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Honduras has experienced moderate economic growth in the past decade, in line with the rest of the region. Despite this growth track record, limited opportunities for decent jobs for the majority of workers have resulted in stagnant poverty and inequality rates that are still the highest in Central America (CA). In parallel, progress in human development indicators has also been mixed in the last decade. In education, while primary enrollment has significantly increased, low coverage at all other levels of education, inequalities in access and low quality persist. In health, Honduras is close to achieving the 2015 child mortality Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), but maternal mortality, noncommunicable diseases (NCDs), and violence pose additional challenges. And despite advances in setting up a social protection system, fiscal sustainability and lack of coordination among interventions prevail, undermining poverty reduction efforts. The ability of the Honduras government to expand safety nets, to increase the access and quality of public education and health services, to engage in active labor market policies, and to improve human development indicators in general, remains limited for a number of reasons. First, overall real social public spending has been on the decline in the last few years. Second, low revenues and fiscal deterioration pose challenges to adequately financing needed social sector improvements. Third, challenges in budget formulation and execution (mainly due to institutional factors) also diminish the impact of social spending. But more importantly, Honduras needs to significantly improve the effectiveness and efficiency of its social spending. This note argues that moving forward Honduras should prioritize three main aspects: a) to rationalize and increase the effectiveness of social public spending by enhancing the pro-poor features of targeting mechanisms; b) to significantly redress the imbalance between recurrent spending, especially the wage bill, and capital expenditure; and c) to continue strengthening information systems tools, legislation, and institutions in an effort to consolidate programs into fewer and higher impact interventions. Sector-specific challenges aligned with these broad objectives are addressed below.

With hundreds of cities declaring climate emergencies, there is little evidence about successful climate adaptation and its upscaling. In parallel to the case for adaptation, there is also a distinct need to mitigate climate change, reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Exploring synergies and trade-offs between adaptation and mitigation, a third concept – resilience (and resilience thinking) – is a perspective that can scrutinise adaptation and tie it to mitigation. Which adaptation, to what, and how do we measure the success or fallacy of adaptations to climate change in cities? Adapting to what? The growing awareness of "compound risks"While it seems we are becoming accustomed to news alerts in the manner of "this summer was the hottest of the last decade", the first images of Spanish or Italian mountains with no snow throughout the winter but blizzards in June should make us wake up to the fact that scientists' evidence about the Mediterranean being the fastest-warming region in the world is something we should be deeply concerned about. Far from being just something unusual about the weather, global warming is impacting our lives in many ways. To begin with, it is worth clarifying that climate change is not one risk, but a "risk multiplier", affecting our built environment, our life routines, our economies and our dependencies on local and distant resources.Apart from all the scientific literature, data and evidence, which may be too specialised for the broader public, there is a global awakening on the part of governments regarding regulations requiring official "disclosures of climate risks" from organisations, businesses and investors (see the recent UK or US Securities and Exchange Commission rules). This should grab our attention, because it finally means that climate change and its risks are not just one topic of concern, but a new normal to actively address in the course of our business, contracts or lives.The European Environment Agency (EEA) just released the first ever "European Climate Risk Assessment" report (EEA, 2024). What is interesting here is to see how indeed every single climate risk analysed across the five clusters (on food, ecosystems, health, infrastructure, and economy and finance) has a dedicated section on "risk cascades", highlighting how every risk is linked to a chain of other stresses and vulnerabilities (on which our life support system relies). The emergence and recognition of what are called "compound effects" (linkages between different climatic and non-climatic drivers of change that culminate with a high climate impact) was already mentioned in 2014 (in Chapter 19 "Emergent Risks and Key Vulnerabilities" of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report). When wildfires hit Portugal, Spain and Greece last year, those were compound effects of a heatwave, long-term vegetation stress and human negligence in managing forests and agriculture, resulting in hundreds of thousands of hectares burnt and dramatic socio-economic losses. A compound risk is also when, in our case near Barcelona, we have an economy living off coastal summer tourism, dependent on villas with private swimming pools near densely occupied beaches that are poorly connected to highways in a region suffering from drought and water shortage, as well as stressed vegetation. These vulnerable socio-economic patterns of development are the perfect ingredients for a compound effect both in the short and long term when a heatwave or a fire strikes.While IPCC scientists focused their attention more on how multiple climate hazards interact when they addressed compound risks, other scientists focus on the interaction and cascade effects between climate hazards and many other ecological, economic and sociocultural risks and vulnerabilities (Simpson et al., 2021). Such complexity calls for urgent improvements in climate risk assessments internationally (Arribas et al., 2022) because "existing constraints in current climate risk assessments make them inappropriate to effectively assess the true exposure of society and businesses" (Arribas et al., 2022: 4326), especially when laws start to require businesses and organisations to provide disclosures (thus assessment and evaluation) of climate risks. What we are learning from this state of play is that our exposure to them goes beyond rain, drought or temperature impacts. The EEA (2024) states that climate impacts compromise the ability of EU policies to meet their objectives, since most of the policy areas are directly or indirectly exposed to climate risks, while existing climate policies are insufficient to manage most of them.Are cities making enough progress on adaptation?Understanding and reporting progress in terms of adaptation has always been a challenge. There are many sources providing the state of the art on cities' performance in adapting to climate change, from assessing the quality of climate plans to climate governance mainstreaming within urban policies, and indicators measuring the results of implementation.Starting from what is perhaps the easier way of assessing progress, scientists have developed different qualitative evaluation frameworks for climate plans. In Europe, for example, there is a group of 40+ leading scholars collaborating through the EURO LCP (Local Climate Planning) initiative. They gathered most of the European cities' climate plans (885) across 28 countries and are delivering consistent quality assessments of them. The last comprehensive review of the 885 plans highlighted a north-south "divide" regarding the quality of the plans, which were addressing mitigation only (66%), adaptation only (26%) or both mitigation and adaptation (17%) (Reckien et al., 2018). At that time, six years ago now, apart from seeing mitigation as the main domain of climate action as against adaptation or integrated approaches, there was also a clear pattern correlating large cities with quality planning (or at least the presence of a climate plan). A total of 80% of the cities of more than 500,000 inhabitants had a strategy, while only one third of smaller cities (between 50,000 and 100,000 inhabitants) had a climate plan. According to the most recent study using the ADAQA (ADAptation plan Quality Assessment) framework, the evolution of the quality of urban climate adaptation plans over time is not so encouraging (Reckien et al., 2023). While half of the 327 plans analysed (assessing the progress of adaptation in those cities from 2005 to 2020) improved in overall terms, i) participation and monitoring aspects of plans are generally very weak; ii) consistency in connecting vulnerabilities and adaptation goals was also weak in most of them; and iii) the attention given to the most vulnerable groups decreased when looking at the implementation promised by the plans. This latter aspect is perhaps the worst one if we look at it from an ethical and political perspective since "climate plans focus more on impacts and risks of vulnerable sectors and industries than on the needs of vulnerable groups of citizens" (Reckien et al., 2023:8).Such a discouraging (European) climate planning overview recently received a boost from the European institutions through the establishment of enabling policies to accelerate local level action: the EU Adaptation Strategy, introduced in 2021. The strategy prepared the ground for making Europe the first climate neutral continent, with the European Climate Law writing the climate neutrality target for 2050 into a binding legal obligation for all member states. However, what do we know about the actual implementation of this strategy? Apart from academic literature, EEA Report 14/2023 entitled "Urban adaptation in Europe: what works? Implementing climate action in European cities" sheds some light on the dubious climate action performance. This 230-page report explores the governance, financial, technological, physical, nature-based and knowledge and behavioural solutions, presenting good practices across Europe, but also putting forward hypotheses on how to enhance climate action, since all the chapters candidly reveal the limitations of the solutions and the challenges of upscaling. While identifying sustainable political commitment, integrated and adaptive governance, peer learning and citizen engagement, effective use of knowledge and data, and sustained funding as enabling conditions for climate action, the report states in its conclusion: "we still miss the tools to be able to say whether real progress is being made or not and if the wide range of individual actions being taken by cities are really making an impact at the continental scale. Progress is being made, but it is clearly not yet enough" (EEA 14/2023: 198).The technicalities of the challenges of tracking adaptation and its performances are complex, as there is an ongoing debate whether outcome rather than output indicators should monitor adaptation and the International Platform on Adaptation Metrics (IPAM) has been recently launched in this regard. However, there is a more pertinent reflection on the reasons why climate action is so difficult to implement in an efficient way. It goes hand in hand with the concept of our "risk society" (as Ulrich Beck and Anthony Giddens named it back in the 1980s). In the light of the above-mentioned compound and cascade risks, knowing that we live in a society constantly exposed and vulnerable to multiscale risks, "what or who should adapt to what?". In other words, and to be more precise, we all know that it is better to adapt and fix the origin of the risk cascade than to address and adapt to its consequences, but sometimes adapting to the consequences is a better short-term political goal than launching into the political suicide of changing the deep root causes of problems. I will delve deeper into these adaptation fallacies threatening the effectiveness of climate action in the next sections.Adaptation, mitigation and "maladaptation": why do we so easily mismanage the two sides of the same coin?If from one side we addressed straight adaptation and its challenges, there is an easier way to address climate change, which was indeed how climate action began some 30 years ago: through the concept of sustainability and climate change mitigation (greenhouse gas emissions reduction). As noted in the review of European climate plans (Reckien et al., 2018), most of the plans tackled mitigation. While assessing the goal of reaching $100bn of climate finance per year in developing countries, the OECD revealed in 2022 that only $83bn had been raised, of which adaptation finance – increasing year after year, from $16.9bn in 2018 to $20.3bn in 2019 and $28.6bn in 2020 – still pales in comparison to the $48.6bn for mitigation. But why are we comparing and contrasting mitigation and adaptation if both are part of climate action? These concepts, and respective agendas, were launched as separate goals within the same mission of fighting climate change, and although the IPCC has been calling for integration since 2008, most climate action still operates in silos.The work in silos, also reflected by the European Union (EU) through the creation of Mission Net Zero Cities (a platform for climate change mitigation) as against another platform for Mission Adaptation, reveals the hidden problems of policy coherence in climate policy: climate action trade-offs. It all started when in 1999 Richard Klein first defined the concept of "maladaptation", highlighting that some specific adaptive action may increase, rather than only decrease, the exposure or vulnerability to other risks. Many academics embraced this concept, and there is now a literature studying adaptation failures, outlining how there could be i) infrastructural maladaptation (i.e. hard infrastructures preventing flooding which induce a series of negative environmental consequences for local ecosystems, decreasing ecosystem services to local communities while provoking a false sense of safety, allowing people to stay and grow in the long term in places where flooding risks rise and the community is exposed to increasing infrastructure failure risks); ii) institutional maladaptation (i.e. farmers becoming dependent on climate insurance covering their harvest and gradually losing their skills to adapt crops); and iii) behavioural maladaptation (i.e. when individuals dig a borehole for their own benefit, accessing fresh water during droughts and enhancing their resilience while exposing others to increasing water scarcity if many individual adaptations follow the same example, while also contributing to lowering groundwater levels and therefore inducing salt water intrusion and environmental crisis) (Schipper, 2020).Other clear examples of climate action trade-offs are the paradoxes of mitigation inducing greater exposure to climate threats. Biofuels policies in Brazil – a prominent climate change mitigation strategy for replacing fossil fuels – lead to extensive deforestation for sugar cane plantations, particularly in ecologically sensitive areas such as the Amazon rainforest. Deforestation is not only releasing carbon stored in trees but reduces a variety of ecosystem services including climate regulation, rainfall pattern and flooding regulation, causing loss of biodiversity and increasing extreme weather events (Nepstad et al., 2014). Solar power plants built in arid environments for producing renewable energy need water for cleaning mirrors and thus contribute to water scarcity (Chelleri et al., 2014), as hydropower development is well known for its environmental costs too. On the other side of the coin, adaptation action implying trade-offs with mitigating action is also recurrent. Cooling systems for coping with heatwaves are increasing carbon emissions through energy use, or water desalination plants coping with droughts at the cost of carbon emissions for the building of these infrastructures, and from the energy required to produce fresh water, as well as sea walls and coastal defence systems using carbon-intensive materials and construction techniques.Because of these trade-offs, an analytical framework for assessing the level of integration or conflict between climate change adaptation and mitigation in climate plans was recently developed (Grafakos et al., 2019). This framework was applied in the qualitative evaluation of 147 European integrated adaptation and mitigation plans, and the results were clearly showing that most of the plans scored a moderate level of integration, showing some qualitative consideration of the synergies between adaptation and mitigation, while lacking a systematic consideration of potential integration opportunities (Grafakos et al., 2020). As shown through these scientific papers gathering the evidence for maladaptation and trade-offs between adaptation and mitigation, the calls for an integrated approach between the two goals are crystal clear and have been well defined since the Paris Agreement of 2015 (Article 7 highlights the importance of enhancing adaptive capacity, strengthening resilience and reducing vulnerability to climate change, while recognising the synergies between adaptation and mitigation); the IPCC Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5°C of 2018 (highlighting the importance of "synergies between mitigation and adaptation strategies to achieve sustainable development and reduce climate risks…[with] integrated approaches [that] can provide multiple benefits, including enhanced resilience, reduced emissions, and improved health and well-being"); the UNFCCC Adaptation Committee technical paper of 2019 on adaptation co-benefits and mitigation co-benefits; the European Green Deal of 2019 and the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015-2030).The answer to the question posed in this section's title ("why do we mismanage the two sides of the same coin?") could be as simple as: "because we think and work in silos". The next section elaborates on this by proposing resilience thinking as the not-so-easy fix for adaptation and mitigation misalignment.Urban resilience thinking as the golden coin?There is a great deal of confusion when somebody mentions "climate resilience". You never know whether they are talking about adaptation or about "climate action" in generic terms, including mitigation. This confusion is due to the metaphorical meaning of resilience, synonymous with "adaptive capacities". Most of the time, resilience is referred to as adaptation, thus climate adaptation. Yet it is also very true and logical that in order to adapt to climate change, and to be able not just to survive but adapt to it in the long term, we need not just to cope with impacts but also adapt our lives and economies. So we need to fight its drivers (carbon emissions). Climate resilience could, then, be seen as both adaptation in the short term and mitigation as a way of adapting in the long run. In other words, if adaptation is one side of the coin and mitigation is the other, resilience is the coin.This integrated and integrating view of resilience could be a promise of a better alignment of adaptation and mitigation, or a buzzword promoting fuzziness. The key feature of resilience, and resilience thinking, as a guiding principle towards integration is its comprehensiveness of approaches, among which we should look for consistency. To be more precise, resilience thinking as a comprehensive metaphor for adaptive capacities represents at least three families of operational approaches to action (as shown in Figure 1): i) recovery and robustness, ii) adaptive measures and iii) transformative measures.







The first approach of recovery and robustness is the one most related to short-term, shock or disaster responses. It is about building a robust system, one that can cope with disruptive events, withstand them, quickly reorganise and adapt to disruptions within its infrastructures, services or routines, while guaranteeing business continuity. It applies after the disaster, but also before as a preventive measure. This approach is widely used in disaster resilience and the aim is to maintain the status quo of routines and services.In the case of adaptive measures, the second approach, the aim is to protect the system and guarantee a "safe operational space" for as long as possible. Some examples are the dikes or mobile flood barriers in the Netherlands or Venice, where flooding risk is purposely monitored and these adaptation infrastructures intervene by closing the gates to water when floods threaten the harbour or city. It applies to all climate action that looks to adapt to the external drivers of change by protecting assets or routines without changing them. The benefits and performance of this approach are limited in time when long-term stresses are increasingly threatening the system to a point where these adaptations no longer work, leaving no other option but the third approach.It is time for transformation. This third, long-term approach calls for infrastructure, business and societal transformation, the modification of buildings, structures and routines so that the threat is no longer a risk but an element (heatwaves, floodwater etc.) with which to coexist. Clear examples are the floating houses in the Netherlands, representing transformations which no longer need the adaptive measures protecting the old-fashioned vulnerable houses from flooding. This approach, of course, takes the long view, requiring profound changes and thus time to happen, but simultaneously guaranteeing long-term resilience.If from one side the concept of resilience refers to and incorporates all these resistance/adaptive/transformative approaches, any resilience implementation could potentially imply trade-offs among them, because working on an infrastructure's robustness will impede the same infrastructure's transformation, whereas working on transformation will of course imply forsaking current infrastructure resilience. These resilience trade-offs (Chelleri et al., 2015) are natural and part of what is conceived as the "politics" of urban resilience (Vale, 2014). What is the difference, then, between climate change adaptation and mitigation trade-offs and these resilience trade-offs? Why might resilience be the new mantra aligning adaptation and mitigation?If adaptation or mitigation can be enhanced at the expense of the other concept, resilience, representing all three approaches, could not be enhanced without thinking of its possible trade-offs. The potential internal inconsistencies among robustness, adaptation and transformation should guarantee the implementation of resilience, harmonising and integrating its own approaches. Indeed, it is inconsistent with the long-term resilience (and therefore survival) of a city to only act on robustness. Sooner or later, without adaptation and transformation, the city will collapse under incremental stress. At the same time, working on long-term transformations alone would neither work nor provide resilience to the system either; without responsive mechanisms for shocks and short-term potential disruptions it would fail and collapse before seeing the transformation take place. Therefore, increasing city resilience should consist of enhancing response capabilities (to resist shocks in the short term), while building adaptations which would allow the city enough time to complete longer-term transformations, requiring prototyping, upscaling, people's behaviour and business model changes. Hence, in order to become resilient you cannot choose between adaptation and mitigation.From theory to practice: current challenges facing adaptation and resilienceTen years ago, Charles Redman, founding director of Arizona State University's School of Sustainability, described how politicians always preferred short-term adaptation over sustainability or transformation, because it helps to maintain preestablished orders without changing power relations (Redman, 2014). Many other critical scholars shared this view, highlighting how policy arenas always favoured short-term thinking and results, resulting in reactive adaptation approaches. Only recently, after a decade of critiques, has there been a trend towards defining "successful adaptations", leaving maladaptation behind (see Castán Broto et al., 2024, for a very recently published special issue on how to build new concepts of adaptation in cities).While new concepts and definitions of positive, or successful, adaptations are shaped, the challenge of resilience to be recognised as "the golden coin" spanning adaptation and mitigation remains a political battle for "legitimacy". Indeed, after so much work done by the Rockefeller 100 Resilient Cities programme (now the global Resilient Cities Network) to establish City Resilience Officers, convincing institutions internally that resilience is not just climate change adaptation but a new way to integrate urban policies, it seems resilience still has a long road ahead of it. The walls of city departments' silos remain reluctant to incorporate such a cross-cutting approach to reorganising city governance.As in many other cities, if one looks at resilience in Barcelona, for example, there is so much to describe beyond adaptation or mitigation per se. Thanks to the regional law establishing local centres for the promotion of cooperatives, many initiatives for cohousing, urban farming, for energy transition through energy communities, cooperatives offering local organic food that break long market chains, or neighbours self-managing rainwater to face drought started to pop up, demonstrating the citizens' capacity for co-managing resources. At the same time, Barcelona displays modern urban design in its public spaces through green blocks, which even while challenged because of induced gentrification, better regulate local microclimates and water runoff, reducing traffic pollution while offering a safe place for people to enjoy the city. And under these spaces there are infrastructures that are risk proofed thanks to the control room of Barcelona City Council, recognised by the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR) in 2013 as a role model for critical infrastructure resilience. All these different examples contribute to reducing climate risks through different responses, sometimes in a manner that is not coordinated yet (even if potentially they are highly synergistic). The challenge for resilience in driving adaptation and mitigation is a political one, as well as a matter of capacities and capability. Enhancing resilience and managing its different approaches from different urban spheres requires capacity building for our communities, industry and markets, and, last but not least, our political leaders and practitioners. Indeed, it is easy to choose a risk and propose a short-term-gain solution. It is more challenging to tackle the compound risk and act through capacity building, coordinating responses in both the short and long term, drawing in different actors in the urban sphere to work synergistically on the drivers of risks, in a coordinated fashion. This is what resilience implies.All the publications express the opinions of their individual authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of CIDOB or its donors.ISSN: 2013-4428DOI: https://doi.org/10.24241/NotesInt.2024/308/en

