Suchergebnisse

Buenos Aires hortícola: ¿una Buenos Aires boliviana? El complejo hortícola de la Región metropolitana a prueba de nuevos actores Resumen: Al estudiar el caso de Buenos Aires, esta tesis se interesa por la conservación de espacios de proximidad para alimentar las metrópolis: a pesar de presiones metropolitanas fuertes, la capital argentina ha mantenido sus espacios de producción y comercialización para abastecer en hortalizas frescas a sus 13 millones de habitantes. Siguiendo una línea reflexiva en el cruce de las geografía social y cultural, del estudio de las relaciones ciudad-campo, de las circulaciones y de las redes, la investigación se fundamenta en las condiciones y modalidades de ese mantenimiento y cuestiona el papel de nuevos actores en tales procesos: los migrantes bolivianos, que sucedieron a los italianos, portugueses y japoneses durante los treinta últimos años. En un contexto de transformaciones metropolitanas importantes, los espacios y las redes hortícolas no sólo se mantienen, sino también, se refuerzan y se renuevan bajo las estrategias de los bolivianos. Las construcciones territoriales llevadas a cabo por estos nuevos protagonistas demuestran su instalación prolongada en la Argentina. Sin embargo, sin la implementación de un diálogo con los demás actores de la actividad hortícola y los actores institucionales de la metrópolis, las dinámicas actuales no bastarán ni a nivel cuantitativo, ni a nivel cualitativo para mantener los espacios de proximidad a largo plazo. Para abastecer a sus habitantes, la metrópolis no puede eludir la elaboración ni de nuevas políticas periurbanas, ni tampoco de un plan de desarrollo comercial. Asimismo, los bolivianos, garantes hoy del abastecimiento en hortalizas de Buenos Aires, podrían jugar mañana un papel determinante en las políticas de ordenamiento regional. Palabras claves: Argentina - Bolivianos - Buenos Aires - horticultura - agricultura periurbana - abastecimiento - redes - circulaciones - migrantes. ; Focusing on the case study of Buenos Aires, this thesis analyzes the way local gardening areas are being preserved in order to feed the cities. Despite 13 million inhabitants and the pressure of metropolitan growth, the Argentinian capital has maintained spaces for agricultural production and comercialization in order to supply its citizens with fresh vegetables. Drawing both from social and cultural geographies, and literature on urban-rural relations, dynamics of circulation and networks, this approach focuses on the modalities and conditions of this persistence and questions the role of new actors in that process: Bolivians immigrants have indeed substituted Italians, Portuguese and Japanese during the last thirty years. In the context of major metropolitan transformations, gardening areas and networks not only remain, but they also get consolidated and renewed by Bolivians' strategies. Those new protagonists' territorial constructions demonstrate that they have been settled in Argentina for some time already. But the current dynamics will neither quantitatively or qualitatively allow for the persistence of the close market gardening areas on the long term, if those actors do not establish a dialogue with the other market gardening actors and the metropolis' institutional actors-To supply its citizens, the Argentinian capital cannot avoid the development of either new peri-urban policies or a plan to boost the urban agricultural production and marketing. Today, the Bolivians guarantee the supply of Buenos Aires in fresh vegetables; in the future they could play a key role in the regional planning policies. ; A travers le cas de Buenos Aires, cette thèse s'intéresse à la conservation d'espaces de proximité pour nourrir les métropoles : malgré de fortes pressions métropolitaines, la capitale argentine a maintenu ses espaces de production et de commercialisation pour approvisionner ses treize millions d'habitants en légumes frais. Dans une démarche au carrefour des géographies sociale et culturelle, de l'étude des relations villes-campagnes, des circulations et des réseaux, la recherche s'attache aux conditions et modalités de ce maintien et interroge le rôle de nouveaux acteurs dans ces processus : les migrants boliviens, qui ont succédé ces trente dernières années aux Italiens, Portugais et Japonais. Dans un contexte de transformations métropolitaines importantes, les espaces et réseaux maraîchers non seulement se maintiennent, mais se consolident et se renouvellent du fait des stratégies des Boliviens. Les constructions territoriales de ces nouveaux protagonistes attestent leur installation prolongée en Argentine, mais sans l'établissement d'un dialogue avec les autres acteurs de l'activité maraîchère et les acteurs institutionnels de la métropole, les dynamiques actuelles ne suffiront ni sur le plan quantitatif, ni sur le plan qualitatif, au maintien à long terme des espaces de proximité. Pour approvisionner ses habitants, la métropole argentine ne peut se passer de la mise en place de nouvelles politiques périurbaines ni d'un plan de développement commercial. Les Boliviens, aujourd'hui garants de l'approvisionnement en légumes de Buenos Aires, pourraient ainsi jouer, à l'avenir, un rôle déterminant dans les politiques d'aménagement régional.

Nel decennio 2001-2010 numerosi passi sono stati compiuti dall'Unione Europea per orientare le città europee verso forme di mobilità sostenibile. Finalità comune alle numerose iniziative messe in campo dall'UE è stata quella di promuovere, soprattutto nelle aree urbane, un aumento della mobilità – indispensabile per lo sviluppo competitivo delle città e per garantire ai cittadini elevate opportunità di accesso alle dotazioni urbane – e una contemporanea drastica riduzione dei significativi costi ambientali che ad essa risultano, a tutt'oggi, associati.Strategie, iniziative e ricerche in ambito europeo sono state orientate, nel corso del decennio 2001-2010, a promuovere una sostanziale limitazione del trasporto individuale su gomma all'interno delle aree urbane e ad incentivare forme di mobilità sostenibile. Più specificamente, strategie e azioni sono state prioritariamente rivolte a: favorire innovazioni relative ai modi e ai mezzi del trasporto urbano; garantire un riequilibrio intermodale all'interno delle aree urbane, favorendo il trasporto pubblico, soprattutto su ferro, e gli spostamenti pedonali e ciclabili; superare la settorialità che ha a lungo caratterizzato la pianificazione dei trasporti, delineando processi di governo basati sull'integrazione tra politiche e strumenti per la pianificazione della città, dei trasporti e dell'ambiente (Galderisi, 2007). A partire dal 2007, l'Unione Europea ha ulteriormente e significativamente intensificato il proprio impegno per una riduzione dei costi ambientali della mobilità urbana: dal Libro Verde sul Trasporto Urbano, al Patto dei Sindaci mirato a coinvolgere attivamente le città europee nel percorso verso la sostenibilità energetica ed ambientale e, ancora, al più recente Libro Bianco sui Trasporti del 2011, numerose sono state le iniziative messe in campo dall'Unione Europea per dare concretezza e operatività agli indirizzi già delineati nel Libro Bianco del 2001.Inoltre, le nuove sfide ambientali che le città, e non solo quelle europee, sono chiamate ad affrontare nel prossimo futuro, dai cambiamenti climatici ai crescenti costi e alla progressiva riduzione del petrolio (prospettiva di lungo termine ma di certo non trascurabile), hanno contribuito a rafforzare la centralità del tema della mobilità urbana anche in ambito scientifico e nuove prospettive di ricerca che inquadrano tale tematica nella più ampia griglia teorica della costruzione di città "resilienti" vanno sempre più chiaramente delineandosi.Pertanto, a partire da una sintetica rassegna delle più recenti iniziative messe in campo dall'Unione Europea per una mobilità urbana sostenibile, il presente contributo focalizza l'attenzione sulla rilevante influenza che il concetto di resilienza sta oggi assumendo nella revisione delle politiche per la mobilità in ambito urbano e, soprattutto, nel fornire una decisiva spinta verso una più efficace integrazione tra governo delle trasformazioni urbane e governo della mobilità. ; In the decade 2001 – 2010 the European Union has undertaken taken numerous initiatives to guide the European cities toward sustainable mobility.The common purpose of the several initiatives implemented by the EU consisted in increasing, mainly in urban areas, mobility – unavoidable requirement for a competitive development of cities and for assuring better opportunities of access to urban services – and a contemporaneous drastic reduction of the heavy environmental costs that still now are associated with urban mobility.Strategies, initiatives and researches at European level have been addressed, during the decade 2001-2010, to promote a substantial limitation of current car-based mobility inside urban areas and to improve different forms of sustainable mobility.In detail, strategies and acitons have been mainly targeted to:- encourage innovations in the ways and means of urban transport;- assure an intermodal balance inside urban areas, improving public transport, above all rail transport, and pedestrian and bicycle travels;- overcome the segmentation that has long characterized transport planning, outlining governance processes based on the integration between policies and tools for city, transport and environment planning (Galderisi, 2007).Starting from 2007, the European Union has further and significantly increased its engagement in reducing the environmental cost of urban mobility.From the Green Paper on Urban Transport to the Covenant of Mayors aimed to actively involve the European cities in the path towards energy and environmental sustainability and, still, to the recent Transport White Paper 2011, several initiatives have been implemented by the European Union in order to effectively achieve the goals outlined in the White Paper 2001 and to define the future targets.Moreover, the new environmental challenges that the cities, not only the European ones, have to face in the future, from the climate changes to the growing costs and progressive oil reduction (a long-term although not negligible perspective), have helped to strengthen the centrality of urban mobility in scientific field.Besides, new research perspectives that frame the above-said topic of urban mobility into the wider theoretical framework of the "resilient" city are increasingly taking shape.Therefore, starting from a brief survey of the recent initiatives put forward by the European Union for sustainable urban mobility, this contribution focuses on the remarkable role that the concept of resilience plays in the present review of urban mobility policies and, mainly, in providing a decisive push towards an effective integration between governance of urban transformation and governance of mobility.

