This report was prepared in response to a request by the government of Honduras for assistance in the preparation of a power sector strategy for the country. Specifically, the government asked for help in identifying the main issues in the power sector, and in addressing them through formulation of a clearly defined, achievable strategy. Left unresolved, these issues risk derailing the country's macroeconomic framework, potentially damaging the competitiveness of the country and its prospects for poverty reduction. The main issues to be analyzed in the study were identified at a workshop held on September 19, 2006, in Tegucigalpa, jointly with the Secretaria de Recursos Naturales y Ambiente (SERNA) and the Comision Presidencial de Modernizacion del Estado (CPME), and with the participation of representatives from the Empresa Nacional de Energia Electrica (ENEE), civil society, the private sector, Congress, public sector agencies, donors, utilities, and ministries. It was decided that the study would be divided into two components: (a) the first would identify and evaluate options on institutional reforms, particularly ENEE's restructuring and management, and securing electricity supply; and (b) the second would formulate a power sector strategy. Two reports will be prepared, with the second report to be finalized according to the timing of the government's decision. This first report analyzes the institutional and policy issues; financial and fiscal concerns; social aspects, such as tariffs and subsidies, and access to electricity; and investment requirements including the development of renewable resources. The report is divided into two parts. Part A presents a diagnostic of the electricity sector, including ENEE's financial performance, fiscal impacts, and reliability of supply, institutional and legal framework, pricing policy, and electricity coverage. Part B evaluates the options available to improve sector efficiency, ensure financial sustainability, promote the diversification of energy sources, and increase electrification coverage.
This paper provides a synthetic overview of the link between food insecurity and conflict, addressing both traditional (civil and interstate war) and emerging (regime stability, violent rioting and communal conflict) threats to security and political stability. In addition, it addresses the various attempts by national governments, intergovernmental organizations, and civil society to address food insecurity and, in particular, the link with conflict. It begins with a discussion of the various effects of food insecurity for several types of conflict, and discusses the interactions among political, social, and demographic factors that may exacerbate these effects. It then discusses the capabilities of states, international markets, intergovernmental organizations, and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) to break the link between food security and conflict by focusing on mechanisms that can shield both food consumers and producers from short-term price instability. Finally, it discusses projected trends in both food insecurity and conflict and concludes with some brief comments on policies that can build resilience in light of projections of higher and volatile food prices and a changing climate.
This paper analyzes the relations between leadership, the policy making process, policies and institutions, and development results in Chile. It starts with a stylized model for the dynamics of development that derives a Kuznets type relation between growth and distribution of income, determined by the quality of leadership, the policy making process, institutions, and policies. This framework is applied to Chile, identifying the features of the policy making process and leadership that allowed for continuation of growth enhancing reform, with a stronger focus on equity goals, since the transition to democracy. As a result of three decades of reforms, Chile has recorded a quantum leap in economic growth, which is traced down to specific reforms. Yet Chile's equity experience is much more mixed: poverty has declined massively but income remains highly concentrated, a likely result of shortcomings in the quality of education and in labor markets. The paper reviews the major risks to the country's future development pace and points out the main reform challenges faced by policy makers.
Beginning in the late 1980s many developing countries turned to the private sector to provide basic infrastructure and utility services, such as highways, railroads, water, wastewater, electricity, gas, and telecommunications. Recent studies suggest that private involvement often benefited customers and reduced government fiscal problems without harming employees or enriching private providers excessively. There were enough high-profile failures, however, to discredit this reform in many quarters. Private involvement is likely to be more successful if it generates real efficiency gains rather than simply transferring costs among parties, if the systems of regulating the private companies are politically sensitive as well as technically competent, if the costs and constraints of private capital are not excessive, and if we are willing to adopt more modest and gradual schemes in difficult circumstances.
The subprime mortgage crisis ranks among the most serious economic events affecting the United States since the great depression of the 1930s. This study analyzes key issues raised by the crisis at three levels: (i) issues directly and specifically relating to subprime mortgage lending; (ii) issues relating to the securitization of subprime mortgages; and (iii) issues affecting financial markets and institutions. These issues are fundamental to risk bearing, sharing, and transfer in financial markets and institutions around the world. Many of the issues raised by the U.S. subprime crisis also apply to high-risk loan markets in developing countries. The framework applied in the paper analyzes subprime mortgage lending as a major financial market innovation. Although conditions were conducive for subprime lending to arise as a financial innovation, financial innovations are necessarily risky undertakings, all the more so when they create new classes of risky loans and securities. The lessons learned from the crisis can thus be usefully applied to issues of the growth and development of emerging economies, as well as pointing the way to the design of new and efficient policies for subprime lending in the developed economies.
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Am Mittwochnachmittag überreichen die EFI-Wissenschaftsweisen ihr Jahresgutachten an Bundeskanzler Scholz. Der EFI-Vorsitzende Uwe Cantner spricht im Interview über den transformationspolitischen "Schlingerkurs" der Ampel, Deutschlands Bildungskrise und den Rückstand bei der KI-Entwicklung, die Öffnung zur Militärforschung – und was die Regierung trotz allem richtig macht.
Uwe Cantner, 63, ist seit Mai 2019 Vorsitzender der Expertenkommission Forschung und Innovation (EFI). An der Universität Jena hat er eine Professur für VWL/Mikroökonomie, seit 2014 ist er Vizepräsident seiner Universität. Foto: David Ausserhofer.
Herr Cantner, wenn Sie nach der Überreichung des neuen EFI-Jahresgutachtens eine Minute allein hätten mit Olaf Scholz, was würden Sie ihm raten?
Meine wichtigste Botschaft an den Bundeskanzler wäre: Trotz aller Riesenaufgaben von der Verteidigungs- über die Sicherheits- bis hin zur Klimapolitik dürfen Forschung und Innovation auf keinen Fall unter die Räder der immer schärferen Budgetkonkurrenz geraten. Und dann würde ich ihm ein paar Vorschläge machen, wie sich die Bearbeitung der unterschiedlichen Herausforderungen geschickt mit einer gut ausfinanzierten F&E-Politik kombinieren ließe.
Alle wissen doch, dass sich die großen Probleme von heute und morgen nur mithilfe der Wissenschaft lösen lassen. Warum glauben Sie trotzdem, dass so eine Warnung nötig ist?
Weil wir die Transformation unserer Gesellschaft und unserer Wirtschaft hin zur Klimaneutralität und damit auch die nötige Forschung und Entwicklung jetzt durchführen und finanzieren müssen, die Erträge aber erst weit nach den nächsten Wahlen sichtbar werden. Da ist es politisch opportuner, große Investitionsprogramme für die Bundeswehr zu beschließen oder Konjunkturstimuli, die schnell wirken. Wir dürfen über dem kurzfristig Drängendem nicht das langfristig Erforderliche aus den Augen verlieren.
Sie sagen es selbst: Politiker wollen Wahlen gewinnen, anstatt sie jetzt zu verlieren und in 15 Jahren Recht gehabt zu haben.
Dieser Gegensatz ist nicht zwangsläufig. Es ist durchaus möglich, Verantwortung für heute und für die Zukunft zu übernehmen. Also Strategien und Maßnahmen zu entwickeln, die schnell helfen, mit ihren Auswirkungen aber der nächste Generation zu Gute kommen. Natürlich muss ich so einen langfristigen Plan den Wählerinnen und Wählern unbedingt erklären, sie dafür gewinnen. Die Grünen versuchen das meiner Meinung nach zurzeit am ehesten.
Und bekommen entsprechend Gegenwind. Sagen Sie mir bitte, wann eine Regierung das zuletzt so gehandhabt hat und dann erfolgreich bei Wahlen war.
(lange Pause) Bei der Wiedervereinigung, beim Aufbau Ost, da hat es funktioniert.
Den Eindruck hatte der damalige Bundeskanzler Helmut Kohl vermutlich nicht, als er von Demonstranten mit Eiern beworfen wurde.
Proteste wird es immer geben, wenn sich Dinge ändern. Aber Kohl ist 1994 wiedergewählt worden. Und er hat das sehr geschickt angestellt mit seinem Versprechen, in zehn Jahren werde es im Osten "blühende Landschaften" geben. Bis die da waren, hat es zwar – im Nachhinein betrachtet – deutlich länger gedauert, aber er hat es mit diesem Narrativ geschafft, die Leute hinter sich zu bringen. Mehr noch: Er hat einen parteiübergreifenden Konsens in der Politik hergestellt, der ziemlich lange gehalten hat. Man hat das zusammen durchgezogen. So lange, bis wichtige Weichen gestellt waren. Ein bisschen von diesem Geist würde ich mir heute wünschen. Zuerst hatte ich den Eindruck, der Ampel-Koalitionsvertrag, der sehr ambitioniert war, wäre ein Signal für einen solchen gemeinsamen Aufbruch. Aber in der Praxis der drei Parteien prallen die Ideologien aufeinander. Und in der Wahrnehmung der Wähler verlieren alle Koalitionspartner – und extreme Kräfte bekommen Aufwind.
"Jeden Tag wird eine andere Technologie durchs Dorf getrieben, die abgelöst oder besonders gefördert werden soll. Die Politik generiert keine Ziele, sondern Unsicherheit."
Ist es nicht erwartbar, dass bei einer Transformationsaufgabe dieser Größe die Fetzen fliegen?
Ich habe nichts dagegen, wenn über die Maßnahmen gestritten wird: Steuererhöhung, Steuersenkung, Subventionsabbau, Gebote und Verbote, solche Dinge. Das Problem ist, wenn darüber die gemeinsamen Ziele verloren gehen. Die Regierung braucht einen Zielkorridor, wo sie hinwill, und dieser Zielkorridor muss über eine Legislaturperiode und die jetzige Parteienkonstellation hinaus Bestand haben. Die Unternehmen haben hunderte Milliarden auf der hohen Kante, aber sie geben sie nicht aus, weil sie nicht wissen, in was sie investieren sollen. Jeden Tag wird eine andere Technologie durchs Dorf getrieben, die abgelöst oder besonders gefördert werden soll. Die Politik generiert keine Ziele, sondern Unsicherheit.
Bekommen andere Länder das besser hin mit dem Zielesetzen?
Bei allen politischen Schwierigkeiten würde ich sagen, dass die USA besser sind im Ansagenmachen in Richtung ihrer Wirtschaft, im Setzen von Rahmenbedingungen. Oder nehmen Sie Österreich: Da hat die Bundesregierung einen nationalen Energie- und Klimaplan aufgestellt, auf den sich alle politischen Akteure verständigt haben, und unterlegt ihn strategisch-langfristig mit Maßnahmen wie der "Klimaneutralen Stadt". Natürlich ist es von Vorteil, wenn wie dort alle Zuständigkeiten in einem Ministerium konzentriert sind, das auch die operative Umsetzung übernimmt, das schafft Konstanz –während bei uns immer wieder irgendein Ressort oder eine Partei die Grundsatzfrage neu stellen will.
Vielleicht wird das Thema bei uns zu sehr überhöht? Anstatt die Transformation als Teil des politischen Tagesgeschäfts zu begreifen und unaufgeregt voranzutreiben, wird in Deutschland immer die große Umwälzung beschworen. In einer Vorversion des EFI-Gutachtens stand, es handle sich um eine "Herkulesaufgabe" ohne Vorbild, die von den finanziellen Dimensionen vergleichbar sei mit dem Wiederaufbau nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg.
Den Satz haben wir gestrichen, obwohl ich persönlich ihn angemessen fand. Entscheidend ist: Für diese Transformation gibt es keine Blaupause, keine Erfahrungswerte. Unserer deutschen Mentalität entspricht es, dass wir erstmal stehen bleiben und alles haarklein vorab besprechen und regeln wollen. Am besten juristisch wasserdicht. Anstatt wie andere Länder erstmal loszulaufen, auszuprobieren, und wenn etwas nicht funktioniert, unaufgeregt nachzusteuern.
Die deutsche Politik fördert diese Mentalität, wenn sie so tut, als ließen sich im Voraus alle Härten ausschließen. Schon in der Corona-Pandemie hat sie Milliarden und Abermilliarden ausgegeben, um auch denen die Verluste auszugleichen, denen sie gar nicht wehgetan haben.
Die Politik weiß genau, dass sie solche Versprechen nicht halten kann. Die Transformation kostet fürchterlich viel Geld, es wird Gewinner und Verlierer geben, das kann man nicht alles abfangen. Doch aus Angst vor den Protesten entstehen solche politischen Lebenslügen. Und in der Not nimmt man dann Gelder, die für die Bekämpfung der Coronakrise vorgesehen waren, und will sie für die Transformation einsetzen – bis das Bundesverfassungsgericht einem einen Strich durch die Rechnung macht.
Im EFI-Gutachten sprechen Sie von einem "Schlingerkurs".
Nehmen Sie das Gebäude-Energie-Gesetz. Wie konnte man auf die Idee kommen, den Einbau von Gasheizungen kurzfristig verbieten zu wollen, obwohl man weiß, dass der Einbau von Wärmepumpen pro Haushalt 30.000 Euro kosten wird, wahrscheinlich sogar mehr? Und warum hat man die soziale Abfederung erst später nachgeliefert?
"Die Streichung der Subvention von Agrardiesel ist transformationspolitisch richtig. Ich darf aber bei der Umsetzung nicht gleich zwei Fehler machen."
Jetzt hat man die Pflicht aufgeweicht, und die staatliche Förderung bekommen alle, nicht nur die sozial Bedürftigen. Da ist sie wieder, die Beschwichtigungsstrategie auch denen gegenüber, die es sich leisten könnten.
Das ist wie bei der Subvention von Agrardiesel. Deren Streichung ist transformationspolitisch richtig. Ich darf aber bei der Umsetzung nicht gleich zwei Fehler machen. Erstens: Ich nehme die Streichung der Subvention für Flugbenzin raus, obwohl es die Reichen sind, die fliegen und Kerosin verbrennen. Und zweitens verzichte ich beim Agrardiesel auf eine soziale Kompensation, eine Staffelung abhängig von der Betriebsgröße etwa. Da sind Proteste vorprogrammiert. Um diese Unausgewogenheit auszugleichen wäre es wohl besser gewesen, alle Subventionen um einen einheitlichen Prozentsatz zu kürzen.
Sie widmen sich als EFI-Kommission diesmal ausführlich dem Bildungssystem. Die internationale Schulvergleichsstudie PISA hat gezeigt, dass deutsche Neuntklässler so schlecht lesen, schreiben und rechnen wie seit mindestens 20 Jahren nicht. Woraus Sie die Prognose ableiten, dass die Bundesrepublik über die nächsten Jahrzehnte eine unterdurchschnittliche wirtschaftliche Entwicklung nehmen wird. Steckt da nicht ein Denkfehler drin? Wenn sich die Schülerleistungen ein, zwei Jahrzehnte später in der Innovationsdynamik widerspiegeln, müssten wir gerade einen Boom erleben, denn vor 15, 20 Jahren befand sich unser Bildungssystem nach dem ersten PISA-Schock kräftig im Aufwind.
Natürlich kann man die Ergebnisse von Bildungsstudien nicht eins zu eins auf das künftige Wirtschaftswachstum übertragen, da gibt es noch weitere Faktoren. Aber wir sollten die Entwicklung sehr ernstnehmen. Unsere künftige Innovationsfähigkeit als Gesellschaft entscheidet sich heute daran, wie gut wir den jungen Menschen die Grundkompetenzen vermitteln.
Dann machen Sie ein paar Vorschläge, was helfen würde.