La población mundial, que cuenta dos mil millones de habitantes alrededor del año 1950, ha crecido a un ritmo casi exponencial en las décadas siguientes hasta 4 mil millones y 5,3 en 1990 (Naciones Unidas - Departamento de Asuntos Económicos y Sociales, 2010). Sin duda un gran aumento tanto en términos absolutos cuanto relativos. Según las estimaciones de las Naciones Unidas, la población mundial se estima que alcanzará los ocho millones y medio de 2025. Estas tasas de crecimiento se producen, obviamente, tanto en Europa, donde la población ha crecido de 550 millones en 1950 a 750 millones en 2010, y en Italia, donde en el período 1861 a 2008 hubo un aumento de la población de 22 millones de habitantes a casi 60 millones (fuente: ISTAT, 2010). La población ha crecido, sin embargo, a tasas más altas en los países en desarrollo, con una tendencia a la constante en los países industrializados en las últimas décadas. Dicha población mundial intenso tiene consecuencias directas sobre el territorio urbano, mientras que lleva a una extensión de las actuales áreas urbanas menores y pequeñas ciudades. Todo esto, cada vez más, dar lugar a problemas de gestión y uso del suelo, produciendo un crecimiento del componente de la vulnerabilidad en la ecuación de riesgo. Crecimiento de la población no justifica un aumento de las condiciones hidrogeológicas de la inestabilidad. Si es así, ya que la población se ha convertido en firme en los últimos años, al menos en la mayoría de los países industrializados, no hay que hacer frente a riesgos cada vez mayor. En cambio, el modelo de desarrollo económico, basado principalmente en redes e infraestructuras, así como los asentamientos, por supuesto, produce un doble efecto: un aumento de los activos expuestos a la amenaza, una presión sobre el territorio, capaz de hacer la activación de los fenómenos peligrosos más frecuentes. Los fenómenos naturales también tienen un impacto en el marco socio-económico, ya que son responsables de la pérdida de bienes y servicios y, en ocasiones, una pérdida en términos de vidas humanas. En tal situación, la vulnerabilidad de la zona está relacionado con el desarrollo de su sistema de infraestructura social, civil y urbano. Este concepto se expresa claramente en la declaración "Los desastres ocurren cuando los riesgos se encontra con la vulnerabilidad" (Wisner et al., 2004). Esto nos lleva a considerar los desastres naturales como los fenómenos sociales reales. Cuando se habla de riesgo geomorfologicos y de políticas ambientales, uno de los pioneros es, sin duda, Earl E. Brabb, que ya en 1991 en un artículo titulado "El problema de movimientos de ladera del mundo", sostuvo que los deslizamientos son un problema mundial que cientos causa de muertes y miles de millones de dólares de daño cada año en todo el mundo. Los poblemas geomorfológicos son y serán un tema importante y un requisito fundamental del conocimiento para la política de toma de decisiones. A pesar de 20 años han pasado desde que el trabajo Brabb, la situación no parece haber cambiado. No son aún insuficientes los procedimientos de todo el mundo aunque sólo sea compartida que permite evaluar la calidad y precisión de un inventario de deslizamientos o la forma de clasificar en términos de susceptibilidad a los deslizamientos de un área y para evaluar cuantitativa y cualitativamente el rendimiento predictivo. Las imágenes y escenas de devastación, destrucción y muerte que ocurren cada año, hacen que el problema de los riesgos geomorfológicos en un problema social. ¿Quien es el responsable? Seguimos construyendo, incluso en lugares que no son adecuados para la construcción. Tenemos que admitir por lo menos una doble responsabilidad. Si bien es cierto que los acontecimientos que causar un derrumbe apenas son "previsibles", por el contrario sí podemos identificar y predecir donde estos fenómenos se producen con mayor capacidad destructiva, produciendo más daños y reducir al mínimo la vulnerabilidad. Por lo tanto, si no es posible evitar, ya que no es posible predecir, la palabra clave debe ser "la prevención". Cada vez deslizamientos de tierra u otros eventos con características destructivas y letales, que a menudo se supone y se define como "impredecible", nos ofrece con el escenario de las víctimas, los heridos y desaparecidos, el público se estremece y recuerda la vulnerabilidad de los bienes de la comunidad y direciona la discusión sobre el tema de prevención de los desastres naturales o por lo menos tratar de minimizar las consecuencias trágicas que lo acompañan. La ola emocional que sigue a la fase de emergencia se produce entre las llamadas a "enrollar las mangas" a una "cultura de prevención" que "nunca vuelva a suceder", e induce a los legisladores y los técnicos para intervenir con una variedad de medidas urgentes de mitigación y obras y de intervención inmediata, tal vez proponiendo también las regulaciones y leyes dirigidas a "evitar otro desastre similar". Hoy Saponara, ayer Génova, el día antes Giampilieri y San Fratello y así sucesivamente durante décadas: Salerno (1954) con 318 víctimas, 250 heridos y sin hogar cerca de 5.500, y el Longarone y el desastre de Vajont (1963) con cerca de 2.000 muertes de Agrigento, (1966), Valtellina (1987) 53 muertes y 4.000 millones de liras de los daños, el deslizamiento de tierra en el Val di Stava de julio de 1985 (269 muertos), las corrientes rápidas del 5 de mayo de 1998 y Sarno y Quindici y otras áreas de la región Campania, con 153 muertes, Maierato (2010), son algunos de los eventos más importantes que lleva a más de 4.000 las muertes causadas por movimientos gravitativos en medio siglo, un promedio de 4 muertes por mes, además de un daño económico incalculable. Pero cada día hay una lista de los deslizamientos de tierra, carreteras y puentes bajando, a pesar de que pasa desapercibido. A falta de una cultura de prevención y un aumento de la cultura de emergencia en su lugar. Y la protección civil se ve ahora como la única ancla de salvación y la asistencia de los municipios y la población involucrada. Italia es un País que se desmorona debido a la negligencia del hombre y a la falta de prevención. Hay 5,596 sobre 8,101 municipios en riesgo hidrogeológico, el 84% de los centros de población se define en riesgo. Esto sin duda demuestra que las construcciones se construyeron cuando no se podia. De estos municipios, 1.700 (alrededor del 21%) están en riesgo de deslizamientos, 1.285 (casi el 16%) en riesgo de inundación y 2.596 (32%) se encuentran en una combinación de deslizamientos de tierra y riesgo de inundación. El área total clasificada como de alto riesgo asciende a 36.551 km2 (7,1% del total nacional) dividido en km2 de áreas de deslizamientos de tierra y 7.791 km2 de áreas inundadas 13.760. Estas cifras ponen de relieve la inestabilidad hidrogeológica con el que cada región debe enfrentar, tarde o temprano, contra la cual el flujo de millones de euros, a menudo sólo le prometió, no servirá de mucho para la estabilización y obras de medida de seguridad. El informe de Legambiente revela que los municipios son la punta de lanza de una evidente debilidad de nuestro territorio. No hay una única manera de preparar los mapas de susceptibilidad, como lo demuestra la enorme cantidad de artículos científicos producidos incluso durante la última década, y lo mismo es cierto en cuanto a la zonificación de los peligros y los riesgos involucrados, todavía sigue siendo un problema sin resolver en gran medida (Carrara et al., 2009). La contribución de este trabajo las siguientes fases de un estudio con el fin de definir la estructura de la sensibilidad, los riesgos y peligros de un área: 1. Construcción de la base de datos: en este trabajo las diferentes técnicas y métodos de detección de deslizamiento de tierra y delimitación se comparan directamente (trabajo de campo) e indirectamente (fotografías aéreas, software de visualización remota del territorio) y su posterior despliegue en un sistema GIS. 2 Elección y definición de la escala de análisis: De hecho, uno de los problemas más actuales de la proposición se relaciona con los métodos de evaluación de susceptibilidad a escala múltiple. 3 Unidades cartográficas: las diferentes unidades se utilizan para la cartografía y zonificación del territorio, cuya previsión de resultados se comparan con el fin de ser capaces de identificar las unidades de la asignación básica más adecuada para la planificación y para fines de defensa civil, teniendo en cuenta la exactitud científica de que la modelo debe soportar. 4 Elección de los factores control: en el trabajo, es la posibilidad de identificar el conjunto más probable de los factores que se consideran relacionados directamente o indirectamente a la inestabilidad de la ladera. Se proponen procedimientos de prueba y seleccionar el conjunto de posibles factores de control, así como la construcción de modelos específicos para cada tipo de deslizamientos. 5 Construcción de modelos: como para la construcción de un modelo geo-estadístico, las soluciones se comparan diferentes y el modelo de presentación de los mismos resultados y la objetividad que se elija, teniendo en cuenta que las necesidades de una implementación más bajo en términos de costo y tiempo. 6 Validación: los modelos están sujetos a diferentes técnicas de validación, que luego se comparan entre ellos. 7 Exportación espacial de un modelo de susceptibilidad: este es un ensayo para definir y validar los términos de susceptibilidad a los deslizamientos de una amplia zona en los gustos de cientos o miles de kilómetros cuadrados, en base a los estudios de detalle de algunos sectores que lo representan. Al igual que muchos otros autores, con el propósito de este trabajo es hacer una contribución a la comunidad científica, tratando de ofrecer una modesta contribución en la solución de algunos problemas en este campo a través de experimentos y modelos realizados en una variedad de contextos y comparar los resultados entre ellos. En este sentido, unas pruebas se llevaron a cabo en algunas áreas, previamente seleccionadas, será probado y verificado el resultado de algunos de los procedimientos en los años de investigación doctoral. A continuación, un resumen de los resultados vendrán de estas pruebas experimentales TEST 1a: TUMMARRANO river basin: Model Exportation En el marco de un estudio de la susceptibilidad de deslizamientos regional en el sur de Sicilia, una prueba se ha realizado en la cuenca del río Tumarrano (unos 80 km2) tiene como objetivo caracterizar las condiciones de su susceptibilidad movimientos de ladera mediante la exportación de un modelo, definido y entrenado en el interior un número limitado (unos 20 km2) representativas del sector ("el área de origen''). Además, la posibilidad de explotar software de Google Earth y el banco de datos de fotos para producir imágenes de los archivos deslizamiento de tierra ha sido comprobado. El modelo de susceptibilidad se define, de acuerdo con un enfoque multifactorial basadas en el análisis condicional, con unidades únicas condiciones (UCUs), los cuales fueron obtenidos mediante la combinación de cuatro factores seleccionados control: litología afloramiento, la pendiente, la curvatura del plan y el índice de humedad topográfica. La capacidad de predicción del modelo de exportación, formado con 206 deslizamientos de tierra, se compara con la estimada para toda el área estudiada, mediante el uso de un archivo completo de deslizamiento de tierra (703 deslizamientos de tierra), para ver hasta qué punto el mayor tiempo/dinero necesario se tienen en cuenta los costos para. TEST 1b. Tummarrano river basin: modelo de susceptibilidad basado en la Forward logistic regression La regresión logística con pasòs hacia adelante, nos ha permitido obtener un modelo de susceptibilidad por los flujos de tierra en la cuenca del río Tumarrano, que se definió mediante el modelado de las relaciones estadísticas entre un archivo de eventos 760 y un conjunto de 20 variables predictoras. Para cada movimiento del inventario, un punto de identificación de deslizamientos (LIP) se produce de forma automática, como corresponde al punto más alto a lo largo de la frontera de los polígonos de deslizamientos de tierra. Los modelos equilibrados (760 stable/760 inestable) se presentaron a adelante el procedimiento de regresión logística. Una estrategia de construcción del modelo se aplicó para ampliar la zona considerada en la preparación del modelo y para comprobar la sensibilidad de los modelos de regresión con respecto a los lugares específicos de las células se considera estable. Un conjunto de dieciséis modelos se preparó de forma aleatoria extraer los subconjuntos diferentes céldas estables. Los modelos fueron sometidos a regresión logística y validado. Los resultados mostraron que las tasas de error satisfactoria y estable (0,236 en promedio, con una desviación estándar de 0,007) y AUC (0.839, para la formación, y 0.817, para conjuntos de datos de prueba). Como en relación a los predictores, la pendiente en el barrio de las células y la curvatura topográfica de gran perfil y plan local-fueron seleccionados de forma sistemática. Litología arcillosa afloramiento, drenajes midslope, crestas locales y midslope y los accidentes geográficos cañones eran también muy frecuentes (de 8 a 15 veces) en los modelos de la selección hacia adelante. La estrategia de construcción del modelo nos ha permitido producir un modelo de flujo de tierra realizando la susceptibilidad, cuyo modelo de ajuste, la predicción de la habilidad y solidez se estimaron sobre la base de los procedimientos de validación. Test 2. Imera river basin: modelo de susceptibilidad por flujo de tierra basado en las unidades de ladera. Un mapa de susceptibilidad de un área, que es representativa en términos de marco geológico y los fenómenos de inestabilidad de ladera de grandes sectores de los Apeninos de Sicilia, fue producida usando unidades de ladera y un modelo multiparamétrico univariado. La zona de estudio, que se extiende por aproximadamente 90 km2, fue dividida en 774 unidades de la pendiente, cuya ocurrencia esperada avalancha se estimó un promedio de siete valores de vulnerabilidad, determinado para el control de los factores seleccionados: litología, pendiente media del gradiente, SPI en el pie, el índice de humedad topográfica y la curvatura del perfil, y el rango de altitud. Cada uno de los reconocidos 490 deslizamientos de tierra estuvo representada por su punto de centro de gravedad. Sobre la base de análisis condicional, la función de la susceptibilidad aquí adoptada es la densidad, calculado para cada clase. Modelos univariante fueron preparados para cada uno de los factores que controlan, y su rendimiento predictivo se estimó por curvas de tipos de predicción y la relación de efectividad aplicada a la categorías de vulnerabilidad. Este procedimiento nos permitió discriminar entre factores efectivos y no efectivos, de modo que sólo la primera se combinó posteriormente en un modelo multiparamétrico, que fue utilizada para producir el mapa de susceptibilidad final. la validación de este último mapa nos permite comprobar el rendimiento y la fiabilidad de la predicción modelo. Los principales factores reguladores resultaron: la litología y, subordinadamente, el SPI a el pies de la unidad, y tambien el gradiente medio de la pendiente, la curvatura del perfil, y el índice de humedad topográfica dieron resultados satisfactorios. ; The World population, which counted two billion inhabitants around 1950, has grown at an almost exponential rate in the following decades up to four billion in 1980 and 5,3 in 1990 (United Nations – Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2010). Definitely a high increase both in absolute and relative terms. According to estimates by the United Nations, the World population is estimated to reach eight billion and a half around 2025 (Chart 1.1), and then it will become steady around ten billion in 2050 because of the expected decline in fertility. These growing rates occur, obviously, both in Europe, where population has grown from 550 million in 1950 to 750 million in 2010, and in Italy, where in the period from 1861 to 2008 there was a surge in population from 22 million inhabitants to almost 60 million, (source: ISTAT, 2010). The population has grown, however, at higher rates in developing Countries (Fig. 1.1), with a tendency to become steady in industrialized Countries in the last decades. Such an intense world population has direct consequences on urban territory while leading to a spread of current minor urban areas and small towns. All this will, increasingly, result in management and land use problems, producing a growth of the vulnerability component in the risk equation. Population growth alone does not justify an increase of hydro-geological conditions of instability. If so, since the population has become steady in recent years, at least in most industrialized countries, we should not face increasing risks. Instead, the economic development model, largely based on networks and infrastructures, as well as settlements of course, produces a double effect: an increase of assets exposed to threat; a stress on the territory, able to make the activation of hazardous phenomena more frequently. It is however true that recent disasters with great loss of lives (i.e., Sarno Giampilieri, Aulla, Genova and Saponara) are actually the results of the response (letting nature take its course) to the changes in territorial asset occurred after the war. Another cause may be found in environmental changes: when the stress regime in a region changes (such as extraordinary rainfall intensity), the response is obviously new for both sides/slopes and the population. The WWF notes that from 1956 to 2001, urbanized areas in Italy have increased by 500 times and it is estimated that from 1990 to 2005 we have transformed 3.5 million hectares of land. The problem of interaction between humans and the natural environment is a very complex and diversified issue, not often approached in a systematic way, also because of the severe limitations of sources to be invested on research on a medium and long-term, for a better and effective knowledge of the environment, primarily on measures aimed at reducing risk (Plattner, 2005). Natural phenomena also have an impact within the social-economic framework as they are responsible for the loss of goods and services, and sometimes, a loss in terms of lives. In such a situation, the vulnerability of the area is related to the development of its social, civil, and urban infrastructural system. This concept is well expressed in the statement "disasters occur when hazards meet vulnerability" (Wisner et al., 2004). This leads us to consider natural disasters as real social phenomena. This condition is strongly valid especially with regard to landslides (Brabb and Harrod, 1989; Brabb, 1991). Since economic problems common to all countries do not allow either to invest in research projects on a medium and long-term or the stabilization of structures or areas on a large-scale, a new philosophy of environmental policy opens up for all active political and administrative subjects that should govern the use and exploitation of the territory. For this reason, the scientific community is engaged in a continuous search for methods and techniques to estimate the degree of real and potential instability, using the minimum amount of equipment and possible economic resources. Usually there is a substantial difficulty in identifying the most reliable procedures, that allow to approach this matter in a non-traditional manner based on modeling and investigative techniques built on the exchange of experiences between experts and conducting studies and experiments on all continents, and showing different strategies and possible technical combinations depending on the type and/or the number and complexity of the investigation, producing susceptibility, hazard and risk maps, used as the basis for decision-making processes in land management. In this framework, further efforts are needed in trying to make the different methods more objective and shared by all in order to be simple and reproducible, and most of all in transferring the knowledge gained in laws that underpin territorial planning, building regulations, and in civil defense plans (Guzzetti, 2006). When discussing about landslides and environmental policies, one of the pioneers is undoubtedly Earl E. Brabb, who already in 1991 in a paper entitled "The World Landslide Problem", sustained that landslides are a worldwide problem that cause hundreds of deaths and billions of dollars of damage every year all over the world. The same added that these losses can be reduced if the problem is identified and acknowledged in time, but many countries are simply equipped with maps showing where landslides produced problems in the past and they have even less susceptibility maps that could allow policy makers control land use. Landslides, adds Brabb, are generally more predictable and controllable than other natural events of catastrophic nature such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and storms, but despite this, few countries have taken advantage of this knowledge to reduce landslide hazard. Geomorphological problems are and will be an important issue and a fundamental requirement of knowledge for the politics of decision-making. Although 20 years have gone by since Brabb's work, the situation does not seem to have changed. There are still insufficient globally shared procedures even just allowing to assess the quality and accuracy of a landslide inventory or how to classify in terms of landslide susceptibility of an area and to evaluate quantitatively and qualitatively predictive performance. 1.2 Basic concepts One of the most obvious effects of rapid territory development in the past decades is the increasing impact that natural disasters have on man and his activities. Institutions are therefore committed to investing their resources in both the implementation of structural interventions to mitigate the risk as well as implementation of early warning systems and defining guidelines for land management; the latter activities allow, in fact, to avoid or minimize damage to persons and property, produced by natural phenomena, without necessarily investing in expensive resources and long structural interventions. The term "risk" is used in relation to the various components of the social and territorial fabric, as an expression of the expected consequences in the assets as a result of this disastrous phenomenon of assigned intensity at a given time interval. Within the guidelines for the preparation of prevention and management plans in terms of geological risk of the Sicilian Civil Protection Service (Regional Hydro-geological and Environmental Risks department), the term Hydro-geological Risk means the effect on different parts of the territory led by natural disasters such as landslides (geomorphological risk) and floods (hydraulic risks) triggered by events related to climate and its changes. Two main components contribute to the definition of risk: territorial hazard (geomorphological and hydraulic) and vulnerability. The latter depends on both the physical resistance of structures or assets exposed to the threat and the so-called vulnerability of social organization, which is linked, in fact, to the capacity of disaster prevention and management that a community has developed prior to the same disaster. The propensity of a territory to be affected by new landslides, the degree of hazard or risk that characterizes it, are usually expressed with the help of a map in which the area is divided into different zones according to the different values that qualify it. In this mapping, the territory is zoned or divided into homogeneous zones or user-defined fields/areas, whose ranking is defined according to their real or potential degree of landslide hazard (Varnes, 1984). Over the decades, many research groups and national and international commissions have tried to provide precise definitions, trying to reduce the existing confusion of terms in the management of natural hazards. In this section, some basic concepts are expressed as well as the terminology that will be used in the thesis below. Landslide events that develop in a given area involve a large number of environmental variables, to determine undoubted difficulties in identifying a suitable action of management, control and planning. In order to do so, understanding the problem without having a clear conceptual framework and method to be used may not be sufficient. The "forecast" of the phenomena and therefore the modeling phase is always required to designated public administration bodies and territorial control, carried out by the creation of digital simulation models which become crucial at the time when decisions must be taken/made. The creation of maps indicating the different vocation planning of an area, based for example on landslide hazard maps, not only allows you to compose the scene of the incident consequences of a given failure, but also to react under emergency, if magnitude, area, and associated potential damage are known. Planning is a subject which studies and regulates the processes of local governance and to evaluate the resulting dynamics of evolution and development. The principles guiding the choice of planning require development policies coherent with the principles of environmental protection and sustainability in an effort to control the excessive human presence, able to transform irreversibly natural systems and preserve the quality of life for future generations. Information, territorial knowledge and assessment of its natural predisposition and vulnerability are the basis of planning. These forms of knowledge and the use and application of the best technologies available to facilitate information processing and optimization of procedures for evaluation and zoning of the territory, will yield the best design solutions to achieve the desired objectives. Planning is aimed to government land use and management of spatial information, and is achieved by regulating the area according to different uses, which should be awarded taking into account the natural predispositions. Planning activities can affect a large portion of territory, in other words include a supra-municipal area or one that does not match with administrative boundaries (e.g. Provincial Territorial Coordination Plan, Hydro-geological Plan) or urban (e.g. General Regulation Plan). The geological, geomorphological, hydro-geological and seismic component should be placed at the base of the strategic development of the territory. In national legislation, water management is understood both as a natural resource but also as an element of risk, and has been regulated at the watershed level since the nineties (national framework law 183/89 on soil protection). This allow us to overcome divisions and inconsistencies produced by the adoption of targeted areas having only administrative boundaries that, therefore, do not take into account natural dynamics. The zoning of landslide hazard area is considered the most effective level of knowledge for territorial planning and territorial governance purposes. A map showing portions of an area classified as "hazardous" is of great importance due to the fact that these areas are subject to limitations and constraints that also affect the usability or simply the economic value. 1.2.1 Landslides and soil protection Italy, besides having a territory particularly prone to heavily collapse, has a highly populated territory with a density of 189 inhabitants per km2, much higher than France (114 inhabitants/km2) and Spain (89 inhabitants/km2), in Lombardy and Campania respectively, the density changes to 379 and 420 inhabitants per km2. As clear from the Report on landslides in Italy (National Geological Survey, 2007), commissioned by the ISPRA (National Institute for Environmental Protection and Research), in the last 50 years almost 500 thousand landslides have been recognized and recorded for an area of about 20 thousand km2, corresponding to 6.6% of the entire national territory. These data should be updated. As indicated by the last study conducted by the Ministry of the Environment (2010), 9.8% of the national area is to be ranked highly hydro-geological critical and 6.633 municipalities are involved, representing 81.9 percent of the national territory. This value, according to a report EURISPES ( Report Italy, 2010) is "largely underestimated", therefore agreeing that "a reliable estimate is made up of about 2 million phenomena and consequently the percentage of the Italian territory subject to ongoing phenomena is more than 20%." The Ministry of Environment, through the work for the realization of development plans undertaken by the hydrogeological Basin Authority, estimated a funding requirement of almost 40 billion euros to hydro-geologically secure the entire country, and 4.1 billion for more urgent works. Undoubtedly, the amounts are considerably high, but it is enough to consider that almost 21 billion euros were spent just to stanch the damages by hydro-geological disasters occurred in the decade 1994-2004. 1.3 Aims and scientific contribution There is no single way to prepare susceptibility maps, as evidenced by the enormous amount of scientific papers produced even during the last decade, and the same is true as for the zoning of the hazard and risk involved, still remaining a largely unsolved problem (Carrara et al., 2009). The contribution of this paper the following phases of a study in order to define the susceptibility structure, hazard and risk of an area. 1 Construction of the landslide database: in this work different techniques and methods of landslide detection and delimitation are compared, directly (field work) and indirectly (aerial photographs, remote viewing software of the territory) and their subsequent deployment in a GIS system. 2 Choice and definition of the analysis scale: the problem of scale models of susceptibility is approached. In fact, one of the most actual problems of the proposition is related to approaches to multi-scale susceptibility evaluation. 3 Mapping units: different units are used for mapping and zoning of the territory, whose foresight results are compared in order to be able to identify the basic mapping units most suitable for planning and for civil defense purposes, taking into account the scientific accuracy that the model must bear. 4 Choice of controlling factors: during the work, it is the possible to identify the most probable set of factors considered to be directly or indirectly related to the instability of the slope. Procedures for testing and selecting the set of possible controlling factors are proposed as well as the construction of specific models for each type of landslide. 5 Model building: as for the construction of a geo-statistical model, different solutions are compared and the model presenting the same results and objectivity is chosen, considering it needs a lower implementation in terms of cost and time. 6 Validation: models are subject to different validation techniques, which are then compared to each other. 7 Spatial exporting of a landslide susceptibility model: this is a trial to define and validate the terms of landslide susceptibility for a wide area in the likes of hundreds or thousands of square kilometers, based on studies of some fields that represent it. Having clear that the result of this type of study is intended to provide maps that can be used by planners in a useful manner, these must be characterized by an immediacy in understanding even by non-experts and they must also be easy to read and interpret. Therefore, these methods should be as simple as possible, for example, susceptibility levels must be clearly expressed not only in quantitative but also in descriptive terms (Clerici et al., 2010). Like many other authors, the purpose of this work is to make a contribution to the scientific community by trying to offer a modest contribution in solving some problems in this field through experiments and modeling carried out in a range of contexts and comparing the results between them.

La presente ricerca si è proposta di evidenziare le strategie di integrazione ovvero le pratiche di cittadinanza adottate in favore di un particolare segmento dei fenomeni migratori internazionali attuali: quello dei minori stranieri che soli varcano le frontiere del nostro paese alla ricerca di generiche migliori condizioni di vita. La conoscenza del loro patrimonio culturale e l'analisi delle procedure di accoglienza e di integrazione adottate nelle società di accoglienza, rappresentano una sfida stimolante nella prospettiva della disciplina antropologica, da sempre considerata la scienza 'dell'altro' e della 'differenza culturale' (Callari Galli, 2005). In generale, l'importanza di tale studio è resa evidente certamente dai numeri sempre più consistenti di minori stranieri non accompagnati presenti nel nostro paese, ma ancor più dalla necessità di ridefinire le strategie dell'integrazione sociale complessive se non si vuole alimentare quella che già dagli anni 70 è stata definita da alcuni criminologi come una "una bomba sociale a scoppio ritardato" (Bovenkerk 1973, cit. in Barbagli 2002, p. 31); tanto è la posta in gioco. Sebbene la letteratura sulle seconde generazioni e in particolare quella sui minori stranieri non accompagnati sia ormai cospicua tanto in Italia quanto a livello internazionale, mancano ancora monografie antropologiche su singole nazionalità immigrate soprattutto che siano capaci di accedere, investigare ed indagare il controverso universo emozionale dei minori. La presente ricerca nasce dall'esigenza di colmare questo gap esperienziale assumendo come protagonisti una frangia specifica della categoria minorile: i giovani di origine marocchina che si innescano su uno specifico segmento delle attuali tratte migratorie transnazionali, l'asse Khourigba – Roma. In accordo con le recenti acquisizioni degli studi antropologici (Persichetti, 2003; Riccio; 2007; Capello, 2008) si è ritenuto inoltre opportuno procedere con uno studio multisituato capace di ricomprendere al suo interno i due aspetti del binomio migratorio: il contesto di partenza e quello di arrivo dei giovani migranti. "Prima di diventare un immigrato, il migrante è sempre innanzitutto un emigrato" scrive il sociologo algerino Abdelmalek Sayad (2002) intendendo con tale affermazione che emigrazione ed immigrazione sono due facce della stessa realtà. Uno studio dei fenomeni migratori cioè dimentico delle condizioni di origine si condanna ad offrire degli stessi solo una versione parziale e connotata etnocentricamente. L'etnografia, iniziata nel 2006 e terminata nel 2008, è stata quindi integrata da due viaggi in Marocco con l'intenzione appunto di cogliere quella parte di vissuto fatto anche di suoni, colori, immagini altrimenti non "accessibile" e non "trasmissibile" nel solo contesto di accoglienza. Chiaramente si è fatto largo uso di metodologie qualitative (osservazione partecipante, focus group, interviste in profondità) in quanto maggiormente adatte ad indagare in profondità le complesse dinamiche caratterizzanti i vissuti esperienziali; a cogliere le sfumature di contesto e di restituire per queste stesse ragioni un quadro vivo e frastagliato fuori da logiche pre- costituite. La restituzione delle testimonianze raccolte - grazie a un capillare lavoro di conoscenza della realtà romana dell'immigrazione e a un 'patto' etnografico molto forte intrattenuto con i giovani testimoni nonché con gli operatori che in molte occasioni se ne fanno carico - fa risaltare gli aspetti non solo politico-culturali della questione, ma anche l'intreccio di emotività e fragilità che si cela al centro della loro condizione di minori non accompagnati. La particolare condizione di vulnerabilità di cui sono vittima deriva certamente da una condizione giuridica fortemente "incerta", ma anche dal doppio ruolo sociale che il minore straniero non accompagnato assume su di sé: come "minore" è soggetto di un tradizionale percorso pedagogico, come "straniero" è un pericolo per l'ordine pubblico. La tutela "naturale" viene in questo modo costantemente infranta o finisce per dissolversi in uno spazio che non può essere indirizzato o controllato su logiche o prassi proprie dell'ordine nazionale. Soggetto "anomalo" e "sovversivo"quindi, il minore straniero non accompagnato, spesso relegato negli ambiti bui e marginali delle metropoli odierne, con la sua stessa presenza pone seri interrogativi rispetto alla capacità della nostre società di accoglienza di produrre coesione sociale e di riformulare le regole del gioco di un sistema che sia realmente inclusivo delle parti. Adolescenti (e) immigrati la cui vita si svolge su rotte transnazionali. Il loro percorso è intessuto di piccole casualità - incontri, parole, piccoli gesti - che ne determinano l'intrigo. Sono storie fatte di alternanza di successi e sbandamenti, integrazione e devianza, intreccio di trame che si snodano sul confine tra ciò che è lecito e ciò che non lo è. Minori al "bivio", dunque, qualcuno dice, "tra integrazione e rimpatrio". Questi giovani, figli di una diaspora migratoria che ha tessuto legami sociali internazionali in vari continenti, tendono a pensarsi come cittadini del mondo e possono immaginare il loro futuro in Italia, nel paese d'origine, così come in un altro luogo, conoscono la fatica dell'adattamento, e stanno imparando a gestirlo; sanno che la loro "differenza", le loro conoscenze di un'altra lingua, cultura e religione, il loro aspetto, le loro esperienze non sempre facili di socializzazione, potranno rivelarsi un limite o una risorsa. E' questa nuova consapevolezza che si sta faticosamente facendo strada oggi tra le coscienze a far sperare oggi in un destino per loro diverso da quello vissuto dai loro coetanei delle banlieues francesi o delle inner cities britanniche, dove l'essere cresciuti in quartieri in cui problemi sociali e esistenziali simili tendono a sovrapporsi, ha portato molti giovani a sentirsi collettivamente parte di una generazione tradita e sacrificata, maturando così rancore sociale e desiderio di imporsi, attraverso un'identità fiera o desiderosa di ricreare una sua purezza. La scommessa di una integrazione sociale riuscita per i giovani stranieri cresciuti nel nostro paese, ma ancora più per i minori stranieri non accompagnati, si gioca essenzialmente quindi nelle reti dell'assistenza sociale e quindi nella scuola. Tale scelta pur essendo molto lontana dal conseguimento degli obiettivi economici, e quindi dall'ottemperamento del mandato migratorio, consente di rivendicare principi e ragioni di "somiglianza – uguaglianza" con i compagni di scuola autoctoni; confronto prima pressoché impossibile data la clandestinità cui sono di sovente costretti i minori stranieri non accompagnati e la peculiarità del tipo di lavoro svolto dai marocchini, quello ambulante, per sua natura itinerante e fortemente stigmatizzato dall'opinione comune. Nonostante le evidenti lacerazioni che questa scelta comporta in termini di: rottura con vecchi schemi di comportamento; ridefinizione dei ruoli all'interno della famiglia, nell'ambito societario di arrivo, così come in quello di appartenenza; riapporpiazione della propria identità, questa strada sembra a tutt'oggi l'unica in grado di preservare questi giovani migranti o di stornarli dal destino di devianza e marginalità che spesso si apre loro come scelta obbligata. La ricerca consta di due parti: la prima rende conto della letteratura in materia di seconde generazioni e la seconda restituisce i risultati dell'etnografia. In particolare il primo capitolo affronta i termini generali della questione con l'intenzione di chiarire i diversi misunderstanding che costellano il dibattito in materia di immigrazione attraverso una lettura critica della letteratura nazionale e internazionale. Il secondo e il terzo capitolo si occupano rispettivamente della normativa europea e italiana. Quanto al primo contesto sono evidenziate le diverse pratiche adottate in materia di ingresso dei minori stranieri non accompagnati all'interno dei confini di alcuni Paesi membri di vecchia e nuova immigrazione (Francia, Inghilterra, Germania, Belgio e Spagna) e posti in luce i gaps presenti così come le falle del sistema; quanto al contesto italiano, si mettono in rilievo le criticità che gli apparati giuridici presentano rispetto a una realtà concreta del fenomeno caratterizzata, come è ovvio, da straordinaria fluttuanza e informalità. Il quarto capitolo è stato dedicato alla scuola in quanto considerata la vera fucina del cambiamento sociale per la sua capacità di rappresentare l'occasione primaria di formazione linguistica, di costruzione di reti interne al Paese di accoglienza, di apprendimento di concetti e modalità didattiche ad esso omogenee; un paragrafo a parte è stato riservato all'inserimento lavorativo essendo questo il principale movente della migrazione di questi giovani. Infine il quinto capitolo si è prefisso di indagare il contesto di provenienza dei minori intervistati, il Marocco, ricostruendo l'eredità del passato coloniale, le scelte economiche del Marocco Indipendente, i fattori di push and pull dietro i flussi migratori di ieri e di oggi. Il quadro finale ha permesso di sondare la salute del sistema. Riconoscere diritto di parola e di ascolto dell'infanzia e dell'adolescenza ha significato fare un passo importante in avanti nella comprensione della loro soggettività, consentendo di fare emergere tutti quegli aspetti di conformità, progressivo adattamento ovvero di riottosità rispetto tanto alla propria comunità di appartenenza quanto alla società di arrivo. Considerare i minori come "soggetti di diritto" ha significato in altre parole ripensare sotto un altro punto di vista l'organizzazione e le strutture profonde che quella società regolano con il merito di porre in luce aspetti e problemi inediti, frizioni interne al gruppo normalmente sfuggevoli e molto riposte ed elementi di scarto rispetto a un modello omogeneo e granitico di una data cultura. Occorre sobriamente riconoscere che non si danno più né immigrati né emigrati, ma "pari" cittadini (o spiranti tali) che tessono relazioni effettivamente ed affettivamente collegate in un unico destino interdipendente. La consapevolezza di questo richiede competenza, intelligenza, impegno e determinazione nelle scelte operative da intraprendere; l'altra faccia della medaglia è solo devianza ed emarginazione. ; The following research is aimed to underline the strategies of integration and the practices of citizenship utilized in favor of a particular segment of the actual international migratory phenomenon: the one about foreign minors who alone pass the borders of our country to search for better conditions of life. The knowledge of their cultural background and the analysis of the procedures of the ways in which one is welcomed and the integration adopted by the receiving countries represent a stimulating challenge from the anthropological perspective, always considered the science of "cultural differences" (Callari Galli, 2005). The importance of this study is obviously given forth by the increasing numbers of "separated" minors in our country, but moreover by the necessity to re-define the strategies of social integration tout court if we don't want to feed what has, since 1970, been defined by some criminologists as a real "time bomb" (Bovenkerk 1973, cit. in Barbagli 2002, p. 31). Although nowadays both of the international and Italian literature, about the second generation and in particular those that talk of separated minors are conspicuous, we are still missing anthropological monographs on single nationalities of immigrants able to access, investigate and inquire into the complex emotional world of these minors. The following research was born from the necessity to fill in this experiential gap assuming as its subject a specific part of the category of minors: youth of Moroccan origin that are situated on a particular segment of the transnational migratory trades, the axis Khourigba- Rome. According to the recent anthropological acquisition (Persichetti, 2003; Riccio; 2007; Capello, 2008) it became appropriate to proceed with a multi-situated study able to embrace both of the aspects of the migrants lives: the context of origin and the context of arrival of the young migrants. "Before becoming an immigrant, the migrant is always an emigrant" wrote the Algerian sociologist Abdelmalek Sayad (2002), intending by this affirmation that immigration and emigration are both faces of the same reality. A study of the migrant phenomenon that forgets or leaves behind the condition of origin of immigrants people is condemned to offer only a partial and ethnocentric version of this phenomenon. The ethnography, started in 2006 and finished in 2008, has been integrated by two journeys in Morocco with the purpose to investigate those part of lives – made principally also by sounds, colors and images - not "accessible" and "communicable" in the receiving countries. Clearly the research has required a large use of qualitative methodologies (participant observation, focus group, interview in depth, etc) because of their characteristic to be more adapted to investigate the complex dynamics typical of the lived experience; to catch the shades of content and to give back, for these same reasons, a lively and unusual picture out of rules and schemes prior established. The feedback from the gathered stories – by a meticulous work which consisted in the knowledge of the Roman immigrants reality and a strong ethnographical "pact" with the minors on one hand and the social operators on the other – has brought to light not only the political and cultural aspects of the phenomenon, but moreover the tangle of sensitiveness and fragility hidden behind their condition of separated minors. The particular condition of vulnerability of which they are victims firstly came from an "uncertain" juridical condition, but more so by the double rule that the separated minor assumes on himself: as a "minor" he is subject to a traditional pedagogic approach and as a "stranger" he is considered dangerous to the public order. The natural guardianship which they should enjoy is continuously breached and threatened and dissolves in vague promises and empty rituals. Separated minors are "anomalous" and "subversive" subjects who too often are relegated to the dark and marginal spheres of the actual metropolis. Furthermore, their own presence, even if it is made invisible by the viewpoint of the system, impose serious and urgent questions to contemporary society; in respect of our capacity to produce social cohesion and re-formulate the rules of a game which has to be really inclusive in all its parts. It compromises the global issues of our society. Adolescents (and) immigrants who are living their lives on transnational routes. Their course is woven together by many little causalities - encounters, words and simple gestures that determine its outcome. These are stories made up of alternations of successes and disbandment, integration and deviance, a tangle of plots that lie on the border of what is licit and what is not. Minors on a "crossroad", some say, between "integration and repatriation". These young, son of numerous migratory diasporas that have banded together into international social links in many continents, tend to think themselves as citizens of the world and are able to imagine their future in Italy, in their own country or everywhere. They have lived the fatigue of adaptation and are learning to manage it. They know that their "difference" - the knowledge of another tongue, culture, religion, their physical appearance, their experiences of socialization, not always so simple and immediate - can be either a limit or a resource. Is this new consciousness - that nowadays is hardly rousing our consciences - to leave us the hope in a different destiny from that lived by their residing in the French banlieues or in Britain's inner cities. These communities, where to be brought up in districts in which social and existential problems tend to overlap, has brought many young persons to feel part of a generation betrayed and sacrificed and to foster social resentment and wishes of revenge through an identity that is proud and intent on recreating its original purity. The bet of a successful social integration for the young people growing up in our country, but moreover for the separated minors, is played on the circuits of social assistance and then on the capacity of school to create cohesion as an agency of socialization. This choice, though it is really far away from the fulfillment of their economic objectives and then from the attainment of the migratory cause, allows them to claim principles and reasons of " similarity – equality" with their coetaneous friends of school. This is a kind of comparison that was impossible before because of the irregular condition to which separated minors are often obliged and the peculiar characteristics of the type of job done by Moroccan people, usually pitchmen, from its nature an itinerant job hardly stigmatized by common opinion. Although the evident lacerations that this choice implies in terms of breaking old schemes of behaviours; redefinition of rules in the family, in the society of arrival (as well as in the society of origin); re-appropriation of one's own identity; this road appears uniquely to be able to preserve these young migrants from the solitude of a destiny otherwise made up of deviance and marginality. The research consists of two parts: the first one proposes a general framework about second generation literature and the second one provides the results of the ethnography. In particular, the first chapter copes with these questions in general terms with the intent to clarify the different misunderstandings in the debate about immigration, through a critical reading of national and international literature. The second and third chapters talk respectively of the European laws concerning separated minors and the Italian ones. In regard to the first context, it underlines the different practices adopted about the entry of separated minors in the territories of several old and new European immigration countries (such as France, Britain, Germany, Belgium and Spain) and point out the gaps and problems of these systems. As regards the Italian context, instead, emphasize is put on the critical points of the actual juridical systems in respect to a reality of the phenomenon characterized, as obviously it is, by remarkable unbalance and changeability. The fourth chapter has been dedicated to the school because it is considered the real forge of the social changing in its capacity to represent the primary occasion of: linguistic training, constructing of intern links in the receiving countries, learning of concepts and didactic modalities homogenous to it. A specific paragraph has been reserved to the introduction to the working environment because it is the main reason of the migration of these young people. The fifth chapter is aimed to investigate the context of provenience of minors interviewed, the Moroccan Country, reconstructing the heredity of the colonial past, the economic choices of the Independent Morocco, and the factors of push and pull behind the migratory flows of yesterday and today. The final picture is used to verify the health of the system. Recognizing the right of "speech" and "listening" to infancy and adolescence has meant to make an important step forward in the knowledge of their individuality, making arise all aspects of conformity and progressive adaptation or, on the contrary, their rebelliousness to their own culture as well as to the receiving society. In other worlds, considering minors "subjects of right" has meant rethinking the organization and obscure structures that manage the same societies in which they live, with the merit to point out aspects and elements of forsaking respect to a homogenous and given model of a culture. Nowadays more than ever it is necessary to admit that there are no more immigrants or emigrants, but "equal" citizens (or aspirant ones) who weave together elements of every type in a unique interdependent destiny. The consciousness of this claim calls for competence, intelligence, dedication and determination in the choice to engage; the rest is made by deviance, frustration, marginalization. ; Dottorato di ricerca in Tutela e Promozione dei Diritti dell'Infanzia (XXII ciclo)

