophy of life as developed in the rest of his religious poetry. This philosophy begins in his very first publication, Pauline, where its crude outlines are to be seen; it is more carefully developed and at much greater length in his next production, Paracelsus, and then re-appears from time to time among his productions, and receives its final utterance in his very last poem, Reverie. It is a noteworthy fact that Browning formed this view of lite in his youth, and that no-thing in his life experiences gave him occasion to change it, so that traces and reiterations of it are to be seen in poems cover-ing a period of sixty years of his life. The whole trend of his philosophy might be summarized in the statement that the aspiration towards divine Power and Love is the most exalted ideal for the human soul. The intensity of the universal passion of human love reaching out towards some object which shall satisfy aspiration gives him the conception of God as infinite Love and of the future life as one in which Love incarnate shall have a place. This earthly life is merely a period of probation; man here is in constant pre-paration for another life. Past influences constitute the cri-terion by which to judge of the future, and our development here is determinative of our hereafter, either for growth or de-cay. But in this life we are surrounded by innumerable lim-itations and conditions. All our attainments are bounded by the finite. The divinity at the root of man's nature is too great for the sphere which contains him, arid yet it is this very di-vinity which gives rise to aspiration. Aspiration in turn causes ' ill i. 111 , ,., ,.j,i;iMl8M ■ 50 THE MERCURY. discontent, difficulties, and failures, and these point to infinite success and goodness. Thus we are made to realize the limi-tations and imperfections of our finite existence and to strive ever onward and upward to infinite freedom and perfection. It is precisely this imperfect nature in man which gives him the susceptibility to infinite growth and development; and this is "Man's distinctive mark alone," that which raises him higher in the scale than the brute and places him "a little lower than the angels." Only by our temporal failures are we led to see the possibility of eternal success. Internal dissatisfaction with our attainments on earth induces aspiration towards the divine. Man is "a living personality linked to the principle of restless-ness;" he must recognize his limitations and work within them, never losing sight of the infinite beyond nor ever ceasing to as-pire toward that perfection of freedom. To become content with even the highest attainable per-fection in this earthly life would mean to renounce all noble de-sires and to deny the inner light. This present state must not be regarded as an end in itself and submission to the conditions which it imposes would only result in fatal loss. To fail to recognize our imperfect nature would be to deny the possibility of spiritual growth. No, we must never be satisfied with this earth and its meagre successes; we must never rest content with this stage of imperfection. We must recognize the possi-bility of higher results than any attainable on earth and must aspire to something beyond the limits of time and space. "A man's reach should exceed his grasp, Or what's a heaven for?" It is this very quality—this constant discontent with earthly attainments, this endless aspiration for something higher—that makes life a struggle and the earth a bivouac of strife. Man must be actuated by a constant and conscious impetuosity to-wards the divine, drawing new impulses out of each failure, ever realizing with Tennyson, that, "Men may rise on stepping-stones From their dead selves to higher things." THE MERCURY. Si Each failure should give rise to greater effort and higher aspira-tion. According to Abt Vogeler, the musician accepts the pro-longed pause as an earnest of sweet music, and the discords as an evidence of more highly-prized harmony to follow. The limitations of this life are only suggestions of the infinitude of the life beyond. These. temporal barriers shall become the doors opening to the eternal life of infinite beauty, happiness, knowledge and love. The little mountain rill, as it flows down, has many rough places to cross, many obstacles to encounter, many rocks and precipices to pass, but continually receiving new life from other streams it grows deeper and stronger until at last it becomes a great, deep river, and, undisturbed now by the huge boulders beneath its surface, it flows calmly on to join the peaceful, powerful ocean. So the soul, weak at first and prone to despair, must work within its limitations and by an endless succession of aspirations and failures, each failure stimu-lating stronger endeavor, make its way to God and to the real-ization of perfect Power and Love. Having thus gotten a view of the philosophy of life as Brown-ing held it, we will be better able to follow in analysis the thought of Rabbi Ben Ezra, where this philosophy is stated with greater conciseness, perhaps, than anywhere else in Brown-ing. But -first it must be said, by way of explanation, that Rabbi Ben Ezra is not argumentative in its character; it is merely the statement of facts of positive knowledge. Its view is intuitive and it states conclusions without employing courses of reasoning. We shall not expect, therefore, that the thought of the different stanzas will in every instance be arranged in strict logical sequence. Mellowed with years, the venerable Rabbi gives to the young man the cheerful assurance, " The best is yet to be," and in the quietude of life's evening hour proposes a retrospect of the day and a prospect to the tomorrow. Bidding us to trust in God te reveal His whole plan, he first considers youth. This is a period of hesitation and ambition, of "hopes and fears." All of youth's brief years are passed in doubt and indecision. But for this the Rabbi has no remonstrances, for this very doubt is S2 THE MERCURY. the actuating influence—the "troubling spark"—which distin-guishes us from the brute creation; brutes have their end of living in self-satisfaction, and in the gratification of sense are free from care and doubt. But man's greatest glory and that which attests his affinity with the great Provider lies in his noble desires and lofty aspirations which can never be satisfied on earth; this is the disturbing spark that proves his spiritual nature. We should therefore endure with good cheer the lim-itations that are here placed upon us, and, despite life's difficul-ties and discomforts, ever strive and learn and dare. For the seeming failures of this earthly life simply prove our suscepti-bility to the achievement of eternal success. Our aspiration to the unattainable raises us higher in the scale than the unpro-gressive brute, and he, who hopes to succeed in his flesh and to that end subordinates soul to body, can scarcely deserve the noble name of man. And yet the body is not without its use; all past experi-ences in the flesh serve to teach valuable lessons in this train-ing- school for eternity, and the heart of the Rabbi beats in sin-cere gratitude for the opportunity of living as a man, a part in the one great plan of perfect Power and Love. He trusts him-self implicitly to the will of his Creator and hopes thus to gain the victory over low ideals and ignoble desires. For the soul is prone to yield to its rosy garment of flesh in the desire for rewards commeasurable with bodily endowments and physical attainments. But we should not measure ourselves by the ground gained in spite of flesh; we should realize that while flesh and soul are both subject to limitations here on earth, yet neither is to be despised as all is for the best. Youth must have its struggles and disappointments but old age reaps rich fruit in consequence. For here if is that the complete man is produced and that the tendency to God be-gins. The Rabbi, ripe with age, awaits the fight with death, the only struggle now before him. "Fearless and unperplexed" he contemplates the battle with perfect serenity of soul, for his experiences have taught him what weapons and what armor to employ. Now that his youth is ended he is in a position to L4fc THE MERCURY. 53 pass sentence on that period of life. The fires of'youth have culled out the gold from the dross and the life-struggle can now at length be estimated at its true value. In youth all was un-certainty ; with age comes knowledge absolute. Each sunset brings its certain moment which suddenly calling the glory from the gray announces the death of the day and invites esti-mation of its worth. So the period of old age, tinted with glory and free from the strife of youth, affords the opportunity to prove the past, pronounce judgment on its errors and pro-prieties, and thereby "sustained and soothed" to face the future. And more than this is not possible for man ; his highest duty is to practice tomorrow the lessons of today, to follow intently "the great Artificer of all that moves" and thus catch hints of real handicraft, of true workmanship. Youth is the proper time for growth and aspiration, the proper time to "strive to-ward making," and though the efforts to make be uncouth and seeming failures, nevertheless they are eminently successful in that they secure for old age exemption from strife and the blessed privilege of knowledge. Death can then be awaited without fear. Here the mind is not harassed by arguments of "Doctor and Saint"'as in youth, but the knowledge of the Right and Good and Infinite is as absolute as the knowledge of the possession of one's own hand. Age vindicates youth by defining and separating "great minds from small" and by determining whether the principles of Right were properly ap-plied in youth. Thctruth is revealed and peace of soul secured. But who shall act as judge to pass the sentence? It is no easy task, for men of very similar traits and qualities hold widely different views. Who shall decide? The answer: each man must be his own arbiter; he alone understands the circum-stances of his own life struggle. For life is not to be judged by its deeds and attainments, else others could pass the sentence. "Men appraise the outward product," but this vulgar mass, so easily recognized and valued by the low world, is not the proper standard to use in making up the main account. True, our "work" is pleasing in the eyes of our fellow-men and quickly plumbed and tested by the world's coarse thumb and finger, but 54 THE MERCURY. the true reckoning of man's worth takes into account all our undeveloped instincts tor good, all our unfulfilled purposes. These no one can know but ourselves and these God weighs and considers. He finds value in our thoughts which we were not able to express in a mere act and His records contain even our fleeting fancies :— "All I could never be, All, men ignored in me, This, I was worth to God. whose wheel the pitcher shaped." These lines contain the one great lesson of the poem, the very-theme of its thought, namely, the manifestation of God's love in his dealings with man. Our doubts He overrules for faith; our failures He overrules for success. Our aspirations to the impossible become the essentials of our spiritual growth. It is on the wings of God's love that the spirit of man mounts from earth to heaven. This thought pervades the entire poem. The thought that man is the pitcher shaped by the wheel of God leads to the expanding of that beautiful metaphor of the potter and the clay, and this occupies the concluding verses of the poem. We are invited to examine the metaphor and learn why time passes away so rapidly while our souls lie passive. Hugest folly is the proposition that nothing endures and that the past has no bearing on the present or the future. All that has ever really existed, lasts forever. The wheel indeed may vary as it turns, but potter and clay endure. So life fleets and earth changes, but God and Soul remain forever. We are not mere shadowy existences destined to pass into nothingness; we are eternal realities. But the changing motion of the wheel is needful to give the clay its proper form and make it useful; no less are the buffetings and evanescent influences of this life's dance intended by the all-wise Creator to give our souls their proper bent and temper and fit them for their highest useful-ness. What matters it, so far as the usefulness of the cup is concerned, if the potter in the course of his work ceases to adorn it with the beautiful figures wrought around its base and fashions stern, grim scull-things about the rim? And what I THE MERCURY. 55 matters it if our Maker diminish our pleasures and make this temporal life less attractive? Not in the decorations however beautiful is to be found the proper use of a cup; no more is the highest usefulness of the soul to be found in the pleasures and ornaments of life. Heaven's consummate cup has no need therefore of earth's wheel; his only need is the Potter, to amend the lurking flaws and use His work. The Rabbi declares that never once in the whole dizzy course of his lite with all its im-perfections and failures—never once did he lose sight of his end as a vessel to slake his Maker's thirst. Just as in the opening stanza he expressed his firm assurance of a better life to come, aud his abiding confidence in God's goodness, "Our times are in His hand," so after maintaining this sentiment through the entire poem, he reiterates it once more in his eloquent closing prayer: "So, take and use Thy work : Amend what flaws may lurk, What strain o' the stuff, what warpings past the aim ! My times be in Thy hand! Perfect the cup as planned ! Let age approve of youth, and death complete the same[" These noble sentiments, though expressed by a Jewish Rabbi, are entirely in accord with the teachings of Christianity. An eminent writer on ethics has pronounced Rabbi Ben Ezra to be "one of the completest descriptions of the ethical life in English literature." But it is even more than that; it is a statement of pure theism and a description of sublime religious faith. It abounds in Christian sentiment and contains numer-ous allusions to Scripture of both the Old and New Testament. If Rabbi Ben Ezra were a part ot the Bible, every sentence in the entire poem would long since have been quoted in substan-tiation of some Christian teaching. One of the salient teach-ings of the poem is that of absolute submission to the Divine will. This, one of the great teachings of our New Testament, is forcibly set forth in the poem. Moreover, Christ's mission on earth was to reveal the Father not only as Power but more specifically as Love. In the light of this fact, the sentiment 56 THE MERCURY. which the Rabbi expresses becomes quite striking, especially when he says, "I, who saw power, see now Love perfect too." L^fc, The Christian religion is preeminently a religion of love, and Rabbi Ben Ezra has its very basis on God's love for man. Then, too, Christianity is essentially a romantic religion. Literature furnishes numerous instances of Christian romance. And what can be more romantic than this idea of a future life with earthly hopes and aspirations realized and Love perfected, as developed in the poem ? This hope of future existence gives to the Chris-tian religion the very source of its life. And in Holy-Cross Day we have another instance where Browning represents this same Ben Ezra as a direct advocate of Christ and Christianity. When Rabbi Ben Ezra was first published (1864), the world stood in great need of just such a message of hope and faith as the poem conveys. That was a time when skepticism and des-pondency were rapidly growing. Matthew Arnold was busy promulgating his own unbelief. Fitzgerald had just published his'beautiful translation of Omar Khayyam, and this message o doubt was being very widely read. Epicureanism and sensualism were spreading. To all these Rabbi Ben Ezra was a check. It inculcated cheerfulness and hope, destroying doubt and set-ting up faith preeminent. Some readers of Browning find in him nothing more than what is purely humanitarian and ethical, while others narrow their vision to the romantic and Christian. In reality, Brown-ing includes both. His message is twofold : he treats both the Here and the Hereafter. An so Rabbi Ben Ezta combines the humanitarian and the ethical, on the one hand, with the roman-tic and Christian on the other, and sets forth a lofty type of Christian faith as held by a man of God. In rhetorical composition Rabbi Ben Ezra is typical of Brown-ing's religious poetry. Browning is noted for his great com-prehensiveness of meaning. Few writers have used single words with such great effect. In fact, so great is his conscise- THE MERCURY. 57 ness that he is often charged with being obscure, and the num-ber of his readers is comparatively small because not many peo-ple will take the trouble to disengage the poet's real thought irom the close-plaited web of his expression. Rabbi Ben Ezra is no exception to the rule. True, it is one of the most widely known of Browning's poems and has been considered one of the easiest, but its apparent simplicity disappears before any serious effort to drain it of its meaning. The poet thinks at lightning speed and records his thoughts as they occur to him, and nothing short of an alert mind and an open spirit will suf-fice to draw from the poem its full meaning. It is recondite almost to the extreme, in places even bordering on the verge of solecism. And yet it is only natural that such" sublime, weighty thought should receive striking expression. Every sentence is pregnant with vigorous meaning. And while the poem shows in its structure no regard whatever for symmetry or proportion and no view to clearness, beauty, or nobleness of form, yet it presents the greatest consistency of teaching from first to last. This poem will be read as long as the human race endures, because it has to do with a passion that is common to all man-kind. It deals with man's growth to the infinite in a spirit of the most healthful optimism, and inspires men everywhere to high and noble thinking. Browning himself gives an estimate of the loftiness of the theme when he says in a letter to a friend: "It is a great thing—the greatest—that a human being should have passed the probation of life, and sum up its experi-ence in a witness to the power and love of God." What Long-fellow contributes to literature in his "Psalm of Life," what Ten-nyson contributes in his "In Memoriam"-—this and more Brown-ing epitomizes in his Rabbi Ben Ezra. And the late Professor Everett of Harvard pronounces it "one of the most exalted of the poems of Browning * * * * one of the most exalted in the whole range of literature." 5« THE MERCURY. RUSSIAN AGGRESSION. [Second Prize in the Inter-Collegiate Oratorical Contest] W. W. BARKXEY, '04. PASSING events in the Far East draw the eyes of the world once more toward those parts which have engaged more or less constant attention for many years. The Asiatic question with its many difficulties and complications presents the unsolved international problem of the twentieth century. How shall the equilibrium of the East and the- integrity of China be maintained? How shall the commercial powers of the world preserve the equality of trading privileges along China's inviting coast? How shall the threatening advance of Russia upon Asia be checked? Shall Anglo-Saxon civiliza-tion or the civilization of the Muscovite stamp itself upon east-ern peoples ? The last two inquiries are primary and essential, it will be admitted, in dealing with the first two. Statesmen prophets have prophesied, but struggle is no longer a thing of the future. The foretold contest is on. and it is critical. Potent energies are now at work in the Orient. Asia is evidently un-dergoing transition. Pressing circumstances must soon force a solution of the grave problem of the East and provide answers to our questions. While grim-visaged war is raging between the little island empire of the Pacific and that gigantic nation of the north, it will not be untimely to follow the course of that ceaseless, un-tiring advance which has brought Russia all the way across the Eurasian continent from St. Petersburg to Vladivostok and Port Arthur. The declaration of open hostilities between these two con-flicting nations was no surprise, but rather was expected. War was inevitable in the face of Russian aggression and dogged-ness. The current strife is only one of a series of events which have been shaping themselves for years, yes for centuries, in the history of Russia. It is the natural, logical outcome of a policy of greed and grasp which has been at the bottom of THE MERCURY. 