National park and related forest conservation efforts tend to emanate from core areas of the world and are often imposed on rural people living on forest fringes in the least developed regions of lesser developed countries. We address the social and cultural processes that ensue when center-originatingconservation meets local people with their resource-dependent livelihoods, and how these vary under different circumstances. We examine and compare local people's environmental andforest-related values and behaviors, using cultural models, after the establishment of national parks in two countries with very different social and environmental histories—Costa Rica and Honduras. We find that external cultural models were widely adopted by local people—hegemonic to the extent of structuring even discourse opposing conservation. Local people often expressed environmental values, but used formulaic language that suggested that these values were not well integrated with other aspects of their life and often not motivating. We pay particular attention to relationships between environmental values and livelihood values, and the varying ways that new, local environmental discourses and values emerge that mediate between these often conflicting value spheres.The recent international increase in national parks is a phenomenon of globalization, and often imposes new conservation practices and environmental values onto local people. While these new national parks have some broad public benefits that can be thought of as global, e.g. their role in preventing biodiversity loss and climate change, it is also true that few concrete benefits accrue to local people and that parks often impose great costs on local people in the form of lost land, diminished access to resources, and diminished autonomy as national governments and internationalorganizations extend into local life in new ways.These changes have serious repercussions for local people, often threatening their livelihoods and well-being in significant ways. Yet our results suggest that local people may be willing to work with park managers to co-inhabit landscapes when park managers are able to accommodate local livelihood needs.Keywords: National parks, Central America, Costa Rica, Honduras, forest conservationResumenLos parques nacionales y otros esfuerzos de conservación forestal tienden a surgir en las principales áreas núcleo del mundo, y por lo general son impuestos a los pobladores de espacios rurales que habitan franjas forestales de los países en vías de desarrollo.Este artículo se enfoca en los procesos sociales y culturales que se originan a partir de la imposición de estas áreas de conservación y sobre cómo se ve afectada la subsistencia de los pobladores que dependen de los recursos naturales de dichas áreas. También se evalúan y comparan los valores y comportamientos relacionados con el ambiente, percibidos por los pobladores con el establecimiento de parques nacionales, en dos países con historias sociales y ambientales muy diferentes como lo son Costa Rica y Honduras; para lo cual se utilizaron modelos culturales. Al respecto, se encontró que varios modelos culturales externos, que fueron ampliamente adoptados por los pobladores locales, han llegado a ser hegemónicos, afectando la conservación. Los habitantes del lugar estaban disconformes con respecto a los nuevos valores ambientales, porque estos, por un lado, no estaban adecuadamente integrados con otros aspectos de su vida, y por la escasa motivación en materia de conservación ambiental.De esta forma, se resalta la relación entre los valores ambientales y los valores de sus forma de vida;entre las nuevas formas de ruptura y los valores emergentes que median entre la esfera de valores conflictivos.El reciente aumento internacional de parques naciones es un fenómeno de globalización, y en consecuencia, impone nuevas prácticas de conservación y valores ambientales a los habitantes de estas localidades. Mientras estos nuevos parques nacionales generan algunas ventaja públicas, que pueden ser pensadas como globales (p.ej. su papel en la prevención de la pérdida de diversidad biológica y el cambio de clima), también ocasionan escasos beneficios para las comunidades, al imponer elevados costos para los pobladores locales como lo son: la pérdida de tierras, la disminución en el acceso a los recursos y la reducción de la autonomía, ya sea ante el gobierno nacional u organizaciones internaciones que extienden sus acciones políticas a la vida local en todas sus nuevas formas. Estos cambios repercuten drásticamente en los habitantes del lugar, lo cual a menudo amenaza, en general, el sustento y el bienestar, de modo significativo.Los resultados sugieren que los habitantes del lugar podrían estar dispuestos a trabajar con los gerentes del parque para co-habitar paisajes cuando éstos sean capaces de priorizar las necesidades de sobrevivencia de las formas de vida de los habitantes.Palabras clave: parques nacionales, América Central, Costa Rica, conservación forestal

Buenos Aires hortícola: ¿una Buenos Aires boliviana? El complejo hortícola de la Región metropolitana a prueba de nuevos actores Resumen: Al estudiar el caso de Buenos Aires, esta tesis se interesa por la conservación de espacios de proximidad para alimentar las metrópolis: a pesar de presiones metropolitanas fuertes, la capital argentina ha mantenido sus espacios de producción y comercialización para abastecer en hortalizas frescas a sus 13 millones de habitantes. Siguiendo una línea reflexiva en el cruce de las geografía social y cultural, del estudio de las relaciones ciudad-campo, de las circulaciones y de las redes, la investigación se fundamenta en las condiciones y modalidades de ese mantenimiento y cuestiona el papel de nuevos actores en tales procesos: los migrantes bolivianos, que sucedieron a los italianos, portugueses y japoneses durante los treinta últimos años. En un contexto de transformaciones metropolitanas importantes, los espacios y las redes hortícolas no sólo se mantienen, sino también, se refuerzan y se renuevan bajo las estrategias de los bolivianos. Las construcciones territoriales llevadas a cabo por estos nuevos protagonistas demuestran su instalación prolongada en la Argentina. Sin embargo, sin la implementación de un diálogo con los demás actores de la actividad hortícola y los actores institucionales de la metrópolis, las dinámicas actuales no bastarán ni a nivel cuantitativo, ni a nivel cualitativo para mantener los espacios de proximidad a largo plazo. Para abastecer a sus habitantes, la metrópolis no puede eludir la elaboración ni de nuevas políticas periurbanas, ni tampoco de un plan de desarrollo comercial. Asimismo, los bolivianos, garantes hoy del abastecimiento en hortalizas de Buenos Aires, podrían jugar mañana un papel determinante en las políticas de ordenamiento regional. Palabras claves: Argentina - Bolivianos - Buenos Aires - horticultura - agricultura periurbana - abastecimiento - redes - circulaciones - migrantes. ; Focusing on the case study of Buenos Aires, this thesis analyzes the way local gardening areas are being preserved in order to feed the cities. Despite 13 million inhabitants and the pressure of metropolitan growth, the Argentinian capital has maintained spaces for agricultural production and comercialization in order to supply its citizens with fresh vegetables. Drawing both from social and cultural geographies, and literature on urban-rural relations, dynamics of circulation and networks, this approach focuses on the modalities and conditions of this persistence and questions the role of new actors in that process: Bolivians immigrants have indeed substituted Italians, Portuguese and Japanese during the last thirty years. In the context of major metropolitan transformations, gardening areas and networks not only remain, but they also get consolidated and renewed by Bolivians' strategies. Those new protagonists' territorial constructions demonstrate that they have been settled in Argentina for some time already. But the current dynamics will neither quantitatively or qualitatively allow for the persistence of the close market gardening areas on the long term, if those actors do not establish a dialogue with the other market gardening actors and the metropolis' institutional actors-To supply its citizens, the Argentinian capital cannot avoid the development of either new peri-urban policies or a plan to boost the urban agricultural production and marketing. Today, the Bolivians guarantee the supply of Buenos Aires in fresh vegetables; in the future they could play a key role in the regional planning policies. ; A travers le cas de Buenos Aires, cette thèse s'intéresse à la conservation d'espaces de proximité pour nourrir les métropoles : malgré de fortes pressions métropolitaines, la capitale argentine a maintenu ses espaces de production et de commercialisation pour approvisionner ses treize millions d'habitants en légumes frais. Dans une démarche au carrefour des géographies sociale et culturelle, de l'étude des relations villes-campagnes, des circulations et des réseaux, la recherche s'attache aux conditions et modalités de ce maintien et interroge le rôle de nouveaux acteurs dans ces processus : les migrants boliviens, qui ont succédé ces trente dernières années aux Italiens, Portugais et Japonais. Dans un contexte de transformations métropolitaines importantes, les espaces et réseaux maraîchers non seulement se maintiennent, mais se consolident et se renouvellent du fait des stratégies des Boliviens. Les constructions territoriales de ces nouveaux protagonistes attestent leur installation prolongée en Argentine, mais sans l'établissement d'un dialogue avec les autres acteurs de l'activité maraîchère et les acteurs institutionnels de la métropole, les dynamiques actuelles ne suffiront ni sur le plan quantitatif, ni sur le plan qualitatif, au maintien à long terme des espaces de proximité. Pour approvisionner ses habitants, la métropole argentine ne peut se passer de la mise en place de nouvelles politiques périurbaines ni d'un plan de développement commercial. Les Boliviens, aujourd'hui garants de l'approvisionnement en légumes de Buenos Aires, pourraient ainsi jouer, à l'avenir, un rôle déterminant dans les politiques d'aménagement régional.