Issue 11.4 of the Review for Religious, 1952. ; A.M.D. G~ Review for Religious JULY 15, 1952 Parallel Vocations . Nicholas H. Rieman Bibles . William M. Sfritch Unigeni÷us Dei Filius . Pope Plus x~ To a Master of Novices . Fra L. Ganganelli .Higher Education . Sister M. Bonaventure National Congress Questions and Answers Modesty Crusade Book Reviews VOLUME NUMBER REViI::W FOR RI::LIGIOUS VOLUME XI JULY, 1952 NUMBER CONTENTS PARALLEL VOCATIONS--Nicholas H. Rieman, S.J .1.69 BIBLES--William M. Stritch, S.J . 177 OUR CONTRIBUTORS . 182 REPRINTS OF SPONSA CHRISTI . ¯ . 182 UNIGENITUS DEI FILIUS--Pope Plus XI . 183 BOOKS FOR.PRIESTS . 198 FOR ORGANISTS AND CHOIRMASTERS .1.98 LETTER TO A MASTER OF NOVICES--Fra Lorenzo Ganganelll 199 TEN-YEAR INDEX STILL AVAILABLE . 202 HIGHER EDUCATION AND "REAL RELIGION"-- Sister M. Bonaventure, O.S.F . 203 NATIONAL CONGRESS . 210 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS-- 19. Prescriptions for the Chapter of Faults . 211 20. Precedence in Receiving Communion . . ¯ .212 SHALL I START TO DRINK? . 213 BOOK REVIEWS~ The Morning Offering; What is the Index?; The Seminarian at His Prie-Dieu; The Carmelite Directory of the Spiritual Life .214 BOOK NOTICES . 217 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS . 221 PROMOTE THE MODESTY CRUSADE . 223 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, July, 1952. Vol. XI, No. 4. Published bi-monthly: January, March, May, July, September, and November at the College Press, 606 Harrison Street; Topeka, Kansas, by St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas, with ecclesiastical approbation. Entered as second class matter January 15, 1942, at the Post Office, Topeka, Kansas, under the act of March 3, 1879. Editorial Board: Jerome Breunig, S.J.; Augustine G. Ellard, S.J.: Adam C. Ellis, S.J.; Gerald Kelly, S.J. Copyright, 1952, by Adam C. Ellis, S.J. Permission is hereby granted for quota-tions of reasonable length, provided due credit be given this review and the author. Subscription price: 3 dollars a year; 50 cents a copy. Printed in U. S. A. Before writincj to us, please consult notice on Inside back cover. Parallel Voca!:ions Nicholas H. Rieman, S.3. ~yJE RELIGIOUS know the worth of our vocation. We rank it -W among~ur greatest blessin~gs. A precious gift in itself, it car-~ ries .with it numerouk other gifts, such as our. rpraye~-'and Mass, spiritual guidhnce', our companions," and our apostolic work'. We are glad we took the step knto religion, andewe miss no chance to draw others to religion too. .But perhaps we are not aware that our r~ligious vocation can be partly.sh'ared even with lay folks. A. molag the most effective ways we~h~ve of sha"ring our vocati6n ig encourag-. ing and conducting third 0rd~rs. confra:ernities, so'dalities and simi'- l'ar organizat!ons.~ The present article confines itself to. the parallel vocation as found in the Sodality'of Our Lads,. .' ¯ There is a special reason why tile possibilities of ~uch a Sqdality should be unfolded to religious.~ It is this: .while the director of-a Sodality must always beLa priest, yet"in a scho01or hospital the', actual l~andling of aSodality .is often left"to Brother Michael or to -Sister 3oan. Also, besides those who are moderators ofSodalities, many other religious superiors, principals, ¯floor. supervisors in.hos-pitals, teachers, nurses, he'ads of different ~ictivities--can help much. They.can lend interest and co0pfration to 'insure that the Sodality in their institutions be a true Sodality, and lay people bent on some-thing more than me.dioctity be drawn to its rankS. Many Feligious are, then, in a tposition to forward good Sodalities. By doing so;. they can share many of the benefits of a religious vocation with those who follow the la~; Sodal.ity vocation. - For m'embersbip in the Sodality is also a vocation. Our present Holy Fatber'has clearly in his Apostolic Constitution Bis Saecular~ placed the Sodality in the troop--sof Catboh"c ~-A "ctton. And Catholic Acti0n~-the words are thdse of Plus X'I is "a vocation strictly and properly so .called." ¯ It is not, of course? a religious vocation. Y,et if is ~ vocation, a way of life, a call to perfection.' The. S6d;ility is open only to those who are ready,.by Go'd's grace, to-adopt the'de2 .mandihg spiritual.and apostolic progr~am it involves. ' Btit'why is the Sodality such an ap't means for sh~iring With lay people something of our religious v6cation? 'F6r.the simple reason that the vocation, of a religious and that of a Sodalist are much alike. ¯ 1.69 NICHOLAS H. RIEMAN Review [or'Religiqus It is nottoo'mu~h t~ call them paraliel vocations, Only a~det~iled comparison will display how far-reaching this parallelism is. Of. course, only true Sodalitiei--those that follow the papal directives and the Sodality rules-~can prodiace this parallelism'and the result-' ant rich spiritual harvest. So, in pointing oot the resemblances.be-l~ ween t'he two vocations, I shall ~lso suggest how ~a Sodality must be co'nducted in order to secure these benefits. . What then. are some of the parallels between religious and So-dality life? First, becoming a Sodalist, like becoming a Franciscan or a.Sister of'Merry, is a lifetime,undertaking. Joining the So, dality is not like joining the staff of the school paper or the dramatic club. These latter are hobbies; the Sodality is a vocation, A Sodalist agrees to follow the Sodality way of life not just at school, but when on vacation, when working in a facto.ry or office, when married--in. short, for life. Pius XII. knows that very well: be never, says, "I wa~ a Sodalist, but always, '"I am a. Sodahst, although he took his act .of consecration and' entered the Sodality 56 years ago. More will b~ said later of the Sodality act of consecration. Here it isi'enough to.stress one thing. This consecration, and so the ac-ceptance of Sod, ality obligations that goes with it, is for life. True, a temporary act of consecration for 'a year can" be and sometimes is made in Junior Sodalities (those in grammar schools), since at that age level most of the candidates are sddom mature enough for a life-time dedication. But the ordinary act ofconsecration taken by teen-~ agers and adults is, as clearly, indicated in both its forms in the Sodality Rules, perpetual. The Sodality vocatioia, like a religious vocation, is perpetual. Besides being a. lifetime dedication, becoming a S6dalist is also, l'ike becoming a religious, a full-time occupation. One must be a Sodalist 24 hours a day. Just as being a Christian Brother .affects not only a. man's Mass and his meal-times, but his work and recrea-tion too, s6 being., a Sodalist doesn't mean only .attending meet.ings, saying one's rosary, 'and taking p~art in a cl0thes-for-I~or~a drive, 'Being a Sodalist must--and in a Sodality that follows the rules, does. --affect a boy's lock~r-room langu;ige, the kind of formal a girl wears to a prom, and every other action that fills the dajr of either of them. Tru.e, a Sodalist does not, as is generally true of religious, have his wgrk assigned by ~uperi0rs. 'Yet a Sodalist, just like any of us, has to show a good example and. beactively ap0s~olic every minute of his waking day. Nor is this an impossible ideal, a pipe. 170 dui~,1952 ~ARALLEL VOCATIONS dream. In Sodalities that follow Plus XII's stipulations and actually .require,observance of the. Sgdality rules, this is a normal result, re-alized, if not perfectly,. at least in large measure. The act of consecration to Our Lady which admits one tb the Sodality parallels very close.ly the vows of reli~ious orders. Even the .wgrding of the act of consecration in the St. Francis,de Sales fbrmula, ~clbsely resembles the vow formula of some religious. "It is not a vow, of. course, and so does not bind ur~der sin, but it is a solemn dedication. ~ And What doek the Sodalist promise? Pius XII gives us the'answer. "To apply oneself seriously to sanctity, each in his proper state: to dedicate .oneself, not in any manner whatsoever but 'with ardor, in ~the measure and manner compatible with each one,s social condition to the s'alvation and perfection of others: in a word[ to emplby oneself strenoously in the defense of the Church of Christ: such is the assignment of the Sodalist, freely, resolutely ac-cepted in theact of his con'secration." In short, he says, "conse-cration to the Mother of God in the Sodality is an entire gift of one-self throughout life and for all eternity." It is the solemn, acceptance of a way of life forall one's future vears. The act' of consecration is the cornerstone of the Sodality vocation, even though not absolutely required for valid reception. It should be for the incoming Sodalist a thing only a little less tremendous than. the taking of vows i's to .religious This act of consecration is often renewed by earnest So-dalistS, .just as rdligious often renew their vows, even though they are perpetual. The Sodality~onsecration is not specific~illy directed to vows' of r~overtv, cha'stity, and obedience, as are the.vows of religious. Still it implies that Sodalists practice these three virtues to a higher degree than ordinary Christi~ins. A special obedience to the hierarchy of the Church is requi.red by the Sodality's character as Catholic Action, and. was referred to by PiusXII as a prominent feature of Sodalities. A relative indifferdnce to material goods, is obviously necessary for the practice of a constant apostolate. Lastly, chastity--according to one's state, which doesn't necessarily mean celibacy--is naturally the ideal of one speci.all'y dedicated to.Mary. ¯ The Sodality, too, has its ~novitiate," call~d the probati6n. It is required of all candidates before admission. A religiolis,novitiate mus~ be a year lbng, and man~, orders and congregations require two years. How long is the Sodality probation? "Not less than two months" is required by.Sodality rules, but most effective Sodalitles ,171 NICHOLA~ H, RIEMAN " ~ x Revieu2 for'Reli~Tious rriake it.six months and quite a few of tlqem, especially thoke for hi~h" school students a.full ,year. The purpose of the Sodality p~b-bation is the same as that of a religious novitiate: tb acquaint, to test. t6 train. " " "It acquaints_ tl-i~'aspiraht with what the Sodality is.~ind how. it functions.'so that he can bi~tter "decide whether .hE wants to make-the" sacrifices inv~lved.It tests the candidate, and tries to find out whether~ he~ha~iwhat it takes.,to livEforevek the Sodality v~ay of life. It. trains him in" devotion to. Mary, in spiritual exercises ahd apostolic activi-ti~;: so that if- he ,is accepted, he ,will already-h'ave largely~, acquired the attitudes .and habits nee-ded to li,¢e and'act as/a Sodalist ghould. dust like.a, religlous novitiate. the Sodality 'probation is' heavily. weighted'on'the spiritual side. It stresses ingtructi'on, direction. 'and above, allT-prayer. ' " " '. ¯ -Like a religious.'order, or congregation. the S0dalit~ has its, rules. They.'are not-as demanding' as the rules of religious, btit tt~ey do clearly aim at a,high degree'of spirituality. They are all-in the pam-ph! et. Sodalit~l"Rule~. 'In his A1fostolic. Constitution of 1948 Pius XII.refers to them 25. times. It is clear that in. his mind an easy test of the calibre of"a Sodality.is whether it really keeps the rules. In a Sod~dity as."in religious orders the ~pirjt of the rules is always more important tha~ the letter, and'so Sodality rules w,hich refer only ,to procedure at, meetings and such topics should n'ot bd applied wood-enly . Yet the:rules embbdy the. spiril~ .of an organization, and if" th~yfallinto disregard and disuse, the rd'sult will be as disastrbus toa SQdality as: it would be to, a religigus'order.~ ¯ :-. In .its spiritual practices, and .to a. smaller exteni i~ its apostolic a.ctivity a °Sddality, clgsely parallels religious.c.ongreg~tions.- First, let.'us 'ma'ke a thorough survey of"it.s spiritual.exercises, for they are the dynamo on'wh.ich Sodality activities depend. Most .of these dai.ly duties are containe_d'in R.u:le 34 of the Sodality. This rule deserves to be quo,ted in full: ":Sodalist~ must be very careful, to p~actice'~hose exercises of piel~y which are most necess.a.ry for fervbl of life. Every morning.on ~i~jng,,let"them make 'the. acts of faith, hope, and'ch~r-ity; thank God our Lord for His.benefits:: offer Him their labors~ with the" intention of-gaining all",.the mdu.lgences~ they.can~.through-out that day;, and invoke 't~'e Blessed. Virgin'. by reciting thd Hail Mary three times. Le~t. tbem.':devote at least a quarter of an hour td mental prayer: be presenL if they can: a'~the adoiable Sacri}ice of,the Mass; and recite the most HolyoRosary, or some Office of Our'I2ady. 172 "dul~], 1952- PARALLEL VOCATIONS In the evening before retiring, let them carefully examine their con-science and make a fervent act of contrition, for the sins of-their whole life and especially for those committed on that day." The t~rst item mentioned on the day's spiritual schedule of a So-dalist is the prayers on rising:, faith, hope, love, thanksgiving, offering'of works, three Hail Marys. The aim of these brief vocal prayers is of.course to start the d~iy r.igbt, with and for God.They remind us at once of the "morning prayers~ . morning visit," or "first visit," of religious.They are a dedication of.the day to God. Next is mentioned daily mental prayer "at least a quarter of an hour:'" All religious institutes have, I believe, a half-hour of mental prayer, and some have more. The Sodality rule demanding daily mental prayer is as clear and unconditional as the rule of reli-gious c6n'gregations on. this point. The'only difference is in the length of time. The conclusion ought to be obvious. If a' religious-would not admit to vows a novice who did not regularly perform his meditation, why should we expect h S6dality to admit candi-dates who are not reasonably faithful in fulfilling this clear Sodality demand? Again, if novices need instruction in the bow-when-where- why of mental prayer to enable them to perform it profitably, won't Sodalists need the same? A Sodality in which the members are' faithful to their rule on mental prayer will be a Sodality that can move spiritual mountains, even if i~ has'only fifty members or even only ten. Further, says the rule, Sodalists must attend daily Ma~s "if they can." This practice, too. is modelled on that of religious. How-- ever,, for religious the "if they can" is gefierally an unneeded addi-tion: since their ~ommon life and work assignments are arranged so that it is a!ways possible for them to do so. Though daily Mass may sometimes be impossible for this or that Sodalist, such cases are rare. The trouble is that too often the '.'if they can" of the rule is taken to mean,"if th.ey choose': or'"if they do not find it incon-venient." But the John Carroll Univeisity Sodality, and marly another too, has sfiown that practically all Sodalists can atterld Mass seven days.a week if they want to. Daily Holy Cohamunion, of course, cannot be required of.Sodal-ists any more than it can of religious. But Sodalists in iheir Rule39, as all religious somewhere in their rules, are strongly urged to fre- ¯ quent and even daily Communion. Most Sodalities that observe the rules and require daily Mass find that all their members receive Corn- NICHOLAS H. RIEMAN . °. Reoie~o for ReligiO~s" .muni6n freq~uently, and the great majority of l~he.m~daily. Next the).Sodality rule requires daily, recitation of the rosary, or an Office of. Our La~y --- ~.g.; theOffice 6f the Ihamac~late .Concep-., tion. On day, s w.hen~the Sodality meets, such an Office, or part of it, is sometimes said or sung in common. ]3ut in their daily prac-tice, most Sodalists piefer the rosarY, and this .dail~ du.ty is o~ten perforrfied in"an ideal Way, with one's family. In religious orders and'congregation~, the daily rosary also forms, either by rule or by ¯ custom, part of th~ spiri(ual exercises, at least where the Office of Our Lady.is not required. Like most religious orders, the Sodality rules requir~.a daily ex-~¯ . amination of conscience at night. The reason is the same., We all know how a daily check on.our faults or virtues helps us to fiaake ,our following 0f Christ .a, practical thing, a love of deeds,and not. merely of imagination. The particular examen too, which focuses our attenti6n'or~ a "single virtue or fault, and in° which we religious find so much value, ought to be offerdd by us to Sodalists as well. A Sodalist, like a relig!ous,needs direction in this business;' of striving for p.erfection. Both need a ~piritual directo? to answer p.r~b~lems,.instruct, enc~ourgge. This i~ particul.arly trfie for the reli-gious nowce or the Sodality probationer, but it is true also for those who have already made their'lifetime consecration. S6dalists ought, to.~o to confession often; and to'get real spiritual direction from regular confessor. Rule 36 of the ~ddality is very clea~,on tl'Jis mat~ ter. .How, ever, although one's spiritual director is always a priest,~ still just as a novice-mistress can help her charges.greatly in their ori-entationto.~ eligious life, so fdr example in a girls' school, if'the So-dality moderator is a nun, she c~in on a more limited scale greatly "help her incoming Sodalists, ¯or those who are.already 'rnemb~rs, in their spiritual life.¯ Sodalis~s must make an annual retreat. Rule 9, which imposes" this i3b.ligat~on, does not set a specific l~ngtl~ of ti.me, b~t only says,¯ "There shall be a retreat every year for some days.-. " This rule does, however, str, ongly advise a clo~ed [etreat,° not fia~rely an ope,n retreat'in wl~ich the retreatants go home in the afterfioons. Also,-it cl,e.arly expects .tha~ the Sodali~(s' not only listen to t.alks, but perform meditations during the retreat~. For best rest.Its, too, the retreat h~uld, be fdr Sodalists only, just as theretreat a nun to be for nuns of her institute¯ only, not for a mixed gathering of nuns, priests, ' and .lay people. If such oa Sodality *r~treat is really im- 174- ¯ July, 19~2 -,~ PARALLEL VOCATIONS' possible, then even during the regular school or coll~ge retreat, Sodalists could make some speci~il m~ditations on their Sodality way of life,' and assign a special time for examen and for some spiritual readingdirected to" their own spiritual level. For~among Sodalists as ¯ -among re!igious the retre~it should be a powerhouse that makes its fotce'felt all through (he yea.r. It can do this best if it is adapted. to their'Sc~dality way of life., Closely" parallel in their spiritualduties a~d practices, the Sodal- .ity and.religious communities are para.llel, too,-though much less so,. .'in.their work, their apostolate. This is r;ot true of strict °contem-i~ lative orders engaging irf no outside activity, for while the prayer and penance and union with God of such contempla, tives'have an apostolic as well as a personal motive and .are in fact a tremenddus . apostolic weapon, yet they cannot, be called.external activity. 'But with religious communities engaging in external works, the Sodal, ity in its apostolate has certain likenesses. If'well understood, these, simi~ " larities will help us to cohceive,the Sodality more correctly; and mo~e.~ ¯ easily share with Sodalists our Own apostoli.c outlook, 'energy, and techniques. Apostolic work is, first of ,all, just as essential to the Sodality as to acfive:~eligious c~mmunities, and it is as deeply .rootedin pe"r-sonal sanctity. A teaching Brother who¯ recites~fill his pra~;e.rs me-ticulously but who is careless about preparing fo~ his classes is not' living.his rel~igious life f.ully.~ .Nor do~s a nursing ~ister have a-true view of he.r life.if she thifiks of holiness only as something personal,¯ and. does not see that.her.work demands sanctity, and depends 9n it. So .to_6 a Sodalist must see Sodality meetings and projects and his own day-to-d~iy contacts With his friends as part of his Sodality vo-. cation. He must clearly grasp, too, that ~11 Sodality action, since its aim is. to develop in men the grace-life, depends less on clever tech-niques. ~ban .on souls charged, with the grace of God. In the S0- dalit~ as in an active, religiohs ~c0mmunity, the spiritual and .the apostolic do not existside by side unrelated to each Other. The So~" dality does,riot have two goals; buta single goal; a spirit.ual- .apostolic goal. The.two facets, of that g0al are mutually dependent. One cannot exist without the other. Also, in the Sodality .as in religion, the apostolate is organized. 'Since the work of most S6dalists study and class, nursing,, office work, factory, work,, homemaking is riot, like the work ofia reli- ~ gious, °.directly. assigned by religious superiors, the activity-of the , 175 NICHOLAS .H. RIEMAN Reoiew ?or Religious S0dalists is both organized and individual. It .may be strictl~i or-ganized, that is, not only pl~nned in a meeting but carried out by a group. Such would be a weekly trip by S0dalists to theLittle Sis-ters of the Poor to help them care for their' charges. Sodality action may be planned together but cariied out individually, as in the con-tacting of busines~ firms to have them halt sexy advertisingor dis, play Christmas cribs. Or it may be completely indiv, idual, though inspired by Sodality ideals, as when a Sodalist persuades his or her non-Catholic roommate to go to Mass sometimes. Since we reli- -gious. even thdugh our work be hssigned, to some extent use these various apost'olic approaches ourselves, we can and should help So-d~ lli~ts with whom we deal to do the same. '"Among the primary ends of Sodalities." says Plus XI.I, "is to be reckoned every kind'bf apostolate. " " No form of apostolic ac-tion. therefore, is closed to the Sodality, and so the activities of a Sodality should be g~ired to.local needs. Such adaptation in the apostolate is a feature of not.a few religious orders and congrega-tions. We often kee the same order conducting schools on all levels, .foreign missions, hospitals, and sometimes, also parishesi Even if a congregation limits its work to education, its schools will not be car-bon copies.of, each other, but will be adapted somewhat to local con-ditions.'. The needs of each milieu are individual, and ju.st as our own apostolate ~as.religious is adapted to varying conditions, ~o we can show our Sodalists bow to do the same in their adtion for Christ. ¯ One thing more. It is almost to be expected of Sodalists that the choice of their future occupation b~ made due regard being had for their personal bent and quMifications on the basis of its al~ostolic Opportunities. One natural result of this is that'a vigorous.Sodality quickly becomes a rich source of vocations to priestly and religious life. But there are other implicatio~ns too. A Fuller-brush salesman can be an apostle, of course. But picture how much vaster are the apostolic p0ssibilities of a teaching position ' in a secular university, or of hel.ping to unionize the office-fforkers of America. . Certainly in a Sodality worthy of the name many of [he' membe.rs will choose their life's work from ~apostolic motivesl if we religious~ lay open to, ,them the potentialities. And we ought to. be adept at doing this, seeing that many of us chose our own life work .on that score. Enough has been said t6 show the fir-reaching similarity in various ways. ,between the religious life and the way of life of a true Sodalisf. The Sodality is not, of course, a religious order or con- 176 ¯ ¯ BIBLES' gregation, not even,'a~Third .Order, "among other reasons because.all Sodalities, except for the small minority in Jesuit, houses, are u£det i~piscopal direction. The Sodality has always tal~en care. to make this point clear.' Yet the Sodality does ~losely parallelreligious br-ders in their novitiate,and vov~s.and rules, in the spi~iti~al exercises they practice, and even in part in .their apostolate. These parallels are something we religious can. well ponder and utilize, for they have an important meaning for us. ~ They mean that we cannot expect Sodalities to be the kind of Catholic Action forces the Pope wishes them to be Unless we demand observance of Sodality .rules almost asreligious are expected to keep their rules. The~i mean that if we make our Sodalitie's,hll.that they should be, we can to ~.large degree and in a workable way shareeven with zealous laymen and laywomen, boys and girls, the multiple graces and advantages of our ownreligious vocation. Many of the same tools that we use to advance toward sanctity and to draw others to Christ can be used too by.our zealous lay people, ifwe con~luct Sodalities ascording to the mind of Pius XII,and en~ourage such lay people to membership in those Sodalities. By fostering viggrous So-dalities we can share with lay persons something, of the "pearl of great price" that is our religious vocation. For tb be a religious and to be a Sodalist are parallel vocations. Bibles William M. Stritch, S.J. THE following rare .and, curious editions of _the Bible, mainly non,Catholic, a~e famous either for so_me eccentricity of their ¯ translation or for some remarkable feattire o~ their publication. The Aitken Bible. The first whole English Bible printed in the United States,. by Robert Aitken;0Philadelphia, in 1782, and at l~i~' own expense. HeIost about $3000.00 on his ~renture, owing to the ,number of copies imported from England shortly afterwards. The title page, six by three and a half inches, bore the coat of arms of the State'of Pennsylvania, and says ~he project w~as appr'oved (bu~tnot sul~sidiz.ed)' and recommended by .the U. S. Congress assembled 177 WILLIAM M. STR[TCH .: ~ ~ RetJieto September 12, 1782. This edition" of 'the King James known.hlsQ as the "Bible of th~ Revolution," is more rare than even the Gutenberg Bible,notmore.than twenty-fiv~ copies .being known to exist. The~Library of. Congress copy Was acquired in 1891 for $650.00. The Breeches Bible. )klthough Wyclif in 1380, and Wm.Cax-ton in 1483,rendered the word translated "aprons" in Gen. 3:7, by the word "breeches." it ~emained for the .16th century Geneva Bibles to' be called ."Breeches-" Bible.' They were printed in England for only forty-one years, yet proved so ~p0pular .that even today those wl~o make no preterise to be Bible collectorslike t6. boast thaLthey, possess a "Breeches" Bible. The "Breeches"~ Bible of 1560 was the ¯ first Bible in English to be divided'into verses. The 1594e~lition is famous for havi.ng, the date "1495" on the New" T.es~am~nt title page~ ,The ~Bu~,Bible. An English,translation of th~ Bible printed,in 1551 ?by.John Daye; and so called from the rendering of the verse in Ps. 91:5, '.'Thou shall¯ not"nede' to be afrayde' f9~ eny bugges by nyghte~" A Copy of this Bible is, or was, until the outbreak0f'w~ir in 193.9, i~n .the library of the town'of Sc~uthampton, Ehglarid. : The Carey Bible. To Mathew Carey (1760-1839) of Phila-delphia gqes the ho.nor of publishing for'the first time {n the United States: . THE HOLY BIBLE Translated from lthe Latin ¯Vulgate ¯ Diligently compared ~vith the Hebrew, Greek. and other editions in divers languages., a.nd first published by The English College at Doway, anno 1609 Newly. revised and "c~rrected, acco'rding to ,¯ The Clementine Edition of the .Scriptur~es with annotations 'for elucidating The principal difficultie~ of Holy Writ , (Title page of Cafey',s B~ble, ~Ph~ilad~lpl~ia, .publishedDec. ¯ . The Caxto~ Memorial Bible. In 18~77.~ fou~ hundredy~ars after ,the introdu.ction of printing int6 England, one ht)ndredcbpies.of this Bibl~ were printed and bound in.twelve, hours to celebrate th~ occa-sion.' . ~ ~ The Ears-to-Ear. Bible. So named because of.a m~isprint in an editic~n of 1810~ inwhich Matt. ~3:13 reads, ~'wh6 hath ears to bar let him hear.r' ¯ Also has "good w6rks" for. "dehd'works" iri St. Paul's."Epist.le to.the Hebrews, 9: 1'~. 178 Jul~ ~ 195~ " BIBLE~ " "The Geneoa'Bible. '~ t~anslation printed in 1560. It was the work of E, nglish Protestant refugees living in Geneva, whence its name. - The Great Bibl-e." Being the Bible."in largest volume."' It pos" sessed a title page of elaborate design, in which Henry VIII ~w.as de-picted as.handing 'Zthe word of God" $0 Archbishop Cranmer and other clergy on his right Band, and to Cromwell and various lay-peers on hi~ left. Thi~" Bible is'also known as the "Chained Bible," due to the fact that s~x of ther~ were "upon divers pillars in .(St.:) P~ul'~ chi~rch, fi~ed unto the same with chaihs for all men to read in them that would." A copy. of. this Bible,,on'vellum, is now St. John's College, Cambridge, Er~gl~nd, containing the.statement at the end that it was.';fynished in. Apryll, anno 1539." " The Indian B~'ble. Tbi~ is the first Bible.printed .in what is now the U. S. A., by 3ohn. Eliot, the Apostle tO the North American In- ¯ dians. ¯.The first Indian translation of the Bible was iia th~ dialect of the-Naticks, a Massachusetts trib.e .of the' Algonkins,. and was made under the auspices Of tile Corporatior; fcff the. Propagation of ~,the Gospels among the Indi~ng~of Ne~ En.gland. .The Nev) Testa-ment appe.ai.ed.first in 1661, and two years aftei, the entire Bible. Some Of the Indian words used by Eliot are so" extremely long that Cotton Mather thought they :must hhve been stretching .themselves ever since the confusion of the tongues at Babel. A second revised edition, wasoprinted in .16~5, only" twelve copies of which are know~n to exist. A copy.of the edition Of 1663.:sold some years, agc~ for $2,900.00. The Jefferson Bible. "This is a compilation made l~y~ Thomas Jefferson during'his first term as pre~idknt of the U.S.A, ~nd c~nsists of passages from the Four G0sp~ls cut out and'pasted in a book ac-cc~ rding tO a scheme of his own. Jefferson began the work in 1804', In 1895 the federal gox;ernment purchased this curious book from-. the Jefferson~heirs, and the original is n~w in the Natiohal Museum in'Washin~t0n. The Fifty-Seventh Cbngress (.190.1-03) issued a limited edition of'the Jefferson Bible to its members. The" Leda Bible. An edition published in 1572 and so called becaiase the decoration to the'initial at the Epistle to the Hebrews is a startling and i~congrubtis woodcut of Jupiter visiting Leda in the guise of a swan. The Gutenberg Bible, In 1930, by speciai ac~ of ~ongr, ess, the Library of Congress. purchased the Vollbehr collectign of 3,000 in-o -. ~ 179 WILLI'AM M. STRITCH Revieto ~or. Religious cunabula which included 6he of the three known perfect copies on xiellum Of the Gutenber'g Bible. The price p~id for the colledtion was $1,500,000. .The Bible itself was not. pri~ed, separately, but Dr. ~ollbehr paid $250,000 for it, which was increased by interest charges and an export' tax to a total in excess of.'