59 every national move which Russia has made since the days of her first note-worthy monarch, "Ivan the Terrible." The real cause of the war waging today can be clearly traced to this governing policy. Insatiate Russia is not satisfied with her tight grip on Manchuria which she now practically owns and controls, but looks with a covetous eye on the independent but small empire of Korea over which Japanese influence should justly extend. In fact it was reported, previous to the outbreak with Japan, that she already had obtained large interests in the important timber regions of the Yalu Valley, and that her rep-resentative stood over the weak and pliable Emperor at Seoul with almost dictatorial power. Such is her impudence and boldness. Will Russia recede from the prominent position she has taken in northeastern China ? Never, voluntarily ! She may make clever pretensions and employ shrewd diplomatic schemes, as is her custom, but she will never withdraw from an acquisi-tion which has been the object of her ambition for three cen-turies and more, until Japan or some other power drives her back into the north from whence she came. And then she will not remain there; onward, advance, conquer and expand have been the watchwords of this aggressor of nations since the close of the Middle Ages when the terrible autocrat of the six-teenth century assumed the ambitious title of Czar and began to push the lines of his government out in all directions. When Ivan came to the throne Russia was "a semi-savage, semi-Asiatic power, so hemmed in by barbarian lands and hos-tile races as to be almost entirely cut off from intercourse with the civilized world." Since then her growth in territory and power has been marvelous and amazing. From the compara-tively small and insignificant state in Central Europe, she has gradually extended her boundaries until now she dominates about one-half of the land area of Eurasia. The Tartars were attacked and driven beyond the Ural river, and thus the entire Volga and Caspian regions were acquired. An advance was started toward the Ural mountains and the Euxine. Under the powerful and energetic despot, Petet the Qreat, the Black and Baltic sea regions were both gained; Siberia was explored and 6o THE MERCURY. conquered from the Ural mountains to Kamtschatka, and afterwards colonized; far-reaching reforms were brought about, and Russia was lifted to a place among the first-class powers of Europe. Today her dominion extends from the borders of Per-sia, Afghanistan, and India on the south to Sweden and the Arctic ocean on the north ; and from the Chinese Empire and the Pacific on the east to Germany and Austria-Hungary on the west. What giant strides she has taken in territorial devel-opment ! What a magnificent stretch of country she has been able to consolidate into one sovereign State! No other nation in the history of the world has been able to secure such abso-lute control over so large an empire and that in the compara-tively short period of four centuries. Russia's advance is steady and never ceases. Her policy is well-outlined and the goal of her ambition is clearly defined., Her real governing purpose may be deduced from her actions. Russia needs some warm water harbors on the Pacific. She proposes first to secure, if possible, these advantageous outlets without which she can never develop her almost limitless na-tural resources. Secondly, Russia evidently aims to become the arbiter and controller of the East; and, therefore, she en-deavors to stamp her order of civilization on Asia, and obtain for herself the preponderance of power in the Far East. Back of these exalted aims and ambitions is a thorough conviction among her people that the day of Russian supremacy is near at hand. "Her students everywhere claim that the world had bee?i under the Romance type of civilization and that gave way in time to the Anglo- Teutonic type under which the world is now developing and this is about to give way to Slavonic civilization to which the future belongs." Surely, if written history and current actions count for anything in judging a nation, no other than these stupenduous designs and hopes, we have briefly stated, are the basis of her aggressive spirit. Surely no other than these form the main-spring of Russia's late historical movements. Russia's political,-.commercial and industrial interests demand a more extensive seacoast, and more and better harbors. Tur-r_* r THE MERCURY. 61 key and the Powers control the Bosphorus and deny her ingress to Mediterranean waters. The Baltic is ice-bound part of the year and that seriously hinders navigation there. Port Arthur and Vladivostok also present serious obstacles to successful commerce. Where shall Russia turn, if not southward along China's coast and toward the Persian gulf, in which directions the high wave of her influence and sovereignty has been roll-ing, now slowly, now rapidly, but ever rolling for almost four hundred years ? What does the construction of her great trans-Siberian railroad mean, which now stretches across an en-tire continent, if not easier access to the Pacific ? What does a similar trunk line mean, which is now being planned to extend from the Baltic to the Arabian sea, if not a freer outlet to the world's waters ? What does her sly seizure of Manchuria, her pretended foothold on Korea, signify ? What does a war with Japan signify, if not a fixed determination to extend her power along the Chinese seaboard and gain possession of China's warm water harbors? Russia aspires to be a great sea power, but as yet she is comparatively weak along that line, as was evinced too plainly by her recent defeats at the hands of Japanese sea-warriors. In order to be prepared in time of war she must have a stronger navy, and safer inlets to harbor it. That she may develop her boundless natural resources properly, both in Europe and Siberia, and thereby increase her wealth, she must be given an opportunity to open up her industries and enlarge her trade. To hold and maintain her place among the nations, she must establish herself on the sea. Russia's prophet states-men are shrewd and wide-awake to these facts. They look far ahead, see in Russia the nation of the future, and may be ex-pected to plan their every action in accordance with their in-tense ambition to make her glorious and paramount. There is no more room for doubt. The spread of Slavonic domination in Asia is truly alarming. No observer who has followed the course of current affairs in the East will have failed to notice that glacier-like movement of Russian power over Chinese territory. England sees it; Japan resents it. It is too evident, notwithstanding her cunning diplomacy, her insincere 62 THE MERCURY. promises and agreements, and her round-about manoeuvers at times, that Russia means to retain every foot of ground she possesses and that she will never cease to advance until she has conquered and absorbed and assimilated the whole of the Chi-nese Empire, Persia, and Afghanistan; stands triumphant on the summits of the lofty Himalyas, and looks with a threaten-ing eye down upon the rich and splendid empire of India, un-less, perchance, the Anglo-Saxon shall not delay longer, but come forth to contest such wholesale occupation of Asia. Some years ago, when it was proposed to retreat from the mouth of the Amur river, Emperor Nicholas said, "Where Russia's flag is carried once, there it shall remain forever." That shows the spirit of the nation. Russia is active; Russia is greedy; Rus-sia is strong and persistent. Give her the chance she seeks to relieve her latent energies and develop her dormant resources, and she will become the most influential, the wealthiest of world powers. Give her the opportunity she covets and she will scatter broadcast over the Orient her despotic principles of autocracy with its brutality, ignorance, and oppression; force her Greek Catholicism with its error and intolerance upon the unfortunate subjects of her conquest, and carry with her a spirit of exclusiveness and selfishness deadly to the advance of pure Christian civilization everywhere ig the world. Give her the right of way and she will attain the strategic points she desires and crush out of existence the Anglo-Saxon order of civiliza-tion, which means constitutional government, the Protestant religion, liberty, equality, and education characteristic of all Anglo Saxon peoples. Stand aside, and Holy Russia will rule the world. But will the rest of the world stand aside, passive and indif ferent, and let the great Czar forward his schemes of encroach-ment and aggrandizement unhindered? Japan says No! Japan acts promptly and firmly, and all hail! to the bravp little nation who with courage stout and strong goes out to battle with this giant aggressor of the north. We admit her claims be-cause we know they are just; we glory in her victories because we know she is right; deservedly do we give her our sympathies THE MERCURY. 63 because she has put herself in line with twentieth century progress and civilization and with dignity faces an avaricious foe still moved by the customs and principles of the sixteenth century. But can she stand against such might in the ultimate contest ? Can Japan alone hold Russia in check and stop the perilous ad-vance ? It is not to be expected. If not, what will England do, England who has check-mated Russia so often in Europe, and who now has such vast commercial interests on the coast and in the heart of China, and stands guardian over such a mighty empire as India, will she allow China to be Russianized and India to be menaced ? It would seem that the final struggle must be between Russia and England. Two great orders of modern civilization have met and are ready to clash, yes they have clashed, for Japan's prototype is England, and her civil-ization is Anglo-Saxon. On the one hand, Russia, who be-lieves thoroughly that the future lies with the Slav. On the other hand, the English-speaking nations, who contend that the future rests with the Anglo-Saxon. Both stand ready to fight, if need be, for the world's supremacy. One is a supremacy of personal absolutism and oppression; the other, a supremacy of democracy with its liberty and justice. Which shall it be? Should the struggle come now, Russia would likely be crushed ;• later, after she has had time to grow and strengthen to her full proportions, who shall prophesy the end and declare which shall rule the world, Anglo-Saxon or Slav ? THE PASSION FOR SCHOLARSHIP. PROF. OSCAR G. KXINGER. THE mental attitude of a man towards his vocation is all important. Tell me this and I will tell you the degree of success which he has won or will win. Where there is a lively interest there will be also the enthusiasm and tireless energy so necessary to the perfect performance of a task. A lackadaisical spirit defeats any enterprize. The captains of in- 64 THE MERCURY. dustry have always been men with a genius for hard work. The same is true of those who have won eminence in any of the learned professions. They have mounted high because they have been in love with their vocation. To the student who aims at some notable achievement in the domain of knowledge, an absorbing passion for scholarship is the first essential. By such a passion, I mean an insatiable desire to know the truth of things at first hand. Others may be satisfied to take their information on faith. He must get at the heart of reality ; he must know things in themselves and in their relations; and to attain this he must be willing to sacrifice everything— "To scorn delights and live laborious days." Unless this passion dominate him there will be lacking the fire and enthusiasm which are necessary to prolonged effort. To think is the most difficult task a man can ever set himself. It means absorption, critical acumen, a nice balancing of facts and unerring inference; in a word, it means the analysis of a fact or truth to its ultimates and a synthesis of these ultimates into a positive thought. The process prolonged wears out the brain and exhausts the nerves. To keep it up until the end demands a will which is animated by a passion for knowledge as burning as the desire to live. Then and then only can the mind come to its full stature and utter truth which men must hear whether they will or not. This longing to know is often inborn, but may be acquired in some degree by even the dullest. The main trouble with the latter sort of student is that his mind has never been a-wakened. About his intellect a dense haze has gathered and he cannot see his way nor does he know precisely where he is. A dull ambition stirs in his heart but he cannot discover its meaning. Intelligent study is to him unknown. He tries to go through his tasks but what he gets means little to him. Often it happens that young men of naturally capable minds almost finish their course before they acquire the mental aware-ness which is the first condition of successful study. When THE MERCURY. 65 they do wake up their progress is phenomenal. Perhaps therefore, the highest function of the teacher is to awaken mind and by his helpfulness keep it awake. ' No higher reward can come to him than the consciousness that he has set one intel-lect on fire with the passion to know. Before this is possible, however, a serious obstacle must be removed. It is a motion wellnigh unusual among students and grows out of a mistaken conception of education. The student finds the college equipped with a faculty of men more or less learned who are to be his teachers in the various subjects which the curriculum offers. He expects them to set him tasks for each day's performance. In the recitations they question him on the lessons and make the necessary explanations or pffer additional information. Consequently the idea is general and perhaps inevitable that the professors educate the pupil. How-ever natural, this notion is pernicious and works incalculable harm. In the sense that the teacher acts as guide and makes easier the road to intellectual development, it is true that he is an educator ; in any other sense it is misleading. The men-tal development zvhich any man gets is always the lesult of his own specific effort. A teacher helps, stimulates, guides, "but achieves nothing without the earnest response of the pupil.' This erroneous view is largely responsible for a wrong use of the textbook. The student imagines that doing his task-work in memoriter fashion is genuine study. Nothing could be farther from the truth. Even a parrot is capable of such exercise of memory and the world has no use for human "Pollys!" A memory stored with knowledge is a great boon, but will not go far in promoting a' man's interests. Some of the greatest failures have been walking encyclopedias of facts and theories. A bookworm always has a hard time to find enough to eat. The world demands men who can think and plan and execute,—practical men who can use their knowledge to meet and solve the intricate problems of business and poli-tics. "What new truth have you to offer?" is the question asked of every graduate and on his answer depends his sta-tion. A well written article which reproduces only the •ii% 66 THE MERCURY. thoughts of other men finds its way into the editor's waste bas-ket or into the pages of the cheapest magazine. The pulpit ■which is no longer a teaching platform will face empty pews. The "dead-line" in any profession is drawn where invention dies; years have nothing to do with it. The man who keeps pace with progress and is able to interpret to others the heart of the movement will never want a hearing. Such a man is never the product of a mere textbook. For a text in any sub ject is the resume of one man's interpretation of a body of facts. Its value depends wholly on the authority of its author. At best it is only an outline. Any student, therefore, who ac-cepts the teaching without examining the facts and bringing the theory to the test of facts, is doing two things—-depriving himself of the pleasure which comes with reasoned conviction, and missing the power which such additional research confers. Either is a great mistake. The worship of the textbook induces another grievous habit which when acquired blights original work in a literary way. When a theme has been adopted as the subject of an essay the student at once searches through the library for material which when found constitutes the subject matter of his essay. Of testing, of meditation, there is little or 'none. What he says is not what the subject means to him but to another. He is like a phonograph endowed with the power of changing the form of expression without altering the thought. It were well if the saying of Isocrates were written in letters of light above every alcove: "What has been said by one is not of equal value to him who repeats it; but he seems to be the most skillful who finds in a subject topics which have escaped the notice of others." Here is the truth in a nut-shell. Let a young man determine at the outset that he will not repeat what has once been uttered except as a quotation, but will give to the world his own thought tested and tried by an appeal to things, and what he has to say on any subject will command the attention of men. Servile devotion to the textbook; re-producing the thought of others; failure to experience the truth that is presented; these are the fatal rocks on which THE MERCURY. 67 many a promising career has been wrecked. There is, too, an ethical aspect of the case which must not be overlooked. No one has the moral right to ask another to spend time in read-ing or hearing what to him is old. Truth which concerns man is so illimitable in every direction and our knowledge of it so infinitesimal that he who repeats what is common to all is guilty of a grave wrong to his reader or hearer. This passion to know fully and at first hand, if it could be-come the dominant element in the college atmosphere, would transform college life. It would quickly bring men face to face with the mystery of things and take away the indolence, the trifling, the present tendency to follow the line of least resis-tance. The four years of effort would produce scholars whom the world would welcome and of whom the college could be proud. The spirit of the scholar can be acquired and cultivated and its possession means success, as its absence means failure, in all that is highest in life. COURTESY TO STRANGERS. H. S. DORNBERGKR, '06. A stranger,'no matter where he goes, is bound to receive a certain amount of courtesy. I will attempt to show in this essay that this amount of courtesy is increasing rather than decreasing. During all ages and especially the feudal age, every stranger was sure of receiving food and shelter if he stopped at any house or castle. This was due chiefly to the fact that hotels were not very common until our own age, nor did every village or hamlet have its hotel or inn as is now the case. Then as there were no newspapers until quite recently, a stranger was also received for the news he might bring. It might also be added that the number of travelers at that time cannot be com-pared with the number of the present time. At present this hospitality to strangers is not nearly so evi- '• J Uii. 68 THE MERCURY. dent as it was in former times. The chief cause of this is our modern hotel system. Everywhere one goes he will find some kind of a hotel, no matter what be the size of the place. It may also be stated here that travelers, in most cases, would much rather pay their hotel bills than trouble some one else with entertaining them during their sojourn in the locality. Even among friends one sees this. Very often a friend will come to your vicinity and, rather than bother you, will go to a hotel. Now let us consider whether a stranger would be welcomed did he ask for our hospitality. The ordinary beggar will serve as a good example of this. It is very difficult, indeed, for one to find a home where a beggar will not receive a good meal if he goes and asks for it. Who is so cold hearted that he would refuse anyone shelter from the'cold in winter or the rain in summer? Who would not offer his bed to a sick or wounded person at his door and strive to comfort the unfortu-nate being? In some countries a stranger was always regarded as an enemy unless he could prove himself a friend. In some in-stances it even went so far as to cause the person's death, could he not do this. As we come to more modern times this feel-ing of hostility toward strangers gradually diminished until it has passed entirely out of existence, except among semi-civi-lized peoples. Another example of the growth of courtesy toward strangers is the downfall of absolute monarchism and the rise of more democratic forms of government. This last example may be regarded as not exactly on the subject by some but as it con-sists of the regard of man for man, in my opinion it is after all nothing but courtesy. A still better example is the increase of the value of human life. At the dawn of history the life of a man was held less sacred than a mere dog's life is today. This brings up still another point. In former ages, capital punishment was the mode of exacting justice. Since that time the inflicting of capital punishment has been gradually modi- THE MERCURY. 69 fied from unspeakable tortures to the entire abandonment of this form of justice except in some few cases. The modern rules of etiquette require us to be courteous to strangers. We exert ourselves in every way to please them and try our best to make them feel at home. We even go so far as to deny ourselves comforts for their pleasure. We do not allow them to spend their money. We introduce them to our friends who try to outdo us in their courtesy toward these strangers. Take for example the visit of a noted person to a city or town. Arrangements for his reception are begun al-most as soon as the the news of his intended visit becomes known. Banquets and receptions are given in his honor. He is met at the railroad station by a committee and escorted to his stopping-place. He is cheered by the crowds that gather merely to get a glimpse of him. I believe that courtesy toward strangers is increasing rather than decreasing for we of the present day are just as hospitable toward strangers as were our brethern of former times; and I believe therefore that as the world becomes more civilized, mankind will become more courteous. da I In an up-to-datest tailor-made gown,U-pi-de-i-da The boys arc wild, and prex is, too, You never saw such a hulla-ba-loo. CHORUS. — U-pi-dee-i-dee-i-da 1 etc. Her voice is clear as a soaring lark's, And her wit Is like those trolley-car sparks I When 'cross a muddy street she flits. The boys all have conniption fits I The turn of her head turns all ours, too. There's always a strife to sit in her pew; 'Tis enough to make a parson drunk, To hear her sing old co-ca-che-lunk! The above, and three other NEW verses to U-PI-DEIi, '.'. and NEW WORDS, catchy, up-to-date, to manv fp others of the popular OLD FAMILIAR TUNES; be- ■■ ' JfflHf sides OLD FAVORITES ; and also many NEW SONGS. J*W uull S0NGS OF ALL THE COLLEGES. JjWJ Copyright, Pricei $rjo, postpaid. fa mm if IJLU HINDS & NOBLE, Publishers, New York City. ^ ft ft Schoolbooks of all publishers at one store. ff1' ■> Rupp Building, YORK, PENN'A. Watch for his Representative when he visits the College PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. Geo. E. Sparkler, PIANOS, ORGANS, MUSICAL MERCHANDISE MusiC Rooms, - York St. Telephone 181 GETTYSBURG C. B. KITZMILLE,R. DEALER IN HATS, CAPS, BOOTS AND DOUGLAS SHOE.S. McKnight Building, Baltimore St. Gettysburg, Pa. k M. AMrEMAN, Manufacturer's Agent and Jobber of Hardware, Oils, paints and (jueensware Gettysburg, Pa. THE ONLY JOBBING HOUSE IN ADAMS COUNTY W.F.Odori, ^DEALER IN^k- SPECIAL RATES TO CLUBS. mm* York Street, Gettysburg:, Pa. 1