Índice Percepción de la región.Actividades productivas y territorio.Medio ambiente.Transporte y comunicaciones.Infraestructuras y recursos.Población.Vivienda.La ciudad dispersa.Conclusiones.Corredores biológicos y de oportunidad.Bibliografía. Resumen El crecimiento que la Comunidad de Madrid ha experimentado en la última década, junto con la identificación de las variables económicas, sociales y ambientales en un nuevo contexto de globalización, sirve de base para analizar la necesidad de un Plan Regional que articule el futuro y ayude a afrontar los retos y explotar oportunidades de nuestro territorio. En dicho futuro las oportunidades y fortalezas deben jugar un papel protagonista. A nivel global es la principal ciudad del sur de Europa, centro de intercambio con Sudamérica y África, y cuenta con el cuarto aeropuerto más activo de Europa en pasajeros. A escala nacional es el punto neurálgico de las redes de transporte ferroviario y de carreteras que permiten conexiones estratégicas con el resto del territorio, tiene una población joven con un alto nivel de formación y es la región con mayor inversión pública en investigación del país. Sin embargo, también existen debilidades y amenazas, como son la falta definición de un tejido productivo real (una vez agotado el sector inmobiliario), el escaso avance en la productividad, la presión migratoria, la presión del crecimiento disperso residencial y de las actividades económicas sobre los espacios de valor ambiental, la escasez de equipamientos de proximidad, y la falta de participación social para lograr una sociedad más cohesionada y solidaria. El objetivo principal del plan, la mejora de la calidad de vida, conlleva reconducir la competitividad hacia la búsqueda de una identidad regional propia. Ello requiere una planificación innovadora no vinculada a los ciclos económicos, así como una visión integral del territorio superando los límites administrativos de la región, para evitar crecimientos dispersos o sprawl que se han visto favorecidos por el incremento de la red viaria y el encarecimiento del suelo. En resumen, se trata de recuperar las ciudades y construir una región en términos de modernidad y desarrollo sostenible, implicando e incorporando a los actores sociales, económicos y políticos, planteando un modelo flexible y unos objetivos vinculantes a largo plazo que incluyan proyectos al margen de programa y adaptables a los ciclos económicos y en los que el conjunto de los agentes del territorio se encuentren reflejados. Se trata de un proceso o itinerario en el que el conjunto de la Comunidad se encuentra involucrado en su futuro. Abstract There are two factors that serve as a starting point to present a Regional Plan for Madrid which aims to articulate the future and to help face the challenges and exploit the resources of our territory: on the one hand, the analysis on the growth that the region of Madrid has undergone in the last decade and, on the other hand, the identification of the economic, social and environmental variables in a new globalisation context. Madrid has several opportunities and strengths which play a main role for this future: on a global scale, we can point out the fact that it is the main city in Southern Europe and a centre of exchange with South America and Africa; it also has the most active passenger airport in Europe. On a national level, Madrid stands out for being the nerve centre of railway transportation and roads, which allows strategic connections, and along with having a young population with a high level of education; it is also is the region with the highest public investment on research in the country. There are weaknesses and threats for Madrid, however. For example, it does not have a real defined network of productivity excluding real estate. Other factors include the limited growth of productivity, immigration pressure, environmental sustainability, suffering the pressure of scattered residential development and economic activity, the lack of proximity resources and the need to promote participation to achieve a more united and supportive society. The central objective of the Plan ought to be to channel competition towards the search for individual identities, which promotes a higher quality of life. This requires an innovative plan independent from economic cycles as well as a comprehensive vision of the territory, beyond the administrative limits of the region, in order to avoid the sprawling that has been induced by transportation and escalating land values. In brief, the idea is to recover the cities and build up the region in terms of modernity and sustainable development, involving and integrating the social, economic and political agents. A flexible model and long-term binding goals must also be set out, including additional projects to the program which can be adapted to the economic cycles in which all the agents are represented. In short, it is a process or route in which the region as a whole gets involved in its own future.

El m-learning es una extensión del e-learning, su adelanto esta soportado por las tendencias de la computación móvil y los sistemas Web, que han llevado a la consolidación mundial de la industria de información. Asimismo en los países como Colombia y en los más desarrollados económicamente, se perciben proyectos de instalación y expansión de infraestructura pública de telecomunicaciones, programas especiales para masificación de Internet, políticas para facilitar inversiones extranjeras de empresas especializadas en comunicaciones y legislaciones para la promoción y control de los servicios de comunicación. Una característica fundamental en los inicios del siglo XXI es la presencia de la sociedad informacional, definido como el conjunto de estructuras y formas de interacción social, basadas en los procesos de elaboración, procesamiento y comunicación de la información a través de tecnologías computacionales (Feltrero, 2007). El desarrollo de Internet ha posibilitado la presencia y poder de la sociedad informacional. Debido a las características del protocolo TCP/IP, Internet se presenta como una red con estructura distribuida, aunque su estructura física determinada por nodos centrales, servidores y equipos de usuarios finales, la hacen como una red jerárquica. La posibilidad de que número ilimitado de servidores puedan alojar recursos como páginas Web, portales, bases de datos, contenidos, sistemas de comunicación, comunidades sociales, también en cantidades sin límites, hacen de esta red un medio de comunicación horizontal. De esta forma, los múltiples canales de comunicación vía Web, permiten que todas las personas con posibilidades de acceso sean a su vez consumidoras y productoras de información. ; Universitat Oberta de Catalunya UOC ; 1 Antecedentes 5 1.1 Tendencias tecnologías para la información y la comunicación 5 1.2 Tecnologías para el e-learning y m-learning 6 1.3 El software libre como industria 8 2 Planteamiento del problema y justificación 9 3 Objetivos 11 3.1 General 11 3.2 Específicos 11 4. Estado del arte 12 4.1. Del e-learning al m-learning 12 4.2. Proyectos de m-learning 17 4.3. Software libre para e-learning y m-learning 21 4.4. Las escalas de Likert 25 5. Marco Teórico 29 5.1. El aprendizaje electrónico : e-learning 29 5.2. Aprendizaje móvil : Mobile learning 30 5.2.1.Ventajas funcionales del m-learning 31 5.2.2.Ventajas pedagógicas del m-learning 31 5.2.3.Desventajas del m-Learning 32 5.2.4.Tecnologías empleadas en el m-learning 33 5.3. Sistemas adaptativos y colaborativos con dispositivos móviles 33 5.3.1.Adaptación y colaboración con dispositivos móviles 34 5.3.2.Sistemas de recomendación con dispositivo móviles 35 5.3.3.Mecanismos de recomendación 36 5.4. Conexión de dispositivos móviles con servicios Web 37 5.5. El protocolo WAP 38 5.6. Escala de Likert y evaluación aplicando TIC 40 6. Tecnología para dispositivos móviles 48 6.1. Características físicas de los dispositivos móviles 49 6.2. Tipología 50 6.2.1.Paginadores 50 6.2.2.Comunicadores de bolsillo 50 6.2.3.Teléfonos con pantalla para Internet 51 6.2.4.Teléfonos inteligentes 52 6.2.5.Sistemas de navegación de automóviles 53 6.2.6.Sistemas de entretenimiento portátil 54 6.2.7.Teléfonos móviles 55 6.2.8.BlackBerry: Sinónimo de comunicación 55 6.3. La Web móvil 56 6.4. Dispositivos de comunicación inalámbricos 57 6.5. Redes inalámbricas 59 6.6. Arquitectura y desarrollo de aplicaciones WAP 61 6.7. Redes WIFI 63 6.8. Arquitectura y desarrollo de aplicaciones móviles con J2ME 64 Anexo No 1: Manual técnico 70 Anexo No 2: Manual de usuario 104 Bibliografía 117 ; Maestría ; M-learning is an extension of e-learning, its advancement is supported by trends in mobile computing and Web systems, which have led to the worldwide consolidation of the information industry. Likewise, in countries such as Colombia and in the most economically developed, there are projects for the installation and expansion of public telecommunications infrastructure, special programs for the massification of the Internet, policies to facilitate foreign investment by companies specialized in communications, and legislation for the promotion and control of communication services. A fundamental characteristic at the beginning of the 21st century is the presence of the informational society, defined as the set of structures and forms of social interaction, based on the processes of elaboration, processing and communication of information through computational technologies (Feltrero, 2007). The development of the Internet has enabled the presence and power of the informational society. Due to the characteristics of the TCP / IP protocol, the Internet appears as a network with a distributed structure, although its physical structure, determined by central nodes, servers and end-user equipment, make it a hierarchical network. The possibility that an unlimited number of servers can host resources such as Web pages, portals, databases, content, communication systems, social communities, also in unlimited quantities, make this network a horizontal communication medium. In this way, the multiple communication channels via the Web, allow all people with access possibilities to be consumers and producers of information.