$350,000, the hBiigbhlee'sst ppurbicliec aetvioern .p iasi hdo f~o rk an opwrinn,t endo rb coaonk .i tT bh'ee deexfaicnti tdealyte a ossfe trhteed that it.was.printed by Johann Gutenberg at Mainz. A copy of this Bible in the National Library of Paris. contains two manuscript dates, August 15, 1456, and August 24, 1456. It is therefore ap-' parenf that the Bible was printed before August, 14.56. Bibliogra-phers agree that Mairiz was the city.whekein it was p~oduced. The name of Johann Gutenberg, universally acknowledged as the success-ful inventor of the process of printing from movable metal type, ap-pears nowhere in the Bible, but we do-kno~¢ from available and con-temporary evidence that he Was deeply interested in it, and for' that reason this Bible is c6mmonly referred to as the Gutenberg Bible. Printed in a large .gothic type, the edition contains 641 printed leaves. The two other perfect,vellum ~opies are owned by the Brit-" ishoMuseum in London and the National Library in Paris. No one knows how many capies of this Bible were originally printed, but at lea~t forty-five ~opies of this Bible. of which twelve are vellum copies, are extant today. The beautifully printed and well' preserved copy in the Library of Congress is appraised at $1,,000,000 and is known as "the choice~ book in Christendom,." The Leese~ Bible, Although parts of the Hebrew scriptures had been preyiously translated into English for Jewisl~ use, the first com-plete English Old Testament for that purpose was translated by Isaac Leeser and published in 1853. Leeser fOllowed the style of the' King James Versioh, but made so many changes in the text thai his work is essentially a.n independent translation. This monumental work held its place in English and American synagogues until it be-gan to .be replaced by. the Jewish version of 1917. ,The Murderers Bible. An edition of 1801 in which the mis-print murderers for murmurers makes Jude 16 read "These are tour- .deters, full of complaints,, walking according to their own desires." ¯ ThePtacemakers Bible. An editionof the Geneva Bible, 1562, so called from a ,printer's error in Matt. 5 :9 "Bles~ed are the place-makers (peacemakers) fo~ they shall be called the children of God." The Printers Bible. An edition of about 1702 which makes Da-i80 BIBLE~ vid pathetically complain that "prin~ers (princes) havepersecuted me" (Ps. 119:161)'. The Rebecca's Cdmels Bible. Printed ii~ 1823 in which Gem -24:61 tells us that "Rebecca .arose. and her camels." instead of "her damsels." The Standing-Fishes Bible.Bible printed in 1806 in which Ezek. 47:10 reads "but it shall come to pass.that fishes (instead of fishers), shall s~and upon it,'; , ~Tbe Smith'Bible: .Julia Evelina Smith (179~2-1886) of, Glas-tonbury, Conn., transla'ted the Bible into English from .Latin, Greek, and'Hebrew, ~ind h~s be~n the only woman to translate the Bible in any language. She started the project when she Wfi's 77 years of age and cgmpleted it when 84. Her translat,on of the Bible was published in Hartford, Conn., in 1876, arid at her'own~expense. The To-Remain Bible. Bible printed at Cambridge, England, in 1805. Gal. 4:29 read.s,. "Persecuted hini that was born after the ~pirit to remain., even' so it is now." The words "to remain" weie added in error by the compositor, the editor having answered a proof-reader's queryas to the comma after "spirit" with the penciled reply "to remain" in the margin. The Thumb "Bible~ An edition published in Aberdeen, Scot-land. in 1693. It measured one inch square and half an inch thick, and was calle~ "Verbum Sempiternum." A Mr. J. W. Bradley, Halifax, Nova Scotia, has what he bMieves is the world's smallest Bible. Measuring only-5/8 of an inch square with 500 thin pages. It was printed by the Oxford Un.iversity Press in 1859. ~ The Treade Bible. An edition of the Bible published in 1568, and so ~alled from its" rendering of J~r.' 8:22, "Is there no treacle (instead of "balm").in Gilead?" The Unrighteous Bible. An edition printed at Cambridge, Eng-land, in 1653, containing the printer's error, "know ye not that the unrighteous shall inherit (for "shall not inherit")~ the Kingdom of ¯ God" (I Cor. 6:9). The same'edition, gave Rom. 6:13 as "n~ither yield ye your members as instruments of righteous unto sin," in place of "unrighteous." ." The Vinegar Bible. An edition printed at Oxford, E.ngland, in 17i7; in which the chapter heading of Luke 20 isgiven as~ "The Parable of the Vinegar/' instead of the "Vineyard;',' It was printed by J. Baskett; becauseof manyother errors it soon ca~e to be styled' WILLIAM M. STRITCH a basketful:of errors.". Copies of this edition are. very rare. Christ Chu.rch at Shrewsbury, New.dersey, is said to have one of the few° known copies i~n existence. "The Whom/Who "Bible. Both versions, Catholic and non- Catholic, admit that grammatical blundbr which for centuries bas rasped the nerves of sensitive purists, namely, . the questio~a of Our Lord, (Matt. 16:t3), "Whom do men say that .the Son of-man iS?" The revised (1881) American standard version and the Cath-olic Confraternity t)f Christian Doctrine version of 1941 rectify that error by making it "Who." In connection with the AmeriCan standard.version of 1881. it may be news to many of our readers to learn that the Chica9o Tribune published the whole version of the New Testamentdn a single special issue on May 22, 1881. The Woman's Bible. The idea appears to have been born in the mind of Elizabeth Cady Stanton. ¯ In a stout pamphlet, published in New York, 1897, the lady having appointed a tentative commit- .tee of twenty-three women, .instructed each member to purchase a Bible and go through it from Genesis .to Revelation, marking all' .the. passages, in which women were mentioned, these passages were then to. be cut out and pasted in a black book, and correct readings and " comments thereon written underneath. OUR CONTRIBUTORS SIST]~ M. BONAVENTURE, of the Sisters of St. Francis of Sylvania," Ohio, has been teaching graduate courses in Engl,ish at the Catholic University, Washing-ton, D.C.', for more, than a decade. NICH(~LAS H. RIEMAN, who has directed So-dalities as a Scholastic, is now' studying theQlogy at West Baden College, West Baden, Indiana. WILLIAM M. STRITCH writes from Campion High School, Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin. " ~ REPRINTS OF ~PONSA CHRISTI In May and July, 195 I, we p~inted the Apostblic Constitution, Sponsa Christi, and'the explanatory in'struction of the Sacred Congregation. of Religious. We now ha~e~some reprints of thi~ material that we can sell in sets' 6f ten and multiples of t.en., . The .price is one dollar for ten copies, and a dollar for each additional set, of ten. Please enclose payment with yohr order and address it to: REVIEW'FOR RELI- 61OUS, St.'. Mary's College,. St." Marys," Kansas: '." 1~2. Un ,"g e"n ,kDu si eFili us Pope Plus XI Apostolic Letter Addressed to the Suprem, e Heads of Religious Orders on the Care of Religious DisciplineI [.EDITOR'S NOTE: The ptirpose of this important document, in the wdrds of its author, Pope Pius XI, is: "to urge members of religious institutes, both those who are already priests and those who are candidates for the priesthood, to the study of the sacred learning, the absence of which would~ prevent them from performing with full competence the functions of their vocations." 'It is printed here at the request of a number of our subscribers. Though directed chiefly to religious clerics, the content, particularly the'sections indicating how sound theological learning can deepen the interior life, may also provide other religious with material for fruitful meditation. Sub-titles have been inserted.] BELOVED Sons: Health and Apostolic Benedictioia. The only-begotten Son of God, entering the world to re-deem mankind, was not content with imparting those sp[r.itual precepts the observance of which brings ~ill men to their:appointed .end. He ~eclared. also that those who wished to follow His foot-stbps more closely should embrace and practice~ the evangelical counsels. Whoever pledges himself by vow to observe these counsels strips himself not only of those encumbrances which retard our progress on the road to ordinary sanctity--riches, family cares, or immod-erate liberty in the.use of material things--but mox~es so directly and unreservedly towards a life of perfection as to seem almost to have attained'the haven of eternal salutation. ' ~. Wherefore from the earliest Christian era there have never been wanting souls who have harkened to the whisper of¯ God and, nobly and' generously denying themselves all things, have entered the way of perfection and indomitably persevered therein. Histor~ witnesses continuously to the sacred army of men and women who have con-secrated and pledged themselves to God in various religious Orders and congregations which, through the centuries, the Church has solemnly approved and ratified. ¯ N~r do these _religious communities bear the same unvarying spiritual character. The life of perfection, though in essence unchangeabie, inanifests itself in a variety of fruitful forms. In. 1AAS 16:133-48 (1924) ~ 183 POPE PIUS XI Review for 'Relioiofis separate and distinctive manners, with diversified exertions of charity and zeal'do the varidus orders Of religious S6uls, according to the ~pecial ways of theii'institutes, pursue th~ ~16ry of Gdd and the sal- . vati~n of their neighbor. . , From this wide diversity of. religious orders, as ~rom trees "of." manifold species in God's spiritual garden, springs a.gloriouslvariety of spiritual fruit unto the salutation of men. Such striking complex- " ity of fo~m with basic unity of design, such identity 'of aim v~ith precise distinction of spheres, presents a .spectacle of impressive and monumental ,beauty. It is a dispensation of Divine Providence that new needs of,the .times should call forth and nourish r~eligious congregations specially adapted to the meeting of these fresh exigencies. And so the Apostolid See. under whose standard religious orders pHr~arily serge, mindful of th~ blessings which at all times they have cbnferred upon. the Church and Upo, n civil society, h~as ever cherish[d these holy instkutes with peculiar solicitude and affectl0n. , The sti~reme pontiff has always rdserved tohimself the approvin~ and confirming their constitutions and statutes: he h~is in times of crisis tirel~ss'ly defended them from their' adversaiies: and'. when. occasion.so demanded, he has not been slow in rec~illing them-to their pristine.observanCe and to their original reverence for the glori-ous ideals 0f their respective rules. This great concern of the Church that religious men Should be pre-erfiinent in adherence to the holy laws of thei? order and that they should constantly increase in perfection, is manifested by the solemn decrees and exhortations of the Council of Trent. "Let all regulars, both men and'-women, mold and regulate their lives in keei~ing with.the iule fhey. profess; particularly let them faithfully -observe whatever pertains to the perfection of their professibn, the vows 0f poverty, chastity, and.obedience, and any others which may be peculiar to.their particular institute or ha~,e bearing ,on th~ ,ob-servance of common life, both in food and in clothing.''z ~ The Code of Canon Law, in its.preface to the section on regula-tions for religious men and women, b_r[efly describes and defines th~ religious life as'being ao"stable mode of. living in common by which ,the faithful, undertake, besides the ordinary precepts of the faith. ~he evangelicalcou~asels through the'instrumentality ~of the yows of obedience, chas~ity~, and poverty . . . and thus proceed in the way,of ZSess. XXV. c. I". De Reoul. i84 July, 1952 UNIGENITUS e~angdical perfection." Thi~ religious state, declares the Code dis-tirictlE, is: to be ."esteemed highly by all."3 Tb extent indeed of Our ~onfidence in the virtue ~f religiou's men, and in their helpful co-operation, We ha~e-already demon-strated in Our .encyclical letter Ubi Arcano, affectionately addressed tO the bishops of the Catholic world'. We ~said therein, that for,more. than one reason we relied ~r,eatly. on the regular clergy acthally:t.o apply the remedies We bad proposed to meet the many evils under which human society was laboring. ¯ Further, in Our former letter on the supervision of .clericfil studies, addressed to the Cardinal Prefect of the Sacred Congregation for Studies in Seminaries and Universities, in the identical embrace of Our purpose and~in Our deep solicitude to proyide for the training of clerics called to the sacred ministry, We included_equ~liy as~well' member~ of religiou~ orders, since what we ¯therein observ.e.d and decr~ed affectedthem in great measure too. at least such as are destined, for. the priesthood. Nevertheless, We are urged, dearly beloved sons. ,by Our loving and vigilant concern for your goo.d, to address, you byspeCial letter and to present certain admonitions to you which if your spiJ:itual sons will but observein their conduct and intercourse.thei'r pro-- -cedure and the whole tenor of,their lives will undoubtedly be such as is impera(ively demanded of them by. the truly unique and ~sub- -lime voc~ition.¯really divine, which is theirs. Revet:ence for Fot~nder First of all. We exhort religious men to ~'egard the founder of ~their order.as the supreme example to befollowed. The "religious who so regards the father" and lawgiver of his institute, will .more certainly and more abundantly partic'ipate in the divine grace deriv, ing from a religious vocatiofi. It is-abundantly clear that those men of" pre-eminent sanctity, When they established their religious congregations, obeyed a divine impulse. As long, therefore, as the son reproduces in his life °the special mode of sahctity conceived by th~ father as the distinctive mark 8f the congregation, the son will not be recreant to the obliga-tion'assumed whefi he entered religioh. Wherefore let religious men. as devoted sons, dire~t their thought and care to defend, the honor of their founder and father both by obedience, to hi~ .pre.s~'riptions and admonitions, and by imb,fing 31C 487[ 488 POPE~ PlUS Reoiew [or Religious themselves with his spirit. Nor will they. fall from their estate as long as they walk in the footsteps of their founders: "And their-children for their .sakes remain forever. Would that religious would so loyally adber,e to the rules of their institute and so retain the manner, of life established, that ithey would show themselves ever.y day more worthy of the religious state. Such fidelity cannot fail to win for the manifold ministries which they exercise' at all times the powerful support of heavenly graces. In all our activities let us seek only the kingdom of God and His justice: and this should be the sole objective in those works which, beloved son~, are wont to occupy the efforts Of most of your spit, itual subjects: sacred missions, and, the. education of youth. As for " the,apost.olate,-.let them take care thai in their'foreign missions, as My predecessor wisely admonishes,s they do not employ ~he Gospel to further the interests of their country or to increase its ppwer. Let them r~ither !ook'only to the eternal salvation of the infidels, while at the same time. elevating their material standards of living to the extent that this may fo[ward their progress to eternal happiness. Those religious whose duty it is rightly to instruct and educate youth-must be especially careful lest, too much preoccupied with training theik students to excellence in fine arts, they so neglect the religious development of their minds and hearts that their students enter the world wellZinstructed indeed in letters, but totally ignorant of sacred, science. LWhoever lac,,ks this is deprived of themost precious and most beautiful of all adornments and. lives in the greatest empti-~ hess of soul: "All men are vain, in whom there is not the knowledge of God.''6 The Seraphic Doctor speaks appositely in this .regard: "This is the fruit of learning, that faith should be built up in all men, tha.t God should be honored, morals elevated, and those conso-lations derived which/pring from the union of the beloved with. her divine.SpouSe through supernatural dharity.''z I. BENEFITS OF SACRED LEARNING Since it is of the highest importance that this knowledge of sacred science should be held in the greatest esteem and deeply imbibed by the mihisters of the Church, the chief concern, of this Our exhorta-tion is tO urge members of. religious institutes, both those'who are 4Ecclesiasticus 44 : 1 "~ 5Epist." Apost. Maximum Iliad, November 30, 1919 6Wisdom 13:1 7De Reductione Atrium ad Theol., n. 26 186 Ju/g, 1952 UNIGENITU~' already" priests and those Who are candidates for the priesthood, to the study of the sacredlearning, the absence of which would pre-vent them. from performing with full competence the functions of their vocation. For those who have conseciated themselves to God the one, or certainly the chief, obligation is that of prayer and the contemplation or meditation on divine things. How can they rightly fulfill tlqis solemn duty without, a profound and intimate compre- _hension of ~h~ doctrine of faith?. The necessity of such study'We 'urge on those pa~iicul~rly who devo'te their lives to divine contem-plation in the cloister. Such souls ~rr indeed if they believe that after having previously, neglected or later discontinued their theological "studies, the$ can, though deprived of that copious kn.owledge 9f God and the mysteries of faith which is derived from the sacred sciences, readily move in a high spiritual plane and be'lifted up and borne. aloft to interior union with God. 'Help in Apostolate As to those who are engaged in teaching or preaching or in the cleansing of souls in the sacrameht of penance, or are sent on sacred missions or pursue tti~ir ministry in daily familiar intercourse with people, shall not .the vigor and efficacy, of these manifold activities be in exact' proportion to the high degree of erudition" with .which they are perfected, and adorned? The Holy Spirit, too, the Paraclete, by.the lips of His prophet, has proclaimed the priest's n~ed of a comprehensive and in~imatel knowledge of sacred science: "The lips of the priest shall keep knowledge.''s How can solid theological learning be lacking in the legate of the Lord of wisdom,9 that legate who is minister and doctor of the New ;F~stament, ~alt of the earth,~° and light.of the-world,n the legate .by whose tongue the Christian people recei;ce the words of eternal life? " Let those trembl~ for themselves, therefore, who approach the sacred ministry with minds ill-equipped with holy learning:. Not unscathed shall they stand in their lack of preparation, before Lord, who has spoken the awful threat: "Because thou hast rejected. kn6wledge, I will reject thee, that thou shalt not do the office of pi'iesthogd to Me.;'~2 Moreover,.if ever in the past it behooved the 8Malachias 2 : 7 9I Kings 2 : 3 l°Matthexv 5 : 1 3 ~20see 4 : 6 187. POPE PIUS XI - " ' \ Rebietu For Religious ¯ priest to be adorned with le.arning, much more so is thai .quahty required of hin~ in thes~igresent times when in,.all spheres of human activity learning arid science are valued at such high ,price and are so closely bound" therewith that men, even thuse who are less wise-- as.is almostalwi~ys the case boast that whatever they do, the3/do in [he hattie of science:. So. let us strive with intense earnestness that the Catbolic /aith be sustained b.y the support and protection of human learning of every kind. In the light which thislearning casts th~ beauty of revealed truth will .be Unfolded before ~he eyes of, all and tile falsity of the ¯ captious chaYges ~vhidh pseudo-science is wont .to heap up against the ¯ ~dogmas i~f faith will be exposed as. occasion may requite. ' For. as'Te~tulliamhas so beautifully written: our faith "anxious-ly desires one, thirig.only, that she benot condemned unheard.''u In the same connection, let .us not forget the "words of Jerome: "Piety Without culture profits itself alone, find, however much by personal merit it builds up Christ's church, it yet equally harms her by silence in the faceof her adversaries . ~. It is the priest's duty, to answer whenever ~he law is calleqdue isnti o.n. -, And so the priest, "both secular and regular, must. propagate Catholic doctrine as widely as possible, and illuminate and defend it. This,doctrine of the Church not only contains all that is needed to" refute and disprove any objections which may b.e ¯urged against it, but., ~rovided it be,clear_Iv, explained, cannot fail to draw~ souls to " itself, if only they" be free from p, rejudice. This truth'was not missed by the great doctors ~Sf,the so-called Middle Ages. Led by Thdmas Aquinfis and Bonaventure they exerted themselves to, drink as defiply as possible of the waters'of divine wisdom and go comm,unica,te their knowledge to others. ' - Help for Interior Life There is, beloved sons, the furthe~ advantage that the v~y effort of mind and talent and powers which you~ members will expend in the pursuit Of.}hese studies will effect that they will imbibe the reli-gio, us. spirit more deeply and-will fittingly sustainthe honor and digni.ty of the exalted state of life Which they have embraced. For h~e who ~nters upon the study of theology addresses himself to a weig,.hty task indeed; and one invoIving, intense labor and'heavyin,- convenience. It is a task admitting no slothfulness or laziness, which ~3Apol., I . l~Epist, ad Paul.in,. LIII- (al. CIII) , 188 July, 1952 . UNIGENITUS is the mother and mistress of many evils.15 But the earnest student, applying,himself wholeheartedly to this truly hard intellectual labo} acquires the habi~ not onlyofcirc~umspection in ju~gmeht and' delib-eration in act, but repres~ses also and 'dominafes more easily hi~ pas-sions wh'ich, .if allowed loose rein,' grow steadily Wors~ and hu}ry the s.oul tothe abyss of all vices. In this iegard Jerome writes: "Love the scienc~ of Holy Scrip'ture and y~u will. not love the vices of the flesh.':16 And again~: "The knowledge of the S~,riptur~s begets virgins. 17 But the religious man shouldbe urged to these studies by a fur-t- her motive the.re~li.zation of the gra~city .of the obligation, arising from his very vo~atioi~, of achieving a' perfect degree of virtue. It is clearly imt3ossible for anyone to progress efficaciously toward perfec-tion and to reach it safely without practicidg the interior life. But can this interior life be developed and strengthened by an.y more effectiv~ means than the study of-things divine? ~Persistent and daily meditation on those marvelous gifts of nature and of grace and on ~individual men will cohsecrate one's thbugh~ts and feelings, and lift them. up to heavenly things; .nay more, it fills men With the spirit of faith and unites them in closest intimacy, with God. For, who reproduces in himself more perfectly the image of Christ, 2esus than he who ass~rnilates to his v.ery.flesh and blood the dog,matic and moral truths of divine revelation.?. 'Most wisely,, then, did the founders" of religious °orders. fol-lowing the lead of the Fathers and Doctors of the Church, ~ommend with more than ordinary earnestness to their sons the .study of the sacred sciences, o It has. bdsides, been proved by experience, beloved, sons, that those of your religious who most devotedly have'-applied their intellects to the study of the teachings of the faith, have as a rule been all the more successful in achieving a higher and more com-prehensive degree of sanctity; whil(on the contrary,.those who have neglected this sacred duty have often lfipsed into tepidi'ty and have sunk not infrequently into a condition of spiritual deterioration in- 'volving even the violati6n of their vowS. Wherefore, let all religious remember the words of Richard of St.Victor: "Would that each of us Would immerse himself in these studies all the day long until" the sun set, until the love of vain things graduallygrow weak. until the heat of concupiscence be extinguished and the Wisdom of~carnal pru- ¯ lSEcclesiasticus 3 3 : 2 9 ~6Epist. ad Rust. CXXV. (al. IV) ~TComm. ~fi Zach, ].II, c. l O 189 ¯ POPE PIUS XI : Revleu2 for Reliflious ~d~nce grow cold.''~s .We exhort religious men also to make their own .the prayer of St. Augustine: "May Thy Scriptures be mY ,chaste delight" may I not err in them, nor deceive because of them.''19 II. DIRECTIVES FOR TRAINING.OF CLERICS Since, then, the constant and attentive pursuit of sacred doctrine brings such rich emoli~ments tb religious men, it,is clear, beloved sons, how weighty, is your obligation to provide for your subjects every opportunity for theological study and' for continued contact, with theological science, at every subsequent stage of their religious life. We must realize, moreover, how much future, candidates for religion are benefited by a proper formation and training of their mind and will from their earliest years. In the first place, in these courupt times Christian education is sadly neglected, in the home ~nd the young, exposed to widely prevalent snares of evil, are deprived of , that solid religious instruction which alone has power to mold char-acter in conformity with the divine commandments or even with a .humanly decent.mod~ of life. It follows, therefore, that yqu can take no more advaptageous measure in this regard than the establish-ment of preparatory seminaries and c011~ges for yourig men who give some indication of possessing a religious vocation. We observe with deep satisfaction that in a goodly n, umber of places such insti'tutions are in fact being founded. In this matter, however, you are,to take to heart the admonition.addressed by Ou'r predeces~sor, 'Pius X, of 'holy memory, to the superiors of the Dominican Order. The Pontiff warne'd against admitting too readily, or ifi too great numbers youths whose aspirations after that hol'y manner c;f life are not certainly i~- spired from on high.-,° After having given long and prudent consid7 eration therefore to the selection of young men as candidates for the religious life, ~ou "will take great care that, along with instruction in piety suited to their years, those lower subjects be taught them which are usually taught in the q~mnasia,~'I so that'they do not enter the ¯ novitiate before they have finishe'd the humanities, unless indeed a sufficiently, sound reason advises otherwise in a particular instance. It is an obligation not only of charity but even of justice that you should display the utmost assiduity and diligence in this matter¯ of the education of your young candidates. If by reason of the small 18De ditT. sacrif. Abr. et Mariae, I 19Conf., lib. XI, c. 2, n. 5 20EpiSt. Cure Primum, ad Mag. Gem O.P., August 41 1913 ~1IC 589 190 dulg~ 1952 UNIGENI ,TUS: number of members in an institute, br for other reasons, a province¯ has insufficient facilities fo} imparting this education prescribed by canon law, let the young men be sent¯ to anothe~ province or to another seat of learning where they can be properly taught according to the directions of canon 587. Preparator~l Schools In i'he lower ~chools, however, let the injunction of canon 136~4 " be religiously followed: ':The most honored place in the curriculum is to .be awarded to religious instruction, diligently imparted in a manner suitable to the ability and age of each one." For this instruc-tion, furthermore, only those books are to be used which are approved by the ordinary. It is to be remarked incidentally ~hat even students of scholastic philosophy should not omit this study of Christian doc-trine. They will most profitably use that golden book, the Roman Catechism, a work in which one is at a loss which to admire more, the wealth of sound doctrine or the elegance bf the Latin style. If your clerics, from tbeir earliest youth, accustom themselves to draw their knowledge of sacred truth from that fount, they will not. 9nly come to theology better prepared, but also, .from familiarity with ¯ that "excellent book they will learn how to teach the peopl,e wisely and to combat with skill the lie~ which are wont to be chattered against revealed truth. , , Those iniunctions which, in Our Apostolic Letter Ot~ciorum Ornnium, We addressed to the diligent attention Of the Catholic bishops concerning study.of the Latin tongue, We urge and co.mmand youalso, beloved sons, to observe in your literary schools; for to you also pertains that law of the Code which, concerning students pre-paring for holy orders, says: "Let them be carefully taught languages~ particularly. Latin and their native tongue.''22 The high imp.ortance bt~ an accurate knowledge of Latin in your young religious is sug-gested by a multitude of reasons. Not only does the Church.employ that lang.uage as a servant and bond of unity; but we also iead the .Bible in Latin, we chant and offer the Holy Sacrifice in Latin, and we perform.in .that tongu~ nearly all ttie sficred rites. The Roman Pontiff, besides, addresses and teaches the Catholic world in' Latin, and the Roman Curia employs no other tongue in ,tra6sacti~g its business and in formulating decrees which apply to all the faitht~ul. He who is n~t well 'versed. iri Latin is much embarrassed in his ap- 2alC 1364, 2° 191 POPE PlUS XI Review for Relig~ous, proach to,~thos( rich v61ume~ of the Cht~rch's Fathers: and Doctors, many of whom used no' Other medium of expression in explaining '.and defending Christian.dbctrine. -Let it then.be your earnest aim that your clerics, destined for ".the .future ministry of the Church, shall attain a real:mastery of'and a very practica!.familiarity with that language. Novitiates " ¯ Their p~ri~paratory studies concluded, the students and all.c~andi-dates, whose determination to consecrate themsel~ces "to Godhas been proved and whose good character, more than mediocre mental gifts, spirit of piety; and integrity of morals have been established to the satisfaction of their dffectors, may be admitted to the novitiate. I~ th.e"'no~ritia~e, as in a sort of training ground, they shall, learn .by actual practice the principles and virtues of the religious life. How impc~rtant it is that.the souls:of the candidates should be " mos~ carefully trained during-this period of n6vitiate may be learned. not only from the testimony of masters of the religious life. but "most of all from experience. This latter teaches that no' one reaches and maintains'himself in a state of religiou~ perfecti0n~unless he has first laid in his soul the foundations ofall the virtues. Wherefore let the novices, eschewing all profane studies and othe~ attractions. concentrate entirely, under th'e guidance of their directors, 6n the exercises of theinterio.r life and the acquisition, of virtues, tfiose par-ticula. rly .which are most intimately connected and associated with the vqws Of religion poverty, obedience, and chastity. "Extremely helpful to this end will be the reading arid considera-tion of the Writings of St. Bernard, of ,the Seraphic Doctor Bona-ventuie, and of Alphonsus Rodrigud-z, as well as.