Issue 58.2 of the Review for Religious, March/April 1999. ; for rel igious Ch6sfar~ He6tages arid Cer~ter~p~rary L~v~r~g MARCH.APRIL 1999 o VOLUME 58 ¯ NUMBER 2 Review for Religious is a forum for shared reflection on the lived experience of all who find that the church's rich heritages of spirituality support their personal and apostolic Christian lives. The articles in the journal are meant to be informative, practical, historical, or inspirational, written from a theological or spiritual or sometimes canonical point of view. Review for Religious (ISSN 0034-639X) is published bi-monthly at Saint Louis University by the Jesuits of the Missouri Province. Editorial Office: 3601 Lindell Boulevard ¯ St. Louis, Missouri 63108-3393. Telephone: 314-977-7363 ¯ Fax: 314-977-7362 E-Mail: foppema@slu.edu Manuscripts, books for review, and correspondenbe with the editor: Review for Religious ¯ 3601 Lindell Boulevard ¯ St. Louis, MO 63108-3393. Correspondence about the Canonical Counsel department: Elizabeth McDonough OP P.O. Box 29260; Xa, Tashington, D.C. 20017 POSTMASTER Send address changes to Review for Religious ¯ P.O. Box 6070 ¯ Duluth, MN 55806. Periodical postage paid at St. Louis, Missouri, and additional mailing offices. See inside back cover for information on subscription rates. ©1999 Review for Religious Permission is herewith granted to copy any material (articles, poems, reviews) contained in this issue of Review for Religious for personal or internal use, or for the personal or internal use of specific library clients within the limits outlined in Sections 107 and/or 108 of the United States Copyright Law. All copies made under this permission must bear notice of the source, date, and copyright owner on the first page. This permission, is NOT extended to copying for commercial distribu-tion, advertising, institutional promotion, or for the creation of new collective works or anthologies. Such permission will only be considered on written application to the Editor, Review for Religious. for religious Editor Associate Editors Canonical Counsel Editor Editorial Staff Advisory Board David L. Fleming SJ Philip C. Fischer SJ Regina Siegfried ASC Elizabeth McDonough OP Mary Ann Foppe Tracy Gramm Jean Read James and Joan Felling ¯ Kathryn Richards FSP Joel Rippinger OSB Bishop Carlos A. Sevilla SJ David Werthmann CSSR Patricia Wittberg SC Christian Heritages and Contemporary Living MARCH-APRIL. 1999 ¯ VOLUME 58 ¯ ¯ NUMBER 2 contents 118 137 communal commitment: a symposium Luminous Traces: The Inbreaking Spirit amid Cultural Fragmentation Michael Downey offers a five-step tour of the culture horizon, pointing out the challenges and opportunities the U.S. culture presents to the communal commitment that lies at the core of most expressions of vowed religious life. Community Living." Beginning the Conversation Doris Gottemoeller RSM opens up a discussion on the meaning of community living in regard to its theological base, its spirituality, the role of leadership, and special challenges today. 150 paschal mystery The Credibility of Jesus' Resurrection: Two Interior Witnesses Leon McKenzie proposes that the voice of the resurrection archetype and the voice of the Holy Spirit provide credibility for Jesus' resurrection. 158 168 From Woundedness to Union Cynthia Bourgeault presents an explanation of the psychology of Centering Prayer. On the Go with Chronic Illness, Sitting Still with Mark Pamela A. Smith SSCM reflects on her own life in the context of Mark's Gospel: What is the Christian mix of resignation and stubbornness, relaxation and fight, that makes it possible to slow down and still go barreling forward? Review for Religious 175 184 the vowed life Friendship and Celibacy: Seeing Beauty from a "Holy Distance" Brian J. PierceOP makes the point that we need new stories and new language to affirm and celebrate the vow of chastity and the goodness and beauty of human and sexual love. Poverty: Now You See It, Now You Don't Elissa Rinere CP surveys the various meanings and implications for living the vow of poverty professed by men and women religious. 195 report U.S. Hispanic Catholics: Trends and Works 1998 Kenneth G. Davis OFMConv, Eduardo C. Fernandez SJ, and Ver6nica M~ndez RCD present a panoramic of the year's events within the U.S. Hispanic Catholic community. departments 116 Prisms 211 Canonical Counsel: Visitation 217 Book Reviews March-April 1999 prisms How are we to observe a year dedicated to God the Father at a time when we desire to be more sensitive about sexist phrases and patriarchal soundings? The male imaging of God, both in our theology study and in our liturgical services, has come under criticism from many Christians, often stimulated by the groundbreaking work of feminist theologians--no matter that Jesus referred most often to God as Father (though he also tised other image words or examples, of course, including feminine ones). Mthough the Hebrew word Abba is used only once in the Greek Gospels--in Mark--and seldom in Paul's epistles, the significant intimacy of this word (and its relevance to Jesus' teaching the prayer "Our Father") has made it central to the Christian understanding of the relationship of ourselves to God-v-One upon whom we can call, by our being baptized into Jesus, with his love-word Abba. God, for us Christians, is above all personal. We talk to God as a persbn. In our everyday life we learn early on to call out to "Mom" and "Dad," but we do not find ourselves saying "O Parent." Parent, much as it blends masculine and feminine, is not used in personal address. So parent and other ways of avoiding the Jesus-chosen name "FathEr" do not tend to keep us true to our Christian faith. Nor is it helpful to use activity names in our sharing in the trinitarian life since all God's activities outside the :Trinity are the work of the one God. In addition, the activity titles of creator, redeemer, and sanctifier are not the warm personal words that elicit and express a love-response on our part. Review for Religious Father Walter Ong SJ, in his book Fighting for Life, makes a helpful observation about how appropriate the use of the Father word is for God. The father metaphor seems more apt for God even than a mother metaphor because of the very way that God relates to us, A mother in carrying a child in her womb for nine months knows well the meaning of "bone of my bones and flesh of my flesh." In ordinary circumstances, a mother knows and feels how much this child (baby) belongs to her. A father's experience is necessarily different. A father must lay claim to a child. Leaving aside our contemporary scientific DNA testing for paternity, a father has to step forward and begin the bonding process with a baby boy or girl whom he believes is, and accepts as, the one he "fathered." We Christians understand that God steps forward and, in and through Jesus the Christ, claims us as his children. We are "daughters and sons of God," albeit "adopted" because Jesus alone merits the title "the only-begotten Son." True, we are God's creation, but we are not of the "substance" (like "bone of my bones and flesh of my flesh") of God. We are claimed by God in Jesus; we are adopted. The gospel metaphor of Father, then, in a transcendent way Of choosing and claiming, has given us the relationship we rejoice in--daughters and sons who rightfully call upon God with Jesus' word Abba. God expends great energy all our life long to convince us that we are beloved ones. Perhaps we glimpse the importance of God's choosing us as beloved in Christ when we consider the criteria of the apostle. When the Eleven were considering how to fill the place of Judas after the resurrection and ascension of Jesus, they used the criterion of having been present from the time of Jesus' baptism by John at the Jordan. For all of us followers of Jesus, he shares with us in our baptism what had been the consolation of his own in the Jordan event. We are taken into ¯ the circle of God's inner .life of trinitarian love. A year dedicated to God the Father help~ us appreciate more fully the graced relati6nship which we Christians, through Jesus Christ and our Scriptures and tradition, have been given the privilege of understanding--along with the ha.ppy responsibility of making our response. In balancing our images of God after the manner of Jesus, we Christians hold fast to the fact that our most basic response is our praying to God as "Our Father." David L. Fleming SJ March-April 1999 MICHAEL DOWNEY Luminous Traces: The Inbreaking Spirit amid Cultural Fragmentation "Peggy O'Donnell is dying." My mother was shocked when I, a first grader at Most Blessed Sacrament School, relayed the news. Peggy was a high school senior at West Catholic. She lived down the block from us in our Irish Catholic village in southwest Philadelphia. "What?" my mother asked incredulously. "Peggy O'Donnell looks just fine to me. There's nothing wrong with her." Over the course of the next few hours, my mother found out the real story via the neighborhood grapevine. "Peggy O'Donnell is leaving the world," Mother told me, "but she's not dying." But what was I to think when Nancy O'Donnell said of her sister, "Peggy's leaving the world"? Peggy did leave the world of that Irish Catholic village in southwest Philadelphia. She went to Rosemont, way out in the s~burbs, to the Convent of the Society of the Holy Child Jesus, a different world indeed from what was known to us in the city. But, however different the Michael Downey is professor of systematic theology and spir-ituality at Saint John's Seminary in Camarillo, California, and is theologian to Roger Cardinal Mahony. He edited the award-winning New Dictionary of Catholic Spirituality; his most recent publication is Textual Mysticism: Reading as a Basic Spiritual Discipline. This article is adapted from the presentation given at a symposium at VCernersville, Pennsylvania, in October 1998. He may be addressed at the Archdiocesan Catholic Center Office; 3424 Wilshire Boulevard; Los Angeles, California 90010. Review for Religious world of Peggy O'Donnell and the others out in Rosemont might be from ours, and whatever these words about "leaving the world" might have meant, deep down inside I knew that Peggy O'Donnell was still going to be in the world, part of the world. She was not dying. My mother told me so! I open with this cameo of Peggy O'Donnell because it evokes images of leaving one world and embracing another, shedding the skin of one culture so as to embrace the meanings, purposes, and values of another. But "leaving the world," moving from one world into another, shifting from the culture of an Irish Catholic village within a city to that of a convent in the suburbs of Philadelphia in 1958, was a very different sort of challenge from what religious face today amid the culture, the world, in which they live. I have been invited by the coordinators of this syrr~.posium on religious life to offer a tour of the cultural horizon, pointing out the challenges and opportunities our culture presents to the communal commitment that lies at the core of most expressions of the vowed religious life. I shall proceed in five steps. First, I shall address the question What is culture? (Culture, like experience or community, is a term much used in religious discourse today, but often it lacks precision.) Second, I shall identify certain shifts that have taken place in our culture, making the world a very different place from the world in which many religious were formed as children, as adolescents, and as novices. Third, I shall describe features of this culture that pose serious challenges to commitment of any kind, specifically commitment to a particular community of persons. Fourth, I shall suggest that cultural shifts, often seen negatively, can be good news precisely because they make room for something else to come into being, providing occasion for the inbreaking Spirit in the gift of hope. I shall spell out the conditions or attitudes necessary for receiving this gift of hope in our very dark age. And, fifth, I shall suggest a reconfiguration of hope for religious life and communal commitment in terms of a shift from community to communion. Culture Culture and the world are roughly approximate terms. The story of Peggy O'Donnell is intended to be a gende reminder that, in the not so distant past, religious life was another world, an alternative culture. When Nancy O'Donnell said of her sister Peggy that she March-April 1999 Downey * Luminous Traces, was leaving the world, what she meant was that she was leaving one culture for another. The word culture refers to the various forms by which meanings, purposes, and values are expressed and impressed. Culture is a language. Language here is much more than verbal communication; it is expressivity, and human beings express themselves in manifold ways. Human beings are of necessity always expressing themselves, "speechifying"--and, when they do, they do so in culture. Culture is the whole constellation of means by which human beings expres~ what is deepest and most important to them, for example, about family and progeny, social arrangements and sexual taboos, and how to deal with illness and aging. They do this through art, literature, and ritual. Culture includes the ethos of a people, the central story or vision that gives direction to their lives, the principles and governing concerns by which they gain a sense of order and cohesion in their lives. Culture encompasses economic systems, political structures, and the laws that give shape to a sense of right and wrong. Also included are the many ways in which human beings strive to express their perceptions of beauty in music, dance, architecture, and the fine arts. Because human beings perceive and pursue the gift and task ofself-expression in different ways, cultures differ, sometimes so much so that they appear irreconcilable. In other words, human beings create or participate in creating worlds of meaning, value, and purpose by means of culture. Wherever there are human beings, there is culture. Culture is second nature to humans. Culture is what human beings do with the "stuff" of the created order, the natural world, what might be referred to here as first natui'e. Human beings a{e always taking this givenness of the natural world, this first nature, and doing something with it. The created world in which we live is the "stuff" that is taken and shaped, created. We extend and transform this givenness in accord with particularly human meanings, purposes, and values. An apple is part of nature, but making apple pie is part of culture. While daffodils belong to nature, arranging a bouquet of them is part of culture. Precious metals are mined from nature, but exchanging and wearing rings is a cultural phenomenon, expressing love and fidelity and a whole range of related meanings. Solid marble is quarried from nature's Side. When slabs of it are carefully Review for Religious designed and skillfully chiseled, the result may be a contribution to culture. There are alphabets and dictionaries, but a poem or novel is something else again. There are musical notes, but the ordering and arranging of them in a distinctive musical composition is of a completely different order. It belongs to the order of culture, second nature to human beings. Any cultural form is expressive of multiple meanings, not just one. Flowers may be arranged in a bouquet and set in a place of worship as an expression of reverence and offering. They may be sent from a lover to the beloved as an expression of affection. Flowers are sent to people who are ill in the hope of cheering and strengthening their spirits. And they may be given in times of sorrow and loss as an expression of sympathy. All these are uses of the created order, of first nature, by human beings whose nature is to talk, to "speechify." So semantically laden is the cultural phenomenon of apple pie that, for many people in the United States, to be told that someone is "as American as motherhood and apple pie" precludes need of further description of the person's character and identity. But culture is about much more than nosegays, apple pies, wedding rings, and skillfully crafted marble edifices. As second nature to human beings, culture includes everything involved in the task of being and becoming fully human. Culture, then, refers to the whole sociosymbolic order in which humans live and by which they receive and shape meaning and identity. Here it must he recognized that the extension and transformation of nature for human purposes has a checkered history. Not every cultural expression advances truly human purposes. Not all humanpurposes are worthy as such, that is, simply because they are human. And not every value that human beings perceive as such is in fact so. From a Christian perspective, it is prayerful attention to the Spirit of God present in the world and moving human hearts toward God that opens up, orients, and often reorients culture to authentic human meanings, ptirposes, and values. An observation on "American culture" before proceeding. There is no longer one unified and unifying American culture, if ever there was one. In the Archdiocese of Los Angeles, Mass is Human beings create or participate in creating worlds of meaning, value, and purpose by means of culture. March-April 1999 Downey ¯ Luminous Traces celebrated every Sunday in over forty languages and dialects. At Hollywood High School, students speak more than eighty languages and dialects. Whatever may be the sense of "American" character and identity communicated in the rhetoric of "motherhood and apple pie," does this image speak any longer to such a range of people? When, in such contexts, inherited cultural forms begin to fragment, it should come as no surprise. It is no less surprising when traditional forms of the vowed religious life become semantically empty. They no longer "speechify" the meanings, purposes, and values that are perceived and pursued as central to the vowed religious life. Culture: Coming Apart at the Seams Using an image from life in southern California, we may liken our culture to a house situated on a fault line.There is a fissure running down the center of the treasury holding what is dearest to us. The culture in which we were formed seems to be coming apart at the seams. There is seepage and spillage everywhere. Bad news. But the good news is that inherited, deeply cherished cultural forms may be giving way so that something else may come into being. To speak of culture entails talking about 'its prevailing wo~'ldview. What was the worldview in which most United States religious were formed? What was the dominant view of human life and history? What was the view of the relation between God and the world that, I suggest, is now giving way to new ways of perceiving and being? ~ First is the boundless confidence in the capacity of the human mind to know everything by means of the so-called scientific method, an affirmation of the power of reason (very narrowly understood) to think its