Suchergebnisse

The Mercury October, 1908 HEW THOSE WHO HELP US. The Intercollegiate Bureau of Academic Costume. Cotrell & Leonard, ALBANY, N. Y. Makers of CAPS AND GOWNS i'o Gettysburg College, Lafayette, Lehigh, Dickinson, State College, Univ. of Penn B.i Ivnnia, Harvard, Yale, Princeton, "Wellesley, Bryn Mawr and the others. Class Contracts a Specialty. Correct Hoods ^ Degrees. Right Now is not too soon for the senior, the college man, to let us know whether he would be interested in any sort of an office, sales, tech-nical or teaching position. Your choice of location and lines of business. Twelve offices covering the entire country, each operat-ing a department for college men. Write stating line of education and location desired. Hp.pGrB©B THE MERCUKY. extent brought under the influence of a force over which he has little or no control. So great is the power of tradition, that many are wondering what really is the attitude of the present undergraduates in ques-lions of truth and falsehood, than which nothing can be of greater importance, if the practical end of a college course is to be "training good members of society." Do our students have any dominating sense of honor, or are they predominantly gov-erned by the stray survivals of an impalpable and damaging tra-dition ? Behold, says the world to the college, you have received our choicest young men, you are training those who are to be the iiower of our citizenship, the leaders of men, yet you surround them with an atmosphere smirched with the vestiges of a past which knew neither the glory nor the honor of our democracy. The skeptic sees in the little college world only a false and de-cisive transcript of the larger world. He wonders when students will cease their imitation of the small boy, who one minute reads the riot-act of manly independence, and the next pleads the baby-act of thoughtless irresponsibility. He wonders when fac-ulties will cease their skipping about from "in loco parentis" to '.he "on honor" theory. Those best able to learn the attitude of students toward ques-tions of truth and falsehood find much that is encouraging. None set for college officers a standard of honor so sensitively' high. Disingemiousness in a professor the students find intol-erable, and once discovered it may mean the permanent blasting of his usefulness. A man may lack extraordinary personal .•harm, he may yet gain and keep the confidence of the students by scrupulous candor in all his intercourse with them, but lack of this element of frankness is sure to call forth their condem-nation. In no department of life can you find a loftier standard than the one which students have set for themselves in their athletic "iiaining. If athletics were not accomplishing anything else that is worth while, the fact that they get and keep a lot of young men "in training," renders justifiable their demand for con-tinued support. To the extent of rigidity has the standard of honor in .atliletic training been elevated. A student has no J THE MERCURY. purer means of branding himself than the breaking of training. And what body of more mature men has a finer sense of what constitutes leadership? No one, therefore, need seriously fear that undergraduates are without a keen ethical perception. And yet, in spite of these healthy signs, we cannot disregard 'he discouraging observations of a scrutinizing world. It sees in the average undergraduate such little sense of proportion: open and gentlemanly as he is, he appears honest and honorable only in spots. A manufacturer requires that into the product of his plant his workmen shall put honest material and honest toil,—his success depends upon that requirement. Need we wonder that he should grow impatient with our institutions of learning, which claim to enroll the choice youth of an enlightened country, when so much of the work turned out by them has the ear-marks of dishonesty, —not to speak of the vast amount of work that is never done at all? Can the college rightly expect much sympathy from the man of business, when he observes so many annually leaving col-lege walls who have never learned the real meaning of work, never practiced strenuous industry or appreciated the value of iime? The community would not feel so keenly disappointed with the growing numbers who go to college more for the social life than for learning, if that social life were invigorated to a greater extent by the moralities which govern society at large, :md if it had at least a more certain tendency to promote the greatest of all arts, the art of living. Is the judgment of the world too harsh ? Is it not too exact-ing to demand that youthful immaturity be subjected to the ligid standards which logic and the community at large seem to approve ? Only those yet under the charm of tradition—be they slumni, faculty or undergraduates—look with complacency upon the happy-go-lucky codes the extravagances and distortions of our colleges. But happily the number of these is decreasing, and never before, we believe, has the time been so propituous for the obliteration of this damaging tradition. This is true even among the undergraduates themselves. They ma}' not be desir-ing increased supervision or more stringent regulation, but a great majority of them stand ready to be released from false-standards and to adopt sound and sane ones in their stead. C THE MERCURY. Is it just that the picked young men of America should any longer be brought into and permitted to perpetuate a delusive-atmosphere? An atmosphere in which acts of obvious dis-honesty and vice and inhumanity are socially elevated and put into good repute, when the perpetrators should be put into bad repute, certainly deserves no place in an enlightened country 'ike our own. Undergraduates are free to confess that in their excesses quite frequently they are but following custom and can oiler no other excuse; and by their very manner many of them indicate that a higher standard is struggling to gain ascendency. Who shall assist them in completely throwing off the cruel rhackles of tradition, or must they effect their own deliverance? If the purifying and the uplifting of college honor is to pro-gress, along sane and invigorating lines, what greater service can be rendered the undergraduates than to place among them a vigorous, guiding personality,—not a college officer, but one who, sympathizing with the students' own point of view, can liberate Ihem and act as their interpreter and guide. THREE SENSES, BUT A COMPLETE SOUL. MARY HAY HIMES, 'OS. JELEN KELLEB'S name is already too familiar to each of you to need a special introduction. The world of to-day knows it well and has accorded to its owner not a little fame because of her attainments. Though Miss Keller has to do without both hearing and sight she has achieved a position among her fellowmen which we must, in the circum-stances, recognize as surprising. She is now twenty-seven years old and her education has served to make her a writer of no mean ability. She is a college girl, having been graduated from Radeliff with the degree of A.B., in 1904, and she is now entering upon a career of service io bo wrought both by her own hands and through influencing ••(hers to favor and aid beneficent undertakings. But whatever THE MJ5RCURY. rhe does she will not neglect the task of improving her mind and she will continue to write. She has had the unusual privilege of knowing intimately many of the great men of her day such as Phillips Brooks who was her main instructor in things religious, Henry Drummond the mem-ory of whose strong warm handclasp she likened to a benediction, Oliver Wendell Holmes whom she called her beloved poet, John (Treanleal' Whitticr in whose home she visited the summer before he died, Edward Everett Hale whose friendship helped her over many of the rough places, Mark Twain from whose lips she read one or two of his good stories, and Joseph Jefferson who acted for her in private the most striking parts of a number of his plays ro that her education even in this line is not so defective as one might naturally suppose. Of these, her friends, she has written: "In a thousand ways they have turned my limitations into beau- : if ill privileges and enabled me to walk serene and happy in the shadow cast by my deprivation." Books have meant much more in Helen Keller's education than in that of others for they serve to bring knowledge to her which comes to an ordinary person through his eyes and ears. She has read widely and is thoroughly familiar with a large num- .,er of the best works in prose and poetry. She says literature is her "Utopia for no barrier of sense shuts her out from the dis-course of her book-friends. All these things have broadened and enriched Helen Keller's mind so that she is well fitted to exercise her natural bent to writing which lias won for her the excellent place that she oc-cupies in the literary world. She has written for many of this country's best periodicals and has been asked to speak in state legislatures and at hospital dedications in the cause of the deaf and blind! Her book called "The Story of My Life," has been sold by the thousands, and her articles which have lately been oublished in the "Century" are of unique merit. It seems nowise unfit ihat Miss Keller should be regarded as one of the most wonderful women that have ever lived when we note that she has attained this high position in spite of the fact that she has been deprived of the two of the five senses which are of such paramount importance to each one of us that we depend on them almost entirely, paying hardly any attention to the cul- 10 THE MERCURY. tivation or use of the three upon which she must depend alto-gether. Some of the knowledge which would generally come to one through his eyes and ears is brought to Helen Keller by taste, touch, and smell. Through these three senses sounds and shapes penetrate her consciousness and by certain mental processes of adding, multiplying, comparing what these senses bring her she gets definite ideas of whole objects, distance, degree and differ-mce. But there are concepts whose getting belongs to hearing or sight so particularly that we would think it impossible for a deaf-blind person to obtain them, no matter how high might be the cultivation of his three remaining senses. A great gulf here opens dividing the deaf-blind person from the hearing and seeing world. Yet in the case of Miss Keller we find no gulf there, for her soul in its activity and completeness reaches out and fills up the void. She makes use of the analogy between the material and the soul worlds and from the very fulness of her inner life is able to "mploy that whicli in her case has no correspondent without, to give her knowledge of that which her senses can never reveal. So far as the appreciation of music is concerned, she may have far better understanding of its nature than many a person with bearing ears but without any soul-intelligence to interpret what, through them, comes to him. We are made to feel this from her own account: "Sweet, beautiful vibrations exist for my touch even though they travel through other substances than air to i-each me. So I imagine sweet, delightful sounds and the artis-tic arrangement of them which is called music, and T remember '.hat they travel through the air to the ear conveying impressions somewhat like mine. I also know what tones are since they are perceptible factually in a voice." Her ideas of things which are revealed to us through our eyes are not lacking in clearness. She thus describes the way she gets her concept of color: "I have talked so much and read so much about colors that through no will of my own I attach mean-ings to them just as all people attach certain meanings to ab-stract terms like hope, idealism, monotheism, intellect, which cannot be represented truly by visual objects." Again she says: "The flash of thought and its swiftness explain the lightening's THE MEUCLTRY. H flash and the sweep of a comet through the heavens. My mental .-ky opens to me the vast celestial spaces and I proceed to £11 them with the images of my spiritual stars. I recognize truth by the clearness and the guidance that it gives my thought, and knowing what that clearness is I can imagine what light is to the eye. The utmost bound to which my thought will go is the horizon of my mind. From this horizon I imagine the one which the eye marks." It is only when we awake to self-consciousness that we begin to think. The awakening of the soul must come before we can know how to use the knowledge which reaches us through our reuses. There are persons who, having all five senses yet walk blind in the midst of the beauty which can only be seen through • lie windows of the soul. "Our blindness," says Helen Keller^ '•'changes not a whit the course of inner realities. Of us it is as true as it is of the seeing that the most beautiful world is always entering through the imagination. Faith is a mockery if it Reaches us not that we may construct a world unspeakably more complete and beautiful than the material world. And I, too, may construct my better world, for I am a child of God, an in-heritor of a fragment of the Mind that created all worlds." Indeed as we read the works of Helen Keller we often be-come conscious of the flutter of the spirit wings and we feel that in her flights of soul we axe somehow uplifted and refined. All this tells a wonderful story about the real nature of the soul, its dignity, energy, and power. It puts to route those phi-losophers who would hold this wonderful part of man subject to the petty rule of flesh, who claim that the possession of all five senses is necessary for a full and complete knowledge,—that the soul is dependent upon sense for its full life. It shows the soul to be something separate and apart from the body in which it dwells and utterly independent of it. The loss of any of the senses affects one's soul as little as the loss of a hand or foot would affect his personality. The soul has wonderful capabilities of growth and action which nothing but its own will need limit. Nothing need be a prison-house to the spirit, such power does it possess. It has KIeh unexplainable and wonderful qualities as man has always been drawn by his nature to reverence and worship—truly he 12 TUB MERCURY. bas been made a little lower than the angels. It is the soul which each man must respect within himself. Of what significance, then, is this in disclosing the nature of" the life of the sonl? If the soul is not affected by the small changes as they occur in the body, will the final destruction of the body by death lay chains upon the spirit and drag it down to nothingness? If man were a merely natural being, Nature's des-tiny would be his also; but we have seen that the soul is super-natural, able to mount over the barriers imposed upon the na-tural, and therefore deserving a different fate. What then do we face but immortality ? If eternity be not for the soul, man's very greatness, his capacity for thought and action and for ideals were direst mockery! Is it not rather that the soul sojourns-here for a time in the physical body as in a prison from which death will set it free to dwell forever in that unseen world where its real interests are and where it will remain after all earthly end material things have passed away? Having the great gift of eternity and a soul active and power-ful to do what it will, does not one's destiny rest in his own hands? If he learns to enjoy the soul-world by thinking of it here and earning a place in it surely happiness will await him in the future. We have seen that Helen Keller is making wonderful use of" her powers and know that she is building firm and strong. Her wonderfully courageous fight stands a firm rebuke to our sloth-ful spirits, and her victories in overcoming the obstacles in her way hold great encouragement for those on the verge of despair. THE MERCURY. 13.-. A CLEAR AND A GLOOMY DAY AT COLLEGE. L. W. TAYLOR, '08. HE day dawns gloomily, and at the last possible moment the heavy-eyed student rolls out of bed and gazes through a streaming window into the dense fog which has settled over all the campus, hiding from view every beautiful feature of the place. No vigorous heart-beats stir his torpid blood as he buttons his raincoat about him in anticipa-tion of the weary trip to breakfast and the not-altogether enjoy-able chapel service following. But such a day must be endured, and the only remedy is to dispel the gloom and forget the rain—if possible. The college student is an adept at this and although all is dismal without. the dormitories seem filled with merriment. The pipes are pro-duced, and dense clouds of smoke soon arise and fill the atmos-phere as though in opposition to the clouds of mist outside. Here and there groups of students settle down to a friendly game of cards, while others, perhaps, coil upon a pile of cushions to enjoy an interesting book. From various quarters comes the tinkling of mandolins and guitars, sometimes accompanied by snatches of song. But despite all this assumed gayety, everyone feels a spirit of' depression which he cannot well shake off. It follows him about, hinders him in his work, making all seem drudgery, and lurks nearby in his pastime although it may be forgotten for a short while. And as evening approaches, this feeling of confinement becomes worse and worse until it is well nigh unbearable, and darkness 'settles down over a restless and disconcerted person who feels that the day has gone for naught. But bow different the clay which dawns brightly upon a fresh, green world. The student arises early, wakened by the gay ••hatter of birds, and the bright sunbeams which stream in through his window. He springs up with energy and feels the-oright red blood coursing through his veins and filling his whole being with the joy of life He faces the day with eagerness, and the spirit of achievement is strong within him. Chapel appears .ess odious, and he looks forward to recitatior«^kl^teas^£?«'**^^ | GETTYSBURG COLLEGE | i Gettysburg, Pa, - LIBRARY - 14 THE MERCDET. Such a clay fills the whole place with gayety and college seems u veritable paradise in which youth and energy abound. The pastimes are now out in the open where no walks confine, and where fresh breezes bring health and vitality to all. The tennis courts -are filled with white-garbed figures, while from Nixon irield resounds the crack of the bat as it sends the leather sphere out to some expectant hand. The brawny arms of clean-limbed f.thletes of the more classic sort,can be seen flashing in the sun-light as they circle the track with strong strides. Others indulge their freedom by strolling out over the battle-field, some in quest of botany specimens, some in the interests of geology, and many simply for the invigoration afforded by the pure air and sunshine. When darkness falls, the students are still loath to confine themselves within four walls, and so they stroll along the streets of the historical college town, and perchance when the moon .•ioods the campus with soft light, they gather on the steps of '•Old Dorm" and sing, or enjoy the peace of evening in medita-tive silence, thus ending n day filled with many joys and rich in life for all. j* SHOULD THE SCHOOL TERM IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS BE REDUCED TO EIGHT MONTHS? L. VAN DOREN,. '09. 8HE question of reducing the school, term in the public-schools from nine to eight months has been uppermost among the questions that have been troubling the minds of the men who have to attend to the welfare of our schools. The school term should not be reduced to eight months, be-cause the general age of the pupil in the public schools is under twelve years, and they are at the very age when they are learn-ing the rudiments of the different branches and getting the foun-dation upon which to build their lives; also they are at that age when they most easily forget what they are being taught, for THE MEKCURY. 15 their past experiences are few and they are continually passing through new experiences, which tend to drive out the training they are receiving from day to day in the school room. There-fore, to reduce the school term to eight months would be giving ;Jiese forces one extra month in which to work, and it would take twice that time to replace what would be lost, so instead of gain-ing a month it would be losing three. Also when the child is out of school he is free from the disci-pline which there exists. Some may say, he is under the home-rule. That is very true but the home-rule is in very few cases as strict as the discipline of the school room, and it can not be as stringent, for every one knows that in the school room the child ■s continually under the eye of his teacher, whereas at home, if he were there, for nine times out of ten after school hours he is roaming around with his comrades and is under no discipline at all—his parents have their domestic duties to attend to and are unable to keep a close watch upon him. So to give the child one month more of freedom from school-room discipline would not be to his advantage, but rather it would be detrimental to his childhood training. It is undoubtedly true that the children become very tired of being shut up in the school room during the spring and long to be free to roam wherever they may choose, and this very long- 'ng suggests a reason for not reducing the school term to eight months. The fact that a large number of the children loiter around after school hours with their companions is no reason for not reducing the school term, but the fact that they do not loiter inerely with their child companions but instead, around the street corners and other places is an argument against it. Here they come in contact with all kinds of people and see what those, some years older than they, are doing, such as smoking and chew-ing, and hear obscene language which is extremely disadvanta-geous to the training of the moral elements in the child. When the child sees or hears these things what does he do? Does he run away? No, he docs the exact opposite; he remains longer than he would otherwise have done, he is not satisfied with what hehasscenor heard but he wishes to see and hear more, and it docs not stop with the mere seeing and hearing; the child wishes to be like those who do these things, and thinks he is elevated to a 1G THE MERCURY. Uglier plane if he takes a smoke or uses curse words. He is sadly mistaken, for instead of being elevated, he is being de-graded. Therefore if the school term were reduced to eight months, he would be given one month more in which to mingle with this element, which works against his moral character. Thus there are three reasons, and very essential reasons too. why the school term in the public schools should not be reduced to eight months. In the first place the child would be deprived of a month's training in the fundamentals when it is the most opportune time; secondly, he would be free from the school-room discipline an extra month, and lastly, he would be given one more month in which to associate with that class of persons who stand on the street corners and in other public places. SIMILARITY OF PURSUITS THE BASIS OF FELLOWSHIP. G. L. KIEFFER, '09. XDIVIDUALS in this world are all prone to seek com-panions. The kind of companions sought varies in proportion to the degree of development of the indi-vidual. These individuals that mutually agree to en-joy each other's fellowship must certainly have as their posses-sion some common ground, where all differences disappear. This r-ommon ground quite frequently proves to be a similarity of pur-suit. In harmony with this fact is the old saying: "Birds of a feather flock together." Who has not seen, or read about, the old country store gathering. Here the farmer is wont to meet his neighbor for an evening's fellowship, mutually desired and en-joyed. This fact of similarity of pursuits being the basis of fellow-ship is not alone true of the laboring class. It is also true of the cultured class. The coffee house in the days of Ben Johnson was the fellowship club of the literary lights of that age. Here they met and enjoyed each other's wit and humor as well as shared each other's troubles. THE MERCURY. 