~of those spiritual masters who are the special ornaments of each particular institute. Time has dot only failed to dim or lessen the, force and e~cacy of these teachers~ but has even heightened their Val~e in this our day. Nor should the novice ever forget that such as h~. is in the novitiate. so shall he be during the rest of his hfe: and after a tepid, or misspent noviceship the possibility of,supplying for what has been missed in the novitiate by renovation of spirit is usually~a forldrn and base-less hope. Philosophy and Theology . ~ Thereupon you shotild see to it, beloved sons, that your subjects. after.completing their noviceship, be ass!gne.d to houses distinguished 192 ,Iu!q. 1952 UNI~ENITU$ for ~obs~'r~ahce of your' holy ~ules. Tl~ese houses should offer also° facilines for the most profitable and exact course of philosophy and theology, made" in accordance, with definite and ordered procedure. Definite and or'tiered procedure, ~Ve said: that' is, not only should there be no promotion to a. higher grade without sufficient evidence of p~oficiency in the lower, but there must not even be any~¢u.rtail-ment or~omission of any part of.a course, nor any abbreviation of the t~ime t6 be devoted to a branch of study, as prescribed by the ,Code. Unwise, thereforev--to speak conservat.ively are those superiors who," pressed perhaps by time and necessity and desirous of availing themselves of their subjects' ministries as soon as possible, wish their subjects to receive their trai.ni~g for the priesthood by a sort .of accelerated method. Has not experience proved that those who h.av.e made their studies hurriedly and wittioiat thoroughness c~n scarcely .ever, if at' all, remedy this defect in their training, and that whatever little ,advantage may at timCs have been gained from this advanced reception of orders eventually fades away and vanishes, since these religious must of ne~cessity be less .apt for t~ ministry? Take care. moreover, lesf your youiag religious, .while studying philosqpfiy and theology, should grow yold in their struggle for virtue. On the con-" trary they should continue to a~rail themselves of the services of the most learned masters of the spiritual .life, so that finally, as behooves religious men, they shall display in themselves solid, learning joined to holiness of life.- And here We cha.rge you with special earnestness to exercise care in selecting eminen.tly suitable instructorsin the higher studies, mas-ters who~elife will be wo~rthy models for the imitation of all. Their proficiency, too, must be pre-eminent .in that subject which it is their office to teachl And~so, no one'should act either as.professor.,or instructor unless he has completed with merit the course of philos-ophy, theology, and allied branches, and has proved his possession of sufficient equipment and skill as a teacher. We .c.all your attentionfurthermore, to this injunctioh of the Code of Canon Law: "Provision must be made th'at there be separate masters for at least the following subjects: Sacred "Scripture, dogmatic theology, moral theology, and ecclesiastical history,"~ These m~is- "ters should spare no effof~ to'ffansform, th,eir sthdents into holy and tireless apostles of Ch. rist, equipped with those ornaments of learnirig 1,93 POPE P~usXI Reuieu~ for R~ligious and prtidence by" which they Will b~ abl4 not only"to instruct the simple and ignorant, but also to refute those, puffed up by what. is fallaciously called science. They will. be able likewise to preserve' all. from the contagion of error which, because it usually is presented so speciously and cunningly, is calculated to beget and inflict greater damage on souls. . But if happily, by God's grace, your subjects p.roceed wi'th gen-erous spirit in the straight paths of Christian learning and become greatly proficient therein, the labor which you best6w,-beloved sons, on this so salutary task will reward and rejoice .you with a most abundant fruit beyond .your. fondest expectations. ¯ Further, We exhort you to regard as holy and inviolable those words which, in accord with the spirit of canon law, We wrote in Our'apostolic letter on seminaries and the studies of clerics. Therein We urged that, in teaching the precepts of 15hilosophy and theology, masters should follow faitl~fully the scholastic methdd according tO the principles and doctrines of Aquinas. For who ~an deny that the scholastic discipline and the angelic wisdom of St. Thomas--that discipline and method praised so repeatedly and enthusiastically by Our predecessors--have a native efficacy both f6r tl'Je illustration of divin~-truth and for the marvelous refutation 6f the errors of every age? In the words of Our predecessor of immortal memory, Leo XIII, the Angelic Doctor "so abundantly rich in divine and huma.n science, so comparable to the very sun . has by his sole efforts brought it hbout that all the errors of past ages have been refuted by one man, and invincible alms have beeh supplied for the defeat of th.ose errors which will arise in endless succession through the ages.''2a Most a'ppositely contintJes the same Pontiff: '"Let those who Wish to be truly philosophers~and such must be the. especial desire of religious men--let those l~ay the first principles and foundations of their doc-trine in Thomas Aquinas.''25 How much it behooves your spiritual sons to hew close to the . general line of scholastic doctrine is abundantly evident. Perceiving the intimate relationship existing between philosophy and revelation, the Scholastics-d, eveloped and synthesized that wonderful mutual concordance, in such wise that philosophy and revelation afford each other light and the maximum of support." Nor can these two s.ci- 24En~ycl. Aeterni Patris 25Epist. Nbstra Erga, N6vember 25, 1898 194 ,Iulg, 1952 UNIGENITUS ences contradiqt each oth'er, as some madly assert, for both derive from God, the suprem'e and eternal truth; and while philosophy manifests the findings o'f reason, re~elation displays the firm data of faith. Indeed the two sciences are so mutually in harmony that each c.ompletes the other. Hence it follows that from an ignorafit and untrained philosopher a learned theologian can never be educed: and, contrariwise, he w~o is igno.r~ant of divine truth can never be a per-fect phil.osopher. In this regard St. Thomas says truly: "From the principles of faith .new knowledge is derived for the faithful, as from.the prin-ciples of natural reason new knowledge is derived for all; hence theology is a science." In other words, just as from reason, which is a participation in divine Wisdom, philosophy derives'the basic prin-ciples of nattiral cognition, and declares and ex.plains them, so from, the light of supernaturaI revelation,, which by its splendor" illumines and completes t, he intellect, theology borrows, develops, and explains the truths of faith. These two sciences are two rays f~om the same sun, two rivers from the same source, two edifices resting,on the same foundation. Of high dignity indeed is human science, provided it submits obediently to the truths of faith. If these truths are disregarded, human science must i,nevltably ~nd inexorably fall into numberless errors and deceits. But if, beloved sons, your subjects command the sum of human knowledge which they have beap'ed up for tbem~elg.qs to'act as handmaid and servant to that science which is divine; and if~ besides~ they glo,w with an arderit love and desire for revealed truth, they will be true men of God and will be .universally regarded as such; and'by word and example, they will.do much fo'r the peop!e ~of God. For, "'all Scripture is inspired by God"--or as the Angelic Doctor explains this passage( sacred doctrinal is perceived by the light .of divine revelation--"and useful for teaching, for reprovifig, for. correcting, for instructing in justice; that the man of God ma) be perfect, equipped for every good work.''26 Spirit of Faith .But in the ,case of young religious, the first {equirement is that 'their spirit of faith should be" nourished to vigor. Otherwise.they, shall to no avail engage themselves in this boundless field of divine and. human .knowledge: for, if the spirit of faitb is weak, the stu- 262 Timothy 3 : 16-17 ¯ PoPE PIU~ XI Review fbr Relipious dent,"like one. blind, cannot penetrat~e into the. profun, dities'.pf .super-na~ ural truths. Nor is itof less importance'that the religious shpuld albproach °his studies with a,pure intention. -"There are some Who wish to 2~arn,'~ warns St. Bernard, ".solely .in order to l(arn; and ~his is base curiosity . There are o~her~ who wish to learn in order to sell their knowledge, perhaps for money, perhaps for honors: and. this is ba~e t~affic. But there are also those who wi~h tO learn in order that'they themselves m~y.be buildedl and this, is prudence,''27 In their above-mentioned studies, therefore, your young religious should propose to. themselves this one aim: that they "please God and, . win for themselves "and for their r~eigbbor the. greatest, pbssible spir-itual emoluments. And in science disjoin, ed from virtue there is more of offense and danger than of true utility for those who b~come proud by reason of their learning lose the gift of faith and blindly plunge headlong t° their souls' destruction--your sons must with all .assiduity cultivate the virtue of humility,, necessary f0~ all indeed~ ' but especially to bestriven after by students: and ~they must plant it firmly.in their hearts mindful as they are that God alone is sub- ~tantial wisdom and whatever man possesses, no matter, how.pro-found, is .as nothing compared with the vast sum of learning of which he is ignorant. Beautifully to the point speaks St Augustine: '" 'Knowledge,' says the'Apostle, 'puffeth up.' What then? SbSuld you flee knowl-edge and ch6os~ to know nothing rather than to be puffed up? Why should I address you i~ it is better.to b'e ignorant than learned? Love knowledge', but prefer charity. Knowledge, if it, be alone. "puffeth up. But because charity~buildeth up, it permits no( knowl-edge to be puffed up. Knowledge puffeth, up therefore where cbarity-do~ s not build up; where charity bu!IdL yp, knowledge is made Your sons, therefore, if indeed'they pursue their' studies with: that spirit 0f~charity and devotion frbm which all other virtu'es have their Origin and b~ing, would be like a medicinal fragrance warding. off ,the fear" of corruption: and by. their gifts of doctrine will ~ c~r.tainly becbme all the more pleasing in God's sight'and all the more useful toHis Church. " ¯ III. DI~RECTIV~S FOR 'LAY RELIGIOUS~ it now remains for us to turn our thoughts to those" religious ~7In Cant. serrao XXXVI~, ~Sermb CCCLIV ad Cont., c. ~I _duly, 1957. . UNIGENITUS who,ltl~ough not called to.the dignityof the priesthood, have pro-nounced, the same vows, of r~l.igion as the priests, and are .not less obliged to God ahd bound by the duty of acquiring perfection. That they .also, though unversed in letters or the higher mental disciplines, may achieve the loftiest grades of sanctity i~ evident from',the fact. that many of them indeed have won by reason of the eminent holi-ness' of.their lives the loud.and, constant praise of the Catholic world, or have even been" inscr!bed.by the authority of the Roma~ Pontiffs in .the number of the saint~, to be regarded and invoked as patrons. and intercessors before God. These con~ersi, or lay,, religious, "who, because 6f their special status are free from those da'ngers which not infrequently :'fac~ the priest 15y reason of the very dignity of his office, enjQy substantially the same spiritual privileges and aids which religious institutes with mater~al:providence commonly share indiscrimina~tely .with itheir ~hildren. It .is just. thin, that the lay religious should value highly- ¯,the gift of their vocation, and return thanks to God for the gift. often renewing the determinatiQn which they made on the d~y'of ~:heir ~orofession. that they would live.according to the spirit of their reli- . gious bule to their last bre~ith of life. And here., beloved-sons, We cannot refrain from remindilag you how weighty is youy obligation to see to it thatthe !ay.religiotis, both" during the time of their probation and during the remainder of their -life, are adeqtiatels~.:supplied With those spiritual hell~whlch~th£y. so much need to make progress and to persevere. They are perhaps all the haore in need of these aids by.reaSon c;ftheir humble eondition.hnd hurfibl~ ministries. " ~Vherefor , .superiors, in selecting the.dwelling places and duties " of the la~y religious, should take careful account of the character of each and the possible weaknesses of each;.and if'sometimesthese spir-itual sons should show a decrease of ardor in the'performance of their 'obliga~tions.as religious, no paternal solicitude and effort should be sl~afed in recalling them g~ntly but firmly to holin.ess, of life: And particularly should superiors make it their constant concern either themselves to instruct the lay religious in the eternal and fun-damental truths ofthe faith, or to commit this.duty of instrtic~ion to ~competent priests. The knowledge and frequent meditation off these truths will be a powerful spur to th~ virtue of all, whether those whose,work is confined to the cloister or thos who live in tl~e world. The,above admonitions We wish to extend also to all ,congrega- 197 t .POPE PlUS XI tlons Of lay religious. For. t-he'members of these congregations there is indeed ~required .a fuller 2knowl~dg~ Of Chri_stian doctrine and an~ erudition beyond mediocrity, since theY are. frequently .engaged, according to their institute, in the instruction of boys and young men. Such are the thbughts, beloved sons~ which We desired from a heart filled with phternal~ love to address to you concerning the direc-tion of your curricula of study, as well as concerning some other matters of scarcely, lesg importance. These thoughts and injunctions, We.feel sure, you will follow with alacrity and devotion, both be-cause of your affection to'cards Us and because of your zeal for the advancement of your respective institutes. May Our words be fixed deep in the hearts of your novices and scholastics, and bring, by the intercession of your founders and fathers, an abundance of blessings and benefits. In conclusion, as an augury of grace and an evidence of Our. paternal love towffrd .yoursel;ces, beloxied sons,, and all tl-ie religious commit}ed to your charge~ We bestow upon eacl~ and all of you, with the deepgst affection, Our ApoStolic Benediction. '" Giveri at Rome, ih St~ ¯Peter's, the nineteenth day of March, on the Feast of. St. Joseph, spouse' of the Virgin .Mary Mother of God, in the year 1924, the third of of Our pohtificate. Pius PP.XI . BOOKS FOR PRIESTS Two re~ent books of help for priests are THE PEOPLE'S [SRIEST, by' John C, Heenan, and PRIESTLY BEATITUDES, by Max Kassiepe, O.M.[., translated by A. Simon, .O.M.I. Both authors, the former who is now Bishop of Leeds in England, and the latter, an experienced ,German missionary, chaplain, and superior, know what they are talking about. The Peotgle's Priest, written for diocesan priests by one of them, is full of-practical, common sense, pastoral guidance, that is inspired throughout by an enlightened appreciation of the beautiful relationship that exists between the good i~riest.and his peo~ple. (New. Y0rk: Shoed ~ Ward, 1952, Pp. xi q- 24'3. $2.75.) Priestly Beatitudes contains twenty-two sermons.for a priest's retreat. In general, the talks follow the usual development according-to The Soiritual Exercises of St. lynatius with the merit of a constant advertence and application to a priest's life. The ring of authenticity is unmist'akable. (St. Louis: B. Herder Book Co., 1952. ,Pp. v + 393.S5.00.) '. FOR oRGANISTS AND CHOIRMA~s'rERs Father \Vinfrid Herbs.t, S.D.S. has helpfully 'got,herod together in a convenient booklet answers to many questions that often confront church musicians. This pamphlet, lnformdtion /'or Organists and Cboirmdsters, can be obtained from the Salvatnrian Fathers,' St. Nazianz, Wisconsin. Let:i:er !:o a Mas!:er-ol: Novices. L. Ganganelli [ED1TOI~'S NOTE[ This letter is said to have'been written by Fra Lorenzo Ganga-nelli, who late.r .became Pope Clement XIV, to a ,Jesuit in England 4¢ho had been .a former student. We cannot guarantee the authorship, but-the content of the letter is of value to every one.] Reverend Father, The office that you discharge requires as much gentleness as firm-ness. You must bear in mind that although a religious should be .circumspect in his demeanor, yet you cannot expect the same gravity from a young man as from. his elders. Ttie special gift of a nbvice master ~ons]sts in bei'ng able to recogni.ze the source from which.his novices' shortcomings proceed, in order to humble them if they are due to pride, to stimulate them if they arise from indolence,, to mor-tify .them if they p.roceed from sensuality, to check them if they spring*from impatiense. You must see .that your.young men are always .occupied. Besides .fixing their minds and restraining their imaginations, emploYment brings out their talents. In the case of-some, these develop slowly, but with a little patience and insight it is not hard to tell whether the cloud will be pierced at length by the sunbeams.o~ is.doomed to remain dark forever. If you suffer yourself to be carried away by a zealthat is wanting in sweetness, .you-may someday or other dismiss those who" would have been th~ glory of your order. '.They who have most ability are often those who have the most impulsive dispositions, and if one is not,sufficiently master of himself, it may, happen that certain, little sallies of humor, which are nothing more than mere bits of levity, will ruin a young man forever, by causing him t'o be excluded from a state of life where he would have rendered important services to ~b~ Church. ~ Take special care not to observe the same method of direction for all. Onemay need a sharp rebuke, for another a mere glance is enough.Let your silence itself speak, and you will seldom be obliged to give a reprimand. The young almost always imagine that ;t is throtigh ill-humor or the desire to scold that they are constantly receiving admonitions, and often they are not mistaken. Watch carefully, bat without allowing it to be perceived, To betray an appearance of mistrust fosters a spirit of deceit and un- 199 L. GANGANELLI _r o R~view for R¢liqiot~s ~ruthfuln~s. A tone of friendship soothes a ~6vice's feelings, whilst an air ofseverity wounds and irritates him. Scarcely ever~allow a fault to pass unpunished when it goes directly against the religious s~irit, a~n~l give particular heed to whafever offends against, inorality, Purity belorigs to.all Christians. but it is required of priests and reli-gious abo~e all'. You must make a distinction between a fault cord-mitted on the sp.urt. of the moment and a habitual defect. Remember that true virtue is not harsh and that .a smiling countenance inspires~cgnfidence. A cold and severe exterior, ~Imost alx~ays re~els, because, it bears the appearance of pride. ~nusDt ob en owti speu sWh iptheirnf etchtei omne taosou rfeh ro.f f doirs mcreetni oanr.e Ontohte .r~wnigseel tsh, ea nydo u~nogu' will conceive an.aversion, for you. and will weary¯ of piety itself. It is: not the repetition of precepts wh!ch makes novices improve. One ¯ migh~ preach all day long without-accomplishing anything if-prin-ciples are,not inculcated. When the~mind is convinced by reasoning that tl~ere necessarily exists a God. and hence a religion, and that' the. only true one is that which we profess, it does not allow itself to be dhzzled by sophistry; if sin is committed, it is with the conscious-ness of doing wrong. Do~ away with the system of, spying, as a public nuisance. It accustoms people to play the part of hypocrites and false friends. Do not allow yourself to conceive a prejudice against anyone. It' is thr~ugh.such ,prejudices that the innocent are every day. persecuted, -whilst the guil.ty triumph. If something is reported~ to you about a third party; take care tc; inform yourself of the facts of the case. and never condemn anyone.without giving him an ,opportunity to clear himself. Do not chastise withoutprevious warning, unless there is ques-tion of an-offense that demands the immediate infliction of'suitable punishment. Be more indulgent towards ¯secret' faults, as they ,are ,not attended with scandal which is the grea~er evil. Follow the Ggs-pel rule in r~gard to g~ving charitable admonition ~o such as go astray. ",(Remember "seventy times seven" and the father "of the prodigal.) " Do not forager that the y6ung must hhve recreation, and that~the mind is as a soil,"which to yield, greater ,fruit has need of., rest. More-over, ~t is advisable that everything sh'ouldhavethe appearance of being done freely. Obedience becomes an intolerable yoke unless the-superior is careful to lighten its burden. 200 Julg, 19.52 MASTER OF, NOVICES Do not place iff the.hands ~)f your novices any of those apocry-' phal.books which St. Paul" calls old wives tales .--"ineptas autem et afliles fabulas devita." Faith is not supported by lying, and religion is truth itself. Vary the readings of your- young scholars, and for tear ofexciting or mis'directing their imagi.natio.ns, do not apply them exclusively to the contemplative styl~ of works.,¯ Besides, at an age s6.t~nde&the memory must have facts that it can-retain. Above a~ll preserve peace in the midst of your little flock', by endeavoring to lift up the souls entrusted to your care above all the little details of the life of the cloister which only too often degenerates into disputes, hatred, ~nd jeaiousy. Teach them to-be great in the smallest .things, and to impart a value to their:meanest duties by the manner in which they acquit tbemse|v~es.of them. Smother ambition; stir.up emula'tion. Otherwise you will train up proud men or boors. Instil] into your novices an espY'it de corps, but without anything exc.essive. ~ If one is not attached' to the insti-tute to which he belongs, he gra~lually grows weary of his state;" if one is so excessively, he thinks his order hecessary, despises all other religious" communities, and g6es so far as to canonizecertain ~buses t6 which he has become attached through routine or prejudice. Show yourself always even tempered. ¯There is nothing more .ridiculous thhn a man who is unlike himself. The young have a keim eye for deciphering a superior's character. - They are rarely mis-taken in the case of one who is odd or whimsical. It throws them ¯ otit in their calculations and Wins their esteem when they see a supe~ riot who pursues always the same even tenor, showing firmness on all occasions but without any sign¯of.ill-temper. ¯ Avoid familiarity: yet, be less the superior th~.n .the-bosom friend of those.who have been confided to you. Let tb~m find in you a fath'er, and let them understand that it is your grehtest pain to re-. prove them. Show no predilection except towards such as have more wisdom and piety, and let it be only in circumstances in which it may serve as a lesson for the indolent and flighty. Never employ artifice tO bring about the faults that you wish to discover. Such clever tricks" are not consistent With honesty. Let your ~unishmeffts~ be in pro-p~) rtion tO th~ gravity of the faults, and do not go.and make a crime out of certain light transgressions which imply neither malice nor disorder i~f the heart. .It is not by sho.uting that men are corrected. St. F~ancis de 201 L. GANGANELLI Sales used to say that he touched sinners more by professions of friends.hi~ for them than by scolding them. The language, of the Gospel is that of persuasion. Do not 'lead anyone by extraordinary paths and check those who would wish to follow them, unless there be evidence of a stiper-natural call; but these cases are so rare that they cannot serve as a 'law. The time for' mysticism and that sort of pure speculation is gone. It would be dangerous to rec'all it. ' Leave young men free to speak in your presence Without intimi-dating them. It is the way. to discover their interior. In a word, demean yourself as a kind father of a family who does. not wish to make his children either slaves or hypocrites .or dolts but subjects knowing how to render to God His due, to religion its rights, and to so'ciety what belongs to it. The first of all rules is to learn to l'ove the Lord, and to do nothing, that could displease Him. This is the one object of all religious institutions; for you know, Reverend Father, as well as I do, that our regulations would be often puerile, were they not meahs of leading us to God. Every founder has de- . vised such as he thought most suitable for his purpose. Beware of such pedantry as to po, se as one incapable of error and knowing everything. When I was teaching and ~som~thing was asked that I~ did not know, I admitted mY ignor~ance without make-shift of any kind before my pupils themselves, who only esteemed me the more for it. Young people like to ha'ce you put yourself on, a level with them. If I have drawn this paper out at length, it is because the life of a master of novices is a life of details. You might have addressed someone better qualified to speak on the points at issue, but it would have been hard for you t6 hit upon one who would have served you with greater interest. . FRA L. GANGANELLI Convent of the" Holy Apostles, Rbme (between 1760-1769) TEN-YEAR INDEXmSTILL AVAILABLE C0pies~ of the Ten Year Index of the REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS '(1942-1951) are still available at one dollar per copy. Kindly enclose paym~ent with the order from: REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, St.Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas. 202 bligher I::ducat:ion and \ "Real Religion" Sister M. Bofiaventure, O.S.F. ALTHOUGH formal higher education is a relatively recent fac-tor in the spiritual life of S!sters, when viewed in the light of the g~neral history of religious .orders,. yet its. impact has already been felt deeply' enough to draw comp.laint, comment, and serious study. Beginning with a consciousness of inadequate.returns f~om university w, ork, as attested by members of various religious communities, the reaction has grown at times to a serious conviction of over-emphasis on intellectual and professional training and a fore-boding tendency to generalize that American religious women of the mid-century 'are more widely instructed but less cultured, less dis-ciplined and balanced than the Sisters of a generation ago. Since th~ blame cannot be lald upon higher education in itself without destroy-ihg the intrinsic meaning o~ the term, we face the alternative that the fault must lie in the relation between the r~ligious and the experi-ences of higher educatior~. The error must be sought in the .formula used for integrating these experiences. For mdst religious, the initi~l mental attitude toward higher educatiori, the acceptance or the denial of its necessity, basically con-ditions all furtbe~ reactions. This facto~ of "necessity" should no longer be debatable: its validity has been pointed out repeated.ly in the authoritatiye language ot~ papal encyclicals and in the exhorta-tions of religious leaders. Yet restatement might be in order. Through the centuries of her existence Holy Mother Church has constantly defined and demonstrated that the scope of education is the whole aggregate of human life, physical and spiritual, intellec-. trial and moral, individual, domestic, and social. Irt his encyclical on Claristian education Plus XI reminds the world that such an edu- .cation can be imparted only by good. teachers thoroughly grounded in the matter they seek to teach, teachers who' have learried to under-stand and evaluate properly all the various aspects of human life-- religious, social, political, industrial, economic, and scientific--in their modern dynamic setting. ~ : Our present Pontiff, Pope Plus XII, has h~ightened this empha-sis. The encycl!cal "Humani Generis" not only stressed the prepara-' 203 SISTER M. BONAVENTURE ," ~ory n~ed ,of higher education but ~reeminence in intellectual le,adership Review foc Religious also sounded a clarion call to : "It is well kn,own how highly the Church re.gar,ds human reason . But reason can perfgrm its functions safely arid well only when properly tiaine~i, that is~ when imbued with that sound philosophy, which has .long been,,as it were, a patrimony . For' this philosophy safeguards the genuine validity of human knowledge . Let them (Catholic teachers) strive with every force and effort to further the progress of the sdences which they teach.let them enga'ge in most careful research.". (N.C.W.C. translatibn, p. 13:) The present picture.of Catholic ~ducation in America.is patent proof that religious are making great efforts tb ~realize the educational ideals of the Church. Today we face smaller, threat of the old accu-shtion that Catholic education is not Catholic enough. But the need to implement .fully our understanding of ed[~cation, to "fulfill the tdrm" remains, and this need is identified with the need for higher education. Translated into specific language, i~means the need for an understanding of present day problems of health, labor, govern-ment. and pehce: fdr contact With the realities which condition mod-ern life--pr.!ces, wages, taxes: for common grounds on which reli-" gi~)us can closely contact those whom they would educate: and, above all, for the ialibre of leadership that will focus attention on the potentialities of Catholic education. To meet this need religious communities must supply active members who are thoroughly famil-iar with the directives of the Holy See for a confused world: leaders who have mastered'bbth the theory and prac.tice of Catholic" action: teachers who can recognize ~ind champion truth wherever.it is found, nor confhse tolerance of persons with the tolerance of false principles: scholars who can chart the course of modern science and ,speak the language of .modern art. Higher learning, then. seen in its true nature and 'function. becomes a necemary .religious activity. Not ~gnly is it completely compatible with spiritual grdwth, but it should be a vital factor in such growth. Since God is Infinite Knowledgeand Wisdom, there is reverent,logic in the observation that "nature rightly developed is a condition for and a more fit subject, of elevatlon to the supernatural order and a more precious dedication to God." The lack of proper , adaptation to modern needs has been with justice analyzed as a cur-rent grieoance against religious.life and one cause of its depreciation today. In his allocution to. members of, the First Congress for Reli- 204 " gio~us. (1950),-Pope Pius XII has 'emphasized.repeatedly the vital ,.relation betw~en.religioi~s life and higher learning. As Father Letter has concisely summarized it, the Holy Father points to. per-sonal sanctity as the essential object of religibus vocation, but at the same time underlines the obligation which binds religious in regard to the means of sanctification the avocations of religious life. "In these avocations religious rna~/and muststrive to be as up~to-date a's any of their contemporaries. That way, we may add. the~ will help. to remove a pretext for d~p, reciatinreg h g "l o" u~s' life.". (.REVIEW FOR RELm~OUS, Jan., 1952.) A'sense of precaution alone, might well lead to the same'cohclu-sion. Religious educators concerns&with th~ complex problem of training-new meinbers have been. raising stron.g"voices .against the dangers with which inadequat~ preparation for work ~hreatens reli-gious vocation. We cannot pass over,lightly ~he wa~ning of Sister Madeleva, C.S.C.: "No.group can deteriorate more quickly or, more terribly ~han young girls~of the type that enter our novitiates today without proper and adequate intellectual, cultural'and spiritual chal-lenges;' (NCEA Bulletin. 