way through just about anything. Such a lofty understanding of the powers of reason began to wane once appropriate attention was given to the facts of history, to the enormity of human suffering, which baffles and disorients even the most serene exercise of reason.2 Second, in such a worldview, there is the conviction that individuals can make and shape themselves. Together with this, there is an unprecedented affirmation of individual rights and liberties. This affirmation of individual rights and liberties enshrined in the U.S. Constitution can often eclipse the pursuit of a common good. Review for Religious Third, with roots long, deep, and strong in Christian history, a marked dualism characterizes this worldview. In such a perspective, ¯ all reality in every sphere of life is divided into two parts, with the implication that one is superior to, and dominant over, the other: mind over matter, objective over subjective, intellect over affect, the analytical over the intuitive, prose over poetry, God over humanity, humanity over nature, male over female, white over black, yellow, red, and brown, clergy over lay, American and Western European over the Third World, rich over poor, speech over silence, the strong and powerful over the wounded and the weak. The fourth feature of the worldview which shaped many of us is perhaps the most problematic of all. History is viewed as inevitably progressive. Change is always improvement, and whatever is new is better. Progress is regarded as inevitable and therefore beyond moral adjudication. Whatever can be done must be done and therefore should be done. The horrors of history, the sufferings of individuals and of whole peoples, no matter how large and how utterly incomprehensible, are seen as unseemly wrinkles in the unfolding of an inevitably better future. The sentiment lingers. It is not at all uncommon to hear from undergraduate students something like: "God must have had a plan for eliminating six million Jews. He permitted it to happen to the Jews in order to teach them a lesson for their own benefit and the benefit of humanity. We just have to accept it." Here, no matter what happens, God is in charge, controlling the universe like an absolute monarch. Today we stand at a juncture. In starker terms, we are trying desperately to straddle a fault line. The inherited worldview and cultural contours briefly described above are crumbling. Our framework is in fragments, but much of it is still in our marrow. We are reluctant to relinquish this way of perceiving and being in the world. We are slow to give up. Even though we recognize that it no longer rings true, we nonetheless cling to it tenaciously because we are not yet altogether clear about what is still coming to be. From the perspective of the student of Christian spirituality, the worldview that so shaped us has failed to satisfy the deepest longings of the human heart. The worldview that so shaped us has failed to satisfy the deepest longings of the human heart. March-April 1999 A Downey * Luminous Traces The construal of the human being as a self-made self and the unprecedented affirmation of the superiority of reason and of individual rights and liberties are not easily reconcilable with present modes of perceiving and being in the world. In contemporary Christian spirituality, there is a deeper realization that the human person is not to be defined principally as a rational animal with separate faculties of intellect and will, a composite of body and soul often at odds with one another.-Rather the person is a whole, a being defined by heart, affectus, affectivity--the capacity to be touched and drawn into relationship and interpersonal communion with another, others, and God. More importantly, people today live with an uneasy sense that there is no longer a big picture. For many people, deeply religious people no less, the world does not hang together, the center does not hold, in the way it was once thought. This puts a bold question mark before our understanding of God and the nature of God's relation to the world. God the all-powerful monarch, manipulating and controlling the universe, is simply beyond belief. It is precisely this understanding of God that cannot be sustained, and with it the worldview that rests upon it. Further, efforts to reach even the slightest measure 0fagreement on the nonnegotiable elements of a coherent worldview seem futile. Consequently, no commonly held values provide a sense of shared purpose. As but one example, over the course of fifteen years of undergraduate teaching, I would ask students year by year: "What do you value most of all? Is there anything that you would be willing to give your life for, perhaps even to die for?" Invariably there was reticence, indeed reluctance~ in the face of my question. But eventually there seemed to be some measure of agreement that "family" is what is to be valued above all else. But, when pressed to speak about the nature o~ "family," all thirty-five or more students would have different understandings of what "family" means and why this slippery term designates or suggests a value at all. It has become increasingly difficult to arrive at a common-sense understanding of "family" or of what "family values" might be. In addition to the loss of a big picture, there is a growing conviction that the future is not inevitably progressive. Today there is clearer recognition that change is not always for the better and that the future is not necessarily brighter. That is to say that history is riddled with interruption, disorientation, and a sense of randomness, indeed chance? Not everything that happens should Review for Religious be assigned to God's providence. As a variation on the theme of a rather tasteless bumper sticker: Things just happen! But the interruptive character of history, thought on first reading to be irreconcilably at odds with God's providential plan, is not of necessity so and may in fact be more in keeping with biblical understandings of God's action in history, specifically in the person of the Christ, than the view of God's providence characteristic of the inherited worldview now passing away.4 Much of what has contributed to our fundamental sense of meaning, purpose, and value is now a shambles, no matter how much we care to think otherwise: family, neighborhood, political and economic institutions, and religious life as we have known it. Efforts at retrenchment and restoration may meet with ostensibly satisfactory results in the short term, but, no matter how big the shoulders trying to hold up these and other elements of a culture-in- collapse, another course is required, not simply desirable. Rather than trying to hold up what can no longer stand on its own, what is called for is a clearing of the house, making room, so that something new can come into being. What is coming to be may find no clear precedent in human or Christian history. And it is precisely because it finds no clear precedent in Christian history that it may come into being by the presence and power of the Spirit of God, the Spirit of Christ. As these outer worlds of meaning and purpose and value splinter, fragment, and shatter, there is a strong tendency to turn inward for stmething reliable. Many currents in spirituality today are characterized by self-absorption, self-preoccupation, and self-fixation. Spirituality is thought to be about interiority, often to the exclusion of the wider spheres of life. The movement inward appears to go faster and faster, if not deeper and deeper, as outer worlds of meaning continue to collapse with increasing rapidity. All of this seems like very bad news, but it need not be. The hallmark of our age is the self-emptying of forms because inherited cultural forms cannot hold God. And, as they are emptied and found wanting, perhaps there will once again be room enough for the God of constant coming, whose gift always and everywhere overspills all our efforts to lock it in, pin it down in tightly knit thought forms, theological systems, and patterns of religious living. There is, then, a reason for the hope that lies within us (see 1 P 3:15): the Christ who is always and everywhere drawing us forward cannot be chained by cultural forms and worldviews, which, March-April 1999 Downey ¯ Luminous Traces however adequate they may be in the service of the truth, are always necessarily limited, partial. They cannot contain God. They are unable to hold the fullness of God. Recall that culture is language and is second nature to us. But no matter how deeply we are indebted to our inherited cultural forms, to the language which is second nature to us, God's giving overspills any and all mediation. Today there is a deepening sense that God is incomprehensible mystery, beneath and beyond all our efforts to dissect, scrutinize, and systematize. From the perspective of a student of Christian spiritual and mystical traditions, even as we are stalled at a cultural crossroads, we are being invited to enter more deeply into the apophatic way, to be educated in the Spirit's school of unknowing, to proceed on the path toward a dazzling darkness at the heart of which is the One whose name above all names is not God.5 For even the name God is no proper name for the One whose name beyond and beneath all naming is Love. And Life. And Light. Even and especially in the darkness. The Rhetoric of Culture: Choice over Commitment Though something new is coming to be, we are still dogged by elements of that earlier worldview that pose serious obstacles to growth and development in the spiritual life in general and the vowed religious life in pa(ticular. These may be thought of as deep wounds inflicted by our culture, whatever one may care to say about its merits. More specifically, they constitute sometimes seemingly insurmountable hurdles to comm. itment of any sort. In the not too distant past, it was common enough to give a good bit of attention to the so-called "enemies of the spiritual life." In approaches to religious formation, "particular friendships" were often viewed in such terms. Today there are indeed enemies of the spiritual life, but they are quite different from those identified in earlier approaches to formation. They must be tackled by a different strategy. As I see it, the three major obstacles that must be hurdled in any approach to commitment, specifically a lifelong commitment to a community of persons, are narcissism, pragmatism, and unrelenting resdessness.6 The first is related to the disproportionate emphasis in the culture on individual rights and liberties. We are inclined to think of ourselves first and finally as individuals who choose; or elect, to be in relationship. The self is thought to be the first and final Review for Religious arbiter, not only of meaning, purpose, and yalue, but also of all reality. Individual fights and liberties and the ability of individuals to make and shape themselves by choosing from among a multiplicity of options is, in the minds of many, of preeminent value. When traveling in different parts of the world, I often ask what impression others have of the culture or cultures in the United States. Invariably the response is something akin to: "You are very practical people. You are achievers. You get things done. You are doers." Indeed we are a practical people, pragmatists. In the mind of the pragmatist, the truth is what works. And, if it works, it must be true. We have become the people of the bottom line. We are governed by a preoccupation with outcomes, assessments, and five-year plans. We all too readily think of ourselves and others in instrumentalist, pragmatic terms. Created goods, even human lives, have become commodities. Everything is considered in terms of what gets achieved, done, accomplished, produced to satisfy the needs of some consumer. It may be useful here to recall: "If you are what you do, when you don't, then you're not." A cameo may convey my meaning here. On a visit to Santa Barbara on a beautiful Sunday afternoon, I strolled from the beach to the caf~ for a cup of one of those designer coffees. Seated near me were two young women, perhaps seniors in high school or entry-level undergrads. They were hunched over huge textbooks with graphs and charts of some sort, reminiscent of those in my sophomore-year geometry book. Basking in the splendor of Santa Barbara's light while sipping away at their Starbucks, the two were studying very hard--judging from their knitted brows. In due course one looked up and said to the other in a tone at once exasperated and apodictic: "Look, if it's not common sense, it's wrong!" Hers is the voice of an age impatient with the speculative, unwilling to stay with an idea for a long time, unable to engage in the discipline of thinking something through, lacking the endurance to follow an argument to its logical conclusion. Unless it cashes out, has empirically verifiable results, some clear practical merit, why be bothered? Speculation, as in the commonplace "ivory-tower speculation," has become a nasty word. We are a people who are unrelentingly resdess. We are. hungry for experience. We live in a culture in which we are urged to keep on going, exploring options, choosing from among a myriad of possibilities. Another cameo: For me as a child in that Irish Catholic March-April 1999 Downe~ ¯ Luminous Traces village within the city of Philadelphia, the trick was to convince Mother and Dad to allow us one half hour in front of the television, after we had been out to play and after we had done our homework. If permitted to watch an evening TV program, my sister and I would sit glued to the television set for thirty minutes without budging. Now when Mikey, my twelve-year-old nephew, walks in the door of my home, I remind him, "No surfing in my house!" It is not the surfboard I have in mind, of course, but the TV remote control. Mikey has learned that in my home he is welcome to watch a TV program, for much longer indeed than half an hotir, but for him this takes real discipline. It is altogether different from channel surfing-~staying with this station for two minutes and that one for three minutes and the next one until it is time for ~he commercial. Mikey's TV wanderlust is not uncommon, and it is symptomatic of a much deeper wandering, squandering perhaps, of the human spirit. Unrelenting restlessness is manifest in many expressions of spirituality today. We tend to move from one thing to the next, from one approach to spirituality to another, first taking some tips from the Ignatian school, then making a retreat at a Benedictine monastery, perhaps a little lec~io divina. The "spiritual quest" can become little more than a cruise down the spirituality superhighway, gobbling up soundbite supplies of spiritual wisdom that "work for me." If it does not work for me, then I move on. Narcissism, pragmatism, restlessness! These are the enemies of the spiritual life today. They are cultural wounds, and you and I carry them with us in making, cultivating, and sustaining our religious commitments. They are in our bloodstream. We think of the individual as first and final in a way that blinds us to the relational matrix of all life.7 We are numb to the simple truth that absolutely everything is related to everything else. We are pragmatists to the core. ~Fhe fact that monks continue to rise at three in the morning to pray to God in the dark long before the dawn is virtually incomprehensible, in our culture. What good does that do? What difference does it make? What are the outcomes, the results, of praying in the dark? Why pray at all? Why live in a monastery? At least go out and do something with yourself in the real world! Make a contribution to society! Make a difference! Do something! Anything! And we are restless, indeed driven. In a culture in which the rhetoric of choice has rendered mute the language of commitment, Review for Religious many of us find it hard to stay at anything for very long. Our age is characterized by impermanence and provisionality. We find it difficult to stay with anything, and be really alive and passionate about anything, day after day, week by week, year by year. Diversion is what is constant. We move on when there seem to be no immediate results. We resist going back to the book every single day, listening long and lovingly to that Word beneath and beyond all the words, staying with it long enough to hear the beating of the heart of God beneath and beyond the cacophony and clutter of our own making, staying still long enough to find ourselves in God and there to rest--even and especially when such staying does not "work for me" or "do" any good whatsoever. The Inbreaking Spirit As cultural forms collapse around us, the appropriate response lies not in trying to hold on to them or hold them up by sheer force of will or by fuzzy references to the will of God. Nor does it lie in accommodation to the individualism, pragmatism, and unbridled restlessness characteristic of our age. It may lie in the cultivation of forms of life more in keeping with the person of Christ, the presence and power of the Spirit, and the apocalyptic sting of the gospel. Just as Peggy O'Donnell left the world in 1958 and embraced an alternative culture, the new world of Rosemont, so too the future of religious life lies in patterns of living that stand in marked contrast to a culture-in-collapse now increasingly recognized to have been a bad bill of goods. Neither is ready retrenchment or hasty rebuilding an appropriate response amid cultural fragmentation. Rather, the more effective strategy would be to create space, provide room, for the coming of something that is not of our own making. This calls for deep reserves of hope. It is precisely at the moment when our own efforts fail, when we are unable to .make and sustain our commitment, that the Spirit comes in the gift of hope--breaking in on our willful efforts to hold together and hold up what is broken, even and especially our deepest selves. In our times, isn't hope the most important virtue? And the most necessary? And the rarest? We live in a disruptive and disorienting age. On every street, behind every other door, lives someone who is deeply disheartened if not actually despairing. This may be brought on by people's awareness of massive and March-Aprll 1999 --129 Downe~ ¯ Luminous Traces meaningless death and the randomness of violence, by the onset of early illness, by the loss of a loved one or a job or a sense of meaning and value--or the loss of cherished ways of perceiving and being in the world. Our inability to relinquish deeply ingrained patterns of narcissism, pragmatism, and restlessness signals a crisis of hope and beckons us to deeper levels of willingness to be open to this gift. What exactly is the hope that breaks in, amid the shambles, as the gift of the Spirit? As I see it, there is nothing more important to the human being than hope. People can live without faith, and many do. In our own day, certainly, many people live without explicitly religious faith, and evidence of loveless lives abounds. But people simply do not live without hope. They cannot. Hope is "the very center of a human being.''8 Though we need hope more than anything else in life, little has been written about it.9 Compared with faith and love, hope has been given little attention in the traditions of Christian theology and spirituality. Hope may be likened to the proverbial middle child, the neglected one among the theological virtues, sandwiched in between faith, which makes the first move, and love, which is preeminent in most readings of Christian Scripture, tradition, and theology. Hope is the drawing force of all human initiative. It looks to the coming of the new, the never before, the undreamt of. Hope is a pregnant, many-layered .concept. We can distinguish in it shades of meaning that the French language, for example, conveys with different terms--espoir and esperance. We can make the distinction between hope for success (espoir) and something deeper: the anticipation of a desired good, a desire-filled wanting, in a word, esperance. In a more metaphysical and religious sense, hope, esperance, is a movement of the person by which we relativize the present and all its prospects of success so as to be open to something that we realize can come only as gift. The more unpropitious the context in which we demonstrate hope, the deeper the hope is. Hope is precisely what we have when we do not have something. Hope is not the same thing as optimism that things will go our way, or turn out well. It is rather the certainty that something makes sense, is worth the cost, regardless of how it might turn out. Hope is a sense of the possible. It strains ahead, seeking a way behind and.beyond every dead end. Hope moves in three steps. First, what I hope for I do not yet Review for Religious have or see. Hope's object is future. Second, what I hope for may be difficult. But, third, I just might have it! There are no guarantees, but it just might be possible. In short, hope is directed to a future good that is hard but not impossible to attain. Its attainment, though, is in the mode of reception. Hope is the retrieval of possibilities that can only come as gift letting something come into life that is not self-generated. But with the gift comes judgment. The counterpart of hope is the admission of failure; the condition for the possibility of the Spirit's inbreaking in the gift of hope. Indeed hope of the deepest kind, esperance, calls for humility, a willingness to be judged by the gospel, to submit to its apocalyptic sting. Historical events interrupt our sense of order and cohesion. Our educational institutions have lost sight of the purposes for which they were founded. In light of the Lordship of Christ, it becomes clearer that our cultural forms, our sense of the fixedness of meaning, our grand schemes for improvement, have failed. Though hope for the future cannot come unless there is a willingness to admit failure and be judged by the light of Christ's gospel, there is in us a tenacious resistance to accepting the fact that we have failed. Without humility, poverty of spirit, and filial fear of the Lord, we remain unable to face the simple fact that our lives as persons and as a people are deeply fragmented. But the willingness to admit that the way we have done it until now is no way into the future liberates us to attend to other possibilities. It allows us to be open to voices and visions that were never heard or seen in earlier ways of perceiving and being. Admitting failure in light of the Lordship of Christ and by the presence, and power of the Spirit renders us free to receive the many gifts that, even and especially amid the ruins, are still on offer. When we relinquish the big-shoulders strategy of holding up what is falling down, we can attend to the shimmering shards amid the crumbling of our worldview and our culture, even and especially our religious culture. It is not at all uncommon to find that what we have put our energies into, indeed what we have staked our life on, proves unreliable, and that what we have affirmed in faith is no longer believable. What, then, is the reason for the hope? Can we continue to hope in such circumstances? It is precisely when faith crumbles There is nothing more important to the human being than hope. March-April 1999 Downey ¯ Luminous Traces and love grows dim that hope really begins.'