17 The fact that similarity of pursuits is the basis of fellowship is ; hewn in the manner in which those who are following the same line of work are banded together. We, to-day, have the great labor unions' as an outgrowth of this among the laboring class. In higher walks of life are found this association and that asso-ciation. Banded together for each other's protection and develop-ment, these unions and associations are quite a factor, working for the betterment of humanity's condition of life. The strong characters thus intimately associated with the weak possess a great opportunity for living a life according to their Master's com-mands. Granted these associations carry with them evils, never-theless the benefits outweigh them. Therefore, in time past as well as at the present time, indi- \iduals who have had the common ground of similarity of pur-suits have banded themselves together in order that they might enjoy each other's fellowship. In all walks of life this has been true. It is likewise true that the benefits to the individuals of these bonds of fellowship can hardly be estimated. THE INEXORABLE IN THE WORLD. HESSE, '09. JWENTY and one half centuries ago, there lived, in beau-tiful Greece, a childlike and simple hearted people, but endowed with intellects that shone as the stars in their own wonderful heavens. Of experimental science they had none, but their intuition and reason led them to experience the loftiest thought and the profoundest emotions that fill the imman breast. They attained the heights of intellect we must strive in vain •■ompletely to comprehend, and they laid the foundation for modern culture in its length and breadth. They reveled in meta-physical speculations, they looked through the stars and through the multitudinous phenomena of earth, and saw within the com-plexity of all a oneness which they called the universe. Nor is there a theory of modern science or philosophy which in its 18 THE MERCURY. broad outlines they had not conceived. In the sixtli century before Christ there was taught the doctrine of creation by evolu-tion, the nebular hypothesis, the indestructibility of matter and the conservation of energy, the sphericity of the earth, the fact of sex in plants, as well as in animals, and their theory of music has never been changed. They recognized order, plan, and design in this cosmos of theirs, and so affirmed mind as its author. As those old Greeks had grasped the fundamental conceptions which are necessary to understand natural law in the material universe, so, too, by a native insight they grasped the ethical principles of the world. They felt themselves to be free-willed personalities, but they saw with crystaline vision that man, in order to find safety and perfect freedom, must have a will sub-servient to the laws set in order by the Divine Creative Mind, and that a will out of harmony with these laws incurs peril, tem-poral and external. During those early days the laws in physics, optics, chemistry. ,«md biology were unknown, and will was recognized as the only force capable of initiating motion. Accordingly, those old 'Greeks created, by their vivid imagination, gods invested with power to rule over certain definite spheres of human activity. Nevertheless, they were conscious that back of even Father Zeus liimself, there was a mysterious, an inexorable something, to which, with their most vivid imagination, they could not assign a personal existence in the home of the gods on high Olympus. The Greek philosopher was struck with awe, as he contemplated this mystery underlying his fanciful explanation of the move-ments in nature. He realized the presence of a force which lie oould not attribute to the capricious gods. He felt the cold hand of stern necessity, of unbending compulsion, that inexorable Power, which is no respector of persons, and to which all crea-tion is obedient, the great cause of the perpetuity of the world. He saw it manifested in (lie composition of the elements and represented graphically by the starry heavens. To him it was Ihe soul of all natural phenomena and the absolute authority over the hearts of men. The Greeks, in their thought were striving to represent this inexorable Power, and to that end, created a word. They spoke of it as avayKrj and to it they resigned self. Sopocles, in THE MERCURY. 19 that magnificent tragedy, "Oedippus Bex," says, "Not even the gods fight against amy/c^. And Aeschylus, in the Promotheus Bound, tell how, in the beginning, poor pitiable mortals were crashed through their ignorance of natural laws and forces, hav-ing no power of development, and that at length rejected and given over to destruction by the Olymphic Zeus. He tells how, in their blindness to the means of development which avayK^ afforded, they suffered untold pain and woe. They failed to re-alize that existence is a struggle in which the victory is not to tiie strong but to those whose souls are atune with the eternal plan of progress. Mortals seemingly were helpless, but upon re-ceiving fire, "the teacher of every useful art," there was opened to them illimitable resources. Science was born, and by learning. dowly and painfully, the workings of the universe, man was raised to a higher plane of living. Centuries have rolled by, and man himself has become a god. AVe have advanced until we are conscious that all natural forces invite us to rise higher in material development by cdping with opposition. The idea of limitation and the laws of nature that stand seemingly in opposition to our physical, mental, and moral development may be considered as the dark avay/o? of the ancient Greeks, and yet in reality it is merely the necessary op-position by which action is made possible. There could be no flight of birds, if it were not for the change-less law of gravitation and the defiance of ethereal space. Our fouls could not soar to higher worlds, and, in our intellectual and • loral struggles we should fail, but for the very defiance we meet. 't is the order of things yet to some, it is so dark and fearful. But why should it be? It is but rational to accept the limita-tions which He who made the world has set as the boundaries of-human activity. Endowed with an immortal soul and placed in, a vast theatre of struggle, a man so often surrenders to the evils, that he meets. His confidence in the All Wise fails, he rebells,. and succumbs to fate. The purpose of the Infinite remains obscure, but the wisdom of' ihe plan which he has adopted is being revealed and its justice, •indicated, as age after age pushes back the horizon of knowl-edge. We are now standing in the morning twilight of a new era of thought, and, as we read the message of the past, we see 20 'J'KE MERCURY. the problems which perplexed the ancient mind, in a measure ceing solved. As solution follows solution, there opens to our view mysteries of wider scope. Human interests are essentially the same, but humanity drinks from a larger cup of bliss than ever before. As dark shadows disappear and the boundaries of Ignorance recede, we enlarge our horizon. The periphery of the universe expands, and in realms growing still more vast avoy/07 the inexorable, appears, as a legion of mysterious forces and influences, drawing out and showing human aspira-tions in an intricacy of thought and action. No longer do we. as did the children of Mars, march to certain death upon the field of battle and call it fate. But, while understanding so much of the mystery of existence from the starry heavens to the microscopic world, while recognizing the reign of law as inexora-ble, we know comparatively nothing of the problems that re-main. There are principles we can not fathom for they grow darker as we seek their significance. These are appalling fea-tures that bind and hold the race in their iron grasp. Society hems us in on every side. There are boundaries im-movable. The individual, born to act within his sphere, the physical, mental, and spiritual limitations of which there is ab-solutely no hope of crossing, is as really hound by the hand of fate, as was Promotheus of old. We are doomed to play our role in the drama of life within a certain narrow sphere. The law of heredity and our personal contact with the outer world bind and keep us closer than would the eye of a jealous Grecian deity. We are under the law, and violation of natural laws brings about unnatural conditions. Perpetration of deeds, unnatu-ral, breeds in humanity tendencies to repeat crime even to the fifth generation. This, indeed, is determinism. It is the avayKrj of the nncient Greeks. They whom such fate overtakes are of mortal ones most to be pitied. The old Grecian idea of avay/oj comprehends all such, yet the principle is that of eternal justice which is enthroned high above the limitations of man's understanding. Stern necessity, the inexorable bond which obtains in this uni-verse of law and order must be considered as the hand board di-recting man. It points out a perilous way, but it will lead, Rventually, to more perfect human relations. ITIJS MERCURY. The harmonious stream of existence follows inexorable law. .All is harmony, yet unintelligible to the passing multitudes, who-through selfishness and by acts of rebellious will toll a sad knelL and depart forever. But, the imperishable stream flows on. He who would be wise embarks and.acts according to the light he has. Outside of the light, or in realms unexplored, there is abso-hitely no mercy for him who seeks to break the limitations set by law. The ancient Greeks with their partial insight bowed in sub-mission before the inexorable; not only they, but their Olympian gods as well. Dim and hazy, felt rather than seen, and having no habitation as did Zeus, this illimitable power never became anthropomorphic. It was never a Father into whose face they amid look- and say, "Thy will be done." Rather they surren-dered to an unknown, impersonal necessity whose decree was in-evitable We recognize the same power manifesting itself in the physical world, and we call it natural law; and in the world of humanity, we call it, in the fine phrase of Matthew Arnold, "The power in history, not ourselves, which makes for righteous-ness." FEUDS IN OUR RURAL COMMUNITIES, bo|raa^!'*' [ GEfTYSBURG tc__ Gettysburg, Pa. LIBRARY - - 26 THE MERCURY. and the principal works dealing with the Confessions of the Church. In practical theology we have the complete works of Luther, devotional books, sermons and treatises, some in pamph-let form, others in the original manuscript. Some of the authors represented in Systematic Theology are, Dorner, Martensen, Miiller, Beck, Sprecher, Schleiermacher and JSTitzsch. Commentaries are by Meyer, Keil, Bretheau, Hengs-tenberg, Tholuck and others. Philosophy is also extensively represented both in histories and complete works on the subject. It contains the works of nearly all the great German philosophers, such as Kant, Fichte, Hegel, Shopenhauer, Lotze, V. Harman, Wundt, and others. Besides these comprehensive works thre are many German and Englisl treatises and dissertations on philosophical subjects. Another and doubtless the most exhaustive department is So-ciology. In this department the productions of Dr. Stucken-berg form an important and valuable feature. Along with his works are found all the most noted German contributions to the science as well as many other historical and systematic pro-ductions of authors of different nationalities. Some of the au- Ihors represented are Marx, Lange, Wagner, Schaffle and Blunt-schli. Among the many works on History are found the following: Macauley's, "History of England," Humes', "History of Eng-land," Tierre's, "History of the Consulate and Empire of Na-poleon," Gibbons' Complete AYorks, Fronde's, "History of Eng-land." Also a large number of works dealing especially with Church History, such as. Millman's, "Latin Christianity," His-tories of Protestant Theology and works dealing with the Ameri-can Church. Some of the authors represented are jNTeandet'. Jleppe, Bohringer, Schaff and Planck. Tn the collection of biographies are those of all the great re-ligious, intellectual and political leaders, such as St. Augustine, Melanchthon, Schleiermacher, Martensen, Henhofer, Humbold, Tholuck,Webster, Beecher, Burke, Scott, Garrison, Garrick, Mar-tineau and others. The encyclopaedias and dictionaries form an important fea-ture of the library, especially along the lines of Theology and Sociology. Although some of these works are not the latest and THE MERCURY. 27 most up-to-date editions, the majority of them are still recog-nized as authority in their particular departments. Such is Herzog's "Theologische Beal-Encyklopadie." Besides this partially classified material there is of course a large amount of miscellaneous material, such as works and trea-tise on Natural History and Geography. There is also some fic-tion and high class English and German literature. The works of Goethe, Schiller, Lessing, Heine, Jean Paul Bitter, Shakes-peare, Milton and others are found complete. AT SUNSET. BY ARTHUR CHRISTOPHER BENSON. How pure, how spare the hues that lie O'er these wide plains, from sky to sky! . As tho some brush, of airy skill, Had washed, had tinted, field and hill. Soon falls the change; the daylight dies; The dusk o'erbrims her boundaries; The sun flares westward, fiercely rolled 'Mid purple islets ridged with gold. Air me, ah me! alike they fade— Brief space of sun, swift lapse of shade; The wistful eye, that saw and loved, The heart so strangely, sweetly moved. Yet, tho the creeping dusk enfold My faint-hued hopes, my dreams of gold, At last, her patient journey trod. This trembling soul shall leap to God. —Prom the Daily Mail (London). I H E ERCURV Entered al the Posloffice at Gettysburg as second-class Matter. VOL. XVI GETTYSBURG, PA., OCTOBER, 1908 No. 5 Editor in-Chief P. F. BLOOMHARDT, '09 Exchange Editor H. REY WOLF, '09 Business Manager CHARLES L. KOPP, '09 Ass't Bus. Managers G. C. KNIPPLE, '10 PAULS. AIILLER, '10 Assistant Editor CHARLES F. V. HESSE, '09 Associate Editors SAMUEL FAUSOLD, '10 EDWARD N. FRYE, '10 Advisory Board PROF. C. F. SANDERS, A. M. PROF. P. M. BIKLE, PH.D. PROF. C. J. GRIMM, PH. D. Published each month, from October to June inclusive, by the joint literary societies of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg) College. Subscription price, one dollar a year in advance ; single copies 15 cents. Notice to discontinue sending THE MERCURY to any address must be accompanied by all arrearages. Students, Professors and Alumni are cordially invited to contri-bute. All subscriptions and business matter should be addressed to the Business Manager. Articles for publication should be addressed to the Editor. Address THE MERCURY, GETTYSBURG, PA. EDITORIALS. The words of welcome to the new students, as published in the Gettysburgian pleased us very much. We are pleased even more on account of the enthusiasm, which, if possible, is greater than that manifested during previous years. It is the spirit of "Greater Gettysburg" entering into every phase of college life. The vari-ous activities of our college have been well presented to the new men, and they, in turn, have re- THE MERCURY. 29 spondecl with that well known heartiness requisite to the well-being of a new man. A Gettysburg man will be impelled to branch, out, taking in all possible advantages, or elese he will be (ompelled to plod his more narrow path with ever increasing difficulty. This is as it should be. It is not merely a rule gov-erning college activities, but is a universal law. It seems, in-deed, needless to devote further discussion to this topic. We would rather compliment the new men as being able to see readily what we mean to suggest. We would therefore say to all new men, faithful class work joined with good faith, as shown by the way you take up the subsidary features of college life, will lead to the summum bonum. Literary attainment is the most valuable asset in a liberal education. By its means we learn of a man's physical, mental, and heart-life all at once. Each professor under whom you have literary work will take special interest in you, especially when you aim to produce something worthy of recognition in the MERCURY. And besides, all the professors and students will ; rd your trivial imperfections with increased charity, when you show by your effort that you mean to succeed. Let each man busy himself, not alone to gain these advantages, but let him go in for all there is in the performance of duty, and other things will come to him in due time. Join one of the literary societies and aim to have your work there be of a high stand-ard. The MERCURY is watching for the best from the best men. Number yourself with the best. If you are willing to do these Things, Gettysburg has great pleasures in store for you. Year after year, the importance of joining a literary society and of taking an active interest in such work has been much, dis-cussed. But in recent years this importance has not been real-ized as it should be. It is merely talked about. It has not been so very long ago that literary work occupied a high place in the sphere of college activities whilst our successes in athletics were not so marked. Of late, however, we are inclined to believe chat the reverse of this has been true. We would in no wise discourage the great interest in athletics which has meant so much to Gettysburg's teams, but we would also claim for liter- .30 THE MF.BCURY. ary work the proper attention and interest due to its real im-portance in college life. Few men who go through college are ignorant of this importance for it is a real necessity in the mak- :rjg of a cultured man, but the attention of most men is so en-grossed in other ways that the society work is neglected to their own disadvantage as well as to the injury of the respective so-cieties. In our opinion, everyone who enters college should strive to become as well-rounded a man as possible,—by this we mean that he should take advantage of as many varied lines of work as he can; for instance,—he is as much at fault who be-comes a grind in his regular work required by the faculty as the man whose attention is entirely held by other things to the detri-ment of his class standing. He whose interest is limited to ath-letics alone will fail of becoming a broadly cultured man just as easily as the literary "shark" who has no time for athletics. So. for this reason, we would urge every new man, not to fail to join one or the other of our literary societies, and, once having joined, not to let his interest wane. The result of his labors will surely be evident before his graduation. BOOR REVIEVS. \BE Social Secretary, David Graham Philips, Philo 11, 5. Among the many books of present day American life written by this author, this volume is the most captivating. We hear much of the struggles of the newly-rich to enter the social circles at Washington and the con-trast of the social life of America's capital with the customs of foreign courts. "The Social Secretary" presents such pictures of present-day Washington society life that all the best Ameri-can traits are revealed and compared favorably with the polished :nanners of foreigners. The book is written very attractively in the form of a diary. It is not a very large book nor is it dif-ficult reading. What would otherwise be but a dull description is enlivened by several real love incidents which are superin-tended by a natural, sensible American mother of the right sort. ■I'l-TB afERCURY. 31 It also shows to what extent the affairs of the nation are affected by the influence of the social circles at the capital. The Bar Sinister, Richard Harding Davis, Philo 11, 7. This bhort story of dog life is one that will appeal to all lovers of ani-mals. It belongs to that class of recent fiction in which dumb brutes are given the position usually accorded to the hero or heroine. In this book, a bull terrier named "Kid" is given the place of honor. It is a delightful story of how "Kid's" noble blood showed up in spite of the disadvantages which were met until at last he carries off all the prizes in the kennels. The: little book is written in a peculiarly tough dialect which suits I lie nature of the dog very well and shows a noble heart within the dumb breast. The tale is made more attractive by the fact (as stated by the author) that',it is founded on truth. There is a real original dog as well as the other character in the story. It makes pleasant reading for a half hour's recreation. The House of Fulfillment, by George Martin Madden, Philo 11, 7, is a book of much interest to the reader, who loves char-acter sketches. In it the two extremes of human nature are set forth, the romantic and the stern, the light and free-going nature of the Southerner, and cold rigid Presbyterian of the North. Alexina Blair, the product of these two extremes, is of special interest. She is to be admired for the stand which she takes in relation to her uncle, Austen Blair, and her care for her weak charactered mother. There is a thread of love story running "hrough the latter part. The reader will find the book very agreeable and will be very much inspired by the spirit displayed in some of the characters. The Blaclc Bag, by Louis Joseph Vance, Philo 11, S. This novel gives an account of some very exciting adventures of a voung man in London. Philip Kirkwood, while pursuing his studies in painting, receives the news that he is made penniless by the San Francisco disaster. Hence he prepares to return to-the United States and help his partner. Almost at the moment of his departure, his services are solicited by a man of doubtful appearance, to take charge of his daughter, a young lady of about eighteen. Upon doing this, he misses his steamer and has some very thrilling experiences. The author thoroughly under- 32 THE MERCURY. ttands the different phases of life in London and depicts his fharacters well. The reader's interest is aroused at once and never lags. He follows every detail, reading every part with the closest attention, even though it is drawn out in many places to the point of attenuation. This fact shows the author's skill as a writer Another fascinating point in the novel is, that one is in doubt as to how he feels toward the young man; sometimes he is ready to condemn, and again to admire him. The book is full of action from beginning to end and can be read with rapidity. The Orphan, by Clarence E. Mulford. Philo 11, 8. Clarence E. Mulford does not give his readers a story of "domestic inter-est" notwithstanding its title, The- Orphan. On the contrary the orphan of the story is a cowboy and something of a "bad man.'" The scenes are laid in the arid Southwest. Above all things this is a story of dramatic and exciting incidents. In the beginning the or-phan has become an outlaw. Under unexpected circumstances, the Sheriff and he come face to face. In the sequel the man of lavr learns that the orphan, whom he has been pursuing relentlessly. is probably not so black as he is painted. Further dramatic de-velopments ensue on the introduction of the Sheriff's sister. The orphan rescues her from Apaches. But why go on? Mr. Mul-ford has written an exceptionally good story of action, repro-ducing the atmosphere of the alkali country, ami portraying the characters with sufficient clearness and care to make them stand out. The Orphan is to be read for the thrills and excitement, of which there is an abundance. Need it be said that the Sheriff's sister pays back her debt to the orphan by converting him from the evil courses of his life ? Mr. Mulford has written a worthy successor to "Bar-20," and this is the same kind of a breezy, outdoor, vivid stoiy of incident and action. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. THE BEST PEN F03 GUIEGE ME There's no pen that gives such all-round satisfaction as Conklin's Self-Filling Fountain Pen. It's the best pen for College Men. When an ordinary fountain pen runs dry in the middle of a word, it means you've got to stop right there, hunt up a rubber squirt gun, fill your pen to overflowing, clean both pen and dropper, wash your hands, and then endeavor as best you can to collect your lost CrescentJI train of thought It's different with CONKLIN'S JSSh FOUNTAIN PEN "THE PEN WITH THE CRESCENT-FILLER" To fill, just dip it in any ink, press the Crescent-Filler, and the Conklin is filled and ready to write instantly. You can't over-fill it Hence no inky fingers, no loss of time, no ruffled temper. The feed of the Conklin is feet No waiting for ink to come—no jerking—no slips, ss or blots. Leading dealers handle the Conklin. If yours does not, order direct. >k (or the Crescent-Filler and refuse substitutes. Prices, 33.00 and Send at once ior handsome new catalog. THE COHKLIH PEH CO., 31 Manhattan Building, Toledo, Ohio. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. FUf(NITUP]E Mattresses, Bed Springs, Iron Beds, Picture Frames, Repair Work done promptly. Under-taking a specialty. - Telephone No. 97. !E=E_ 23. IBem-d-ex, 37 Baltimore St., : : : : .• .• attlpubvrg; /*« EDGAR C. TAWNEY BAKER West Middle Street. J. B. WINEMAN, DEALER IN CHOICE FAMILY GROCERIES, PROVISIONS AND FRUITS, BOARDING CLUBS A SPECIALTY. SUNDAY SCHOOL LESSON HELPS AND SUPPLIES, R ANSTADT & SONS, Publishers, Book and Job Printing of all Kinds UJriia for Price*. YORK, PA, PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. EMIL ZOTHE COLk^tEM3 ENGRAVER, DESIGNER, AND MANUFACTURING JEWELER 722 Chestnut St, Phila. SPECIALTIES : MASONIC MARKS, SOCIETY BADGES, COLLEGE BUTTONS, PINS', SCARF PINS, STICK PINS AMD ATHLETIC PRIZES Ail Goods ordered through G. F. Kieffer, CHARLES S. MUMPER. HEAL,KB IJV FTT5?_^TT*TITT!R"S P,CTURE FRAMES OF ALL SORTS ** ™""N * * W •ATVJSfy REPAIR W0HK DONE PROMPTLY I WILL ALSO BUY OR EXCHANGE ANY SECOND-HAND FURNITURE NO. 4 CHAIYIBERSBURG STREET, GETTYSBURG, PA D. J. SWARTZ DEALER IN COUNTRY PRODUCE, GROCERIES, CIGARS AND TOBACCO. GETTYSBURG. SHOES REPAIRED —BY— j. \i. 8°Hep» 115 Baltimore St., near Court House GOOD WORK GUARANTEED. —IS— J. {. iVfUlfPE^ Your PhotograDher ? If not, why not? 41 BALTIMORE ST., GETTYSBURG, PA. 8EFT0N I FLEMMING'S LIVERY, Baltimore Street, First Square, Gettysburg,'Pa. Competent Guides for all parts of the Battlefield. Arrange-ments by telegram or letter. Lock Box 257. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. W. T. BRUBAKER, Manager. Midway between Broad St. Station and Reading Terminal on Filbert St. A convenient and homelike place to stay while in the city shopping. An excellent restaurant where good service combines with low prices. ROOMS $1.00 PER DAY AND UP. The only moderate priced hotel of reputat.on and consequence in 3?±iila.cLelpIaJLa THE . Mode^steamuundry . . OF YORK . . Offers the COLLEGE STUDENTS first-class work at Special Low Prices. E. C. STOUFFER, Local Agt. C. D. SMITH, Prop. COMPILER IMPRINT ON JOB WORK MEANS TA3TT WORK CAREFULLY DONE. MENU CARDS, LETTER HFAOS, WINDOW POSTERS. ENVELOPFS, DANCE CARDS TICKETS, Programs of all kinds. Everything- the College Man wants in Paper and Ink. Specially designed work. Latest Effects in Paper,, done in Colors along lines of College Men's Associations. Catalog and Book work. The Gettysburg Compiler will keep old and new students in touch with, town and college life.

