Suchergebnisse

Monográfico con el título: "Vocational Education and Training. An International Perspective" ; Resumen basado en el de la publicación ; Título, resumen y palabras clave también en español ; El Tratado de Roma que estableció la Comunidad Económica Europea (CEE) en 1957, determinó como objetivo esencial de sus esfuerzos la mejora constante de las condiciones de vida y del trabajo de los europeos. En 1963 se redactan los 10 principios para una política común en formación profesional y una de las consecuencias es la creación, en 1975, del Centro Europeo para el Desarrollo de la Formación Profesional, European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training – Cedefop. No obstante, casi medio siglo después, Europa todavía no tiene una política común de formación profesional. Esto significa que la Unión Europea no ha hecho lo suficiente para fomentar una política común de formación profesional y, como consecuencia, los ciudadanos no pueden beneficiarse de ella. En un período de crisis económica, la población necesita trabajo y el trabajo viene como resultado de una educación y capacitación adecuadas. En este sentido, se describen las políticas emprendidas en la CEE y la Unión Europea para fomentar una política común de formación profesional. ; ESP

Monográfico con el título: "Vocational Education and Training. An International Perspective" ; Resumen basado en el de la publicación ; Título, resumen y palabras clave también en español ; El Tratado de Roma que estableció la Comunidad Económica Europea (CEE) en 1957, determinó como objetivo esencial de sus esfuerzos la mejora constante de las condiciones de vida y del trabajo de los europeos. En 1963 se redactan los 10 principios para una política común en formación profesional y una de las consecuencias es la creación, en 1975, del Centro Europeo para el Desarrollo de la Formación Profesional, European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training – Cedefop. No obstante, casi medio siglo después, Europa todavía no tiene una política común de formación profesional. Esto significa que la Unión Europea no ha hecho lo suficiente para fomentar una política común de formación profesional y, como consecuencia, los ciudadanos no pueden beneficiarse de ella. En un período de crisis económica, la población necesita trabajo y el trabajo viene como resultado de una educación y capacitación adecuadas. En este sentido, se describen las políticas emprendidas en la CEE y la Unión Europea para fomentar una política común de formación profesional. ; ESP

This paper uses data from the Cedefop European Skills and Jobs (ESJ) survey, a new international dataset of adult workers in 28 EU countries, to decompose the wage penalty of overeducated workers. The ESJ survey allows for integration of a rich, previously unavailable, set of factors in the estimation of the effect of overeducation on earnings. Oaxaca decomposition techniques are employed to uncover the extent to which the overeducation wage penalty can be attributed to either (i) human capital attributes, (ii) job characteristics, (iii) information asymmetries, (iv) compensating job attributes or (v) skill needs of jobs. Differences in human capital and job‐skill requirements are important factors in explaining the wage premium. It is found that asymmetry of information accounts for a significant part of the overeducation wage penalty for tertiary education graduates, whereas job characteristics and low skill content of jobs explain most of the wage gap for medium‐qualified employees. Little evidence is found in favour of equilibrium theories of skills matching and compensating wage differentials. The paper thus highlights the need for customised policy responses (e.g. career guidance; policies to raise job quality) to tackle overeducation.

En este artículo se pretende ofrecer una visión heterogénea de la formación profesional, ya que su autor ha sido profesor en centros de educación secundaria y de formación profesional. Actualmente trabaja como técnico adjunto en la Secretaría de Formación Profesional de la UGT de Cataluña, por lo que, además de tener una concepción académica, percibe también la sensibilidad de los agentes sociales. En este artículo, se considera importante la opinión de los sociólogos, en contraposición a aquellos estudios en los que solo se tienen en cuenta los criterios economicistas en lo referente al mundo laboral y la empleabilidad. La sociedad del conocimiento tiene, además, unos retos añadidos, como son la inclusividad y la integración social. La formación profesional y el sistema formativo deben asumirlos; de lo contrario, será un fracaso colectivo. Si se observan datos del Centro Europeo para el Desarrollo de la Formación Profesional (Cedefop, 2014), puede verse que España tiene un número muy bajo de alumnos que cursan formación profesional dual (un 4,3 % si se compara con la media de la Unión Europea, que es del 27 %, según datos de 2013). Las proporciones de población adulta en paro y con cualificaciones profesionales muy bajas que participan en programas de formación permanente son mucho más elevadas que las correspondientes al promedio de la Unión Europea.