1950 .255)'. ¯ Granting. then. the vital need of-higher ~d~cation in the active religious life. it is at once-apparent that the adjustment of conflicts , arising from this need rests .primarily with religious superiors and community directors. Such problems may arise in regard to safe-guarding ~egular community life and observance.of rule under aca-demic schedules; the selection of religious for higher~trMning, and most pertinently, in providing adeq~iate religious formation and con-tinued guidance~in: the integration of educational e.xperience. in the' past twenty years religious communities have evidenced a gro.wing awareness of such problems. Some of the solutions sug-gested and attempted have proved highly significant. There has been self-examination and frank admission o~ the stagnation in eduCa-tional woik, which results from community inbreeding. Complete reorganization of educational programs in many communities is demonstrating concretely tl~at adequate syn,thesis, of religious voca-, tion and avocation is possible. Such programs have been tested. analyzed, and evaluated at meetings of the National Catholic Edu-cational Association in recent years. Where attention is seribusly .focused on such synthesis, religious superiors find greatest opportun-iiy to bring ripened experience and intelligent zeal to the aid of the individual religious caught in men~al tensions. Neveriheless, the fact 205 ~ISTER M. BON,~VENTURE Reuiew /:or Religiou}~, remains th~;t it is on the plane of personal, interior integrati'on that the decisive conflicts of religious life are resolved.-No religious, whether in the" active.or in the contemplative life, can escape the basic problem of knowledge: bow to transmute knowledge into wisdom. To keep the balance! T, bat is the goal which spells personal sanctification. On the other hand, it is precisely¯ thee lack of balance that vitiates the relation between higher learning and. religious iife, building up the pressures and conflicts that draw condemnation. And since, for the active religious, contihued growth in knowledge and culture, is progress toward perfection in her state of life,. ~he problem' of proper balance is a perennial one, It faces the matur~ as well as the young religious. There is consensus in the observation that where ~ducational ex-periences are hot properly integrated ~by religious the resulting pres-sures may produce'three types of personality reaction: 1. Worldliness: Loss of spiritual¯ perspective. A shifting of ifocus from God to human activity. The ¯religious is nolonger'a Catholic educator but a mere devotee of science or of art. 2. Scrupulosity: A false dichotomy which constantly demands ¯ choice b~tween prayer and study as two independent activities. The religious finds her spiritual life increasingly cramped and is~ no longer ¯ able to find sahctifying unity in the labor of the laboratory or library and spiritual exercises. 3. Discontent: Unanalyzed pressures, which¯ are not always, the "divine restlessness" of St. Augustine, but which '.drive the religious to seek escape measures .in change of occupation or vocation. The adjustment necessary to prevent such reaction or to resolve" the conflict when it does .occur demands self-knowledge. And though it may seem anomalous, the need of s~If-knowledge may grow~ apace with.higher learning. For the religious with university¯ degrees may still be .the dangerous man of "one book," if the ~legrees. represent a knowl.edge of books alone. A clear knowledge of the im-mediategoal can be a dangerous pressure when not integrated with an equally clear grasp 0f the proper means for reaching the goal. And since we cannot discount ¯human inertia with its tendency to stop at ge, neral principles, instead of making concrete applications, there is reason to review some of the factors essential to adjustment 6r read-justment in religious life. Because the heart of the higher-education problem is conflict, the 'solution ~rests on a¯choice of method and of means. 206. July, 1952 HIGHER EDUCATION Method Conflict grows from disorder. Butorder is the recoghition of ~i definite hierarchy of succession among the parts of a rational entity,. It is established and maintained first, by a proper evaluation of each" part in t~rms of the. whole: then by a complete; integration of these parts-into an organic whole in which'each individual activity is sub-ordinated to the good of the whole organism. Neither the pursuit nor the. results of learning can be allowed a position of dominance. A mastery of s~abject matter must remain always a mastery, a iecoilected control which rules out avidity and passionate intens.ity and the vain, curious study that makes of learning the curiosiiates philosophantiun) denounced by St. Bonaventure. For.the Seraphic Doctor had learned from his master, St. Francis, that all science leads the mind from the consideration of' the creature to the contemplation of the Creator only when it is rightly pursued. Given their proper subsidiary evaluation, the learning activities ---courses and lectures, problems and examlnations--must be con-tinuously integrated into the brganic whole of the interior life. This can be accomplished only through the medium of love, the "unction" of St. Bonaventure. Interior inspiration, the fruit of daily medita-tion and mortification, must inform tile activities of the lecture hall and laboratory. If the arts';ind sciences, as we are told, are "'forever waiting the spiritualizing influence 6f revealed religion," surely the religious cannot forego this apostolate. Nor is it necessary to follow an~ complex formula in order to integrate, empirical knowledge, in-tellectual principles, religious intuition, and emotional response into a meaningful and orderly whole. The means are the staples of reli-gious life: faith, obedience, humility, and love. MeaDs Faith is the basis of integration. Of the religious, who makes learning a ladder of sanctity it may be said in the literal sense, "Thy faith hath made thee whole." We know the threefold object of faith: 1) to enlighten the mind with regard to God; 2) to show us the proper relation of creatures to God; 3) to'direct our'activity towards God. The.religious who ~'xercises dail3; the habit of faith hold~ the unfailing sblvent for every interior conflict. To the eye of faith every person, every situation, every idea is a transparency through which shines the Divine Countenance. Wi~h a living faith it is possible to hear the voice of the Eternal Lawgiver above every 207~ ~ISTER M. BONAVENTURE " Review for ~eligious lecture on history, economics, or politi~s and to read glimpses,of His beauty written large "6r small across the pages of ancient liteiature and modern letters. TO liveby ~faith is to see, ~albeit darkly~ not a threat but a divine wisdom and p!an behind academic sthedules,,and challenging assignments. It is. above all, to have an unfailing source of confidence and courage to face¯ any God-given task in the" knbwl-edge that'the power of heaven is ours. For in .the words of. our Holy Father "we are rich in supernatural assistance through the grace poured out in the floodtides of the' Sacraments and prayer.'.¯ Wh~t room is left for confliCt,in the mind of th~ religious who learns to find under the mate'rial "species" of 1.earn!ng experiences the sacra-mental "substance" of a spirit.ual reality which is a part of her com-plete consecration? No more time, no argu'ment is n.eede~ for the finding. -- Active faith provides the religious with a second 'effective means of integration, a means which is at the same time a gtiarantee against doubt and.mental c6nflict. This gi~aranteeis obedience,-the hinge of religious life,',formulated by the vow.of ~onsdcration and in its full implication t6uching every act of the human will. If the entrance of a religious into the field of higher e~ducation is dictated by vocational need, according to the judgment of superiors, rather than by a desire .for personal achievement, obedience provides firm ground on which every situation can be met with the peace which is the fruit of faith. But to prove the perfe, ct safeguard against con2 flict obedience mus~ rise above passive resignation. It must be the active, personal element ol~ our friendship with God, the beneoolentia of St. Thomas'i by which we will what comes to. us by God's order .because it is the expression ~f His love for us. Through faith, obedi-. ence reveals as the core of each new l~arning experience the recogni-ti6n of a .Divine Provideiice. ¯ The abiding habit of such active obedience, is the foundation of the perfect peace ,recognized by,Dhnte, the peace of a mind relaxed not on the defensive-=therefore, a permeable mind that. absorbs and retains ~ith ~least. effort. TOO frequently well-meanifig,but confused religious, who fear to launch out into the depths of faith and trust, block by feverish activity and fearful tension the very channels' through which God is expected toanswer their pleas for aid, t~eir imagination, memory, understanding'. The r~li~ious who desires in obedience "to be to God what a hand is to a man" will be cdntent to do what G6d indicates as reasonable in any situation, as best-she can, HIGHER I~DUCATION° then without qualm or conflict leave the results to Him, even when. these results affect entire communities. Faith does not' lessen daiiy, responsibilities nor dilute .them with nonchalant optimism. But it does enable the religious scholar to bear the burden lightly, with the detachment and'joy that are the marks of ~ will surrendered tO God. " Perhaps the most subtl~ and least, recognized source of tension f6r the religious .studen~ is personal susceptibility and its tenuous roots of pride. The ignorance of a child reaches out.foi knowledg~ with a'joyous freedom and pliancy. The adult mind can grasp truth safely and without pain qnly by the grace of,humility. ForAearning is~always a' "receiving," ari acknowledgement of need. The mind that is undonsciously'on the defensive against such acknowledgement to superiors.in~tructors, fellow ~tudents, even. to itself is under a psychological pressure that brakes every :lear~aing process. Not only does such pressure pre~clude an open-mind but, more seriously, it is incompatible with recollection and inspiration. " The religious who ~onsi~tently strives for complete ~ integration of all" her activities in the field of higher learning by seeing every ex-. perience with the eyes of faith, recognizing p.eacefully its seal of providential design and accepting it with a humble and open-heart, will find within herself what is at once the fruit and lthe only valid-test of such integration. That fruit is know, ledge transformed into wisdom by the alchemy of love--wisdom which makes love come .full circle iia contemplation. This is the wisdom which, whefi~ com-municated, iadiates, transforming love and is the truth.which makes. men free. " But unless recollection and devotion draw knowledge within .the circumference i3f a personality whos~ center is God, its widest reaches W,ill mdrely parch the soul, leaving 6nly a" hard glittering surface. What is worse, this arid desert of surface knowledge is the soil which ~ fraelasdei lcyo ;npsrcoidenuccee,s sac rhuopslte os,f rfaatlisoen daliiczhaotitoonmsi.e Os'na nthde m oethnetar lh caonndf,l tihctes-: religious who remember'with Maritan,. that "just as. everything which is in the Word is found-once more in tt'ie Sp!rit, .so must 'all that We know pass into our power of affection " by love,", will find .th.a.t. every facet of ~aature on which man may concentrate can be made to yield fuel for the inner life,of re!igious perfection. Only the flafiae thus fed-can dispel the darkness of the cold materialism which sur: rounds "us. Need we hesitate to conclude that prop(r evaluation of educa- 209 NATIONAl; C(~NGRESS Review t~or Religious tional goals and adequate spiritual integration of learning experiences cannot fail to eliminate th~ conflicts and tensions frequently.associ-ated with higher education for religious? Will it not de~pen appre-ciation ~ religious life and underline the tragedy of the loss of voca-tion? Religious thus educated do not merely know more ~hings, but thdy understand the vivifying unity underneath all things and in this understanding taste the peace and joy of "real religion." Such religious respond fully ~o the exhortation of the'Holy Father, which cannot be repeated too freque.ntly: "Be what you are. Let your'live~s bear witness to the reality of rtehheg "lo "u's state, Then' men,within and without the Church, will understand and esteem the state of ~erfection." Nal:ional Congress [EDITOR'S NOTE: Fa~'her Francis J. Connell. C.SS.I~., the executive chairman of the National Congress of Religious Men, kindly sent us the following communica-tion about the Congress to be held at Notre Dame University in August.] The First National Congress of Religious will be held at Notre Dame, Indiana, from August 9th to August 13th this year. Both religious men and women will be present, but 'will hold se)arate meeting~, except for a few meetings in common. It ik hoped that all orders and congregations now having a foundation in the' United States will be ~epresented. Housing facilities for about 1800 will'be available on the campus at Notre Dame University. It has been agreed by those in Charge of the Congress that 800 religious men and 1000 religious women will be invited. , O~ Saturday evening, August 9th, an address will be made.to the assembled religious by the Most Rev. John F. O'Hara, C.S.C., Arch-' bishop of Phila°delpbia. Solemn Benediction of the Mos~ Blessed Sacrament will theft be given, with Father Arcadio Larraona, cele-brant; Father Elio Gambari, S.M.M., deacon; Father Joseph Giam-pietro, S,.J., subdeacon. These of~cials.have been deputed by the Sacred Congregation of Religious to be present at ~he.Congress as re-presentatives .of the said. Congregation. On Sunday morhing the~e will be a Solemn Pontifical Mass after which His Excellency, A. G. 210 dul~l, 1952 ~ QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Cicognani, Archbishop of Laodicea and "Apostolic Delegate t£ the United States, will ~ddress tbe oentire Congress. Undoubtedly .the main purpose of this Congress is to discuss p~obl.ems of. religious life' especially.pertaining to the present-day con-ditions in America. The Holy See isvitally interested in this sub-ject, and beyond doubt, many of the ideas which will be broached at this Congress will be brgugbt to the attention of the Roman au-thorities. The religious in Americi believe that it is possi,ble to main-tain a high standard ofreligious life in the United State~ i:lespite the materialistic and pleasure-loving tendencies of our country. With a view to attaining this objective, papers will be. read by representatives of the Congress on special subjects, e.g.,' stinlulation of vocations to the religious life in the United States; the obligation of superiors to fulfill their duties with p~oper regard for the innate love of indepen-dence of }:he American .people--in itself an admirable trait of charac-ter, and capable of being perfectly conformed to the higher.ideals of religious obedi(nce. Al~o, particular consideration will be given to the contemplative life, the sect~lar institutes, American religious of the Oriental Rites, and similar topics. The.dlosing ceremony" will be a Candlelight Procession to the Grotto of Our Lady at Notre Dame. It is very "evident that only a comparatively small proportion of "r~ligious in our dountry will be able to attend this gathering, but it is firmly boiled by'those in charge of the Congress that all will pray fervently that'God may bless this meeting with abundant fruits, and that Our Blessed Lady, on whose University grounds this first National Congress is being held, will obtain many graces for the par-ticipants and for all those whom they represent. ¯ .Questions and Akiswers 19 Please explain the prescriptions of the Church regarding the chap,fer of faults.in a religious community. " ' . : The chapter° of faults has beenpracticed 'for centuries in som~ form by'the older orders in the Church. As regards modern congre-gatipns, the Sacred Congregation of Bishops and Regulars had the following prescriptions in the Norrnae of 1901: . . 211 -- QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Review for Religious 1), It is'not necessary, that a congregation, prescri,be the chapter of faults in its constitutions. This does not.meah, howe~rer, thatthe religious is fre~ not t6 attend, if the constitutio'~as'.do prescribe the chapter of faults. (Art. 167.) 2). If it is prescribed, it should not be held oftener than 6nce a wed(. nor less frequently than once a m6nth. (Art. 167.) 3) . The accusation of faults~ which a religious makes to his supe-rior in the .chapter ro6m should be limited to faults and violations Of the constitutions that are external. 4) After-each accusation the superior imposes a penhnce. Obvi- . ously there Should be some pr, oportion~between the fault and the penance, and prudence and discretion should temper the penance ac-cording to persons, and circumstances. (Art. 169.) This exercise of fiumility and penance can be the occasion for the practice of virtue and for stimulating religious to overcome external f~iults to which they are prone. It al~o affords the.opportunity of" repairing th~ scandal (disedifi~ation) given to fell6w r~ligious by the faults. "" In some institute~' custom permits the members of the comr~un-ity to accuse one another of faults that they"have observed. If this practice is not already p.rovided for in the constitutions or book of customs, it should not be introduced without permission. Finally~. the superior may take the occasion of the chapter of faults to admon-ish the.community regarding external faults that aremore-or less common. This method of pate.rnal correction is especia.lly efficacious at the time of the devotional renewal o-f vows. -~-20--- At our novltlatewe have professed, novices, and postulant 'Brothers. who assist at Mass; which is served by novices. And on ~erta;n feast days the Sisters participate. Please cj;ve the cc;rrect order. ;n which Holy Com-munion should be distributed. - The Roman Ritual (tit. IV cap. ~I)- telis us that the priest:dis-tributing Holy Communion should begin with the Mass servers, if the~i Wish to cc;mmunicht~. A decree.bf the Sacred Congregation-of Rites (N. 107~, 3uly 13, 1658) sta'ted that the Mass server was to receivd Holy Communion before the nuns and other persons present. A later decre~ (N. 4271, lj permitted a lab, man serving~Mass,. ,~'though he do not wear the clerical garb, to receive Holy Communion. within the sanctuary, at the plat~orin of the altar. As there was a" '2"12 ¯ " . ' . ~ul~, 195Z .QUE~TION~ AND ANSWERS difference of opinion" in the interpretation-of these prescript{ons, the. Sacred Congregation of Rites gave the following detailed' regulations in a decree dated January 30, 19F5 (AA$, VII 1915, 71-72) : "The term Mass server or server at the altar includes any cleric or layman who serves l~/Iass at the altar.and he is to be preferred to others in the distribution of Holy Communion with the.following precautions: clerics are to be preferred to alayman serving Mass, and. clerics in major orders are to be preferred to cl~rics in~ minor orders , who are serving Mass." Keeping these various presc,~iptions {n mind,- w~ may now answer our question as follows: The Mass server, whether cleric or.layman, recei~res Holy COmo reunion before others ~who may be present, unless some are clerics; all clerics receive Holy Communionbefore a Mass server who is a lay-man: if the server is a cleric, he should receive first in his lank of clerics, precedenc~ being given to clerics 6f higher rank. Lay religious, Brothers and non-cleric~il religious, that is,.r~ligious not yet tonsure.d though destined for the priesthood, as well as Brothers and Sis: ,ters, all.receive Holy Communion after the Mass server, l~e he a cleric or a layman. " Finally,. an exception is made at a NuptialMass, at which the bride and groom may be given Holy Communion before, the. Mas~ server. As to the order of precedence in receiving Holy Communion at the Communion rail 6n the par,t of non-clerical religious, there are no regu'lations. Hence local customs may be observed if the consti~ tutions do not prescribe the precedence. It may be well. to recall here that a reserved instruction by the Sacred Congregation of Religious, December 8, 1938, said there should be no "rigid and quasi-military order" in coming to the Communion rail. Many commentators on ¯ this instruction suggested that the order prevailing in numerous reli-giou~ communities of receiving Communion.in a definite order should be changed. For the text of the instruction se~ Father Bouscaren's Canon'Law .Digest, II, 208 ft. ; ~nd for an article on the instruction, as well as a digest of the text, see REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, III (1944), 252-70. SHALLI START TO DRINK? . . Shall 1 Start to Drink?, by 3ohn C. F6rd~ S:d., p~esents a clear discussion of ¯ the moral and ascetical aspects of total abstinence. A pamphlet; published by The Queen's Work, 31 15 South Grand Boulevard, St. Lohis 18, Missouri. .213 I THE MORNING OFFERINGs. By Thomas ML Moore, S.~. °Pp~ t69. .Ap0stl~shlp.o~f Prayer, New York, '1950. $3.00. 40,000,000 members of. the Apostleship of Prlayer" scattered throughout the world, priests; ~ligious, men and women and chil-dren of every race and clime, recite "The Morning Offering".~laily. This formidable army of prayer is sending up unceasin~ petition to the Throne of God tbrdughout thehours of the day and night that "through the [mmaculate Hdart, of Mary" He may.acdebt their "prayers. works, joys and ~suff_erings of the day for all the int,entions of the Sacred 'Heart. in union with' the Holy. SaCrifice. of the Mass throughout th'e world, in reoaration for sin. for the intentions of all the Associates. and in particular, for all the intehtions"of the Holy Father." ¯ The last half of Father Moore's book .is a detailed expl~natio, n 6f the mo~ning offering. The chapters o'n the Immaculate Heart.of Mary the Comfiaunion of" Reparation.and the /kpostleship of* Suffering d~serve special mention. . o The first half.of the book contains a simple, untechnical expla-nation of the fundamental notions of theology, which underlie the Morning Offerifig': -cre'ati0n, end of man, tlSe love~ of God and of the Sacred Heart for men as.shown in the.redemption, man's free co-opei'atiori in~he work of God. the nature and .efficacy O,f prayer. union with ~hrist, especially in the Eucharistic Saerifice. The history a'nd*development of the Apostleship of"Prayer as well as. itS adapta-tion to-modern times, especially through the S~cred Hear( Radio Pr?grgm, bring the book to a close. - " This bpok is ~arnestly recommended to all religious for their own personal use in order to get-acquainted wi'th the Apostleship,of Prayer if they,are not. members as ye~.and to help' the~rfi spread.the °Ap0stl~ship far an~l wide among the faithful who come under their ¯ influence.' "It i] v/ell suited.: fo~ spiritual reading, either .privately or .in' common.--ADnM C." ELLIS[ S.J. WHAT IS THE iNDEX? By Redmond A. Burki~, C.S.V. Pp. x -k" 130. Bruce Publishing Company, Milwaukee, 1952. $2.75. . Thislohg needed book gives a brief but'solid expos.ition of the. origin, .nature, and extent of the laws of. the, Church re~arding censorship and~ p.~oh!bition of books. It is. directed not merely to theological students and the pra~.icin~ clergy, b~Jt primar!ly "to, the 214 . BOOK REVIEWS intellige~nt laity, whether Catholic or.no~-Catholic, and it attempts~ to discover th~ effects of e~clesiasti~al regulation~ with 'reference to, the entire world of literature. For this reason the termsare, as far as possible, nontecbnical.'~ After gi,ving the~ historical, background of the Church's .legisla-, tion in chapter.ond. [he author goes on to treat the foliowing sub-~ jects in subsequent chapters:, censorship of books in adyance of pub! lication:0condemfiation of ,publisl~ed books: general classes Of for5 bidden literature: methods of examining books by the Holy Office: I'ndex of forbidden, books: penalties for. violations of book regula-tions: permission to read forbidden books: and promotion of' - re~ding. Perhap.s the most valuable chapter in the book is that in which he treats general classes of forbidden lit~ratu're.' It is. in reality, commentary on canon 1399 of the'Code of Canon Law. Too many Catholics including some priests and religious, labor under the false impressio.~i that as long as a book,is not listed in the Index of For-. bidden Boobs it .may be read w. ith impunity. Most forbidden books are not listed in theIndex. ~Inste, ad. their are t~) be judged by. probi-bition-~ f different classes Of books as determined in canon. 1399. The author gives ~ brief, but satisfactory comm~n,t on each clas~ of books contained in this canon. Of special importance also is the chapter telling.how to bbtain permission to read forbidden books. This .will prove very.helpful for st~udents doing ~esea.rch work, as well as those in professional schools. - In an appendix the aUthor g~ves various listings of books ~n~the Index: 7We are deeply" indebted to him for l~a, ving given us'also Abbd Bethleem's valuable lists of selections of the work of F~ench authors which.may be :read,.in spite ot: the fact that the authors' works.are forbidden in ge'neral. A final app, endix on "The C;reat Book~ Program" completes the work. Af~er,.poi~ating out the,-valu'e of this praisewo'rthy project, the autho~ lis~s the booksbn the pro'gram which'may not be read with-out permission. This excellent book should, be~on thesheJv, es of every Catholic school !ibFfiry beginning with the high school, and on up to college and university lentil. Likewise, every religl6us community .engaged in teaching in secondary schools and co!leges should have a copy in the faculty library. Other religious engaged:in act.ire works will als0 find it useful. ADAM~C. ELLIs. S.O,. 215 BOOK R~VlEWS . . " ". Reoieto for Ret(gious " THE SEMINARIAN AT'HIS PRIE-DIEU. By'Robert.Nash; S.d. Pp. 312. The-Newman Press, We~fmlnster, Md., 1951. $3.50. This is a book of meditations for seminarians. Fr. Nash's thirty-eight meditations are aimed at hdping s~mingrians gr~ow into p, ray-erful priests who will be ready for the!r work in the p,resent world of social unrest, of threatening Communism, of secularism, and the rest. As in histwo previous companion works, The Nun at Her Prie-Dieu and The Priest at His Prie-Dieu, each meditation containsa prepara-tory prayer, the setting or cdmposition of place, the fruit desired, three or four points (each of which the author rightly suggests could serve for one or more meditations), a brief, summary of the points, and a tessera or catchword to be recalledduring the day. Particularly well done is the setting,, which can help a busy'stu-dent cast aside extraneous thoughts and.apply his mind more readily to .the subjec~ matter of the meditation. Though this book cannot remove all the thorns that beset the paths of mental przyer, s~mi-narians, t~erhaps more especially those fresh from the "world," will find in it plentiful material and a good method to follow in their meditation. It could also be u~ed profitably for spiritual reading. JOHN F. MOORE,. S.J. THE CARMELITE DIRECTORY OF THE SPIRITUAL LIFE. Translated from ~the'Lafln. Pp. xxlv -F~ 575. The Carmelite Press,'.Chlcag.o, II1., 1951. For Carmelites themselves, for their followers, and for students of their spirituality, this directory will be an invaluable and almost inexhaustible gold mine of doctrine. It is official, being introduced and commended by a letter, of the Prior General. It dales not bear the name of any writer or corn'piler, but seems, to be put forth l~y the ~armelite Order itself. It is recent/ the Latin o6ginal being dated 1940. Its purpose is t~ complement 'and implement the Rule ~nd Constitutions. ~ The work consists bf four major parts. Parts one ~ind two, en-titled, respectively,. "Dogmatic Fundamentals of the Spiritual Life" and "Principlesof Religious Life," are of a general and Catholic, ha-. ture and prepare for what is specifically Carmelite. This is presented in tile latter tWO.l~art,s.Of these the third is headed "A Holy Heart~" and deals mostly "i¢ith the conquest of bad habits, the acc~uisition of ¯ the virtues, and the pursuit of perfection. The last part is devoted to ."The Contemplative Life." Some people no doubt will note with surprise how little space is. given.to the m3~stical phase of the spiritual ~ life. (pages 525-551)'. . , 216 July, 1952 . BOOK I~OTICES It is interes'ting to observe, in view of Wl~at certain welJ-known authors on prayer, for instance, Saudreau an~t Arintero, hold, that where "the higher degrees of mental prayer wl~ich can be attained by ordinary grace" are treated, we find the statement that "there are two higherdegrees x~hich today are usually called affective pra~,er and the prayer of simplicity or filso acquired contemplation" (p. 425). Toward'the end of the section on the gifts of the Holy¯ Spirit it is affirmed that persons who cultivate them carefully "may :lawfully expect to_be led day by day to greater perfection and to work great things for the glory of God and*His kingdom" (p. 299). No promise is made of mystical favors. The 'Prior General has a sentence in his letter that is enlightening about the spirit of Carmel: "In this book.will be found fully explained those key principles of Carmel: to give our whole selves to God--to stfi.ve for purity of conscience--to foster intimate union with God" (p. xxiii). Lastly, the delicate problem of the historical connectibns of the Order witch "our Holy Father Elias" is handled devoutly but-Cautiously. ~-~AUGUSTINE G. ELLARD, S.J. BOOK NOTICES Som~ years ago Father Henry Davis, S.J., rendered an invaluable ser'vice~to the English-speaking clhrgy, as well as to theology-minded laity, by publishing a 4-volume work on moral and pastoral the-ology. Before his death at the age of eighty-five, in January of this year, he had increased his measure of service by preparing a 1-volume SUMMARY OF MORAL AND PASTORAL THEOLOGY. The book covers the whole of moral theolpgy: principles: precepts, and sadraments; and it includes much sound pastoral advice. It is a very useful book for priests, libraries, and those 9fthe laity who wofild like t6 become. acquaifited with a standard manual of moral .tl~eology. One' caution might be added for the laity. The treatise on the Sixth Command-ment, since it follows the pattern of the theological textbook, con-tains certain technicalities that might be more confusing than help-ful. The laity'who "irish to read on this subject for their personal benefit would do better to use a book written expressly for them. (New York: Sheed ~3 Ward, 1952. Pp. xxxvi -b 486. .$5.00.), A decidedly readable explanation of the doctrine of the Mys~fical, Bddy of Christ is THE LIVING CHRIST, by John L. Murphy. The t .217 BOOK NOTICES - Revi~ for Religious explana~tion is based o~n Pius XII'~ encyclical." M~/st, ic[ Co?~oris. The author avoids the use of technical terms as much as possil~le and plains those that must be used. The style i~ marked by clarity, simplicity, "ahd. a certain down-to-ear~hnes~ that contributes con-creteness without losing digni

