Hays City had started with tremendous rush of success in August 1867. Benefitting from the possession of the Union Pacific Railroad, Eastern Division (UPRR-ED), terminus, Hays City became the commercial center of the west as gold from California and the Colorado Territory, silver and wool from the southwestern territories, and migrants headed west poured through the town. Traffic along the Butterfield Overland Dispatch and the Santa Fe Trails was considerable between August 1867 and June 1868. The profitable trade of Hays City, however, soon slowed to a dismal trickle as quickly as it has blossomed when the UPRR-ED moved its terminus farther west to the new town of Sheridan in June 1868. The population of Hays declined to one-fourth of its peak number (300 by January 1869 as opposed to 1,200 in June 1868). Until the advent of commercial agriculture in Ellis County in the mid 1870's the principal source of revenue for the remaining populace of Hays was For Hays, the sprawling military post located one half mile to the south of town. This dependency of Hays City upon the money spent by the military was not without its drawbacks. Teamsters employed by the Fort Hays Post Quartermaster were a tough lot of frontiersmen who contributed their share of trouble for Hays City law officers. Clashes between soldiers and civilians were also frequent and occasionally lethal. Bloodshed was common in Hays in the early years of its existence. Between August 1867 and December 1873 there were over thirty known homicides in and around the town. Hays City developed (and deserved) the reputation of being one of the most violent of the Kansas frontier settlements. The most violent year in hays city was 1869. In that year duly constituted law enforcement was replaced with vigilante rule. During the vigilante period of July 1868 to December 1869 there were fifteen homicides directly related to trouble arising out of vigilante rule in Hays. At least seven of the victims were killed by the vigilantes. Caught up in the violence of 1869 were two men: James B. "Wild Bill" Hickok and James Curry. Hickok was a frontiersman of long standing with two homicides already to his credit before 1869. As the bogus Sheriff of Ellis County that year, following his appointment by the vigilantes, Hickok was responsible for two deaths. James Curry, however, was the opposite of Hickok. Curry had committed no know homicides before 1869, and his alleged killing of Edward Estes that year is based upon unsubstantiated claims. Evidence also indicated that Estes' character may have contributed to his demise rather than simply being the act of a murderer if Curry did indeed kill him. In fact, Curry had participated as a scout in the historic Indian fight at Beecher Island in Colorado in September 1868 when newspaper accounts spoke favorably of his courage. He was also employed for over ten years on Kansas and Texas railroads as a train engineer and once held the temporary position of Deputy United States marshal in Texas. Yet in the stories of vigilante rule in Hays City in 1869, Curry is pictured as the devil incarnate while Hickok shines as the savior of decency who established law and order in the violent town. The reason for the difference in the portrayal of Curry and Hickok came about for several reasons. Curry in 1879 killed an actor and wounded another during a drunken frenzy in Marshall, Texas. The wounded man was Maurice Barrymore, and actor of national reputation as was the deceased actor Benjamin Porter. The shooting of the two actors allowed the editor of the Hays City Sentinel to blame three of the homicides of the vigilante period upon Curry. Stories of his alleged ruthless activities in hays City that developed over the years neatly explained away the bloodshed generated by the vigilante takeover by making Curry the convenient scapegoat for blame. Stories concerning Hickok's activities in hays city in 1969 are directly opposite to Curry's for identical reasons: they neatly explained Hickok's role as enforcer for the vigilantes as necessary to the establishment of law and order (while at the same time justifying vigilante rule) and placed the events of July to December 1869 into an acceptable story for public consumption. Reality, however, runs contrary to the generally accepted depiction of the vigilante period. The vigilantes were responsible for the end of duty constituted forms for the legal administration of Hays City and were responsible for the deaths of seven people as they implemented their control over the town. Due to the growth of stories favorable to the vigilante movement as it occurred in 1869, James Curry, a man who deserves recognition for his bravery, became branded as a murderer for crimes actually committed by various vigilantes.
While some sub-cultures oppose the traditional family arrangements as being irrelevant in contemporary society, it is the traditional family that still affords its individual member the best opportunity to learn attitudes and values that will prepare them to function effectively in a democratic society. There is a stated need to find ways to strengthen the family unit by assisting parents to improve their parenting skills and to become better support agents for their children. In recent years, auto-tutorial study (AT) and group process have been used to effect achievement and attitudinal growth among diverse individuals and groups. Most of the studies have compared auto-tutorial study with lecture recitation laboratory study. No study had been found that compared the application of AT instruction with the application of a group method to intervene in potential problem causing behaviors of children. It was the purpose of this study to compare the effectiveness of the auto-tutorial (ATPE) learning package with the effectiveness of the more traditional parent study group (APSG) on two dependent variables: (a) the mother's attitude toward child rearing and (b) the mother's perception of the behavior of a target child. It was expected that mothers, or grandmothers who were the primary caretakers of children age four through twelve years old, would change their attitudes toward child rearing from autocratic high control methods to democratic and more cooperative methods of child rearing. Also, it was expected that the mothers would increase their perception of the target child's misbehavior and to develop specific intervention strategies for coping effectively with the child's potential problem causing behaviors. Subjects in this study were sixty mothers or grandmothers who lived in a public housing project. They were identified through personal interviews, referral by social service workers, the Director of Community Relations, and the Department of Welfare. Each subject was assigned to the ATPE or APSG group for parent education. Pre-learning interaction before the first session included the completion of the Orchard Manor Tenant Survey Questionnaire in order to ascertain specific personal characteristics of the subjects; the Attitude Toward Child Rearing Scale (ATCRS); and the Children's Behavior Checklist (CBC). The ATCRS and the CBC were administered at posttest, immediately following the last session and at post-posttest four weeks after the last session. The ATPE mothers met once a week for eight weeks in a parent education session, Guiding Your Child's Behavior, that was presented through slides synchronized with an audio-tape. The APSG mothers met in small groups of eight to twelve mothers for eight weeks' group study. The textbook and assignments were the same for both groups. Initially there were no significant differences between the two groups for thirteen independent variables. At pretest, chi-square was used on the thirteen biographical variables and pretest scores. The only significant relationship was found to be the school grade of the target child [X = 57.53, p < .03] and the mother's perception of the target child's behavior. At posttest, there was a statistically significant difference indicated by an analysis of variance [F (1, 33) = 4.712, p < .05] for attitude toward child rearing. Also, there was a significant difference between the APSG pretest scores and the APSG posttest scores (t = 5.78, p < .001) for attitudes of mother. There was a significant positive Pearson Product Moment correlation for the difference between the pre and posttest scores and the age of the target child (r = .46), and a negative correlation with mother's scores and the average number of hours per day a mother viewed television (r = -.33). There was no statistical significance between or within the ATPE or the APSG for the mother's perception of the target child's behavior at posttest. However, there was a negatively significant correlation at the .05 level for the difference between the pre and posttest scores and the source of the family income (r = -.29). Conclusions: (1) The parent study group mothers changed their attitudes toward child rearing to include family decision-making responsibilities that promoted the development of the target child; (2) those mothers who spent the most time viewing television changed the least from autocratic to democratic attitudes for child rearing; (3) those mothers, of older children in the study, experienced the greatest change in more cooperative attitudes for dealing with children; (4) the ability of the mothers in this study to change their perception of the target child's behaviors was negatively correlated with the source of the family incomes. Mothers in families where wages or salary were the source of the family income changed their perception of the target child's behavior and/or developed intervention strategies for coping with potential problem causing behaviors; and (6) although it was not statistically significant both the ATPE mothers and the APSG mothers reported fewer potential problem causing behaviors for the target child following this study. ; Ed. D.