As the policy cycle for European cooperation in vocational education and training (VET) is coming to an end in 2020, the need for high-skilled labour is increasingly seen as paramount to ensure future sustainable and inclusive development in Europe. Drawing on Cedefop review and analysis of VET policies and their implementation, this article provides a brief overview of the progress made so far, areas of weakness, and persistent and new challenges ahead. Analysis confirms the gradual but continuous progress being made over the last decade despite the years spent in the long shadow of the financial crisis and the consequent economic and political uncertainty affecting many European countries. While participation to and, importantly, quality of VET varies across national systems, most Member States have progressed towards the achievements set in the Bruges Communique in 2010. This includes improved transparency, quality assurance and permeability of national qualification systems, as well as the enhanced responsiveness of VET provision to labour market needs through the wider recognition of the role of work-based learning and apprenticeship schemes. What is apparent today, more than ever before, is that the European institutional and policy framework represents a unique strength for Member States to focus on the big picture over the long term and make the most of the opportunities that an enhanced cooperation among national systems may offer to improve the overall performance, quality and attractiveness of VET in Europe. ; A medida que el ciclo para la cooperación europea en educación y formación profesional (FP) está llegando a su fin en 2020, la necesidad de mano de obra altamente calificada se considera cada vez más importante para garantizar un futuro desarrollo sostenible e inclusivo en Europa. Basándose en el examen y análisis de Cedefop de las políticas de FP y su implementación, este documento proporciona una breve descripción del progreso realizado hasta el momento, áreas de debilidad y desafíos persistentes y nuevos por delante. El análisis confirma el progreso gradual pero continuo realizado en la última década, a pesar de los años transcurridos a la larga sombra de la crisis financiera y la consiguiente incertidumbre económica y política que afecta a muchos países europeos. Si bien la participación en la FP y, lo que es más importante, su calidad, varían en los diferentes sistemas nacionales, la mayoría de los Estados Miembros han progresado hacia los logros establecidos en el Comunicado de Brujas en 2010. Esto incluye una mayor transparencia, garantía de calidad y permeabilidad de los sistemas nacionales de calificación, así como una mayor capacidad de respuesta de la provisión de FP a las necesidades del mercado laboral, a través de un reconocimiento más amplio del rol del aprendizaje basado en el trabajo y los esquemas de formación. Lo que es evidente hoy, más que nunca, es que el marco institucional y político europeo representa una fuerza única para que los Estados Miembros se centren en el panorama general a largo plazo y aprovechen al máximo las oportunidades que puede ofrecer una mayor cooperación entre los sistemas nacionales para mejorar el rendimiento general, calidad y atractivo de la FP en Europa.