Als EFI wollen wir vor allem eine nachdrückliche Warnung in Richtung Politik senden. Wir sind aber keine Bildungsforscher. Deren Botschaft ist allerdings überwiegend recht deutlich: weg vom Frontalunterricht, stattdessen eine interaktivere Unterrichtsgestaltung, ein Einsatz digitaler Medien und die Nutzung der neuen Möglichkeiten der Künstlichen Intelligenz, wo sie Sinn ergibt. Aber ohne zu überziehen – wir sehen, dass beispielsweise Schweden und Finnland den Grad der Digitalisierung in der Bildungsvermittlung zurückfahren. Wir müssen auch über die Prüfungsformate sprechen. Und ich kann nicht nachvollziehen, dass Deutschland zwar mit die höchsten Lehrergehälter weltweit hat, aber die Lehrerfortbildung wenig systematisch betreibt und zu wenig in sie investiert. Übrigens brauchen wir an den Hochschulen ebenfalls dringend wieder einen Diskurs über die Modernisierung der Studiengänge. Der ist leider zum Erliegen gekommen. Und die Lehrerbildung muss ins Zentrum der universitären Strategie rücken.
Unterdessen fallen Deutschland und Europa bei der nächsten Schlüsseltechnologie zurück, der Künstlichen Intelligenz, die viele Experten für die entscheidende für die kommenden Jahrzehnte halten. Bis vor einer Weile tröstete die Wissenschaft sich damit, wenn schon nicht in der Umsetzung in Anwendungen und Produkte, dann wenigsten in der KI-Entwicklung an der Weltspitze zu sein. Das, sagt Ihre Kommission, ist jetzt auch vorbei.
Nicht vorbei, aber wir drohen nach den Patenten auch bei den wissenschaftlichen Publikationen den Anschluss zu verlieren. Allerdings handelt es sich um eine sehr junge Technologie, die Entwicklungspfade sind nicht festgelegt, noch ist das Spiel nicht vorbei. Nehmen wir die großen KI-Sprachmodelle, da hat Open AI mit ChatGPT einen deutlichen Vorsprung, aber Aleph Alpha aus Deutschland und Mistral aus Frankreich sind in einer guten Position für eine Aufholjagd, um bei den Modellen der dritten Generation – vor allem in der Anwendung – die Augenhöhe zu erreichen.
Allein mir fehlt der Glaube. Es sind die US-Konzerne von Google über Facebook bis hin zu Microsoft und Apple, die seit Jahren die weltweiten Standards vorgeben und einen Innovationssprung nach dem anderen abliefern. Und wir Deutschen und Europäer setzen diese Technologien ein, diskutieren über Datenschutz, europäische Lösungen und das Erringen technologischer Souveränität, und während wir noch diskutieren und politische Pläne schmieden, stellen die Amerikaner oder Chinesen uns mit dem nächsten Game Changer vor vollendete Tatsachen.
Das muss nicht jedes Mal so laufen. Wir können uns immer noch auf eine starke Grundlagenforschung stützen, wir bilden hervorragende Leute aus. Die großflächige Einrichtung von KI-Professuren und Nachwuchsgruppen, die wir als EFI zunächst kritisiert haben, hat sich doch bewährt. Wenn Sie im Silicon Valley durch die Entwicklungsabteilungen der großen Tech-Konzerne laufen, stammt da gefühlt jeder dritte aus Deutschland.
"Wenn wir das attraktiv genug machen, gehen die Leute nach Dresden oder Tübingen anstatt nach Stanford oder Palo Alto."
Was nicht wirklich eine Beruhigung ist, wenn unsere KI-Talente keine Perspektiven für sich in Deutschland sehen.
Wenn sie keine Chance haben, mit ihrem Know How bei uns wirtschaftlich erfolgreich zu sein, gehen sie weg, das ist richtig. Der Vorteil der amerikanischen Konzerne ist deren Größe und ein schier unerschöpfliches Finanzvolumen. Deutschland und Europa kann da nur mit KI-Ökosystemen gegenhalten. Diese können sich um Forschungszentren herum entwickeln, mit kleinen und größeren Laboren, Unternehmen und Start-ups. In Deutschland versuchen wir, mit den KI-Zentren Ähnliches zu entwickeln: Kerne der Grundlagenforschung, Hochschulen und Forschungsinstitute, und um sie herum eine geschickt aufgesetzte Startup-Förderung. Wenn wir das attraktiv genug machen, gehen die Leute nach Dresden oder Tübingen anstatt nach Stanford oder Palo Alto.
Sie können nicht mit ein bisschen staatlicher Gründerförderung den weltweiten Kapitalzustrom in die US-Tech-Community kompensieren. Die jungen Leute gehen nach Kalifornien, weil sie dort das Risikokapital erhalten, das ihnen in Europa keiner gibt.
Das kommt darauf an. Von einem bestimmten Punkt an entwickeln die Ökosysteme eine Eigendynamik, dann kommt das Geld, und die Investitionen folgen. Schauen Sie auf Intel oder Microsoft und ihre Pläne in Deutschland. Richtig ist, dass wir mehr mutige Unternehmer und Mäzene brauchen wie Dieter Schwarz, der massiv in Wissenschaft und Künstliche Intelligenz investiert und speziell in Aleph Alpha. Fest steht: Wenn wir es jetzt nicht mit aller Kraft versuchen, ist das Spiel wirklich entschieden zugunsten der USA oder von China. Innovationsfinanzierung, insbesondere im Start-up Bereich, ist ja ein deutsches Dauerproblem. Das lässt sich nicht nur mit deutscher Risikoaversion erklären, sondern auch mit dem Fehlen großer Pensionsfonds, die beispielsweise in den USA eine wichtige Rolle bei der Start-up-Finanzierung spielen. Aber das ist, wie gesagt, kein KI-spezifisches Problem.
Jetzt loben Sie die Politik bitte einmal.
Nur einmal? In unserem Gutachten sehen wir für Lob gleich mehrfachen Grund. Der wichtigste: Die Bundesregierung ist bei ihrer Forschungs- und Innovationspolitik an sich auf dem richtigen Weg. Sie ist sich der Aufgabe bewusst. Und sie beginnt bei allen erwähnten Inkonsistenzen mit der Umsetzung, sei es bei der Ausgestaltung der "Zukunftsstrategie Forschung und Innovation", bei der Weiterentwicklung der Bundesagentur für Sprunginnovationen (SPRIND) oder dem Aufbau der Deutschen Agentur für Transfer und Innovation (DATI). Natürlich würden wir uns bei der SPRIND wünschen, dass man ihr noch mehr rechtliche und finanzielle Freiräume gibt, dass die Bundesregierung zum Beispiel ganz auf ein Aufsichtsgremium verzichtet. Wir sehen aber ein, dass die Politik vermutlich so weit gegangen ist, wie sie kann. Bei der Zukunftsstrategie wiederum sind die Strukturen jetzt da, die Missionsteams zwischen den Ministerien wurden aufgestellt, die Beiräte installiert. Natürlich wäre es besser, wenn die Steuerung der Strategie nicht auf Ebene der Staatssekretäre angesiedelt wäre, sondern weiter oben. Und wenn sie einen eigenen Etat hätte, anstatt dass die Mitglieder der Missionsteams für jede Maßnahme Geld aus ihren Häusern mitbringen müssen. Aber jetzt sollten wir sie mal laufen lassen. Zu hoffen ist, dass der lange Atem da ist, in die eingeschlagene Richtung weiterzulaufen, falls es nächstes Jahr zu einem Regierungswechsel kommt. Bis eine Mission umgesetzt ist, wird es viele Jahre dauern. Womit ich wieder beim langfristigen Zielkorridor bin: Wir brauchen eine grundsätzliche Übereinkunft, die über die Ampel hinausreicht.
Eine Übereinkunft von wem? Sehen Sie nicht die Gefahr, dass die Ministerien am Ende doch zu stark die Richtung vorgeben und die Wissenschaftsfreiheit unter die Räder kommt?
Die Politik muss ihre Rolle genau definieren. Eine Mission vorgeben heißt: Wir wollen das Alte durch etwas Neues, Anderes ablösen. Aber was dieses Neue ist, geben wir nicht vor. Alles, was anders ist, kann erforscht und ausprobiert werden. Ein Beispiel: Wir wollen beim Automobilantrieb raus aus den fossilen Energien, aber in Hinblick auf die Alternativen fördern wir technologieoffen. Wir lassen die Akteure loslaufen und nutzen die Kreativität der Wissenschaft und des Marktes.
Dann hat die FDP also Recht mit ihren Mahnungen, bloß nicht einseitig auf Batterieantriebe zu setzen?
Richtig ist, dass der Markt entscheiden muss, welche Technologien überleben und sich durchsetzen und welche nicht. Das heißt nicht, dass ich als Politik nicht verschiedene Innovationsansätze zeitweise mit Subventionen unterstützen darf, aber es muss von Anfang an klar kommuniziert werden, dass diese Subventionen befristet sind. Wenn eine Innovation nicht von der Mehrheit der Bevölkerung angenommen wird, dann muss die Politik irgendwann aufhören, sie zu fördern. Wobei der Zeitpunkt, wann Subventionen beendet werden, mitunter sehr schwer zu bestimmen ist. Bei neuen, genmodifizierten Ansätzen in der Landwirtschaft ist das genauso. Wir sollten die Erforschung in jedem Fall ermöglichen und vom Ergebnis abhängig machen, was langfristig erlaubt ist und was nicht. Aber wir dürfen nicht schon die Entwicklung verhindern!
"Der geopolitischen Lage können auch wir Wissenschaftler uns nicht verschließen. Studien aus den USA zeigen, dass jeder Dollar, der in Militärforschung gesteckt wird, weitere 50 Cent an ziviler Forschung stimuliert."
Am Anfang haben Sie gesagt, in Zeiten der Budgetkonkurrenz komme es darauf an, die Finanzierung der aktuell drängenden Herausforderungen geschickt mit den nötigen Ausgaben für Forschung und Entwicklung zu kombinieren. Aber was genau meinen Sie damit? Die Budgetkonkurrenz auflösen, indem die Wissenschaft in den Dienst der Aufrüstung gestellt wird?
So drastisch würde ich das nicht formulieren. Richtig ist aber: Das 100-Milliarden-Sondervermögen fließt nicht allein in militärisches Gerät. Ein Teil davon kann neue Forschungsansätze finanzieren, die einen Dual-Use-Charakter haben, also Richtung ziviler und militärischer Nutzung gehen. Was bei der Forschung zu Künstlicher Intelligenz eigentlich immer und grundsätzlich der Fall ist. Und noch ein Beispiel, das gar nichts mit Verteidigung zu tun hat: Wenn die Bundesregierung demnächst, über das Wachstumschancengesetz etwa, Maßnahmen zur Konjunkturstimulation ergreifen sollte, gehört da eine sogenannte Strukturkomponente rein. Also Investitionen, um den langfristig notwendigen Umbau der Industrie jetzt voranzutreiben. Das geht wiederum nur mit zusätzlichen F&E-Ausgaben.
Was Sie da beschreiben, würde bedeuten, dass sich Forscher auch an Ihrer Hochschule, der Universität Jena, darauf einstellen müssten, sich demnächst häufiger um Drittmittelaufträge der Bundeswehr zu bewerben.
Das erfordert ein Umdenken, ja. Aber der geopolitischen Lage, in der wir uns befinden, können auch wir Wissenschaftler uns nicht verschließen. Studien aus den USA zeigen, dass jeder Dollar, der in Militärforschung gesteckt wird, weitere 50 Cent an ziviler Forschung stimuliert. Ich sehe die Schwierigkeit für die Universitäten eher anderswo. Wenn Sie einen Auftrag der Bundeswehr annehmen, kann es sein, dass die Wissenschaftler anschließend ihre Erkenntnisse nicht publizieren dürfen. Aktuell höre ich, dass es bereits bei einzelnen Drittmittelprojekten, die von der Cyberagentur finanziert werden, solche Probleme gibt. Publizieren ist aber die Voraussetzung, um in der Wissenschaft Karriere zu machen. Insofern glaube ich nicht, dass wir viele rein militärische Forschungsaufträge an Universitäten sehen werden.
Sie loben die Bundesregierung auch dafür, dass Sie bei der DATI in die Umsetzung gekommen ist. Ist sie das? Das Gründungskonzept steht weiter aus, und die ersten Pilot-Förderlinien waren Kritikern zufolge so vage ausgeschrieben, dass es eine kaum zu handelbare Bewerbungsflut gab.
Das mit den vielen Bewerbungen finde ich überhaupt nicht schlimm. Das Ausschreibungsverfahren war bewusst experimentell aufgelegt, es musste breit sein, um den Transferbegriff möglichst offenzuhalten. Zum Glück ist man von der ursprünglichen Kanalisierung auf Hochschulen für Angewandte Wissenschaften weg. Was das Konzept angeht: Es gibt jetzt die Gründungskommission, und zu deren Aufgaben gehört neben der Auswahl von Ort und Leitung die Formulierung des finalen Konzepts.
Was ursprünglich anders gedacht war. Sonst hätte das BMBF die Kommission viel früher berufen.
Jetzt ist sie am Arbeiten, das zählt.
Wird die DATI wenigstens gleich die Freiheitsgrade bekommen, um die die SPRIND über Jahre kämpfen musste?
Vielleicht ja, vielleicht wird sich der Kampf auch wiederholen. Wichtig ist, dass die Agentur bald loslegt und ins Ausprobieren kommt. Dann werden wir sehen.
"Wenn von oben, von der Ministeriumsspitze, kein Druck gemacht wird, es anders zu machen, dann sind all die Beschwörungen und Ambitionen nichts wert. Es ist ein Drama."
Apropos: Evaluationen neuer Einrichtungen, Projekte und Förderlinien gehören inzwischen nicht nur in der Innovationspolitik zum Alltag. Nur dass sie laut Ihrem Gutachten oft nicht richtig aufgesetzt sind.
Wir haben uns die Evaluationspraxis in zwei Ministerien angeschaut, dem BMWK und dem BMBF. In beiden Häusern existieren eigene Referate für Evaluation mit hochkompetenten Mitarbeitern, die wissen, wie es geht. Das BMWK hat im Jahr 2013 bereits eine Richtlinie zur Durchführung von Evaluationen erstellen lassen, die stimmt Punkt für Punkt. Trotzdem sehen wir viele Evaluationen, die nach dem Prinzip laufen: Ich gebe Geld, um zum Beispiel ein bestimmtes Technologiefeld zu fördern. Und wenn dieses Technologiefeld sich in ein paar Jahren positiv entwickelt hat, sage ich: Bingo, hat funktioniert. Obwohl das 1000 Gründe haben kann und überhaupt nicht an der Förderung liegen muss. Aber man weiß es nicht besser, weil man die Erfolgskriterien vorher nicht richtig bestimmt, keine Kontrollgruppe eingerichtet hat und nicht methodisch sauber misst.
Wie kann das sein?
Die Expertise im eigenen Haus wird nicht ausreichend genutzt, man hört nicht auf das, was die Fachleute im Evalutionsreferat sagen. Und den Einrichtungen und Wissenschaftlerinnen und Wissenschaftlern, die extern mit der Evaluation beauftragt werden, verweigert man in der Regel die Herausgabe der notwendigen Daten, selbst wenn man sie hat. Das ist paradox. Offenbar herrscht in vielen Referaten immer noch Angst vor zu viel Transparenz – vielleicht aus Furcht, bei einer negativen Evaluation Budget einzubüßen. Weswegen das, was ein Ministerium anstößt, per definitionem positiv wirken muss. Wenn von oben, von der Ministeriumsspitze, kein Druck gemacht wird, es anders zu machen, dann sind all die Beschwörungen und Ambitionen nichts wert. Es ist ein Drama.