Our thesis discusses the process and consequences of the attribution, by the State, of a national label to five regional opera houses in France between 1996 and 2006. Through this event, we look closely at the current changes in the opera house as an organization which has traditionally been under municipal governance and is with this label repositioned under a governing body which includes the Region and the central State and its demands for greater visibility. Our objective is to understand the strategic renewal of opera houses outside Paris in a centralized political system where the State is said to guaranty cultural access and artistic quality. We do so by using the attribution of the national label as a marker and as a device that participates in the instrumentation of opera houses in a restricted market and a changing normative frame within which opera houses are brought to secure their own continuity. With a brief overlook at how opera houses have been transformed into a venue meant to entertain citizens and magnify cities, we give the reader an understanding of opera houses as conventional and regimented organizations forever bond to politics and the market. The particular organization of an opera house in France, the reasons behind the choices made and the applied methodology are then presented. Our inductive and multidisciplinary approach, supported by the critical posture adopted, leads us to the elaboration of a study where undetermined connections and human beings evolve within moderate constructivist ontology. We then suggest that the label, which gives rise to a perpetual strategic "remplissement" (Foucault), is inevitably remobilized to manage the side effects brought by its very existence. Power and legitimacy occupy in this dynamic a central place that we exemplify and discuss thoroughly. Our research presents an original way to understand the recent transformation of the French regional operas houses as expressed, and apprehended, by the attribution by the ministry of Culture and Communication of a "quality" label that enables them to gradually enter the growing mediated spheres already endorsed by cultural industries. ; Cette thèse concerne la labellisation de cinq opéras de région, en France, entre 1996 et 2006 : l'Opéra National de Lorraine, l'Opéra National de Montpellier, l'Opéra National de Lyon, l'Opéra National de Bordeaux, et l'Opéra National du Rhin. L'étude porte sur une forme qui englobe obligatoirement d'autres formes artistiques quasi autonomes et professionnalisées (orchestre, ballet, choeur) et sur les changements en cours dans l'économie de ces organisations traditionnellement sous tutelle municipale repositionnées au coeur d'une gouvernance multiscalaire et mises au défi de faire croître leur visibilité et celle de leur activité. Nous nous intéressons dans ce cadre à ce sur quoi reposent les stratégies de renouvellement développées par ces organisations culturelles, sédimentées et conventionnelles, prises entre le politique et le marché, dans un cadre particulier à la France où l'État se reconnaît comme garant de la qualité. Pour conduire l'étude, nous utilisons la labellisation comme marqueur de ces changements et comme dispositif participant à l'instrumentation de ces opéras dans un marché restreint. Ce qui se voit, c'est une ouverture organisée, selon un mode de fonctionnement par projets et selon un mode de diversification réfléchie de leur activité à un niveau de complexité jamais égalé, sous la pression de l'envahissement de la sphère culturelle par les logiques marchandes et médiatiques. Cette instrumentation est réalisée par le déploiement de dispositifs de jugement dans une économie des singularités dans laquelle le théâtre d'opéra est amené à chercher lui-même à asseoir sa continuité. Sont discutées les stratégies développées quant à l'incertitude inhérente à la création artistique et à la dépendance financière et les effets du dispositif opéra national qui donne lieu à un « remplissement » stratégique perpétuel (Michel Foucault), du fait de la remobilisation du dispositif dans la gestion des effets secondaires qu'il a lui-même induit, et dans la dynamique duquel le pouvoir, la visibilité et la légitimité occupent une place centrale. Notre démarche inductive et pluridisciplinaire et la posture critique adoptée conduisent à l'élaboration d'une étude donnant une grande place à l'indétermination des rapports et des humains, dans une ontologie constructiviste modérée. Le sujet singulier qu'est l'organisation d'un théâtre d'opéra en France, les raisons de ces choix et la méthodologie appliquée sont présentés pour éclairer le lecteur dans sa rencontre avec un milieu d'ordinaire fermé. Enfin, la conclusion retrace certains liens et pointe des aspects à creuser dans une recherche ultérieure afin de comprendre ce que donne à voir, sur le présent et l'avenir des Opéras de région en France, l'attribution par le ministère de la Culture et de la Communication d'un label de « qualité ».

INTRODUÇÃO Esta dissertação tem por objecto de estudo os efeitos dos programas de política económica e social de estabilização e de ajustamento estrutural2 no bemestar das famílias urbanas da capital de um país africano, a cidade de Bissau, na República da Guiné-Bissau, no período de 1986 a 2001. O contexto mais geral em que a investigação se insere, respeita à evolução política, económica e social do país após a independência, em 1974. A antiga Guiné Portuguesa procurou organizar a sua economia a partir de uma governação centralizada, com intervenção significativa de instituições estatais da administração central3, nacionalização de empresas existentes ou criação de outras com o mesmo estatuto. A dinamização do processo de desenvolvimento coube ao Partido para a Independência da Guiné e Cabo Verde (PAIGC), que dirigira a luta de libertação contra o colonialismo e se tornou o partido único e o agente principal de toda a vida colectiva, social e económica do país. Os instrumentos privilegiados foram os Planos de Desenvolvimento, apoiados em investimentos de grande dimensão e na ajuda internacional de origem em países de diferentes ideologias políticas. O enquadramento político expressou-se na organização do partido único, com uma governação que se impunha ao Governo e à Assembleia Nacional Popular, com mobilização política da população para a produção, incentivo a formas cooperativas de organização empresarial no campo e na cidade, repressão à oposição e à actividade de comerciantes e empresários privados. Os resultados negativos quanto ao objectivo traçado pelo partido e governo, de conseguir um melhor nível de bem-estar para a população, estão entre as origens de um golpe de Estado ( 14 de Novembro de 1980) liderado por uma parte dos militantes do PAIGC, sobretudo de origem guineense. O novo poder enveredou por um caminho de liberalização gradual da economia, mas também não conseguiu, até 1986, cumprir os objectivos de desenvolvimento a que se propunha. ; This research tried to clarify the effects on the households welfare of the governance on economics and social politics, specially stabilization and structural adjustment programs. Th space is one African town in Guinea-Bissau, its capital, between 1986 and 2001. Two models of knowledge as been used: - The first based on theories built by authors mainly from universities without a strong practical concern. - The second based on the urgency found when situations require answers from internationals structures public or non profit. The methodology used begins with the asset that the well been in an African society must be analyzed giving a significant weight to its different components and that this cannot be accomplished with one single area of knowledge. Authors from economics, social psychology, sociology, anthropology and politics are fundamental to understand the importance of governance on the well been of households. We conclude that the stabilization and structural adjustment programs are the cause of a clear loss of independence in this African country. To establish the relationship between the households strategies and the governance we define a typology of politics on African countries and another to the different middle time households strategies. The main nationals politics actors as the government, the parliament, the president the Courts of Justice end the international as the IMF, WB, both has a share in the process of change the country to a dependent territory in temrs of the capacity of define and conduct an economics and social policy. The households has different success strategies in economics activities specially with agriculture, non specialized work and private sector; those who preferred the commerce has dubious results; those that preferred the public administration or the public sector has the less success. We verified that governance make a direct link between the households well being and the external conditions of definition of economics and social politics. The conclusions about the households capacity of controlling the effects on the appropriation of resources of those politics based only on the consumption expenses, show us that is not enough to consider only this variable to analyze the evolution of well being. The general conclusion is that even if Guinea-Bissau has a ensemble of social groups composed with about 32 racial groups with a very rich cultural and historical life, with a victorious fight for independence, with a large support from rural population to built a country based on resources enough to feed his population without military conflicts destroying people and structures, and an evolution from a only one party to a democratic political system, the country has much difficulty to give to his citizens the level of well being they want.