THE « GETTYSBURG JBERGUHY The Literary Journal of Gettysburg College Vol. XII. GETTYSBURG, PA., NOVEMBER, 1903 No. 6 CONTENTS THE EVOLUTION OF OUR NATION'S PRINCIPLES . 174 JOSEPH E. ROWK, '04. ROOSEVELT AND MALTHUS 180 W. W. BARKLEY, '04. "THE RAVIN' " SCHOOLMASTER 1S4 B. A. STROHMEIER, '06. POLITICAL INDIFFERENCE 185 THE ANALYSIS OF A NURSERY RHYME . 188 JAMES G. DILLER, '04. A VISIT TO McKINLEY'S TOMB 191 BRUCE COBAUGH, '05. THE HOUSE WE BUILD i93 EDITORIALS . 196 EXCHANGES 199 174 'J'HE GETTYSBURG MEKCURV. THE EVOLUTION OF OUR NATION'S PRINCI-PLES. JOSEPH E. ROWE, '04. TIME continues to roll on in its eternal course. Nations are only born under the doom of decay. Men rise to heights of greatness, are cut off in the twinkling of an eye, and pass forever from this earthly habitation. But there is one principle whose evolution the vicissitudes of fortune have failed to arrest. It is the development and growth of government. From time immemorial men have lived under some sort o f government; its genesis antedates all history. As far back as the great Aryan migrations there existed established laws, but even these were not the first in the history of the world. Many centuries had passed away since the mighty Nimrod or the queenly Semiramis held sway in Babylon; the Israelites had al-ready grown into a great nation, and the valley of the Nile had become both the "cradle and the tomb" of kings. Even the most primitive and most degraded peoples recog-nize some sort of leadership or control. From the Bushman of Australia, and the Hottentot, down to the American Indian, there is the same idea, though vastly different in degree, of rul-ing and of being ruled. Slowly has the evolution of government progressed, but, as surely as there is a God from whom it flows, no obstacle has impeded its steady advance. It has grown under the law of "the survival of the fittest," and its triumphs are but the re-sults of natural law. The civil ideas which have been evolved from a less complete to a more perfect and more practical sys-tem were as irresistible in their course as decrees of fate. There seems to have been that same great but awful force at work for the development of the ideal nation which, to a great extent, "shapes our ends, rough hew them as we will." When con-ditions favored the established principles, epochs of peace and prosperity ensued; when circumstances were adverse, wars and revolutions necessarily arose to restore the equilibrium. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 175 The path of their triumphal march down through the ages reeks with blood; where they have been opposed desolation reigns. The once glorious empires of the East are only dis-covered in their buried ruins; the pyramids are monuments of the dynasties which built them ; the crumbled statuary and art of Greece are but symbolic of her decay; and the ruins of Pompeii are the only vestiges of glorious Rome. Every at-tempt and apparent success to crush out the idea of further de-velopment in the governmental realm has virtually been a throwing of oil upon the fire glowing in the hearts of patriotic people. The pious Aeneas, exiled by fate, founded a nation greater than the victor of his fatherland. Carthage tried to crush aspiring Rome and only brought about her development. Pilgrims, deprived of liberty and exiled from the Old World, founded a mightier and freer commonwealth in the New. In this governmental evolution there have been two distinctly opposite principles warring against each other—Liberty and Unity. The spirit which has animated the heroes of liberty is active in its plans, uncontrollable in its measures and irresistible in reaching its goal; its doctrine is Radicalism. On the other hand, unity has been developed under the stern but careful plan of deliberation and statesmanship; its doctrine is Conservatism. Liberty is the harder to repress and was first evolved ; unity is the more difficult to maintain and its completion was last. The Goddess of Justice, determining the destiny of nations, holds in her hands a huge balance; on the one side is liberty, on the other unity. An uneven amount of either disturbs the equilibrium in the affairs of a nation; only a complete balanc-ing and blending of both can assure stability. The struggle which has shaken the world for so many centuries arose, first, from an excess of one and, then, of the other; the great beam rose and fell, and in turn the glory of nations grew resplendent or faded away. Every nation has been founded upon the plan of remedying one defect or the other. The people, furious at the remembrance of former injustice, drove Tarquin from the streets of Rome simply because he had been called king, but their freedom soon led to anarchy. Rulers of the Middle 1' 176 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. Ages, fearing such outbreaks, kept the people in virtual servi-tude, and the French Revolution was the inevitable reaction. The momentum of hatred for tyranny had so accumulated that no earthly force could withstand it. The equilibrium of the French nation was disturbed and it did not regain itself until Napoleon arose, who tried to force the great beam to the oppo-site extreme of one-man power. But France was not the only country in the world to groan beneath the horrors of revolution. In England there had been an almost continual contest between the King and Commons. The Magna Charta and the Declaration of Rights were both proclamations of liberty. James I brought about the "blood-less revolution of 1688," and later, George III forced the American Colonies into rebellion. But our forefathers felt the great importance of freedom. They fought with an invincible determination for liberty. For-mer examples of oppressed liberties made them desperate, and they sallied forth to meet the foe with the battle cry, "Give me liberty or give me death !" Thus, the seed, implanted in the heart of man from the be-ginning of the world, blossomed forth into newness of life. It had at last fallen upon good ground, taken deep root, and brought forth the blessings of liberty to all succeeding genera-tions. The United Colonies of America became free and inde-pendent states—the goal of liberty's evolution was reached. But unity was lacking. So long as there was a common foe, the States were as impenetrable as a Macedonian phalanx. But now there was no longer a common cause, and it looked as if there would be many little nations, each trying to main-tain its own place in the great struggle for existence. The States were jealous of one another, and bitter quarrels soon arose. Under the Articles of Confederation, the nation had no head. Congress could indeed pass laws, but could in no way enforce them. Conventions were called, but the States even refused to send representatives. Conditions grew worse and worse; so much so that the historian declares, "Instead of be-ing a united and friendly people, the States were fast growing THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 177 to be thirteen hostile nations, each ready to draw the sword upon its neighbor." Finally, in 1787 a convention was held in Philadelphia, the object of which was to form "a more perfect union." But the difficulties to be surmounted were indeed perplexing. The populous States insisted that representation in Congress should be apportioned according to population; the smaller States were equally emphatic in maintaining that each State, large or small, should have equal power. They finally compromised. There were to be two houses embodied in Congress: the one, whose representatives were to be apportioned according to pop-ulation ; the other, whose delegates were to be two from each State, vested with equal power. Thus, it is a blending of prin-ciples which lies at the foundation of our government. Accordingly, under the new Constitution, our nation entered upon a career of great success and national development. Dur-ing this period the Louisiana Purchase more than doubled our area. The pirates of Tripoli were disposed of with impunity. The war of 1812 proved beyond doubt the great power of American arms, whilst not one battle was lost by us in the war with Mexico. There had come into the heart of every true American a common national pride and devotion to country. So long as the foe was external the States fought together like brothers. But, in the near future, there were times to come when the foe would not be common. From the very foundation of our republic an awful tempest had been gathering its threatening clouds. Eminent men no longer .feared destruction or dismem-berment by any European power, but looked forward with great anxiety at the inevitable causes of internal disorder. Even in Jefferson's time the storm was already so menacing that he said: "In contemplating the future welfare of my country, there are troubles which startle me as a fire-bell in the night." It broke forth in its fury in the year 1861. The South claimed the right to secede. She looked upon the election of Abraham Lincoln as-a great step toward the abolition of slav-ery which, as she thought, meant her ruination. Eleven States f 178 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. seceded and set up a government of their own under the title of "The Confederate States of America." But the integrity of the country had to be maintained. War was declared; not to abolish slavery, but to prevent the disasters of permanent sepa-ration. The first gun was fired from Fort Sumter on April 12th. It is said to have been heard around the world, for it heralded a conflict which concerned not only our nation but the world. Men on both sides were inspired, not only by the prestige of the principles which they upheld, but by the love of home, country and family. The one represented freedom in the ex-treme, the other unity or common welfare. Both realized the vast importance of victory; each knew that defeat meant utter failure. They fought with the desperate valor of a wounded wild hart, which turns once more to make a final and supreme effort against its foe. Four long years of war left the country in desolation and ruin, which before had been the peaceful habitation of ttscbild-ren. For a long time the destiny of our beloved republic hung in the balance. Bull Run raised the fervor of the combatants to a white heat. Antietam favored the non Unionists. But, led on under the heat of passion and by the glory of victory, their "vaulting ambition o'erleaped itself." The Mason and Dixon line was crossed and the cause of secession was fighting against fate. But the valor of her constituents was mighty, and their spirit invincible. The crisis came. Something had to be immediately done or all would be lost. Fifteen thousand men rushed forth on open ground to dislodge the Unionists. Cannon after cannon ploughed through their gallant ranks, but on they came unfaltering. Even the cannon's mouth—the High Water Mark was reached, but their ranks had been mowed down and the cause of secession forever lost. The evolution of the ideal governmental principles was com-pleted, and the stability of our nation proven by test. She had long since shown her shores impregnable to a foreign foe, but now it was proven to the world that America, unlike the na-tions of the past, was not to be rent or overthrown by internal THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 179 disorder. The civil world was at last given a breathing spell, for the combating forces seemed glad to discontinue the con-flict and forget their quarrels. And now there is no longer a North, South, East or West, but all are blended into one in-separable compact—the United States of America. Her principles have spread throughout the world. They have leaped across the Atlantic and modified, if not completely changed, the spirit of the mother country; they have given new life to the sturdy mountaineer of 'Switzerland ; they have brought peace into Italy's sunny climes, and have made Greece long for a second "Golden Age." And it is only a matter of time, of progress, and of civilization until the world will recog-nize the efficiency of America's governmental principles, which are, in the words of her greatest statesman: "Liberty and Union now and forever, one and inseparable!" • Ever judge of men by their professions. For though the bright moment of promising is but a moment, and cannot be prolonged, yet if sincere in its moment's extravagant good-ness, why, trust it, and know the man by it, I say,—-not by his performance; which is half the world's work, interfere as • the world needs must with its accidents and circumstances: the profession was purely the man's own. 1 judge people by what they might be,-—not are, nor will be.—BROWNING. "Sow a thought and you reap an act, Sow an act and you reap a habit, Sow a habit and you reap a character, Sow a character and you reap a destiny." 180 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. ROOSEVELT AND MALTHUS. \V. W. BARKLEY, '04. The attitude which President Roosevelt has recently taken toward 'the increase of population in the United States, apparently challenging the theories of certain political econo-mists, particularly Mr. T. R. Malthus and his followers in Eng-land and America, puts before us a question worthy of our earnest consideration. Is it wise or unwise to advocate a con-tinuous increase in the population of our country ? In order to determine the wisdom of Mr. Roosevelt's position regarding this matter, we must go to our authorities, viz: Mr. Malthus and certain other political economists—to obtain a basis for our decision. The object of Mr. Malthus' investigations (1798-1803) were to find means for the improvement of society and to deliver it from its wretchedness and .poverty. He inquired into "the causes that had impeded the progress of mankind toward hap-piness," and offered a corrective for the same. Mr. Malthus advanced a theory (which is popularly known as the Malthusian Doctrine) in which he tried to prove that society could not hope to provide enough food to sustain all its members and that poverty, therefore, must be the inevitable outcome of a persistenee in increasing population, and that no blame could reasonably be attributed to society for its poverty. The Malthusians hold that population has a tendency to in-crease faster than subsistence, and that under such conditions some people, in the course of time, will not have sufficient food to maintain themselves, and poverty must be the inevitable re-sult, irremediable, unless the race in question adopts some means to prevent the possible increase of population. If the race fails to provide the necessary restriction, nature will step in and provide it for the race. Vice, disease, war, pestilence and famine—all these and more means may be adopted by na-ture to do her work of reducing numbers. In such a sifting process as this nature will make her selection and the fittest must ultimately survive. The above is a brief statement of the Malthusian Doctrine ^ THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. l8l It has been substantially adopted and supported by many mod-ern political economists whose opinions we have consulted. The Malthusians show that the birth-rate among any people, when procreation is allowed to run free and unrestricted, will always be in advance of the death-rate, hence, there will be a continual rise in population. The possibilities of this increase are very large, according to the law of geometrical progression. The probabilities are considerable. The facts of history indi-cate that the birth-rate is almost always in the advance, in a higher or lower degree, in an undisturbed state of society. Population then increases steadily. We said that it increases or has a tendency to increase faster than subsistence. This conclusion is based upon the great law of Diminishing Returns in Agriculture. This law needs no proof or explanation. Walker proves it conclusively in his Economy. Briefly it is this: "There is a limit to the amount of labor and capital which can be advantageously employed or expended upon a given area of land." Subsistence increases according to the law of arithmetical progression in contradistinction to the law of geo-metrical progression, according to which population increases. It is easily seen, therefore, that, as population increases, subsist-ence pet capita decreases. If population be carried beyond the limit of sufficient production lor the maintenance of the whole bod)' of society, poverty will ensue among a people. In a crowded community, such as the above continued in-crease in population will lead to, the pressure will come first upon the man with the large family and will force him to struggle hard against the scarcity of food and comforts; dis-ease and starvation must finally come. We have illustrations of this among barbarians and some modern Oriental nations, such as India and China, where they experience frequent fam-ines. Improvements in the arts of agriculture, domestic man-agement and government may withstand this pressure for a time, but, no matter in what direction, or how great the im-provement may be, population will ultimately, under the above circumstances, reach the point where the products of the soil will not support it adequately. So, the only sure and reason-able remedy for such a condition of scarcity, according to Mai- 182 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. thus, is prevention of reproduction to an extent sufficient to insureamplesubsistence/ifrcapita forall. Malthus wouldemploy rnan's reason and prudence and make it a moral restraint in-stead of reducing numbers by means of vice and misery, which, as we have seen, become inevitable results unless the former method is adopted. Evidently, France has adopted this Mal-thusian theory and practices it. The population of France is decreasing, and there is a growing sufficiency of subsistence and comfort for the whole nation. However, it is a question among many whether France is not doing this at the expense of her moral and physical well-being. It seems to be leading her into gradual degeneration. After all, France is hardly a good illustration of the practicability and good common sense of what Malthus taught regarding prudence and moral restraint as a means of checking the too rapid increase of population. Now returning to the question asked at the start, we may inquire again whether President Roosevelt is right in encour-aging the enlargement of families and the consequent growth of the total population of our country. What reasons can he produce? Has America yet reached the point in her econ-omic development where the Malthusian precaution is needed to check population ? If she has, how can we account for President Roosevelt's attitude ? There are reasons, perhaps, outside of the field of political economy that prompt Mr. Roosevelt to take the position he holds, but, assuming that he accepts the doctrine of the Malthusians, there is, nevertheless, sufficient ground to justify his attitude. He certainly would not advocate recklessness and imprudence in a matter of so great importance to the welfare of his country. In the first place, I do not believe that the United States has yet reached the point of Diminishing Returns in Agricul-ture, taking the country as a whole. That it is rapidly ap-proaching that point is not to be doubted. As it is, however, the prevention under consideration is uncalled for. With our present population, we have hardly reached the limit of our highest economic usefulness and the greatest returns per capita, with our vast areas of farm land under cultivation and still capable of much greater returns by the addition of more la- THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 183 borers. I refer particularly to the broad expanse of arable land in our Great West. Undoubtedly, we have not yet reached the limit where we cannot advantageously add more laborers in agriculture. Surely there is no room for apprehension and fear. What poverty there is now in our country is largely due to shiftlessness, ignorance, laziness and vice. There is still a splendid chance for all who will take advantage of our educa-tional system and then go to work. Mr. Roosevelt is right from a moral standpoint also. The increase of population ought to be encouraged in our country. There are those among the wealthy and educated classes in the United States, holding erroneous ideas about "Social Standing," who deprecate large families and who consciously avoid them. This ought not to be true. It would be a blessing for our country if more children were born to the wealthy and cul-tured and fewer to the poorer classes, the ignorant and vicious. We need more citizens reared in the upper strata of society among our best people and fewer in the lower strata. Mr. Roosevelt is right and has given his country a splendid ex-ample in the honest pride he takes in his own large family. France is wrong. Without doubt she is carrying the Malthu-sian Doctrine to wicked extremes. We need to rid ourselves of the sinful tendencies abroad in France which are wasting her morals and reducing her national strength. We need to exercise prudence and reasonable restraint at all times and shun conscious and wicked checks to the increase of our population. The honor, hope and pride of a mother are her children. This is Mr. Roosevelt's opinion and he would have no father and mother consider them a disgrace, a dishonor or a burden. f» 184 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. "THE RAVIN'" SCHOOLMASTER. B. A. STROHMKIKR, '06. ONCE upon a school-day dreary, As I waited weak and "skeary," 'Waited nervously the verdict from the teacher's judgment seat; While my eyes were nearly sapping, Suddenly there came a tapping As of something loudly rapping, Rapping on my breeches' seat. 'Twas the music of the raw-hide as it mercilessly beat Tunes upon my breeches' seat. How the dust flew out those patches, As I felt the raw-hide's scratches ! Yet I didn't necessarily have to skirmish or to dance. Strange the sound those whacks were making As the Prof, great paiiis was taking To appear to have me aching ; But he didn't have a chance, For the force of all the muscle he could use could not advance Past my armor-plated pants. Suddenly there came a silence, And I stood in grim defiance, While the goggle-eyed Professor squinted at me long and hard. He was tired out and panting. And I thought I heard him chanting Words that told that he was granting I his record sad had marred. Then he started, paused, and said these words which cut me like a sword, "Hand me out that weather-board !" Robbed of all my former po.wer, Like a nation's final hour— Like a Sampson with his hair off—I grew weak and weaker still. Then a bright thought struck me : "Mister, I know that you court my sister, And I'll tell Pa that you kissed her, Hit me even with a quill!" Fire flashed his eyes ; but that was all—he dared not do his will. Glory hallelujah Bill! W THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. I85 POLITICAL INDIFFERENCE. SECOND only to the claims of religion are the claims of country. This does not mean that the Christian should desecrate holy places with political harangue, or that he should become the willing servant of a political boss, but that he should discharge his political duties to free government in a manner befitting a noble, religious life and consistent with the patriotic ideals of our forefathers. The government that maintains liberty of thought, word and deed as a fundamental principle, and recognizes education and Christianity as the only safeguards of public liberty, has a just claim upon every citizen for patriotic vigilance of all political rights. If it is true, as has been said, that "the standard of personal morality in America is higher than in England, that of com-mercial morality probably a little lower, and that of political morality quite distinctly lower," let it not be said that it is a defect in our system of government, or that it is wholly a fault of those who are faithless and incompetent in office, for, here, every citizen, no difference what his race or creed, has equal power with his voice and vote, and can claim no exemption from the just responsibilities for the evils of the body politic. Ours is, in fact as well as in theory, a government of the peo-ple, and its administration is neither better nor worse than the people themselves. It was devised by patriotic men who faith-fully gave it their wisest thought, and so perfectly is its frame-work fashioned that an accidental mistake of the people, or the perfidy of an official, or the enactment of profligate laws are all held in such wholesome check by coordinate powers as to enable the chief executive to restrain or suppress almost every conceivable evil for the welfare of the nation. To achieve the highest results in our system of government, it is necessary that the citizens throw aside the theories and idealities of the philosophers for the practical guidance of the ship of state. But alas! he who is best fitted for governing f» 186 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. men too often loves it least, and he who is least fitted for teach-ing men moral and political truths too often turns his back upon his duty for the sake of more pleasurable occupations of litera-ture, art or science. If the reputable citizen refrains from bearing a just responsi-bility in our political conflicts, and thereby voluntarily surren-ders the safety of his person and things, as well as the good order and well-being-of society, into the hands of those who are least fitted for governing men, turn and place the responsi-bility where it belongs and do not blame the thief and adven-turer, for they are but plying their trade, and rob public rather than private treasure because men guard the one and do not guard the other. How often have we not seen good men swiftly invoking the avenging arm of Justice for an injury done to private property, but who are criminally indifferent to the public wrongs done by those who, in the enactment and exe-cution of the laws, directly affect their happiness and pros-perity? Do not excuse the indifference of the good citizen by saying that politics have become polluted. Such a declaration would be a confession of guilt, and he who utters it becomes his own accuser. If it be true that the politics of a state or municipality bave become degraded, who is to blame for it ? Surely not the country or ward politician, for they are a small minority in every community and in every party. If they have gained control of the political organizations, and thereby have secured their election to offices of high trust, it must have been with either the passive or the active assent of the good citizens who hold the actual control of the government in their own hands. Does not the official, who shames his constituents with disgraceful acts, owe his election to the silent assent or positive support of those who claim to be patriotic and intelli-gent citizens, but who lay aside their political duties because of some private interest ? If incompetent appointments have been made through the influence of some political boss, it is due to the fact that honest and good citizens have not protested with a manliness that would point to a sure and swift retribution for such wrongs and, at the same time, have not demanded a per- THE GETTVSBURG MERCURY. 