La médicalisation de l'échec scolaire. Dans cet article, on analyse ce que les discours savants et les pratiques médicopsychologiques ayant pour objet les enfants déficients mentaux doivent à leurs conditions sociales de production. L'apparition, dans les dernières années du 19e siècle, de nouvelles figures «d'enfants anormaux» —l'instable et l'arriéré— est directement liée à l'entrée massive, du fait de l'obligation scolaire, des enfants des fractions les plus basses des classes populaires. Les premiers spécialistes de psychopédagogie élaborent les représentations savantes caractérisant ces «écoliers anormaux» et poussent à la mise en place de structures spécialisées, adaptées à leur prise en charge. La réussite de ce projet est sanctionnée par une loi de 1909 créant les classes de perfectionnement. Mais cette victoire juridique ne sera pas suivie d'effets sur le plan institutionnel pendant la première moitié du 20e siècle. Ce n'est qu'au lendemain de la seconde guerre mondiale, et alors que se met en place un système d'institutions diversifiées prenant en charge différentes populations d'enfants inadaptés (délinquants, caractériels, débiles profonds, moyens, etc.), que les classes de perfectionnement vont commencer à se développer tout en se spécialisant dans l'éducation des seuls «arriérés» (devenus, selon la nouvelle nomenclature psychologique, les débiles légers). Le champ de l'enfance inadaptée, polarisé autour de différents corps de spécialistes (pédopsychiatres, médecins des hôpitaux psychiatriques, psychanalystes d'enfants, psychologues, enseignants spécialisés) s'affrontant parfois sur les représentations des inadaptations et les pratiques thérapeutiques, est dominé jusque vers la fin des années soixante par les pédopsychiatres qui vont occuper les positions clefs dans les institutions nouvelles, extérieures à l'Education nationale (Sauvegarde de l'enfance et de l'adolescence, Instituts médico-pédagogiques, Centres de rééducation pour caractériels). C'est leur discours qui fait loi, impose les limites d'intervention des autres spécialistes (les psychanalystes sont cantonnés dans la prise en charge des troubles mineurs, les médecins asilaires se voient relégués dans le seul gardiennage des déficients mentaux les plus profonds). Les nouvelles représentations en matière d'inadaptation que construisent les pédopsychiatres intègrent dans un discours éclectique des éléments provenant de différentes disciplines (génétique, psychologie expérimentale, psychologie génétique, psychanalyse), en les organisant de manière à établir sur des bases «scientifiques» une relation de causalité entre inadaptation et risque de délinquance. Les enfants débiles ne sont plus caractérisés par le niveau de leur déficience intellectuelle mais comme des «personnalités globalement déficientes» (retard intellectuel, psychomoteur, affectif, incapacité d'accéder à l'abstraction) dont la fragilité psychique est le trait dominant. Menacés par le milieu social environnant, les jeunes déficients mentaux sont considérés comme «en danger moral» pour cette raison même qu'ils sont des arriérés. Si les pédopsychiatres exercent encore aujourd'hui une influence déterminante dans certaines institutions du champ et si les représentations qu'ils ont élaborées continuent de circuler dans une large part du système institutionnel (et notamment dans le corps enseignant), leur position dominante se trouve mise en cause, vers la fin des années soixante, par un nouveau pôle organisé autour de la psychanalyse. C'est en critiquant la notion de débilité et le caractère chronicisant de la pédagogie spécialisée que les analystes tentent de s'arracher à la place d'auxiliaire qui leur avait été assignée jusque là. Replaçant théoriquement l'arriération mentale dans le champ des psychonévroses, ils replacent du même coup les enfants arriérés dans la clientèle potentielle des psychothérapies qu'ils pratiquent au sein de leurs institutions (CMPP, hôpitaux de jour, etc.). Ce faisant, ils entrent en concurrence directe avec les pédopsychiatres qui avaient jusque là monopolisé la clientèle des arriérés mentaux jugés d'ailleurs par les maîtres de la psychanalyse comme inanalysables. La confrontation opposant les analystes aux pédopsychiatres semble se dénouer en faveur des premiers puisque les pouvoirs d'Etat reprennent dans les textes officiels les catégories nosographiques du discours analytique moderne, renvoyant dans le traditionnel les catégories des pédopsychiatres. Ainsi la notion de psychonévrose à versant déficitaire succède à celle de débilité mentale et les analystes ici ne font que relayer les pédopsychiatres dans la retraduction psychologique d'un phénomène proprement social tel que l'échec scolaire des enfants des classes populaires, produit de la distance séparant la culture du milieu familial de l'arbitraire culturel dominant. Les analystes ne font que remplacer les neuropsychiatres mais ils élargissent par leurs pratiques thérapeutiques le contrôle social des institutions du champ puisque, conformément à leur univers théorique, ils sont amenés à chercher dans l'économie symbolique du noyau familial ce qui serait déterminant de l'échec scolaire de l'enfant. De l'échec scolaire symptôme d'une souffrance de l'enfant, on passe à l'enfant symptôme d'une souffrance familiale, et c'est alors directement dans la famille qu'il faut intervenir par cette dynamique institutionnelle. Une prise en charge psychothérapeutique massive des familles culturellement les plus démunies tend à se mettre en place. La psychanalyse du pauvre se développe en même temps que le pouvoir des analystes s'impose dans le champ de l'enfance inadaptée, où il continue bien de rencontrer un certain nombre d'obstacles dont l'un des moindres n'est pas la fuite des familles les plus populaires devant le questionnement analytique.
The goal of the present work is synthesizing the process of collective construction developed to protect the high-altitude wetlands of the Blanco River basin, located in the Andes Mountains, Mendoza province. The participatory process arose out of an initiative of basin residents and users, and was conducted by the Integrative Committee for Creation of Potrerillos Municipal Environmental Protected Area (MEPA), composed of civil society organizations, government agencies and scientific institutions. The major pressures affecting the wetlands, identified through participatory assessment of the socio-ecosystem are: water pollution, reduction and total loss of habitat, stoppage of of groundwater flows, artificial drainage, poldering of the meadow, and fragmentation of the wetland system, among other pressures.In order to identify priority sites for conservation of the ecosystem services (ES) wetlands provide, local people identified and prioritized the six most important of them according to their perception: water for human consumption, agriculture and industry; aesthetic, spiritual and non-use representations; recreation and ecotourism; erosion control; water regulation and regulation of the biotic environment. The areas supplying ES were identified on the map of land use and land cover of the basin, with the wetland area, with tourist use and water catchment, and the watershed?s headwaters standing out as areas with higher ES provision. This process culminated in the creation of a protected area to halt the intense degradation affecting the wetland system, promoting maintenance of the natural area and improving its provision of ES. This collective process allowed integrating local and scientific knowledge, becoming an experience to be replicated in other areas in terms of conservation and land management. Among its major strengths is a strong coordination between the different social actors involved, which allowed success in reaching the implementation stage of a public policy for conservation. ; El objetivo del presente trabajo consiste en sintetizar el proceso de construcción colectiva desarrollado con el fin de proteger los humedales de altura pertenecientes a la cuenca del Río Blanco de Potrerillos, localizados en la Cordillera de Los Andes, Provincia de Mendoza. El proceso participativo surgió ante una iniciativa de los pobladores locales y usuarios de la cuenca, y fue conducido por la Comisión Integradora para la Creación del Área Ambiental Protegida Municipal (AAMP) Potrerillos, integrada por organizaciones de la sociedad civil, instituciones gubernamentales y organismos científicos. Las principales presiones que afectan al humedal, identificadas a través del diagnóstico participativo del socioecosistema son: contaminación del agua, reducción y pérdida total de hábitat, corte del flujo de alimentación, drenaje artificial, polderización definitiva de vegas, fragmentación del sistema hidrológico, entre otras. A fin de determinar los sitios prioritarios para la conservación de servicios ecosistémicos (SE) que brinda el Sistema de humedales, la población local identificó y priorizó los seis más importantes de acuerdo a su percepción: agua para consumo humano, agricultura e industria; representaciones estéticas, espirituales y de no uso; recreación y ecoturismo; regulación de la erosión; regulación del ciclo hídrico y del ambiente biótico. Sobre el mapa de uso y cobertura de la tierra de la cuenca, fueron identificadas sus zonas proveedoras, destacándose el área de humedales con uso turístico y captación de agua, y las cabeceras de cuencas hídricas como las zonas con mayor provisión de SE. Este proceso culminó con la creación de un área natural protegida para detener el proceso de degradación intensiva que afecta al humedal, lo cual promueve el mantenimiento y la mejora de sus SE. Este proceso colectivo permitió integrar saberes locales con conocimiento científico, y se constituyó como una experiencia a replicar en otros territorios en el plano de la conservación y del ordenamiento territorial. Entre sus principales fortalezas se destaca la articulación sólida entre los diferentes actores sociales involucrados, que permitió alcanzar con éxito la etapa de implementación de una política pública de conservación. ; Fil: Rubio, María Clara. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Mendoza. Instituto Argentino de Investigaciones de las Zonas Áridas. Provincia de Mendoza. Instituto Argentino de Investigaciones de las Zonas Áridas. Universidad Nacional de Cuyo. Instituto Argentino de Investigaciones de las Zonas Áridas; Argentina ; Fil: Rubio, María Cecilia. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Mendoza. Instituto Argentino de Investigaciones de las Zonas Áridas. Provincia de Mendoza. Instituto Argentino de Investigaciones de las Zonas Áridas. Universidad Nacional de Cuyo. Instituto Argentino de Investigaciones de las Zonas Áridas; Argentina ; Fil: Salomon, Mario. Universidad Nacional de Cuyo. Facultad de Ingeniería; Argentina ; Fil: Abraham, Elena Maria. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Mendoza. Instituto Argentino de Investigaciones de las Zonas Áridas. Provincia de Mendoza. Instituto Argentino de Investigaciones de las Zonas Áridas. Universidad Nacional de Cuyo. Instituto Argentino de Investigaciones de las Zonas Áridas; Argentina
La principal preocupación en los rellenos sanitarios es la posible migración de lixiviado y eventual contaminación del agua subterránea. Esta migración se controla interponiendo barreras constituidas por capas de arcilla compactadas que poseen baja conductividad hidráulica y alta capacidad de retención de contaminantes. El objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar la conductividad hidráulica y la capacidad de retención de metales pesados de dos arcillas esmectíticas con el fin de determinar sus aptitudes como barreras hidráulicas y geoquímicas de rellenos sanitarios. Se realizaron ensayos de conductividad hidráulica de mezclas arcilla-arena con agua destilada y un lixiviado real de residuos sólidos urbanos como fluidos permeantes. Adicionalmente, se realizaron ensayos de adsorción en lotes a partir de soluciones monometálicas de Cu(II), Zn(II), Ni(II) y Cd(II). La conductividad hidráulica determinada con lixiviado fue entre uno y tres órdenes de magnitud mayor en relación con el agua, debido principalmente a la elevada salinidad de dicho lixiviado, lo que contribuye a generar un estado mas floculado de las arcillas y a la desaparición de fases minerales solubles. Los datos de adsorción de los metales estudiados sobre las arcillas se ajustaron a la isoterma de Langmuir. La capacidad de adsorción de los metales analizados fue en el orden: Zn(II) > Cu(II) > Ni(II) > Cd(II) para la bentonita CATAE y Zn(II) > Ni(II) > Cu(II) > Cd(II) para la fangolita NTOL. La capacidad de adsorción de Cu(II) y Zn(II) fue superior a la capacidad de intercambio catiónico de las arcillas, mientras que para Cd(II) y Ni(II), la cantidad retenida no supera este valor. Por otro lado, la conductividad hidráulica de las mezclas arcilla-arena fue menor a 1 x 10-9 m/s. En función de estos resultados, las arcillas analizadas muestran una aptitud adecuada para ser usadas como barreras hidráulicas y geoquímicas de rellenos sanitarios de acuerdo con lo estipulado en la legislación internacional para barreras arcillosas. ; Groundwater contamination through leachates migration in landfills is one of the main concerns in this kind of disposal sites. To control this migration, compacted clay liners of low hydraulic conductivity and high retention capacity are widely used to isolate urban waste leachate. The aim of this work was to evaluate the hydraulic conductivity and heavy metal adsorption capacity of two smectitic clays to determine their hydraulic and geochemical properties to be used as clay barriers in landfills. Hydraulic conductivity tests of sand-clay mixtures permeated with distilled water and a real leachate were performed. Adsorption of Cu(II), Zn(II), Ni(II) and Cd(II) from monometal solutions on clay fractions was evaluated through batch adsorption tests. Hydraulic conductivity of the specimens permeated with a real leachate was of 1 to 3 orders of magnitude higher than the ones permeated with water. This could be attributed to the highly salinity of the leachate which contributed to a more flocculated state of the clays and the dissolution of soluble mineral phases. The heavy metal adsorption data were fitted with Langmuir model. The adsorption capacities of the analyzed metals were in the following order: Zn(II) > Cu(II) > Ni(II) > Cd(II) for CATAE bentonite and Zn(II) > Ni(II) > Cu(II) > Cd(II) for NTOL mudstone. The adsorption capacity of Cu(II) and Zn(II) was higher than the cation exchange capacity (CEC) of the analyzed clays, whereas for Cd(II) and Ni(II), the retained quantity is lower than the CEC. On the other hand, the hydraulic conductivity of the sand-clay mixtures was lower than 1 × 10-9m/s. These results indicate the suitability of the tested clays to be used as hydraulic and geochemical barriers in landfills according to the international legislation requirements for clay liners. ; Fil: Musso, Telma Belén. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Patagonia Norte. Instituto de Investigación y Desarrollo en Ingeniería de Procesos, Biotecnología y Energías Alternativas. Universidad Nacional del Comahue. Instituto de Investigación y Desarrollo en Ingeniería de Procesos, Biotecnología y Energías Alternativas; Argentina ; Fil: Pettinari, Gisela Roxana. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Patagonia Norte. Instituto de Investigación y Desarrollo en Ingeniería de Procesos, Biotecnología y Energías Alternativas. Universidad Nacional del Comahue. Instituto de Investigación y Desarrollo en Ingeniería de Procesos, Biotecnología y Energías Alternativas; Argentina ; Fil: Parolo, Maria Eugenia. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Patagonia Norte. Centro de Investigaciones En Toxicología Ambiental y Agrobiotecnología del Comahue. Universidad Nacional del Comahue. Facultad de Cs.agrarias. Centro de Investigaciones En Toxicología Ambiental y Agrobiotecnología del Comahue; Argentina ; Fil: Mesquín, Luis. Universidad Nacional del Comahue; Argentina
The lack of implementation of well-designed public policies aimed at the conservation of natural ecosystems has resulted, at a global level, in the decline of ecosystem functioning and, consequently, of the contributions they make to people. The poor enforcement of important environmental legislation in Brazil-for instance, the "Atlantic Forest Law" (Law n.11.428/2006) and the "Forest Code" (Law n.12.651/2012)-could compromise the overall maintenance of ecosystems and the services they provide. To explore the implications of different levels of federal laws' enforcement within the Cantareira System Protected Area (PA)-a PA in southeastern Brazil that provides fresh water for 47% of the Sao Paulo Metropolitan Area-, we developed a conceptual framework to identify indirect and direct drives of biodiversity and ecosystem changes. We also projected four land-use scenarios to 2050 to test the effects of deforestation control and forest restoration practices on biodiversity and ecosystem services maintenance: the "business-as-usual" scenario (BAU), which assumes that all trends in land-use cover changes observed in the past will continue in the future, and three alternative exploratory scenarios considering the Atlantic Forest Law implementation, the partial implementation of the Forest Code and the full implementation of the Forest Code. Using the land-use maps generated for each scenario, we assessed the impacts of land-use changes on biodiversity conservation and soil retention. Our results revealed all alternative scenarios could increase biodiversity conservation (by 7%; 12%; and 12%, respectively), reduce soil loss (by 24.70%; 34.70%; and 38.12%, respectively) and sediment exportation to water (by 27.47%; 55.06%; and 59.28%, respectively), when compared to the BAU scenario. Our findings highlight the importance of restoring and conserving native vegetation for the maintenance and improvement of biodiversity conservation and for the provision of ecosystem services. ; A falta de implementação de políticas públicas voltadas para a conservação ambiental, tem resultado, em nível global, em impactos sobre a biodiversidade e o funcionamento dos ecossistemas e, consequentemente, na contribuição da natureza para as pessoas. A aplicação inadequada de importantes de leis ambientais no Brasil, como por exemplo, a "Lei da Mata Atlântica" (Lei nº 11.428 / 2006) e o "Código Florestal" (Lei nº 12.651 / 2012), podem comprometer a manutenção dos ecossistemas e dos serviços que eles fornecem. Neste estudo, nós desenvolvemos um mapa conceitual que busca identificar causas diretas e indiretas de mudanças – agentes de mudança – na biodiversidade e na provisão de serviços ecossistêmicos relacionados ao solo e à água, na Área de Proteção Ambiental (APA) Sistema Cantareira. A APA Sistema Cantareira, localizada no sudeste do Brasil, fornece água potável para 47% da Região Metropolitana de São Paulo. Além da abordagem conceitual, nós projetamos quatro cenários de mudança no uso da terra para o ano de 2050, a fim de analisar o impacto de diferentes níveis de aplicação de leis federais: o cenário "business-as-usual" (BAU), que pressupõe que as tendências na mudança de uso da terra observadas no passado continuarão no futuro, e três cenários alternativos, considerando a implementação da Lei da Mata Atlântica, a implementação parcial do Código Florestal e a implementação completa do Código Florestal. A partir dos mapas de uso da terra gerados, avaliamos os impactos de cada cenário na conservação da biodiversidade, na retenção de solos e na exportação de sedimentos para os corpos d'água. Nossos resultados mostraram que os três cenários alternativos podem aumentar a conservação da biodiversidade (em 7%; 12%; e 12%, respectivamente), reduzir a perda de solo (em 24,70%; 34,70%; e 38,12%, respectivamente) e reduzir a exportação de sedimentos para a água (em 27,47 %; 55,06%; e 59,28%, respectivamente), quando comparados ao cenário BAU. Este estudo destaca a importância da restauração e conservação da vegetação nativa para a manutenção da biodiversidade e melhoria na provisão de serviços ecossistêmicos relacionados ao solo e à água, em uma região estratégica para o abastecimento de água no Brasil. ; Fil: Dib, Viviane. Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro; Brasil ; Fil: Nalon, Marco Aurélio. Estado de São Paulo. Secretaria de Infraestrutura e Meio ambiente. Instituto Florestal; Brasil ; Fil: Amazonas, Nino Tavares. Universidade de Sao Paulo; Brasil ; Fil: Vidal, Cristina Yuri. Universidade do Sao Paulo. Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz; Brasil ; Fil: Ortiz Rodríguez, Iván A. Scuola Normale Superiore. Classe di Scienze; Italia ; Fil: Danek, Jan. Czech Academy of Sciences; República Checa ; Fil: Oliveira, Maíra Formis de. Estado de São Paulo. Secretaria de Agricultura e Abastecimento; Brasil ; Fil: Alberti, Paola. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Tucumán. Instituto de Biodiversidad Neotropical. Universidad Nacional de Tucumán. Facultad de Ciencias Naturales e Instituto Miguel Lillo. Instituto de Biodiversidad Neotropical. Instituto de Biodiversidad Neotropical; Argentina ; Fil: Silva, Rafaela Aparecida da. Universidade Federal de Goiás; Brasil ; Fil: Precinoto, Raíza Salomão. Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro; Brasil ; Fil: Gomes, Taciana Figueiredo. Universidade de Sao Paulo; Brasil
It often appears that leading politicians in Belgium consider the results of the municipal elections in the light of national polities. They stick to the thesis that the municipal poll-results, at least in the bigger towns, are more and more influenced by the constellation of the nation's politics.Is it really so that the municipal elections indicate the hearings of the national political situation ? Can one draw conclusions from the results of these elections as if they were national ones ? And can one,any how, compare municipal to parliamentary elections ? By comparison of the results of municipal elections 1964 and of parliamentary elections 1965 it was checked which shifts in party-choice havehappened during this short period of eight months. If no oscillations, or only a few, were detected between both elections, one could conclude that the municipal elections 1964 indicated indeed the hearings of the parliamentary elections 1965.Successively, the national and provincial results of these elections were compared and the party-shifts on national and provincial level were calculated.To make a relevant comparison between the election-results on a lower level, a comparable basic unity had to be found. As there were no municipal data available at parliamentary elections on one side, andonly municipal results at the municipal elections on the other side, the least possible unity for which parliamentary election-results are known, the electoral canton namely, was chosen as a comparison-basis. For that purpose however the results per party had to be additioned in all municipalities belonging to one canton.Part of the electoral cantons was unfit for use as comparison-material for two reasons : the highly varied and often strongly local-coloured political party-structure on one hand, the big number of municipalitieswithout elections on the other hand. So we were bound to make a choice out of 212 electoral cantons. Finally the cantons with a maximum of 4 municipalities were chosen, which limited the number of cantons to 28. These cantons were classified by degree of urbanisation according to the typology of W. Van Waelvelde and H. Van der Haegen.In that classification the percentages of votes in favour of the political parties, at the occasion of these elections, were tabulated and compared.The participating parties and lists were grouped as much as possible around the traditional parties to which they were most related. So we distinguish in Flanders : CVP, BSP, PVV, VU, CPB and other parties ;in the Walloon region: PSC, PSB, PLP PCB, French-speaking lists and other parties.For this analysis we also thought it was relevant to control separately the shifts of the electoral corps in the Flemish, the Walloon and the Brussels cantons. These shifts were then specified according to thedegree of urbanisation.To measure the size of the party-shifts for these elections, the external election-shift standard was calculated for the chosen Flemish, Walloon and Brussels cantons, with a special attention for the degree of urbanisation.
Finally we examined which attitude was assumed by the government, the governmental and the opposition parties, in relation to the results of the municipal 1964 elections.It appeared that some notable party-shifts had been realized during the short period between the municipal elections of 1964 and the legislative elections of 1965. In general, a certain polarization has taken place due to a centrifugal vote-shift to the left and still more to the right. The direction of vote-shifts, which had shown at the municipal elections of 1964, was affirmed at the legislative elections of 1965 and for some parties, CVP and PVV namely, it was even accentuated. The parallelism between both elections in relation to the direction of the vote-shifts did not mean however that the size of these shifts was the same everywhere. The image of the shifts was different according to linguistic region and degree of urbanisation.The analysis of the urbanisation-degree showed that the level of oscillations grew higher as the urbanisation-degree grew lower. Seen per linguistic region, the largest shifts had taken place in the Walloon cantons.
According to the calculations of the electoral shift standards during the period 1964-1965, the lowest oscillations were noted in the Flemish and Brussels cantons, i.e. the voting-behaviour of the big agglomerations during the municipal elections of 1964 were the closest to the national electoral pattern. Seen that way they were, up to a certain degree, a value-measure for the general policy.Finally the remark should be made that the limitation to the two above-mentioned elections does not allow any generalization of the obtained conclusions. The short period between those elections was itself an exceptional situation which may have been of influence on the results of the comparisons.