El abandono escolar temprano preocupa en el ámbito internacional. En concreto, la Unión Europea plantea como objetivo para 2020 que la tasa de abandono escolar temprano no supere el 10% (European-Commission, EACEA, Eurydice, & Cedefop, 2014). España es uno de los países europeos que presenta tasas más elevadas de alumnado que abandona los estudios de forma prematura situándose ésta en el 21,9% (EUROSTAT, 2016; MECyD, 2015). Además, las tasas de alumnado repetidor en España también se sitúan entre las más elevadas de la Unión Europea, siendo mayores en el primer curso de Educación Secundaria Obligatoria (MECyD, 2015). Entre la diversidad de factores que influyen en el abandono escolar temprano se encuentran los de ámbito social, los personales y los educativos. El objetivo de este estudio es profundizar en los factores sociales. Se realizó una búsqueda de artículos de revisión en las bases de datos internacionales. Para el análisis de datos se utilizó el programa "Nvivo. Los factores sociales que influyen en el abandono escolar temprano se agrupan en los familiares y las relaciones sociales con los iguales. Destaca la influencia de la familia, con aspectos como el estatus socioeconómico, la educación de los padres, la estructura y el ambiente familiar. Otros factores como el rechazo social del grupo de compañeros, las escasas habilidades sociales unido al absentismo escolar originado por el grupo también influyen en el abandono escolar. Por tanto, el modelo explicativo responde a un modelo complejo de causas que interactúan y que deben ser diagnosticadas en su totalidad y abordadas coordinadamente desde diversos ámbitos. ; Early leaving from education and training is a great concern worldwide. At the level of the European Union, countries have committed to reducing the proportion of early leavers to less than 10% by 2020 (European-Commission, EACEA, Eurydice, & Cedefop, 2014). Spain is far from this target, with a proportion of 21,9% Spanish early school leaving rate is one of the highest within European Union countries (EUROSTAT, 2016; MECyD, 2015). Additionally, Spanish repeating students rate is among the highest of European Union countries with the greatest increment in the first grade of the secondary school (MECyD, 2015). Literature shows that social factors, together with personal and educational factors, influence on early school leaving. The objetive of this study is to describe the social factors. An advanced search of review articles has been undertaken in various international databases. For the data analysis has been used the program Nvivo. Social factors that influence on early school leaving can be grouped in familiar factors and in the social relationships with peers. The influence of the family is of great importance, with key elements such as the socio-economic status, parent education, family structure or the family environment. Other elements such as social rejection of peers, poor social skills linked to truancy originated by the peer group influence early school leaving. Hence, an explanatory model responds to a complex model of factors that interact and, consequently, need to be precisely diagnosed in order to be undertaken from different but coordinated contexts. ; Durante la realización de este estudio D. González-Rodríguez, ha recibido financiación del Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte para la Formación de Profesorado Universitario, para el cuatrienio 2014-2019. Código solicitud: FPU14/02092.

The Treaty of Paris (ECSC, 1951) funded in 1951 the European Coal and Steel Community. This first step was followed by the Treaty of Rome, that created in 1957 the European Economic Community. This Treaty states that the constant improvement of the living and working conditions of their people is an essential objective. In 1963 the Council proposes 10 principles for implementing a common vocational training policy. One of the results of these principles is creation in 1975 of the European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training – Cedefop. In 1978, the Committee of Education decides to create the network for information and documentation on European education Eurydice and 1984 was the foundation year of the Network of National Academic Recognition Information Centres, NARICs.In the late 80s, European actions begin to foster transnational mobilities. In 1987, the Council of the European Communities adopted the European Community Action Scheme for the Mobility of University Students, ERASMUS and during the years from 1988 to 1994 the programmes PETRA, EUROTECNET and FORCE promoted the European cooperation in vocational education and training. LEONARDO I and II were the successors of these programmes from 1995 to 2006. LEONARDO was included in the Lifelong Learning Programme (LLP) in the period 2007-2013 and has ended up as part of the current Erasmus+ education mobility action during the period 2014-2020.As mentioned in the 2000 Lisbon Agenda and in Horizon 2020, Europe pursues the strategic objective of orienting its economy towards knowledge. This knowledge-based economy idea has an influence on the Bologna (1999) and Copenhague (2002) Declarations. The Bologna Declaration is focused on Higher Education and has managed to transform the university studies in Europe. The Copenhagen Declaration has still not managed to minimise the differences of the VET studies in the European Union. ; El Tratado de Paris (ECSC, 1951) fundó en 1951 la Comunidad Europea del Carbón y del Acero. Este primer paso fue seguido por el Tratado de Roma, que creó en 1957 la Comunidad Económica Europea. En el Tratado se afirma que el objetivo esencial de sus esfuerzos es la mejora constante de las condiciones de vida y del trabajo de los europeos. En 1963 se redactan los 10 principios para una política común en formación profesional y una de las consecuencias es la creación, en 1975, del Centro Europeo para el Desarrollo de la Formación Profesional, European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training – Cedefop. A finales de los años 80, comienzan las acciones europeas que van fomentar las acciones transnacionales mediante movilidades en formación profesional. En 1987, se adopta ERASMUS y entre los años 1998 y 1994, se PETRA, EUROTECNET y FORCE, para fomentar la formación profesional. Al terminar estos programas, se unen las acciones de movilidades de formación profesional durante 1995 y 2006 en los programas LEONARDO. LEONARDO pasa a formar parte del Programa de Aprendizaje Permanente (PAP), en el periodo 2007-2013 y a integrarse definitivamente en el conjunto de acciones para la movilidad educativa en Erasmus+, durante el periodo actual 2014-2020.Según la propuesta del año 2000 en la Agenda de Lisboa que se ha ratificado en las propuestas para el Horizonte 2020, Europa tiene actualmente el objetivo estratégico de convertirse en una economía basada en el conocimiento. El objetivo de la Europa del conocimiento, está presente en las declaraciones para la cooperación en educación de Bologna, 1999 y Copenhague, 2002. Los objetivos de la declaración de Copenhague, enfocada en la formación profesional, están lejos de conseguirse, ya que actualmente existen aún muchas diferencias entre los estudios de FP ofrecidos por los países de la Unión Europea.