187 manent and practical civil service whereby all dishonor, dis-honesty and incompetency in office would end. Can our presi-dents and governors be wholly responsible for the low standard of our officials? No; for if good men concede primary polit-ical control to those who wield it for sdftsh ends, and thereby make the appointing powers depend tit i-ir both counsel and support upon the worst political eU iiient, u ho is to blame when public sentiment is outraged by the selection of unworthy men to important offices ? The fruits are but the natural, logical results of good citizens refusing to accept their political re-sponsibilities. There is not a blot in our body politic to-day that the better element of the people cannot remove whenever they resolve to do so. There is not a defect nor a deformity in our political administration that they cannot correct in the legitimate way pointed out by our free institutions. If our country is to reach the ideal pictured for it by the framers of the Constitution, it must have the active support of those upon whom the burden of government should rest. It must have behind it more men like Nathan Hale, who was sorry that he had only one life to give his country. It must have the influence and best thought of every American scholar and not the scheme of the demagogue or the trickery of the partisan politician. Three millions of men lie buried beneath American battle-fields to give us that which we seem to prize so lightly : Politi-cal Freedom. But "that these dead shall not have died in vain," that the Utopia of Thomas More's imagination may become a realization, and "that this Republic, under the guidance of A1T mighty God, will live and prosper through the ages," we must bear our burdens patiently, accept our responsibilities courage-ously, and discharge our duties intelligently and with fidelity. "NASHY." 188 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. H THE ANALYSIS OF A NURSERY RHYME. JAMES G. DIJ.LER, '04. OVV often, in the care-free hours of childhood, have we repeated that alliterative verse of linen-book poetry,. with its halting meter and quaint simplicity of language: "Hickory, dickerv, dock. The mouse ran up the clock. The clock struck one, The mouse ran clown. Hickory, rlickery. dock.'' And yet, how many of us have ever discovered in this bit of seemingly senseless doggerel the hidden story of an appar-ently triffling incident, with all its philosophical suggestiveness and condensed moralizing upon the great truths of life? Lest the casual reader should condemn this writing as non-sensical at the very outset, let us begin at once to interpret the jingling and apparently meaningless and disconnected lines. Have you not always considered the first line, "hickory, dick-ery, dock," as merely a mechanical contrivance of words to-rhyme with the word "clock" in the line immediately follow-ing? Doubtless you have, and have regarded it as a useless corruption of our language made to subserve a trivial end. Hut stop to think, and to your surprise you realize that that very mechanical meter, with its abrupt ending, is a most accurate adaptation of words to imitate the ticking of a clock. This ticking of the tireless time-piece attracted the attention of a diminutive rodent, and gives us material for a bit of mor-alizing upon the next line, "the mouse ran up the clock."' Frightened, no doubt, at first, he overcomes his trepidation and hesitatingly approaches in the direction of the monotonous sound. Alas ! how many of us yield, as did the little mouse, to misdirected curiosity and flee, as he did, affrighted from that which was not meant for us to know! Incidentally, we call at-tention here to another concealed bit of information. The clock must have been one of the old-fashioned variety, with long, pendant weights exposed to the open air, else our little THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 189 friend could not have reached it in the course of his investiga-tions. The next line is of special value in our analysis, inasmuch as it gives us the time of this historic occurrence, the narration of which has doubtless entertained the younger generation since the days of the horn-book A, B, C. It may have been either broad-daylight in the early afternoon when, we are told, "the clock struck one;" or it may have been the hour immediately succeeding that— "—very witching time of night. When churchyards yawn." Hut our insight has already become sufficiently keen by our experience of the first two lines, so that we readily conclude it must have been one o'clock at night when his mouseship pur-sued his nocturnal meanderings. Had it been one o'clock in the afternoon, the bustle of the kitchen in clearing away the remnants of the mid-day meal, together with the presence and wide-awake activity of the dog or cat, would have entirely pre-cluded the possibility of the mouse performing his perpendicu-lar tight-rope-walk on the rope or chain of the hanging clock weights. And, now, the last line of pure English in this classic bit of nursery lore gives, perhaps,a larger scope of meaning than any of those preceding. Having accomplished his perilous ascent, and explored the intricate labyrinth of wheels, pinions and oscillating pendulum, he hesitates whether to retrace his steps or to delve still far-ther into the unexplored mysteries of this queer contrivance. But suddenly, close to his velvety ear, there breaks upon the silence of the night a loud, jarring sound, half stunning him by its proximity, and throwing him into a state, of quivering terror as he crouches behind the farthest clock wheel and lis-tens to the ebbing, throbbing waves of sound vibrating with the detonation of the stroke through the metallic fabric of the works. Then, the innate instinct of self-preservation asserting itself, he makes a dash for safety, half sliding, half tumbling down 190 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. the clock-weights' chain and scurries away to his dark abode. Does he not typify all too well that over-ambitious spirit which strives to attain impossible ends, and to climb to heights where the atmosphere is too rare when the summit is finally reached, and the baffled, disappointed and heart-sick seeker is glad to return to his allotted place in the universe, just as the frightened mouse besought his subterranean retreat ? The last line, a repetition of the first, is intended to show how the clock went on ticking, in its accustomed manner, after the mouse had fled. Even so the great world goes on. Man is born—a diminutive mouse in the vast mansion of creation— he explores for a brief time, as the mouse did, mysteries too great for his feeble comprehension, and then returns to that place whence he came. And now, dear reader, have you not formed a better opinion of this doggerel rhyme which haunted your childish memory; and have you not conceived for it that appreciation which it so richly deserves ? 1 "A soul to fear its maker and to feel The finer things of life in their full measure ; A soul to hear God in the twilight calm And see him in the varied hues of dawn. A heart to hold some loves that closer lie Than aught of earth comparable ; a heart That spells its charity in words of deeds, A mind to commonsense, and those high acts That, welded, shape great Labor in its glory ; An arm to wield and mould all that these three Design, contrive—this constitutes a man.-' - ** # THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 191 ■*• A VISIT TO McKINLEYS TOMB. BRUCE COBAUGH, '05. AT the end of a short avenue which leads from the main wes-tern street of Canton, Ohio, lies the beautiful West-lawn Cemetery. To the many visitors it is of special interest as being the burial place of our late President McKinley, and it is for the purpose of visiting his tomb that we pass through the large gate at the entrance on a Sunday afternoon in July. On entering we are greeted by a pleasant surprise as we note the natural beauty of the place, for it is a veritable park. We cannot help but contrast it with other burial grounds we have known, many of whose chief characteristics are the long rows of cold marble and granite with their intermittent spaces laid out with mathematical precision, as if old Mother Earth were jealous of giving one man more than an alotted resting place in her spacious bosom. Nor do we experience that cold un-comfortable feeling that often passes over one on entering a cemetery. On the contrary, as we stroll along the winding avenue which leads through the cemetery, we pause as our attention is attracted to some new beauty of the place. To our left rises a ridge covered with trees. Here the stately oaks are sighing softly in the summer breeze. From their branches comes the songs of their feathered tenants in joyful melody as if inviting all to rejoice. We pause in the shade of a large oak and listen while nature speaks with an eloquence that can never be surpassed. Descending below, to the right, is a slope whose gently un-dulating surface is covered with green. It is bounded below by a brook whose clear waters sparkle in the sunlight The bank is covered with willows which dip their overshadowing branches into the stream. Here and there along its course are ponds in which swim the little sunfish among the floating lilies. We follow a short path from the main avenue and this brings us to the object of our visit. On the eastern slope of the wooded ridge is the exterior of the ** 192 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. large vault. In the .stone front with its solid arch and massive pillars, hangs the heavy iron gate that guards the entrance. It gives one an impression of stability and its general appearance is plain. We can approach no nearer than a distance of about fifty feet for it is guarded day and night by armed sentries who are pacing to and fro about the tomb. As we gaze on the walls which enclose his mortal remains, our thoughts turn back on McKinley's life. Thoughts of his public career come to our mind. We think of how he rose step by step from one position to a higher by proving himself worthy of promotion. His ability as a statesman, his election to the office of chief ruler of our nation and the integrity with which he served his country are among our thoughts. He seems to us a true American in the highest sense of the word. No less than these, however, is his great example of charac-ter. Again, we think of his death, his patience in suffering and the spirit of forgiveness which he showed for the man who gave him a mortal wound. And his calm resignation in the dying hour along with his trust in God make him a worthy example of a true Christian spirit. The sun is sinking behind the treetops and we have time to stay no longer. We return with thoughts of our visit that will ever be pleasant in our memory. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 193 THE HOUSE WE BUILD. IN the land of the East there once lived a king who gave to twelve of his subjects a sum of money with the command that each should build him a house. Each man took the allot-ted sum and set out to obey the command. Eleven bought the cheapest materials in the market and constructed their buildings on the simplest plan, so that they might save some money for their own use and complete their tasks; but the twelfth secured the most durable materials he could find and with painstaking care built his house as nearly perfect as pos-sible. When the buildings were finished, the king issued a de-cree that each subject, for the rest of his life, should live in the house which he himself had constructed. Imagine the chagrin of the eleven when they found that they must dwell in such unstable structures. Repairs soon became necessary as part after part gave way, and in a short time the buildings, too weak to stand the wear of time, collapsed. But the twelfth subject dwelt in his substantial home until the end of his days. Although this is only a legend, there is hidden vVithin it a truth which is applicable to mankind. Each individual must rear a building for himself—that unseen and uncomprehensible being or spirit—to dwell in. Perhaps we are carrying this on unconsciously, nevertheless, each day has its effect upon these structures. Either we are fashioning pillars and supports which will make our house a strong and beautiful one—fit to contain the noblest aims and purposes—or we are, by living lives of in-difference and ease, rearing such a structure as one finds on a neglected farm, which can contain nothing securely and which every adverse wind threatens to destroy. And there is no ex-change of property, no rental, sale or giving away. Each man must keep his own building and live in it as he himself has built it. Our acts, our thoughts, our feelings, our resolves, our aims and the influences which we receive from associates, books and surroundings are as really the material for our buildings as the t 194 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. lumber and nails for the carpenter. And just as essential for us is a plan. Each one should have a definite ideal as he takes up his work of art. For such an ideal, observe nature in her perfection as she manifests herself in the snowflake with its per-fect arrangement and whiteness, the globe of dew in its round-edness and purity, the new blown rose in its fresh beauty, the magnificent forests in their strength and grandeur,and the lofty mountains in their towering might. And the human body in itself, in its harmonious structure and workings, is a model for perfect symmetry and order. One of our writers speaks of it thus:— Not in the world of light alone, Where God hath built his blazing throne, Nor yet alone in earth below, With belted seas that come and go And endless isles of sunlit green, Is all thy maker's glory seen. Look in upon thy wondrous frame, Eternal wisdom still the same. One should carefully consider both the exterior and interior of the building which he erects. The exterior, while not most important, should receive some care. Have a good strong frame secured by temperate living and proper exercise, an erect form. A clear interior structure, with its furnishings, is import-ant, not only because it is the character, or at least what makes the character of the individual, but because it affects the exterior and makes it what it is to a very great extent. Our houses are more or less transparent, and one without can tell the nature of the man who lives within. On the outside we post the signs which describe the resident. Ruskin says on this subject: "There is no virtue, the exercise of which, even momentarily, will not impress a new fairness upon the features, neither on them only, but on the whole body." In the furnishings let a good strong individuality form the centre piece and let it secure for itself an appropriate setting; let it secure those qualities which make us noble and images of the divine. Let earnestness, enthusiasm, tenderness, a love for THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 195 beauty and harmony, observation, unselfishness and determina-tion be essentials in the equipments. If a man wished to build a perfect house, he would give his attention to every detail and try to make it complete. So in rearing our house, let us not polish and adorn one part to the neglect of another. The young girl who strives only for grace in a ball room and popularity in the social world, and the young man who develops only his muscles in athletics, are building very deficient houses. Symmetry and proportion are two qualities necessary to a beautiful building. In this work of building, we may often improve our own structures by helping our companions as they toil. While we are supporting a pillar or repairing a broken part for them, what is our surprise to find a new beauty in our own, while rough edges have become beautifully rounded curves. How delightful it is to live in a country that is adorned with beautiful and well constructed buildings ! In us lies the ability to adorn or mar the world by the structures which we rear in it. In addition to their improving our surroundings, they serve as incentives to others in perfecting their own buildings. The poet Holmes gives us an inspiration in the words: "Build ye more stately mansions, O my Soul, While the swift seasons roll. Leave thy low vaulted past, Let each new temple nobler than the last Shut thee from Heaven with a dome more vast, Till thou at length art free, Leaving thine outgrown shell, By life's unresting sea." "ORLANDO." THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY Entered at the Postoffi.ee at Gettysburg as second-class matter VOL. XII GETTYSBURG, PA., OCTOBER, 1903 No. 5 Editor-in-chief LYMAN A. GUSS, '04 Exchange Editor M. ROY HAMSHER, '04 Business Manager F. GARMAN MASTERS, '04 Asst. Business Manager A. TY. DTT.LENBECK, '05 Associate Editors M. ADA MCLINN, '04 BRUCE P. COBADGH, '05 C. EDWIN BUTLER, '05 Advisory Board PROF. J. A. HIMES, L-ITT. D. PROF. G. D. STAHI.EY, M.D. PROF. J. W. RICHARD, D.D. Published each month, from October to June inclusive, by the joint literary societies of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg) College. Subscription price, one dollar a year in advance; single copies 15 cents. Notice to discontinue sending the MERCURY to any address must be accompanied by all arrearages. Students, Professors and Alumni are cordially invited to contribute. All subscriptions and business matter should be addressed to the Busi-ness Manager. Articles for publication should be addressed to the Editor. Address THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY, GETTYSBURG, PA. EDITORIALS. What a great thing it is ! What a commendable TRUTH trait of character! What a power in everything! And yet how often debased, how often contaminated, how often distorted! It is our purpose to briefly set forth herein a few facts bear-ing directly on the welfare of this college; to reconstruct cer-tain distortions of the truth, which have been circulated by yel-low journalism to our detriment; and to assure our friends and supporters that Gettysburg is a college of gentlemen and not of "hoodlooms," as certain press manipulators, with clouded vision, would make us. During the past two months, there have been evil and ma-licious reports scattered broadcast, within no small radius of THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. I97 our college community, in which the boys of Gettysburg have been deprecated as a gang of rowdies, rogues and general roustabouts ; have been designated in all sorts of terms, border-ing on the villiainous; have had epithets, becoming anything but gentlemen heaped upon them in profusion; and have been characterized as an aggregation of degenerates. If these things were true, ours it would be to "grin and bear," but no individual, without a word of protest, much less a body of loyal college students, can see such maledictions afloat and such slander indulged in with impunity. We labor with righteous indignation under the knowledge that the good name of our college, undefiled for decades, is being vitiated without provocation. Therefore, we refute with vigor these monstrous prevarications. To the friends of Gettysburg we would say that the reports referred to above are not true, are utter falsehoods, and are not warranted. Instead of all kinds of devilment, which these vile, disgraceful recitals portray, such a state of affairs is non-exist-ent almost in totality. Class spirit, college spirit—all kinds of spirit, we are loath to confess, is at a lower ebb than it has been for a number of years, and, consequently, the real and only ex-cess, conducted by the student body, is thereby removed; for, be it known, that there by no means exists an organized quota of students in the college whose aim and object is the destruc-tion of property, and the debasement of their fellow-students. Such personalities Gettysburg does not support. To be sure, occasionally, a sudden outburst of college en-thusiasm does impel prudence a little beyond the limit, but never, within the time during which we have been flailed with the confounded misstatements of a debauched press, has it been carried to an end approaching that which these enlarged, in-flated, falsified and perverse specimens of a journal of the "yellow" type would have you believe. To the source of this polluted literature we consider it be-neath our dignity to directly refer. It suffices to state the facts connected with its origin and promulgation. These we offer to you as explanatory of these disseminated articles so liberally 198 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. savored with prevarication. We trust they may serve to right your estimate of our college; to reinstate you in your former attitude of good will toward us, if you have fallen therefrom by the great injustice done, and being done, us without cause, real or sham; to lead you "to believe that we are not "hood-looms," but men, such as Gettysburg has merited and owned in the past, and yet finds perpetuated in our persons. We ask you to discount these reports, which appear at our expense, with a reduction of one-half or three-fourths, which they will readily bear, and then the residue may, perhaps, be taken at par. These remarks may seem somewhat eulogistic, but we are given to self-laudation only in case of stringent necessity. This is one such case. What we want you to believe, alumni and friends, is that Gettysburg is a college, not composed of men of ideal character,but equally on a level basis with our contemporary institutions. We are not tainted and debased in character, in a class of our own, but whole and sound as any. The Pennypacker press muzzle was met with derision and denunciation when it became law. It was fairly paralyzed with a storm of opposition. And yet there is quality in that piece of legislation. While its operation, for the most part, is out of harmony with American principle, it could be made to operate with admirable results in specific cases. It is not our intention to justify the "muzzier," but would it not justify itself in our instance ? It would purge e\^il from the local press, perchance. Shall we try it? DIALECT 1'ne fed °f writing stories in various dialects, STORIES. particularly that of the Negro, the Irishman, the Westerner or Backwoodsman, is becoming very contagious. These stories, while they are comical and interesting and serve the purpose intended perhaps well enough, may become very detrimental to our language and especially so if they continue to multiply. The colloquial form of the English language is now ungram- THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 199 matical enough, as every one will acknowledge, but what it might become if these corruptions are acquired, I should fear to state. For example the colloquy of the Westerner put into the speech of our fairly educated men of today would be unbecom-ing and distasteful, to say nothing of its effect. While this illustration may be an absurd one, yet it is not far in advance of the result of dialect writing. If we are given this species of literature we are going to acquire more and more of this kind of language. Another example only too realistic is that of the college student whose corrupt terms and phrases are understood only by himself and those associated with him. How often when speaking to an outside man does he find himself uttering these corruptions, which are, it may be, Hebrew to his hearer. This is an example of how easily we may acquire the lore of the different dialects if they are thrust upon us for our constant amusement or edification. Our tongues would be confused far more than the tongues of historic Babel. To the student of English, dialect stories, when they exceed the limit in number and quality, should be especially repulsive and, by heeding them with little or no regard, the student will be justified, the'offender punished, and the dignity of our English preserved. EXCHANGES. The most delightful bit of optimism, for it does seem to savor of the optimist, that we have noticed in our last month's reading, has been penned with regard to the college publica-tions. Hear some of the soul-cheering words of the Georgetown College Journal's ex-man, who has been so highly esteemed as to be re-elected to office: "They bring to us a message of the thousands of college men and women of this country who are giving their time to the study of letters and are becoming writ-ers of good English. We do most emphatically believe in col-lege journalism; and it is our firm conviction that out of the 200 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. humble efforts that the college editor is to-day making will come the great American novel, and the great American epic, and the great American essay; in short, will come the great American literature, a golden age, that will outshine all that have gone before it." May college journalism result in a de-velopment of our literature equal to the expectations of our sanguine friend. There is much in the college magazine that does not warrant such expectations. But there are some col-lege men who, although their literary efforts are now making but a feeble light, are, nevertheless, blazing a pathway for grander and nobler things in literature. The Carthage Collegia?i has this interesting preface to its last number, which is intended, no doubt, for critics who become cynical in their observations:— "Kind reader, ere you turn away From viewing this small booklet's pages, And judge, perchance, correctly too, That they who wrote it are not sages, Think well, before you place it on the shelf, You might have written it yourself. Forget the weak, the poor, and of the rest, Though it be poor, remember thou the best." If there were made a classification of the college magazines into those seemingly making a special effort to present college news, with one or more literary articles to fill up the space, and those devoted principally to literary work, we would, no doubt, place such magazines as Tlie Monthly Maroon and University of Virginia Magazine in the second class. They belong to the part of college journalism that will result in the "Great Ameri-can Literature." The Ursinus Weekly has just come out with its first Literary Supplement of the year. The essay on "Seventeenth Century Lyric Poetry" shows a knowledge of the spirit of that time. The writer compares the songs of the "light-hearted" Robert Herrick with the "deep, sonorous" notes of Tennyson in an in-teresting manner. The exchange editor seems to have a good word for every one.