Am Ende bekommen Sie noch eine zweite Minute mit Olaf Scholz. Ihr Rat an den Bundeskanzler?
Bei der Forschungs- und Innovationspolitik unbedingt Kurs beibehalten. Die Innovationspolitik der Bundesregierung ist nicht konturenscharf, aber die prinzipielle Richtung stimmt. Sich über die Ziele einigen, und wenn dann über den Weg und die Instrumente gestritten wird, ist das nicht schlimm. Entscheidend ist, nicht bei jeder Protestaktion zurückzuschrecken, sondern beharrlich zu erklären und auch mal klare Ansagen zu machen. Zu Beginn des Ukrainekriegs, als Deutschland eine Energiekrise abwenden musste, hat Robert Habeck das gemacht. Er hat jeden Abend erklärt, worum es geht und worauf es jetzt ankommt. Mittlerweile hat er das eingestellt. Wirklich schade.
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A relação entre água, energia e alimento é um tema que tem recebido atenção no meio acadêmico. Diante da escassez dos recursos naturais, da degradação que tem ocorrido não somente no Brasil, mas no mundo todo, os recursos naturais têm sérios riscos de esgotarem. E há que se pensar em uma gestão que possibilite a recuperação do meio ambiente de forma eficiente e sustentável. Compreendendo que o debate de nexo envolve um conjunto de inter-relações entre os recursos naturais utilizados como insumo para os serviços básicos da vida humana, neste sentido, a presente pesquisa objetivou analisar se há possibilidade de integrar a floresta ao nexo água-energia-alimentos, com vistas a não comprometer as demandas futuras e como isso pode contribuir para alcançar os Objetivos de Desenvolvimento Sustentável (ODS). Os objetivos específicos são identificar a interligação entre água, energia, alimento e floresta; apontar a necessidade de integrar a floresta ao nexo tradicional visando alcançar um desenvolvimento mais sustentável e controlar, prevenir as consequências dos impactos ambientais. A metodologia da revisão literária ocorreu com o levantamento por termos previamente identificados nas bases de dados Scopus, Web of Science e Periódico Capes, sendo a pesquisa classificada com abordagem qualitativa e método dedutivo. Os resultados apontaram que a floresta possui relação direta com os elementos água-energia-alimentos, sendo possível contribuir com as seguranças hídrica, energética e alimentar. Concluiu-se que vincular as florestas ao nexo existente, proporcionará uma maior preocupação para garantir a sustentabilidade e o equilíbrio ambiental.
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Viime vuosikymmenten aikana nationalismi on nostanut päätään Euroopassa. Tämä on ollut erityisen voimakasta Kataloniassa ja Skotlannissa, mutta myös Belgiassa perinteisen kansallisvaltion on nähty heikentyvän huomattavasti. Vuosien mittaan hollanninkielinen Flanderi on vaatinut yhä enemmän toimivaltaa ja oikeuksia päättää omista asioistaan. Vähitellen neljän valtioreformin myötä Belgia kehittyi asteittain kohti liittovaltiota, joka perustettiin lopulta vuonna 1993. Sen jälkeen Flanderin itsenäisyyttä kannattavien poliittisten puolueiden suosio on kasvanut entisestään. Tässä tutkimuksessa käsitellään flaamilaista nationalismia sekä Flanderin tärkeimpien poliittisten puolueiden kantoja entistä laajempaan autonomiaan vuosina 1971-2010. Keskityn tutkimuksessani autonomian kasvun lisäksi myös federalismin kehitykseen Belgiassa viime vuosikymmeninä. Tutkimukseni pääpaino on Flanderissa, mutta tarkastelen samalla myös koko Belgian tulevaisuutta. Tutkimuksen tavoitteena on selvittää, millainen asenne Flanderin isoimmilla poliittisilla puolueilla oli Flanderin autonomian laajentamiseen poliittisissa puolueohjelmissa 1970-luvulta vuoteen 2010. Tarkastelen myös flaamilaista nationalismia ja analysoin, miten Flanderin poliittiset puolueet ovat käsitelleet puolueohjelmissaan nationalismiin keskeisesti liittyviä asioita, kuten hollannin kieltä, kulttuuria ja identiteettiä. Luon niin ikään katsauksen puolueiden Eurooppa- politiikkaan keskittyen erityisesti niiden suhtautumiseen EU:n aluepolitiikkaan. Kiinnitän huomiota erityisesti siihen, esittävätkö puolueohjelmat Flanderin itsenäisenä ja riippumattomana toimijana eurooppalaisissa ja kansainvälisissä yhteyksissä, vai nähdäänkö Flanderi pikemminkin osana Belgiaa? Tutkimuksessa keskitytään kolmeen merkittävään virstanpylvääseen Belgian poliittisessa historiassa: vuosiin 1970, 1993 ja 2010. Ensimmäinen käännekohta – vuoden 1970 valtioreformi – määritteli kulttuuriyhteisöt vastaamaan flaamien vaatimuksia kulttuurisesta autonomiasta. Toinen käännekohta, toukokuussa 1993 säädetty perustuslaki, on merkittävä tapahtuma Belgian poliittisessa historiassa, koska se määritteli Belgian muodollisesti liittovaltioksi. Viimeinen käännekohta on vuoden 2010 ennenaikaiset liittovaltion vaalit. Tällöin voittajaksi nousi flaaminationalistinen puolue, N-VA, joka on tuonut useaan otteeseen selkeästi esille, että sen tavoitteena on saavuttaa Flanderin itsenäisyys. Analysoin poliittisia puolueohjelmia vuosilta 1971/1972, 1991, 1995 sekä 2010 kvalitatiivisen metodin avulla. Käyttämällä käsitteellistä sisällönanalyysia pääasiallisena tutkimusmenetelmänä keskityn analysointiprosessissani tiettyihin tutkimukseni kontekstiin liittyviin käsitteisiin, kuten federalismiin, nationalismiin ja identiteettiin. Puolueohjelmien lisäksi käytän toissijaisena aineistona Belgian parlamentissa käytyjä keskusteluja vuosilta 1969, 1988 ja 2013. Analysoin keskusteluja niin ikään käsitteellisen sisällönanalyysin kautta. Parlamenttikeskustelut valottavat sitä räjähdysherkkää poliittista ilmapiiriä, joka Belgiassa on viime vuosikymmenten aikana vallinnut. Ne tarjoavat samalla myös lisätukea ja mielenkiintoista taustatietoa Belgian poliittisesta tilanteesta tutkimukseni kannalta tärkeinä ajankohtina. Lisäksi keskityn erityisesti teoreettiseen ja historialliseen kirjallisuuteen, kiinnittäen huomiota etenkin Daniel Elazarin teoriaan federalistisista poliittisista järjestelmistä ja Benedict Andersonin teoriaan kansakunnasta 'kuviteltuna poliittisena yhteisönä'. Tutkimukseni päätulokset osoittavat, että Flanderin poliittisten puolueiden esittämät asenteet autonomian laajentamisesta eroavat selvästi toisistaan. Sosialistipuolueet korostivat yhtenäistä Belgiaa selvästi enemmän kuin muut puolueet. Alueelliset, flaaminationalistiset puolueet kannattivat jopa Flanderin itsenäisyyttä useana vuonna, kun taas kristillisdemokraatit ja liberaalit tukivat konfederaatiomallia vuonna 2010, mutta toisaalta vastustivat voimakkaasti Flanderin itsenäisyyttä. Nationalismiin liittyvät kysymykset, kuten hollannin kielen ja kulttuurin korostaminen, kulkivat jokseenkin käsi kädessä autonomian laajentamista, erityisesti Flanderin itsenäisyyttä, koskevien asenteiden kanssa. Näistä neljästä puolueesta alueelliset flaaminationalistiset puolueet, jotka keskittyivät Flanderin autonomian kasvattamiseen, painottivat eniten myös hollannin kieltä ja kulttuuria, edustaen täten vahvinta flaamilaista identiteettiä. Sosialistipuolue ei sen sijaan juurikaan kiinnittänyt huomiota hollannin kieleen ja kulttuuriin, paitsi 1990-luvulla, ja sillä olikin heikoin flaamilainen identiteetti. Kristillisdemokraatit ja liberaalit asettuivat näiden väliin tuomalla esiin vahvaa flaamilaista identiteettiä mutta myös selkeää belgialaista identiteettiä. Analysoidut parlamenttikeskustelut tukivat puolueohjelmien analyysissä saatuja tuloksia. Samanlaista kehitystä voidaan havaita myös puolueiden suhtautumisessa EU:n aluepolitiikkaan. Aluepolitiikka sai eniten huomiota puolueohjelmissa 1990-luvulla, ja Flanderia pidettiin jopa itsenäisenä toimijana EU:ssa. Alueellisten, Flanderin kansallismielisten puolueiden lisäksi myös perinteiset puolueet keskittyivät aluepoliittisiin asioihin 1990-luvulla. Vuoteen 2010 mennessä aluepolitiikan painotus oli laskenut muiden puolueiden keskuudessa, paitsi Flanderin kansallismielisen puolueen, N-VA:n puolueohjelmassa. N-VA jopa ehdotti vuoden 2010 vaaliohjelmassaan, että Flanderin olisi haettava EU:n jäsenyyttä. Flaamien vaatimukset entistä syvemmästä autonomiasta johtivat ensimmäiseen valtioreformiin vuonna 1970. Sen jälkeen Belgia siirtyi vähitellen kohti liittovaltiota. Belgian liittovaltio on ainutlaatuinen ja äärimmäisen monimutkainen, eikä sillä ole juurikaan yhtäläisyyksiä perinteisten liittovaltioiden kanssa. Belgian valtiorakenne sisältää myös joitakin konfederalistisia elementtejä. Voisi ajatella, että liittovaltion muodostamisen jälkeen kaikki olisivat olleet tyytyväisiä, mutta toisin kävi. Uusia valtioreformeja on toteutettu vuoden 1993 jälkeenkin – viimeisin vuonna 2011. Näyttää siltä, että uusia on vielä tulossa, sillä monet Flanderin puolueista kannattavat Belgian kehittymistä kohti konfederaatiota. Belgia on edelleen murroksessa. Tämä pinta-alaltaan pieni EU:n keskus on ollut poliittisten kriisien keskellä useammin kuin kerran viime vuosikymmenten aikana. Aina on kuitenkin onnistuttu löytämään "belgialainen kompromissi" (compromis à la Belge) . Näyttääkin siltä, että Belgiassa on yritetty löytää tasapaino siitä lähtien, kun maasta tuli itsenäinen vuonna 1830. Federalismi on ollut yksi tärkeä askel kohti vakaampaa yhteiskuntaa. Se on auttanut Belgiaa lisäämään alueiden toimivaltaa vähitellen ilman suurempaa kuohuntaa, ja siirtymään samalla rauhanomaisesti kohti konfederaatiota. Flanderin itsenäisyyteen pyrkivät poliittiset puolueet ovat kuitenkin hyvin suosittuja, mikä asettaa haasteita yhtenäiselle Belgialle. Maa, jossa konsensus ja kaikkia tyydyttävän ratkaisun löytäminen on ollut tärkeä väline päätöksenteossa, saattaa joutua kohtaamaan vakavia aikoja, jos Flanderin kansallismielisten puolueiden tuki kasvaa edelleen. Todellinen kysymys kuuluukin, ovatko flaamit valmiita uudelleen "belgialaiseen kompromissiin", vai onko flaamien aika ottaa Flanderi lopullisesti itselleen – Vlaanderen aan de vlamingen? ; Over the past several decades Europe has seen the rise of nationalism. This evolution has been especially visible in Catalonia and Scotland, but also Belgium has witnessed significant erosion of the traditional nation-state. Over the years, Flemish-speaking Flanders has demanded more rights, competences, and autonomy. As a consequence, Belgium turned from a unitary state to a federal state in 1993. Since then, the popularity of political parties that support the independence of Flanders has further increased. This study deals with Flemish nationalism and positions of the main Flemish political parties towards extending autonomy from 1970s to 2010. I concentrate on the expansion of autonomy and the development of federalism in Belgium over these decades. My main focus is on Flanders, but I also look at the future of the whole Belgium. The primary goal of this study is to identify what kind of attitudes the main Flemish political parties had towards extending the autonomy of Flanders in their political party programmes from the 1970s to 2010. Accordingly, I look at the issues, which are closely linked to Flemish nationalism, such as Dutch language, culture and identity. Finally, I discuss how much political party programmes put attention on regional policies in the European fora. Moreover, I will ask do they see Flanders as an independent player or together with Belgium when acting in the European or international arena? In terms of time, this study focuses on three significant periods in Belgium's political history: 1970, 1993 and 2010. The first turning point, the state reform of 1970, defined cultural communities to accommodate the demands of Flemish people for cultural autonomy. Afterwards, Belgium took the path towards federation. The second turning point, the Constitution of May 1993, is a milestone in the political history of Belgium because it formally characterised Belgium as a federal state. Finally, the last turning point is the premature federal elections of 2010. This period was chosen because the winner, the N-VA, clearly declared that its goal was to achieve the independence for Flanders. I tackle the research questions by using qualitative approach. I will analyse my primary source material, the political party programmes of the main Flemish political parties, from the years 1971/1972, 1991, 1995 and 2010. By using conceptual content analysis as my main method, I concentrate in my analysing process on certain concepts related to the context of my study, such as federalism, nationalism and identity. In addition to party programmes, representing traditional Catholic, Socialist and Liberal pillars as well as more and more popular regional and Flemish nationalist political parties, I present Parliament discussions enlightening the political situation in 1969, 1988 and 2013. Moreover, I utilise theoretical and historical research literature, such as Daniel Elazar's theory of federal political systems and Benedict Anderson's theory of nationalism and 'imagined communities'. The main findings of this study reveal that there definitely are clear differences between Flemish political party programmes' attitudes towards extending autonomy. Socialist parties emphasised a united Belgium more than other parties, even though also Socialist parties have supported decentralisation and federalism. The regionalist and Flemish nationalist parties were even in favour of the independence of Flanders while the Christian Democratic and Liberal parties aligned in the middle, supporting confederal model in 2010, but resisting strongly the independence of Flanders. Nationalist matters, like emphasising Dutch language and culture, went somewhat hand in hand with the attitudes towards extending autonomy, more precisely whether party saw Flanders' future as an independent country or as a part of Belgium. Of these four parties, the regionalist and Flemish nationalist parties underscored the most the Dutch language and culture. These parties also manifested the strongest Flemish identity. Socialist parties did not set much focus on nationalist matters, like Dutch language and culture, except for a while in 1990s, and presented the weakest Flemish identity. Christian Democratic and Liberal parties positioned themselves in the middle with a significant Flemish identity, but also with a relevant Belgian identity. Overall, the discussions and debates analysed supported all the findings found in the political party programmes. A similar development can also be seen in parties' EU policies. By the 1990s, regionalisation received increasingly attention in the party programmes, and Flanders was seen as an independent actor in the EU arena. In addition to the regionalist party, also the traditional parties focused on regionalist matters in the 1990s. By 2010, the attention on regionalist matters was decreasing, except in the party programme of the Flemish nationalist party, N-VA. It even suggested that Flanders should pursue membership in the EU. The demand of Flemish people led to the first state reform in 1970. Afterwards, Belgium headed for federation – in a Belgian way. The Belgian federation is unique and extremely complex, with almost no similarities to classic federations displaying also some characteristics of confederalism. One might think that becoming a federation finally would be the end of all institutional changes, but Belgium continues to undergo change. Belgium has been in the middle of political crises more than once during recent decades. However, the solution 'compromis à la Belge' has been found every time. New state reforms have been made since 1993, the last one in 2011, and I envisage that new ones are yet to come. It seems that Belgium has tried to find a balance ever since it declared independence, and federalism has been just one step towards this equilibrium. For the most part, however, all this has happened step by step, without greater turbulence. Federalism has enabled Belgium to move towards more extending autonomy, confederalism, in a peaceful way. Nevertheless, the political parties that aspire to the independence of Flanders are very popular, which definitely poses challenges to a united Belgium. The country, where consociationalism has been an important tool in the policy-making, may face some serious times if the support of Flemish nationalist parties continues to grow. More or less, the real question is whether Flemish people are ready for another compromis à la Belge , or is it time to have Flanders for themselves – Vlaanderen aan de vlamingen?