Background: Noise is one of the most important forms of environmental pollution among developed and developing countries. A report from UK National Study of Hearing estimated that around 440 million people suffer from noise induced hearing loss in EU countries with 1–1.6 million disability-adjusted life year lost. In China, the Second China National Sample Survey on disability in 2007 revealed that about 27.8 million people suffered from hearing impairment, and 73.4% of which (about 20 million) were diagnosed with disability. The prevalence of hearing impairment was estimated to be 2.1% in the general population, and increased to 11.0% among those aged greater than 65 years. Objective: To find out the effect of earplug on noise induced hearing loss (NIHL), as well as understanding the source and exposure of noise in the industry, to estimate the prevalence of NIHL in factories with noise exposure, to analyze relationships between NIHL and age, sex, dose and duration of occupational noise exposure, type of work, use of hearing protection products, education level and other factors. Significant risk factors identified were used to provide evidence-based recommendations in prevention and control of NIHL. Study Design: Retrospective, cross-sectional study Method: A total of 1874 workers exposed to noise in a compressor factory in Guangzhou, China were included. Between September 2011 and January 2012, physical examination including a screening program of hearing loss, pure tone audiometry test were carried out among workers including information on age, sex, work types, noise exposure level, exposure time, as well as the questionnaire about earplug using status, status of using ear products report by company, smoking status, education level, discharge of ear, history of herpes zoster, history of using ototoxic drugs, history of ear surgery, family history of NIHL, systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure. The outcome variable is the audiometric mean value which reflects hearing status of the subjects. Subgroup differences in mean value of audiometry were compared by independent sample t-test. Multiple linear regression and logistic regression models were used to evaluate associations between earplug use and NIHL, adjusted for other potential confounders. Factors associated with earplug use were also identified. Result: 1873 workers took part in the study (both physical examination and questionnaire) The prevalence of NIHL is 381 (20.3%) from study, and an average noise level of 83.5 dB was detected in the factory across different types of working place. The pure tone audiometric mean value (PTA) is 26.7 dB with a standard deviation of 4.8. The mean PTA value for those using earplug is 25.81 dB, which was significantly lower than those not using earplug with a mean PTA value of 1.54 dB (p < 0.001). A 0.962 mean difference is detected between noncontinuous earplug usage group and continuous usage group. Multiple linear regression model showed a dose response effect in use of earplug on NIHL, with an estimated mean PTA 1.49 dB (p-value <0.001) and 0.96 dB (p-value = 0.001) lower than those not using earplug at all. Hearing protective effect with part of dose response relationship is found in education level groups as well. Workers from technical school have a 5.974 dB lower of mean PTA, where the decrease is 3.909 dB in high school group, reference of primary level. Moreover, ever smokers show 1.557 dB higher on reference as nonsmoker. Other significant results can be found in family history of NIHL, ototoxic drug using, with statistical significant, respectively, with the direction of positive to NIHL, which shows harmful effect on workers' hearing. Multivariable logistic regression model is used to find out factors associated with earplug usage. In the model, higher education level is found to be associated with higher earplug usage, especially among participants from technical schools, with an adjusted odds ratio (AOR) of 34.07, whereas those from high school group have an AOR of 12.35.(With Primary school group being the reference group.) Workers whose daily tasks involve phosphorus board, punching press, compressor are found to have a relatively low percentage on earplug usage compliance, with AOR of 0.55, 0.41, 0.23 respectively. (Those from machine shops are used as the reference group.) The result is in accordance with their positive correlation on NIHL. Conclusion: Use of earplug was found to be protective to NIHL. Factors such as education level, smoking status, discharge of ear, family history of NIHL and certain types of work were found to be associated with lower risk of NIHL. To protect hearing of the workers and reduce NIHL prevalence, provision of and education on hearing protection products and supervision of continuous use of earplug in noise exposed industry should be implemented. Occupational health monitoring to the enterprises should be enhanced by health sectors of Chinese government. Due to the limitation of retrospective design of this dissertation, further cohort studies are called for to provide stronger evidence of factors' effect on NIHL. ; published_or_final_version ; Public Health ; Master ; Master of Public Health
Estimated to be worth more than 225 trillion USD in 2019, real estate is the world's largest investment class (Savills 2019). Yet, even within the same country, housing wealth is largely unequally distributed across space. Cities and high-amenity places typically account for the lion's share of it. This unequal distribution results from tension forces between the demand and supply side of the real estate market operating at the local level. On the demand side, perhaps the most crucial factor is the decision of households about where to live and work according to a variety of subjective and economic factors. Naturally, the demand for real estate concentrates in high-amenity areas. These areas are typically more productive and feature desirable characteristics such as natural amenities and proper public good provision. Unfortunately, the desire of households to increase their utility by sorting into these high-amenity areas, is not always met with a likewise propensity to supply housing in these areas. On the contrary, in many high demand areas, the supply side of the market has failed to keep up with the demand side. This has lead to skyrocketing prices and affordability issues. In that regard, the observed unequal value of real estate across space is the result of a congestion force that drives people away from more productive areas, thus imposing a burden on the whole society. A legitimate question is whether we can escape, or at least lessen, the congestion force coming from real estate markets. Many governments have tried to do so by implementing a variety of housing policies acting on both the demand and supply side of the market. Unfortunately, these policies usually neglect the local nature of the real estate and economic incentives driving the market. This has lead to unintended consequences. To understand these consequences, this thesis investigates the endogenous response of economic fundamentals in a spatial framework that accounts for the localized nature of housing demand and supply. Specifically, I employ either a theoretical structural approach featuring local areas or an empirical approach using fine-scale housing data to investigate housing supply elasticities, housing subsidies, redevelopment option value, and regulation at the local level. In Chapter 1, co-authored with Maximilian von Ehrlich and Olivier Schöni, we provide empirical evidence that increases in the periodic costs of housing lead to a larger supply response than price increases of the same percentage value. We rationalize this differential in supply responsiveness with an amplication mechanism arising from adjustments of capitalization rates to changes in the periodic costs. We document that the amplification of the housing supply price elasticity is less pronounced in geographically constrained and tightly regulated neighborhoods and areas having more sophisticated buyers. Our findings hold valuable lessons for public policies affecting the periodic cost of housing, such as rent control and housing subsidies. In Chapter 2, co-authored with Yashar Blouri and Olivier Schöni, we analyze such a public policy. Specifically, we investigate the spatially heterogeneous impact of the U.S. federal mortgage interest deduction (MID) on the location and tenure decisions of households. We develop a general equilibrium model at the county level featuring an endogenous itemization of housing subsidies. Despite being a vital tax expenditure, repealing the MID would only slightly lower homeownership rates while leaving welfare mostly unchanged. The policy is ineffective because it targets locations with congested housing markets, creating a spatial shift of the housing demand toward areas that capitalize the subsidy into higher prices. We provide evidence that a repeal of the MID is to be preferred to an increase of standard tax deductions as recently implemented under President Trump's administration. In Chapter 3, co-authored with Alex van de Minne, we analyze the impact of the redevelopment potential on commercial real estate transaction prices. First, using a probit model, we compute the fitted redevelopment potential. This potential is primarily determined by the difference in net operating income (NOI) per square foot of land (sql) to the potential highest and best use (HBU) of the property. This difference reflects the economic obsolescence of a property. Second, we run a 2SLS model with the fitted redevelopment potential as an instrument for the redevelopment dummy. We find that having a 100 percent redevelopment potential increases the property's price by nine to 17 percent. In Chapter 4, I develop a methodology and the corresponding survey to construct a land-use regulation index for over 2200 Swiss municipalities. This index documents how regulation of residential buildings varies across space. It is composed of ten sub-indices that capture the different aspects and degrees of local regulation. To develop these indices, I suggest using land-use regulation data and complementing it with answers from a comprehensive survey. These indices provide harmonized information about what local regulation entails and the local regulatory environment across municipalities
From the beginning of time, the history of man has been his struggle to obtain food. After many thousands of years, this is still a major problem which confronts the peoples of the earth. Although much food is available on earth, a great deal never benefits mankind because of deterioration and spoilage. Various kinds of spoilage cause a million tons of grain to be wasted each year. Man has learned to control and overcome some of these destructive forced through a variety of methods of food preservation. Some forms of preservation such as drying, salting, and so forth, probably have been known since the beginning of civilization. The most ancient method of food preservation, drying, was copied from nature. Early man gathered dried fruits, berries, nuts, legumes, and grains which had matured and dried on the plants. Later they used their shelters to dry food, and pre-Columbus American Indians used the heat from their fires. However, it was not until about the latter part of the eighteenth century that a hot air dehydration room was used. Much of the drying done for modern consumers is in the form of dehydration, which means artificially dried. About the same time that dehydration came into being, Nicholas Appert began work on another process of preserving food, which came to be known as canning. He received an award from Napoleon when he proved that food heated in sealed containers would not spoil if the containers were not reopened or the seal was not broken. For half a century there was no correct explanation for the success of this process until Pasteur discovered that microscopic growth caused food to spoil. It then became clear that Appert had destroyed micro-organisms by heat, and excluded their re-entry by sealing the containers. The invention of a pressure steam retort, social legislation of the Food and Drug Act, use of the common "sanitary" tin can, and research devoted to the study of nutrients in relation to the canning process have all aided significantly in creating our modern canning industry. Desrosier (7) has aptly said that food preservation practices prior to the discovery of canning were copied from nature. Canning, which has no counterpart in nature, has changed the eating habits of the western world. Although freezing was used as a method of preserving foods for centuries, the invention of a successful refrigerator in the late 1800's marked the beginning of the vast field of the modern method of refrigeration and freezing. Fish was frozen commercially as early as 1880; meats, in 1891; fruits, in 1905; and vegetables, in 1929. However, int he 1930's when modern homes contained a refrigerator, frozen foods began to find their place in commerce. It was not until 1940 that freezing assumed its rightful place as a means of preservation. To preserve foods as nearly as possible in their natural state has long been an aim of man. Each method of preservation has obvious advantages, but not one has wholly accomplished this aim. If a method could be found that preserved food without marked change in its natural characteristics, it would mean man was close to achieving his goal. Fruits and vegetables, which are very perishable, make up 40 percent of the total food consumption. Twenty-five to 50 percent of the fruits and vegetables produced to be eaten fresh, spoil before they can be consumed (45). A new method of food preservation was made possible in 1945 when the Congress of the United States passed the Atomic Energy Act. Several divisions of the Atomic Energy Commission were concerned with the application of the peaceful uses of atomic energy. In 1953, considerable research on radiation preservation of food was started on a large scale. Subjecting food to ionizing radiation has been accepted by many as an effective means of preservation. Because of the many complex problems associated with radiation sterilization, preservation by this means is not as feasible at this time as that accomplished by the low doses of radiation for pasteurization. However, there are a number of areas in these low dose treatments which show great promise for use of radiation processing of foods. 1. Conservation of grain and certain packaged products by the destruction of insect infestation. 2. The inhibition of sprouting in potatoes and other root crops. 3. The destruction of trichinae in pork and pork products. 4. The inactivation of Salmonella in egg products. 5. The extension of shelf-life of fresh fruits and vegetables, cut meats, and fresh fish. The first four areas are approaching the stage at which commercial exploitation might be considered. However, considerable research must still be pursued toward the improvement of certain radiation-treated fresh foods in regard to wholesomeness, nutritive value, color, texture, flavor, and odor. The studies presented in this thesis were conducted on the acceptability and refrigerated-life of strawberries, and sweet cherries in relation to gamma radiation dose, variety and maturity of crops and physical changes.