° It is in the wonder and weakness of one's faith that we find the real meaning of hope. For hope is the willingness to not give up precisely when one draws no consolation from faith. Hope does not t~ to determine how God's ways will be shown. It remains open for all new and astonishing manifestations of the divine presence. It is in our most vulnerable state that God's gift of the Spirit, in hope, comes. Hope !s indeed God's gift to the vulnerable. It is only when we are exhausted, speechless, impotent--that is, only in our radical brokenness and vulnerability, by which we participate in the kenosis of God--that God can find room enough to enter and sustain us. The hopelessness and emptiness of the darkness of our age is precisely the condition that makes hope possible. And it is in the self-emptying of inherited forms of religious life and communal commitment that we can find room for what is yet to come. Amid the ruins, our consolation and our hope are found in the One who has left behind a trace of his presence even amid the crumbling?' However much we may wish it otherwise, sometimes it is no more than a trace of God's nearness that we have. For those who are rocked and shaken to their core, shattered by the inbreaking Spirit who is the very gift of hope, shimmering traces may have to suffice, enabling us to take the next step, and the next, toward what is yet coming to be--as the gift of God's giving. From Community to Communion It is clear that inherited expressions of the vowed religious life cannot escape the self-emptying of forms that is the hallmark of our age. This gives cause for lament, and for hope. The future of religious life is ineluctably tied to the willingness of vowed members to lament what has been, what is now passing, and-- rather than trying to rebuild from what little remains of the past-- to create spaces where something of God's constant coming as gift can be recognized, named, and celebrated in memory and in hope. Forms of religious life as we have known it are giving way to something new, new forms of religious life, perhaps, but without clear precedent in Christian history. In the midst of the crumbling of forms in which community and communal commitment played a large role, lamentation can give rise to hope. As community identity " seems on the brink of collapse and communal commitments seem stretched to the breaking point, there may be gained a glimpse of Review for Religious the deeper mystery of interpersonal communion. Is it at all possible that what is presently operative in religious communities is a self-emptying of forms so that vowed members may participate more fully in the mystery of communion? The fundamental Christian mystery is that God is a communion of persons in loving relationship: Father, Son, and Spirit toward us, for us, with us, in us. The very being of God is to be in relation, to be toward us, for us, with us, in us. To be created in the image of God is to be created for relationship, for communion, for establishing, cultivating, sustaining relationships based on reciprocity, mutuality, and equality rooted in the mystery of the divine perichoresis~ To say that the whole world is created in God's image is to say that the whole of creation, every inch and ounce of it, is created for relationship. Growing in the divine likeness, reaching our true destiny as persons, is realized as we participate ever more fully in the mystery of this holy communion. And this we do as we seek to establish and sustain right relationship with self, another, others, God, and with every living creature22 Various expressions of religious life in community have sought to embody this mystery of communion. Community life and communal commitment give form to, or bring to speech, the mystery of trinitarian communion. Re!igious communities and communal commitment have been expressive of, embodiments of, a language of communion. But there is no strict equation between community and communion. The relational matrix at the heart of all the living will not pass away. It alone is the ground on which we stand, and which will withstand the splintering and shattering of the forms that have sought to speak its mystery. Butit may now be time to "speechify" this mystery of communion through the articulation of new cultures of communion that express more adequately the emergent understandings of God, human life, history, the world, and the church. It is quite possible tha~ the good word amid all this hard news is that vowed members of religious institutes have occasion to lean into, fall into, the mystery of communion--the very mystery of God whose very being is to be in relationship. This holy communion of persons divine and human is beneath and beyond all the forms. It is Hope is allowing something to come into life that is not self-generated. March-April 1999 Downey ¯ Luminous Traces the gift given by the Word whose name is Love beneath and beyond all other words. Amid the rubble the Spirit of God in hope comes, perhaps offering an alternative possibility to the worldview which shaped us to the core, offering in its place the possibility of creating a culture of communion as a gentle corrective in the face of the narcissism, pragmatism, and restlessness of our age. At this stage it is all too easy to offer forecasts about the forms religious life will take, in view of such factors as greater collaboration with lay associates and the need for a sharper ecclesial identity and a stronger sense of corporate mission according to the charism of an institute's founders. It would be easy to provide practical directives for the reconfiguration of community as participation in the mystery of communion. But doing so might be one more instance of clinging to the culture that is passing, of holding on to a worldview that would offer a consoling sense of certainty regarding an inevitably brighter future--replete with false promises and unreliable guarantees. Forecasts, clear pictures, and precise directions are at odds with the logic of the trace. What is yet to be will be shown as we make our way into the fullness of the trinitarian communion by following the traces, the luminous traces Christ has left in the gospel. Further, to see in Christ the trace of the trinitarian communion in which we live even now. Whatever new forms of religious life and communal commitment are coming to be will be cultivated and sustained only by prayerful participation in this holy communion wherein we may be given the courage to live with just a trace. Then follow it. In the shattering of ~hat we hold most dear, it is possible to see with new eyes, as if for the first time. Everywhere there are luminous traces of the mystery of communion, hidden from those who keep squinting.and straining for a neat and tidy worldview, or from those who want to build a religious culture of the rubble of the past. As religious communities continue to stretch their numbers and splinter yet further, astonishing acts of faith and love and hope continually spring forth between the cracks. Vowed religious go on, convinced that they will find a way forward. And, if there is no clear path ahead, they will make a way by responding to the gift of God's constant coming; they will follow the traces deeper and deeper into the mystery of communion between and among persons both human and divine. The traces shimmer, sometimes so brilliantly as to blind the clear-sighted: a dazzling darkness! At this juncture in the history of religious life, vowed members in Review for Religious communities of commitment are learning from the inside out the wisdom at the heart of the Christian mystic's experience of Light: If you want to be sure of the path you are on, then close your eyes and walk in the dark. It is hope, and hope alone, that takes the next step. And the next. Notes l Though I am describing the shift from "modernity" to "post[-I modernity," I am avoiding use of that terminology here. Helpful descrip-tions of the emergent post[-]modern consciousness include: Stanley J. Grenz, A Primer on Postmodernism (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996); Richard Kearney, The Wake of Imagination: Toward a Post-Modern Culture (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, 1988); Paul Lakeland, Postmodernity: Christian Identity in a Fragvnented Age (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1997); David Tracy, Plurality and Ambiguity: He~vneneutics, Religion, Hope (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1987). 2 For a good example of the turn to historical fact in Christian the-ology, see Johann Baptist Metz, Faith in History and Society: Toward a Practical Fundamental Theology (New York: Seabury, 1980). See also Johann Baptist Metz and JOrgen Moltmann, Faith and Future: Essays on Theology, Solidarity, and Modernity (Concilium; Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1995). 3 See, for example, Elizabeth Johnson, "Does God Play Dice? Divine Providence and Chance," Theological Studies 57, no. 1 (March 1996): 3- 18. 4 For a treatment of the interruptive character of history, see The Holocaust as Interruption (Concilium), ed. Elisabeth Schiissler Fiorenza and David Tracy (Edinburgh: T. and T. Clark, 1984). 5 For a treatment of some of the issues involved in naming the God who cannot be named, see Jean-Luc Marion, God without Being, trans. Thomas A. Carlson (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995). 6 See Ronald Rolheiser, The Shattered Lantern: Rediscovering the Felt Presence of God (New York: Crossroad, 1995). 7 While others have emphasized the relational character of God and its implications for human and Christian life, I am particularly indebted to the contribution of Catherine Mowry LaCugna, God for Us: The Trinity and Christian Life (San Francisco: Harper, 1991). 8 William E Lynch, Images of Hope: Imagination as Healer of the Hopeless (Baltimore: Helicon Press, 1965), p.9. 9 Lynch, p. 21. 10 For a fuller treatment of my understanding of the dynamics of hope, see Michael Downey, Hope Begins V~here Hope Begins (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1998). ~ Post[-]modernist Jacques Derrida uses .the image of the trace to March-April 1999 Downey ¯ Luminous Traces avoid speaking of presence. The image is also used extensively by Emmanuel Levinas and Paul Ricoeur. In Ricoeur the term is associated with the distanciation of the text. What is found in the narrative of an event but the trace of the event? There is no immediate access through any kind of historical reconstruction or through the forging of univocal meaning. It is intriguing that Th4r~se of Lisieux drew on the image of the trace in speaking of her faith and confidence even in the depth and dark-ness of her trial as she neared death. The title of this presentation derives from TMr~se. She writes: "Since Jesus has reascended to heaven, I can follow him only in the traces he has left; but how luminous these traces are! How perfumed! I have only to cast a glance in the Gospels . " See her Story of a Soul, trans. John Clarke (Washington, D.C.: ICS Publications, 1976), p. 258. ,2 For a treatment of the implications of a thoroughly relational understanding of God for the Christian spiritual life, see Catherine Mowry LaCugna and Michael Downey, "Trinitarian Spirituality," in The New Dictionmy of Catholic Spirituality, ed. Michael Downey (Collegeville: Liturgical Press, 1993), pp. 968-982. Easter (at a retreat house surrounded by cemeteries) Our propensity (as part of nature) is to f!ll up emptiness. Graves hunger for bodies and for earth and, in time, more earth as,flesh diminishes to nothing. But emptiness is essential for God. The hollow of a nest is just right for hatching and only when egg and tomb lie empty does life emerge. Eugene Cartier Review for Religious DORIS GOTTEMOELLER Community Living: Beginning the Conversation Fmor several years I have had the growing perception that com-unity living may be the Achilles' heel of contemporary apos-tolic religious life. ("Achilles' heel" means a point of special vulnerability. Referring to the ancient myth, the dictionary defines it as "a small but mortal weakness.") Before I proceed, let me make two clarifications abdut this perception of mine. First, I see a prob-lem not with community in the abstract (an ideal which we all affirm), but with community living, an experience that is tangible and daily. Secdnd, I sense that our vulnerability consists in our inability to see what this commitment, this ideal, really requires of us. Often the mere mention of the topic brings about an awkward silence, embarrassed dismissals, or defensive equivocations. We have all heard, and perhaps even voiced, statements like these: "Community doesn't mean living under the same roof" . "My ministry is so demanding that I need time and space apart just to keep going" . "I don't want to participate in a basically dysfunctional lifestyle". "My parish [or my ministry team] is my community" . "There are no opportuni6es for community living in my locale" . and, from someone relocating her ministry, "I refuse to go from community to community and ask if they are willing to have me." Doris Gottemoeller RSlVl wrote "Religious Life: V~rhere Does It Fit in Today's Church?" in our March-April 1998 issue. The present article was her contribution to the sy~nposium at the Jesuit Center for Spiritual Growth in ~,rernersville, Pennsylvania, in October 1998. Her address remains Sisters of Mercy of the A~nericas; 8300 Colesville Road #300; Silver Spring, Maryland 20910. March-April 1999 Gottemoeller * Community Living I believe that our inability or unwillingness to answer the questions of what community living means today and what our common obligation or commitment is weakens our credibility internally and externally. We ourselves have failed to get a clear vision of community that we can agree on and live together in, and outsiders take note of a number of confusing appearances. When we are ambiguous about this significant dimension of consecrated life, can we invite potential new members to explore this life? A number of factors and circumstances have brought us to this point of confusion and uncertainty. The adaptation and renewal mandated by Vatican Council II led us to discard many styles and expressions of community that are no longer relevant to contemporary culture and ministry. Economic factors such as the loss of parish convents, the conversion of former motherhouses to other uses, and the withdrawal from many sponsored ministries (hospitals, colleges, high schools) meant that sisters have had to seek other places to live. These are usually rented (and therefore impermanent), not associated with a ministry site, and able to accommodate only a small number--one, two, or three sisters. In these transitions we were clearer about what we were discarding than what we were choosing. (Indeed, we make choices of living arrangements today amid a flurry of considerations: companionship; cost; proximity to work, family, community members, other friends, and doctors; comfort; witness to simplicity; and so forth. All of them are legitimate, but not all are equally significant to the congregation's mission.) Moreover, after a site for community living has been chosen, there is often no set of expectations concerning behavior in one another's regard. A further indication of the silence that surrounds this issue is the nonreception given the 1994 document on community published by the Congregation for Institutes of Consecrated Life and Societies of Apostolic Life (CICLSAL): "Fraternal Life in Community." In my view this document is a clear and sympathetic statement of the present situation of community living, offered "to support the efforts made by many communities of religious, both men and women, to improve the quality" of their community life (§6). Its composition was preceded by co.nsultation with religious in many parts of the world. It has, however, been largely unnoticed or ignored by religious--for several possible reasons. The first is, of course, its unfortunate tide.