As urban waterfronts around the world de-industrialize, cities are increasingly capitalizing on these opportunities to provide open space and alternative commuting routes along riverbanks, bringing residents and visitors back to the waterfronts. Cairo has remarkable opportunities to reconnect its people with the river that was historically its heart. With a population of over eleven million, Cairo is one of the densest cities in the world. The urban population is underserved by parks and other public open space. The need for open space—and the compelling attraction of the wide river—is put in sharp focus by a common sight on Cairo's traffic snarled bridges: families set up chairs and picnic on the sidewalks, overlooking the river and enjoying the open space, seemingly oblivious to the honking traffic that crawls besides them. Most of the river banks are fenced off from public access, but those that are open to the public are heavily used by Cairenes of all ages and all walks of life. The potential for human use of the river banks as open-space is enormous. In an intensive workshop involving 23 students and seven faculty from Cairo University (CU), The American University in Cairo (AUC), and the University of California, Berkeley (UCB), interdisciplinary teams systematically inventoried existing conditions along a 12-km reach of the Nile from Maadi to Tahrir Square, recording river-bank relations, building heights and conditions, circulation, and land-use. Based on this field work the student teams identified specific opportunities and challenges for interventions along the Nile. The low, wide flood plains along much of the Nile bank have great potential to be reconfigured into accessible and active public spaces. It was also identified as a feasible route for a continuous pedestrian/bicycle trail. Air quality measurements along the river bank showed that particulate matter levels along the flood plain were on average 30% lower than street level measurements. The presence of historic landmarks and tourist attractions along the Nile provides significant opportunities for urban revitalization and economic development. The excellent views of the Nile and the Pyramids of Giza available at many waterfront locations provide a unique opportunity that interventions along the waterfront can capitalize on. While some stretches of the Corniche have wide sidewalks that can be redesigned to function better as public spaces, the Nile bank provides ample opportunities for ecological restoration at many places. The presence of vacant lots along the Corniche provides opportunities for strategic developments and also for better open space connectivity with the rest of the city. The visible public interest in the limited ferry routes along the river illustrates the potential the Nile holds to function as a significant public transportation corridor if the city is able to expand the existing ferry system. There are also significant challenges related to existence of incongruent public and private land-uses along the Nile Corniche. Appropriate institutional and regulatory frameworks would be required to ensure that proposals for public space restructuring are implemented and maintained well. Urban waste management is a significant concern in Cairo and the Nile waterfront is no exception. Building on the identified opportunities and challenges, workshop participants developed a strategic plan for a longitudinally continuous trail network along the Nile with lateral connectivity to important nodes in Cairo. They also developed detailed plans for the revitalization of two key zones (Athur El Nabi and Old Cairo). The workshop ended just one week before the streets of Cairo became the venue for historic political demonstrations that eventually resulted in major political changes. While there have been many past efforts to rehabilitate the city and 'plan' the future growth of Cairo, including the 'Cairo 2050 Vision Plan' (a multi-year planning effort initiated by the Egyptian government and undertaken by international consultants), none of these prior efforts have highlighted the potential to develop the Nilotic riverfront. In the wake of the January events, 'Cairo 2050' quickly became uncertain and outdated. However, the collaborative research and planning process undertaken here could serve as a model for future planning efforts that are more in-touch with local conditions and reflective of real needs of everyday Cairenes. The political changes of January 2011 highlighted public desires, expectations, and demands for major economic changes and improvements in living conditions. Thus, the concept of reconnecting Cairo's urban population with the Nile is unusually timely. Bringing the people to the river banks could significantly improve daily life for millions, and could contribute to democratization of society and strengthening of the social fabric.

Buenos Aires hortícola: ¿una Buenos Aires boliviana? El complejo hortícola de la Región metropolitana a prueba de nuevos actores Resumen: Al estudiar el caso de Buenos Aires, esta tesis se interesa por la conservación de espacios de proximidad para alimentar las metrópolis: a pesar de presiones metropolitanas fuertes, la capital argentina ha mantenido sus espacios de producción y comercialización para abastecer en hortalizas frescas a sus 13 millones de habitantes. Siguiendo una línea reflexiva en el cruce de las geografía social y cultural, del estudio de las relaciones ciudad-campo, de las circulaciones y de las redes, la investigación se fundamenta en las condiciones y modalidades de ese mantenimiento y cuestiona el papel de nuevos actores en tales procesos: los migrantes bolivianos, que sucedieron a los italianos, portugueses y japoneses durante los treinta últimos años. En un contexto de transformaciones metropolitanas importantes, los espacios y las redes hortícolas no sólo se mantienen, sino también, se refuerzan y se renuevan bajo las estrategias de los bolivianos. Las construcciones territoriales llevadas a cabo por estos nuevos protagonistas demuestran su instalación prolongada en la Argentina. Sin embargo, sin la implementación de un diálogo con los demás actores de la actividad hortícola y los actores institucionales de la metrópolis, las dinámicas actuales no bastarán ni a nivel cuantitativo, ni a nivel cualitativo para mantener los espacios de proximidad a largo plazo. Para abastecer a sus habitantes, la metrópolis no puede eludir la elaboración ni de nuevas políticas periurbanas, ni tampoco de un plan de desarrollo comercial. Asimismo, los bolivianos, garantes hoy del abastecimiento en hortalizas de Buenos Aires, podrían jugar mañana un papel determinante en las políticas de ordenamiento regional. Palabras claves: Argentina - Bolivianos - Buenos Aires - horticultura - agricultura periurbana - abastecimiento - redes - circulaciones - migrantes. ; Focusing on the case study of Buenos Aires, this thesis analyzes the way local gardening areas are being preserved in order to feed the cities. Despite 13 million inhabitants and the pressure of metropolitan growth, the Argentinian capital has maintained spaces for agricultural production and comercialization in order to supply its citizens with fresh vegetables. Drawing both from social and cultural geographies, and literature on urban-rural relations, dynamics of circulation and networks, this approach focuses on the modalities and conditions of this persistence and questions the role of new actors in that process: Bolivians immigrants have indeed substituted Italians, Portuguese and Japanese during the last thirty years. In the context of major metropolitan transformations, gardening areas and networks not only remain, but they also get consolidated and renewed by Bolivians' strategies. Those new protagonists' territorial constructions demonstrate that they have been settled in Argentina for some time already. But the current dynamics will neither quantitatively or qualitatively allow for the persistence of the close market gardening areas on the long term, if those actors do not establish a dialogue with the other market gardening actors and the metropolis' institutional actors-To supply its citizens, the Argentinian capital cannot avoid the development of either new peri-urban policies or a plan to boost the urban agricultural production and marketing. Today, the Bolivians guarantee the supply of Buenos Aires in fresh vegetables; in the future they could play a key role in the regional planning policies. ; A travers le cas de Buenos Aires, cette thèse s'intéresse à la conservation d'espaces de proximité pour nourrir les métropoles : malgré de fortes pressions métropolitaines, la capitale argentine a maintenu ses espaces de production et de commercialisation pour approvisionner ses treize millions d'habitants en légumes frais. Dans une démarche au carrefour des géographies sociale et culturelle, de l'étude des relations villes-campagnes, des circulations et des réseaux, la recherche s'attache aux conditions et modalités de ce maintien et interroge le rôle de nouveaux acteurs dans ces processus : les migrants boliviens, qui ont succédé ces trente dernières années aux Italiens, Portugais et Japonais. Dans un contexte de transformations métropolitaines importantes, les espaces et réseaux maraîchers non seulement se maintiennent, mais se consolident et se renouvellent du fait des stratégies des Boliviens. Les constructions territoriales de ces nouveaux protagonistes attestent leur installation prolongée en Argentine, mais sans l'établissement d'un dialogue avec les autres acteurs de l'activité maraîchère et les acteurs institutionnels de la métropole, les dynamiques actuelles ne suffiront ni sur le plan quantitatif, ni sur le plan qualitatif, au maintien à long terme des espaces de proximité. Pour approvisionner ses habitants, la métropole argentine ne peut se passer de la mise en place de nouvelles politiques périurbaines ni d'un plan de développement commercial. Les Boliviens, aujourd'hui garants de l'approvisionnement en légumes de Buenos Aires, pourraient ainsi jouer, à l'avenir, un rôle déterminant dans les politiques d'aménagement régional.