Elegir Carmona como tema para mi tesis doctoral no era una opción, era una cita obligada. La práctica totalidad de mi experiencia laboral e investigadora ha tenido a Carmona como objeto o como marco geográfico, desde puestos de trabajo diferentes y sobre temática histórica también diversa. Entre los numerosos temas que podía haber elegido el anfiteatro de la ciudad reúne toda una serie de características que lo hacen irresistible para un investigador. Como reto científico se adapta a la línea que en los últimos años he intentado seguir, vinculada a la arqueología de la arquitectura, a las nuevas tecnologías aplicadas a la investigación arqueológica y, por supuesto, a la arqueología de Carmona. El edificio está completamente excavado por lo que es fácil el acceso a él sin necesidad de una costosa inversión y estaba prácticamente inédito. Este anfiteatro no encaja en el modelo generalmente establecido y su forma, tamaño y cronología han planteado un problema a la comunidad científica que no ha logrado encontrarle un encaje satisfactorio en el contexto histórico actualmente establecido. El detonante definitivo para la elección de este anfiteatro como objeto de análisis vino determinado por nuestra participación en la redacción del Plan Director del Conjunto Arqueológico de Carmona (CAC) y en la reanudación de la investigación arqueológica que intenta actualizar la información arqueológica generada en los últimos 130 años. Nuestro primer contacto con los anfiteatros tuvo como objetivo el análisis de los edificios de espectáculos romanos de Écija (Carrasco y Jiménez, 2008a) que nos hizo comprender que existía un interesante campo de trabajo apenas abordado en el estudio de los edificios de espectáculos romanos y, en especial, anfiteatros y circos, desde sus orígenes hasta el final de su uso. El espectáculo nos ha hecho olvidar, a menudo, el escenario. La naturaleza de los juegos desarrollados en la arena de un anfiteatro de la antigua Roma provoca, de un lado, una extraña atracción, a veces culposa, por lo espectacular y primario de la puesta en escena de las más diversas e imaginativas formas de lucha. Espectáculos con un fin, muchas veces trágico, donde la muerte es una parte más del atrezo y destinada a mostrar, de una manera inequívoca, quien ostenta el poder, quien tiene la riqueza y quien debe someterse. Los objetivos de los juegos de anfiteatro han sido variados y evolucionaron a lo largo del tiempo, conformando una realidad mucho más compleja de lo que a veces tendemos a pensar. En un principio, la lucha era una manifestación de respeto en honor a distinguidos guerreros, extendida a lo largo del Mediterráneo en un amplio marco temporal. .Como una práctica puntual destinada a honrar a héroes de guerra pudo convertirse en un espectáculo de masas? El itinerario es rastreable desde los tiempos de la Republica, en los que se fueron gestando las condiciones y añadiendo los ingredientes que acabarían dando forma a los munera . Todo ocurrió de una manera muy rápida, a lo largo del siglo II a.C., porque ya, en los primeros años del siglo I a.C., los juegos gladiatorios son una realidad consolidada, se construyeron los primeros grandes anfiteatros y conocemos la existencia de escuelas de gladiadores como la de Capua, escenario de la famosa revuelta de Espartaco. El origen de los juegos se sumerge en un contexto anterior a la formación de la propia Roma, en el que el combate singular era una forma de mostrar la valía del guerrero y una manera de honrar a los compañeros caídos ( Liv., Per . 16). Desde la propia Ilíada hasta los relieves de guerreros ibéricos o la documentacion de interesantes pinturas con motivos de luchas en Paestum (Blázquez, 1994), que han dado lugar a pensar en la Lucania como origen de los juegos gladiatorios, realzan el valor de los guerreros en combate. Sin embargo, los juegos gladiatorios son mucho más que una demostración viril en combate singular o un manera de honrar a los caídos, son un espectáculo. Con ello, los fines de estas representaciones son muy distintos a los de las manifestaciones citadas y se vinculan más con la propaganda de los valores militares y éxitos de Roma, la humillación del vencido, el castigo ejemplar que con los de sus remotos precedentes. Y, sobre todo, era entretenimiento. Parece ser, no obstante, que en esa transición tuvo un papel relevante el ejército que uso la arena como forma de entrenamiento y de diversión para las tropas de manera que el ejército se convirtió en el principal promotor y difusor de los munera antes de convertirse en un espectáculo eminentemente civico (Welch, 2007, pp. 79–82). Lo cierto es que ya a principios del siglo I a.C. el espectáculo está conformado, coincidiendo con la aparición de los primeros anfiteatros y con las escuelas de gladiadores, una verdadera industria del espectáculo. El anfiteatro no es más que un escenario en el que se desarrollan los juegos Gladiatorio y otras actividades diversas de las que tenemos noticias a partir de los testimonios escritos de autores clásicos (Muñoz, 2012), de las representaciones en soportes diversos como epígrafes (Gómez-Pantoja, 2009), cerámicas o vidrios (Augenti, 2001; Futrell, 2009; Coulston, 2009), y del análisis arqueológico tanto de los edificios como de las armas y los restos óseos documentados. No obstante, la mayor parte de estas noticias corresponden a momentos altoimperiales, cuando los juegos estaban asentados y fueran, quizás, diferentes a las representaciones en los primeros anfiteatros republicanos. El espectáculo en el anfiteatro quedo configurado en una estructura que dejaba la mañana para las venationes y espectáculos con animales, el mediodía para las ejecuciones y la tarde para las luchas de gladiadores ( Sen. Ep. 7) (Isid ., Etym. XVIII, 52, 1 ) que Marcial describe algunos de estos espectáculos en la inauguración del Coliseo (Mart . Sp.) . El espectáculo con animales comenzó a practicarse en Roma en el único edificio cerrado capaz de albergarlos: el circo, pasando después a incorporarse al repertorio anfiteatral cuando este edificio se hubo conformado, dada la popularidad de los mismos. La lucha con animales permitía como pocos espectáculos mostrar la grandeza de la expansión de Roma y sus vastas fronteras al ensenar en la arena toda clase de animales y fieras exóticas antes nunca vistas. Estos animales formaban números de venationes cacerias que daban la oportunidad de crear paisajes en la arena y en la que se les daba caza. En otras ocasiones se enfrentaban animales entre sí en parejas o formaban parte de ejecuciones en la que los reos quedaban indefensos a disposición de las fieras. Las ejecuciones a mediodía, junto a la pena a bestias de la mañana, seguía patrones más o menos teatralizados (Mart. Sp.,7 y 8 ) o simplemente ejecuciones a espada (Sen . Ep. 7). La lucha de gladiadores se hacía por la tarde y era la parte principal del espectáculo el munus . Sería muy largo tratar aquí sobre los diferentes tipos de gladiadores, sus armas, formas de lucha y evolución en el tiempo, para lo que remitimos a la abundante bibliografía sobre el tema. Nuestro objeto principal es el anfiteatro por lo que debíamos citar al menos los tipos de espectáculos realizados en la arena cuya configuración y evolución tuvieron una gran importancia en el diseño de los anfiteatros. El anfiteatro aunaba una serie de espectáculos dispersos en diversos ámbitos de la ciudad, las venationes en el circo y los munera que se celebraban en el foro. Desde el primer momento, por lo que hemos visto en el anfiteatro de Carmona, el espectáculo estaba formalizado en la manera clásica en que lo conocemos aunque, a lo largo de su historia, fue tomando mucho protagonismo el espectáculo con fieras que conllevo el desarrollo de la fossa bestiaria y todo el complejo subterráneo que caracterizaría a los grandes anfiteatros italianos: Capua, Pozzuoli y Roma. Su vigencia fue tal que perduro hasta el final del Imperio (Jiménez Sánchez, 2001) y aun hoy persiste en cierta medida en las corridas de toros. No fue hasta el siglo I d.C. cuando empezó a generalizarse la construcción de anfiteatros para albergar los juegos, sobre todo, tras la erección del paradigmático Anfiteatro Flavio, inaugurado finalmente por el emperador Tito. Hasta entonces, lo usual, incluso en la propia Roma, era la de efectuar los munera en el foro de la ciudad o en edificios provisionales de madera (Welch, 2007, pp. 30–71). El área nuclear de los juegos gladiatorios y de la construcción de los primeros anfiteatros se sitúa en la Campania; en esta región al sur de Italia en torno a la bahía de Napoles es donde se concentran la mayor parte de los anfiteatros más antiguos conocidos y algunos de los más excelsos ejemplos arquitectónicos de esta clase de construcciones, que muy poco tienen que envidiar al coloso romano: los anfiteatros nuevos de Capua y Pozzuoli (Bomgardner, 2002, pp. 39–58). Desde esa zona nuclear, la construcción de anfiteatros se fue extendiendo por todo el territorio del imperio, con desigual incidencia y a consecuencia de dos grandes fuerzas impulsoras, el ejército y las ciudades. He aquí la primera gran división que podemos establecer entre los anfiteatros, aquellos que surgen en zonas de frontera vinculados al establecimiento de campamentos militares, entre los que encontramos numerosos ejemplos en Britania (Wilmott, 2007) o Germania (Somme, 2009), y los anfiteatros civiles, nacidos como rasgo de distinción y riqueza de las urbes más poderosas del Imperio, muchas veces gracias a la acción benefactora de personajes con grandes recursos. Las formas y tamaños de estas construcciones son también muy variadas dependiendo, no solo de la fecha de construcción, sino también de su destino, aforo y lugar. En general, son edificios que muestran, como pocos, los conocimientos matemáticos y geométricos de sus diseñadores, una puesta en obra impecable y precisa y el empleo de novedosas técnicas y materiales arquitectónicos. Todo un alarde de la edilicia que genero un tipo completamente nuevo de edificios cuya forma sigue en uso hasta hoy día (Duvernoy, 2002). La investigación de esta arquitectura requiere de una estrategia compleja, que abarque diferentes ópticas y disciplinas, que exigen intervenciones ambiciosas y, por ello, costosas. Con ello, dibujamos las líneas esenciales de lo que nos vamos a encontrar cuando analicemos los anfiteatros, pocos estudios en profundidad, con una documentación gráfica y, ante todo planimetría, insuficientes, basadas en datos obtenidos a caballo entre los siglos XIX y XX, con unos medios técnicos y unos presupuestos teóricos y metodológicos obsoletos. El presente trabajo pretende alcanzar una serie de objetivos amplios que giran en torno al anfiteatro romano de Carmona pero que amplía sus miras a un estudio generalizadode los anfiteatros e incluso enfocado al conjunto de edificios de espectáculos romanos. Estos objetivos se pueden concretar en los siguientes aspectos: * Desarrollo de una metodología de trabajo enfocada al estudio de los edificios de espectáculos romanos . Los anfiteatros han sido estudiados desde ópticas y disciplinas distintas que han dado prioridad a algunos aspectos sobre otros. Arquitectos y arqueólogos se han enfrentado a estos edificios sin la necesaria coordinación. Es necesario un método que auné las principales técnicas de ambas disciplinas para abordar el estudio de este edificio desde su diseño, su estructura y también su evolución y contexto en el que se genero. * Análisis del anfiteatro romano de Carmona . El anfiteatro romano de Carmona es una rara avis en el contexto hispano y en el del resto de anfiteatros construidos por Roma. Es un objetivo definir sus características esenciales relativas a su fecha de construcción y su evolución hasta su abandono, su forma, estructura y tamaño, cuestiones que lo hacen particular. * Estudio de la ciudad romana de Carmona y el contexto en que se construyo el anfiteatro. Que hace un edificio así en un lugar como este. Cuáles fueron los motivos y el contexto histórico que hicieron posible su edificación deben ser analizados en profundidad lo que nos dará una imagen de la ciudad algo distinta a la considerada hasta la fecha que puede reavivar el debate sobre el grado de romanización de la Carmona republicana. * Profundizar en el estudio del diseño de los anfiteatros , tanto de su planta, alzado o aforo. Una de las peculiaridades del anfiteatro es su particular forma o, quizás mejor expresado, toda una larga serie de diseños diferentes pero que parten de una forma común. Analizaremos la geometría de la planta, de los alzados, el cálculo del aforo con el fin, apenas esbozado, de agrupar diseños comunes que pueden ser sensibles a un momento cronológico concreto o a un área geográfica determinada. Todo un mundo que explorar. * Establecer las características generales de los anfiteatros republicanos para su posterior comparación