~ A second possible reason was voiced by a sister in my community: "It gives an excellent presentation of Review for Religious ? the present situation, but the solutions offered are not helpful." Is this not tantamount to an admission that the responsibility for finding solutions belongs with us? A third possible reason is the widespread resistance to any consideration of the topic--in other words, our Achilles' heel. We were not yet ready in 1994 to entertain any discussion of this issue that lies close to the heart of our vocation. Perhaps we are still not ready. But in the interest of testing that premise--and of beginning a conversation--I would offer some starting points. These reflections are offered in response to six questions: (1) What are we talking about when we talk about community life? (2) What is its theological basis? (3) What can we say about a spirituality for community living? (4) What is the role of leadership in community living? (5) What are some special challenges to living community life today? (6) What can we do to renew this dimension of our community life? Note that these questions do not focus on the past, on our previous experience of community living, or on all the factors that have altered it or contributed to our present situation. Some current resources for the reflection are "Fraternal Life in Community" and the apostolic exhortation on consecrated life, Vita consecrata. In addition, and more significantly, each congregation brings its own charism, mission, and experience to the consideration of community living, and the insights shared and directions chosen will not necessarily be the same for each congregation. What are we talking about when we talk about community living? It is impossible to describe community living in a way that anticipates every circumstance, style, and modality. As noted above, we are not talking about an abstract idea, but about a social experience. I would suggest that, put as simply as possible, community living is what happens when two or more people relate to one another in a significant, mutually beneficial, and ongoing way. A significant relationship is one which is weighty, valuable, more than casual; it is multidimensional, not just spiritual, financial, social, or spatial. It is more than spiritual, that is, meeting regularly to pray together. It is more than financial, that is, sharing resources and accountability for the use of Community living is what happens when two or more people relate to one another in a significant, mutually beneficial, and ongoing way. March-April 1999 Gottemoeller * Community Living them, It Jis more than social, that is, gathering for periodic card games, meals, nights out, and so forth. It is more than spatial, that is, living under the same roof or in close proximity to one another. The relationship is significant because all of these dimensions are integrated in a mutually beneficial and ongoing way. A mutually beneficial relationship contributes to the greater integrity and well-being of each participant. It is not crippled by immature dependencies, but strives for a healthy adult mutuality of responsible caring. "Carrying one another's burdens" in time of sickness or special need is an obligfition and a privilege of community life. The benefits sought and exchanged are on many levels, for example, relationship, spirituality, ministry, and, in some cases, mentorship in a new way of life. Finally, I would suggest that a bona. fide experience of community living is ongoing. It is a stable, predictable arrangement, not a succession of sporadic episodes or chance encounters:~ In essence, community members say to one another, "I will be there for youl you c~n count on me," whatever the circumstance or need. Continuity is essential to build trust and undergird mutual expectations. Notice that this description of community living does not say anything about specific situations such as living alone, in twosomes, or in large or small communities. It should be clear, however, that "two or more people in a significant, stable, mutually growthful relationship" does not include busy professionals who only cohabit for the sake of convenier~ce and economic efficiency. It does not include "boarding houses" where anonymity and inde~pendence are the chief values. Instead, .we are talking about good-faith efforts to live a principal value of religious life. With few exceptions it will include a common residence. What is the theological basis for community living? This is a question calculated to make the eyes glaze over, because it sounds so theoretical. It is, however, the fundamental question of motivation. Why do we choose a life of community? Beyond economy, efficiency, convenience, friendship, or natural attraction, what are the reasons that are rooted' in faith, that speak to the core of our identity as apostolic religious? Are there reasons which flow from our commitment toseek God that we call a~religious vocation? I would suggest two lines of reasoning or justification for community living, starting from personal call or vocation and from ecclesial identity. Review for Religious Each of us experienced a call to a way of life, an invitation from Jesus Christ to a life of greater intimacy. We joined our various congregations because membership in that congregation makes pursuit of that way of life possible. A "way of life" is a constellation of fundamental life choices having an internal coherence and consistency. One's way of life is defined by choices about relationship to God, to the Christian community, to sexuality, to possessions, to companions, to those in need. The way of life known as religious life is a radical response to the call of Jesus who says, "I am the way." The internal coherence of a way of life means that all the parts reinforce one another. For example, community life supports and is shaped by the practice of evangelical poverty. Together we share our earnings to provide for our needs and the needs of others. Together we decide how much is enough, whether for today or for our future. A single person living alone in the world could take a vow of poverty, but it would not be the same vow that religious take. It would differ in its expression and its obligations. Similarly, community life supports and is shaped by the practice of the vow of celibacy. Together we can accept the loneliness of unmarried life because of the companionship of one another. Together we witness to the surpassing love of Christ Jesus, who calls us to be for one another in community. And so forth. Obedience, prayer, mission-- all are shaped by and within community. Community living is not an accidental dimension of the way of life we have chosen, but a determinant of the way in which we realize every other dimension. This assertion needs special emphasis with respect to ministry. Before the synod on consecrated life, there was a fear expressed in some quarters that the outcome would be an affirmation of "consecration" over against "mission," of being vs. doing, and that this emphasis would be used to promote a quasi-monastic lifestyle. In actuality, however, the synod document expresses a beautiful integration of consecration and mission: "By the action of the Holy Spirit who is at the origin of every vocation and charism, consecrated life itself is a mission, as was the whole of Jesus' life" (§72). In other words, the life itself, in every dimension and in its totality, is apostolic. Therefore, if the demands of ministry are such as to diminish adherence to the other aspeCts--for example, prayer or community life or obedience--then an imbalance has been created which needs to be corrected. A reflection on the relationship of ministry to community is a March-April 1999 Gottemoeller * Community Living good segue into a reflection on the ecclesial identity of religious life and its implications for community living. Vita consecrata presents community living as an especially eloquent sign of ecclesial community, that is, of the church's fundamental identity. Community demonstrates that sharing in trinitarian communion can change human relationships and create a new type of solidarity, not built on family ties or natural attraction, but on common values and commitments. "In this way it speaks to people both of the beauty of fraternal communidn and of the ways which actually lead to it. Consecrated persons live 'for' God and 'from' God, and precisely for this reason they are able to bear witness to the reconciling power of grace, which overcomes the divisive tendencies present in" the human heart and in society" (§41). Community is described as a "God-enlightened space in which to experience the presence of the risen Lord" (§42). It is a life in communion, which signifies and enriches the church and renders it better able to carry out its mission. Of course, being a sign of something implies a certain visibility. We have to ask: To what extent is our experience of community living visible? Who knows that sisters are present in an apartment building, a neighborhood, or a parish, and what does it sayto them? People in the world today hunger for an experience of community, for evidence that it is possible. In fact, a few years ago a group of intellectuals and public-policy experts formed a new movement called the communitarian movement. Its goal is to strengthen participatory democracy and to call on citizens to balance rampant individualism with a concern for the common good. Healthy religious communities balance individual needs with the common good day after day, in small ways and large. We do it out of love for God and for the sake of mission. If we find ways to share this experience with others, it can make the church more visible and be a gift to the world. What can we say about a spirituality for community? If the theological question deals with the why of community, the spirituality question deals with the how. What kind of spiritual focus, what kinds of practices, nourish and support community life? The first hallmark of community is that it be apostolic or outer-directed. "Not for ourselves alone" should be the watchword. As we said above, consecrated life is apostolic in its very essence. It is not that persons in religious congregations do apostolic works or have individual ministries, but that the whole way of life is for the sake of Review for Religious making visible and attractive the love of God. Community life, therefore, as an intrinsic element of the consecrated life, should be mission oriented in its intentionality and expression. An apostolic community welcomes neighbors and friends and even, at times, aliens and strangers. An apostolic community weaves the needs of the world into its spiritual consciousness and common prayer. An apostolic community shares its resources with the needy. An apostolic community responds to the concerns and priorities of the larger congregation. An apostolic community welcomes new members and introduces them to the way of life. In short, an apostolic community is not turned in on itself, isolated and self-sufficient, but open to receive and share with others. Community life is nourished by dialogu4 and prayer, ritual and celebrations. We are embodied people who need tangible expressions and symbols of shared values and commitments. From time to time we need to say what we believe in, what we question and wonder about, what we care about, and we need to hear others do the same. Every local community will have its own points of intersection, its own rhythm of coming together to speak to one another and together to speak to God. Many of today's religious entered their congregations at a time when the lifestyle was burdened with customs and practices that were no longer appropriate for contemporary life. In rejecting these, however, we sometimes lost sight of the fac.t that we still need tangible expressions of common beliefs and values. In a healthy community life, regular expectations, mutually agreed on, are complemented by spontaneous gatherings and special events. Prayer together furnishes moments of special intimacy. The congregation, in its constitutions and policies, should articulate some expectations that are common to all settings, while leaving room for local creativity. It is too great a burden for local groups to renegotiate everything every year or whenever there is a change in the membership. The common expectations should incorporate congregational feasts, texts, and traditions. Community life requires asceticism. No surprise here! We all Community demonstrates that sharing in trinitarian communion can change human relationships and create a new type of solidarity. March-April 1999 Gottemoeller * Communi~ Living know that community living involves virtues and practices such as self-discipline, generosity, tolerance, and patience. It requires deliberate choices to be available to others, even to be inconvenienced by them. From time to time it gives us opportunities to "bear wrongs patiently" and to seek and to give forgiveness. Community life :is a privileged venue for discernment. The evangelical counsel that is most intrinsic to community life is obedience, not only in the sense of approvals for ministry and residence choices, but also in the sense of holding oneself open to the ongoing promptings of the Spirit in both small matters and large. The place where those prompfings can be heard, the persons who can articulate them, are often found in the local setting. Members in community are not on individual spiritual journeys that only occasionally intersect, but on a shared journey where the challenge or misadventure of one can become an opportunity for all. What is the role of leadership in creating and sustah~ing community? Over the years I have noticed the ease with which we affirm leadership in ministry and the difficulty we have affirming it in community. For example, if someone is an excellent principal or parish administrator or earns an award or grant for a creative ministry project, we are happy to congratulate her and to publish the achievement. We fail to notice, however, that congregations also have members with natural gifts for leadership within community. Here I am not thinking particularly of administrative skills, but of the ability to call the members to unity, to prayer, to responsibility for shared commitments, to celebration, and to reconciliation when needed. Years ago these were some of the responsibilities of the local superior. But now, with that role largely absorbed by province administration and with a collegial lifestyle in the local setting, we no longer have access to, nor honor, these gifts for community building. 1 am not suggesting that congregations institute an annual award for community, but I do want to point out that some sisters have special gifts for bringing out the best in the rest of us. By their example and by their initiative they help us create a more vibrant community life. Further, I suggest that this is not a second-order gift, less important than the ability to create and sustain new or difficult ministries. It is an essential gift that needs to be recognized and affirfi~ed for itself. This is particularly true because the sister Review for Religious who is especially adept at community building is often someone who is especially good at attracting, inviting, and welcoming new members, an activity that is vital to the congregation's future. I suspect that the gifts for community building are more widespread than we realize and that, by honoring them, we may encourage one another to cultivate them. In his book Religious Life as Adventure, Albert DiIanni SM says that the effective regeneration of religious communities depends on leadership from below, arising from the religious instincts at the grass roots. He counters to a degree the Nygren-Ukeritis study indicating the importance of visionary leadership for successful renewal. He suggests that this study may contain a hidden assumption, namely, that the present crisis in religious life is a functional one, a lack of leadership skills. In contrast, he maintains that the crisis has deeper roots, that it is a crisis of enthusiasm and faith, and that, if this is so, nothing will serve but a conversion of heart in a significant number of members at the base, a re-forming of congregations at the level of their faith.2 We all know of places where community is lived with special vibrancy, authenticity, and zeal. We all have women in our midst who live the life with generosity and joy. One problem we face is that too often these individuals are isolated from one another and thus their influence is dissipated. They can grow discouraged and settle into ruts of middle-class complacency--then the congregation's mission and charism are further diminished, less visible. My leadership team once had a conversation about the possibility of bringing some of these sisters together to create a "critical mass." We rejected the idea because we did not want to seem to be recognizing an "elite," or to suggest that what is required of.a Sister of Mercy is beyond the reach of any member. We decided that what is needed for vibrant communities are clear expectations, clearly expressed and honored by all. The goal is for every expression of community living to be intentional rather than associational. What are some special challenges to living community life today? There are a number of them. They are signs of our times, and represent significant challenges for individuals and congreghtions desirous of renewing community life. One is our relationship to the life of the parish and the local church. At one time most local communities were associated with parishes. The parish convent and the sisters in residence there were a symbol of the compassionate face of the church, a center of hospitality and help in time of need, March-April 1999 Gottemoeller ¯ Community Living and a witness to the reality of our way of life. Today there is no common venue where we are present. For those who would like to know more about us, there is no place to "look" for us. Perhaps a communal choice to participate in a specific parish community-- rather than shopping around for liturgies at convenient times or with congenial celebrants--might be a means of community renewal and public visibility. Related to the demise of the parish convent is the general disappearance of congregational properties for community living. As motherhouses are sold or converted to other uses and as sisters are dispersed into varied ministries, congregations have fewer sites that can accommodate a community gathering of more than two or three. Sisters gravitate into apartments because it seems there are no other choices. Congregations favor rentals because they cannot afford to purchase properties or because they have no assurance that" sisters will use congregational properties if they make them available. Of course, if a congregation's commitment to community life includes, for example, common prayer, hospitality, public witness, and multigenerational living, that commitment would involve making suitable residences available and using them. Another challenge is our simultaneous participation in multiple and sometimes intersecting communities. Our parish, our ministry setting, our professional colleagues, our family, and our friends can all make legitimate claims on us. In addition, we may be drawn to specific ecclesial and social groups such as the charismatic movement, the pro-life movement, or Call to Action. These commitments can enrich community life or strain it beyond endurance. It calls for a special discernment to strike the right balance, but participation in community life should enjoy a priority in virtue of its connection to the essence of our vowed commitment. A further challenge is the responsibility for the care of aging parents. Surely no one has a greater call on our generosity than those who have given us life. In some cases it means taking time outside other community and ministry duties to help with shopping, transportation, and similar needs. Occasionally the only way to respond to parents' needs may be to move into the family home in order to provide day-to-day assistance. These situations call for a special sensitivity on the part of community members to different family circumstances. An important question is: How can they share the burden and support one or more individual members in their ministry to their parents? Review for Religious Perhaps the most difficult challenge is the drift towards living alone. There are, of course, some reasons that justify this option. Most congregations have a few members whose psychological health is so fragile that they are unable to cope with the requirements of community living. Sometimes their coping mechanisms involve behaviors that make it extremely difficult for community members to live with them. These conditions warrant living alone, for as long as the conditions persist. It is a special responsibility of leadership to support the well-being of these members. To take another case, some ministry needs would go unmet were it not for some sisters' willingness to live, for a time, apart from the daily support of community life. A question for discernment is whether or not the ministry was chosen precisely to justify .living alone. As in the case of sisters living with aging parents, community members will want to reach out to support the individual who is at a distance. Beyond these two circumstances (and absence for the purpose of study), there is a growing tendency to justify living alone solely on the basis of personal choice. Where this choice has gained a legitimacy on a par with other community choices, the congregation's community life would seem severely compromised. Such a. choice--particularly if the sisters are healthy and actively engaged in ministry--deprives other members of the benefits of their companionship and reduces the number of community settings available. Further, the choice fails to uphold the responsibility to provide communities that can nurture new membership. Unfortunately, in some congregations the issue of living alone is so neuralgic that it cannot even be discussed, let alone challenged. Finally, our experiences and desires regarding community living are affected by intergenerational and multicultural issues. Age and ethnicity (and sociocultural background, education, ministry experience, and other factors too) may condition one's style of participating in community. At times these differences may be experienced as gift, at other times as limitation. The need to In some congregations the issue of living alone is so neuralgic that it cannot even be discussed, let alone challenged. March-April 1999 ,Gottemoeller ¯ Community Livin~ integrate these differences sensitively is one more reason for being clear about the congregation's expectations for community living. Moreover, in a world torn' by division and conflicting interests, "the presence of communities where people of different ages, languages, and cultures meet as brothers and sisters, and which remain united despite the inevitable conflicts and difficulties inherent in common life, is in itself a sign that bears witness to a higher reality.''3 What steps can we take to renew our community life? First, we can break the silence. We need to ask questions like: What would attract a young person to investigate our way of life? How would we welcome a potential new member and show her what our life is like? How is my spirituality nourished from our communal roots? How .does our way of life give visible witness to simplicity, communal sharing, prayer, love for one another, zeal for the gospel? We can no longe~r take for granted that nothing can be said about these matters. We may discover, in the conversation, that there is a hunger among us to talk about expectations, to be challenged out of complacency, and to live our communal life more intensely. In addition to beginning a conversation, we can resolve to "go with the life," wherever it is happening. We can affirm the vibrant communities that already exist, recognizing that they are not just happy accidents, but the fruit of effort and conviction. We can direct our financial and personal resources toward creating new communities among individuals who are willing to take the risk. We can invite other members to join existing communities that are vibrant. We can share our experience of community with associates, parishioners, inquirers, in ever widening circles. But this will be effective only if at the center a group of deeply'committed religious are living their vocation with sincerity and passion. I began these reflections by asserting that our inability to be clear about our understanding of and commitment to community living is a potentially fatal weakness. What followed were some thoughts designed to prompt the discussion and discernment that most congregations urgently need. Let me cite here a phrase that is the subtide of the document "Fraternal Life in Community": "The Love of Christ Gathers Us into Unity." This phrase captures the motive and dynamism of community life. Only the love of Christ is enough to support and sustain this way of life. Love attracts and gathers us. The process is never finished, always calling us to greater unity, greater generosity, greater zeal. This is an ideal from which we will all fall short, but one which will never be approached Review for Religious unless it is articulated in behavioral expectations appropriate to the charism and mission of a congregation. Not everything has been said here, but perhaps these reflections will be enough to break the silence and begin the conversation. The time has come, I believe, for us to consider community living with fresh eyes. The consideration can be the key to our ongoing conversion and our authentic renewal. Notes ~ During a visit with the Congregation for Institutes of Consecrated Life in 1993, the officers of the Leadership Conference of Women Religious and the Conference of Maior Superiors of Men pointed out the unsuitability of the title. The only recognition of our objection, how-ever, is a note saying: "In this text, 'fraternal' and 'fraternity' refer inclu-sively to both women and men and are, in the iudgment of the translators, the words most apt in English for conveying the fullness and warmth of communion which lies at the heart of community." 