What appears to be the signature initiative of
Bossier Parish's new school superintendent threatens to bring controversy if
not implemented correctly and for the right reason.

Last
week, the Bossier Parish School Board unanimously awarded the job to
assistant superintendent for administration and personnel Jason Rowland. Oddly,
he was the only applicant in contrast to the last several occasions when the
district hired a superintendent, perhaps because the district over this span only
promoted from within and this discouraged outside candidates and in-home
potential candidates who considered Rowland's ascension as inevitable.

In
the months leading up to his promotion Rowland worked on establishing school-based
health clinics, both permanent and rotating, on the belief that this would discourage
absenteeism. Indeed, since the onset of the Wuhan coronavirus pandemic and lingering
beyond that, nationally truancy (defined as a student missing at least 10
percent of class days) has
doubled to about one in five.

In Bossier, where the state defines "chronic absenteeism"
as 15 or more days absent, counting students once at the state level, once per
school system, and once per site, the district's rate last academic year was 21
percent. Unfortunately, these statistics weren't kept prior to the
pandemic, and the initial foray in AY
2019-20 wasn't done at the district level. Still, then most of the district's
non-high schools than had rates below 10 percent and no high school had a rate
as high as last year's average across all of the district's schools.

He reiterated
that policy upon securing the job, which apparently won't come to fruition
until perhaps the next academic year. Bossier will join a growing number of districts in Louisiana
operating these (Caddo Parish has had these for many years, operating four
this year). Their purpose
is to provide basic primary health care resources to students, which may also
include mental health, immunizations, and counseling. Typically, a district provides
space and often durable equipment and then contracts operation to a local or
state/regional/national health care provider.

Growth in the number of these has spurted higher in
the past couple of years, not only because some districts used federal pandemic
money fueled by record debt growth to get these started but also when Democrats
controlled all of the federal government as the pandemic waned they pushed through
legislation granting more dollars in particular for this purpose. Along with
that expansion, however, has come questions about whether their presence usurps
parental authority to direct their children's health care.

While SBHCs need consent forms to service children,
some employ broad language that authorizes wide-ranging interventions of which unmindful
parents may object. For example, some push the Human Papillomavirus Vaccine
that prevents sexually-transmitted pre- and cancerous diseases, but which some
parents fear encourages sexual activity and causes adverse effects that have
landed the only U.S.-approved maker of the immunization in court. And, of
course, coronavirus vaccinations remain a sore point for many.

Also, allowing SBHCs to offer much beyond the traditional
school nurse model without limited consent and with consent interminably rather
than on a case-by-case basis opens the avenue for medical counseling without
parental involvement, much less knowledge of it that could escalate to
interventions to which parents object. For example, if mental and behavioral
health counseling is allowed, this could be abused to sway children who
complain about depression to believe this is a product of gender dysphoria.

Finally, it's not at all certain that going much
past, and spending all the money necessary to go beyond that point, the
traditional school nurse model will solve for the absenteeism problem in a
significant way Rowland claims the expanded model will address satisfactorily. The
causes of absenteeism are complex, and Bossier schools may not even fit the
typical pattern. For example, typically black, Hispanic, and low-income
students accumulate unexcused absences at a significantly faster rate than others,
but in Bossier racial differences in rates are negligible, except that Asian
students have a much lower rate of absenteeism.

Plans have been to have the two permanent clinics
at Bossier High and Rusheon Middle. The former has the highest rate although
the latter has a couple of other higher, and were chosen because they were
located in a "medical" desert. Four other schools by the same criteria, which doesn't
include some schools with higher rates, were chosen for frequent visits by a
mobile clinic. Still, relatively speaking, it seems commitment of serious grant
dollars plus ongoing commitments annually to operate would be a costly
intervention given the value it would bring and alternative uses.

In a way, schools
themselves on the issue of health can be blamed for the rise in absenteeism.
For a couple of years until recently, schools were telling students to stay home
if they had the least symptom of ill-health. Building expensive infrastructure
is much less cost effective than expanding school nursing capabilities and using
incentives to get students who might have a minor ailment to school and using
those facilities (especially when the incentives to stay home increasingly become
more attractive, principally through technology that makes self-entertainment
far more possible and rewarding in the short run).

Rowland's policy needs a serious vetting before
proceeding further if Bossier taxpayers want assurance that this won't be an
expensive solution that hardly moves the needle. High quality data need to
demonstrate a major reason why students at a few select schools don't show up
is because they don't have access to health care resources that otherwise would
put them in the classroom. Analysis needs to show the extent of the problem
cannot be addressed satisfactorily by the school nurse model. And if these data
and analyses support the clinic concept, then rules must be put in place that
ensure maximal opportunity for parents to be informed and participate in
decisions made about their children's care every step of the way.

Bossier parents and taxpayers need to have assurance
that this idea is driven by a good likelihood of a solid payoff and not by tides
of political fashion and resources, which has yet to happen.

Speaking at a campaign event on October 20, President Biden clearly linked Hamas's brutal surprise attack on Israel to the highly publicized normalization talks with Saudi Arabia, explaining, "One of the reasons Hamas moved on Israel … they knew that I was about to sit down with the Saudis." While the talks have since paused, the incentives for rapprochement between Saudi Arabia and Israel still remain, assuming a wider war does not confound the present calculus.Saudi Arabia reportedly stands to benefit from U.S. nuclear assistance and a potential defense pact if the deal goes through, which would represent a galactic shift in the U.S.-Saudi relationship. Normalization was already a prized goal for Israel, but it is now highly incentivized to isolate Hamas from the Arab world by normalizing relations with Saudi Arabia and building on the Abraham Accords. And President Biden may view a breakthrough as his legacy achievement in the Middle East, given that the Iran nuclear deal is hanging by a thread.As presently envisioned, the tripartite deal relies on the United States to grease the wheels for there to be any breakthrough in normalization talks. But it is some expensive grease. The United States and Saudi Arabia have spent a decade negotiating the limits of a nuclear power program to no avail, and Saudi leaders routinely threaten to acquire nuclear weapons if Iran does. Acceding to Saudi demands on this issue would represent a stark break in U.S. nonproliferation policy, but the transfer of enrichment technology is highly unlikely. Instead, the United States' pursuit of influence over the program might result in concessions, allowing Riyadh access to enrichment capabilities without exerting control over them, unlike the situation with Iran. The measure of policy success should be the extent of knowledge and technology retained by Riyadh in the event of U.S. withdrawal.Saudi Arabia's Nuclear QuestSince its inception, the Saudi nuclear program has never been fully isolated from regional security dynamics. Saudi Arabia announced its nuclear ambitions in 2006 along with the heads of the other Gulf Cooperation Council members at a time when Washington was warming up to the idea of negotiating with Iran over its by-then halted military nuclear program. While the Saudis have played up the energy security angle, the initially quiet, and eventually explicit, message was that if Iran was allowed to maintain its nuclear program, then the Saudis must follow along in stride.The U.S. and Saudi Arabia have tried to negotiate a nuclear cooperation agreement (NCA) since 2012. An NCA would provide assurances for the peaceful use of nuclear technology, and the key point of contentions has been over access to enrichment and reprocessing technology. If a state develops a latent nuclear capacity with ostensibly peaceful nuclear technology, the threat of proliferation can hang over all security interactions. Specifically, a state's possession of uranium enrichment or spent fuel reprocessing technologies determines its latent capacity to produce the fissile material for the core of a nuclear weapon, which is the challenge presently posed by Iran.The Bush, Obama, and Trump administrations all eventually settled on requiring Saudi Arabia to forgo enrichment and reprocessing technology — also known as the "gold standard" which the UAE and Taiwan have adhered to — and to implement an Additional Protocol to its safeguards agreement with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) — the U.N.'s nuclear watchdog. The exact conditions are uncertain, but reports suggest that building an enrichment plant with Saudi investment, either in the U.S. or, as suggested by Carnegie Endowment for International Peace nuclear expert Mark Hibbs, a black-box centrifuge enrichment plant in Saudi Arabia but under complete U.S. control, is under discussion today.Regarding safeguards, Saudi Arabia is finally in negotiations with the IAEA to grant nuclear inspectors access to sites where nuclear material may be present. For almost two decades, the country maintained minimal safeguards for its growing nuclear program. While it was not an imperative for Saudi Arabia to negotiate an Additional Protocol with the IAEA until it was prepared to handle large quantities of nuclear material, addressing these concerns earlier would have alleviated proliferation fears. Not doing so raised more questions about Riyadh's intentions.The Slippery Slope and the Role of CongressSaudi Arabia views the Iran nuclear deal as the regional standard and argues that if Iran can maintain its enrichment program — even though the country suffers from crippling economic sanctions — then Riyadh should similarly be allowed access to the full nuclear fuel cycle. If the United States deviates from its long-standing nonproliferation policy and enables a path to Saudi enrichment, then the UAE will likely renegotiate the terms of its NCA, Turkey and Egypt may turn to Russia and China for enrichment plants, and the region may slide into a nuclear race.However, Congress has a significant oversight role to play. It should sound strange that Congress gets the ultimate say in whether there is a normalization deal between two countries on the other side of the world, but Riyadh's conditions of U.S. nuclear assistance will require congressional approval and a defense pact might require congressional approval. While any NCA would require congressional review, a defense pact, on the other hand, could come in many different forms.For example, a NATO-style Article 5 commitment that an attack on one ally is considered an attack on all would require congressional ratification while a Bahrain-style Comprehensive Security Integration and Prosperity Agreement (C-SIPA) is an internationally binding agreement that does not require congressional ratification. The political lift and the role of Congress depends on the final shape of each condition. However, it is prudent to prepare for the scenario that U.S.-Saudi relations deteriorate; an imaginable scenario as U.S. lawmakers have called to withdraw troops over oil disputes as recently as last year, and presidential candidate Joe Biden said he would make them "pay the price, and make them in fact the pariah that they are."In an October 24 readout from the White House, President Biden and Crown Prince Muhammad Bin Salman "affirmed the importance of working towards a sustainable peace between Israelis and Palestinians as soon as the crisis subsides, building on the work that was already underway between Saudi Arabia and the United States over recent months." Normalization talks may resume at some point, but it is crucial for the U.S. inter-agency process and Congress to prioritize long-term nonproliferation threats over meeting Riyadh's immediate demands.

Concerning water issues, not only do Shreveport and
Bossier City residents have to worry about the fiscal health of their city-run
water utilities, but also many now must face an unfunded mandate in the hundreds
of dollars annually despite the best efforts of the state senator who
represents both cities, an issue that may impact elections this fall.

This week, the
Louisiana Department of Health issued grades to water systems through 2022.
Using an extensive rubric, all in the state received a score from 0 to 100 (technically
110, as bonus points were awarded to those systems with an asset management
plan). Shreveport
didn't fare that well, scoring only 75. It lost half of the 10 points available
for fiscal sustainability, all 20 for infrastructure, and all 10 for customer satisfaction
(a point off for each valid complaint about the system water quality or
quantity). Without the bonus for the plan, it would have scored among the
bottom 15 percent of systems in the state.

Its deficiencies don't surprise. Woefully
behind on fixing long-identified shortcomings that led to a consent decree with
the federal government about a decade ago, the city remains hundreds of
millions of dollars away from finishing required repairs within the next four
years, so far behind partially because elected officials hesitated in raising
water and waste fees due to the political unpopularity of that response.

For its part, Bossier City scored 95, also losing
the maximum for customer service but gaining that back from having an asset
management plan. It also received just half credit for sustainability, which at
first glance might seem odd as its utility's financial situation is much better
than Shreveport's. But it might have been gigged over a recent
water deal with the Port of Caddo-Bossier that could put ratepayers on the
hook for an estimated $62 million without receiving any asset in return.

Even though its City Council approved of the deal
only last month, by their rhetoric city officials admitted they had included
the deal, despite its being months away from that approval, as supporting
evidence in a grant application with the state last year, and thusly may have
done the same in submitting data for the grading. The state may have included that
potential future liability to dock the city points.

Water and sewerage rates in both cities may
increase in the future, due to Shreveport's laxity in fixing problems and
Bossier City signing on to a bad deal. Yet of immediate concern is a potential $150
to $350 charge homeowners in both cities with a fountain, swimming pool, or
lawn irrigation system will have to foot annually.

Louisiana law requires adherence to the International Residential
Code in its own construction code, unless exceptions are made. That code (Title 51: XII
sec. 344), which actually defaults
to Uniform Construction Code (Section 312.10.2) strictures in the state's
administrative code (Title 17: I sec. 111), specifies that a number of
individual connections to a water system, including underground to a fountain
or pool or to subterranean sprinklers, must have backflow prevention device to
keep cross contamination from external sources infiltrating the system. Further,
testing of this must occur every year.

That has been promulgated for about two decades
but the state hadn't thought to enforce it until last year, when LDH began informing
systems they must require residents with any of the above appurtenances to
follow this. When checking out new construction of this nature, a city will
charge a builder an inspection fee; for example, Bossier
City's is $35.

However, the going price in the private sector far
exceeds that, and when Shreveport and Bossier City residents began receiving
notices that they had to foot these bills within the next several months, according
to Republican state Sen. Barrow Peacock
his phone rang off the hook.

Peacock just as the regular session kicked off
filed SB
211. Since state law required following the IRC unless carving out
portions, the bill was worded to prevent the state from enforcing that specific
annual inspection part of the IRC insofar as residences but allowing local
governments to enforce that if they so chose.

At the hearing
of the bill last month before the Senate's Commerce, Consumer
Protection and International Affairs Committee, senators seemed a bit incredulous
about Peacock's solution. As a whole, they claimed to have heard little if
nothing about this, which may be due to geography and climate as in the
state northwest Louisiana runs by a few degrees the hottest July temperatures
and by a few inches the least amount of annual rainfall, thereby increasing the
proportion of households there likely to have sprinkler systems.

Senators also appeared flummoxed at a solution. While
understanding that backflow needed prevention but that the burden would be significant
on homeowners who just wanted to keep lawns from withering, there seemed to be
sentiment towards spacing out inspections by several years, but the
all-or-nothing nature of state code – either it had to accept IRC standards or waive
these – seemed to disallow that solution.

With only Peacock having any kind of in-depth
knowledge about the issue, the panel decided to punt on the matter by deferring
the bill. Peacock concluded by saying that this wasn't the last they would hear
about the issue.

Whether the Legislature makes changes next year, a
number of homeowners are stuck with a new significant bill for this year. For
example, Bossier City is rolling out its enforcement starting in City Council
District 1, represented by Republican Brian Hammons.
He lives within the boundaries of a homeowners association of 100 houses where
the organization requires an irrigation system. Failure to have the inspection,
according to state code, requires the water system to cut off distribution to
that location.

At the same time, plumbers will realize this is a
gold mine of revenue and will push legislators not to change anything. Caught
in the middle will be local elected officials, who will get blamed for this by
constituents out hundreds of dollars each year but whom aren't responsible for
that and can't do anything about it. It might be an issue that flows back into
both legislative and parish commission or police jury contests this fall.

The Anthropocene as a new epoch brings into question the traditional modes of conceptualising International Relations. We believe that it does this by forcing students and practitioners of International Relations to think through how the discipline works as a set of ideas and practices, in fact, as a way of understanding the nature of problems and policymaking per se. As a discipline, International Relations is particularly sensitive to the questioning of the problematics of human exceptionalism, rationalist problem-solving and liberal modernist imaginaries of progress, which have shaped the agendas of international peace, development and democracy. Beyond the dark days of the Cold War, when International Relations was essentially a strategic exercise of Realpolitik, the discipline has staked a lot on the basis that Enlightenment liberalism is the universal panacea to human ills and that irrational structures or agencies can be civilised or tamed to further the interests of humanity, both in national or global regimes of good governance and the rule of law.
These dreams of liberal universal solutions appear to have run aground in the Anthropocene as the last decade has marked a shift away from universal, modernist or 'linear' understandings of power and agency. In a world, construed as more complex, contingent and relational and replete with crises and unpredicted 'tipping points', traditional assumptions are up-ended and unintended consequences seem more relevant than 'good intentions'. Concomitantly, the methodological focus has switched away from understanding the essence of entities and towards privileging the analysis of relations, networks and contexts. Key to this has been debates focused around climate change and global warming which explicitly cast policy problems not as external threats to the 'good life' (that requires securing) but as instead questioning the starting assumptions of separations between inside/ outside, humanity/ nature, solutions/ problems and referents/ threats. This elicits a very different way of thinking.
If natural processes can no longer be separated from the historical impact of human development and are no longer merely the backdrop to a purely human drama of domestic and international political contestation, then the modernist understanding of the nature/ culture divide, separating social and natural science, no longer holds. Nature can no longer be understood as operating on fixed or natural laws, while politics and culture can no longer be understood as operating in a separate sphere of autonomy and freedom. These assumptions, central to modernist constructions of progress, are seen to no longer exist or to have always been problematic. Thus, the Anthropocene is not merely a question of new or more pressing problems, such as climate change and extreme weather events, but also a matter of the tools and understandings that are available to us: in other words, it is a matter of how we know —of epistemology— and also of what we understand the world to consist of —i.e. questions of ontology.
Consider, for example, the conventional understanding of security as the protection of a valued referent against external threats. The condition of the Anthropocene challenges such a notion of security. The Anthropocene as a condition, problematises easy assumptions about 'us' as the security 'referent' —as the object to be secured. The problematisation of 'us' —the privileged gaze of the Western policymaking subject— opens up a substantial set of problems which deeply impact the disciplinary assumptions of International Relations. This is expressed, for example, in Bruno Latour's concept of Earthbound people, i.e., an imaginary collective of people who consider themselves sensitive and responsive, due to being bound by and to the Earth. We are the problem as much as the solution, the 'them' as much as the 'us', the 'enemy' as much as the 'friend'.
Accordingly, the Anthropocene condition calls for reflection upon —and ultimately transition away from— the idea of a separation between nature and humanity. To perform this shift in perspective, concepts such as "worldly" or "ecological security" have been proposed. Matt McDonald develops a notion "ecological security" through an engagement with existing discourses of climate security. According to him, established ways of thinking about climate security would reinforce a problematic nature-culture divide by either presenting climate change as an external threat to vulnerable human communities or, conversely, human actors as a threat to fragile nature in need of protection. Ecological security would instead focus on supporting and sustaining the long-term resilience of ecosystems —understood as entangled systems of both human and non-human elements. Ensuring that "ecosystems can continue to function in the face of current and future change" is accordingly, the only defensible approach to security in the condition of the Anthropocene. Similarly, a worldly approach to security stresses that threats such as war, major industrial accidents, or ecological collapse do not affect humans in isolation but rather endanger the common worlds co-constituted by humans and diverse nonhuman beings. Harrington and Shearing hold that security in the Anthropocene should become oriented towards an "ethics of care". Care, according to them, is able to emphasize the types of deep relational thinking that are so appropriate when discussing the Earth's ongoing and unknown patterns of interactions and responses. It allows one to see security as a radical entanglement between humans, non-human animals, plants, bacteria, materials and technology. Learning how to navigate this entanglement with care will be a primary task for International Relations in our Anthropocene world.
This article is organised in three sections. Firstly, we introduce the concept of the Anthropocene. We refer to the Anthropocene as a condition that we are in rather than as an external set of problems which we are confronted with. Understood as a condition which we are in, rather than merely a set of strategic and tactical problems which we confront, the Anthropocene enables us to go beyond the traditional binaries of our disciplinary tradition. The second section provides some background to the disciplinary history of International Relations, here we seek to briefly flag up the importance of thinking the Anthropocene in relation to the history of the discipline, which could be understood as moving from an 'inter-national' or state-centred focus during the Cold War to a global set of much broader concerns from the 1980s to the 2000s, to an increased interest in the Anthropocene, understood as a 'planetary' challenge to the liberal universal assumptions that followed the decline of 'realist' hegemony. The third section focuses on the implications of the Anthropocene for three key themes: knowledge, governance and security.

En la actualidad, la mayor parte de la producción de vino elaborado en la Denominación de Origen Protegida Montilla-Moriles, es realizada por las cooperativas vitivinícolas frente a las bodegas particulares. No obstante, estas instalaciones destinadas a la elaboración de vino no han despertado el interés de estudio, hasta el momento, en torno a su arquitectura y construcción, como sí lo han sido las bodegas y lagares tradicionales de la zona con numerosos trabajos sobre su origen y evolución. En esta Tesis Doctoral se aborda el estudio de la evolución de la industria vitivinícola en la Denominación de Origen Protegida Montilla-Moriles a través del análisis histórico, técnico y formal de sus instalaciones. Atendiendo particularmente a las instalaciones destinadas para la elaboración de vino construidas en las décadas de 1960 y 1970 durante el régimen franquista: las cooperativas vitivinícolas. Para ello se analizarán las primeras asociaciones de productores de la zona, así como los movimientos políticos y sus principales actores, conociendo el contexto histórico y social en el que se desarrollaron estas construcciones. Además, por su importancia, se abordará el marco legislativo y el sistema de organización en el que se crearon estas sociedades cooperativas. A lo largo de esta investigación, se analizarán en profundidad los proyectos industriales de las cooperativas vitivinícolas de la zona de Montilla-Moriles realizados por los ingenieros agrónomos durante este periodo. Asimismo, se observarán y estudiarán las corrientes estéticas y constructivas de la época, entre las que se establecerán unos paralelismos, además de analizar las diferentes arquitecturas del vino en el territorio español. Los resultados obtenidos han permitido distinguir un tipo de arquitectura característica para este periodo, diferenciando dos estilos: historicista y racionalista. El primero influenciado por la arquitectura tradicional de la zona y, el segundo, por las nuevas normas estéticas de las nuevas construcciones en el periodo estudiado. De esta forma, el análisis de la creación, desarrollo y evolución de las cooperativas vitivinícolas, ha facilitado establecer una secuencia del proceso de industrialización en la elaboración del vino a través de la maquinaria empleada y comprender el uso del espacio destinado en cada actividad. Como objeto final de esta Tesis Doctoral se ha planteado la necesidad de transferencia del conocimiento generado a través de la propuesta de un Sistema de Información Geográfico. Para ello, se ha expuesto la metodología para su desarrollo, agrupando los resultados de dicha investigación a través de un visor gratuito para el público no especializado. Este programa permitirá la comprensión e interpretación de los datos desde una perspectiva multidisciplinar que aúnen historia, arquitectura e ingeniería. En el estudio de las instalaciones dedicadas a la elaboración de vino, se abordarán los atributos y valores patrimoniales que impliquen la sostenibilidad y singularidad del territorio y el paisaje de la Denominación de Origen Montilla-Moriles. De esta forma, se pretende poner en valor estas construcciones que tuvieron su punto culminante en las décadas de 1960 y 1970, las cuales constituyen el testimonio vivo del contexto social, productivo y económico en las que fueron creadas. Se pretende, por tanto, contribuir a la conservación y preservación de estas construcciones por su vinculación histórica y el proceso de modernización de la industria del vino, sin el que no se puede entender la situación actual de la producción vitivinícola en la Denominación de Origen Protegida Montilla-Moriles. ; Currently, most of the wine production in the Protected Designation of Origin Montilla-Moriles is carried out by wine cooperatives as opposed to private wineries. However, these facilities for winemaking have not aroused the interest of study, so far, about its architecture and construction, as have been the traditional wineries and wineries in the area with numerous works on its origin and evolution. This Doctoral Thesis studies the evolution of the wine industry in the Protected Designation of Origin Montilla-Moriles through the historical, technical and formal analysis of its facilities. Particular attention will be paid to the winemaking facilities built in the 1960s and 1970s during the Franco regime: the wine cooperatives. For this purpose, the first associations of producers in the area will be analyzed, as well as the political movements and their main actors, knowing the historical and social context in which these constructions were developed. In addition, due to its importance, the legislative framework and the organizational system in which these cooperative societies were created will be addressed. Throughout this research, the industrial projects of the wine cooperatives in the Montilla-Moriles area carried out by the agronomists during this period will be analyzed in depth. Likewise, the aesthetic and constructive currents of the time will be observed and studied, among which parallels will be established, in addition to analyzing the different architectures of wine in the Spanish territory. The results obtained have made it possible to distinguish a characteristic type of architecture for this period, differentiating two styles: historicist and rationalist. The former was influenced by the traditional architecture of the area and the latter by the new aesthetic standards of the new constructions in the period studied. In this way, the analysis of the creation, development and evolution of the wine cooperatives has made it possible to establish a sequence of the industrialization process in winemaking through the machinery used and to understand the use of the space used in each activity. The final objective of this Doctoral Thesis is the need to transfer the knowledge generated through the proposal of a Geographic Information System. For this purpose, the methodology for its development has been presented, grouping the results of this research through a free viewer for the non-specialized publico This program will allow the understanding and interpretation of the data from a multidisciplinary perspective that combines history, architecture and engineering. In the study of winemaking facilities, the attributes and heritage values that imply the sustainability and uniqueness of the territory and landscape of the Montilla-Moriles Denomination of Origin will be addressed. In this way, the aim is to enhance the value of these buildings, which reached their peak in the 1960s and 1970s, and which constitute a living testimony of the social, productive and economic context in which they were created. The aim, therefore, is to contribute to the conservation and preservation of these buildings due to their historical connection and the process of modernization of the wine industry, without which the current situation of wine production in the Montilla-Moriles Protected Designation of Origin cannot be understood.