con el ejemplo carmonense. El conjunto de anfiteatros romanos republicanos es una lista muy corta, con ejemplos contados y, generalmente, poco estudiados. No obstante, todos reflejan una serie de características muy similares en lo que afecta a su diseño, tamaño, estructura y contexto histórico bajo el que se crearon. * Una visión global de los anfiteatros en Hispania para establecer un marco comparativo que muestre las particularidades y elementos comunes del anfiteatro de Carmona. El anfiteatro romano de Carmona fue descubierto en 1885 a raíz de unas excavaciones arqueológicas realizadas por George Bonsor y Juan Fernández López. Sin embargo, no fue hasta la década de 1970 cuando fue completamente exhumado. No obstante, poco de esas campañas de excavaciones ha sido publicado permaneciendo, desde entonces, prácticamente inédito para la comunidad científica. Esta tesis estudia en profundidad los restos visibles de ese importante edificio y toda la documentación historiográfica y arqueológica derivada de sus sucesivas excavaciones. Realizamos un análisis comparativo con los anfiteatros tardorrepublicanos diseminados en toda la cuenca mediterránea y, especialmente, en la Península Itálica. Asimismo, hacemos un recorrido por los anfiteatros romanos documentados en Hispania y, más concretamente, en la Bética. El resultado descubre el que es hasta la fecha el anfiteatro más antiguo de la Península Ibérica, un auténtico prototipo emparentable con los primeros anfiteatros itálicos. Este anfiteatro tiene su razón de ser en la Carmona del siglo anterior a nuestra era cuando la ciudad fue sede recurrente para el asentamiento de grandes contingentes de tropas romanas y se convirtió de facto en la capital militar del suroeste peninsular antes de la reorganización administrativa romana y foco de romanización. La tesis se estructura en seis capítulos. En el primero establecemos los antecedentes y metodología empleada. El segundo capítulo se dedica a analizar el contexto arqueológico de la ciudad de Carmona haciendo un especial énfasis en analizar los últimos datos sobre la Carmona en época romana. También se analizan los restos arqueológicos del Conjunto Arqueológico de Carmona en el que se inserta el anfiteatro. El capítulo tercero hace una revisión historiográfica del monumento y entra en profundidad en el análisis de las excavaciones arqueológicas realizadas en el edificio: Las de Bonsor y Fernández López en 1885, las de Fernández-Chicarro en la década de 1970 y la última intervención realizada en 2011. El capítulo cuarto está destinada al estudio del edificio donde analizamos su forma general, describimos cada una de sus partes, su diseño y su evolución a lo largo de la vida del edificio, complementado con un estudio de su funcionamiento y finalizando con la simulación tridimensional de su aspecto. El capítulo quinto se centra en la discusión sobre el diseño de los anfiteatros, las formas ovales y elípticas que conformaron su planta y las diferentes opciones para el diseño de su fachada y cálculo del aforo. Comparamos nuestro anfiteatro con los otros edificios republicanos documentados hasta la fecha y con los anfiteatros conocidos en la Hispania romana. El capítulo sexto resume las conclusiones de la tesis. El documento se acompaña de la bibliografía citada y un conjunto de planos para la mejor comprensión de la tesis desarrollada.
Abstract UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Surabaya is the Technical Services Unit are carrying out Development and Small and Medium Industries Development and Human Resources through Technical Training in the field of Management, Technology, Production Process, Standards, Environment and Information. In improving the performance of the employees in that agency with the necessary changes in work procedures to improve leadership. There are so many ways to improve performance by way of leadership, from the nature of good leadership through effective leadership style so that employees can change their way of working. Because this company is a government company is bona fide and generates revenue from all areas of the required procedures for working very well ordered. Improve the ability and quality of work that the company will then be developed. Manage, serve and process are all ways good leadership to improve employee performance. Keyword:Employee,Leader, Introduction Nowadays, many people decide to become a leader. They do competition to find new innovation for their leadership and they want to be different with other leadership that had already started first. In the work of world every leader must be ready to get complain from their employees. Leadership itself is a person who has the skills or strengths, in particular skill or ability in a field that he is able to influence other to jointly undertake specific activities for the achievement of one or more goalsIntensive competition requires that manufacturers to be competitive with other manufacturers worldwide. Each company must be able to be effectively and efficiently to build an effective performance in order to achieve goals and success, then various components contained in a company should be run according with the objectives to be achieved. One component that has role very important is human resources, which is the leader/supervisor and employee/subordinates. Leadership is an organization or business. The leader of the organization must be able to use its authority in changing the attitudes and behavior of employees that want to work hard and wish to achieve optimal results. Leadership style leaders used can effect thoughts, feeling, attitudes and behavior members of the organization/subordinate (Nawawi, 2003). The sense of satisfaction in the work then the individual will display good personal organization, positive performance satisfactory companies and raised a willingness to undertake the level of labor productivity high for the organization and for improving achievement goals. The few things that can be identified from the dissatisfaction is absenteeism at work, lazy, malingering, absent from work, events strike, the use of time is not efficient and an even worse quit his job. Leadership can good or bad influence organizational climate, which in turn will direct impact on the effectiveness of the work of his subordinate. This leads to leaders must be able to create a conducive organizational climate that achieve job satisfaction, which in turn have an impact on the achievement of objectives organizational. Symptoms employee dissatisfaction can be seen from the absence of harmonious relation between the parties led to the employee, which is the leader less attention to the rights of the employees. For that leader has a very important role in improving job satisfaction employees. Based on the above, the study of the relationship style leadership and employee job satisfaction is very important to do. Definition of Leadership Leadership is one of the function of management human resources that make other people resolve work, maintaining morale and motivate subordinates (Dessler, 1997). From time to time the leadership of an attention to human, human being because of the leadership needed the limitation and advantages of certain human. On the one hand, man limited his ability to lead in other hand there are people who have excess capacity to lead. Here is the emergence of the need for leaders and leadership. Leadership the art of influencing other to directing the will, ability and effort in achieving goal leader. Leadership as an art show that activities affect others are individual, it is not the same way people or pattern between the leaders with one other. Therefore, an effective leader must be able to make purpose as the purpose of the organization, or otherwise make organizational goals into objectives and the ability of leaders lead it should result in all members of the organization felt that the purpose of the organization as a common goal. Mc Gregore in Agus Dharma (1992) says that scouting realize organizational goals and effectiveness when purpose of the organization is supported by all parties in the organization. Leadership is the power to move people and yourself toward a goal or vision particular, as well as power to transform the mobile community. Leadership the power to move people toward a goal or certain dreams. Obviously, there is someone who can move people toward a goal without it should be a true leader, but only a provocateur, even manipulator. Therefore, in addition to causing the motion, a leader is also a person who is able to produce a change or transformation in those he leads, he themselves and the system or community to which they belong. Thus, we recognize a true leader or not of the presence of motion and changes factors (A movement and Transformation Leader) as a prerequisite. Leadership is more detailed in Yulk (1998) is a process of influence, that influence the interpretation about events for followers, the choice of targets for group or organization, organization of work activities to achieves these objectives, the motivation of the followers to achieving goals, maintaining cooperation and team work, and obtaining the support and cooperation of the people who are outside the group or organization. According to Chandra (2005) a leader is a can create a situation in which his followers to step by step move towards their agreed upon with voluntary. Under this view, it is clear that a follow the leader because of his vision, mission formulation or target work. They believe in the leadership because what you want to accomplish along with his followers is a good a clear. They chose to follow because of the leaders are able to explore what has been unconsciously their dreams. This is a major factor determining success of a leader. According Arep and Cape (2002) leadership is properties that should be possessed by a leader, who in it is application to the person of consequences leaders are as follows: must take their own decision explicitly and precisely (decision making), must have the courage to accept this risk themselves, should dare to accept it is own responsibility (the principle of absolute of responsibility). Leadership Effectiveness Understanding of the effectiveness by John Ivancevich Nawawi (2003) is an assessment made in relation to achievement of individuals, groups and organization. The closer the achievement achieved with the expected performance, the more effective assessment of individuals, groups and organizations. By Drucker in Nawawi (2003), the effectiveness is to implement the right (doing the right), an achievement, effectiveness often described as "doing something right" means an activity or work that helps an organization reach the target. The effectiveness of leadership based on the theory of leadership situational (Contingency Theory). In practice, this view assume that no one leader is consistently using particular leadership style regardless of the situation it facts. This is, person's leadership effectiveness depend on its ability to "read" the situation faces and adjust his style to the situation such a way that it effectively perform these function leadership (Siagian, 2003). The success of a leader is that if he can adjust your leadership style to the situation at hand. Situational leadership as well as taking into account factors conditions, time and space play role in a determining the choice of appropriate leadership style. So the effectiveness of leadership a person is determined by the ability to recognize to appropriate nature of the conditions it faces, whether the condition contained in organization and conditions that are outside the organization but have an impact on the course of the organization (Siagian, 2003). In other words, situational leadership theory assumes no single behavioral or leadership style that can affect human behavior or members of the organization to act, to do or work in all situations. Effective leaders have the behavior or leadership style that is flexible able to diagnose situation and use behaviors or styles leadership according to the circumstances they face (Nawawi, 2003). Nature and Characteristics of Leadership According to A.Dale Timpe (1991) there are eight (8) properties improve their productivity:The ability to concentrate, The emphasis on the value of a simple, Always hang out with people, Avoid artificial professionalism, Managing change, Select the people, Avoid doing all by yourself, Dialing with failure. According to Kantz in Nawawi (2003) three characteristic effective leaders are: 1) Have the technical skills such as the ability to apply specialized knowledge in the form of skills in the art. 2) Having the human skills that include the ability work together, understand and be able to motivate others, both of individual or groups. 