Public opinion more or less exerts pressure on political systems, for people feel concerned about the way they are ruled. Hence the theme of public opinion underlies any society. Analysing the making of opinion enables one to understand which are the ideas of a society at a precise time. Because of its particular populating and recent history, the Reunionese society is a highly interesting topic to work on. Our purpose is to look for the existence of a Reunionese public opinion and its characteristics. As far as political, economical and social fields are concerned, Reunion island underwent deep changes from 1974 to 1995. The Reunionese public opinion largely changed throughout that development process. In 1976, the creation of the Quotidien de La Réunion newspaper had a lead role in that evolution. The opinion press thus gave way to information press. But in the late 1970's, the Reunionese society was still lagging behind in the economical and social fields, in spite of Michel Debré's instigation at the beginning of the 1960's. The debates between the autonomists and the departmentalists about the future status of the island grew more bitter since the issue of the status had to take into account the elaboration of a complex identity and development strategies. The political stakes trapped the Reunionese identity – culturally linked to the Indian Ocean area countries but historically linked to continental France, within a controversy with no way out. François Mitterrand's election drove the Reunionese communist party to give up the struggle for autonomy, and as a consequence to put an end to the splitting into two opposing blocks of the Reunionese society. The 1981's "radio broadcasting liberalisation" followed by the illegal creation of Télé Free Dom in 1986 confirmed the need for expression felt by the Reunionese people. One could detect a new Creole identity through that cultural renewal. The 1991's events showed violence and looting scenes but all the more highlighted the frailties and contradictions of the Reunionese society. Those events might have been the climax of an identity crisis of a society in search of its bases but that now claims for roots both in the European and the Indian Ocean cultural and economical spheres. ; L'opinion publique exerce une pression plus ou moins constante sur les systèmes politiques. Partout dans le monde les fièvres électorales galvanisent les foules au moment d'élections majeures, rappelant que les peuples ne sont pas indifférents à la façon dont ils sont gouvernés. L'opinion publique concerne ainsi tous ceux qui vivent en société. Analyser le mécanisme de fabrication de l'opinion permet de comprendre ce qui « se pense » à un moment précis dans une société donnée et pourquoi. La société réunionnaise, par l'originalité de son peuplement et la jeunesse de son histoire, se révèle un sujet d'étude particulièrement intéressant. Existe-t-il une opinion publique réunionnaise et comment se caractérise-t-elle ? C'est ce que cette thèse se propose de découvrir. De 1974 à 1995, La Réunion connaît de profonds bouleversements politiques, économiques et sociaux. Ce développement à marche forcée se traduit par une profonde mutation de l'opinion publique réunionnaise. L'apparition du Quotidien de La Réunion dans le paysage médiatique local en 1976 joue un rôle crucial dans cette évolution en imposant le passage d'une presse d'opinion à une presse d'information. Mais en dépit de l'impulsion lancée par Michel Debré au début des années 1960, la société réunionnaise souffre encore d'un important retard économique et social à la fin des années 1970. La définition statutaire de l'île envenime les débats et voit s'affronter autonomistes et départementalistes. La question du statut se heurte à l'élaboration d'une identité complexe et au choix cornélien d'un modèle de développement. Partagée entre ses liens culturels avec les pays de la zone océan Indien et ses liens historiques avec la France métropolitaine, l'identité réunionnaise ne peut échapper aux enjeux politiques qui la tiennent prisonnière d'une controverse obsessionnelle. L'élection de François Mitterrand incite le Parti Communiste Réunionnais à abandonner la lutte autonomiste, ce qui met fin à la bipolarisation de la société réunionnaise. La « libéralisation des ondes » en 1981 puis la création illégale de télé Free Dom en 1986 confirment le besoin d'expression des Réunionnais. Le renouvellement culturel dessine les bases d'une nouvelle identité créole. Mais les émeutes liées à la saisie des émetteurs de la télé pirate, en 1991, soulignent les fragilités et les contradictions de la société réunionnaise. Les événements du Chaudron, loin de se réduire aux scènes de violence et de pillage, ont peut-être été le point d'orgue d'une crise identitaire interpellant cette société réunionnaise à la recherche d'elle même, mais qui désormais revendique sa double appartenance à l'espace européen et la zone océan Indien.

The nineteenth and twentieth centuries saw much of the nation-making and museum creation discussed in this paper, Austria underwent a whole spectrum of constitutions: monarchy, republic, autocracy and part of a totalitarian state and then again, since the ten years spanning 1945-1955, a republic. This dramatic history is also reflected in the changing borders of Austria – from a geographically extensive mosaic of the Habsburg Monarchy (as a Vielvölkerstaat; a multinational realm) to today's Austria that is made up by nine federal states with approximately 8,4 million inhabitants in total. Thus, an important question concerns what the term 'national' may refer to in the specific case of Austria. Turning to developments in the museum sphere, the period of the Austrian Empire (1804- 1867) and the Austro-Hungarian Empire (1867-1918) – especially in the Vormärz - was marked by royal initiatives regarding existing collections. A process of centralizing and ordering collections, that hitherto had been dispersed, began and thus it was only now that these began to be regarded as entities. In the imperial city of Vienna, splendid buildings were constructed to host these collections during the second half of the century, e.g. the "twin museums" Kunsthistorisches Museum (KM, Museum of Art History) and Naturhistorisches Museum (NM, Museum of Natural History), emerging from the imperial collections. However, the two museums were never described as 'national', since the Vielvölkerstaat had to represent all peoples. The same can be said about the Austrian Museum für Volkskunde (The Austrian Museum of Folk Life and Art), inaugurated in 1894. Outside Vienna, a number of regional/provincial museums were founded; the Joanneum in Graz/Styria (1811) being perhaps the most prominent example. The Joanneum serves as a case study, highlighting topics such as the development of a national and regional identity and private initiatives in the museum sphere. The question of the relation between region and nation, what is centre and what is periphery is important in this context. According to Raffler, these museums were Janus-faced, being both cosmopolitan and regional as the museums presented both history of humanity and nationally specific knowledge (Raffler 2007: 344f). With the disintegration of the Habsburgian monarchy, museums became state-owned. Often characterized as a time of crisis, a new self-image and identity had to be invented. The term 'Austria' was however, regarded with scepticism since it hitherto primarily had been associated with the dynasty of the Habsburgs. Rituals and festivities rooted in the empire had to be replaced and attempts were made to promote music as the factor that made the geographically highlyshrunken Austria into a world nation (Mattl 1995). The period also included art restoration claims, posed by former members of the multinational realm. During NS-rule, megalomaniac projects included new museums, here exemplified with plans for (but never completed) Fuehrer-museums in Linz and Vienna. Austria's role during this period of fascism has been much disputed, affecting later plans and discussions for museum projects dealing with this period: Austria as a victim vs. Austria as willing partner? Further post-war discussions on identity include the status assigned with the signing of the state treaty in 1955 that has been endlessly celebrated; and the constructing of a tale of new beginnings forming a unifying national symbol and stepping stone for new national myths. In this paper, the question of the existence of an Austrian national museum, focusing on twentieth century history, is addressed by highlighting recent discussions surrounding the plans for a Haus der Geschichte (House of History). Until today, it is – interestingly enough – the Heeresgeschichtliches Museum (The Museum of Military History) that presents the most complete history of Austria, although ending with the end of WWII. Since the late 1990s, various proposals for a new museum have been made and the project has been intensely debated among politicians and historians. Still today, no consensus exists regarding exactly what to exhibit and why; neither is the question of where (in Vienna) such a museum should be located settled. The debates are interesting since they reveal the still-existing tensions regarding how to tackle and present central topics such as the Ständestaat (authoritarian rule 1934-38), the Austrian civil war, the Anschluß and Austria's role during the NS-reign. Many historians fear a political instrumentalization and a toosmooth version of the violent past that constitutes one aspect of Austrian twentieth century history. Finally, Marlies Raffler has put forward an interesting thought: could it be that an Austrian national museum is equal to the sum of existing Landesmuseen (i.e. museums located in the federal states of Austria), together making up a kind of 'disloziertes Nationalmuseum' (dislocated Nationalmuseum) today? ; Eunamus