From nuclear weapons to terrorism, the United States and Iran clash on nearly even front. Yet, it has not always been this way. As recently as 1979, Norwich University, the oldest Senior Military College in the United States, played host to nearly eighty Iranian Midshipmen. Although Norwich's Iranian program was short-lived, it was one of the most successful cultural exchanges in the university's history. In the face of tremendous adversity, Norwich overcame all obstacles and successfully academically, militarily, and socially integrated the Iranian Midshipmen into the Corps of Cadets and the greater Norwich community. ; Winner of the 2022 Friends of the Kreitzberg Library Award for Outstanding Research in the University Archives category, honorable mention. ; Tribulation, Triumph, and Tragedy: Norwich University's Iranian Program (1976-1979) Joseph C. Chatterton History 249- Historical Methods Dr. Bennett 3, December 2021 Word Count: 3159 1 January 29, 2002, just five months after the most devastating terrorist attacks in American history, in his first State of the Union since the beginning of War on Terror President George W. Bush branded Iran as a member of the so-called Axis of Evil along with the likes of North Korea and Saddam Hussian's Iraq. In one line in particular, President Bush decried the Islamic Republic and made it clear that in his role as Commander and Chief, he regarded Iran as one of America's greatest geopolitical foes stating, "Iran aggressively pursues these weapons and exports terror, while an unelected few repress the Iranian people's hope for freedom."1 President Bush's remarks are unsurprising. After all, as recently as May of 2018, prominent Iranian politicians congregated in the hallowed halls of their Parliament to burn American flags and chant "Death to America."2 From nuclear weapons to terrorism, the United States and Iran clash on nearly even front. Yet, it has not always been this way. As recently as 1979, Norwich University, the oldest Senior Military College in the United States, played host to nearly eighty Iranian Midshipmen. Although Norwich's Iranian program was short-lived, it was one of the most successful cultural exchanges in the university's history. In the face of tremendous adversity, Norwich overcame all obstacles and successfully academically, militarily, and socially integrated the Iranian Midshipmen into the Corps of Cadets and the greater Norwich community. In the fifty years since the birth of Iran's Islamic Republic, scholars, historians, and government officials have devoted the vast majority of their analysis on the dramatic collapse of the Shah's regime, the ensuing hostage crisis, and the profound implications it had on American foreign policy. While the significance of this is undeniable, far less research has been done into 1 George W Bush, "2002 State of the Union ," National Archives and Records Administration (National Archives and Records Administration, January 29, 2002), https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/stateoftheunion/2002/. 2 "Iranian Politicians Set Fire to US Flag in Parliament," BBC News (BBC), accessed November 4, 2021, https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-middle-east-44055625. 2 academic links which bound the two nations, and the effects that the regime's collapse had on the vast number of Iranian students studying in the United States. Norwich's Iranian program was not the first of its kind, however it was the most successful. Similar programs were attempted at other military academies such as at The Virginia Military Institute (VMI) and the Citadel. However, both of these programs were plagued by difficulties. In 1976 Lieutenant Colonel Paul LaFond, the Deputy Commandant of Norwich's Corps of Cadets, visited VMI to observe VMI's Iranian program so that Norwich might draw lessons for the establishment of its own program. Following the trip Colonel LaFond compiled a detailed report. In the report, it becomes quickly evident that the VMI program consistently struggled to successfully integrate the Iranian students. Major flash point included the serving of Pork products during chow time and their "more relaxed idea of the honor code,"3 LaFond ends this memorandum with a section dedicated "Staff, Faculty and Cadre reaction to the Iranian Program." In this section it becomes evident that many prominent leaders of VMI had less than positive things to say about the program. One Cadet advisor remarked, "The Iranians have put a great strain on our system. The school has been weakened." he continued on dramatically stating, "If we had large numbers for very long it could destroy our system."4 Probably the gravest signal that VMI's Iran program was less than successful are the somber closing remarks of the schools highest ranking officials, the Commandant of Cadets: " You will have a severe problem. Are you ready to cope and is it worth it? There will be many problems with your own cadets."5 The first half of this quote is simple enough to analyze. Of course, there will be many general challenges with introducing a large contingent of foreign midshipmen into a military environment such as 3 Paul LaFond. Memorandum to Loring Hart, 7 May 1976. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. 4 Paul LaFond, Memorandum to Loring Hart. 5 Paul LaFond, Memorandum to Loring Hart. 3 VMI, yet it is the second part of this quote that really requires some unpacking. What exactly was the Commandant's intent when he stated, "There will be many problems with your own cadets."6 As mentioned previously VMI's Iranian program was notorious for its struggles to integrate the Iranian Midshipmen into their Corps of Cadets, one aspect of this often overlooked is the initial hostility between American Cadets and the Iranian Midshipmen. Earlier in the memorandum VMI's Commandant is quoted to have stated in subsection 5, Discipline and Control, "At first, the 'Old Cadets' harassed the Iranians, and were hard on them. A period of turbulence resulted," he goes on to articulate his point stating that he "cautions, to watch our martinets that they don't cause trouble and states that this type of cadet is particularly frustrated when working with Iranians."7 Although the wording in certain sections of this memorandum can be somewhat confusing for a twenty-first century perspective to comprehend, the general theme is clear, VMI's Iranian program was plagued with trials and tribulations, many of which remained unresolved at the time of its publication. In spite of this evident adversity, Norwich remained resolved to push forward and succeed where VMI failed. With this in mind one must question why Senior Military Colleges such as Norwich placed such an emphasis on creating relations with Iran? For thousands of years Iran has been a strategic regional power. Throughout antiquity the Persian Empire was one of the world's premier powers, and this prominence continued into the Middle Ages. In the 7th century CE, the nation played a vital role in helping to facilitate the spread of Islam from the Arabian peninsula to Central Asia.8 As time progressed the nation's strategic value only grew. During the age of European Imperialism, Iran held a vital role as a 6 Paul LaFond, Memorandum to Loring Hart. 7 Paul LaFond, Memorandum to Loring Hart. 8 Kathryn Babayan, "The Safavid Synthesis: From Qizilbash Islam to Imamite Shi'ism." Iranian Studies 27, no. 1/4 (1994): 135–61. 4 buffer between the British lion and the Russian bear.9 By 1879, Iran was a colony within the British Empire in all but name. The Iranian government was forced to grant monopolies on everything from "the construction of railways, canals and irrigation system,"10 to control of the nation's banking system.11 Yet the nation's greatest strategic value laid below its surface. In 1908, as oil was beginning to gradually replace coal as the key to industrialization, foreign interest in the country skyrocketed with the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company discovery of black gold beneath the waters of the Persian Gulf.12 Iran entered the Cold War in a very interesting position. Many of its institutions, and much wealth continued to be controlled by foreigners in London and by this point Washington. Understandably this angered many Iranians and many turned to socialist politicians like Egypt's Gamal Abdel Nassar, and in Iran's case Mohammad Mosaddegh. In the general election of 1951 Mosaddegh campaigned on the simple message that Iran must free itself from the British imperial yoke. He would win the Prime Ministership in a landslide, and upon assuming the highest office in the nation he set out to make good on his campaign promise. Symbolically on May Day in 1951, Mosaddegh announced the nationalization of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company. In October of that year he doubled down, expelling all British subjects from the nation. Yet the Western powers did not take kindly to being forcefully evicted from Iran, especially taking into consideration the ongoing Cold War, the nation's strategic geography, and its valuable resources. Thus, the British Intelligence service (MI6) in conjunction with the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), began planning for regime change. In August of 1953 Operation Ajax (alternatively known as Operation Boot) successfully ousted the democratically 9 Chris Paine and Erica Schoenberger, "Iranian Nationalism and the Great Powers: 1872-1954." MERIP Reports, no. 37 (1975): 3–28. 10 Paine, "Iranian Nationalism and the Great Powers. 1975. 11 Paine, "Iranian Nationalism and the Great Powers. 1975. 12 Paine, "Iranian Nationalism and the Great Powers. 1975. 5 elected Mosaddegh, and bestowed the on nation's monarch or Shah, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi near absolute power.13 The Shah's Iran played a vital role in the United States' middle eastern policy. As described in his journal article, American–Iranian Alliances: International Education, Modernization, and Human Rights during the Pahlavi Era, Dr. Mathew K. Shannon "The Shah's Iran provided to successive American administrations, with a toe hold in the Persian Gulf region … a bulwark against Soviet expansion… and guaranteed the westward flow of Iranian oil."14 With this in context it is understandable that the United States wished to do everything within its power to strengthen its strategic relationship with Iran. While on one hand this means providing Iran with military funds and equipment, it also means flexing the United States' soft power. The Oxford dictionary defines "soft power" as, "a way of dealing with other countries that involves using economic and cultural influence to persuade them to do things, rather than military power."15 In the 1970s the United States had many of the top universities in the world, as well as one of the most robust and modern educational systems. Thus, it seems only logical that the US utilizes its education system, as a bastion of strength. Dr. Joseph Nye, a well-established political scientist and the former Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs is quoted for stating, "The ideas and values that America exports in the minds of more than half a million foreign students who study every year in American universities and return to their home countries, tend to reach elites in power."16 Throughout the Cold War the United States would 13 Moyara de Moraes Ruehsen. "Operation 'Ajax' Revisited: Iran, 1953." Middle Eastern Studies 29, no. 3 (1993): 467–86. 14 Matthew K. Shannon, "American–Iranian Alliances: International Education, Modernization, and Human Rights during the Pahlavi Era" Diplomatic History 39, no. 4, (2015) 661. 15 "Soft Power,"Definition, pictures, pronunciation and usage notes, Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary. 16 Carol Atkinson, "Does Soft Power Matter? A Comparative Analysis of Student Exchange Programs 1980–2006" Foreign Policy Analysis 6 no. 1, (310) 2. 6 faithfully follow Dr. Nye's advice to further develop its relationship with the Shah's Iran. The previously mentioned Dr. Mathew Shannon notes the rapid and substantial growth of Iranian students in the United States stating, "The population grew from a mere five hundred in 1950, to upwards of fifty thousand in the late 1970, making them the largest national group of students in the United States."17 The significance of this cannot be understated. Upon graduating from American Universities these students returned to their homeland and played an active role in building the new modern Iran. It was on their shoulders that the "bulwark against Soviet expansion rested." It was the alumni of American universities that ran Iran's state oil company and made the plans for modernizing Iranian industry and infrastructure. These alumni would hold high positions in the nation's civil service, would serve as elected members of Iran's Majlis (Parliament), and crucial to Norwich as officers in the Iranian Military. While Iran benefited from this influx of a highly educated, professional class, the United States was able to stock the Iranian government with those sympathetic to the West. Norwich University first began accepting Iranian Midshipmen in the fall of 1976. President Loring Hart and his administration put a great deal of emphasis on naturalizing the Iranian Midshipmen to the University from the onset. Captain M. Ali Foroughizadeh an Iranian Imperial Navy officer stationed in Arlington, Virginia, would serve as the main point of contact between the University and the Iranian government, for much of the program's existence. The correspondences between Captain Foroughizadeh and President Hart provide unique insight into its early development. The process of integrating Iranian students into the Corps of Cadets and the greater University community did not begin in August with the traditional start of the school year, but rather in June of 1976. As detailed by William F. Beatty, the Executive Assistant to the 17 Shannon, American-Iranian Alliances, 662. 7 President, "Currently fifty-two Iranian midshipmen are undergoing an intensive English, Mathematics and Physical education study program at Norwich in preparation for their enrollment next September as members of the class of 1980."18 Clearly even from the onset of its program Norwich was taking the proactive? steps to fully integrate the Midshipmen firmly into the Corps. Although at times it can become easy to forget, at the end of day Norwich is not merely a remote outpost of the US military but is a university with a long and storied tradition of academic excellence. As such, the importance of academic integration for the Universities Iran students cannot be understated. One of the key takeaways from VMI's tumultuous Iranian program was that failure to integrate the Iranian students in the classroom could have disastrous consequences. Thus, Norwich's faculty and administration made every effort to thoroughly integrate the Iranian students academically into the University. Associate professor Dr. Hollis D. McBride of the Engineering Department described the climate in the classroom stating "Conflicts between Irani and Americans in class have been few." Dr. Hollis does briefly pause his praise to note that the Iranian students seemed more inclined to help each other than their fellow American students, and does advise that having fewer Iranians per class would "reduce their dependence on each other."19 Yet in spite of these challenges Dr. McBride makes it abundantly clear he believes that the presence of the Iranian midshipmen had a profound and positive impact on the education of all students of all nationalities. McBride's praise for the program goes as far as to state, "Never have I seen a class of students work as hard as both Irani and Americans." He goes on to state "I am convinced that the example of the Irani working 18 William F Beatty, Letter to CDR Abghari, 4 November 1976. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. 19 Hollis D McBride, Memorandum to Dr. Hart and Dr. Chevalier, 15 July 1977. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. 8 overcomes the more usual image of upperclassmen playing to encourage this premier academic effort I have witnessed in my ten years at Norwich."20 Great strides were also taken to properly integrate the Iranian midshipmen socially into the Norwich community. In one of his first memorandums regarding the arrival of Midshipmen, he encourages members of the staff to "host one or two Iranian students for an evening meal to socialize."21 The University also made a significant effort to integrate Iranian and American students within the barracks. The previously mentioned engineering professor, Dr. McBride makes a strong case for integration stating, "An American roommate is a plus, but even more important is an American roommate of the same major."22 The logic behind this is self-evident. Forcing American and Iranian students to live together in close quarters means they are far more likely to develop close cross-cultural bonds, which in turn are "beneficial to both the American and the Iranian."23 Having an American roommate also forced the Iranian Midshipmen to use English on a daily basis and forces them to not to rely solely on their fellow Iranians. Sports and extracurricular activities also played a role in assimilating the midshipmen into the campus community. Many of the Iranian midshipmen played soccer both competitively and recreationally for the school. President Hart remarks upon the Midshipmen in a memorandum he sent to Iranian Admiral Farzaneh regarding the filming of a promotional video stating, "we might arrange a game for the Iranian Cadets on the soccer team." 24 While it is easy to overlook such trivial events as American and Iranian athletes competing together, surely the connections and 20 Hollis McBride, Memorandum to Dr. Hart and Dr. Chevalier. 21 Loring E Hart , Memorandum to Distribution Lists I and II, 15 June 1976. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. 22 Hollis McBride, Memorandum to Dr. Hart and Dr. Chevalier. 23 Hollis McBride, Memorandum to Dr. Hart and Dr. Chevalier. 24 Hart, Loring E, Memorandum to Vadm D. Farzaneh, 11 December 1978. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. 9 comradery built on the playing field can overcome linguistic and cultural differences and help the Iranian students merge into the student body. Despite these successes, a shadow lurked over the entirety of the program. One with a limited knowledge of world history, might wonder why the program was so short lived if it was clearly so successful The simple answer: revolution. Despite the guise of modernization beneath Iran's surface, discontent was brewing against the Shah and his authoritarian regime. Chief among the dissenters' grievances were not only the brutal human rights violations committed by the secret police (SAVAK), but the perception of American imperialism, and backlash for the increasingly secular nature of Iranian society. By 1978, demonstrations against the Imperial government occurred across all the nation's major cities with riots targeting symbols of the West such as banks, cinemas, and restaurants.25 The nation's Shiite clergy also played a major role in the overthrow of the Imperial regime. With his health failing and the regime crumbling, the Shah and his family were forced to flee in exile in Egypt. Simultaneously the Ayatollah Khomeini, a leader of the Shiite clergy, and an outspoken critic of the government returned from exile just in time for revolutionary forces to capture Tehran.26 Meanwhile back in Northfield, President Hart's administration was doing everything within its power to look after the best interests of the Iranian Midshipmen. Initially it appeared that the situation was under control. As late as November 9th, 1979, the Institute of International Education wrote "Foreign students who are in this country to pursue an and who are lawfully engaged in that pursuit, properly enjoy the protection of the laws which allow them to enter the 25 Said Amir Arjomand, "The Causes and Significance of the Iranian Revolution." State, Culture, and Society 1, no. 3 (1985): 41–66. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20006816. 26 Said Amir, Arjomand,"The Causes and Significance of the Iranian Revolution." 10 country and permit them to remain."27 Five days later University Vice President James Galloway echoed similar sentiments, writing that the state department had advised him that "State and Defense were discussing Iranian students, but were oriented towards those Iranians holding student visas, not members of an organized program. Current guidance was the status quo, and to maintain a low profile."28 Unfortunately this good news would be short lived. November 4, 1979 saw the storming of the American embassy in Tehran and the capture of 52 American hostages, President Carter issued an executive order calling for all the review of all educational visas for Iranian students in the United States.29 The optimism that the program could survive evaporated Almost overnight. Less than a month later Vice President James Galloway was forced to send out a new memo with a far different tone. While the November addition spoke of maintaining the status quo, the updated version stated, "On the basis of official order from the Iranian government or the U.S government, the Norwich Naval Contingent is directed to terminate their school and depart or prepare to depart."30 Throughout the winter of 1980 the campus held its breath bracing for the inevitable. On April 7, this finally occurred when "The State Department severed diplomatic relations with Iran and ordered the deportation of "employees" and "officials of Iran by Friday April 11 at midnight."31 The next day on April 8, a glimmer of false hope set in, with 27 Hughes Jenkins, "Educational Exchange Agencies Urge Care in Coping with Iranian Students in U.S, 9 November 1979. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. 28 James V Galloway, Memorandum For Record, 14 November 1979. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. 29 Will Tiague, Hostages of the Crisis: Iranian Students in Arkansas, 1979-1981. The Arkansas Quarterly 77, no. 2 (2018): 113-130. 30 Harry A Buckley, Contingency Plan for the Iranian Crisis, 4 December 1979. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. 31 Philip R Marsilius, Sequence of Events, 7-14 April 1980. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. 11 the general feeling being that "the Iranian Cadets would be classified as students rather than as officials or employees, and would therefore be permitted to finish the semester."32 However, the next day such hopes would be shattered when the State department reversed its decision and labeled the Midshipmen as Officials of Iran. Two days later on April 10, President Hart briefed the Corps on the unfolding situation. In a testament to the successes of the program when Iranian Midshipmen " c/CPT Kazem Yahyapour bid farewell to the American students on behalf of the Iranians students, he received a standing ovation from the Corps. Faculty, and staff."33 On April 12, 1980 the Iranian program would officially die with the departure of 80 Iranian students and officials. The last communication upon touchdown in Tehran was simple and sober, "We received and are warm and ok."34 The Iranian program was over. Since that infamous date in 1980 the relation between the United States and the Islamic Republic of Iran have only grown worse. Today it would be unimaginable for Midshipmen from Iran to study at an American military college such as Norwich University. Yet only fifty years ago between 1976 and 1979 over 80 Iranian students were fully integrated, academically, socially, and militarily into the Norwich community. Although the program ended in tragedy, in a world where military cooperation continues to grow increasingly important, the story of success remains relevant and worth remembering. 32 Philip R Marsilius, Sequence of Events. 33Philip R Marsilius, Sequence of Events. 34 Philip R Marsilius, Sequence of Events. 12 Bibliography Primary Sources Beatty, William F. Letter to CDR Abghari, 4 November 1976. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. Galloway, James V. Memorandum For Record, 14 November 1979. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. Hart, Loring E. Memorandum to Distribution Lists I and II, 15 June 1976. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. Hart, Loring E. Memorandum to Vadm D. Farzaneh, 11 December 1978. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. LaFond, Paul. Memorandum to Loring Hart, 7 May 1976. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. Marsilius, Philip R, Sequence of Events, 7-14 April 1980. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. McBride, Hollis D. Memorandum to Dr. Hart and Dr. Chevalier, 15 July 1977. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. Jenkins, Hughes. "Educational Exchange Agencies Urge Care in Coping with Iranian Students in U.S, 9 November 1979. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. Secondary Sources Arjomand, Said Amir. "The Causes and Significance of the Iranian Revolution." State, Culture, and Society 1, no. 3 (1985): 41–66. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20006816. This article provided valuable information about the events of Iran's Islamic Revolution. It discusses the initial protests and the peoples major grievances against the secret police, the west, and the increasing secular nature of society. Babayan, Kathryn. "The Safavid Synthesis: From Qizilbash Islam to Imamite Shi'ism." Iranian Studies 27, no. 1/4 (1994): 135–61. 13 This article provides information on the history of Islam in Iran. Initially it was used to help inllistrate how historically Iran has been very stratiegic, but it also serves to introduce Islam, which would prove to be a very important factor in the 1979 Revolution. Carol Atkinson, "Does Soft Power Matter? A Comparative Analysis of Student Exchange Programs 1980–2006" Foreign Policy Analysis 6 no. 1, (310) 2. This article helps to illustrate the significance of soft power, particularly the use of student exchange programs to project American power across the globe. Clearly this is very relevant to Norwich's Iranian exchange program, and helps to explain its significance and one of its purposes. Bush, George W. "2002 State of the Union ," National Archives and Records Administration (National Archives and Records Administration, January 29, 2002), https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/stateoftheunion/2002/. Used in the introduction to help establish the very hostile relationship that that United States currently has with the Islam Republic of Iran. "Iranian Politicians Set Fire to US Flag in Parliament," BBC News (BBC), accessed November 4, 2021, https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-middle-east-44055625 Used in the introduction to help establish the very hostile relationship that that United States currently has with the Islam Republic of Iran. Shannon, Matthew K. "American–Iranian Alliances: International Education, Modernization, and Human Rights during the Pahlavi Era" Diplomatic History 39, no. 4, (2015) 661. Provides valuable background information into the nature of the Iranian state, and the Iranian education system during the Shah's reign. Key to Norwich, this article mentions exchange programs particularly those with the United States. Moyara de Moraes, Ruehsen. "Operation 'Ajax' Revisited: Iran, 1953." Middle Eastern Studies 29, no. 3 (1993): 467–86. Discussed the Anglo-American coup which overthrew Iran's democratically elected government, and handed the Shah absolute power. Played a vital role in creating the Iranian government which Norwich cooperated with, it is also key to understand the underlying factors behind the 1979 Revolution. Paine, Chris, and Erica Schoenberger. "Iranian Nationalism and the Great Powers: 1872-1954." MERIP Reports, no. 37 (1975): 3–28. Helps to establish the early history of Iran, and its history of Anglo-American domination. 14 "Soft Power,"Definition, pictures, pronunciation and usage notes, Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary. Provides a definition for soft power, to help illustrate its significance to the United States particularly in a strategic ally such as the Shah's Iran. Tiague, Will. Hostages of the Crisis: Iranian Students in Arkansas, 1979-1981. The Arkansas Quarterly 77, no. 2 (2018): 113-130. Provides context for the Iranian hostage crisis, President Carter's reaction, and the effects that it had on the vast number of Iranian students studying in the United States. Yarbrough, Tinsley E. Federal Alienage Doctrine and the Iranian Student Litigation. Human Rights Quarterly 4, no. 2 (1982): 243–60. Discusses the legal issues facing Iranian students facing deportation in the United States following the Islamic Revolution.