2 New York: Society of St. Paul, 1994, pp. 96-97. The Nygren- Ukeritis study referred to is "Religious-Leadership Competencies," Review for Religious 52, no. 3 (May-June 1993): 390-417. 3 "Fraternal Life in Community" (1994), §56. How Often Must I Forgive? (Matthew 18) The first purple crocuses of spring forgive your indifference, your neglect of alleluias at sunshine and the reassuring spill of birdsong . from still-bare maples. March forgives your detraction and contempt for its necessary gusts and its mud like that made by Jesus with spittle and now rubbed on the face of your yard to cure it of winter. Pa~ricia Schnapp RSM March-April 1999 1dO - - LEON McKENZIE The Credibility of Jesus' Resurrection: Two Interior Witnesses St. Augustine of Hippo once asked a fascinating question about the believability of Jesus' resurrection from the dead.1 The raising of a dead man to life was as much a mystery of unspeakable proportions then as it is today, and Augustine wondered whether the proclamation of the resurrection is credible or incredible. Suppose bodily resurrection is essentially unbelievable. From Augustine's perspective in the early 5th century, most of the world believed that Jesus rose from the dead and ascended into heaven. This raised two points for consideration. On the one hand, if millions of Christians believed despite the incredibility of the Gospels, belief in the resurrection would itself be miraculous and a sign from God supporting the Christian message. On the other hand, if multitudes of Christians believed because the resurrection is credible, it would imply the resurrection is essentially believable. Nonbelievers, then, must ask themselves why they find it impossible to believe. The saint's scholarship in the art of persuasion and logic is evidenced in his formulation of the question. After reflecting seriously on the issue, it is with some ease Leon McKenzie EdD, professor emeritus at Indiana University, recendy published Pagan Resurrection Myths and the Resurrection of Jesus: .4 Christian Perspective. His address is 274 Adrienne Drive; Greenwood, Indiana 46142. Review for Religious that one arrives at the conclusion that the proclamation of Jesus' resurrection is highly credible. The Appeal of the Kerygrna The resurrection was credible to early Christians, in part because they heard the Good News heralded by apostles who were soon to suffer for the truth of what they announced. After the last of the apostles died, others announced the gospel, often at the risk of their lives. As historians note, those who heard the testimony of the martyrs and early apologists accepted the Good News of Jesus' resurrection in very large numbers. Beyond the valor of those who preached the resurrection, the message itself possessed its own intrinsic appeal. Evidently something subtle was working in the lives of converts to the Way, as the Christian life was called, something that made the Good News eminently credible. I suggest that two interior witnesses of great power were at work: the voice of the resurrection archetype and the voice of the Holy Spirit. The Resurrection Archetype An archetype is a pattern in the mind and a standard for discerning meaning. The profound depths of each human heart are shaped in such a manner as to influence a favorable response to the message of resurrection. This archetype can be compared, in a manner of speaking, to an instinct for what is true and good, to a natural power to grasp what is tremendously significant for human existence. This meaning structure of the human psyche, I propose, has been learned over countless years of universal human experience. The resurrection archetype cultivates a natural appetite for the central proclamation of the Christian faith, the resurrection of Jesus. The testimony of the Holy Spirit builds on this natural archetype and urges us, at the supernatural level, to affirm Jesus' resurrection as God's decisive word in history. The resurrection archetype takes its form from everyday experiences of members of the human race. The great theme of death and resurrection is etched indelibly on the world. The workings of the world reveal the death-and-resurrection motif in ordinary natural processes. Sometimes our experiences of these March-April 1999 For those who look, death and resurrection themes positively abound in our experience of the world. McKenzie ¯ The Credibility of Jesus' Resurrection patterns of death and resurrection are so subtle that we fail to advert to them consciously. Nonetheless, these daily "texts" spelling out the meaning of the cosmos eventually enter into our hearts. Someone once said, "A perfume of promise is in the air." Even in the natural world, the very air seems to hold a promise of resurrection. Many resurrectiori themes are active in our daily lives. All we need do to discover these motifs is observe and reflect. Five of these experiences of death and resurrection are presented here: (1) the daily death and resurrection of the sun, (2) the burial of seeds in the fall and the resurrection of vegetation in the spring, (3) the death of joy that occurs in emotional depression and the eventual resurrection to a new life of happiness, (4) the promise of resurrection in the life cycles of small crawling creatures, and (5) our death each night in sleep and our resurrection in the morning. It must be emphasized again these are simply representative examples~ For those who look, death and resurrection themes positively abound in our experience of the world. The Daily Death and Resurrection of the Sun Each day the sun is born in the east. On many days the arrival of the sun is accompanied by a spectacular show of its glory. The golden disk goes across the sky and descends into the darkness beyond the western horizon at night. We can only imagine the power of this experience for ancient peoples who lacked a scientific explanation of what was happening. Even for us who have a scientific explanation, the experience is substantial. What dies in the gloom of the western horizon arises again in the glory of the morning sky. The Burial of Seeds and the Resurrection of Vegetation How mystifying it must have been for ancient peoples to watch the burial of seeds in the fall and the subsequent resurrection of flowers, young saplings, and crops in the spring. This universal experience of death and resurrection inscribed itself deeply in the Review for Religious human .psyche and was the cause of festivals of joy and promise. This experience was the source of myths of hope, once stripped of fantastic and sometimes bizarre details. Celebrations of new life and stories of renewed life reinforced the resurrection archetype. The Death of Joy and the Resurrection of New Life Perhaps every normal individual has experienced the death of joy on the occasion of the ordinary depression associated with such events as the death of a loved one, the loss of a friend due to a thoughtless word, the loss of a job, and even the losing of a pet dog or cat. Some persons undergo more serious depression and begin to believe they will never again experience happiness. Eventually the day arrives when joy returns, laughter is possible, and a resurrection of sorts takes place. The resurrection archetype grows stronger in our heart of hearts. The Promise of Resurrection in Small Crawling Creatures There is a hint of the resurrection of Christ, and our own resurrections with him, even in the small crawling creatures of the natural world. The larval grubs entombed in the earth emerge as beeries. The caterpillar wraps itself in a chrysalis only to come forth again as a beautiful butterfly. In its most elemental forms, nature displays signs of resurrection hope. Ancient peoples, much less distracted than we are today, could, not have missed reflecting on what meaning resides in the transformations of the least of God's creatures. The Death of Sleep and the Resurrection to Consciousness Perhaps nothing in our lives comes closer to modeling the death and resurrection motif in our experience of the natural world than the phenomenon of sleep. We lose ourselves in sleep and put aside conscious advertence only to regain ourselves and our consciousness in the daily resurrection that occurs with our awakening. At one level of explanation, we fall asleep because we are tired and arise because we are refreshed. At a more profound level of interpretation, we fall asleep and rise again as a sign of death and resurrection. These repeated experiences, universal in their scope among human beings, wrought profound developments in the resurrection meaning-structures of the collective unconscious of the race. It is not at all difficult to believe that God put resurrection motifs into March-April 1999 McKenzie ¯ The Credibility of Jesus' Resurrection the world as promises of the defining event in human history, the resurrection of Jesus Christ. Functions of the Resurrection Archetype How has the resurrection archetype functioned? First, after taking form in the hearts of people who lived long ages ago, it found its way into myths that sages and storytellers told and retold about gods who died and came to life again--particularly agricultural gods, in accord with the seasons of growing. How these myths may have come to be is an interesting process, but one that is too complicated to review within this brief article.2 Suffice it to say that the resurrection archetype was the primary guide for the mythmakers who created "once upon a time" stories of gods who regularly descended to the underworld and returned later. Frequently these myths were used to explain why vegetation died in the fall and was reborn in the spring. Second, in accord with divine providence, the archetype worked to prepare the way for the acceptance of the risen Lord. After Jesus' resurrection, it continued providentially to provide, at a natural level, an interior witness to his resurrection. Upon hearing the announcement of Jesus' resurrection, a bystander who was open to God might think, "This sounds very interesting. This message resonates in my soul. The proclamation of Jesus' resurrection is supported by my entire experience of the workings of the world. Perhaps my experience of the death and resurrection themes in nature was God's way of preparing me for this message about Jesus." Now this initial natural attraction to the notion of Jesus' resurrection would probably not be put into words. Instead, the bystander in the preceding paragraph probably experienced an unspoken intuition that stirred a natural feeling favorable to the Good News. For some indefinable reason in the bystander's mind, he or she would have felt drawn to the message. Creation and the Resurrection Archetype One final issue about the archetype must be considered. The resurrection archetype" in the depths of the human psyche grew out of the universal experience of the resurrection theme in the workings of the world. But how did it happen that these Review for Religious resurrection motifs came to exist in the world? The answer is related to the very creation of the world. We read in Genesis that God created the heavens and earth and "the earth was without form and void, and darkness was upon the face of the deep" (Gn 1:1-2). In the act of creation God rescued the world from its own nothingness. From nothingness God brought forth a dynamic world that participates in his own being. This "stamped" the world, so to speak, with the pattern of death and resurrection. The very act of bringing cosmos out of chaos is the fundamental motif of death and resurrection that is repeated everywhere in the workings of the world. The resurrection themes we experience it the world are the "traces" of the first act of creation. They are reminders of creation. The signs of resurrection manifested in the world of our experience are hallmarks of a God who brings forth something out of nothing and life out of death, a God who does things we might deem "impossible." We are heirs of the Father with Jesus, and our inheritance is everlasting life. The Holy Spirit The second interior witness to the truth of Jesus' resurrection is the Holy Spirit. One of the most revealing New Testament passages concerning the Holy Spirit's testimony to the resurrection of Jesus is Romans 8:1-17. The passage speaks to a number of major ideas. It seems as if St. Paul experienced a flood of rich insights as he dictated his letter to his scribe Tertius. "The mind that is seton the flesh is hostile to God," Paul says; "it does not submit to God's law---indeed, it 'cannot, and those who are in the flesh cannot please God." A little further along Paul says, "If the Spirit of him who raised Jesus from the dead dwells in you, he who raised Christ from the dead will give life to your mortal bodies also through his Spirit which dwells in you." Finally, Paul concludes this passage by noting, "When we cry, 'Abba! Father!' it is that very Spirit bearing witness with our spirit that we are children of God, and if children then heirs, heirs of God and joint heirs with Christ." The Holy Spirit is our interior witness to several truths, all of March-April 1999 McKenzie ¯ The Credibility of Jesus' Resurrection which are closely connected. First, we are children of God because Christ has set us free from the flesh, that is, from that part of us that is unredeemed. We are, in fact, on intimate, terms with the Father and even address him as Abba or Papa. Second, we are heirs of the Father with Jesus, and our inheritance is everlasting life. This is the life to which Jesus was raised after his death and burial. Third, this inheritance is due precisely to the Spirit of God who raised Jesus from the dead. The Holy Spirit gives witness within us to our adoption, to the risen Christ, and to our inheritance of Jesus' everlasting life. The Holy Spirit testifies to the truth of the resurrection. Credence in the "Incredible" Humanly speaking, and looking only to the surface of things, it seems incredible that someone who is dead could be raised to a new life. Note that Jesus was not merely resuscitated or revived to life in the old flesh. He rose to life in a glorified body (I Co 15:1-47). In the days after the ascension and before the descent of the Holy Spirit on Pentecost, some might have thought that the message of Jesus' resurrection had "almost no chance of being accepted. But those who heard the announcement of Jesus' resurrection--the proclamation of an event long before it became a teaching--not only affirmed the resurrection, but did so in large numbers. People believed not only because they heard the words of the aposdes and their successors, but also because they were attuned to what they heard in their own hearts. That so many new people accepted the Good News of Jesus' resurrection from the dead in the 1 st century and that the Christian faith became so widespread in such a short time seems miraculous. The testimony of credible witnesses such as the apostles to something that seemed incredible in human terms, namely, the raising of a crucified "criminal" to a new life, evoked strong affirmations of faith. Such affirmations, however, would have been futile without the interior testimony of the resurrection archetype at the natural level of human existence and the testimony of the Holy Spirit at the supernatural level. The interior witness of the resurrection archetype and the Holy Spirit transformed a . proclamation that seemed incredible into. something utterly . -I-~6-I believable and altogether inviting. Review for Religious Notes ~ St. Augustine, The City of God, trans. G. Walsh et al. (New York: Doubleday Image Books, 1958), pp. 505-508. 2 See my Pagan Resurrection Myths and the Resurrection of Jesus: A Christian Perspective (Charlottesville, Virginia: Bookwrights Press, 1997). The Recital Sacred was the silence as the tiny woman caressed the keys almost~ possessively. This was bliss: seven cherished friends gathered to hear her heart's story, eager to let her bare the glory of a soul poured out in ardent prayer. She knew they knew she met her God through her Magnificat of making music. Anna Marie Mack SSJ March-April 1999 -.157 CYNTHIA BOURGEAULT From Woundedness to Union ~early fifteen years ago, in his now classic Lost Christianity, .&. ¯ Jacob Needleman argued the need for an "intermediate Christianity" that might bridge the gap between the religion's lofty spiritual teachings and the ability of the average Christian to put them into practice. "Stone must become water before it can flow," he writes. "The pathos of Christendom. is that of preaching to stones that they must flow into the ocean.''