Environmental positive externalities from public provision, such as the benefits yielded from the public measure of nature conservation, are often not internalized. Potential sub-optimal public service provision can be expected from such a condition, leading to inefficiency, if the benefits at a greater territorial scale are not acknowledged. This holds particularly true for intergovernmental fiscal relations in a decentralizing multi-tiered governmental system. Moreover, in developing countries the fiscal capacities to perform measures of ecological public functions are limited with their fiscal needs for these functions often appearing to outweigh their fiscal capacities. Research at the interface of the economic theory of fiscal federalism, the sustainability concept, and policies related to conservation and the environment is relatively new. Furthermore, in the literature on environmental federalism the emphasis tends to be comparatively less on the benefits of positive environmental externalities. The essential contribution of this study is an extension of this research field that is still in its infancy by applying the specific case of Indonesia as the context, on account of this tropical country"s ecological significance as well as its recent developments during the fiscal decentralization process. The overall aim of this study is to assess the possibilities of ecological fiscal transfers as a set of instruments in the public sector to internalize environmental externalities. To this end, the study traces the development as well as the current state of intergovernmental fiscal transfers in Indonesia in terms of ecological purposes. On the basis of this knowledge, the study offers new policy perspectives by proposing a number of policy options for ecological fiscal transfers in the context of the functioning fiscal transfer system and institutions between the national and the subnational (province and local) governments as well as among jurisdictions at the same governmental level. The incorporation of an explicit ecological indicator into general-purpose transfers is the first option. The second option is derived from a revenue-sharing arrangement. In this arrangement, two sub-options are proposed: first, shared revenues from taxes are distributed on the basis of the ecological indicator and, second, shared revenues from natural resources are earmarked for environmental purposes. Finally, the third option suggests an extension of existing specific-purpose transfers for the environment. The potential and limitations of the respective options are addressed. Additionally, a short treatment is given to the discourse on the possible mobilization of fiscal resources in the context of tropical deforestation and global climate change. The research concentrates mainly on the first option, namely the incorporation of an ecological indicator into the structure of general-purpose transfer allocation. In order to substantiate an explicit ecological dimension in the transfer, it extends the present area-based approach by introducing a protected area indicator while maintaining the remaining socio-economic indicators in the fiscal need calculation. The parameter values of area-related indicators are adjusted and subject to the properties of the existing formula. The simulation at the provincial level yields the following results. First, more provinces lose rather than gain from the introduced ecological fiscal transfer when compared to the fiscal transfer that they received in the reference fiscal year. Second, on average the winning provinces obtain a higher level of transfer from the introduction of an ecological indicator in the fiscal need calculation. The extent of the average decreases for the losing provinces, however, it is lower compared to the extent of the average gain by their winning counterparts. In terms of spatial configurations of the general-purpose transfer with an ecological indicator, provinces in Papua would benefit most from the new fiscal regime whereas provinces in Java and Sulawesi, with a few exceptions, would suffer a transfer reduction. Kalimantan and Sumatera show a mixed pattern of winning and losing provinces. The analysis on the equalization effects of the general-purpose transfers makes the following important contributions. It suggests that, first, the transfers are equalizing and, second, the introduction of the protected area indicator into the structure of these transfers plays a significant role in the equalizing effect, particularly in the presence of provinces with a very high fiscal capacity and when the area variable is also controlled. All of these new insights are imperative in the design of fiscal policy which intends to integrate explicit ecological aspects into the instruments of intergovernmental fiscal transfers. Since a formula-based fiscal transfer distribution is intrinsically zero-sum, the aforementioned configuration of winning and losing jurisdictions is conceivable. Among other future perspectives, it is the task of further research to explore ecological fiscal transfer instruments and associated measures that on the one hand seek to induce the losing provinces to join their winning counterparts and, on the other hand, are still subject to the requirements of the rational fiscal transfer mechanism.

Argentina ha basado su economía en la agricultura y el ganado, donde el bosque ha sido visto como un obstáculo para el desarrollo. La cosecha forestal en Patagonia Sur ha sido una actividad basada en la colonización y explotación de nuevas áreas. Esta se realiza principalmente en bosques primarios sin ningún manejo silvícola posterior. A pesar de que el manejo actual no es sustentable, la investigación científica ha definido las bases para conservar, proteger y mejorar las propuestas de manejo forestal para los bosques nativos de Patagonia Sur. Las primeras parcelas de estudio a largo plazo (1965-1966) basaron su monitoreo en parámetros económicos y estructura forestal, estableciéndose cerca de veinte parcelas en bosques fiscales de Tierra del Fuego. La mayoría fueron destruidas o discontinuadas debido a la falta de planificación del uso de la tierra, escaso interés social en la investigación, falta de compromiso de instituciones, y poca colaboración con empresas forestales. Posteriormente, un segundo grupo de nueve parcelas se estableció en Patagonia Sur (1993-2004) basado en la colaboración entre empresas privadas e instituciones nacionales. Los objetivos incluyeron parámetros económicos y ecológicos. Las parcelas se establecieron en tierras privadas conjuntamente con empresas privadas y estancieros, mediante la firma de acuerdos y proyectos de investigación. Los principales problemas encontrados fueron: falta de compromiso de las administraciones forestales, ausencia de proyectos financiados a largo plazo, y que la responsabilidad de las parcelas continúa bajo la iniciativa personal de los investigadores participantes. El estudio de las parcelas permitió: (i) proponer nuevos sistemas de regeneración basados en la maximización del rendimiento y el mejoramiento del valor de conservación de los bosques manejados (e.g., retención variable y sistemas silvopastoriles), (ii) determinar la factibilidad económica de aplicación de tratamientos intermedios, (iii) determinar líneas base y definir los impactos de distintos sistemas silvícolas, (iv) proponer metodologías de monitoreo de amplio espectro y establecer áreas demostrativas de manejo, y (v) proveer áreas y conocimientos para entrenar profesionales en prácticas de manejo forestal y conservación de la biodiversidad. Las parcelas permanentes ya establecidas en los bosques de Nothofagus de Patagonia Sur y las bases de datos obtenidas podrían servir como punto de partida para definir un núcleo regional que pueda participar en el International Long Term Ecological Research para asegurar el uso sustentable de los bosques nativos. ; Argentina has based its economy in agriculture and cattle production seeing forests as one of the main obstacles for future development. Forest harvesting in South Patagonia has been an activity based on colonization and exploitation of new areas. Harvesting is mainly carried out in old-growth forests without silviculture management after the first cuts. Beyond this mismanagement, scientific research defined the basis to conserve, protect and improve the present forest management for the South Patagonia native forests. The first long-term study permanent plots (1965-1966) monitored only economic and forest structure parameters, and near twenty plots were established in public forested lands of Tierra del Fuego. Most of these plots were destroyed or discontinued due to a lack of land use planning, scarce social interest for long-term researches, absence of commitment of institutions, and few contributions of forest companies. After this, a second group of nine long-term study permanent plots were established in South Patagonia (1993- 2004) based in the collaboration between private companies and national research institutions. The objectives included economic as well as ecological parameters. The new plots were established on private lands based on several agreements and joint venture projects between national institutions, private companies and ranch owners. The main limitations in these processes were: a lack of commitment from the provincial forest administrations, absence of long-term financed projects and a clear forest policy from the government, and that continuity of plot measurements rely only under the responsibility of researchers. The study of the long-term plots allowed: (i) to propose new harvesting systems by maximizing yield and improving conservation value of managed forests (e.g., variable retention and silvopastoral systems), (ii) to determine the economical feasibility of the intermediate treatments, (iii) to define base-lines and impacts of different silvicultural treatments, (iv) to propose a wide spectrum of monitoring methodologies and establish demonstrative areas of forest management, and (v) to provide areas and knowledge to train professionals in forest management and biodiversity conservation practices. The surviving permanent plots in Nothofagus forest in South Patagonia and the obtained information could be used as a starting point to define a regional nucleus that could participate in the International Long Term Ecological Research to improve the use of native forests. ; Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias y Forestales