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Budagumpa-1microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 363 ha in Koppaltaluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 83 per cent is covered by soils, 13 per cent by rock out crops, four per cent by water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 17 soil series and 21 soil phases (management units) and 6 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  About 14per cent of the area is having sandy at the surface, 16 per cent loamy soils and 53 per cent has clayey soils at the surface.  About 44per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 11 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) lands and 73 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 39 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 44 per cent is moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 0.75%) in 2 per cent area of the soils.  Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in 29per cent and high (>57 kg/ha) in 54 per cent area of the soils.  Available potassium islow (337 kg/ha) in 39 per cent of the soils.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in 48per cent of the area.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in 81 of the area and sufficient in 3 per cent of the area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area.  The land suitability for 28 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 63(17) 137(37) Pomegranate 62(17) 145(40) Maize 25(7) 174(48) Guava 25(7) 135(37) Bajra 107(30) 110(30) Jackfruit 62(17) 98(27) Redgram 62(17) 130(36) Jamun 13(3) 186(51) Bengal gram 38(11) 165(45) Musambi 100(28) 107(30) Groundnut 12(3) 171(47) Lime 100 (28) 107(30) Sunflower 100(28) 129 (35) Cashew 10(3) 161(44) Cotton 88(24) 112(31) Custard apple 184(51) 77(21) Chilli 107(30) 45 (12) Amla 145(40) 115(32) Tomato 107(30) 45(12) Tamarind 13(3) 90(25) Drumstick 64(18) 156(43) Marigold 25(7) 174(48) Mulberry 64(18) 187(51) Chrysanthemum 25(7) 174(48) Mango 13(3) 51(14) Jasmine 25(7) 127(35) Sapota 62(17) 98(27) Crossandra 25(7) 130(36) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 6identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment and drainage line treatment palnshave been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE STUDY  The data indicated that 35 farmers were sampled in Budagumpa-1 micro watershed among them 8 (22.86%) were marginal farmers, 7 (20 %) were small farmers, 7 (20 %) were semi medium farmers, 6 (17.14%) were medium farmers, 2(5.71%) were large farmers and 5 (14.29%) landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The data indicated that there were 157 population households were there in the studied micro watershed. Among them 89 (56.69%) men and 68 (43.31 %) were women. The average family size of landless was 5, marginal, small and semi medium farmers were 7 and medium and large farmers were 6. On an average the family size was 4.  The data indicated that 20 (12.74%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 76 (48.41 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 47 (29.94 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 14 (8.92%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that the Budagumpa-1had 42.04 per cent illiterates, 1.27 per cent functional literates, 22.93 per cent of them had primary school education, 8.92 per cent of them had middle school, 12.74 per cent them had high school education, 5.10 per cent of them had PUC education and 6.37 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicated that, 77.14 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 8.57 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labour and 14.29 per cent of the household heads were general labour.  The results indicated that agriculture was the major occupation for 40.76 per cent of the household members, 23.57 per cent were agricultural labourers, 11.46 per cent were general labours and 0.64 per cent were in private sector, were in trade and business, housewives and children's and 21.02 per cent of them were students. In case of landless farmers 70.83 per cent of them were general labours and 29.17 per cent of them were students.  In case of marginal farmers 42.86 per cent of them were doing agriculture, 17.86 per cent of them were agriculture labour, 3.57 per cent of them were general labour and 35.71 per cent of them were students. In small farmers 61.29 per cent of them were doing agriculture, 16.13 per cent of them were agriculture labour, 3.23 per cent of them were in private service and 3.23 per cent of them were doing trade& business and housewives. In case of semi medium farmers 50 per cent of them were agriculturist, 34.62 per cent of them were agriculture labour and 11.54 per cent of them were students. In medium farmers 37.84 per cent of them were agriculturist, 35.14 per cent of them were agricultural labour and 21.62 per cent of them were students. Similarly in case of large farmers 54.55 per cent of them were agriculturist and 45.45 per cent of them were agricultural labour. 2  The results showed that 0.64 per cent of them participated in cooperative bank and 99.36 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions. Landless, marginal, semi medium, medium and large farmers were found to have no participation in any local institutions. Small farmers were found to participate in one or the other local institutions.  The results indicated that 65.71 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 25.71 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 8.57 per cent of the households possess Pacca house.  The results showed that, 74.29 per cent of the households possess TV, 48.57 per cent of the households possess mixer/grinder, 17.14 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 31.43 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 100 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results showed that the average value of television was Rs. 8269, mixer/grinder was Rs. 1676, bicycle was Rs.2166, motor cycle was Rs.29583 and mobile phone was Rs.2303.  The result showed that about 17.14 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 28.57 per cent of them possess plough, 8.57 per cent of the households possess power tiller, 11.43 per cent of the households possess tractor, 17.14 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 91.43 per cent of the households possess weeder, 5.71 43 per cent of the households possess harvester, 2.86 per cent of the households possess thresher and 5.71 per cent of the households possess chaff cutter.  The results showed that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.18333; the average value of plough was Rs. 1250, the average value of power tiller was Rs. 25000, the average value of tractor was Rs. 475000, the average value of sprayer was Rs. 10666, the average value of weeder was Rs. 80, the average value of harvester was Rs.35000, the average value of thresher was Rs. 37000 and the average value of chaff cutter was Rs. 3000.  The results indicated that, 31.43 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 17.14 per cent of the households possess local cow, 5.71 per cent of the households possess buffalo and 2.86 per cent of the households possess sheep.  The data indicated that in case of marginal farmers, 25 per cent of the households possess local cow and 12.50 per cent of the households possess local cow, buffalo and sheep respectively. In case of small farmers, 14.29 per cent of households possess bullock and 28.57 per cent possess local cow. In case of semi medium farmers, 28.57 per cent of the households possess bullock and 14.29 per cent of the households possess local cow and buffalo. 66.67 medium farmers possess bullock and 16.67 farmers possess local cow and 100 per cent of the large farmers possess bullock and 50 per cent of them possess local cow. 3  The results indicated that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2, average own labour (women) available was 1.61, average hired labour (men) available was 8.80 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.38.  The data showed that in case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 1.25, average own labour (women) was also 1.11, average hired labour (men) was 7.67 and average hired labour (women) available was 7. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 1.71, average own labour (women) was 1.71, average hired labour (men) was 12.14 and average hired labour (women) available was 9.71. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 2, average own labour (women) was 1.43, average hired labour (men) was 10 and average hired labour (women) available was 8.33. In medium farmers average own labour men available was 3.17, average own labour (women) was 2.17, average hired labour (men) was 6.67 and average hired labour (women) available was 5. In case of large farmers average own labour men available was 2.50, average own labour (women) was 2.50, average hired labour (men) was 5 and average hired labour (women) available was 5.  The results indicated that, 88.57 per cent of the household opined equally that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicated that, households of the Budagumpa-1 micro watershed possess 25.14 ha (43.40%) of dry land and 32.78 ha (56.60 %) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 5.43 ha (91.85%) of dry land 0.48 ha (8.15%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 7.89 ha (89.65 %) of dry land and 0.89 ha (10.14 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 4.05 ha (35.39 %) of dry land and 7.39 ha (64.61%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 7.77 ha (41.56%) of dry land and 10.93 ha (58.44%) irrigated land. Large farmers possess 13.10 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicated that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 345927.24 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 353,684.73. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 552,160.94 for dry land and Rs. 1,660,504.12 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 316,666.67 for dry land Rs. 898,181.80 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 247,000 for dry land and Rs. 541,073.38 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 283,020.83 for dry land and Rs. 384,222.22 for irrigated land. In case of large farmers the average land value was Rs. 137,391.84 for irrigated land.  The results indicated that, there were 14 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicated that, there were 1functioning and 1 defunctioning open wells in the micro watershed. 4  The results indicated that, bore well was the major irrigation source for 40 per cent of the farmers and open well was source of irrigation for 2.86 per cent.  The results indicated that on an average the depth of the bore well was 35.71 meters.  The results indicated that, in case of marginal farmers there was 0.96 per cent of irrigated land, in case of small farmers there was 0.89 ha of irrigated land, in case of semi medium farmers there was 9.31 ha of irrigated land, medium farmers were having 11.34 ha of irrigated land and large farmers were having 1.62 ha of irrigated land. On an average there were 24.12 ha of irrigated land.  The results indicated that, farmers have grown groundnut (11.58ha), ladies figure (1.29 ha), maize (26.93 ha), mango (2.43 ha), onion (0.40 ha), paddy (0.85 ha), sorghum (1.21 ha), tomato (0.81 ha) in kharif season. Also grown groundnut (2.43 ha) and maize (0.48 ha) in Rabi season. Marginal farmers have grown groundnut, ladies figure, maize and paddy. Small farmers have grown groundnut, maize, paddy and sorghum. Semi medium farmers have grown groundnut, maize and tomato. Medium farmers have grown groundnut, maize, mango, onion and tomato. Large farmers have grown groundnut, ladies figure and maize.  The results indicated that, the cropping intensity in Budagumpa-1 micro watershed was found to be 72.72 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 98.73 per cent, in small farmers it was 90.79, in semi medium farmers it was 90.48, in medium farmers it was 89.13 per cent and in large farmers it was 32.56 per cent.  The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent of the households have bank account and 77.14 per cent of the households have savings. 100 percent of marginal, small and large farmers possess both bank account savings respectively. In case of semi medium farmers, 100 per cent of possess bank account and 85.71 per cent farmer's savings. In Medium farmers, 100 per cent of farmers possess bank account and 66.67 per cent have savings respectively.  The results indicated that, 75 per cent of marginal, 71.43 per cent of small, 28.57 per cent of semi medium, 16.67 per cent of medium farmers and 50 per cent of large farmers have borrowed credit from different sources.  The results indicated that, 6.67 per cent have availed loan in cooperative Bank, 26.67 per cent have availed loan from friends/relatives, 53.33 per cent have availed loan in Grameena bank and 13.33 per cent have availed loan from money lender.  The results indicated that, marginal, small, semi medium and medium have availed Rs.50833.33, Rs. 109000, Rs. 316000 and Rs, 310000 respectively. Overall average credit amount availed by households in the micro watershed is 119,466.67.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan for agriculture production.  The results indicated that, 81.82 per cent of the household's barrowed private credit for agriculture production and 18.18 per cent of the household's barrowed private credit for social functions like marriage. 5  Results indicated that 100 per cent of households were unpaid their institutional loan.  Results indicated that 54.55 per cent of the households have partially paid their loan and 45.45 per cent have unpaid their private credit.  The results indicated that 25 per cent of the households were opined that helped to perform timely agricultural operations and 75 per cent of the households were opined that higher rate of interest.  The results indicated that, 9.09 per cent of the households were opined that easy accessibility of credit, 54.55 per cent of the households were opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfill the requirement and 18.18 per cent of the households were opined that helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 20131.66. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 22249.38. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 2117.73. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.11.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 52091.06. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 69130.38. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 17039.32. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.33.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 79623.59. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 67722.91. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. -11900.69. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.85.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 23029.06. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 22625.29. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. -403.77. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.98.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for tomato was Rs. 65128.50. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 49400. The net income from tomato cultivation was Rs. -15728.50. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.76.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for mango was Rs. 38242.52. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 24700. The net income from mango cultivation was Rs. -13542.52. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.65.  The results indicated that, 28.57 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 25.71 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The table indicated that, in landless farmers, the average income from wage was Rs. 106000. In marginal farmers the average income from wage was Rs. 28,750 and agriculture was Rs. 81,118.75. In small farmers the average income from business was Rs. 25,000, wage was Rs. 18,571.43, agriculture was Rs. 68,921.43 and dairy farm was Rs. 3,500. In semi medium farmers the average income from service/salary was Rs. 8,571.43, wage was Rs. 9,285.71 and agriculture was Rs. 72,142.86. In medium farmers the average income from wage was Rs. 10,833.33, agriculture was 6 Rs. 67,500, and dairy farm was Rs. 333.33. In case of large farmers the average income from wage was Rs. 10,000, agriculture was Rs. 110,000 and dairy farm was Rs. 1,000.  The results indicated that, in landless farmers, the average expenditure from wage was Rs. 23000, in marginal farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs.5750 and agriculture was Rs.40875. In case of small farmers the average expenditure from business was Rs. 115,000, wage was Rs. 6,600, agriculture was Rs. 24,571.43 and dairy farm was Rs. 15,000. In case of semi medium farmers the average expenditure from service/salary was Rs.20000, wage was Rs. 1,600 and agriculture was Rs. 29,285.71. In case of medium farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs. 4,000, agriculture was Rs. 28,000 and dairy farm was Rs. 500. In large farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs.500, agriculture was Rs.55000 and dairy farm was Rs.500.  The results indicated that, sampled households have grown 34 coconut and 131 mango trees in their field and also planted 2 coconut trees in their back yard.  The results indicated that, households have planted 2 teak, 76 neem and 5 tarmind trees in their field and also planted 1 neem tree in their back yard.  The results indicate that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 5,200.14 for land development, Rs. 2,314.43 in irrigation facility, Rs.2714.29 for improved crop production and Rs.971.43 for improved livestock management.  Marginal households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 2500 for land development, Rs. 750 for irrigation facility, Rs.1375 for improved crop production and Rs.875 for improved livestock management. Small farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 2857.14 for land development, Rs. 1142.86 in irrigation facility, Rs.1714.29 for improved crop production and Rs.428.57 for improved livestock management. Semi medium farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 7515 for land development, Rs. 4715 in irrigation facility, Rs.4428.57 for improved crop production and Rs.1142.86 for improved livestock management. Medium farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 11666.67 for land development, Rs. 4666.67 for irrigation facility, Rs.5166.67 for improved crop production and Rs.1833.33 for improved livestock management. Large farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 9000 for land development, Rs. 3000 for irrigation facility, Rs.5000 for improved crop production and Rs.2500 for improved livestock management.  The results indicated that, for land development, 2.86 per cent of the farmers were depend on government subsidy, 40 per cent were depend on loan from the bank and 2.86 per cent of the households were depend on soft loan. 2.86 per cent of the households were dependent on government subsidy; own funds and soft loan for land development for irrigation facility respectively and 28.57 per cent were dependent on loan from the bank for irrigation facility. Similarly for improved crop production, 7 31.43 per cent of the households were dependent on loan from the bank, 8.57 per cent were dependent on their own funds and 2.86 per cent of the households were dependent on soft loan. For improved livestock management 17.14 per cent of the households were dependent on loan from bank, 8.57 per cent were dependent on own funds and 2.86 per cent were dependent on soft loan.  The results indicated that, Bajra, ladies finger, maize, paddy, sorghum and tomato crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Groundnut and mango were sold to the extent of 90.99 per cent and 66.67 per cent respectively. Average price obtained by bajra was Rs.1300/q, groundnut was Rs.3531.82/q, ladies finger was Rs.1250/q, maize was Rs.1145/q, mango was Rs.2000/q, paddy was Rs.1450/q, sorghum was Rs.2100/q and tomato was Rs.1000/q.  The results indicated that, 40 percent of the households have sold their produce to local/village merchant, 42.85 percent of the households sold their produce in regulated markets and 2.85 percent of the households sold their produce in cooperative marketing society.  The results indicated that 17.14 per cent of the households have used cart as a mode of transport, 57.14 per cent of them have used tractor and 11.43 per cent have used truck as a mode of transport.  The results indicated that, 37.14 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems i.e. 25 percent of marginal farmers, 28.57 per cent of small farmers, 57.14 per cent of semi medium farmers, 66.67 percent of medium farmers and 50 per cent of the large farmers.  The results indicated that, 82.86 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing including 100 per cent of marginal farmers, small farmers, semi medium farmers and large farmers and 83.33 per cent of the medium farmers respectively.  The results indicated that, 14.29 per cent of the households have adopted field bunding which includes 25 per cent of marginal, 28.57 per cent of small farmers and 14.29 per cent of semi medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households who adopted field bunding opined that bunds required full replacement.  The results indicated that 14.29 per cent of soil conservation structure is constructed by government.  The results indicated that, 97.14 percent used fire wood as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the source of drinking water for 57.14 per cent, 25.71 per cent of them were using bore well and 14.29 per cents of the households were using lake/tank for drinking water.  The results indicated that, electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, 54.29 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 100 per cent of landless, 12.50 per cent of marginal, 100 per cent of small, 14.29 8 per cent of semi medium, 16.67 per cent of medium and 100 per cent of large farmers had sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 97.14 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 28.57 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 20 per cent of the landless, 25 percent of the marginal, 14.29 per cent of the small, 42.86 per cent of the semi medium, 33.33 percent of the medium farmers and 50 per cent of the large farmers.  The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, fruits , milk, egg and meat were adequate for 100 per cent, 97.14 per cent, 5.71 per cent, 17.14 per cent, 25.71 per cent, 82.86 per cent, 85.71 per cent and 77.14 per cent respectively.  The results indicated that, oilseed; vegetables, fruits, milk, egg and meat were inadequate for 91.43 per cent, 80 per cent, 68.57 per cent, 11.43 per cent, 11.43 per cent and 17.14 per cent respectively.  The results indicated that milk were market surplus for 2.86 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, Lower fertility status of the soil and wild animal menace on farm field was experienced by 82.86 per cent of the households, frequent incidence of pest and diseases was experienced by 37.14 per cent of the farmers, inadequacy of irrigation water was experienced by 31.43 per cent of the households, high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals was experienced and high rate of interest on credit was experienced by 40 per cent of the farmers, low price for the agricultural commodities was experienced by 71.43 per cent of the farmers, lack of marketing facilities in the area was experienced 80 per cent of the households, inadequate of extension services experienced by 71.43 per cent of the households, lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market was experienced by 74.29 per cent of the households and less rainfall was experienced by 2.86 per cent of the farmers. ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Food, water, and shelter, as fundamental components of human existence are no less critical in an aviation unit than the number of enemies shot down, as a combat force can be made or broken over necessities. During World War II, Russian pilots returned to bases where food and housing were not to be taken for granted, and free time was dictated by forces largely outside their control. The overall living conditions of Russian pilots during the war were varied, unpredictable, and improvised. ; Winner of the 2020 Friends of the Kreitzberg Library Award for Outstanding Research in the Junior Arts/Humanities category. ; Borscht, Barracks, and Bears: How Russian Pilots Lived in WWII Sarah Clark HI 355: WW2 Colloquium Phase 3 Word Count: 3,307 December 6, 2019 Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 1 Introduction What were the living conditions of Russian pilots in WWII? Food, water, and shelter, as fundamental components of human existence are no less critical in an aviation unit than the number of enemies shot down, as a combat force can be made or broken over necessities. During World War II, Russian pilots returned to bases where food and housing were not to be taken for granted, and free time was dictated by forces largely outside their control. The overall living conditions of Russian pilots during the war were varied, unpredictable, and improvised. When the war began, pilots unused to wartime conditions had to adapt quickly to their new conditions. One pilot recalled: the sun was baking hot on the street. I walked slowly towards the airfield and came up to the dispersal area. It was like a disturbed anthill. They were repairing the old shelters. Here and there they were digging new ones. They assigned the headquarters dug-out for the use of the staff. Fyodorov and Godunov decided to use an enormous plywood container in which, at one time, an aircraft had arrived from the factory in parts…We had supper –field rations, as if we were at the front—and spent the night in the dug-out. Tired after the day's work and even more so after the previous sleepless night, everyone soon dropped off. Of course, after comfortable quarters, snow-white sheets and a soft bed, it is not cosy to sleep on a plank bed; but aircrew get used to anything.1 Food Sources Throughout the war, sources of food varied, but the three most common were rations, villagers, and American Lend-Lease food. Rations were the primary source of food for Russian pilots. The military had its own rationing system, separate from and prioritized above the civilian system.2 At first, most foods were produced and distributed by state associated farms and collectives. Throughout the war, more and more initiative was given to peasants to make food production a private enterprise to increase production and reduce the burden on state-owned 1 Kaberov, Swastika in the Gunsight, 5. 