~ Midway through the book there is a cameo app.earance by the Catholic monk Father Thomas Keating, at the time (1978) abbot of St. Joseph's Abbey in Spencer, Massachusetts. Here he and a few associates were experimenting with a new prayer form called centering prayer, aimed at expressing the essence of the Christian contemplative heritage in a simplified form accessible to contemporary Christians. In the course of a lengthy interview, Needleman expresses excitement that Keating's experiments might be headed toward recovering that lost link, though he stops short of commending them outright. Among the many debts of gratitude I owe to this book is that it was my introduction to Thomas Keating, who has subsequently become my teacher and friend. In the sixteen years since that Cynthia Bourgeault PhD is founding director of the Maine Monastic Foundation, a network of people attempting to live the contemplative life in the world according to the Benedictine Rule. She is also an Episcopal priest, adjunct professor of spirituality at Bangor Theological Seminary, and a developmental editor for Thomas Keating. The current article has been slightly adapted from one published in Gnosis, No. 34 (Winter 1995). Her address is 526 Isabella Point Road; Salt Spring Island, British Columbia; V8K 1V3 Canada. Review for Religious interview at Spencer, there have been significant developments. A year after Lost Christianity was published, Keating resigned as abbot of Spencer and "retired" to the small mountain monastery of St. Benedict's in Snowmass, Colorado. There local interest in centering prayer quickly snowballed into a national organization called Contemplative Outreach Ltd., now a decade old and some fifteen thousand members strong. In the effort to develop a conceptual framework for the growing ranks of practitioners, Keating has produced a series of books--Open Mind, Open Heart (1987), Invitation to Love (1992), and Intimacy with God (1994)---in which he develops an increasingly cohesive and subtle vision of the Christian spiritual journey, the path of inner transformation that begins when one embraces a regular practice of centering prayer. Keating says, "The method of centering prayer was specifically developed as a dialogue between contemporary psychological models and the classic language of the Christian spiritual path." That "classic language," which envisions a progression through purgative, illuminative, and unitive stages, has guided the journey of many a saint, but for many reasons both good and bad it often fails to resonate with the spirit of our own times, where the prevailing paradigm for transformation consists of woundedness, recovery, and wellness. ls there a way of integrating these visions? Keating's system is an attempt to do just that--to sketch out a road map which begins in woundedness and ends, if one follows it all the way, in transforming union. While most of the elements are individually familiar, the system itself represents a significant new synthesis. Furthermore it is yoked to a powerful meditational praxis through which people change more quickly and deeply than through any other method I have seen. It is not exactly an "intermediate Christianity" according to Needleman's specifications, which he defines as "the accumulation of the force of inner attention" (p. 119). But, functionally, Keating seems to be achieving the desideratum that Needleman described so eloquently: to help stones become water, to take the first steps toward significant inner transformation within a classically Christian framework. Not All Meditation Is Alike Before exploring the intricacies of Keating's paradigm, it is first necessary to understand something of the properties of centering March-April 1999 Bo_ur~eault * From Woundedness to Union prayer. While common understanding might consider all meditational methods basically interchangeable in that they begin by gathering the mind and end by transcending it, Keating's entire teaching rests on the assertion that centering prayer is a distinct method whose most apparent characteristic is a tendency to trigger the unconscious. This discovery, which grew out of direct observation rather than theory, came several years after the progress report in Lost Christianity~ At that time Keating and his associates Father William Meninger and Father Basil Pennington were still thinking in terms of a renewal of contemplative prayer, the creation of an inherently Christian meditation in response to the massive defection of younger Catholics to Eastern meditational paths. Based largely on the 14th-century text The Cloud of Unknowing, centering prayer took its place among other Christian meditational forms sprouting at the time, particularly Christian Zen prayer and the "Christian Meditation" of Dora John Main. It was a devotional method pure and simple, a way of deepening and intensifying the relationship with God. There was at that point no psychological underpinning attached to it, nor even a clue that one might exist. Then in 1983 a charter group of centering-prayer initiates organized the first ten-day Centering Prayer Intensive at the Lama Foundation in San Cristobal, New Mexico, hoping to achieve a more concentrated meditative experience on the general model of a Zen sesshin. While Keating and several others in the group were well-experienced in sesshins, no one was prepared for the volume and vibrancy of emotional outpouring that flooded forth from five hours a day of centering prayer. Tears, repressed memories, deep intuitions all came to the surface in a jumble, along with a sense of catharsis and bonding among the dozen participants that to this day has not faded. From his years as abbot, Keating was used to the gradual sensitizing of the unconscious during the course of contemplative life, but not with such speed and intensity. He recalls seeing "people going through in ten days what it might have taken them twenty years to go through at a monastery." He quickly realized he had a tiger by the tail, and it did not take long to figure out why: it lay in the methodology of the prayer itself. Most meditational methods are concentrative in nature: they start by gathering and focusing the attention, whether by repeating Review for Religious a mantra, following the breath, or focusing on bodily sensation. With centering prayer, however, one starts at the opposite end of the spectrum, "not with attention, but with intention," as Keating puts it. The intention in this case is simply to rest in the presence of God beyond all thought and emotion. A "sacred word" is used in the prayer, but not as a mantra, to be repeated consistently as a focal point .for attention, but simply as a touchstone for intent: when one finds oneself attracted to a thought or emotion during the course of prayer, the sacred word simply serves as a reminder to let go of the thought and rest in the bare presence of God. Thus thoughts may--and do---come and go; the idea is to develop a detached attitude .toward them. One reaches contemplation through the access point of consent, not through focused attention. If meditational methods were arranged on a scale from most concentrative to most receptive, centering prayer would be at the far end of the receptive methods, dropping below even the bare awareness of vipassana (insight) meditation or dzogchen. As Keating suspected--and transpersonal psychology has subsequently confirmed--the more receptive the meditational method, the greater the involvement of the unconscious. Concentrative methods tend to retard this "unloading of the unconscious," as Keating terms it. Receptive methods, on the other hand, foster it, particularly in an intensive group situation such as at that pioneering Lama retreat. But Keating's real intuitive leap was to recognize the import of this observation: this unloading of the unconscious was not an inconsequential side effect, but a significant purification process at work. This was the connecting link he had long been looking for, between purification as traditionally presented in Christian teaching (as a reprogramming of conscious motivation, or the struggle against sin) and the realization by contemporary psychology that such reprogramming goes only skin-deep and in fact can cause serious damage if used for repression and denial of unconscious impulses. "The real ascesis is the purification of unconscious With centering prayer, one starts at the opposite end of the spectrum, "not with attention, but with intention," as Keating puts it. Bourgeault ¯ From Woundedness to Union L ¯ J motives," Keating had long argued--but how to get at them? With centering prayer as a catalyst for the release of unconscious elements, he found his tool and his paradigm. Apophatic Psychotherapy Keating's teaching begins by fundamentally repositioning meditation in the context of a spiritual praxis. Rather than seeing it as a tool for developing concentration, relaxing stress, or accessing higher states of consciousness, he sees it as a catalyst for the purification of the unconscious. This purification is itself prayer. It is not a preparation for relationship with the higher, but the relationship itself. Upon this cornerstone he builds his paradigm of "the Divine Therapy." How does this purification work? As the unconscious unloads during centering prayer, Keating teaches, these small purifications are actually a part of a larger project. One begins to dismantle the "false self,!' the needy, driven, unrecognized motivations that govern most of our untransformed human behavior. Dovetailing classic Christian teaching with contemporary psychology, Keating suggests the false self as a modern equivalent for the traditional concept of original sin. Beginning in infancy (or even before), each of us, in response to perceived thr¢ats to our well-being, develops a false self: a set of protective behaviors driven at root by a sense of need and lack. The essence of the false self is this driven, addictive energy, consisting of tremendous emotional investment in compensatory "programs for happiness," as Keating calls them. It is this false self .that we bring to the spiritual journey; our "true self" lies buried beneath the accretions and defenses. In all of us a huge amount of healing has to take place before our deep and authentic quest for union with God--which requires tremendous courage and inner p~'esence to sustain--escapes the gravitational pull of our psychological woundedness and self-justification. This, in essence, constitutes the spiritual journey. So far this is orthodox psychological and theological fare. But where Keating takes the boldest step is in his assertion that centering prayer is a direct catalyst for this purification of the false self. As one sits in centering prayer, with the intent to rest and trust in God, the unconscious begins to unload "the emotional junk of a lifetime." Repressed memories, pain, and accumulated dull hurt rise Review for Religious to the surface and are, through an attitude of gentle consent, allowed to depart. As Keating visualizes the process, The level of deep rest accessed during the prayer period loosens up the hardpan around the emotional weeds stored in the unconscious, of which the body seems to be the warehouse. The psyche begins to evacuate spontaneously the undigested emotional material of a lifetime, opening up new space for self-knowledge, freedom of choice, and the discovery of the divine presence within. As a consequence, a growing trust in God, a bonding with the Divine Therapist, enables us to endure the process. Thus. the gift of contemplative prayer is a practi-cal and essential tool for confronting the heart of the Christian ascesis--namely, the struggle with our uncon-scious motivation--while at the same time establishing the climate and necessary dispositions for a relationship with God and leading, if we persevere, to divine union.2 For me the most fruitful connection here is the linking of the "dark night" or "cloud of unknowing" of the traditional apophatic path and the psychological process--the "darkness" of the psyche. If psychoanalysis represents "cataphatic therapy"--using words, concepts, and awareness to illuminate the darkness of our inner ground--Keating is presenting centering prayer as a kind of "apophatic psychotherapy" ("apophatic" meaning that which points one toward the ineffable beyond all words, concepts, and forms). What really happens when one enters the cloud of unknowing--resting in God beyond thoughts, words, and feelings--is a profound healing of the emotional wounds of a lifetime. As these wounds are gradually brought to the surface and released in prayer (one simply lets them go nonpossessively, rather than retaining them for inspection as one does in psychoanalysis), the false self weakens and the true self grfidually emerges. For Keating this is the real meaning of the term "transforming union." As he states in Intimacy with God, "We can bring the false self to liturgy and to the reception of the sacraments, but we cannot bring the false self forever to contemplative prayer because it is the nature of contemplative prayer to dissolve it" (p. 98). Keating does not claim that such a practice replaces the need for ordinary psychotherapy. Indeed, material that arises out of the unconscious in prayer sometimes requires the assistance of psychotherapy, particularly in cases of retrieved memories of emotional or sexual abuse. But in centering prayer this healing and March-April 1999 Bourgeault * From Woundedness to Union purification occurs within the sanctuary of prayer, combined with a deepening trust in God. So, at the same time that healing is going on at the psychological level, a deepening of the spiritual faculties is occurring as well--recollection, vigilance, attention of the heart-- leading to a blossoming of the traditional theological virtues of faith, hope, and love. The Shape of the Journey Traditionally we are used to thinking of spiritual transformation as an ascent. The effects of a spiritua~ practice, we expect, are to make us more calm, more able to cope, more filled with equanimity. Keating's model, however, suggests a different scenario. The ascent is inextricably bound to a descent into the ground of our own psyche. Thus periods of psychological ferment and destabilization are signs that the journey is progressing, not that it is a failure. As the. practice of meditational.prayer loosens repressed material in the unconscious, the initial fruits of spiritual practice, may not be peace and enlightenment, but destabilization and the emergence into consciousness of considerable pain. One woman in our group in Maine experienced this process particularly vividly. After only a few weeks of regular practice of centering prayer, she found herself increasingly tense and irritable and frequently went home from meditation to pick a fight with her husband. She was tempted to quit, but with the encouragement of the group she stayed on and cooperated with the process. What was happening (rather quickly in her case) was that a brittle control--keeping everything at a superficial level of "niceness"--collapsed almost immediately in the face of her immersion in contemplative silence. She found herself face-to-face with a deep guilt about, her second marriage and her terror that God would punish both her and her husband with cancer. Needless to say, "resting" in such a God was not a tranquil experience! But with a good deal of courage she has been able to face these feelings, work through them, and reestablish a relationship with both her husband and God on a deeper, fleer level. In my own work with centering prayer, I have learned by repeated experience that the "reward" for a period of deepening practice is often the emergence of a patch of pain long buried followed by several days of emotional turmoil, Keating calls it "the Review for Religious archaeological dig." As trust grows in God and practice becomes more stable, we penetrate deeper and deeper down to the bedrock of pain, the origin of our personal false self. The results are often horrifying to ourselves. Yet, says Keating, this does not mean that the spiritual journey is a failure, but that it is doing its job. The fruits of this unloading are more than worth the pain. In response to each significant descent into the ground of our woundedness, there is a parallel ascent in the form of inner freedom, the experience of the fruits of the spirit, and beatitude. There are several practical implications to this idea, but the paramount one--for both spiritual seekers and spiritual guides--is to recognize that centering prayer is a psychological method and will produce results in that realm, some of them initially painful. In Intimacy with God Keating recounts how a graduate student recendy did a thesis on centering prayer, along with several forms of Eastern meditation, recommending them as a way to reduce anxiety. Keating wrote back to the man saying, "Centering prayer will reduce anxiety for perhaps the first three months. But, once the unconscious starts to unload, it will give you more anxiety than you ever had in your life." For individual practitioners he recommends a limited dosage-- twenty to thirty minutes twice a day is the normal iprescription--to prevent the premature emergence of material into consciousness. Ten-day retreats rely on a trained staff to help handle a more intensive unloading process. Keating insists that the method is safe and that only in the case of serious depression or psychotic symptoms should the prayer be discontinued. By interweaving the contemporary language of healing with the traditional language of holiness, Keating extends the range of both. His synthesis is spacious, with plenty of room for .growth. For those preoccupied with their own recovery from woundedness (and many come to centering prayer by way of the recovery movement), it provides a gende and supportive context in which the process can unfold. But recovery is not the endpoint. For Keating the real goal Keating has bridged the gap between contemporary psychology and the traditional language of spiritual purification. March-April 1999 Bourgeault ¯ From Woundedness to Union of the inner transformation is not one's personal healing, but the ability to be a Christian as measured by the ability to follow the teachings of Christ all the way to mystical union. For in the final analysis it is Keating's own deep mystical spirit that undergirds the entire paradigm, offering .a scale as vast as the cosmos: There remains a further energy, which is reserved for the next life. That is ~vhat theologians call the Beatific Vision. This requires freedom from the limitations of the physical body in order to experience it. This energy is so intense that, if it were not mediated by the ordinary affairs of daily life that distract us from continual contact with the divine energy, we would turn into a grease spot. This is the energy that lights the universe and forms the whirling nebulae. We can receive only a little of it at a time. In heaven we can have all we want.3 Toward an Intermediate Christianity Keating's thinking has evolved considerably since his interview with Needleman years ago, and it is still evolving. Many of his observations bear much more dialogue and fine-tuning, but at this point his appears to be a cohesive new.synthesis that offers a significant first step in the direction of a functional "intermediate Christianity." Clearly gaps are being bridged. The first of these is the gap between theory, and practice: Keating's method seems to provide a way for stones to become water. By restoring a meditational praxis--and one so uniquely consonant with the basic modality of Christianity--he has created an inner laboratory for practicing the basic gesture of faith. I have watched people like the woman in Maine confront their woundedness, heal, and come alive spiritually as they make the connection between their daily lives and what goes on in prayer. Second, Keating has bridged the gap between contemporary psychology and the traditional language of spiritual purification. By repositioning meditation as a tool for purification of the unconscious--and by insisting that people do it, not just talk about it--he can be faithful to contemporary models of healing while pointing the way beyond, toward profound inner transformation in ever deepening surrender. In so doing, he has rescued us both from the vagueness of contemporary psychojargon and from the violence of traditional metaphors based on renunciation, vigilance, and Review for Religious "spiritual warfare" (as if a part of us had to be killed, or at least locked up, in order for holiness to grow). For Keating, spiritual transformation is gentle, ever-so-gentle, and holds always before one the need for integration of psyche and spirit. The one cannot dominate the other; they must proceed apace. If the spirit's role is to be strong, the psyche's is to be vulnerable, and the lion must lie down with the lamb before the peaceable kingdom will reign within. The touchstones of the entire teaching are gentleness, patience, consent, and a willingness to let the process of integration unfold with its own pace and authenticity. Of course there is woundedness, but there is holiness as well. How the two come together--not which wins, but how they join-- constitutes the unique and profound meaning of one's life, the emergence of the true self, transformed in Christ. Of Thomas Keating's many contributions~ this one is for me the most powerful. ~r Notes l Jacob Needleman, Lost Christianity (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1980), p. 119. 2 Thomas Keating, Intimacy with God (New York: Crossroad, 1994), p. 3. 3 Keating, p. 103. Resurrection Power Behold the slender shoot Reaching for the light, The flower just unfurled, The barren branch Heavy with blossoms. Here is the Force That walked out of the tomb, Conquering our worst foe. Here is Life incorruptible, The Risen One waiting To spring forth in you. Teresa Burleson March-April 1999 PAMELA A. SMITH On the Go with Chronic Illness, Sitting Still with Mark How does anyone with a long-term, life-threatening, complex, and confounding chronic illness stay with it and retain humor and hope for the long haul? How does one take in and make sense of the regular reminders from endocrinologist, internist, and consulting counselor that it does inevitably get less manageable and, yes, worse? How does one stay happily productive in the face of the evidence that most folks in the same situation have long since quit work and gone on disability leave? What is the Christian mix of resignation and stubbornness, relaxation and fight, that makes it possible to slow down and still go barreling forward? These were some of the questions--maybe the most critical ones--which I carried with me on a rainy March day to a hideaway in close proximity to tentatively budding trees and a horse pasture still tinged with the orange and yellow of winter grass. The evergreen shrubs and hedge persisted, drippingly at the moment, around the Michigan country home to which I retreated (with all my griefs in my arms, as Dylan Thomas said of lovers, and all those griefs probably everywhere else too). My IDDM--insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, long ago labeled "britde"--was afflicting me with "diabetic fatigue," I had recently told my boss, the rector of a seminary. He affirmed my request to take some needed time away. I can get a bit gl