Relevance of the research problem. Sport is a value of every nation, which includes the system of physical, spiritual and cultural education, sports achievements, scientific knowledge, international communication (Karoblis, 2005). High level sport is inseparable from competitive activities, the pursuit of sports results (Hargreaves & MacDonald, 2000; Karoblis, 2005). The special training of athletes in the chosen sports is a part of general education of personality, which has a close connection with social, educational, political, economic issues of humanity development (Johnson et al., 2007). The athlete training process is a multi-year educational process of a specific structure and organizational form, which develops physical characteristics of an athlete, determines his activity, behavior, independence and responsibility, promotes to achieve excellent results. However, optimization of athlete training technology, construction of training system and its filling with full content still have the greatest impact on the improvement of sports results (Bompa & Buzzichelli, 2018; Karoblis, 2005; Платонов, 2004). Management of high-performance athlete training is related to prognostication, individual model characteristics of sport fitness, general and special load ratio, search for new effective directions of workout methodology, modeling of competition activity indicators, workout process planning, competition program conclusion, sport training adjustment (Karoblis, Raslanas, Steponavičius, 2002). Track-and-field athletics is integral sports that combine cyclic and acyclic exercise competitions: running, throws, vertical and horizontal jumps (Armonavičius, 1995). Short distance running is one of the most prestigious track-and-field athletics competitions. An exceptional short distance motor feature is the maximum intense activity of the whole body, especially the nervous and muscular systems, lasting from 0.1 to 40–50 s (Stanislovaitis et al., 2008). The ever-improving sports results reveal new human mental and physical abilities, vast resources of the body that could not even be dreamed of before. The organization of exercise, methodology, their scope and intensity, their combination with the means of recovery according to the main laws of phenotypic adaptation form the basis for the training of high-performance athletes (Платонов, 2004; Stonkus, 2000; Issurin, 2008; Krylovas, Kosareva, Dadelienė, & Dadelo, 2020). The particularity of the sport is based on competition. The results recorded in sport receive global recognition and become a true human achievement standard. In the world, they are constantly progressing, promoting the development of the sport community, therefore the greatest human intellectual and material resources are directed to the training of high-performance athletes (Skernevičius, 2015; Krylovas, Kosareva, Dadelienė, & Dadelo, 2020). However, the results of a research conducted by scientists showed that over the past nearly 20 years, elite athletes, including Olympic, world champions and prizewinners, have achieved personal best results in key competitions of the season by only in 50 percent cases (Yakimovich & Ovchinnikov, 2016). This shows that the opinion that contemporary coaches are high-performance and knowledgeable in the training of elite athletes and immaculately control and manage the process of sport training of athletes is not sufficiently substantiated. It has been established that the development of high-performance sprinters depends on many factors, the most important of which is the directionality of the training process, its management, taking into account the individual characteristics of the athlete's body adaptation to workout and competition loads (Stanislovaitis, 2008; Бондаренко, 1999; Нбанекова, Филин, 1995). The training of sprinters and their competitive activities have been extensively studied not only by foreign (Smith, 2005; Doscher, 2009; Kale & Bayrak, 2009; Prins, Murata, Derenne, Morgan, & Solomon, 2010; Dickin, Reyes, & Dolny, 2009; Nelson, Landin, Young, & Schexnayder, 2008; Eikenberry, Mcauliffe, Welsh, Zerpa, Mcpherson, & Newhouse, 2008; Oзoлин, 1986), but also by Lithuanian sport scientists (Stanislovaitis, 2008, 2006, 2005; Grūnovas, 2006; Butkus, 2006, 1995; Skurvydas, 1999, 2003; Bradauskienė, 2006). Although the world record of female sprinters in a 100 m distance is quite high (10.49 s), the search for new training methods and their application in the process of female sprinter workouts continues. Scientists are not only analyzing and evaluating existing workout methodological tools, but also looking for new methods for an advanced sprinter training process. Thus, in search of new methods to increase running speed, through more research and the application of the latest training technologies, methods can be discovered to help athletes to become faster and to develop a running speed, which has never been achieved before. Recently, in a 100 m running, as in many track-and-field athletics competitions, the results of athletes are progressing rapidly. That progress depends heavily on the selection of talented athletes, scientifically and practically sound and effective workout methodologies, the selection and application of remedial measures, the material compensation of athletes, which greatly increases motivation of athletes, and etc. Therefore, in order to achieve good results and prizes in high rank competition in contemporary sport, it is necessary to know the peculiarities of the application of training methodology, to properly select the most important starts of the annual training cycle, taking into account all conditions at the place and time of competition. An athlete and a coach must not only follow the innovations of training methodology, science and medicine, but also look back, be able to analyze his own results and the results of athletes, who have shown significant results theretofore, the peculiarities of workout tools and methods applied by them, the reasons for successful and unsuccessful starts, and then all this to apply to the management of his own training process. Discovering, revealing and learning about new technologies through the theory and didactics of sport workout is the most important function of sport science (Mester, 2003), and it is important for a coach to be able to use scientific results and recommendations, be insightful and be able to successfully model the training of elite athletes (Karoblis, Raslanas, Poteliūnienė, Steponavičius, Petkus, & Žilinskienė, 2011). The purposeful training of female sprinters and the search for effective technologies in order to increase the maximum running speed become a scientific problem. The presented scientific problem is relevant for the following reasons: ● It is important to analyze the change in results in terms of age and to determine the age, at which the highest results are achieved; ● It is important to research and theoretically substantiate, which components determine the sports result in short distance running; ● To research the effectiveness of training measures in order to increase maximum running speed; ● The contribution of running at maximum speed to the sports result in a 100 m run has not been sufficiently researched; ● It is important to establish criteria that affect the progress of athletes' mastery and the change of sport performance. Hypothesis. It is likely that sports results of female sprinters are not improving due to the integrated and concentrated training models applied separately. A universal speed training model is more effective. Object of the research is the process of female sprinter training. Aim is to identify the peculiarities of optimizing the training of high-performance female sprinters. Objectives of the research: 1. On the basis of the data of the theoretical analysis of scientific sources, to reveal the change of the results of high-performance female sprinters in terms of age. 2. To perform a comparative analysis of the preparation of high-performance female spriners for the Athens, Beijing, London and Rio Olympic Games. 3. To review the technologies of sports training of female sprinters and to examine the factors influencing their results. 4. To determine the effectiveness of a universal method for training the speed of high-performance female sprinters. 5. To reveal/identify the opinion of high-performance female sprinters about the factors determining their training system. Theoretical and practical significance Researching the structure and content of sports training for female sprinters of different ages and sports mastery, analyzing the change of sports results in terms of age, evaluating workout methods, running speed components, the provisions for effective running speed increase were identified: ● Running speed is determined by the speed of muscle contraction, the length of leg support, the frequency of steps, and the sports result in a 100-meter run depends mainly on the maximum running speed. ● In order to improve the results of the maximum running speed of female sprinters, it is important to apply a universal, combined method in the workout process, running with weight and stretching with an elastic band. These provisions are relevant to the theory and practice of female sprinter training. The results of the study can be used in the development of training programs for sports schools and high-performance female sprinters. CONCLUSIONS 1. The age for achieving the best personal result in the women's 100 m running competition is 24.69 ± 3.27 year. The best Lithuanian sprinter L. Grinčikaitė-Samuolė achieved her best result in this running competition at the age of 25 – 11.19 s. At the beginning of their athletic career, American sprinters had the highest running scores and dominated until the age of 17, however later is observed leadership of the Caribbean Region female sprinters up to the age of 35. The results of European sprinters were average in almost all age groups. 2. Analysis of the four Olympic Games revealed a significant improvement in the results of the 100 m running and starting reaction speed (p < 0.05). In order to get to in the 100 m running final, athletes should run an average of 10.96 ± 0.03 s, and to become the prizewinners of the competition – 10.86 ± 0.08 s. Sprinters become the prizewinners of the 100 m run at the age of 25.42 ± 3.18 year. 3. Lithuanian female sprinters lose to the best sprinters of Europe and the world in the competition requiring the maximum running speed – 40 m in acceleration (11.99 %). The best Lithuanian sprinter L. Grinčikaitė-Samuolė reduces this difference to 4.05 % in the 100 m running distance, the gap between Europe's and the world's best female sprinters is gradually declining due to improved European sprinters' maximum running speed results. 4. The resisted/assisted running method is the most effective way to increase the running speed and starting acceleration, as this speed training method significantly improves the values of step length and support duration than running normally. 5. High-performance female sprinters lack attention to an important component of training – psychological training – in the process of their sports training. It was found out that their sports training and improvement of results are more influenced by external (monetary prizes, premiums) than internal motives (desire to improve results, honor to represent their country). A coach's personality also has impact. The coach is valued not only as a specialist, but distinguishing his personal qualities, such as sincerity, friendliness, motivation, promotion is considered an integral part of the training process.
Relevance of the research problem. Sport is a value of every nation, which includes the system of physical, spiritual and cultural education, sports achievements, scientific knowledge, international communication (Karoblis, 2005). High level sport is inseparable from competitive activities, the pursuit of sports results (Hargreaves & MacDonald, 2000; Karoblis, 2005). The special training of athletes in the chosen sports is a part of general education of personality, which has a close connection with social, educational, political, economic issues of humanity development (Johnson et al., 2007). The athlete training process is a multi-year educational process of a specific structure and organizational form, which develops physical characteristics of an athlete, determines his activity, behavior, independence and responsibility, promotes to achieve excellent results. However, optimization of athlete training technology, construction of training system and its filling with full content still have the greatest impact on the improvement of sports results (Bompa & Buzzichelli, 2018; Karoblis, 2005; Платонов, 2004). Management of high-performance athlete training is related to prognostication, individual model characteristics of sport fitness, general and special load ratio, search for new effective directions of workout methodology, modeling of competition activity indicators, workout process planning, competition program conclusion, sport training adjustment (Karoblis, Raslanas, Steponavičius, 2002). Track-and-field athletics is integral sports that combine cyclic and acyclic exercise competitions: running, throws, vertical and horizontal jumps (Armonavičius, 1995). Short distance running is one of the most prestigious track-and-field athletics competitions. An exceptional short distance motor feature is the maximum intense activity of the whole body, especially the nervous and muscular systems, lasting from 0.1 to 40–50 s (Stanislovaitis et al., 2008). The ever-improving sports results reveal new human mental and physical abilities, vast resources of the body that could not even be dreamed of before. The organization of exercise, methodology, their scope and intensity, their combination with the means of recovery according to the main laws of phenotypic adaptation form the basis for the training of high-performance athletes (Платонов, 2004; Stonkus, 2000; Issurin, 2008; Krylovas, Kosareva, Dadelienė, & Dadelo, 2020). The particularity of the sport is based on competition. The results recorded in sport receive global recognition and become a true human achievement standard. In the world, they are constantly progressing, promoting the development of the sport community, therefore the greatest human intellectual and material resources are directed to the training of high-performance athletes (Skernevičius, 2015; Krylovas, Kosareva, Dadelienė, & Dadelo, 2020). However, the results of a research conducted by scientists showed that over the past nearly 20 years, elite athletes, including Olympic, world champions and prizewinners, have achieved personal best results in key competitions of the season by only in 50 percent cases (Yakimovich & Ovchinnikov, 2016). This shows that the opinion that contemporary coaches are high-performance and knowledgeable in the training of elite athletes and immaculately control and manage the process of sport training of athletes is not sufficiently substantiated. It has been established that the development of high-performance sprinters depends on many factors, the most important of which is the directionality of the training process, its management, taking into account the individual characteristics of the athlete's body adaptation to workout and competition loads (Stanislovaitis, 2008; Бондаренко, 1999; Нбанекова, Филин, 1995). The training of sprinters and their competitive activities have been extensively studied not only by foreign (Smith, 2005; Doscher, 2009; Kale & Bayrak, 2009; Prins, Murata, Derenne, Morgan, & Solomon, 2010; Dickin, Reyes, & Dolny, 2009; Nelson, Landin, Young, & Schexnayder, 2008; Eikenberry, Mcauliffe, Welsh, Zerpa, Mcpherson, & Newhouse, 2008; Oзoлин, 1986), but also by Lithuanian sport scientists (Stanislovaitis, 2008, 2006, 2005; Grūnovas, 2006; Butkus, 2006, 1995; Skurvydas, 1999, 2003; Bradauskienė, 2006). Although the world record of female sprinters in a 100 m distance is quite high (10.49 s), the search for new training methods and their application in the process of female sprinter workouts continues. Scientists are not only analyzing and evaluating existing workout methodological tools, but also looking for new methods for an advanced sprinter training process. Thus, in search of new methods to increase running speed, through more research and the application of the latest training technologies, methods can be discovered to help athletes to become faster and to develop a running speed, which has never been achieved before. Recently, in a 100 m running, as in many track-and-field athletics competitions, the results of athletes are progressing rapidly. That progress depends heavily on the selection of talented athletes, scientifically and practically sound and effective workout methodologies, the selection and application of remedial measures, the material compensation of athletes, which greatly increases motivation of athletes, and etc. Therefore, in order to achieve good results and prizes in high rank competition in contemporary sport, it is necessary to know the peculiarities of the application of training methodology, to properly select the most important starts of the annual training cycle, taking into account all conditions at the place and time of competition. An athlete and a coach must not only follow the innovations of training methodology, science and medicine, but also look back, be able to analyze his own results and the results of athletes, who have shown significant results theretofore, the peculiarities of workout tools and methods applied by them, the reasons for successful and unsuccessful starts, and then all this to apply to the management of his own training process. Discovering, revealing and learning about new technologies through the theory and didactics of sport workout is the most important function of sport science (Mester, 2003), and it is important for a coach to be able to use scientific results and recommendations, be insightful and be able to successfully model the training of elite athletes (Karoblis, Raslanas, Poteliūnienė, Steponavičius, Petkus, & Žilinskienė, 2011). The purposeful training of female sprinters and the search for effective technologies in order to increase the maximum running speed become a scientific problem. The presented scientific problem is relevant for the following reasons: ● It is important to analyze the change in results in terms of age and to determine the age, at which the highest results are achieved; ● It is important to research and theoretically substantiate, which components determine the sports result in short distance running; ● To research the effectiveness of training measures in order to increase maximum running speed; ● The contribution of running at maximum speed to the sports result in a 100 m run has not been sufficiently researched; ● It is important to establish criteria that affect the progress of athletes' mastery and the change of sport performance. Hypothesis. It is likely that sports results of female sprinters are not improving due to the integrated and concentrated training models applied separately. A universal speed training model is more effective. Object of the research is the process of female sprinter training. Aim is to identify the peculiarities of optimizing the training of high-performance female sprinters. Objectives of the research: 1. On the basis of the data of the theoretical analysis of scientific sources, to reveal the change of the results of high-performance female sprinters in terms of age. 2. To perform a comparative analysis of the preparation of high-performance female spriners for the Athens, Beijing, London and Rio Olympic Games. 3. To review the technologies of sports training of female sprinters and to examine the factors influencing their results. 4. To determine the effectiveness of a universal method for training the speed of high-performance female sprinters. 5. To reveal/identify the opinion of high-performance female sprinters about the factors determining their training system. Theoretical and practical significance Researching the structure and content of sports training for female sprinters of different ages and sports mastery, analyzing the change of sports results in terms of age, evaluating workout methods, running speed components, the provisions for effective running speed increase were identified: ● Running speed is determined by the speed of muscle contraction, the length of leg support, the frequency of steps, and the sports result in a 100-meter run depends mainly on the maximum running speed. ● In order to improve the results of the maximum running speed of female sprinters, it is important to apply a universal, combined method in the workout process, running with weight and stretching with an elastic band. These provisions are relevant to the theory and practice of female sprinter training. The results of the study can be used in the development of training programs for sports schools and high-performance female sprinters. CONCLUSIONS 1. The age for achieving the best personal result in the women's 100 m running competition is 24.69 ± 3.27 year. The best Lithuanian sprinter L. Grinčikaitė-Samuolė achieved her best result in this running competition at the age of 25 – 11.19 s. At the beginning of their athletic career, American sprinters had the highest running scores and dominated until the age of 17, however later is observed leadership of the Caribbean Region female sprinters up to the age of 35. The results of European sprinters were average in almost all age groups. 2. Analysis of the four Olympic Games revealed a significant improvement in the results of the 100 m running and starting reaction speed (p < 0.05). In order to get to in the 100 m running final, athletes should run an average of 10.96 ± 0.03 s, and to become the prizewinners of the competition – 10.86 ± 0.08 s. Sprinters become the prizewinners of the 100 m run at the age of 25.42 ± 3.18 year. 3. Lithuanian female sprinters lose to the best sprinters of Europe and the world in the competition requiring the maximum running speed – 40 m in acceleration (11.99 %). The best Lithuanian sprinter L. Grinčikaitė-Samuolė reduces this difference to 4.05 % in the 100 m running distance, the gap between Europe's and the world's best female sprinters is gradually declining due to improved European sprinters' maximum running speed results. 4. The resisted/assisted running method is the most effective way to increase the running speed and starting acceleration, as this speed training method significantly improves the values of step length and support duration than running normally. 5. High-performance female sprinters lack attention to an important component of training – psychological training – in the process of their sports training. It was found out that their sports training and improvement of results are more influenced by external (monetary prizes, premiums) than internal motives (desire to improve results, honor to represent their country). A coach's personality also has impact. The coach is valued not only as a specialist, but distinguishing his personal qualities, such as sincerity, friendliness, motivation, promotion is considered an integral part of the training process.