Rapport Cnam pour le Cedefop à Thessalonique ; The aim of this research is to propose a synthesis about the French practices concerning the evaluation of quality aspects in vocational training, especially where public policies are concerned. We have selected a relatively small number of evaluation studies (40 reports), which are directly concerned with the CEDEFOP's priority : the training programmes for people that are unemployed or threatened by unemployment. They are principally recent reports, published in the nineties. These reports are mainly issued from public governments or from study and research centers. They concern training programmes which are fully or partially financed by public funds. These training programmes mainly concern two categories: young people and unemployed, but employees can also be involved in the case of retraining courses. These different evaluations do not use the same methods. On the one hand each evaluation appears to be specific while it is related to the specific goal of the particular program, on the other hand the evaluation methods evolve during the time because the relationship between training ant employment are better known. Hence we propose to group the evaluation methods in two large categories: the substantial evaluations and the procedural ones. This typology allows us to emphasize both the each method specificities and the general evolutions of the methods. The first category is thus named because it is related to the results of training actions in regard to their goals. In the second case, the evaluation is concerned with the internal running of the action and particularly in the whole procedures, modes, agreements, conflicts, negotiations, arrangements, translations. that practically appears at the different levels of the exercise. ; L'objet de cette étude est de proposer une synthèse des démarches françaises d'évaluation de la qualité des actions de formation professionnelle, mises en œuvre notamment dans le cadre des politiques publiques. Nous avons choisi d'examiner un nombre limité d'évaluations, une quarantaine de rapports, en nous concentrant sur ce que le CEDEFOP indiquait comme la première priorité : les formations destinées aux chômeurs et aux personnes dont l'emploi est menacé. Il s'agit principalement de rapports récents (années 1990), émanant soit de l'administration, soit d'organismes d'études ou de recherche, et qui portent sur des programmes de formation financés entièrement ou partiellement à l'aide de fonds publics. Leurs destinataires correspondent à deux grandes catégories : les jeunes et les chômeurs, mais on trouve également des salariés dans le cas des programmes d'aide à la reconversion professionnelle. Ces différentes évaluations ne procèdent pas toutes selon des méthodes similaires. Il faut souligner d'une part le caractère ad hoc de chacune des évaluations menées, lié à la spécificité de chaque action et d'autre part l'évolution au cours du temps des méthodes d'évaluation, liée à une meilleure appréhension de la relation formation-emploi. Aussi nous a-t-il paru intéressant de les regrouper pour la présentation en deux grandes catégories, les évaluations de nature substantielles et celles de nature procédurales qui permettent de rendre compte à la fois des spécificités et des évolutions. La première catégorie regroupe des évaluations qualifiées de substantielles car elles s'intéressent d'abord aux résultats des actions de formation au regard de leurs objectifs. La seconde catégorie d'évaluation regroupe des évaluations que l'on qualifie de procédurales. Elles s'intéressent au fonctionnement interne de l'action et en particulier à l'ensemble des procédures, modalités, accords, conflits, négociations, compromis, traductions que l'action fait concrètement naître à ses différents niveaux d'exercice.