3) Conceptual skills such as the ability of mental or intellectual to analyze and diagnose complex situation, in particular the time to take a decision. Similarly, according to Browers and Seashore (2003) suggest three characteristic of effective leaders, consisting of: a) Support the behavior of leaders who demonstrate to ability to enhance self-esteem and feeling that are considered important by others especially that people they lead. b) Ease of interaction of leader behaviors that stimulate, member organizations to develop relationship intimate and mutually satisfying. c) Ease of work that is a leader in helping behavior members carry out the work achieve the goals, through activity of job scheduling, coordination, planning, provision of resources such as equipment, labor, material or ingredients work and technical knowledge in the work. Terms and Character of the Leader According Arep and Cape (2002), an outline of a leader should ideally have three general categories, namely: 1) The ability to analyze and draw appropriate conclusions. He must be able to analyze something of a problem, situation or particular set of circumstances and draw conclusions appropriate. 2) The ability to develop an organization and can selecting, and placing the right people to fill position in the organization. 3) The ability to create such a way that the organization concerned running smoothly towards goals, ideals and the decision of higher level to the subordinates, that the goals and the decisions that are acceptable properly. Leadership Strategy Efforts to streamline the organization's leadership must performed by using a strategy that guarantees the highest ability to achieve organizational goals. Strategy such leadership requires the ability to implement leadership functions effectively and efficiently in order to get support, without losing the respect, awe and obedience of all the members of the organization. The main strategy will only be realized if leaders in the running of social interaction with members of the group, showing the ability to understand, concerned and involved in the issues, and organization and its members. Leadership functions according to Nawawi (2003) are: Decision making function, functions of instruction, consultative function, delegates participatory function. a) Decision function Organization will only move dynamically if the leader have the power or ability to perform authority as decision-makers who will or should carried out by members of the organization. For that decision require courage because any definite decision at risk, especially if the process or mechanism is not meet the demands of the decision-making strategy implementation leadership, to be more accurate in leadership for streamline the organization, a leader must include members of the organization, according to the position and responsibilities. Inclusion can be done by provides an opportunity to provide input, such as creativity, initiatives, suggestion, opinions and feedback. Function instruction is order from a leader to realize the organization effect must be clear, both on the content terms and language that should be adjusted to the level skills or education of members who receive orders. Effective leaders don't need to be emotionally error in executing command members. Leaders must be willing to look for the causes of errors, both in execution of the order on him as well as possible caused by a lack of clear leadership in providing orders. In giving the order should be followed as well to give an explanation to members of the organization will carry on the impact or consequences that would occurs when in command is done in correctly. Thus, it can be expected to be more careful execution of the command caution and careful, because a warrant maybe quite difficult for the implementing organization members. Consultative function is streamline the organization every leader must be prepared and willing to provide opportunity for member organization to consult in resolving the issues related to work and it is not impossible to consult on issues related to personal directly or indirectly to the job. Consultative function can also mean members of the organization were opportunity convey criticism, advice, information and opinions related to the job and the organization. This function is useful for improvement leadership, especially for new decision making, thus can improve leadership in effecting organization. Participatory function is the ability of leaders to include members of the organization according to position and authority in order to participate actively in relevant activities, can be realized through work in teams to reduce individual. Willingness shoot leaders and leaders below for participate in helping member organization carry work or resolve the problem faced by provide guidance, direction, discuss, resolve urgent work together. Delegatife function is every leaders need and has power or authority and responsibility should be implemented properly, appropriately and correctly, the leader must be able to divide the work and delegation of authority, and responsibilities in timely execution of the work and fair, as well as in decision making in accordance limit the power and responsibility that has been delegated. Control in Leadership Control in leadership do to keep that effect in the activities of members of the organization has always focused on mutually agreed goals. Control also significantly members of the organization to prevent and avoid activities that deviate from the goals of the organization. If to achieve a purpose, leaders have set up a way, but in implementation found a new, more effective and possible goals can be achieved more quickly, as well as risks low, then the leader must make decisions specify the use of the new method. Control activities in leadership must start the clarity of the objectives to be achieved by the organization, either leader and members of the organization. Organizational goals perceived as a common goal can be used intensively activities affect thought, feeling, attitudes and behaviors, through the direction of the members of the organization. Activity organizing the control is carried out by dividing duty or authority and responsibility into practice. The division of task is followed by its implementation by every member of organizations that have been implemented should be decided continue to perform the role of the controlled trough coordination, monitoring and redirection. So leader effective for activities that have been implemented should be decided continue to perform the role of the controllers so that the activities do not deviated from it is original purpose. Research Methodology Data can be a company's working hours for employees. This data then needs to be processed and converted into information. If the hours worked per employee is then multiplied by the value per-hour, it will produce a certain value. If the picture of each employee's earnings and then added together, will result in recapitulation salary to be paid by the company. Payroll is the information for the owner of the company. Information is the result of a process of existing data, or data that can be interpreted as having meaning. Information will unlock everything that is unknown. Basically, this research is categorized as qualitative research, since the data are in the form of words or sentences which are separated according to each category in order to get the conclusion (Arikunto, 1996:243). In this study, entitled "Leadership in Improving Employees' Performance in UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Surabaya". Based on the question "How does the leader role in improving the employees' performance?" and "How the employees' performance can be improved through the leader role?" Qualitative data is data in the form of words or in the form of verbal statements, not the robin figures. The qualitative data obtained through a variety of data collection techniques such as interviews, document analysis, focus group discussions, or observations that have been set forth in the court record (transcript). Another form of qualitative data was obtained through shooting images or video footage. Qualitative data include: 1. Inductive, which is based on one or a number of specific data to derive a conclusion by way of generalization, or analogy or causal relationship 2. Deductive, which is a process of thinking which is based on an existing propositions to acquire new proposition as the conclusion to the syllogism, the argument consisting of three propositions (the major premise, minor premise and conclusion or conclusions) 3. Comparative namely by outlining the similarities and differences between the two data objects under study. Subjects in this study were all employees. Researchers from the source there are 43 employees working in various industries and Crafts UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Surabaya. On the subject of this study, researchers led to all employees in order to improve their performance with the leadership role that will be applied. Leadership effectiveness is influenced by many diverse and varied, several factors related to leadership effectiveness, among other: task structure, leadership awareness of employees, skills and leadership skills, leadership traits superior and subordinate relationships, management support and human resources, a position of power, subordinate effort, behavior management and external coordination, of those factors when analyzed can be made a set of factors is smaller than the initial factors, namely: leadership factors, factors boss and subordinates and environmental factors. Based on these factors can be seen how the relationship with the leadership of subordinates in decision making and problem solving. Leadership style reflect the relationship in this study is how the leader relates to subordinates in order to improve the performance of the good and positive in an institution. Effective leadership that is able to run by leaders. Will be able to streamline the organization and increase employee productivity. With the respect to this benchmark in studying leadership in effective institutions can be seen from: achieving the institution itself, employee satisfaction and development of the company itself. So, if the factors of leadership effectiveness can be carried out well and the leadership is able to apply his leadership style according to the situation and condition is going to reach benchmark of effective leadership, it has been demonstrate effective leadership and employee productivity indirectly itself will increase. Data and information collection is a process of obtaining data and preparing useful to describe that result of data collected to be use as information, for example as part of a process improvement or similar project. The purpose of data collection is to obtain information to keep on way, to make decisions about the important issues, and also to give information on the others in specific topic. In general the data collection is to answer the problems that will be discussed as well as provide information about the problem and issues. In this study the data of things that can be applied by employees is the attitude of leadership, responsibility and attitude performance. All that can be applied when the employee aware of the importance of improved performance in an institution. The effect of the attitude of a leader can also affect how the performance of its employees whether they are good or bad. Therefore, a good attitude and decisive leadership is needed in the soul of a leader so that the performance of employees and leaders to get maximum results. By applying the managerial role of the leader in the employee's performance is expected to improve the performance of employees in a company or institution. Employees can apply the leadership that has been adopted by leaders in the office working on a task or attitude in the office everyday. Given such, will appear sustainable attitude among employees and leaders that will create a good performance. The research instrument is any equipment that is used to acquire, manage, and interpretation information from the respondents who performed the same measurement pattern. Research instrument designed for one purpose and cannot be used in another study. Peculiarities of every object of research led to a researcher must design their own instrument used. Arrangement for each research instrument is not always the same as the other studies. This is because the purpose and mechanism of action in any research techniques also vary. Several types of instruments in the study were as follows: 1) Test The test is a series of questions or exercises or other tools used to measure the skills, measurement, intelligence, ability or talent possessed by individuals or groups. 