acts. The research is based on relevant data from the field of environmental protection in four language versions of the EU acquis: Bulgarian, Greek, Polish and English. The aims of the research are the following: • to characterize a linguistic area of high social prestige (triggered by extralinguistic factors and its scientific context valued by the contemporary world), indicative of the advancement of civilization; • to study in a comparative plan the terminology coined for the basic notions (concepts) of the selected thematic field (i.e. environmental protection); • to present in a systematic way diverse data concerning a particular current topic in order to raise awareness about the process of terminology development and international exchange of terminology in the relevant field; • to draw general theoretical conclusions on trends of development in contemporary European languages for specific purposes (hereinafter LSP) based on cited linguistic terminology data. One of the secondary goals of this monograph is to raise awareness of scientific achievements originating in "smaller" nations, which may remain unnoticed in the European, let alone wider, fora. To achieve the research goals set, the author deemed it necessary to address thematic fields such as: the theory of terminology, lexicography, law, European integration, environmental protection etc., thus rendering the present study interdisciplinary. However, the primary focus of the study is on the linguistic analysis, since its theoretical and methodological apparatuses are grounded in the well-established theses of lexicography, theory of terminology, comparative and applied linguistics, as well as translation studies. The objectives of the monograph (dependent on the defined goals), which determined the methodological choices made, are as follows: to study the extralinguistic context and EU legal sources; to choose a representative thematic field; to assemble a representative database of relevant specialized notions (concepts) and analyse their term-formation in a comparative plan; to select an appropriate research method linked to the design of an algorithm for language comparison, excerption and a comparative analysis of terminological material. Our research on the European Acquis terminology has been determined by the wide linguistic and extralinguistic context, referring to: • the essence and characteristics of LSP; the specific features of the language of law (as an LSP and the existing dichotomic perception of it as the language of law and the language of lawyers; • the EU language of law as a subtype of legal language and thus LSP; • the essence and characteristics of terminology as the core of a LSP, especially the legal terminology; • the internationalization and Europeanization of terminology as developmental trends of LSPs. The enumerated linguistic issues are directly connected to extralinguistic factors, such as: • harmonization of the EU law; EU multilingualism; • European integration and adoption of the EU law by the accession countries; • translation (overt and covert) of the European Union Acquis; • the role of subjective factors (institutional as well as human, e.g. translators, experts, ministries, NGOs etc.) in the process of creating the European Union terminology. The first chapter of the monograph introduces a theoretical model of the research composed of basic theses which can be generalized as follows: • The European Union law is formulated in a LSP. • Terminology is the core of each LSP, including the EU legal language. • A term is a language unit which is defined in a specialized text and is an element of a LSP. A term signifies a specialized notion, has a restricted (professional) scope of use; it is systemic, conventional, context-independent , and expressively- neutral. • A term is recognized as belonging to the EU legal language if it is defined (has a legal definition) in an EU legal act. • In all language versions of the European Union law, identical and equivalent terms are used, defined in the EU legal acts by means of identical legal definitions. • The definitiveness of a term is used as a strict criterion to distinguish between terms and non-terms. • An identical legal definition worded in the different linguistic versions of the harmonized EU law justifies comparability of the terms between languages. • Undertaking an analysis of two Slavonic languages – Bulgarian and Polish, and two non- Slavonic ones, belonging to different language groups (and therefore, bound by diverse normative traditions): Greek and English, makes it possible to study processes of terminological internationalization. Internationalization is thus interpreted as the formation of a common pool of proportionate in form and semantics language units, presented in at least three languages, at least two of which belonging to different language groups. • The EU environmental law is a topical and extremely dynamic field of interdisciplinary and supranational nature, which makes it possible to claim that its terminology is representative of the state and development of the EU terminology as a whole. • The contents of the term 'environment' encompasses such elements as: human being, flora and fauna, soil, water, air, climate, and other. • LSPs are indicative as to the civilisational stage of development of a social community, hence, studying the EU LSP can contribute to the study of certain aspects of the European civilization. The second chapter of the monograph is devoted to the analysis proper of the terminological data, which is preceded by the presentation of the methodological choices made. The following basic concepts have been thoroughly analysed: environment , human , animals , plants , water , air , land /soil , impact (on the environment). Тhe chapter also discusses the work procedures for excerpting terminological material. The methods for comparative analysis used, based on standard comparative algorithm are presented as follows: determining the comparability of objects based on assumed tertium comparationis (the criterion of comparability); confirming similarities and differences of the studied objects; outlining and defining common features, tracing trends of further development of the phenomena. Detailed comparative procedures allowing to recognize similarities and differences between the terms used to signify the specialised notions in the four languages, include the following parameters: source of a term, outer form of a term, and inner form of a term. Each of the parameters has been thoroughly discussed. The outcomes of particular concepts analyses were presented in a form of autonomic and uniformly-structured parts in order to facilitate their individual interpretation. The descriptive way of presenting the results was preferred to a strictly formalized one in order to make the text easier to read; besides, data of different kind and order cannot be presented in a formalized way. It is also believed that a formalized approach would have left out some crucial aspects of the terminological naming process, for instance the component of evaluation in some of the terminological units. As many as 800 terminological units in the four studied languages were included in the analysis (presented in the order corresponding to their "seniority" as official languages of the European Union: English, Greek, Polish, and Bulgarian). All analysed units are quoted along with their Celex numbers that indicate the relevant legislative act of the EU from which they are excerpted. The most important conclusions of the monograph are the following: • (The source of a term parameter): the overwhelming majority of terms in each of the languages have their origin in the native tongue. English terms are most often semantic neologisms, whereas in the other languages being terminologically secondary, they are translated borrowings (calques), among which the most numerous are the phraseological calques. Analogous terminological units that occur in all four languages must be deemed Europeisms or internationalisms (in a wider sense) on the grounds of semantic and/or formal convergence in the four languages, of which three are not genetically connected. Basic concepts from the field of environmental protection, which are elementary (universal) notions co-creating crucial fragments of their respective linguistic world-images, are signified by old native words. On a regular basis there is no formal (material) convergence in the studied languages – except for Bulgarian and Polish. The European legislator fixes old words (e.g. river, air, animal etc.) as terms and assigns new terminological meanings to them which then become common (standardized) for each and every language version of the harmonized European Union law. What demands close attention is a relatively small share of material internationalisms, which can be explained by the aptitude of nominators to preserve the national character of terms in the context of European multilingualism. This tendency is most evident in Greek terminology. • (The outer form of a term parameter) A dominant structural type among the studied terms in all four languages are the two-component terms consisting of a head-noun and a subordinate component/member which is an adjective in Greek, Polish and Bulgarian, and a noun used attributively in English (N+N structures) The noticeable categorical monotony of the terminology is another feature thereof – substantive units are commonly recognized as the most proper form of a term. • The conclusion that can be drawn as regards the term inner form is that essential semantic features present in a meaning (definition) of a term usually serve as a foundation of the terminological naming process. The analysis shows that predominantly there is a dependence of form components on contents components of a given term. In cases of loan translations/ calques such a dependency is established both in the primary English term and in its calques in the other languages. The comparative analysis of this parameter shows the relation of the meaningful elements of the terms (words and morphemes) between the four languages, as well as their relation to a given semantic feature of concept. This is yet another proof for the convergence of terminologies. One of the effects of convergence is the unquestionable enhancement of comprehension of stakeholders of LSPs, lacking fluency in the target foreign langauge. • Some conclusions were also reached as to similarities and differences according to language type: synthetic vs. analytic; Balkan vs. non-Balkan; using Latin script vs. using other writing system (alphabet). A crucial general conclusion is related to the scale of convergence processes taking place in contemporary specialized languages of integrated Europe. What is established is the inter-language iso-semanticity, very similar to iso-semanticity occurring among the Balkan languages, that is an independent material rendering in each language provided there are identical semantic features, which may be referred to Stanisław Gajda's conclusion concerning the genesis of European language league (GAJDA, 2008). In conclusion, the research addresses the area of intensified convergence processes leading to inter-language iso-semanticity, which stems not so much from language interference as from the impact of English (as a language of high social and communicative prestige in the contemporary world) on the remaining languages included in the study. The original author's contributions can be summed up as follows: • synthesis and systematization of knowledge stemming from different fields yet relating to the selected topic; • contrastive analysis of four languages in a rare (unique) configuration; • practical and applied aspect of the results obtained from the analysis of a large representative corpus of terms from the EU legal field of environmental protection • (the corpus's) linguistic and historical value; should it happen that the EU's LSP becomes yet another rejected "newspeak", the author has nevertheless been able to study the potential of the linguistic teams and language systems to create specialized languages (language subsystems) with the aim to attain particular goals and meet civilization needs at a particular historical moment.