Demographic, political and technological trends cause an increasing shortage in skilled labor in specific economy sectors (health care, hotel/restaurant industry, trade, technology) in most industrialized European countries (Cedefop, 2016). Consequently, companies/employers are forced to fill a rising number of job vacancies with currently unexploited labor force potential (e.g. unqualified/low qualified people, people returning from career breaks or those with migration background as well as older employees and unemployed people). On the other hand, there is still a substantial number of non-working people of employable age (potential additional labor force, Eurostat, data extracted in May 2017), especially if we look at the groups mentioned above. Hence, to ensure participation in working life and to provide companies with sufficient workforce, CVET (Continuous Vocational Education and Training) measures are essential. CVET can be defined as the continuation or resumption of more or less organized learning after the completion of a first education phase. Previous studies usually focus on attendance figures. Taking the results of these studies into account, it shows that some groups of employees are underrepresented. However, little is known about the motivation to attend CVET or what motivates companies to offer trainings, especially for our target groups. In part of our studies (interview study and quantitative survey), we refer to all four sectors (see above) of the economy. In a vignette study we concentrate on health care and hotel/restaurant industry. In these two sectors there is the most severe shortage of skilled workers, which is true for most European countries. Furthermore, many people belonging to our target groups work in these sectors without being adequately qualified.

In European industrialized countries, a large number of companies in the healthcare, hotel, and catering sectors, as well as in the technology sector, are affected by demographic, political, and technological developments resulting in a greater need of skilled workers with a simultaneous shortage of skilled workers (CEDEFOP, 2015, 2016). Consequently, employers have to address workers who have not been taken into account such as low-skilled workers, workers returning from a career break, people with a migrant background, older people, and jobseekers and train them, in order to guarantee the professionalization of this workforce (Festing and Harsch, 2018). Continuing vocational education and training (CVET) is seen as an indispensable tool; because CVET has advantages for both employers and employees, it helps to increase the productivity of companies (Barrett and O'Connell, 2001), to prevent the widening of socioeconomic disparities (Dieckhoff, 2007), and to open up career opportunities for the workforce (Rubenson and Desjardins, 2009). However, participation rate on CVET seems to differ, depending on institutional factors (such as sector and size of the company) and individual characteristics (such as qualification level, migration background, age and time of absence from work) (e.g., Rubenson and Desjardins, 2009; Wiseman and Parry, 2017). In contrast to previous research, our study aims to provide a holistic view of reasons for and against CVET, combining the different perspectives of employers and (potential) employees. The analysis of reasons and barriers was carried out based on semi-structured interviews. Fifty-seven employers, 73 employees, and 42 jobseekers (potential employees) from the sectors retail, healthcare and social services, hotels and catering, and technology were interviewed. Results point to considerable differences in the reasons and barriers mentioned by the disadvantaged groups. These differences are particularly significant between employees on the one side and employers, as well as ...

The number of social enterprises is increasing rapidly. Social enterprises are looking for new, innovative and economically sustainable ways to tackle structural societal challenges that generally fall outside the direct focus and objectives of the public and private sector. Social enterprises are primarily mission-driven, where profit is not a goal in itself but a means of creating social impact with regard to a specific social problem. The intended impact areas of social enterprises broadly range from poverty reduction, sustainability, healthcare, or labor participation of vulnerable groups. With respect to the latter impact area, many initiatives have been taken across Europe to prevent and combat marginalization of vulnerable groups as a result of long unemployment spells, which may cause financial and social pressure, as well as decay of physical and psychological health conditions. Nevertheless, the nature and extent of these initiatives vary considerably across countries (CEDEFOP, 2018). Social enterprises, in collaboration with other relevant stakeholders such as 'conventional' companies or local governments, can play a key role in addressing these challenges. This proposal builds on research that was completed earlier this year at HU concerning the scaling of social enterprises with a particular focus on work integration of people with a distance to the labor market (so-called WISEs) (e.g. people with low qualifications, young people disengaged from education, people with mental or physical disabilities, refugees, former prisoners, former addicts, or people who have difficulties finding a job due to their age etc.). One of the outcomes of this research showed that it is difficult for WISEs to transcend its societal impact beyond the local level. In practice, the effective realization of both social and economic value is not easy for many WISEs, but the interaction with and between different actors in the external environment or ecosystem also plays a crucial role in its success. More research is needed ...