2 Ganson, "Food Supply," 78. Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 2 sources.3 Typical rations for the Russian armed forces consisted of a simple breakfast of porridge known as kasha, a type of soup called borscht for lunch, and bread with pickles or cucumbers for dinner, and for aviators 100 grams of vodka after combat missions.4 In general, variety and items such as meat, fat, and fresh fruits and vegetables were hard to come by. Throughout the war, Russians both were allocated and received fewer daily calories than the soldiers of several other countries. In early 1941, Russian infantrymen were allocated 2,954 calories a day, which was increased to 3,450 in September.5 Members of active flying units were supposed to receive 4,712.6 Compared to other Allied nations, this basic allowance was low. For instance, the United States allocated 4,748 calories for front-line soldiers, and Britain allocated 5,300 for soldiers fighting in cold weather.7 Despite official instructions, it was common for Russians to receive less than their daily allotted calories, placing them even farther below their Allied comrades. Pilots overcame the lack of food and added variety by trading with nearby villagers if based near or in a village. There are multiple accounts of pilots and technicians going into towns to exchange unused items such as underwear or more common items such as "tobacco, cigarettes, bread, and sugar for milk, sour cream, eggs, and butter and sometimes meat."8 Exchanges could be a one-time or reoccurring transaction. For instance, while in Romania, one squadron member paid a Romanian for a daily supply of ten eggs.9 However, making deals with the locals was not always favored by senior officers, as squadron members were arrested and 3 Moskoff, "The First Priority," 126; Ganson, "Food Supply," 75-76. 4 Collingham, "Fighting on Empty," 319. 5 Collingham, "Fighting on Empty." 319. 6 Moskoff, "The First Priority," 127. 7 Collingham, "Out of Depression," 434; Collingham, "Fighting on Empty," 319. 8 Noggle, A Dance with Death, 145, 186. 9 Mariinskiy, Airacobra, 142. Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 3 imprisoned in some units.10 Yet, the prevalence of such transactions illustrates the desperation for sufficient and adequate food. Pilots not only traded with villagers and peasants, but they also took advantage of their surroundings. They scavenged through the remains of old villages, especially on the way towards Berlin in 1944 and 1945.11 One of the most common items searched for was alcohol. For instance, one fighter pilot, heading towards Berlin, recalled that "in the deserted workshops of the sugar mill the omnipresent procurement officers…found tanks of spirits."12 In other locations, where natural resources such as rivers were more abundant, pilots occasionally resorted to fishing to provide fresh meat in desperate times, when the food supplied in the mess hall was either meager or nonexistent.13 Another way variety was increased was through the introduction of American Lend- Lease items, especially in 1943 and after. For instance, dairy items from America like dried eggs and milk powder, hard to come by in Russia, supplemented protein and fat intake, and packaged meats such as Spam were a welcome respite from dried fish.14 To show this one pilot reported that "American food, it was a feast—canned meat, dried eggs, canned milk."15 While American food was only a tiny sliver of what the air forces ate during the war, it certainly provided a respite from the standard fare. 10 Noggle, A Dance with Death, 145. 11 I Remember, "Airmen: Ivan Konovalov," https://iremember.ru/en/memoirs/airmen/ivan-konovalov/ [accessed 14 October 2019]. 12 Kramarenko, Combat over the Eastern Front, 77-78. 13 Timofeyeva-Yegorova, Red Sky Black Death, 114. 14 Collingham, "Fighting on Empty," 340; I Remember, "Airmen: Kolyadin Victor Ivanovich," https://iremember.ru/en/memoirs/airmen/ kolyadin-victor-ivanovich/ [accessed 14 October 2019]. 15 Pennington, Wings, Women, and War, 119. Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 4 Factors that Affected Food Squadron location, when correlated with timeframe, was one of the most significant factors affecting food availability and type, including geographic location, distance relative to frontlines, and proximity to inhabited villages. Geographic location was significant because Russia is a massive country, and front lines stretched for hundreds of miles. Food supplies were inadequate to begin with, and the distribution system was incomplete and inefficient. These issues were only compounded by the rapidly advancing German forces during Operation Barbarossa.16 Not every unit received equal amounts of food, and food reserves were not in place, especially at the beginning, resulting in troops at the front and rear being shorted.17 To show the variation, one fighter pilot, who spent some time near the front lines at Smolensk, wrote "I'm still amazed that—whether advancing or retreating—we were always well supplied with food."18 Conversely, other pilots reported periodic food shortages lasting several days near front lines.19 Therefore food availability varied greatly from one unit to the next. Distance from the front impacted food supply because it affected the ability of food to reach airfields. At the beginning of the war, food shortages were common in contested areas, such as the North Caucasus and Ukraine.20 Plus, reserves were either too far away or not built up enough to sustain prolonged shortages.21 During German advances supplies were not always able to be delivered, causing aircrews to survive on what meager items they had stockpiled.22 Other 16 Moskoff, "The First Priority," 113. 17 Moskoff, "The First Priority," 115. 18 Drabkin, Barbarossa, 85. 19 Noggle, A Dance with Death, 186. 20 Pennington, Wings, Women, and War, 79. 21 Moskoff, "The First Priority," 115. 22 Noggle, A Dance with Death, 186; Pennington, Wings, Women, and War, 79. Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 5 times, aircrews were forced to pick up supplies with their aircraft because the ground vehicles were unable to reach their airfields.23 The type of action an air unit was supporting, such as a retreat or an advance, also affected their food supply. When a regiment formally moved to a new airfield in preparation for an operation, and if time allowed, the airfield would be prepped by a service battalion consisting of combat support and maintenance personnel, who stocked up supplies and prepared the housing and airfield facilities for the arrival of the unit.24 Thorough preparation resulted in efficiency and ease of movement. However, when movement to a new airfield was either hastily planned or unplanned as a result of an unexpected retreat, there was no preparation, resulting in the opposite effect: no supplies. For instance, while retreating in 1942, one pilot wrote that upon reaching the assigned base they "found nothing there—no staff, no mess hall, no fuel" because the ground support had been unable to reach the base in time to prepare it.25 However, the unit in that scenario ended up being fed by a woman from a local village, illustrating the last essential component of location: proximity to an inhabited area.26 Airfields were frequently built near villages. Consequently, instead of official housing, pilots would be billeted with the town residents. Occasionally villagers had items unavailable to military members, such as fresh vegetables from their gardens or dairy products, such as milk. 27 One last factor to consider in analyzing food supply is unit type: bombers versus fighters. Food for both types of units was dreary and monotonous with occasional highlights of canned 23 Noggle, A Dance with Death, 67. 24 Bessette, "Soviet Military Transportation Aviation," 196. 25 Timofeyeva-Yegorova, Red Sky Black Death, 108. 26 Timofeyeva-Yegorova, Red Sky Black Death, 108. 27 Timofeyeva-Yegorova, Red Sky Black Death, 85, 176. Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 6 American food, items gained from the locals, or the rationed chocolate and Coca-Cola.28 For instance, in 1942, one bomber pilot reported eating brown bread, a lot of cereal, and in the fall-potatoes, while another bomber pilot reported eating a breakfast of gruel, bread, butter, and tea the following year.29 Fighter pilots reported similar types of food including soup, tea, and bread.30 Overall, food was more affected by location, type of action, and timeframe than type of unit because units across all aircraft types experienced times of relative abundance and shortage, based on locational and situational factors. Housing Housing was also based on location and situation. The spectrum ranged from sleeping in and under aircraft using tarps and covers as blankets to large houses in nearby villages, and later even villas. Pilots were usually billeted separately from the enlisted technicians. Commonly, the technicians were kept closer to the aircraft in dugouts, huts, or trenches, so that they were quickly accessible and ready for action, while it was more common for pilots to live outside the airfield. However, there were times when pilots and technicians lived together, such as one tail gunner who lived in the same local home as her pilot.31 Housing Situations One of the main differences in airfield accommodations was the age of the airfield. New airfields were usually less developed because they were formed during war when a base was needed during a rapid advance or unplanned retreat. Hasty quarters usually consisted of dugouts built into the ground, sometimes made by female workers from nearby cities, such as 28 I Remember, "Airmen: Kolyadin Victor Ivanovich," https://iremember.ru/en/memoirs/airmen/ kolyadin-victor-ivanovich/ [accessed 14 October 2019]. 29 I Remember. "Airmen: Kolyadin Victor Ivanovich," https://iremember.ru/en/memoirs/airmen/ kolyadin-victor-ivanovich/ [accessed 14 October 2019]; I Remember, "Airmen: Ivan Konovalov," https://iremember.ru /en/memoirs/airmen/ivankonovalov/ [accessed 14 October 2019]. 30 Kramarenko, Combat over the Eastern Front, 78. 31 Timofeyeva-Yegorova, Red Sky Black Death, 176. Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 7 Leningrad.32 Pilots also lived in trenches or around the aircraft until more permanent quarters could be made.33 Again, there were exceptions. New airfields were better prepared when movements were planned well in advance, and airfield service battalions were available to go to the airfield first and prepare it for the unit, which included billeting arrangements.34 Conversely, older airfields, many of which had been training schools or air bases before the war, already had a developed infrastructure. They had permanent quarters or at least buildings that could be readily turned into barracks. For instance, one pilot recalled living in an old school building on an airfield that had been a training school two years before the war.35 Even in 1944, when the Russians refitted three Ukrainian air bases for the Americans, they refitted an artillery barracks and school buildings for the Americans to live in.36 Also, as the Russians moved east in 1944 and 1945 they utilized barracks on former German airfields. If housing was not available on the airfield, pilots were billeted in the homes of villagers or other available buildings, within several miles of the airfield. Even within the homes there was a lot of variation. Usually the home's residents still lived there, and one of two scenarios occurred: either a couple or as many as possible pilots would be billeted there. For example, one pilot recalls that "the overcrowding was horrendous, but room was found for me. In a crooked hut…having delicately pushed the hostess to the oven in her kitchen."37 Houses could become crowded and uncomfortable when pilots, other officers, and non-maintenance personnel, were forced to live together. Alternatively, other pilots were billeted alone and given a lot of space and 32 Kaberov, Swastika in the Gunsight, 91. 33 Timofeyeva-Yegorova, Red Sky Black Death, 106. 34 Bessette, "Soviet Military Transportation Aviation," 196. 35 Reshetnikov, Bomber Pilot on the Eastern Front, 33. 36 Plokhy, Forgotten Bastards, 35. 37 Reshetnikov, Bomber Pilot on the Eastern Front, 138. Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 8 relatively nice accommodations. Also, nearby villages were occasionally abandoned, resulting in pilots living in vacant homes.38 Overall, village billeting was varied. Uncontrollable Factors Another variable that should not be overlooked is the effect of the war on housing options. Barracks and dugouts were not immune to German air raids. When permanent buildings or dugouts were destroyed, pilots slept in hastily rebuilt dugouts or under the aircraft. Combat readiness also dictated how close aircrews slept to their aircraft because if a raid was expected, pilots needed to be ready to defend their airfield at a moment's notice.39 Bombings, when the signal of a German advance, also contributed to units moving from new bases and having to find new quarters altogether. Other times, the housing at a new base was inhabitable. For instance, one mechanic wrote that "all of the habitable dwellings nearby were mined by the Germans, so we had to live under the wings of our aircraft."40 Therefore, stable and safe housing was not to be taken for granted in combat conditions. Weather also played devil's advocate with housing. Mud, rain, and snow are all part of life in Russia and had devastating effects on airfield usage and quality of life inside aircrew quarters. During the rainy season, dugouts were flooded with inches to feet of water, either forcing pilots to pump the water out in colder seasons or live under the aircraft in warmer weather.41 Snow, on the other hand, made its way into primitive buildings in the form of ice. Escaping the cold was impossible. Changes in weather patterns and the beginning of colder seasons also resulted in insect and animal infestations, such as fleas, rats, and mosquitos. One rat 38 Kramarenko, Combat over the Eastern Front, 26. 39 Tomofeyeva-Yegorova, Black Sky Red Death, 106. 40 Noggle, A Dance with Death, 151. 41 Noggle, A Dance with Death, 110, 173. Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 9 infestation was so bad a pilot remarked that "they were routinely crushed under people's feet."42 Overall, weather was just one more variable that made housing unpredictable. Commodities Not only was housing itself varied and often improvised, but commodities nowadays taken for granted were as well. Most of what the pilots had for furniture, light, and linens were makeshift. Oil drums and shell casings were used as crude lamps and stoves. Any available material was burned in those stoves, including used bomb fuse-boxes.43 Beds, tables, and any other furniture were typically cobbled together from planks, wood scraps, straw, and aircraft covers. Pillows were stuffed with everything from weeds to straw. Again, there were exceptions, especially later in the war, when air units took over German airfields or lived in residences currently or previously owned by the wealthy. For example, one pilot wrote that his unit was "billeted for a rest in some factory-owner's villa…on soft feather beds," and remarked that "the conqueror's position has its advantages."44 Overall though, pilots did not live in luxury. They made what they needed from what was available. Personal Free Time The small amount of free time in between tasking, or during rough weather, helped the pilots let loose and mentally cope with being in combat. On a personal level, people kept busy with what was available. Those who had books read them and then shared them, which led to book discussions.45 Games requiring little space, such as dominos, chess, and cards were played; although, some commands forbade cardplaying, calling it bourgeois.46 People who were musically gifted and carried their instrument, such as a guitar or accordion, around would play 42 Pennington, Wings, Women, and War, 116. 43 Noggle, A Dance with Death, 124. 44 Kramarenko, Combat over the Eastern Front, 73. 45 Reshetnikov, Bomber Pilot on the Eastern Front, 138. 46 Drabkin, Barbarossa, 42. Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 10 for their fellow airmen. Some of the women would knit, embroider, or sew new pairs of silk underwear. And everyone looked forward to letters from home, especially when the Germans occupied territory where their loved ones lived. For instance, one pilot wrote that when she received the first letter from her mother, five months into the war, she "felt such relief! All these months I had worried about my family, whether they were suffering somewhere under German occupation."47 Pilots were desperate for news about the wellbeing and whereabouts of relatives and friends. Unit Free Time Beyond the personal level, units organized events amongst themselves. Some had a newsletter that members would write in and distribute amongst the unit.48 Usually those had a political overtone. Nevertheless, they were an opportunity for people to use skills other than flying, such as creative writing, journalism, and drawing. Activities such as talent shows and performances were also organized, including events such as formal readings, performance of plays or sketches, and solo acts. For example, one squadron had the only Gypsy to fly for Russia in the war, who performed dances of his culture, until he died in combat.49 Parties and dances were also held, especially in some of the female units, to celebrate successful missions with dancing and singing.50 Celebrations were an outlet for the emotion created by the stresses of combat and unpredictable living conditions. Occasionally if located near a larger city, such as Leningrad, and if tasking allowed, pilots were able to partake in urban activities, such as movies, concerts, and dance classes. At times, events were formally organized by unit commanders to increase morale and let their 47 Timofeyeva-Yegorova, Red Sky Black Death, 81. 48 Kaberov, Swastika in the Gunsight, 6. 49 Kramarenko, Combat over the Eastern Front, 61. 50 Noggle, A Dance with Death, 71 . Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 11 personnel get away from the humdrum of front-line duties, while other times, attending a movie or performance was not command mandated. For instance, one corps commander gave circus tickets to his officers and ordered them to go on a night when no flights were scheduled.51 While in a different squadron a group of pilots was invited to a musical premiere in Leningrad while the city was being barraged by the Germans.52 Not only did pilots seek out entertainment, but entertainment sought them out, in the form of traveling performers, artists, and mobile theaters that traveled throughout the eastern front, providing performances for units unable to go to a city or populated area. Relationships Beyond mere activities, relationships were another way to pass the time. Wedding ceremonies were a change from the more frequent funeral ceremonies. Pilots married either pilots from other commands or members of various service battalions. To illustrate the difference between a funeral and wedding, an airman wrote, "the regiment personnel celebrated a festive and memorable event. And it had nothing to do with war, blood, or death. It was quite the opposite of a funeral."53 Joyous occasions were a welcome relief from the cruel ways of combat. Relationships were unavoidable in squadrons where technicians and combat support staff were frequently female. Even in units with only female pilots, relationships were not uncommon with male members of the same or other units. There was one female pilot, for example, whose former commanding officer proposed after the war ended.54 Relationships were crucial in motivating pilots to return from every flight and survive the war, while also serving to satisfy the soft side of human existence. 51 Reshetnikov, Bomber Pilot on the Eastern Front, 157. 52 Kaberov, Swastika in the Gunsight, 178. 53 Antipov & Utkin, Dragons on Bird Wings, 75. 54 Timofeyeva-Yegorova, Red Sky Black Death, 201. Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 12 However, humans were not the only ones to fulfill this need for affection, as pets were not forbidden. Often, stray dogs or cats were picked up when a unit passed by an abandoned area. They were either adopted by a whole unit or individuals, as was the case with the Gypsy and his dog, Jack.55 However, there were other scenarios, where a pet would be left behind by higher-ups who briefly visited the unit. For example, Alexander Novikov, then Air Force supreme commander, left behind a bear cub he had been given. At the squadron, the small cub ate and slept with the men, which became difficult as she grew. In the end, she was killed by outsiders, and the air unit refused to eat her.56 While an unusual scenario, it still shows the connections unit members made with animals that ended up in their possession. Focusing on caring for a pet was a needed distraction. Conclusion During World War II, the men and women in the Russian air forces lived an unpredictable life, dictated by the whims of combat. Food would be available one day and not the next. Moving from base to base increased unpredictability, as not all locations were supplied equally, especially when close to combat or advancing German forces. Air force units stretched from Leningrad to Ukraine, which strained the initially inadequate supply system. Time was not always available for building new housing, resulting in external billeting and quickly-built dugouts. Improvisation was the name of the game, as the pilots had to make do with the food, materials, and housing they could scavenge or trade for. Pilots with imagination and creativity were able to create a home away from home that at least met the bare minimum of their needs, despite limited free time to decompress and get away from combat stressors. 55 Kramarenko, Combat over the Eastern Front, 61. 56 Kramarenko, Combat over the Eastern Front, 69. Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 13 Research Question: What were the living conditions of Russian pilots in WWII?Outline 1. Introduction 1.1. Research question 1.2. Idea of the variability, range of living conditions 2. Living Conditions 2.1. Food 2.1.1. Food sources 2.1.1.1. Rations 2.1.1.1.1. Calorie comparison 2.1.1.2. Local sources 2.1.1.3. American food 2.1.2. Factors affecting food 2.1.2.1. Location 2.1.2.1.1. Timeframe 2.1.2.1.2. Movement type 2.1.2.1.3. Billeting 2.1.2.2. Unit type 2.2. Housing 2.2.1. Introduction 2.2.2. Housing Situations 2.2.2.1. New Airfields 2.2.2.2. Old Airfields 2.2.2.3. Living in Villages 2.2.3. Uncontrollable Factors 2.2.3.1. Combat Conditions 2.2.3.2. Weather 2.2.4. Commodities 2.3. Free Time 2.3.1. Personal Level 2.3.1.1. Hobbies: sewing, knitting, poetry, music 2.3.1.2. Letters from home 2.3.2. Unit Level Activities 2.3.2.1. Newspapers, performances 2.3.2.2. Nearby towns 2.3.2.2.1. Leader/command initiated 2.3.3. Relationships 2.3.3.1. People 2.3.3.2. Pets 3. Conclusion Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 14 Bibliography Primary Sources Drabkin, Artem. Barbarossa and the Retreat to Moscow: Recollections of Fighter Pilots on the Eastern Front. South Yorkshire: Pen & Sword Books LTD, 2007. I Remember. "Airmen: Kolyadin Victor Ivanovich." https://iremember.ru/en/memoirs/airmen/ kolyadin-victor-ivanovich/ [accessed 14 October 2019]. I Remember. "Airmen: Ivan Konovalov." https://iremember.ru/en/memoirs/airmen/ivan-konovalov/ [accessed 14 October 2019]. Kaberov, Igor. Swastika in the Gunsight: Memoirs of a Russian Fighter Pilot 1941-1945. Stroud: Sutton Publishing, 1999. Kramarenko, Sergei. The Red Air Force at War: Air Combat over the Eastern Front and Korea: A Soviet Fighter Pilot Remembers. Barnsley, England: Pen & Sword Military, 2008. Mariinskiy, Evgeniy. Red Star Airacobra: Memoirs of a Soviet Fighter Ace, 1941-45. Solihull: Helion & Company, 2006. Noggle, Anne. A Dance with Death: Soviet Airwomen in World War II. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1994. Reshetnikov, Vasiliy. Bomber Pilot on the Eastern Front: 307 Missions Behind Enemy Lines. South Yorkshire: Pen & Sword Books LTD, 2008. Timofeyeva-Yegorova, A. Red Sky, Black Death: A Soviet Woman Pilot's Memoir of the Eastern Front. Bloomington: Slavica Publishers, 2009. Scholarly Books Pennington, Reina. Wings, Women, and War: Soviet Airwomen in World War II Combat. Modern War Studies. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2001. Plokhy, Serhii. Forgotten Bastards of the Eastern Front: American Airmen Behind the Soviet Lines and the Collapse of the Grand Alliance. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2019. Clark-Borscht, Barracks, and Bears-page 15 Scholarly Articles Bessette, John. "Soviet Military Transport Aviation" in The Soviet Air Forces edited by Paul Murphy, 188-211. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 1984. Collingham, Lizzie. "The Soviet Union—Fighting on Empty" in The Taste of War, 317-346. New York: Penguin Press, 2012. Collingham, Lizzie. "The United States—Out of Depression and into Abundance" in The Taste of War, 415-466. New York: Penguin Press, 2012. Ganson, Nicholas. "Food Supply, Rationing, and Living Standards" in The Soviet Union at War, 1941-1945 edited by David Stone, 69-92. South Yorkshire: Pen & Sword Books Ltd, 2010. Moskoff, William. "The First Priority: Feeding the Armed Forces" in The Bread of Affliction: The Food Supply in the USSR During World War II, 113-134. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. Additional Sources Antipov, Vladislav, and Igor Utkin. Dragons on Bird Wings: The Combat History of the 812th Fighter Regiment. Translated by James F. Gebhardt. 1st English ed. Kitchener, ON: Aviaeology, 2006.