Schon ein erster Blick auf die aktuelle Diskussionen über das »Ende der Arbeitsgesellschaft« zeigt, dass die Plausibilität der Argumente und Diagnosen hinsichtlich der Frage, ob der Gesellschaft wirklich die »Arbeit« ausgeht oder nicht, davon abhängt, was überhaupt unter »Arbeit« im Allgemeinen und des Weiteren unter »Erwerbs-« beziehungsweise »Lohnarbeit« im Besonderen zu verstehen ist. Die vielfach diagnostizierte »Krise der Arbeitsgesellschaft« offenbart zunächst vor allem eine Krise des Begriffs »Arbeit«. Dies zeigt sich beispielsweise daran, dass das »Arbeiten« auf der einen Seite eng verknüpft mit »Sinnstiftung des individuellen Lebens« wahrgenommen wird, weshalb sich »Arbeitslosigkeit« in der individuellen Selbstwahrnehmung häufig mit einem Gefühl von »Nutzlosigkeit« verbindet, während »Arbeitslose« jedoch in der Fremdwahrnehmung als »Arbeitsunwillige« erscheinen. Zahlreiche Autoren weisen eindringlich darauf hin, dass sich »Arbeitslosigkeit« in den modernen Industrienationen für die Betroffenen in gewisser Weise als »sozialer Tod« darstellt. Eine staatliche Sozial- und Beschäftigungspolitik, die sich in der Regel am Ideal der »Vollbeschäftigung« orientiert, versucht möglicher »Massenarbeitslosigkeit« und einigen ihrer sozialen Begleiterscheinungen entgegenzuwirken. Angesichts von Diagnosen oder Szenarien aber, die ein »Ende der Arbeitsgesellschaft« feststellen oder gar das »Ende der Arbeit« überhaupt prognostizieren, stellt sich demgegenüber eine solche Politik als ein sinnloses Unterfangen und gewissermaßen als ein »Kampf gegen Windmühlen« dar. Begründet werden derartige Einschätzungen mit den konstatierbaren qualitativen Umwälzungen von Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft in den letzten Jahrzehnten, dem Anwachsen eines sogenannten »Dienstleistungssektors«, einem Wandel des »Arbeitsmarktes«, der nicht zuletzt bedingt ist durch strukturelle Veränderungen der betrieblichen Arbeitsorganisation sowie weiteren technologischen, wirtschaftlichen und gesellschaftlichen Entwicklungen. Einerseits stellt sich in großen Teilen gesellschaftspolitischer Debatten »Arbeit« und ein gesellschaftlich »gutes Leben« als miteinander untrennbar verbunden dar, während andererseits betriebsorganisatorische und unternehmerische Rationalisierungen sowie zunehmende technische Automation betrieblicher Arbeitsprozesse »menschliches Arbeiten« entbehrlich zu machen scheint. Noch viel grundsätzlicher drängt sich eine Klärung des Begriffs »Arbeit« bei der Erörterung der Frage auf, ob sich »Arbeit« den Menschen als etwas prinzipiell Unaufhebbares darstellt; eine Annahme, die sich dann als begriffliche Notwendigkeit darstellt, wenn mit »Arbeit« das »Menschsein« schlechthin verbunden wird. Dagegen ist die »Aufhebung der Arbeit« denkbar, wenn die Frage, was der Mensch sei, eben nicht mit »Arbeit« in Verbindung gebracht wird. Wenn – wie üblich – eine solche Fragestellung im Allgemeinen als eine »philosophische« gilt, dann zeigt bereits die gerade dargestellte Skizze der Diskussionen um »Arbeit«, dass sich bei diesem Thema politische, ökonomische, sozialwissenschaftliche sowie philosophische Perspektiven überschneiden. Obwohl »Arbeit« im alltäglichen, politischen und wirtschaftlichen Leben der Menschen zumeist als ein wichtiges Thema erscheint, ist sie lange Zeit kaum noch als ein, der philosophischen Betrachtung würdiger Gegenstand erachtet worden. Aber ein Blick auf die jüngsten sozialphilosophischen Veröffentlichungen zeigt, dass die philosophische Relevanz des Begriffs »Arbeit« inzwischen – gerade vor dem Hintergrund der vielfach diagnostizierten krisenhaften Gesellschaftssituation in den letzten Dekaden – eine Aufwertung erfährt. Auch die vorliegende Abhandlung möchte diesbezüglich einen Beitrag leisten; ihr Titel »Was tun wir, wenn wir arbeiten?« – der gleichsam ihre programmatische Leitfrage stellt – weist dabei auf ein begriffssystematisches Vorgehen hin, bei dem »Arbeit« als bestimmte Form der Tätigkeit zu rekonstruieren und zu reflektieren ist. ; A first glance at the present discussion concerning »the end of the working society« already shows that the plausible arguments and diagnoses about whether society really runs out of »work« or not largely depends on what is meant by the term »work« in general and »gainful occupation« or »hired labour« in particular. The manifold diagnosed »crisis of the working society« initially discloses, above all, the crises of the term »work«. This is revealed, for instance, by the fact that »working« is strongly connected to »endowing an individual's life with meaning« since »unemployment«, in a personal conception, is often experienced as a feeling of »uselessness«, while in an onlooker's conception it might be perceived as the »unwillingness to work«. Several writers demonstrate in drastic words that in modern industrial nations »unemployment« means more or less a person's »social death«. Welfare and employment policies, geared to »full employment«, attempt to counteract »mass unemployment« and some of their social side-effects. However, in light of diagnoses or scenarios stating »the end of the working society« or even »the end of work« altogether, these types of policies constitute a futile attempt or a quixotic »battle against windmills«. Such considerations are justified by the noticeably qualitative upheavals of economy and society in the last decades, the increase of a commonly known »sector supplying services«, by a modification in the employment market, which is not only caused by structural changes of the work organization but also due to technological, economical and societal developments. On the one hand »work« and a »good life« in societal terms present themselves in most socio-political debates as intrinsically connected, while, on the other hand, the organisation of labour and entrepreneurial economisations as well as technical automation of more and more work processes seem to render »human labour« dispensable. It is even more fundamental to clarify the term »work« in discussing the question whether »labour« symbolizes something principally non-abolishable to human beings, an assumption which represents thus a conceptual necessity when it is connected directly to the idea of being human. This notion can be overcome, however, if the question of what is essentially human is not linked to the idea of »labour«. In general such a question is considered a philosophical one; however, this just portrayed delineation of discussions concerning the notion of »work« shows that as far as this topic is concerned political, economical and socio-scientific perspectives overlap. Although »work« is considered an important topic in the quotidian, political and economic life of human beings, it has not been considered a worthy object for philosophical considerations for a long period of time; nevertheless, one glance at the most recent socio-philosophical publications proves that the notion of »work« as regards a philosophically relevant term is presently being upgraded, particularly in light of the frequently diagnosed crisis in society in the last decades. This scholarly piece intends to make a contribution concerning this matter. Its title: »What do we do when we work?« asks the central programmatic question and indicates the conceptually systematic approach reconstructing and reflecting on the notion of »labour« as a specific mode of occupation.