Rapport Cnam pour le Cedefop à Thessalonique ; The aim of this research is to propose a synthesis about the French practices concerning the evaluation of quality aspects in vocational training, especially where public policies are concerned. We have selected a relatively small number of evaluation studies (40 reports), which are directly concerned with the CEDEFOP's priority : the training programmes for people that are unemployed or threatened by unemployment. They are principally recent reports, published in the nineties. These reports are mainly issued from public governments or from study and research centers. They concern training programmes which are fully or partially financed by public funds. These training programmes mainly concern two categories: young people and unemployed, but employees can also be involved in the case of retraining courses. These different evaluations do not use the same methods. On the one hand each evaluation appears to be specific while it is related to the specific goal of the particular program, on the other hand the evaluation methods evolve during the time because the relationship between training ant employment are better known. Hence we propose to group the evaluation methods in two large categories: the substantial evaluations and the procedural ones. This typology allows us to emphasize both the each method specificities and the general evolutions of the methods. The first category is thus named because it is related to the results of training actions in regard to their goals. In the second case, the evaluation is concerned with the internal running of the action and particularly in the whole procedures, modes, agreements, conflicts, negotiations, arrangements, translations. that practically appears at the different levels of the exercise. ; L'objet de cette étude est de proposer une synthèse des démarches françaises d'évaluation de la qualité des actions de formation professionnelle, mises en œuvre notamment dans le cadre des politiques publiques. Nous avons choisi ...