2) Questionnaire or questionnaires Questionnaires are a number of written questions used to obtain information from respondents in terms of their personal statements, or the things that he knew. 3) Interview (interview) Interview is used by researchers to assess the state of a person, for example to find data on student background variables, the elderly, education, attention, attitude towards something. 4) Observation In the sense that observational studies are conducted direct observations, observations can be done with the test, questionnaire, range images, and sound recordings. Observation contains a list of the types of activities that may arise and will be observed. 5) Graduated scale (ratings) Rating or a graduated scale is a measure of the scale, subjective made. Although this produces a graduated scale data rude, but enough to give specific information about the program or person. This instrument can easily provide an overview of performance, especially in the performance of duty, which shows the frequency of appearance of the properties. In preparing the scale, which needs to be considered is how to define a variable scale. What is in question should be what can be observed respondent. 6) Documentation Documentation, from the origin of the document, which means that the written stuff. In exercising methods of documentation, research investigating the written objects such as books, magazines, documents, regulations, minutes of meetings, and so on. Register questionnaire is a series of questions posed to the respondents in order to collect information from respondents about the object being studied, either in the form of opinions, responses, or himself. As a research instrument, then these questions should not deviate from the direction that will be achieved by the proposed project, which is reflected in the formulation of hypotheses. Thus the list of questions that must be filed with the tactical and strategy so as to filter out the information required by the respondent. Questions raised by the respondent should be clear formula, so researchers will receive the right information from the respondents. Because the respondent and the interviewer can interpret the meaning of a sentence different from the intent of researchers, so that the contents of the question cannot be answered precisely. Besides, it should also be noted that where the direction is achieved, given no clear direction may not be able to formulate a list of questions adequately. Compile a draft list of questions is actually a collective work across research team members. Involvement of all members of the research team will contribute research instrument construction completion. Steps in compiling a list of questions are determination of the required information, determination of the data collection process, preparation of the research instrument, testing instrument research. Result and Discussion Basically a company or institution can run smoothly when it has a strong foundation. And foundation here in question is a leader. When a leader has a dominant role in the company or institution, then the employees will follow the rules and will get good results in the form of improved performance. Therefore, there is no doubt that the role of leadership can improve employee performance. The Leader Role in Improving Employees' Performance The role of leadership is crucial in a job. Who first determined is to choose a leader who can truly lead a company or institution. When we get a leader who deserves to lead the leader must have a vision and mission for the welfare of its employees by way of improving the performance of employees. A leader does not have to give orders to his subordinates or employees to do something, but by way of an example, the employee will follow what their leaders are doing as long as it's true. The employees' performance can be improved through leader role Leadership is one of the issues in the management which is still interesting enough to be discussed until today. Mass media, both electronic and print, often featuring opinion and conversation discuss about leadership. Leadership role and strategic importance to the achievement of the mission, vision and goals of an organization, is one of the motives that drive people to always investigate the intricacies associated with leadership. Quality of leadership is often regarded as the most important factor in the success or failure of the organization as well as the success or failure of a business-oriented organizations in both the public and, generally perceived as a success or a failure of leadership. Once the importance of the issue of the role of the leader so that the leader be the focus of interest to researchers in the field of organizational behavior. Organizations that succeed in achieving its objectives and be able to fulfill its social responsibility will depend on the leadership. When the leader is able to perform well, it is possible that the organization will achieve its goal. An organization needs an effective leader, who has the ability to influence the behavior of its members or subordinates. Leadership style is a way used by a leader in influencing the behavior of others. Leadership style is the norm of behavior that is used by a person when the person is trying to influence the behavior of others. Each style has advantages and disadvantages. A leader will use the appropriate leadership style and personality skills. Every leader in providing care to foster, promote and direct all potential employees in the environment have different patterns with each other. The difference is caused by different leadership styles also vary from each leader. Correspondence between leadership styles, norms and organizational culture is seen as a key prerequisite for the successful achievement of organizational goals. Leader etymologically derived from the word "pimpin" (lead) means guided or guided, so in which there are two parties that led (the people) and the lead (priest). Having added the prefix "pe" to "leader" (leader) means those who influence others through the process of communication so that the authority of the act is something other people achieve specific goals. Is a leader who has the ability to influence individuals and groups can work together to achieve the intended purpose. Hendry in Kartini Kartono Pratt Fairchild (2006:38-39) argues that leaders in the broad sense is a person who leads by way of initiating social behavior by regulating, indicating, organize or control efforts / attempts of others or through prestige, power or position. Anagora (1992) in Harbani (2008:5) argues, that leadership is the ability to influence others, through communication either directly or indirectly, with the intention to drive people to the understanding, awareness and happy to follow the will of the leadership of the leadership is defined as the process of influencing and directing a variety of tasks related to the activities of the group members. Leadership is also defined as the ability to affect a variety of strategies and objectives, the ability to influence the commitment and devotion to duty in order to achieve common goals and capabilities affect the group in order to identify, nurture and develop organizational culture (Stogdill in Stoner and Freeman 1989: 459-460). Elements of leadership according to Stogdill is he involvement of members of the organization as a follower, distribution of power among the leaders of member organizations, legitimacy granted to followers, leaders influence followers through a variety of ways. Leadership is an activity to influence the behavior of others so that they would be directed to achieve certain goals. Leadership is defined as the ability to move or motivate some people to simultaneously perform the same activities and focused on achieving the goal. From the above, it is basically a leader who has the ability to move others and be able to influence that person to do something in accordance with the goals to be achieved. Conclusion Leadership is one of the function of management human resources that make other people resolve work, maintaining morale and motivate subordinates (Dessler, 1997). From time to time the leadership of an attention to human, human being because of the leadership needed the limitation and advantages of certain human. On the one hand, man limited his ability to lead in other hand there are people who have excess capacity to lead. Here is the emergence of the need for leaders and leadership. The success of a leader is that if he can adjust your leadership style to the situation at hand. Situational leadership as well as taking into account factors conditions, time and space play role in a determining the choice of appropriate leadership style. So the effectiveness of leadership a person is determined by the ability to recognize to appropriate nature of the conditions it faces, whether the condition contained in organization and conditions that are outside the organization but have an impact on the course of the organization (Siagian, 2003). In other words, situational leadership theory assumes no single behavioral or leadership style that can affect human behavior or members of the organization to act, to do or work in all situations. Effective leaders have the behavior or leadership style that is flexible able to diagnose situation and use behaviors or styles leadership according to the circumstances they face (Nawawi, 2003). In this study the data as the information needed to give an overview of the research. Data is something that does not have any meaning for the recipient and is still in need of a treatment. In this case, the data can be regarded as an object and a subject of the information is useful for the recipient. Information can also be caled as a result of processing or data processing. Quality of leadership is often regarded as the most important factor in the success or failure of the organization as well as the success or failure of a business-oriented organizations in both the public and, generally perceived as a success or a failure of leadership. Once the importance of the issue of the role of the leader so that the leader be the focus of interest to researchers in the field of organizational behavior. Organizations that succeed in achieving its objectives and be able to fulfill its social responsibility will depend on the leadership. When the leader is able to perform well, it is possible that the organization will achieve its goal. An organization needs an effective leader, who has the ability to influence the behavior of its members or subordinates. Thus, a leader or head of an organization will be recognized as a leader if he can have an influence and capable of directing his subordinates towards the achievement of organizational goals. Suggestion Expectations of the employees are in the presence of a wise leader and able to adjust the structure of the company or institution can work to change the existing errors in the body corporate. In the end, that the existence of a leadership role within a company or institution can improve and enhance the performance of employees and can form a good partnership between employees and management. REFERENCE Peraturan Gubernur Jawa Timur, 2008, Organisasi dan Tata Kerja Unit Pelaksanaan Teknis Dinas Perindustrian dan Perdagangan Provinsi Jawa Timur, Surabaya. Prayoga, Sondra, 2011, The Role of Exhibition to Increase Foreign and Domestic Market Activity TIU (Technical Implementation Units) REPTC (Regional Export Training and Promotion Center) of East Java. http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/DEKRANASDA www.google.com www.blogspot.com
The book provides a thorough review of current food safety and sanitation information with practical applications of current research findings included. The book surveys and examines the prevailing research and applications and reviews specific operational issues such as power or water emergencies. It also covers food safety and sanitation in various environments, such as restaurants, schools, and fairs and festivals. It is multidisciplinary in that it comprises culinary, hospitality, microbiology, and operations analysis. Topics include: Importance of food safety in restaurants; History of food safety regulation in restaurants; Microbiological issues; What happens during a restaurant food safety inspection; Legislative process, regulatory trends, and associations; Legal issues for food safety; Differences in the food safety perception of consumers, regulatory officials, and employees; What restaurants should do during power or water emergencies; Front of the house sanitation and consumers' perceptions of food safety; Social media and food safety risk communication; Food safety in farmers' markets; Food safety at fairs and festivals.
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