De forma reciente se registran con más frecuencia denuncias, quejas y otras discusiones sobre la autoría de los artículos o sobre el uso no reconocido de contenidos de documentos por parte de otros autores (práctica conocida como plagio). Y aunque no es un tema nuevo y tampoco restringido al no reconocimiento de una idea, cada vez más se discuten los problemas asociados al uso no adecuado (ético) de la información, entre otros, a problemas en la recolección; el uso; análisis o discusión descuidada; con una mala intención o la falsificación de los datos (fraude); la autoría no merecida o la duplicación de trabajos, o partes de éstos, por parte de los mismos autores en las publicaciones científicas. Como lo han discutido Gallegos, Berra, Benito, & López-López, (2014) y López-López, (2013, 2014) seguramente las dinámicas y presión de producción de conocimiento están fomentando a que este tipo de conductas sean frecuentes. Sin embargo, a pesar de que éstas problemáticas hoy son más evidentes al mismo tiempo son más controlables, por cuanto: en primer lugar la revolución tecnológica de información y comunicaciones hace hoy que la circulación de información y conocimiento sea más rápida, eficaz, veloz y de una cobertura casi que global, más, que en ningún otro momento de la historia. Con lo cual, es más fácil que una comunidad evidencie los usos de los contenidos y las formas de obtención y análisis de datos, así como la generación de formas de control. Por otro lado, hoy los editores están exigiendo con más frecuencia las bases de datos primarias, los archivos de datos e incluso los borradores y plan de análisis de los resultados antes de la recolección de los mismos. Además, las revistas hoy en día cuentan con equipos que se encargan no solo de verificar parte de la información suministrada, sino además de verificar los análisis derivados de los mismos. Y en tercer lugar, algunas revistas están empezando a exigir la aclaración de roles en la producción de los artículos (generación de las ideas, participación en la recolección de los datos, en el análisis de datos, en la escritura del manuscrito, la discusión del documento, en la revisión del texto, en la traducción realizada, entre muchos otros) esto bajo declaraciones de acuerdo entre los autores del documento (Allen, Brand, Scott, Altman, & Hlava, 2014). En segundo lugar los procesos editoriales de los contenidos científicos pasan por revisión por pares que en general esperamos no solo evalúen la pertinencia, el alcance, la fortaleza teórica y metodológica si no la originalidad de los contenidos y que además detecten los problemas en los datos y sus análisis. Aunque no es un proceso exhaustivo e infalible, anecdóticamente hemos podido detectar documentos publicados con datos similares gracias al proceso de revisión. Sin embargo, el crecimiento en la cantidad de artículos a evaluar ponen en riesgo el sistema de revisión e inevitablemente la posibilidad de detectar este tipo de conductas (Arns, 2014). En tercer lugar, los editores en el caso del plagio cuentan con softwares que permite identificar un mismo documento o parte de un escrito que se encuentra en la red y en cualquier caso, más temprano que tarde, para toda la comunidad se hará evidente que existe una alteración y falla por parte de un autor/investigador. Por esta razón, el riesgo de usar contenidos sin el debido reconocimiento es más alto, y quienes tomen el riesgo evidentemente tendrán que asumir las consecuencias que la comunidad y las leyes tienen contemplados para esta conducta. A pesar de estos elementos mencionados, los editores además debemos ser más explícitos con las exigencias éticas de la información. Esto lleva a sumarnos a esfuerzos a nivel mundial y, por ejemplo, asumir los lineamientos del Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) (http://publicationethics.org/) (Yong, Ledford, & Van Noorden, 2013). Así, desde este número Universitas Psychologica hará un mayor énfasis en el uso de las guías del COPE y buscará promoverlas como guía de conducta de las publicaciones en la región en las diversas redes en las cuales participamos. Igualmente, desde hace algunos meses se ha hecho un énfasis en el reporte del aspecto ético de los artículos, siendo éste un criterio que en algunos casos puede convertirse en una causal de rechazo inmediato de los artículos. Ésta medida va más allá del tradicional "consentimiento informado" y requiere una evaluación ética de la investigación realizada, independientemente del campo de la psicología o el tipo de investigación. Los investigadores deberán ser conscientes del papel ético en la recolección, manejo, implicaciones y publicación de la información y la mejor forma de asegurar dicho proceso es si ha sido sometido a un comité institucional o estatal que respalda las acciones reportadas (Dolgin, 2014). La psicología en nuestra región está en creciente expansión y las dinámicas de producción están afectando nuestras comunidades y pueden estar generando practicas indeseables en el ámbito de las publicaciones y es necesario que provoquemos discusión los temas de la ética de las publicaciones y que busquemos más sistemas de control que permitan prevenir la publicación bajo condiciones anti éticas. Así mismo, evaluar el impacto y el costo que tiene para las publicaciones licales y en general de la región en desarrollo (económico, político, social y científico) la retractación y las malas prácticas asociadas a un desbordamiento en el afán de publicación. Sumarnos al control y prácticas internacionales globaliza nuestros procesos y aumenta el interés y la confianza de comunidades no hispanas en la producción de Iberoamérica. Wilson López López Editor ; In recent times, there has been an increase in the frequency with which reports, complaints, and other discussions about the authorship of articles or the unrecognized use of document contents by other authors (practice known as plagiarism), are being recoded. Although this is not a new topic nor restricted to the non-recognition of an idea, the problems associated with the improper use (ethical) of information are being increasingly discussed. For instance, topics of discussion are: problems in the collection, use, careless analysis or discussion of data with misconduct or falsification (fraud), and undeserved authorship or duplication of work, or parts thereof, by the same authors in scientific publications. As discussed by Gallegos, Berra, Benito, & López-López (2014) and López-López (2013, 2014), it is probable that the dynamics and pressure of knowledge production are promoting the frequent occurrence of these behaviors. Nonetheless, although these problems are now more evident, they are at the same time more controllable. Firstly, the technological revolution in information and communications allows the information and knowledge to flow quicker, more efficiently, faster, and with an almost global coverage, now a days, as compared to any other time in history. Thus, it is easier for a community to evidence the use of contents as well as the ways of collecting and analyzing data, and generating forms of control. Moreover, publishers currently demand more often the primary databases, data files, and even the drafts and analysis plan of the results, before their collection1. In addition, journals count, now a day, with teams that are responsible not only for verifying some of the information provided, but also for verifying the analysis derived therefrom. Furthermore, some journals have started to demand clarification of the roles in the production of articles (generation of ideas, participation in data collection, analysis of data, writing of the manuscript, the discussion of document, the revision of the text, the translation performed, among many others). This is done under statements of agreement between the authors of the document (Allen, Brand, Scott, Altman, & Hlava, 2014). Secondly, throughout the editorial process, the scientific content undergoes peer review. In general, we expect that reviewers assess not only the relevance, scope, theoretical and methodological strength, but also the originality of the content. Moreover, reviewers may detect problems in data and in their analyses. Although this is not an exhaustive and infallible process, anecdotally, we have been able to detect some documents published with similar data, thanks to the review process. Nevertheless, the growth in the number of articles to assess can jeopardize the review system and consequently the possibility of detecting this type of conducts (Arns, 2014). Thirdly, in the case of plagiarism, publishers count with softwares that enable them to identify a document, or sections of a text, that are in the network. In any case, sooner or later, it will be evident for the whole community that an author / researcher has committed an alteration or a fault. For this reason, the risk of using content without due recognition is higher, and those who take the risk will evidently have to assume the consequences that the community and the law have stipulated to this type of behavior. Despite these items mentioned above, as editors we must be more explicit about the ethical requirements of information. This leads us to join worldwide efforts and assume, for instance, the guidelines of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) (http://publicationethics.org/) (Yong, Ledford, & Van Noorden, 2013). Thus, from this number, Universitas Psychologica will place a greater emphasis on the use of the COPE guidelines, and will seek to promote them as a guide of conduct for the publications in the region, in the various networks in which we participate. Similarly, a few months ago an emphasis started to be made on the report of the ethical aspect of articles, since this is a criterion that, in some cases, can become grounds for immediate rejection of the articles. This measure goes beyond the traditional "informed consent" and requires an ethical review of the research that has been performed, regardless of the field of psychology or the type of research. Researchers should be aware of the ethical role in the collection, management, implications and publication of information. The best way to ensure this process is by subjecting it to an institutional or state committee, which supports the reported actions (Dolgin, 2014). Psychology, in our region, is having a rapid expansion. The dynamics of production are affecting our communities and may be generating undesirable practices in the field of publications. Therefore, it is necessary that we generate discussion of the ethical issues of publications, and that we seek for more control systems, capable of preventing publication under unethical conditions. Additionally, we should evaluate the impact and costs on local publications and overall on the region in development (economic, political, social and scientific), caused by the retraction and the malpractices associated with the rush to publish and the consequent overflow. By joining international control and practices, we will globalize our processes and will increase the interest and confidence of non-Hispanic communities in the production of Latin America. Wilson López López Editor
This report covers basic descriptions and characteristics of the equine sector, including statistics on number of horses, horse farms, employment, current structure and recent dynamics in the horse sector in Finland, Latvia and Sweden and also the mobility (e.g. trade, import, export and tourism) within the Central Baltic Region. The information was gathered through literature reviews, round table discussions and interviews with equine organisations and stakeholders, and through visits to farms with equine business activities in each of the three countries. Horses in Finland, Latvia and Sweden At the moment the horse population in Finland is growing steadily. In 2010 there were about 75 000 horses. Most of these are warm-blooded trotting horses, but riding horses are becoming increasingly popular as riding as a hobby increases in popularity. Approximately 35 000 people own at least one horse and co-ownership is becoming a common way of owning a horse with relatively small costs and responsibilities, especially among trotting sports. There are approximately 16 000 stables, of which over 3 000 are business orientated. These numbers are still only estimates, because Finland is lacking a comprehensive register of stables and stable enterprises. Although statistical data on the number of horses, breeds, herds, stables etc. are being collected and are available in Latvia, there is still a lack of statistical data that characterise the sector in relation to employment, provide an idea of the financial results, and characterise horse uses for tourism or therapy purposes. For example, there are no data on the number of people working with horses. This is perhaps related to the perception of the sector as being located within the context of horse breeding. Statistical data show that the number of horses in Latvia in general has decreased, from 15 250 in 2005 to 11 476 in 2012, and the current trends indicate that it could decrease even more. The number of livestock has decreased correspondingly, from 9814 in 2005 to 5577 in 2012. More than 84% of all farms have 1 to 5 horses, and only a few farms have more than 100 horses. The number of horses in Sweden decreased in the early 1920s from about 700 000 to about 70 000 in the 1970s. During the past 30 years the number of horses has increased tremendously, but the trend seems to be stagnated the last few years. Today there are approximately 362 700 horses and about 20% of all horses in Sweden are within business establishments. The number of horses per 1 000 habitants is 39 for the whole country and Sweden is now estimated to have the second highest density of horses per capita in Europe. There are approximately 77 800 establishments involving horses in Sweden. The equine businesses have on average 4.7 horses and provide full-time or part-time work for a total of 25 000 people. About two-thirds of those working with horses are women. Horse related legislation in Finland, Latvia and Sweden Environmental legislation is one of the broadest judicial systems in Finland. It consists of a number of different laws and regulations, relating to waste disposal, water protection, environmental protection, land use and construction. After EU membership, environmental legislation in Finland was harmonised with EC (European Community) legislation, especially in the case of environmental protection and conservation. The main environmental legislation concerning the horse sector in Finland consists of following laws, directives and regulations: 1) Environmental protection law and regulation, 2) Waste law and regulation, 3) EU waste incineration directive, 4) By-product regulation, 5) Nitrate regulation, 6) Law concerning dead animals in remote areas, 7) The law on processing household water in remote areas, 8) Health protection law and regulation, 9) Fertilizer law, 10) Conservation law, 11) Land use and construction law and 12) Law about neighbourliness. According to the requirements of the Ministry of Agriculture, the policy of the horse breeding sector in Latvia is based on: a) Horse breeding is performed according to the targets stated in the breeding programme, which are based on production of high quality animals, preservation and improvement of the genotype through purposeful use of the breeding stock and improvement of horse monitoring, b) The importance of the development of horses and equestrian sports within the framework of the common agricultural policy is emphasised in order to encourage development of the rural environment, and c) Horse breeding is compliant with welfare regulations. National and European Union aid for the development of the agricultural sector is allocated to horse breeding too. Most of it consists of aid for breeding measures in the equine sector. Currently there are no specific regulations in Latvia which define requirements for keeping horses. Horse breeding is not distinguished separately within the field of animal welfare in Latvia and therefore the main document is the Animal Protection Law. Its norms are general, while Cabinet Regulation No 959 ´Welfare Requirements for the Keeping and Training of Sport, Work and Exhibition Animals and Use Thereof in Competitions, Work or Exhibitions´ does not specify actions with horses and can easily be interpreted in different ways. There is no measurable evaluation system to assess fulfilment of the requirements in the Cabinet Regulations. The law stipulates the actions and activities which may be undertaken with an animal and those which are strictly forbidden and lists the institutions that should supervise compliance with the law and the welfare requirements. Latvia lacks the basis of normative documents that would specifically regulate personal safety in the horse breeding sector and in businesses related to horse use. Therefore the common normative basis has to be considered, the foundation of which is the ´Labour Protection Law´. The foundation of Swedish environmental legislation is the Swedish Environmental Code. The purpose of the Swedish Environmental Code is to promote sustainable development which will assure a healthy and sound environment for present and future generations. The Code is a legislative framework based on a number of fundamental principles permeating international environmental protection and resource management. These include the "precautionary" principle, the "polluter pays" principle, the "product choice" principle and principles governing resource management, natural cycles and appropriate siting of industrial (and other) operations and remedial measures. The main environmental legislation in Sweden concerning the horse sector consists of the following laws, directives, ordinances and regulations: 1) Environmental Code, 2) Ordinance concerning environmentally hazardous activities and the protection of public health, 3) Ordinance on environmental consideration in agriculture, 4) Nitrate directive, 5) Water directive, 6) Swedish guidance on storage and spreading of manure, 7) Regulation on environmental consideration in agriculture as regards plant nutrients, 8) Ordinance on inspection and enforcement according to the Environmental Code, 9) Ordinance on self-inspection by operators, 10) Ordinance on animal by-products, 11) Ordinance on fees for examination and supervision under the Environmental Code and the fees ordinance, 12) Regulations on the protection of the environment, in particular the soil, when sewage sludge is used in agriculture, 13) Regulations on consideration for natural and cultural values in agriculture, 14) Ordinance on environmental penalty charge, 15) The Planning and Building Ordinance, 16) The Land Code. In Sweden the occupational safety and health issues in general are regulated in the Work Environmental Act (SFS 1977:1160), in the Work Environmental Ordinance (SFS 1977:1166) and in several provisions. There is no specific legislation regarding occupational health and safety in the horse sector. However, these issues are included in the provision Working with animals (SFS 2008:17). Some results of the round table discussions in Finland, Latvia and Sweden In general, the participants in round table discussions in Finland were hoping for concrete solutions and examples of low-cost and easy help for everyday businesses. Entrepreneurs with lower profitability need more support, but the challenge is to get them involved in education or advisory events. The riding sector at least is much divided, with some businesses having as many customers as they can serve, and others who are constantly on the edge of bankruptcy. To help those small and medium-sized enterprises that need help the most, the project should produce advice that can immediately be used in practice, and concrete results and solutions. The problem with small and medium-sized businesses is the lack of capital and the related impossibility of investing large amounts of money in new technologies or large-scale facilities. In this sector the profitability and competitiveness are often low, but small changes in operations could improve these. Many business owners are still lacking business skills and they may not see what they could use as a competitive advantage. The current understanding of the equine sector in Latvia has to be reconsidered or a better understanding has to be created. Therefore the policy guidelines and the aid to the sector will have to be reviewed. For example, according to the view of the Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of Latvia, the equine sector only concerns breeding and accordingly state aid is predominantly provided for this purpose. The Latvian Horse Breeding Association also considers breeding to be its priority, but several representatives of the tourism industry expressed the opinion that horse breeding should be reconsidered, paying special attention to the Latvian horse breed, which could be interesting for foreign and local tourists as a special feature of Latvia. Latvian breed horses possess a nature and traits that make them suitable for tourism and also therapeutic riding purposes. The equine sector in Latvia in general lacks a clear direction for orientation, what should be bred, what might be a profitable product or an exportable product. Since this is not clear on a national scale, it is difficult to discuss aid instruments. The people working in the sector often lack skills in project preparation, they do not have time to learn and study it all, and therefore it is difficult to apply for and to receive the aid. In order to solve this, it is usual practice to involve companies that prepare the project application. Other entrepreneurs try to master these skills themselves. The horse sector in Sweden is now on a downward trend, pointing out the decreased number of served mares. The horse businesses need to streamline their business ideas, look for better locations (closer to customers) and the activities offered must be more adapted to customer needs and demands, such as different types of activities and livery stables with more specialist services or diversified food production. In general, horse stables will have a lot of opportunities in the sector if they can keep up with the changes in the sector. The interest in Sweden regarding keeping horses and attending riding sports was perceived to be decreasing and it was thought that there is a system change underway. The way to keep horses in the future may not be the same as it used to be. People are not willing to sacrifice time and efforts to keep on with horses any more, people are getting older and there is limited recruitment of young people into the sector. The horse activities mainly take place in urban and periurban areas.