IN CROATIAN: U posljednjih deset godina tržište rada u Hrvatskoj obilježeno je dugotrajnom krizom i sporim ekonomskim oporavkom te broj zaposlenih do 2019. godine još nije dosegao predkriznu razinu. S druge strane, projekcije za Hrvatsku pokazuju da će do 2030. godine ukupan broj zaposlenih potrebnih gospodarstvu ostati relativno sličan. Međutim, između 2018. i 2030. godine prema baznom scenariju Eurostata radni kontingent u RH smanjit će se za 12, 3 %, čak i uz projiciranu značajnu imigraciju. Demografska kretanja i intenziviranje starenja stanovništva te recentni trendovi iseljavanja pred Hrvatsku stavljaju ozbiljan izazov zadovoljavanja budućih potreba za radnom snagom. Da bi se do 2030. godine samo održao trenutan broj zaposlenih, bit će potrebno značajno povećanje stope aktivnosti stanovništva (20 – 64 godine) sa sadašnjih 65, 2 na 74, 4 %. Pri tome će posebno povećanje biti potrebno u starijem i mlađem radnom kontingentu, gdje je hrvatsko zaostajanje za EU-om najizraženije. Za ostvarenje takvog povećanja stope zaposlenosti bit će nužna snažna potpora javnih politika. Primjerice, za povećanje stope zaposlenosti starijih bit će neminovne intervencije koje će doprinijeti da stariji radnici (i njihovi poslodavci) žele, mogu i vide isplativim zadržavanje u svijetu rada sve do 65. godine, a što sigurno uključuje i investicije u cjeloživotno obrazovanje i uvjete rada te implementaciju antidiskriminacijskih politika.Projekcije pokazuju da će se i sektorska struktura radne snage nastaviti mijenjati. Trend pada broja zaposlenih u poljoprivredi i industriji će se nastaviti, doći će do određenoga smanjivanja uloge ugostiteljstva i turizma, dok će se rast zaposlenosti u zdravstvu i obrazovanju ubrzati, a značajniji porast se očekuje i u stručnim i znanstvenim uslugama te zelenim poslovima. Nažalost, obrazovni sustav ne prati navedene trendove te buduće potrebe ne odgovaraju trenutnoj strukturi kvalifikacija s obzirom na područje visokoga obrazovanja. Izraziti problemi mogu se javiti u zadovoljavanju potreba u području obrazovanja, a u slučaju izraženih migracija i zdravstva. S druge strane, studiji poslovanja i administracije koje pohađa najveći broj studenata te, u nešto manjoj mjeri, studiji iz tehničkoga područja vezani su uz zanimanja u kojima se predviđa smanjivanje broja radnih mjesta u Hrvatskoj. --- IN ENGLISH: In the last ten years, the labor market in Croatia has been marked by a long-lasting crisis and a slow economic recovery, as the number of employees by 2019 has not yet reached pre-crisis levels. CEDEFOP projections for Croatia show that by 2030, the total number of employees needed by the economy will remain relatively similar. However, between 2018 and 2030, according to the Eurostat baseline scenario, the working age population in the Republic of Croatia will decrease by 12.3%, even with projected significant immigration. Demographic trends and the intensification of the population aging, as well as recent trends in emigration, pose a serious challenge to Croatia in meeting future labor needs. In order to maintain the current number of employees by 2030, it will be necessary to significantly increase the activity rate of the population (20-64 years) from the current 65.2 to 74.4%. Increase ought to be strongest among the older and younger cohorts, where Croatia's lag behind the EU is most pronounced. Strong public policy support will be required to achieve such an increase in the employment rate. For example, in order to increase the employment rate of older people, older workers (and their employers) must have preferences, abilities and financial incentives to remain in the world of work until the age of 65. This certainly includes investments in lifelong learning and working conditions, as well as the implementation of anti-discrimination policies. The CEDEFOP projections show that the sectoral structure of the workforce in Croatia will continue to change. The downward trend in the number of employees in agriculture and industry will continue, there will be a certain reduction in the role of hospitality and tourism, while employment growth in health and education will accelerate, and a significant increase is expected in professional and scientific services and green jobs. Unfortunately, the education system does not follow these trends and future needs do not correspond to the current structure of qualifications with regard to the field of higher education. Significant problems can arise in meeting the workforce needs in the education sector, and in case of sustained emigration severe labor shortages can emerge in health sector as well. On the other hand, the studies of business and administration attended by the largest number of students and, to a lesser extent, studies in the technical field are related to occupations in which the number of jobs in Croatia is expected to decrease.

Purpose: The years 1960-1970 were decisive years in the development of Swiss vocational education and training (VET). The post-World War II economic boom, technological innovations and the debate concerning equal opportunities and the democratisation of education put the VET system under pressure. Reforms were thus undertaken to increase the attractiveness of the system and to respond to the urgent shortage of qualified workers at the time. At the same time, reforms were adopted increasing the theoretical and general knowledge content of VET and improving the quality of training. The aim of our article is to describe these reforms and to show how they relate to a certain image of the future of society. Method: Our article is based on an analysis of historical documents written between 1960 and 1972 in Switzerland on the subject of VET. These documents will, firstly, be used for a historical reconstruction of the situation and of the major challenges of the time; and secondly, they will be subjected to a discourse analysis in order to identify the main arguments that characterised the public debate at the time. Results: Our article shows how the reforms undertaken take shape on the basis of a certain image of the future of society and of VET held at the time: an image characterised by constant and rapid changes, increasing insecurity, need for adaptation and flexibility, complexification and specialisation of the work tasks. Conclusion: The article will also underline how the responses to the challenges posed by this image of the future will be at the origin of five trends that will characterise the evolution of Swiss VET until today: a trend towards academisation, with more academic and general content; a trend towards pedagogisation, with increased pedagogical attention to curricula and teacher training; differentiation, with the creation of new certifications; permeability, with the opening of vocational tracks to higher education; and "learnerisation", with the gradual change of the figure of the apprentice from a "worker" to a "learner". Far from being limited to the evolution of Swiss VET, these five trends describe movements that recent studies by CEDEFOP show also at the European level.