The place a person lives in significantly affects the living standards and life chances of this person. Peripheral and economically weak regions within highly developed countries appear to offer their residents fewer opportunities, due to economic constraints, such as unemployment and lower wages, weaker regional amenities (e.g. such as weaker infrastructure and educational opportunities) or social challenge, such as increased risks for social marginalization, poverty and premature mortality. These constraints affect the daily lives of people living in these regions. Thus, peripheral and structurally lagging regions tend to appear less attractive and economic and social disparities to primarily dynamic metropolitan areas foster social polarization. Socioeconomic trends such as structural change, the new geography of jobs or ageing tend to reinforce within-country inequalities. The theoretical considerations in this thesis illustrate that reducing regional disparities and promoting spatially equivalent living conditions is an important topic in regional science because of its economic, social and political implications. Regional redistributive policy such as structural investment funds and fiscal equalization schemes aim to make less developed regions more attractive and to increase economic and non-economic life-chances. But how effective are those policies? While there is a long tradition of examining economic growth effects of regional policies, there is a lack of scientific research and knowledge on effects that are not directly related to the economic output growth, such as the regional quality of life. This thesis aims to contribute to the literature on the efficacy of regional policy interventions dedicated to less developed regions by presenting novel empirical findings that focus on regional outcomes measures beyond regional economic output growth. Spatial vectorautoregressive panel models (SpVARs) are used to empirically assess the effects of regional policy measures. These models have the advantage of being flexible, accounting for indirect effects between variables, time lags between subsidies payments and regional effects and allowing for the evaluation of multidimensional policy outcomes within the same model. Another goal of this thesis is to further develop the SpVAR approach into an explicitly spatial design that adequately accounts for spatial spillovers and spatial interdependencies between variables and allows to estimate additional impulse response functions that estimate effects occurring in neighboring regions. This cumulative dissertation contains four stand-alone research papers in addition to an overarching introduction and a concluding chapter. The first paper analyzes the effects of the German Fiscal equalization scheme and the structural fund GRW at the level of German labor market regions. The paper shows, that fiscal equalization scheme grants have a significant positive effect on regional net migration rates for persons under 50 years of age. This particularly applies for regions with low endogenous fiscal capacities, which can be described as structurally lagging behind. It is argued that the dynamic development of net migration rates can be used as an indicator of the development of the individually perceived quality of life in the regions. By preventing out-migration from structurally lagging regions, it is found that equalization grants contribute to the goal of spatial equity, although no evidence for promoting regional economic growth is found. This is not found for the GRW policy. The second paper analyzes the multifaceted effects of European Structural and Investment Funds (ESIF's) in European NUTS-2 regions. The paper finds that the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) can support regional productivity and employment growth as well as household income growth, which should have a positive impact on the people's material living standards. The effects of ERDF subsidies are particularly present in less developed regions, while no robust regional responses to subsidies are found for the European Social Fund (ESF) and the Cohesion Fund. In contrast to the first paper, no effects on net migration rates are found. The third article focuses on GRW effects at the regional level of German counties and independent cities. It emphasizes wage developments at different quantiles of the wage distribution as possible effects from GRW subsidies in order to investigate the extent to which possible productivity and income effects of GRW subsidies are transmitted to employees. Industry subsidies are found to have partially positive effects at different levels of the wage distribution in East Germany, while effects in the West are limited to the upper end of the wage distribution. Infrastructure subsidies appear to have higher efficacy on wages than firm subsidies in the industrial scheme, but are also limited to East Germany and to the service sector. The empirical findings suggest that the policies under investigation in this thesis have different transmission channels. The occurrence and strength of effects is heterogeneous and differs across policies. All three empirical findings suggest that effects are higher in less developed regions. Thus, they seem to depend on regional preconditions as well as on the policy frameworks. The final paper presents a novel spatio-temporal panel vector autoregressive approach as an extended spatial econometric method to correctly analyze spatial spillover effects in the SpVAR systems used in this thesis. The paper does not primarily aim to provide new empirical insights, but to extend the spatial dimension of SpVAR models by capturing the full cross-regional interdependencies and spatial spillover between variables over time, which allows to estimate policy effects in neighboring and economically connected regions. It is shown, that positive responses of variable shocks in regions can induce negative effects in neighboring regions through substitution effects. The findings presented should be of particular interest to policy makers, as relevant policy implications can be drawn. Based on the empirical findings, spatially redistributive policies can support the regional development of less developed regions and thus the quality of life and material living standards in these regions under certain circumstances. First, unconditional policy grants from fiscal equalization appear to be more effective than structural investment funds in increasing regional net migration rates and promoting non-material living conditions. Second, the high conditionality of effects in favor of regions with low economic strength indicates that policies should be even more tailored to these regions to be most effective. Finally, policymakers and researchers need to consider spatially indirect effects, since positive effects in subsidized regions may entail negative effects in neighboring regions.

With Nigerian novelist Amos Tutuola as primary subject, this paper at[1]tempts to understand the construction of sociocultural identities in Nigeria in the wake of independence. Despite the international success of his literary publications, Tutuola was denied access to the most intimate discourses on the development of African literature by his Nigerian elite contemporaries, who emerged from University College, Ibadan, in the 1950s and early 1960s. Having completed only a few years of colonial schooling, Tutuola was differentiated from his elite literary contemporaries in terms of education. Yet if education represented a rather concrete, institutionalized divide between the elite and the everyday Nigerian, this paper will suggest that the resulting epistemological difference served as a more fluid, ideological divide. Both Western epistemology, rooted in Western academic spaces, and African epistemology, preserved from African traditions like proverbs and storytelling, informed the elite and Tutuola's worldviews. The varying degrees to which one epistemology was privileged over the other reinforced the boundary between Tutuola and the elite. Furthermore, educational experiences and sociocultural identities informed the ways in which independent Nigeria was envisioned by both Tutuola and the elite writers. While the elites' discourse on independence reflected their proximity to Nigeria's political elite, Tutuola positioned himself as a distinctly Yoruba writer in the new Nigeria. He envisioned a state in which traditional knowledge remained central to the African identity. Ultimately, his life and work attest to the endurance of indigenous epistemology through years of European colonialism and into independence. 148 Mackenzie Finley During a lecture series at the University of Palermo, Italy, Nigerian novelist Amos Tutuola presented himself, his work, and his Yoruba heritage to an audience of Italian students and professors of English and Anglophone literatures. During his first lecture, the Yoruba elder asked his audience, "Why are we people afraid to go to the burial ground at night?" An audience member ventured a guess: "Perhaps we are afraid to know what we cannot know." Tutuola replied, "But, you remember, we Africans believe that death is not the end of life. We know that when one dies, that is not the end of his life [. . .] So why are all people afraid to go to the burial ground at night? They're afraid to meet the ghosts from the dead" (emphasis in original).1 Amos Tutuola (1920–1997) was recognized globally for his perpetuation of Yoruba folklore tradition via novels and short stories written in unconventional English. His works, especially The Palm-Wine Drinkard (1952) and My Life in the Bush of Ghosts (1954), were translated into numerous European languages, including Italian. Given the chance to speak directly with an Italian audience at Palermo, Tutuola elaborated on the elements of Yoruba culture that saturated his fiction. His lectures reflected the same sense of purpose that drove his writing. Tutuola explained, "As much as I could [in my novels], I tried my best to bring out for the people to see the secrets of my tribe—I mean, the Yoruba people—and of Nigerian people, and African people as a whole. I'm trying my best to bring out our traditional things for the people to know a little about us, about our beliefs, our character, and so on."2 Tutuola's didactics during the lecture at Palermo reflect his distinct intellectual and cultural commitment to a Yoruba cosmology, one that was not so much learned in his short years of schooling in the colonial education system as it was absorbed from his life of engagement with Yoruba oral tradition. With Tutuola as primary subject, this paper attempts to understand the construction of sociocultural identities in Nigeria in the wake of independence. The educated elite writers, such as Wole Soyinka and Chinua Achebe, who emerged from University College, Ibadan, during the same time period, will serve as a point of comparison. On October 1, 1960, when Nigeria gained independence from Britain, Tutuola occupied an unusual place relative to the university-educated elite, the semi-literate "average man," the international 1 Alassandra di Maio, Tutuola at the University: The Italian Voice of a Yoruba Ancestor, with an Interview with the Author and an Afterword by Claudio Gorlier (Rome: Bulzoni, 2000), 38. The lecture's transcriber utilized graphic devices (italicized and bolded words, brackets denoting pauses and movements) to preserve the dynamic oral experience of the lecture. However, so that the dialogue reads more easily in the context of this paper, I have removed the graphic devices but maintained what the transcriber presented as Tutuola's emphasized words, simply italicizing what was originally in bold. 2 Di Maio, Tutuola at the University, 148. Constructing Identities 149 stage of literary criticism, and the emerging field of African literature. This position helped shape his sense of identity. Despite the success of his literary publications, Tutuola was not allowed to participate in the most intimate dis[1]courses on the development of African literature by his elite contemporaries. In addition to his lack of access to higher education, Tutuola was differentiated from his elite literary contemporaries on epistemological grounds. If education represented a rather concrete, institutionalized divide between the elite and the everyday Nigerian, an epistemological difference served as a more fluid, ideological divide. Both Western epistemology, rooted in Western academic spaces, and African epistemology, preserved from African traditions like proverbs and storytelling, informed the elite and Tutuola's worldviews. The varying degrees to which one epistemology was privileged over the other reinforced the boundary between the elite and Tutuola. This paper draws largely on correspondence, conference reports, and the personal papers of Tutuola and his elite contemporaries housed at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin, as well as on interviews transcribed by the Transcription Centre in London, the periodical Africa Report (1960–1970), and Robert M. Wren and Claudio Gorlier, concentrating on primary sources produced during the years immediately prior to and shortly after Nigerian independence in 1960. Tutuola's ideas generally did not fit into the sociocultural objectives of his elite counterparts. Though they would come in contact with one another via the world of English-language literature, Tutuola usually remained absent from or relegated to the margins of elite discussions on African creative writing. Accordingly, the historical record has less to say about his intellectual ruminations than about those of his elite contemporaries. Nonetheless, his hand-written drafts, interviews, and correspondences with European agents offer a glimpse at the epistemology and sense of identity of an "average" Nigerian in the aftermath of colonialism and independence.

Introduction. A wide range of valuable and active aspects related to citizenship remain not relevant, which leads to the atomisation of society, weakening of the institutional foundations of the state. Today, the development of the civic education system is an important social issue. Therefore, turning to the experience of other countries, including in terms of building their priorities in this area, contributes to the solution of both theoretical and practical problems in national education. It is customary to associate the civic component in the Russian educational system with the implementation of state educational standards aimed at obtaining formal knowledge about society and the state by schoolchildren, as well as with the systematic educational work carried out in educational institutions, focusing on the development of patriotism. As a result, the structure of youth civic orientations is dominated by intentions to consciously distance oneself from politics, the state, a narrowly formalised understanding of citizenship as a set of rights and obligations fixed by law, and patriotism mainly in its protective-military form.The aim of the present research was to comparatively study the opinions of teachers in 22 countries (including Russia) on the priorities of civic education in schools.Methodology and research methods. A secondary analysis of the data of the International Civic and Citizenship Education Study, implemented under the auspices of the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievements (IEA), serves as a research method. The empirical base of the study is a questionnaire survey of teachers from 22 countries (including Russia). The total sample size was 36674 respondents - 8849 teachers (24% of the sample size), implementing programmes of social sciences, 27825 teachers (76% of the sample size) not directly involved in civic education.Results and scientific novelty. As a result of the comparative study undertaken, the specificity of the opinion of teachers in Russia and other countries regarding the importance of certain areas of civic education in schools was revealed. The answers to a special question were analysed, suggesting the choice of the most priority options from the proposed ones. At the first stage, a ranking procedure was implemented, which allowed to identify the structure of priorities in each country. In most of them, the formation among students of independent, critical thinking occupies the first position in the ranking. This goal is especially significant in the Scandinavian countries, as well as in Finland. In Russia, the level of support for this priority is one of the lowest (36%) - less than only in South Korea (24%). At the second stage, the target settings of teachers involved in civic education are classified. Using cluster analysis, the types of orientations are determined, that is, a combination of various combinations of answers, and their prevalence among civilian educators. Seven types of orientations have been identified and described: critical, socialisation, social studies, participatory, environmental, conflictological, particularistic. The features of their representation in different countries are described.Practical significance. The results and conclusions presented in the article, the proposed typology can be used in the process of further development of the issues of civic education, training and education of citizenship, including in other empirical studies. The quantitative data provided can be used as an information base for the development of civic education programmes at various levels, as well as the design of curricula and content of disciplines of civic studies. ; Введение. Широкий спектр ценностных и деятельных аспектов, связанных с гражданством, остаются неактуализированными, что ведёт к атомизации общества, ослаблению институциональных основ государства. Развитие системы гражданского образования является сегодня важной социальной задачей. Поэтому обращение к опыту разных стран, в том числе в части выстраивания ими приоритетов в этой области, способствует решению как теоретических, так и практических задач отечественного образования. В российской системе образования гражданскую составляющую принято связывать с реализацией государственных образовательных стандартов, направленных на получение школьниками формальных знаний об обществе и государстве, а также c проводимой в учебных заведениях систематической воспитательной работой по формированию патриотизма. В результате в структуре гражданских ориентаций молодежи превалируют установки на сознательное дистанцирование от политики, государства, узко-формализованное понимание гражданства как совокупности закрепленных законодательно прав и обязанностей, а патриотизма преимущественно в его защитно-военной ипостаси. Цель изложенного в статье исследования состояла в сравнительном изучении мнения учителей 22 стран (включая Россию) о функциях гражданского образования в школе.Методология, методы и методики. В качестве метода исследования выступает вторичный анализ данных Международного сравнительного исследования гражданственности и гражданского образования, реализованного под эгидой Международной ассоциации по оценке образовательных достижений. Эмпирической базой исследования являются данные анкетного опроса учителей из 22 стран (включая Россию). Общий объем анализируемой выборки составил 36 674 респондента - 8 849 учителей, реализующих программы дисциплин обществоведческого цикла (24 % от объема выборки), 27 825 учителей не участвующих непосредственно в гражданском образовании (76 % от объема выборки). Результаты и научная новизна. В результате предпринятого сравнительного исследования выявлена специфика мнения учителей России и других стран относительно значимости тех или иных направлений гражданского образования в школах. Были проанализированы ответы на специальный вопрос, предполагающий выбор из предложенных вариантов наиболее приоритетных. На первом этапе реализована процедура ранжирования, которая позволила выявить структуру приоритетов в каждой стране. В большинстве из них формирование среди учеников независимого, критического мышления занимает первую позицию в рейтинге. Особо значима эта цель в скандинавских странах, а также в Финляндии. В России уровень поддержки данного приоритета один из самых низких (36 %) - меньше только в Южной Корее (24 %). На втором этапе проведена классификация целевых установок учителей, задействованных в гражданском образовании. С помощью кластерного анализа определены типы ориентаций, то есть сочетание различных комбинаций ответов, и их распространенность среди гражданских педагогов. Выделены и описаны семь типов ориентаций: критический, социализационный, обществоведческий, партиципаторный, энвайронменталистский, конфликтологический, партикуляристский. Описаны особенности их репрезентации в разных странах. Практическая значимость. Результаты и выводы, изложенные в статье, предложенная типология могут использоваться в процессе дальнейшей разработки проблематики гражданского образования, обучения и воспитания гражданственности, в том числе в других эмпирических исследованиях. Представленные количественные данные могут быть востребованы в качестве информационной базы при разработке программ развития гражданского образования разного уровня, проектировании учебных планов и содержания дисциплин граждановедческого профиля. ; The reported study was funded by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (RFBR), project No. 19-011-00632 "Civic-Political Orientations of the Post-Soviet Generation: Models and Types". ; Статья печатается при финансовой поддержке РФФИ в рамках научного проекта № 19-011-00632 «Гражданско-политические ориентации постсоветского поколения: модели и типы».

This paper is going to discuss, what will be called, 'The Internet of Bodies'. Our physical and virtual worlds are blending and shifting our understanding of three key areas: (1) our identities are diversifying, as they become hyper-enhanced and multi-sensory; (2) our collaborations are co-created, immersive and connected; (3) our innovations are diverse and inclusive. It is proposed that our bodies have finally become the interface. This gives rise to salient research questions that will be addressed in this paper: - How do virtual forms of the body, created and transmitted through digital tools, change our relationship to ourselves and to others? - How does virtual/physical distributed embodiment redefine identity in socio-political terms? - Can working and living in virtual space enable and encourage collective intelligence, collaboration and co-creation? The last and key question looks to future insights : - How and with what effect will these collective virtual interactions be re-physicalised into the "real" world? The Internet of Bodies is Boddington's 4 year real-time and practise-led research programme (2016-2020) exploring the body's integration with digital technologies and its effect on human identity. Boddington disseminates this new knowledge to a diverse range of outlets (academic, creative industries, arts, educational, corporate) with a large audience reach in UK and internationally. This paper outlines insights gained from the outcomes this dissemination through her curatorial and practise-led research work, as well as post presentation debates from her presentations. It has been written in expansion and following keynotes presentations at University of Cambridge, UKRI Beyond Conference, Women in Games European Conference, Manchester Science Festival, Mobile World Congress and FutureFest amongst others. Boddington specialises in the future human, body responsive technologies and immersive experiences. She is Co-founder and Creative Director of body>data>space (fka shinaknsen), a pioneering interactive creative design collective who have advocated for the living body to be at the heart of the digital debate since the early 1990s. With a background in dance and performing arts and a long-term focus on the blending of our virtual and physical bodies, she engages in highly topical and future digital issues for our living bodies, including personal data usage, identity and representation of the self, connected body enhancements and collective connectivities of the future. One of the most exciting and yet also the most challenging debates of our times is that of the integration of automata, machine learning and AI into our daily existences. Boddington is a long term practise-led researcher and concept developer and well recognised for her pioneer work on virtual physical blending, body connectivity, virtual presence, redfinitions of liveness and the hyper-enhanced sensory self. Feeding from her practise Boddington presents and extends her original ideas into the public realm, for debate and evolution, to enable access by creative industries, education and cultural experts to the imperative questions about our identity, our self-hood and our agency in the future, as we move through considerable issues on data ethics and personal / bio-signal data which, in many cases, no longer belongs to us. 'The Internet of Bodies' has enabled Boddington research to become highly noticeable in a widening circuit, with challenging debates following her topical presentations, where industry and government are questioned on the owneership of our persoanl data. These have fed into Boddington's ever expanding research materials. This journal paper puts forward Boddington's ongoing reflections to these discussions. In 2017, Ghislaine was awarded the IX Immersion Experience Visionary Pioneer Award by Society for Arts and Technology (SAT) for her long-term innovative work in digital arts, and in particular her "passionate and inspirational engagement towards embodied intelligence". Boddington has been invited to present to a wide range of audiences in academia, creative industries and corporate contexts in the UK and internrationally 2016-2019. These range from small expert groupsings of 60 to huge corporate keynotes for up to 2k attendees:- 2019 - Keynote – 'The Internet of Bodies – body data and ethics' at UK Research and Innovation's Industrial Strategy conference 'BEYOND – AI and Creativity', Edinburgh, UK - Keynote – 'The Internet of Bodies – alive, collective and connected' at Women in Games European Conference, London, UK - Keynote Speaker – 'Internet of Bodies: Exploring the Future Human and Collective Engagement Scenarios' for 'Tacit Engagement in the Digital Age' Conference, University of Cambridge, UK - Keynote – 'Internet of Bodies – alive, connected and collective' for the House of Beautiful Business, Academy of Science, Lisbon, Portugal - Opening Keynote 'The Internet of Bodies – alive, connected and collective' and 'Biohacking on Stage Live Human Chip Implant Show' for Mobile World Congress / 4YFN (4 Years From Now), Barcelona, Spain 2018 - Keynote – 'Internet of Bodies – alive, connected and collective' for the House of Beautiful Business, Academy of Science, Lisbon, Portugal - Presentation and curation – 'Future humans: Augmented selves' and 'AI and Creativity Futures' for Nesta's FutureFest, London, UK - Presentation – Live Human Chip Implant Show 'You have been upgraded' for Manchester Science Festival, UK - Keynote – 'The Internet of Bodies' for the Simulation Training for Resilience & Safety Symposium, London, UK 2017 - Opening Keynote – 'The Internet on Bodies – alive, connected and collective' for Internet Mobile World, Bucharest, Romania - Keynote – 'Internet of Bodies – alive, connected and collective' for Manchester Science Festival, UK - Opening Keynote – 'Internet of Bodies' for IX Immersion Experience Symposium for SAT Dome, Montreal, Quebec - Presentation – 'Internet of Bodies – alive, connected and collective' for Thinking Digital, Newcastle, UK 2016 - Keynote Speaker and curation – 'Live Human Chip Implant Show' for Nesta's FutureFest, London, UK - Presentation – 'Women in Tech' for Telefonica Digital Futures, London, UK - Presentation – 'The Internet of Bodies – connected and collective' for Develop:Evolve VR conference, Brighton, UK - Keynote – 'The Internet of Bodies" for Market Research Council Conference, London, UK - Keynote - 'The Internet of Bodies' for HCC12 Conference, University of Salford Additonally Boddington has proposed and debated her insights on the Internet of Bodies into panels and in group discussions at Milano Digital Week, for Nesta Italia; Future Life, Utrecht; General Assembly London; V&A London; Imperial College London; London Tech Week; IX Immersion Experience SAT Montreal; King's College London; British Council; Toyota Europe; Market Research Society UK; Middlesex Univeristy, London; Convergence Festival London; Stylus London; Mapping Festival Geneva; FutureLab London; TEDx's Limassol and Vienna; Media Trendy Warsaw; BFI Sci-Fi Fest; ISEA; Crafts Council; Digital Catapult London Please see links below to a range of evidence for these presentations.

Die Dissertation mit dem Titel "Rekonstruktion der Geschichte des Russischen Werberats" beschäftigt sich mit der Gründung, Arbeit und Schließung des Werberats im postsowjetischen Russland. Die Forschungsfrage lautet: Welche Erzählungen gibt es im Kreis der beteiligten Akteure über Gründung, Arbeit und Schließung des Russischen Werberats und was verraten diese Erzählungen darüber, wie die Akteure sich heute an die 1990er Jahre erinnern? Die Akteure, die den Werberat aufgebaut haben, wurden von der Verfasserin interviewt. Diese Erzählungen dienen, kritisch geprüft, als Quellen für die Rekonstruktion der Geschichte des Werberats. Dabei wurde die Oral History als Methode eingesetzt: Die Zeitzeugeninterviews wurden diskursanalytisch und mittels der qualitativen Inhaltsanalyse untersucht bzw. ausgewertet. Nach einem Überblick zur sowjetischen, spät- und postsowjetischen Werbeindustrie zeichnet die Verfasserin das Bild der Akteure um den Werberat. Jeder Akteur kam zum Werberat mit seinem eigenen Hintergrundwissen, auf dessen Basis er jeweils auf seine eigene spezifische Art die wichtigste Institution der Werbeindustrie der Russischen Föderation geprägt hat. Die von der Verfasserin erzielten Ergebnisse bezüglich der Werdegänge der beteiligten Akteure offenbaren eindeutige Parallelen der Lebenswege zu den bereits in der Forschungsliteratur recherchierten und untersuchten Werdegängen der technischen Intelligencija, Komsomolzen und Geschäftsleute aus den 1980er und 1990er Jahren. Die Arbeit stellt dar, dass die Akteure zur Community um die Neuen Russen bzw. Oligarchen gehörten und ihr Schutz damit gewährleistet war. Darüber hinaus machten sie nach außen hin den Eindruck einer selbstgemachten Geschäftselite. In den Zeitzeugeninterviews stellten sie ihre Teilhabe bewusst dar, was darauf schließen lässt, dass sie sich in ihren Aussagen über die 1990er Jahre von ihrer Subjektivität lösen und sich einer Exklusivität annähern wollten. Es kristallisierten sich drei Warenkategorien heraus, deren Bewerbung sich für die damalige Branche als problematisch erwies: Tabak und Alkohol, Arzneimittel sowie Damenhygieneartikel. Westliche Tabakunternehmen drängten ins neue Russland, da der Markt für sie attraktiv war. Aufgrund des Tabakmangels in Russland konnten sie sich behaupten. In der Arbeit zeigt sich außerdem die durch die instabile Wirtschaft herausfordernde Situation im Bereich Gesundheitswesen. Damenhygieneartikel erwiesen sich vor dem Hintergrund gesellschaftlicher Tabus als problematischer Werbegegenstand. Die Werbung für die genannten Bereiche sollte durch den Russischen Werberat reguliert bzw. kontrolliert werden. Der Staat mischte sich stark in die Arbeit des Rats ein. Das staatliche Komitee für Antimonopolpolitik schränkte seine Arbeit zunächst stark ein. Dadurch kam es zu zahlreichen Auseinandersetzungen zwischen der Werbegemeinschaft und der Politik. Nach einigen Jahren fanden die beiden Parteien zu einem Kompromiss, der seitens der Werbeindustrie als erzwungen gesehen werden muss. Die Akteure sprachen wenig, anonym oder gar nicht über kriminelle Verwicklungen in den 1990er Jahren. Die von der Verfasserin rekonstruierten Schemata der möglichen Beziehungen zu kriminellen Organisationen und Persönlichkeiten stellen dar, dass die Akteure um den Werberat in den 1990er Jahren von Verbindungen zur Kriminalität nicht verschont waren. Der im Jahr 1995 gegründete Werberat wurde Anfang 2002 geschlossen. Besondere Relevanz hat die Untersuchung der Gründe für seine Schließung, die anhand der Erzählungen der Akteure vielfältig ausfielen. Einer der wichtigsten genannten Gründe war, dass ein westlicher Tabakkonzern aufgehört habe, den Werberat zu finanzieren. Die weiteren Gründe basierten auf mächtigen Persönlichkeiten aus der Werbewirtschaft, die den Werberat geschlossen hätten, sowie auf äußeren Umständen oder Zufällen. Die Studie kommt zu dem eindeutigen Ergebnis, dass der Versuch, den Werberat als eine vom Staat unabhängige Interessen- und Lobby-gruppe aufzubauen, aus politischen, wirtschaftlichen und motivationsbezogenen Gründen scheiterte. Die vorliegende Arbeit leistet einen Beitrag zur Erforschung der 1990er Jahre und kann als Referenzpunkt für weitere Forschung zum Thema Werbewirtschaft der 1990er und frühen 2000er Jahre angesehen werden, die stark mit der Glamour-Kultur und dem Anfang der Regierungszeit Vladimir Putins verflochten sind. ; The dissertation entitled "Reconstructing the History of the Russian Advertising Council" discusses the formation, work and closure of the Advertising Council in post-Soviet Russia. The research question is: What narratives exist among the people involved in the Russian Advertising Council about its formation, agenda and closure and what do these narratives reveal about the ways the actors remember the 1990s today? The principal players involved in founding the Advertising Council were interviewed by the author. Critically examined, the elicited narratives serve as sources for the reconstruction of the history of the Advertising Council. The research conducted borrows from the methodology employed in Oral History, meaning that the interviews with contemporary witnesses were examined and evaluated using discourse analysis and qualitative content analysis. Following an overview of the Soviet, late and post-Soviet advertising industry, the author portrays the individual players around the Advertising Council. Each protagonist brought his individual background knowledge to the Advertising Council, which helped shape this most important institution of the Russian advertising industry in as many specific ways. Their careers exhibit clear parallels to the careers of the members of the technical intelligentsia, Komsomol members and businessmen from the 1980s and 1990s already examined in the relevant literature. The study concludes that the protagonists involved in the advertising Council were part of the community connected to the New Russians or oligarchs and that they derived some sort of protected status from this position. Moreover, to the outside world they conveyed the impression of a self-made business elite. During the eyewitness interviews, they consciously re-enacted the part they used to play in the Council, which suggests that they wanted to detach themselves from their subjective point of view, to strive for an air of exclusivity. The promotion of three categories of goods proved particularly problematic for the industry at the time: tobacco and alcohol, pharmaceuticals, and sanitary products for women. Western tobacco companies entered post-socialist Russia because its market was attractive to them. Due to a lack of tobacco produced in Russia, they were able to hold on to their market share. The study also discusses the challenging situation in the health care sector due to the unstable economy. Against the background of social taboos, female hygiene articles emerged as products for which advertising proved problematic. Advertising in these areas was to be monitored and regulated by the Russian Advertising Council. However, the state interfered heavily in the work of the Council. Initially, the State Committee for Antimonopoly Policy severely restricted its work. This led to several disputes between the advertising community and the politicians. After a few years, the two parties reached a compromise, which the advertising industry considered to have been imposed on them. The interviewees involved in the Council spoke little and only under guarantee of anonymity about criminal entanglements in the 1990s, and usually avoided the subject if they could. Charts drawn up by the author based on her research show possible links to criminal organisations and some of the people interviewed indicated that it would have been impossible for the Council members to entirely es-cape links to the criminal underworld of the 1990s. The Advertising Council, founded in 1995, was closed down in early 2002. Of particular relevance is the investigation of the reasons for its closure, which, based on the narratives of the people involved, were manifold. One of the most important reasons given was that a Western tobacco company had stopped funding the Advertising Council. Other reasons given involved powerful personalities from the advertising industry who were said to have closed the Advertising Council, or the closure was blamed on external circumstances and coincidences. The conclusion can be drawn that the attempt to establish the Advertising Council as a lobby group independent of the state failed for political, economic, and motivational reasons. This study contributes to research in the field of the 1990s and may be considered a point of reference for further research into the advertising industry of the 1990s and the early 2000s, which are strongly bound up in the glamour culture and early days of Vladimir Putin's reign.