In this work the management effectiveness of a Cuban MPA is assessed using an interdisciplinary approach. A series of three hypotheses are tested to determine how effective the Punta Frances Marine Protected Area (PFMPA) has been in meeting the multiple objectives of conserving biological diversity and ecological integrity, while allowing for the development of economic opportunities for tourism, and satisfying the needs of local and distant human populations. A new typology of benefits derived from MPAs was produced to provide managers with a practical tool that enable them to: 1) identify the benefits at the early stages of MPA creation, 2) state MPA objectives in a clear and measurable way, 3) assess the effectiveness of their MPA in meeting their management objectives. A new methodology was also developed to assess MPA effectiveness. This methodology constitutes an advancement from previous work, and it is based on qualitative and quantitative measurements of benefits depicted in the proposed typology. It has several advantages over previous methods. One of the main advantages is that it can be applied to assess one single MPA or a group of MPAs in a comparative fashion. The case study analyzed showed that to date, the PFMPA shows little signs of being negatively affected by the recreational SCUBA diving activities for which it was intended, given that no significant differences were found between intensively used diving areas and unused diving areas in terms of fish abundance, coral cover and macroalgae cover. Despite this, the PFMPA is not currently providing the full set of benefits to humans and the rest of nature, due mainly to administrative issues. If the PFMPA eventually becomes a National Marine Park (i.e. is fully protected from extractive activities), and management is correctly implemented, an annual economic value of almost USD $127,164,116.37 is forecast. At present the PFMPA does not provide any social or economic benefit to the nearby coastal community of Cocodrilo, thereby maintaining a divorce between local people and the users and managers of the MPA. Conversely, foreigners are receiving most of the benefits associated with recreation in a pristine tropical coastal ecosystem situated on the edge of the Caribbean Sea basin. The interdisciplinary methodologies for assessing effectiveness of MPAs developed in this study provided quantitative and qualitative evidence of a poor level of success in meeting the multiple management objectives of the PFMPA. 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This essay discusses the relation between urban spaces and street festival as an example of a creative industry. To begin with, several terms are presented as part of a theoretical approach to fully understand the concept of street festivals, then two cases studies of street festivals will be presented and analysed: The Iberoamerican Theatre Festival of Bogotá and Rock al Parque Festival both from Bogotá, Colombia. The essay has a chapter dedicated to the relationship between festivals and economic development. ; Cultura y desarrollo; Esfera pública; Festival Iberoamericano de Teatro; Festivales callejeros; Habermas; Rock al Parque ; 1 An Act of Faith: Two Cases Studies Of Street Festivals As Examples Of Development. ANDRÉS GUILLERMO CHAUR1 Course Title: Theories of the Culture Industry: work, creativity and precariousness Course Code: CU71015A Date: 13 January 2014 1 Beneficiario COLFUTURO 2013 2 3 «Culture is the be all and end all of development» L.S. Senghor, poet (Senegal, 1906-2001) Introduction This essay discusses the relation between urban spaces and street festival as an example of a creative industry. To begin with, several terms are presented as part of a theoretical approach to fully understand the concept of street festivals, then two cases studies of street festivals will be presented and analysed: The Iberoamerican Theatre Festival of Bogotá and Rock al Parque Festival both from Bogotá, Colombia. The essay has a chapter dedicated to the relationship between festivals and economic development. It is important to mention that the starter point of this essay was precisely to give an introductory background of the importance that has have those two case studies in the development of the city. It is not a secret that Colombia has suffered a period of violence and instability since the second part of the XX century so at first glance it is curious to study and research about an almost contradictory topic such as Culture in a "war country". But at the same time, the "beauty" of this study relies precisely in its contradictory nature: How a country with those characteristics can hold two of the most important and respected free theatre festivals and music festivals in all Latin America? This essay will try to explain that culture when it's conceived with some specific characteristics will bring democracy and peace. A series of deep and abstract concepts will be discussed. This essay was thought just as an introduction and approximation to the topic of public and private, public sphere, culture and development just to mention some examples. Same with authors and thinkers used to elaborate the structure of this study. Once again it should be taken as an approximation rather than a full and elaborated research. The aim is to structure a series of ideas and concepts around one thesis: Those festivals have helped to make Bogotá a better city thus that is the main point of the relation between urban spaces and creativity: It fosters a better understanding of a society overall. At the end of the essay, in the appendix section, some photos are presented to visually recreate the two festivals, its dimensions and its importance. Although, like every 4 transcendental event, in order to understand the magnitude of The Iberoamerican Theatre Festival and the Rock al Parque Festival one have to experience in person. Cities as spaces for the public To fully understand the concept of "Public Realm" and "Public Sphere", one has to address the theory of the city and its relation with the concept of public and private. The concept of "city" has had many meanings through time. There are different ways to approach the concept; however, for the nature of this essay an urban sociological perspective will be approached. Mumford (1937) states the city as a space undoubtedly bonded with the development of human potential: "a city is an expression of the human spirits, and they exist to nurture human personality"2. Weber (1921), one of the founders of modern sociology sees a city in terms of connectivity and settlement between commuters, in that way, the concept of a city, according to Weber, is about the networking, the political and economic participation and the organization among communities. Landry (2013) defines the city as "a complex organism and in constant movement with perspectives, opinions and priorities about what is right often clashing"3. Simmel (1950) explained the correlation of man and the scenarios created by the capitalism and modern society called "The Metropolis". There is always a struggle between the man (individual) and his society (public): "The deepest problem of modern life arises out of the attempt by the individual to preserve his autonomy and individuality in the face of the overwhelming social forces of a historical heritage, external culture and technique of life"4. Simmel's concept of a city as a place where modern man struggle to find his individuality within "overwhelming social forces" is key to understand the theory of the city, specifically one attached with the words: Public -Private. Sennett (1996) in his book "The Fall of the 2 Mumford, L., 1937. What is a city?. In: Scoutt, S and Stoutt, F. ed. 2011. The city reader. Taylor and Francis. pp.91-96. 3 Landry,C. 2013. Civic Urbanity: Looking at the city afresh (PDF). Hangzhou International Congress, "Culture: Key to Sustainable Development", 15-17 May 2013, Hangzhou, China. Available at: http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CLT/images/Charles_Landry_Hangzhou_Congress.pdf (Accessed 12 January 2013). 4 Simmel,G. 1950. The Metropolis and Mental Life. In Miles, M; Hall, T and Borden, I. The City Cultures Reader. Ed. 2000. pp. 12-19. 5 public man" gives an account of the city as the scenario where those 2 concepts are correlated. He starts explaining the meaning of public and private. Although its historical background, coming from the Greeks and the idea of Oikos and Polis as the Private and Public respectively, Sennett comments that "the public" in modern times, started to develop in the eighteen century that is as a direct consequence of the industrial revolution and the liberalism ideas coming from The Enlightenment. "Public came to mean a life passed outside the life of family and close friends. In the public region diverse, complex social groups were to be brought into ineluctable contact the focus of this public life was the city"5 The public life is also the ground to understand modern democracy and public political institution. Sennett, citing Hanna Arendt's book The Human Condition shows how the public life in cities can be a scenario where ideas and opinions are discussed and debated. "Private circumstances have no place in the public realm". 6 Arendt even manifests that cities are "democracy's homes"7 This notion of public started to be more evident when places to meet strangers (people from outside the private sphere) within the city started to grow up. Examples of those "places" are the coffee houses and salons (Habermas will mention those examples to explain his theory of public sphere). Those spaces are called "Public Realm" by Sennett. Public Realm, in other words, are spaces where strangers meet. This encounter is characterized by "anonymity". In "The Conscience of The Eye" Sennett (1992) also says that anonymity is the power of modern cities: "The power of the city lies in its diversity; in the presence of difference people have at least the possibility to step outside themselves (.) The city can give them experiences of otherness"8 The concept of Teatro Mundi is an interesting way to look at the public sphere. According to Sennett, "Teatro Mundi" are spaces full of vitality, differences and disorder. Places where the differences connect and all citizens participate: "Society is a theatre and people are actors". This essay will discuss Teatro Mundi in detail in the chapter related to street festivals. . 5 Sennett, R. 2003. The Fall of Public Man. Penguin, New Edition. 6 Sennett, R. 2008. Reflections on the Public Realm in Bridge, G and Watson, S. A companion of the City. Blackwell Publishers. pp. 380-387. 7 Sennett, R. 2008. The Public Realm. (online) Richard Sennet Website. Available at: http://www.richardsennett.com/site/SENN/Templates/General2.aspx?pageid=16 (Accessed 13 January 2014) 8 Sennett, R. 1992. The Conscience of the Eye: The Design and Social Life of Cities. W.W Norton & Company. 6 In the next chapter, this essay will discuss in-depth different theories about the public realm specially the ideas of Habermas about the public sphere and his theory of action communicative. Habermas and the Public Sphere Even though the previous chapter gave an account of the concepts of private-public, it is important to highlight them according to the theory of Habermas. Recognized as one of the most influential sociologist and philosopher of our times, Habermas theories of the public sphere (phrase from the German Öffentlichkeit), and modern democracy as well as his theory of action communicative have been enormously influential for modern sociology9. Firstly Habermas' thought is marked in the tradition of the Frankfurt School. His first mayor publication "The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere" argues that instrumental rationality is implicit in the Public Sphere. However, Habermas took distance from the classical notion of the critical theory when argues that participation in the public sphere (he exemplified the coffee shops and the salons in Paris and London in the XVIII century) is free and autonomous in order to shape a common good: "The public sphere consisted in voluntary associations of private citizens united in a common aim, to make use of their own reason in unconstrained discussion between equals"10(Later on, Habermas is going to present how mass media eroded individuality and declined the public sphere). It is important to mention the dichotomy of the words public-private for Habermas. Although different, both are dependents to each other. In that way the private sphere and the public sphere instead of being exclusive are inclusive. Susen (2011) defines the public sphere, taking into account Habermas' theory, as: "The socialized expression of individuals' reciprocally constituted autonomy: individuals are autonomous not in isolation from but in relation to one another, that is, in relation to a public of autonomous beings".11 9Finlayson, J .2005. "Habermas, a very short introduction". Oxford University Press. 10 Habermas,J. 1991. The Structural Transformation Of The Public Sphere. MIT Press. 11 Susen, S. 2001. Critical Notes on Habermas's theory of the public sphere. (online). City University of London. Available at: http://tinyurl.com/lhy4j4z. (Accessed 13 January 2014). 7 Several questions came to mind: How this socialization is constructed? What does an autonomous individual mean? And how can individual reach autonomy? For Habermas, the answer relies on a rational communicative action. The aim of the public sphere is to create a consensus through the active participation of all individuals involved. This consensus is created by a rational approach of the language: "The public sphere is a collective realm in which individuals' cognitive ability to take on the role of critical and responsible actors is indicative of society's coordinative capacity to transform itself into an emancipatory project shaped by the normative force of communicative rationality"12. Rationality in terms of Habermas does not consist in knowledge per se but "how speaking and acting subjects acquire and use knowledge"13. This type of rationality is different from the instrumental rationality from the Enlightenment, widely criticized by the Frankfurt School, since it is "practical, epistemological and more important, intersubjective"14. The public sphere, considering the above, not only describes the space where the encounter occurs but moreover, the public sphere has within itself an emancipator and a transformative component. Some critics find Habermas ideas "too utopian and idealistic"15. The next chapter the link between Habermas and Sennett notion of Public Realm in the city will be tracked. The Open City Sennett takes Habermas as a mayor inspiration for constructing his idea of the Public Realm in the city. According to Sennett (2008), Habermas does not tie the public sphere to any particular place, such as a town centre for instance. Even new technological media as the 12 Ibid. 13 Hahn, L. 2000. Perspective On Habermas. Open Court Publishing. 14 Susen, S. 2001. Critical Notes on Habermas's theory of the public sphere. (online). City University of London. Available at: http://tinyurl.com/lhy4j4z. (Accessed 13 January 2014). 15 Ibid. 8 Internet could be seen as an example of public sphere: "In today's cities, an internet cafe would be more likely to excite him than Trafalgar Square" 16 The place where strangers meet, as Sennett defines Public Realm, could be anywhere: An event, a medium, etc. that encourages communication between strangers. Eventually, Sennett argues, cities that promote those types of encounters are called cities with open systems and on the contrary, cities that lack a real public realm or just promote the privatization of spaces are called cities with closed systems. Based on sociologist Jane Jacobs(1961) and her book "The death and life of great American cities"17, Sennett(2006) imagines a city with a closed system with two attributes: Equilibrium and Integration18. Equilibrium is related with balance, with harmony and with a static idea of conceiving a city. Public Spaces as spaces full of differences, dissents and disorders are not part or are reduced in a closed system. By integration, Sennett means that everything is connected and is part of a greater and unique vision. Thus, everything that is not part of that unique vision is expelled and rejected: "The logic of integration is to diminish in value things that don't fit in (.) Closed system cities refuse to evolve and has paralysed urbanism", concludes Sennett. Opposing a closed system, the open system is all about diversity and finding a place for differences, dissents and disorders. It is about complexity, about how a place adapts itself to the always changing community and its processes. Sennett lists three elements of an open city: Passage territories, incomplete form and development narratives. Passages territories means to diffuse boundaries and different territories within the cities; incomplete form is regarding "empty spaces" so the public can interact in it. Development narratives means to allow dissident voices to express and to fully participate. Wirth (1938) summarize the above by saying: "The juxtaposition of divergent personalities and modes of life tends to produce a relativistic perspective and a sense of toleration of differences"19 Taking into consideration the above characteristics of an open city, one can say that an open city is a place for democracy, "not in the legal sense but in the physical experience" says 16 Sennett, R. 2008. Reflections on the Public Realm in Bridge, G and Watson, S. A companion of the City. Blackwell Publishers. pp. 380-387. 17 Jacobs, J .1961. The death and life of great American cities. Random House, New York. 18 Sennett, R 2006. The Open City. (online). Urban Age- LSE. Available at: http://esteticartografias07.files.wordpress.com/2008/07/berlin_richard_sennett_2006-the_open_city1.pdf. (Accessed 13 January 2014) 19 Wirth, L .1938. Urbanism as a Way of Life. (online) Chicago Journals. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2768119 (Accessed 13 January 2014). 9 Sennett 20. This thesis is important to understand the importance of public spaces in construction of a fully democratic society and thus is connected to the idea of development and equality. ¿What are examples of an open system? Can one give an account of a public sphere? The next chapter will give an account of the relationship between the street festivals and the public sphere, understanding them as a significance example of public realm. Street Festivals and the Public Sphere To begin with, Street Festivals or Urban Festivals as any other cultural event placed in the public sphere are related of what Durkheim called "collective effervescence". As Durkheim pointed out when a group gathers to perform a "religious ritual" experiences a sense of encounter and unity, "leading participants to a high degree of collective emotional excitement or delirium"21. However as Sassatelli(2011) adds, although Festivals are also part of a collective delirium, taking all participant apart from the everyday life, they are also places where the social encounter is made of "polyvalent performances, rather than unified signifiers of a consensual collective conscience"22 Sassatelli complements that street festivals contrasted with museums: By its living dimension as well as its unrestrained sensory experience. Sennett (1992) also talks about spaces "full of live" as narrative spaces where every dweller constructs a disorder and kaleidoscope meaning of the public. This could lead to the erosion of the boundaries of high and low culture in the sense of the Frankfurt School understood the "cultural industries". namely they turn into instances of communication and instances of production of collective meanings and desires. 20 Sennett, R 2006. The Open City. (online). Urban Age- LSE. Available at: http://esteticartografias07.files.wordpress.com/2008/07/berlin_richard_sennett_2006-the_open_city1.pdf. (Accessed 13 January 2014) 21 Durkheim, E .2008. The Elementary Forms of Religious Life. Oxford Paperbacks. 22 Sassatelli, M. 2011. Urban Festivals and the Cultural Public Sphere: Cosmopolitanism between Ethics and Aesthetics in Delanty, G; Giorgi L and Sassatelli, M. Festivals and the Cultural Public Sphere. Routledge. Pp 12-19 10 If Habermas, the notion of the "Public Sphere" is related as the area where rational individuals communicate to each other to discuss their social problems; nowadays as McGuian(2011) argues, there are different ways to look at the public sphere, not only inside a rational communicative system as Habermas states, but from other types of communication that also create a sense of public sphere. One of those "public spheres" is the cultural public sphere, namely a sphere within the public where different modes of communications, for instance "affective-aesthetics and emotional are articulated with the public and the private"23 "The public sphere nowadays operates though various channels and circuits of mass popular culture and entertainment facilitated the routinely mediated aesthetic and emotional reflections on how we live and imagine the good life (.) festivals are the aestheticization of politics as the ground for festivals is the democratization of an independent thought by the spectators transformed into active actors". . Although McGuian theorized the cultural public sphere for the mass media and populism culture, undoubtedly street festivals share that conception in an emotional and aesthetic way of "come together as a public" and to transcend the private sphere into a societal integration as Habermas explained. Fabiani (2011) explained as well: 24 Street Festivals are also part of the Sennett's idea of "Teatro Mundi". Spaces operated in an open system, where strangers meet through a "rhetorical way, acting in order to be 23Mc Guian, J. 2011. The Cultural Public Sphere- a critical measure of public culture? in Delanty, G; Giorgi L and Sassatelli, M. Festivals and the Cultural Public Sphere. Routledge. Pp 79-92. 24 Fabiani, J. 2011. Festivals, local and global: Critical interventions and the cultural public sphere. in Delanty, G; Giorgi L and Sassatelli, M. Festivals and the Cultural Public Sphere. Routledge. Pp 92-108 Involvement rather than contemplation Instances of communication and community building Erosion of the boundaries between high and low culture Construction of Identity Produce meanings and desires Box 1. Characteristics of Street Festivals according to Sassatelli(2011). 11 credible" 25 In the next chapter, this essay will discuss the implications of street festivals in the sustainable development of a city. Different approaches coming from the research of the UNESCO on the relationship between culture and development as well as the studies of the creative class by Michael Florida and the Creative cities by Michael Landry. . People act as in they were in a "role playing" to create a sense of "equality", even if they do not share their same social class, race, sexual orientation, etc. Street Festivals have this "communicative power" of involve everyone together. Street Festivals as mechanism for sustainable development How could we connect street festivals as examples of the cultural public sphere with the idea of development? In other words, is there any connection between street festivals, understood as a cultural manifestation, and sustainable development? This chapter will introduce the concept of "Culture for Development"26 In the last few decades, UNESCO programs have been focused in how culture should be at the centre of economic development in developed and especially in developing countries. One of the last attempts to foster that was the Hangzou Congress in 2013 in China. The final conclusion was: "Placing Culture at the Heart of Sustainable Development Policies"; a term coined by UNESCO in a variety of its programs wide world specially for developing nations and will give an account of the link between that term and street festivals as examples of a cultural industry. 27 25 Sennett, R. 2008. Reflections on the Public Realm in Bridge, G and Watson, S. A companion of the City. Blackwell Publishers. pp. 380-387. and described 9 main ideas to do so: Integrate culture within all development policies and Programmes; Mobilize culture and mutual understanding to foster peace and reconciliation; Ensure cultural rights for all to promote inclusive social development; Leverage culture for poverty reduction and inclusive economic development; Build on culture to promote environmental sustainability; Strengthen resilience to disasters and combat climate change through culture value; safeguard and transmit culture to future generations; Harness culture 26 Culture and Development. 2013. UNESCO- Culture. (Online) Available at: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/culture-and-development (Accessed 13 January 2014) 27 UNESCO. 2013. The Hangzhou Declaration. UNESCO- Culture. (Online). Available at: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/culture-and-development/hangzhou-congress/ (Accessed 13 January 2014). 12 as a resource for achieving sustainable urban development and management; Capitalize on culture to foster innovative and sustainable models of cooperation. 28 Landry (2008) also talks about the benefits of cultural industries in a city and how the creativity of those industries will foster economic development and social cohesion: "Culture can also strengthen social cohesion, increase personal confidence and improve life skills, improve people's mental and physical well-being, strengthen people's ability to act as democratic citizens and develop new training and employment routes".29 Florida (2003) shows the relationship between creativeness and development. His theory of human capital, called creative capital theory, shows how by fostering tolerance, high education levels and social adaptation to changes, a social class can help to develop their communities. This creative class and its idea of create "new forms of meanings"30 The bond between the cultural public sphere with democracy and the idea of an Open City, explained before, is also a seminal part of how through cultural manifestations, a society can develop and tackle social problems. are attached to the idea of UNESCO's Culture for development program. Case Studies: The Iberoamerican Theatre Festival of Bogotá and the "Rock al Parque" Festival This essay will present two cases studies of street festivals and its relation with the city and its sustainable development: The Iberoamerican Theatre Festival of Bogota (Festival Iberoamericano de Teatro de Bogotá) and The Rock al Parque Festival. Both represent two major fields in the cultural industries in Bogotá such as the performative arts and the music. 28 Ibid 29 Landry, C. 2008. The Creative City: A toolkit for Urban Innovators. Earthscan Editions. 30 Florida, M (2003). Cities and the creative class. (Online). Available at: http://uv.vuchorsens.dk/r/KAZ/Undervisning%202012-2013/GEOLOGI/B%C3%A6redygtighed/Befolkning%20og%20b%C3%A6redygtighed/GetFile.pdf (Accessed 13 January 2014). 13 Firstly the chapter will introduce a context of each festival and then discuss around 5 main axes how the two festivals help to development in specific ways. Iberoamerican Theatre Festival of Bogotá Declared in December 2013 as "cultural heritage of Colombia"31, The Ibero-American Theatre Festival of Bogotá is a biannual cultural event held in Bogotá and organized by the Fundación Teatro Nacional (National Theatre Foundation) an NGO dedicated to theatre with private and public funding. It is considered as one of the most important theatre festival in Latin America and the most significant cultural event in Colombia32 The history of the festival is in every sense "quixotic": Launched in 1988 when the country was immersed in drug-related violence and when the public institutions and the general idea of democracy were at crisis, Ramiro Osorio, a renowned cultural entrepreneur and Fanny Mikey, considered one of the icons of theatre and culture in Colombia, created the theatre Festival as a "Act of Faith" in order to promote culture as an answer to defeat the prevailing violence of those years. . It is important to mention somehow the significant role of the National Theatre Foundation in the conformation and development of the theatre in Colombia. Founded in 1981 by Fanny Mikey, an Argentinean émigré, with the play "El Rehén" nowadays has three major venues with a wide programme throughout the year as well as an art college a social programme for deprived communities and an international tours of their plays33 The first Ibero-American theatre festival, held from 25th march to 3th of April 1988, gathered 59 theatres companies from 21 countries with an estimated of no more than 100.000 spectators. In 2012, 26 years later, the festival had more than 3 million spectators and 200 theatres companies from 32 countries and 5 continents. 34 31El Espectador. 2013. Festival de Teatro de Bogotá, declarado patrimonio cultural de la Nación. El Espectador, (Online) (Last updated 11December 2013). Available at: . http://www.elespectador.com/noticias/bogota/festival-de-teatro-de-bogota-declarado-patrimonio-cultu-articulo-463508. (Accessed: 13 January 2014). 32 Cepeda, A .2010. FESTIVAL IBEROAMERICANO DE TEATRO DE BOGOTÁ- IMPACTO Y SUPERVIVENCIA. Instituto Complutense de CC Musicales. 33 Ibid 34 Ibid 14 The conception of the festival as a "carnival of the city" relies on the stress in the use of the public space: There are plays presented in the streets, plazas and parks from all over the city: From slums to rich areas covering all significance area of the city. In 2012, the festival presents 218 street plays in 4 major parks (Simón Bolívar, Tunal, Nacional y Plaza de Bolívar) 7 public spaces for street plays, 4 community centres, 2 big parades starting from the north of Bogota (Calle 80) until the Bolivar's Square, the biggest plaza in Bogotá. The Festival was in 11 out of the 21 districts of Bogota. In average, around 2, 5 millions of spectators participate in the festival. 35 "Rock al Parque" Festival In March 2012, Bogotá was chosen by the UNESCO as Creative City of Music along with European cities such as Bologna (Italy), Ghent (Belgium), Sevilla (Spain) and Glasgow (Scotland).36 This recognition is part of the strategy of the secretary of culture of Bogotá of positioning the city as a major culture hub in Latin-American especially in the music field. In recent years and after the creation of the central roadmaps namely the "Políticas Culturales Distritales 2004-2016"37 The link between urban public spaces and public festivals as cultural policies is more visible in the "Festivales al Parque" (Park Festivals) which consists in five annual free music festivals held in different times of the year and performed in important free venues and public parks. They are managed and executed by the Institute for arts in Bogotá (A sub division of the Secretary of Culture of Bogotá) "IDARTES". and the "Plan Decenal de Cultura 2011-2021" the music field and their relation with public spaces have being an important core of the cultural policies in Bogotá. There are 5 "festivales al parque" dedicated to the 5 most popular rhythms that conformed the music scene in the city: Hip Hop, Jazz, Colombia (traditional music) and Rock. Created in different years, the "Festivales al Parque" conforms a local identity and a cultural highlight of the city. 35 Ibid 36 Cultura y Entretenimiento. 2012. Bogotá fue declarada capital mundial de la música. EL TIEMPO. (Online). Available at: http://www.eltiempo.com/entretenimiento/musica/ARTICULO-WEB-NEW_NOTA_INTERIOR-11842506.html (Accessed 13 January 2014) 37 IDARTES. 2004. Políticas Culturales Distritales (Online) Available at: http://www.culturarecreacionydeporte.gov.co/sites/default/files/politicas_culturales_distritales_2004-2016.pdf (Accessed 13 January 2014). 15 The pioneer and the biggest in terms of audience of the "Festivales al Parque" is "Rock al Parque" a 3 days rock festival created in 1995 and hosted in the biggest public park of the city, Parque Simón Bolivar; it was organized by musicians Mario Duarte and Julio Correal as a strategy to create a bond between citizens of different socio economic background with the public space during the Antanas Mockus' mayor. The XVIII edition of the festival in 2012 congregated more than 70.000 people per day, making the Festival, the biggest public rock festival in Latin America in terms of audience38. Places for sustainable development: conclusions studies. Although each festival has its own characteristics a study conducted by Obgregón (2007) shows 5 main conclusions that "Rock al Parque" festival has brought to the city. In a similar study done for the Iberoamerican Theatre Festival, Cepeda (2010) also concluded that the festival helped the city in similar ways of the five elements of Obregon. Those five elements also share the same roots of the elements of Culture for Development by the UNESCO. This is an interesting discovery that shows how festivals if they are organized inside the language of Open City -Teatro Mundi (Sennett) and in the Cultural Public Sphere all share similar benefits: 38 Obregon, J. 2007. Desconfianza, civilidad y estética. Universidad Nacional de Colombia. Improve the image of the city Create a sense of identity Help to build an audience Visibilization of a minority group Tolerance and social cohesion. Box 2. Five mains benefit of the Iberoamerican Theatre Festival and Rock al Parque Festival to Bogotá. 16 1. Improve the image of the city Both festivals improve the image of the city, for both its inhabitants and foreigners audiences. Leguizamón, Moreno and Tibazisco(2013) have argued the relation between the festivals and the local economy especially in the touristic field: "Bogotá is a touristic destiny who takes advantage of its public festivals as an important opportunity to retain tourists interested in performing arts because they visit the city only one time. This advantage depends on quality improvements which tourist perceived around touristic products and services offered like: security, hospitality, environmental practices, mobility and connectivity."39 UNESCO (2001) has also states how cultural tourism has increased in recent years: In 2010, international tourism generated 919 billion dollars in export earnings. Emerging and developing countries accounted for 47 per cent of world international tourism arrivals and 36.9 per cent of world international tourism receipts in 2010. Cultural tourism presently accounts for 40 per cent of world tourism revenues. Taking into account the statistics of the monitoring centre for culture of IDARTES conducted in 2011 the percentage of tourist that visited the city exclusively to assist to "Rock al Parque" Festival were 16,16% compared to 6,03% in 199740. 2. Create a sense of identity Wyss (2012) states that for 17 days, "the Iberoamerican Theatre Festival transformed a chaotic metropolis like Bogotá (more than 8 million inhabitants) into a cultural Mecca", The general director of the Festival, Ana Marta de Pizarro also argues than the festival is "the carnival of the city, crime rates are significantly reduced and the general atmosphere of the dwellers is of great joy and party"41 39 Leguizamon, M; Moreno, E and Tobavizco N. 2013. Impacto turístico del Festival Iberoamericano de Teatro de Bogotá. (online) Available: . http://www.pasosonline.org/Publicados/11113/PS0113_06.pdf (Accessed 13 January 2014) 40 IDARTES. 2011. Observatorio de Culturas. (online) Available at: http://www.culturarecreacionydeporte.gov.co/observatorio/medAlparque.html. (Accessed 13 January 2014). 41 Wyss, J. 2010. Bogota theater festival: a bright mask for a once grim city. (Online) Available at: http://carpetbagbrigade.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/miami-herald-dios-callings-english1.pdf. (Accessed 13 January 2014) 17 Similar to Wyss, Obregon citing Cante(2007), says that the idea of Rock al Parque has brought a sense of "social cohesion through the construction of an identity of tolerance and coexistence. It creates a civil culture in the city"42. 3. Help to build an audience Obregon (2007) and Cepeda (2010) states that one of the most important benefits of Rock al Parque and the Iberoamerican Theatre Festival is that those events have helped to build an audience in music and performative arts respectively. In the case of Rock al Parque, the event helped to massify a genre that wasn't part of the mainstream in Colombia as Rock. According to IDARTES (2011), almost 60% of the audience that assisted to the Festival in 2011 has been to a different free rock concert. Almost 80% has already assisted to more than two versions of Rock Al Parque. Cepeda (2010) concludes that the Iberoamerican Theatre Festival has collaborate to "enrich the theatre market in the city and to put it in one of the top in Latin America". 65% of the public, who assisted to the Festival in 2010, has seen a play regularly outside the Festival, according to the study. 4. Visibilization of a minority group This point is connected to the last conclusion. By building an audience, the festivals helped to make visible an audience. In Rock al Parque an "underground culture" as the rock scene, stigmatized before as "antisocial, started to have a better image in the community. IDARTES (2011) indicates that 60% of the audience of Rock al Parque has been to a Rock Concert without any kind of stigmatization43. 5. Tolerance and social cohesion Another important point about the two festivals is regarding the social cohesion and zero violence culture that promotes. Cepeda (2010) is very emphatic describing the impact of the Iberoamerican Theatre Festival with the violence and crime rates in the city: 42 Obregon, J.2007. Desconfianza, civilidad y estética. Universidad Nacional de Colombia. 43 IDARTES. 2011. Observatorio de Culturas. (online) Available at: http://www.culturarecreacionydeporte.gov.co/observatorio/medAlparque.html. (Accessed 13 January 2014). 18 "The festival has contributed since its beginning to the peace process in Colombia. This festival dared to make public performatives acts in the streets when the crimes rates were really high. Those events had an amazing and significative success. One could say that in the 17 days of the festival, crimes and violence stops. Police informs that the crime rates during those two weeks are the lowest of the year."44 93,48% of the spectators of the 2011 "Rock al Parque" felt that the event help to promote a non-violence culture. Still, both festivals shares the unique values of the "Teatro Mundi": Every spectator is equal, no matter his race, gender, social class, etc. The rates of zero violent deaths in the history of both festivals are also an example of how those events are truly places for democracy and peace. Conclusion As it has been seen through the different chapters that conform this essay, the benefits of creating public cultural events in urban spaces bring, undoubtedly a notion of democracy and development. Although Habermas did not specifically discuss street festivals and public festivals in urban spaces as examples of his theory of both public sphere and the theory of communicative action, the essay helped to shape a theoretical background to such events according to Habermas's notions. In the end, the link between Cultural Public Spaces and the UNESCO definition of Culture for Development was an interesting discovery that is worthwhile to keep researching. As mentioned in the introduction, the aim of the essay was to create a structure to understand the Iberoamerican Theatre Festival and the Rock al Parque Festival as examples of cultural public sphere and based on that give an account of the relationship between those spaces and the idea of development. Culture and Cultural manifestations are always moving and changing as society itself. Street Festivals are manifestations that definitely have to be fully addressed. All the rich variety of characteristics that those kinds of events possesses as the essay presented, make them a unique type of cultural products. Could culture transform a society? Definitely. Not only culture transformed society but improves it. Bogota is a better city, with more possibilities with events like the ones studied. In the future, and as part of a cultural policies plan, More events such those, should be created. This is the only recommendation of this essay toward the future, taking into account 44 Cepeda, A .2010. FESTIVAL IBEROAMERICANO DE TEATRO DE BOGOTÁ- IMPACTO Y SUPERVIVENCIA. Instituto Complutense de CC Musicales. 19 that the existing legislation "protect" the two festivals, that in the end, are part of the cultural heritage of the city and the nation. 20 Appendix Photos a. Iberoamerican Theatre Festival45 45 All photos: Humar, Z., 2012. En fotos, Bogotá y su fiesta de las mil caras. [electronic print] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/video_fotos/2012/04/120405_fotos_galeria_festival_teatro_bogota_aw.shtml [Accessed 12 January 2013]. 21 22 b. Rock al Parque Festival46 46 All photos: Lopez, J., 2013. Bogotá Rock al Parque. [electronic print] Available at: http://tinyurl.com/oabvlmt [Accessed 12 January 2013]. 23 24 Bibliography • Cepeda, A. 2010. 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