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Abbagiri Tanda-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 644 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 88 per cent is covered by soils, 10 per cent rock outcrops, 2 per cent is by water bodies and 150 cm).  About 3 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 54 per cent soils are loamy and 31 per cent clayey soils at the surface  About 14 per cent area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 9 per cent in the microwatershed has nearly level (0-1% slope) lands, 74 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and 5 per cent area is gently sloping (3-5% slope).  An area of about 68 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded and 20 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded.  An area of about 15 per cent soils are strongly acid (pH 5.0-5.5), an area of about 37 per cent soils are moderately acid (pH 5.5-6.0), an area of about 18 per cent soils are slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5) in soil reaction and an area of 17 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire area of the microwatershed is dominantly 0.75%) in 72 per cent area.  Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in an area 18 per cent and high (>57 kg/ha) in an area of 70 per cent.  About 29 per cent is low (145 kg/ha) in available potassium, 51 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 9 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha).  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 83 per cent area.  Available copper and manganese are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 28 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 27 (4) 103(16) Pomegranate - 271(42) Maize 23 (4) 97 (17) Guava - 253 (39) Bajra 23 (4) 356 (55) Jackfruit - 253 (39) Groundnut - 417 (65) Jamun - 266 (41) Sunflower 4 (<1) 83 (13) Musambi 4 (<1) 265(41) Cotton 4 (<1) 123(19) Lime 4 (<1) 285 (44) Red gram - 70 (10) Cashew - 246 (38) Bengalgram 61 (9) 108 (17) Custard apple 9 (1) 503 (78) Chilli - 96 (17) Amla 4 (<1) 508 (79) Tomato 23 (4) 73 (11) Tamarind - 38 (6) Drumstick - 166 (26) Marigold - 129 (20) Mulberry - 400 (62) Chrysanthemum - 129 (20) Mango - - Jasmine - 92 (14) Sapota - 233 (36) Crossandra - 92 (14)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SILENT FINDINGS OF THE STUDY  The results indicated that among 35 famers 11 (22.45%) were marginal farmers, 14 (31.82 %) were small farmers, 9 (20.45 %) were semi medium farmers and 5 (11.36 %) was medium farmer. Apart from these 5 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The data indicated that there were 98 (52.69%) men and 88 (47.31%) were women among the sampled households. The average family size of marginal farmers was 4, small farmer was 4, semi medium farmer was 5, medium farmers were 3 and for landless farmers it was 4.  The data indicated that 32 (17.20 %) people were in 0-15 years of age, 81 (43.55%) were in 16-35 years of age, 59 (31.72 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 14 (7.53 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that the Abbagiri Tanda-2 had 33.87 per cent illiterates, 1.61 per cent functional literates, 23.12 per cent of them had primary school education, 10.75 per cent of them had middle school education, 14.52 per cent of them had high school education, 5.91 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.54 per cent of them had ITI, 1.08 per cent them had Diploma education, 4.84 per cent of them had degree education and 3.76 per cent of them had other education. The results indicated that, 81.82 per cent of households practicing agriculture and 9.09 per cent of the household heads were general labours.  The results indicated that agriculture was the major occupation for 56.45 per cent of the household members, 2.15 per cent were agricultural labourers, 5.91 per cent were general labours, 1.61 percent were in government service, 2.15 per cent of them were in private sector, 0.54 per cent of them were trade and business, 20.43 per cent of them were students and 2.69 per cent were housewives. In case of landless households 50 per cent were general labours, 5 per cent were in private service and 35 per cent were students. In case of marginal farmers 71.79 per cent were agriculturist, 2.56 percent were agricultural labour and general labour and 17.95 per cent were students. In case of small farmers, 62.07 per cent of the household members were practicing agriculture and 20.69 per cent of them were students. In case of semi medium farmers 58.54 per cent of the household members were practicing agriculture and 21.95 per cent of them were students. In case of medium farmers, 60.71 per cent of the household members were performing agriculture.  The results showed that 4.30 per cent of them participated in self help groups, 1.08 per cent of them participated in user group and 94.62 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions. Landless and medium farmers were found to have no participation in any local institutions. Marginal, small farmers and semi medium farmers were found to participate in one or the other local institutions. 2  The results indicated that 68.18 per cent of the households possess Katcha house. 100 percent of the landless farmers possess Katcha house.  The results showed that 68.18 per cent of the households possess TV, 36.36 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 22.73 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 43.18 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 77.27 per cent of the households possess mobile phones and 2.27 per cent of the households possess refrigerator.  The results showed that the average value of television was Rs.4800, mixer grinder was Rs.1400, refrigerator Rs.15000, bicycle Rs.1727, motor cycle was Rs.30350 and mobile phone was Rs.1220.  The results showed that, about 15.91 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 27.27 per cent of them possess plough, 2.27 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 9.09 per cent of the households possess tractor, 20.45 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 15.91 per cent of the households possess sprinkler, 50 per cent of the households possess weeder, 6.82 per cent of the households possess harvester, 2.27 per cent of the households possess thresher and 11.36 per cent of the households possess chaff cutter.  The results show that the average value of plough was Rs.1318, the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 17000, the average value of power tiller Rs. 100000, the average value of tractor Rs. 300000, the average value of sprinkler Rs.3192, the average value of was sprayer Rs.2409, the average value of weeder Rs. 72, the average value of harvester Rs.4662 and the average value of chaff cutter Rs.3000.  The results indicated that, 31.82 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 11.36 per cent of the households possess local cow, 6.82 per cent of the households possess buffalo and 2.27 per cent of the households possess sheep and goat respectively. In case of marginal farmers, 27.27 per cent of the households possess bullock. In case of small farmers, 42.86 per cent of households possess bullock, 14.29 per cent possess local cow and buffalo and 7.14 per cent possess sheep and goat respectively. In case of semi medium farmers, 44.44 per cent of the households possess bullock, 11.11 per cent possess local cow and buffalo correspondingly. In medium farmers 20 per cent of the households possess bullock and 40 per cent of the households possess local cow.  The results indicated that, average own labour men available in the micro-watershed was 1.53, average own labour (women) available was 1.26, average hired labour (men) available was 11 and average hired labour (women) available was 11.82. In case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 1.36, average own labour (women) was 1.09, average hired labour (men) was 6 and average hired labour (women) available was 6. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 1.46, average own labour (women) was 1.08, average hired labour 3 (men) was 10.23 and average hired labour (women) available was 12.38. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 1.88, average own labour (women) was 1.63, average hired labour (men) was 19.38 and average hired labour (women) available was 20. In medium farmers average own labour men available was 1.50, average own labour (women) was 2, average hired labour (men) was 10 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.50.  The results indicated that77.27 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate About 100 per cent of the marginal farmers, 92.86 per cent of small, 88.89 per cent of semi medium and 40 per cent of the medium farmers have opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicated that, 2 person was migrated from micro-watershed that belonged to small and semi medium farmer category. Total migration in the microwatershed was only 1.08 per cent. The results indicated that, people have migrated on an average of 375 Kms and average duration was 6.50 months. Small farmers have migrated 150 kms and on an average for 6months and semi medium farmers have migrated 600 kms and on an average for 7 months. The results indicated that, job/work was the only reason for migration for all the migrants.  The results indicated that, households of the Abbagiri Tanda-2 micro-watershed possess 21.53 ha (40.38 %) of dry land and 31.79 ha (59.62%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 7.83 ha (95.08%) of dry land and 0.40 ha (4.92%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 11.27 ha (69.10%) of dry land and 5.04 ha (30.90 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 2.43 ha (16.18%) of dry land and 12.58 ha (83.82 %) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 13.76 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicated that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 264642.86 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 380532.21. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 370372.28 for dry land and Rs. 741000 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 221643.93 for dry land Rs. 713643.66 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 123500 for dry land and Rs. 389414.42 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 239735.29 for irrigated land.  The results indicated that, there were 21 functioning and 12 defunctioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicated that, there was only 1 functioning open well in the micro watershed.  The results indicated that, bore well was the major irrigation source for 47.73 per cent of the farmers and open well was source of irrigation source for 2.27 per cent of the farmers. The results indicated that, marginal farmers having 0.81 per cent of irrigated land. In case of small farmers there were 5.17 ha of irrigated land, semi 4 medium farmers were having 15.08 ha of irrigated land and medium farmers were having 11.34 ha of irrigated land.  The results indicated that, farmers have grown Bajra (12.61 ha), Bengal gram (0.91 ha), Chilly (0.81 ha), Ground nut (1.62 ha), Kanakambara (0.40 ha), Maize (21.16 ha), Navane (3.24 ha), Paddy (0.81 ha), Papaya (1.67 ha) and Tomato (0.87 ha) in kharif season and Bengal gram (1.21 ha), Ground nut (1.74 ha), Paddy (0.81 ha) and Red gram (1.46 ha) in Rabi season. Marginal farmers have grown Maize, Bajra, Navane and Kanakambara. Small farmers have grown Bajra, Maize, Navane, Tomato, Water melon and Groundnut. Semi medium farmers have grown Bajra, Bengal Gram, Chilly, Groundnut, Maize, Paddy and Papaya. Medium farmers have grown Groundnut and Maize.  The results indicated that, the cropping intensity in Abbagiri Tanda-2 microwatershed was found to be 95.82 per cent. In case of Marginal farmers, small farmers and medium farmers it was 100 per cent and in case of semi medium farmers it was 87.26 per cent.  The results indicated that, 61.36 per cent of the households have bank account and savings respectively. Landless farmers 80 percent of them possess both bank account and savings. 81.82 per cent of marginal farmers possess both bank account and savings correspondingly. Small farmers possess 71.43 per cent of both bank account and savings and medium category of farmers possess 44.44 per cent of bank account and also savings in that order.  The results indicated that, 80 per cent of landless, 81.82 per cent of marginal, 14.29 per cent of small and 44.44 per cent semi medium have borrowed credit from different sources. The results indicated that, 20.83 per cent have availed loan in Commercial bank, 50 per cent of the households availed loan in Grameena bank, 45.83 per cent have availed loan from money lender and 12.50 per cent have availed loan from SHGs/CBOs.  The results indicated that, landless, marginal, small and semi medium have availed Rs. 26,250, Rs. 50,000, Rs. 177,000, and Rs. 137,500 respectively. Overall average credit amount availed by households in the micro-watershed is 97,666.67.  The results indicated that, 93.75 per cent of the households have borrowed loan for agriculture production and 6.25 per cent of the households have borrowed loan for Social functions like marriage. The results indicated that, agriculture production, bore well/irrigation related equipments, construction-house, construction-cattle shed, household consumption and other reasons were the main purpose for which marginal, small farmers, semi medium farmers borrowed loan. 33.33 per cent of the household's barrowed loan for agriculture production, 8.33 per cent of the household's barrowed loan for Bore well/irrigation related equipments, 5 Construction-house, Construction-cattle shed respectively and 25 per cent of them took loan for household consumption.  The data regarding the repayment status of credit borrowed from institutional sources by households in Abbagiri Tanda-2 showed that 47.06 per cent of the households partially their loan and 52.94 per cent of the households have unpaid their loan. Results indicated that 64.29 per cent of the households have repaid their private credit partially, 21.43 percent of the households have unpaid their loan and 7.14 per cent of them fully paid their loan.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 12086.76. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 26429.00. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 14342.24, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.19. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 16778.52. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 31106.06. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs.14327.53, and the income generated from red gram was Rs.1613.22, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.85.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for navane was Rs. 11950.89. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 26799.50. The net income from navane cultivation was Rs. 14848.61. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.24. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for crossandra was Rs. 54865.08. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 173888.00. The net income from crossandra cultivation was Rs.119022.92. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.17.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for bengalgram was Rs. 32635.87. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 76962.18. The net income from bengalgram cultivation was Rs. 44326.31. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.36. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 42105.75. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 70296.94. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 28191.18. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.67.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for chilly was Rs. 49859.57. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 222300.00. The net income from chilly cultivation was Rs. 172440.43. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:4.46. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 50482.00. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 81510.00. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 31028.00. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.61.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 13048.22. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 32933.33. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. 19885.12. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 6 1:2.52. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Papaya was Rs. 44258.18. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 575534.00. The net income from Papaya cultivation was Rs. 531275.82. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:13.0.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Tomato was Rs. 24942.81. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs.111150.00. The net income from Tomato cultivation was Rs. 86207.19. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:4.46. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Watermelon was Rs. 32084.97. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 526018.50. The net income from Watermelon cultivation was Rs. 493933.52. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:16.39.  The results indicated that, 27.27 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate, 2.27 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate also the data revealed that 22.73 per cent of the farmers opined that green fodder is adequate.  The results indicated that, Bajra, Bengal Gram, Chilly, Groundnut, Maize, Navane, Paddy, Papaya, Red Gram, Tomato, Water Melon and Kanakambara flower sold to the extent of 100 per cent.  The results indicated that the average income from service/salary was Rs. 10500, business Rs. 12727.27, wage Rs. 22340.91, agriculture Rs. 89061.36, dairy farm Rs. 1409.09 and goat farming was Rs. 454.55.  The results indicated that the average expenditure from service/salary was Rs. 340.91, business Rs. 4818.18, wage Rs. 8204.55, agriculture Rs. 52295.45, dairy farm Rs. 795.45 and goat farming was Rs. 386.36.The overall on an average expenditure was Rs.18800.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 36 coconut trees and 224 mango trees in their field.  The results indicated that, 40.91 per cent of the households are interested in growing horticultural crops which include 81.82 per cent marginal farmers, 35.71 per cent small farmers and 44.44 per cent semi medium farmers.  The results indicate that, households have planted 3 Teak and Eucalyptus trees in field respectively, also grown 108 neem tree and 1 tamarind tree in the field.  The results indicated that for 38.64 per cent of the households were dependent on government subsidy for land development. Similarly for the dependency was for irrigation facility 36.36 percent, 29.55 percent for improved crop production and only 2.27 per cent for improved livestock management.  The results indicated that, Bajra, Bengal Gram, Chilly, Groundnut, Maize, Navane, Paddy, Papaya, Red Gram, Tomato, Water Melon and Kanakambara flower sold to the extent of 100 per cent. 7  The results indicated that, 31.82 percent of the households have sold their produce to local/village merchants, 52.27 percent of the households sold their produce in regulated markets and 22.73 per cent of the households sold their produce to agents/traders.  The results indicated that 77.27 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transport and 29.55 per cent have used cart.  The results indicated that, 54.55 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing i.e. 90.91 per cent of marginal farmers, 71.43 per cent of small farmers and 44.44 per cent of semi medium farmers have shown interest in soil testing.  The results indicated that, 22.73 per cent of the households have adopted field bunding, 54.55 per cent of the households have adopted summer ploughing and 9.09 per cent of the households have adopted dead furrow, mulching, contour cultivation and combination of deep and shallow root crops respectively. The results indicated that 15.91 per cent of the soil conservation structures are constructed by the government and another 2.27 per cent is constructed by other organization.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households who adopted field bunding opined that 100 per cent of the bunds required full replacement.  The results indicated that, 72. 73 percent used fire wood as a source of fuel, 25 percent of the households used LPG and 2.27 per cents of the households used Kerosene as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the source for drinking water for 63.64 per cent of the households, 25 per cent of the households were using bore well and 2.27 per cent of the households were using open well as a source of drinking water.  The results indicated that, electricity was the major source of light which was found to be 97.73 per cent and only 2.27 per cent of the people were using kerosene as a source of light.  The results indicated that, 50 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 40 per cent of landless, 63.64 per cent of marginal, 50 per cent of small, 44.44 per cent of semi medium and 40 per cent of medium had sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 93.18 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 6.82 per cent of the sampled households not possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 50 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 100 per cent of the landless, 45.45 percent of the marginal, 21.43 per cent of the small, 66.67 per cent of the semi medium and 60 percent of the medium farmers.  The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, fruits, milk, egg and meat were adequate for 100 per cent, 79.55 per cent, 34.09, 25 per cent, 2.27 per cent, 93.18 per cent, 84.09 per cent and 11.36 per cent of the households respectively. 8  The results indicated that, pulses were inadequate for 20.45 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 61.36 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 75 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 63.64 per cent, milk was inadequate 2.27 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 4.55 per cent and meat was inadequate for 65.91 per cent of the households.  The data regarding farming constraints experienced by households in Abbagiri Tanda -2 micro-watershed is presented in Table 60. The results indicated that, Lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 45.45 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (77.27%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (75%), inadequacy of irrigation water (52.27%), high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (68.18%), high rate of interest on credit (54.55%), low price for the agricultural commodities (56.82%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (59.09%), inadequate extension services (54.55%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (56.82%), less rainfall (36.36%) and Source of Agri-technology information(Newspaper /TV/Mobile) (6.82). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Hire Shindhogi microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 526 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 83 per cent is covered by soils and 17 per cent by habitation and water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 16 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is 200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 18 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) and 65 per cent area has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 44 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 39 per cent moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 9.0) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils is non-saline (0.75%) in 32 per cent area of the soils.  Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in entire area of about 83 per cent in the microwatershed.  About 2 per cent of the soils are medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 81 per cent soils are high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium content.  Available sulphur is high (>320 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 48 per cent area and 35 per cent are medium (0.5-1.0 ppm).  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in 81 per cent and deficient (0.6 ppm) in about 60 per cent area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 70 (13) 283 (54) Sapota 18 (3) - Maize 1 (<1) 351 (67) Pomegranate 18 (3) 335 (64) Bajra 18 (3) 334 (64) Musambi 70 (13) 283 (54) Groundnut 17 (3) 57 (11) Lime 70 (13) 283 (54) Sunflower 70 (13) 283 (54) Amla 18 (3) 391 (74) Red gram 18 (3) 272 (52) Cashew 17 (3) 1 (<1) Bengalgram 52 (10) 301 (57) Jackfruit 18 (3) - Cotton 70 (13) 283 (54) Jamun 18 (3) 272 (52) Chilli 18 (3) - Custard apple 70 (13) 338 (64) Tomato 18 (3) - Tamarind 18 (3) 273 (52) Brinjal - 410 (78) Mulberry 18 (3) 207 (39) Onion - 75 (14) Marigold 18 (3) 334 (64) Bhendi - 410 (78) Chrysanthemum 18 (3) 334 (64) Drumstick 18 (3) 392 (74) Jasmine 18 (3) - Mango 18 (3) - Crossandra 18 (3) 79 (15) Guava 17 (3) 1 (<1)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 5 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FEATURES OF THE SURVEY  The results indicated that 38 farmers were sampled in Hire Shindhogi micro watershed among them 7 (18.42 %) were marginal farmers, 10 (26.32%) were small farmers, 11 (28.95 %) were semi medium farmers and 5 (13.16%) were medium farmers. Apart from these 5 (13.16%) landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The data indicated that there were 96 (51.06%) men and 92 (48.94%) were women among the sampled households. The average family size of marginal farmers was 5, small farmer was 5, semi medium farmer was 5, medium farmers were 6 and for landless farmers it was 4.  The data indicated that 43 (22.87%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 73 (38.83%) were in 16-35 years of age, 55 (29.26 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 17 (9.04%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that the Hire Shindhogi had 31.38 per cent illiterates, 1.06 per cent functional literates, 33.51 per cent of them had primary school education, 5.32 per cent of them had middle school education, 13.30 per cent of them had high school education, 7.45 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.53 per cent of them had ITI, 1.60 per cent of them had degree education and 5.32 per cent of them had other education.  The results indicate that, 84.21 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 5.26 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers and 2.63 per cent of the household heads were doing private service.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 45.21 per cent of the household members, 21.28 per cent were agricultural labourers, 0.53 percent were in government service, 2.13 per cent of them were in private sector, 22.34 per cent of them were students and 0.53 per cent were housewives. In case of landless households 30 per cent were agricultural labourers, 5 per cent were private services and 40 per cent were students. In case of marginal farmers 50 per cent were agriculturist, 21.88 percent were agricultural labour and 25 per cent were students. In case of small farmers, 54.35 per cent of the household members were practicing agriculture and 17.39 per cent of them were students. In case of semi medium farmers 45.61 per cent of the household members were practicing agriculture and 19.30 per cent of them were students. In case of medium farmers, 48.48 per cent of the household members were performing agriculture, 18.18 per cent of them were agricultural labour and 21.21 per cent of them were students.  The results showed that 1.06 per cent of them participated in Sthree Shakthi Sangha, 0.53 per cent of them participated in user group and 98.40 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions. Landless, small and medium farmers were found to have no participation in any local institutions. Marginal and semi medium farmers were found to participate in one or the other local institutions. 2  The results indicated that 73.68 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 7.89 per cent of them possess Pucca house and 21.05 per cent of them possess Semi Pacca house. 100 percent of the landless farmers possess Katcha house.  The results showed that 5.26 per cent of the households possess radio, 76.32 per cent of the households possess TV, 7.89 per cent of the households possess DVD, 42.11 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 44.74 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 26.32 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 5.26 per cent of the households possess auto, 2.63 per cent of the households possess car and 78.95 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results showed that the average value of radio was Rs.400, average value of television was Rs.4968, the average value of DVD/VCD Player was Rs.2333, mixer grinder was Rs.2381, Auto was Rs.42500, bicycle Rs.1323, motor cycle was Rs.33150, Car was Rs. 250000 and mobile phone was Rs.1266.  The results showed that about 23.68 per cent of the households possess plough, 28.95 per cent of them possess bullock cart, 2.63 cent of the households possess seed/fertilizer drill, 10.53 cent of the households possess tractor, 23.68 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 36.84 per cent of them possess weeder, 5.26 per cent of them were possess chaff cutter and 2.63 per cent of the households possess JCB/Hitachi.  The results showed that the average value of plough was Rs.1655, the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 21072, the average value of seed/Fertilizer drill Rs. 15000, the average value of tractor Rs. 375000, the average value of sprayer was Rs.2655, the average value of weeder Rs. 69, the average value of chaff cutter Rs.1800, the average value of JCB Rs.1000000 and the average value of duster was Rs. 8000.  The results indicated that, 31.58 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 26.32 per cent of the households possess local cow and 2.63 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow and buffalo respectively.  The data showed that, in case of marginal farmers, 33.33 per cent of the households possess bullock and 50 per cent of the households possess local cow. In case of small farmers, 20 per cent of households possess bullock and local cow and 10 per cent possess buffalo. In case of semi medium farmers, 54.55 per cent of the households possess bullock, 18.18 per cent possess local cow and 9.09 per cent possess buffalo. In medium farmers, 20 per cent of the households possess bullock and 60 per cent possess local cow.  The results indicated that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2, average own labour (women) available was 1.64, average hired labour (men) available was 5.03 and average hired labour (women) available was 5.36.  The results indicated that, in case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 1.71, average own labour (women) was 1.29, average hired labour (men) was 4.57 and average hired labour (women) available was 5.43. In case of 3 small farmers, average own labour men available was 1.90, average own labour (women) was 1.80, average hired labour (men) was 4.50 and average hired labour (women) available was 4. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 1.82, average own labour (women) was 1.55, average hired labour (men) was 6.27 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.09. In medium farmers average own labour men available was 3, average own labour (women) was 2, average hired labour (men) was 4 and average hired labour (women) available was 4.20.  The results indicated that, 65.79 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate and 21.05 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was inadequate. About 71.43 per cent of the marginal farmers, 80 per cent of small, 63.64 per cent of semi medium and 100 per cent of the medium have opined that the hired labour was adequate and 28.57 per cent marginal farmers, 20 per cent of small farmers and 36.36 per cent of semi medium farmers were opined that hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicated that, 1 person was migrated from micro watershed that belonged to medium farmer category. Total migration in the micro watershed was only 0.53 per cent.  The results indicated that, people have migrated on an average of 390 Kms and average duration was 12 months. I.e. medium farmers have migrated 390 kms and on an average for 12 months.  The results indicated that, job/work was the only reason for migration for all the migrants.  The results indicated that, improved quality of the life and construction of house were the positive consequences of migration.  The results indicated that, households of the Hire Shindhogi micro watershed possess 36.16 ha (64.11%) of dry land and 20.24 ha (35.89%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 4.21 ha (90.43 %) of dry land and 0.45 ha (9.57%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 9.25 ha (84.04%) of dry land and 1.76 ha (15.96 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 15.01 ha (63.53%) of dry land and 8.62 ha (36.47 %) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 7.69 ha (44.93%) of dry land and 9.43 ha (55.07 %) of irrigated land.  The results indicated that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 343378.10 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 409856.06. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 510625 for dry land and 1122727.25 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 434,356.96 for dry land Rs. 512,211.99 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 246,467.10for dry land and Rs. 406,059.19 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 331500 for dry land and the average land value was Rs. 360,583.94 for irrigated land. 4  The results indicated that, there were 11 functioning and 10 defunctioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicated that, bore well was the major irrigation source for 28.95 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicated that on an average the depth of the bore well was 31.25 meters.  The results indicated that, in case of marginal farmers there was 0. 45 ha of irrigated land, in case of small farmers there was 1.85 ha of irrigated land, semi medium farmers were having 7.81 ha of irrigated land and medium farmers were having 15.62 ha of irrigated land. On an average there were 25.72 ha of irrigated land.  The results indicated that, farmers have grown Bajra (6.89 ha), Banana (0.71 ha), Bengal gram (2.85 ha), Chilly (0.45 ha), Cotton (1.01 ha), Green gram (0.83 ha), Sorghum (1.62 ha), Maize (8.12 ha), Onion (0.93 ha), Red gram (4.45 ha), Sugandaraja (0.40 ha) and Sunflower (9.51 ha) in kharif season and Bajra (0.81 ha), Bengal gram (3.29 ha), Cotton (1.21 ha), Maize (5.09 ha), Sunflower (1.23 ha) and Sorghum (16.28 ha) in Rabi season.  Data showed that, marginal farmers have grown Bengal Gram, chilly, bajra, cotton, Maize and Sorghum. Small farmers have grown Bajra, Green gram, Maize, Red Gram, Sunflower, Sorghum and Bengal Gram. Semi medium farmers have grown Bajra, Banana, Cotton, Bengalgram, Maize, Redgram, Sugandaraja, Sunflower and Sorghum. Medium farmers have grown Bajra, Bengal gram, Sorghum, Maize, onion, Red gram and Sunflower.  The results indicated that, the cropping intensity in Hire Shindhogi micro watershed was found to be 76.82 per cent. In case of Marginal farmers it was 87.10 per cent, for small farmers it was 100 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 78.94 per cent and medium farmers had cropping intensity of 61.78 per cent.  The results indicated that, only 10.53 per cent of the households have bank account and savings respectively. Among marginal farmers 28.57 percent of them possess both bank account and savings respectively. Small farmers possess 9.09 per cent of both bank account and savings correspondingly and medium farmers possess 20 of bank account and savings in that order.  The results indicated that 28.57 per cent marginal farmers, 9.09 per cent of semi medium farmers and 20 per cent of medium farmers have borrowed credit from different sources.  The results indicated that, 50 per cent of the households have availed loan from Grameena bank and Commercial bank respectively.  The results indicated that marginal farmers have availed Rs. 27500, semi medium farmers have availed Rs. 55000 and medium farmers have availed Rs.100000. Overall average credit amount availed by households in the micro watershed is 52500. 5  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan for agriculture production from institutional source.  The results indicated that, agriculture production was the main purpose for which semi medium farmers have borrowed loan from private credit.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households have unpaid their institutional loan.  Results indicated 50 percent of the households have unpaid their loan and 50 percent of the households have fully paid their private credit.  The results indicated that 25 per cent of the households were opined that they were forced to sell the produce at low price to repay loan in time and 75 per cent of households were not given any opinion on institutional source of credit.  The results indicated that 50 per cent of the households were opined that the rate of interest was high in non-institutional credit and 50 per cent of households were not given any opinion on non-institutional source of credit.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 23881.74. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 22503.93. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. -1377.81, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.94.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 30364.35. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 32931.72. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs.6626.43, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.08.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 18449.10. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 27728.81. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 9279.71. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.5.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for bengalgram was Rs. 29334.18. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 48503.01. The net income from bengalgram cultivation was Rs. 19168.83. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.65.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 32495.55. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 30698.57. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. -1796.98. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.94.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 63323.50. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 50427.06. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. -12896.44. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.8. 6  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Onion was Rs. 34570.60. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 34515.28. The net income from Onion cultivation was Rs. 55.32. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.0.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Sunflower was Rs. 28043.53. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 73693.85. The net income from Sunflower cultivation was Rs. 45650.32. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.63.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Banana was Rs. 25564.87. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 105858.The net income from Banana cultivation was Rs. 80293.13. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.41.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Chilly was Rs. 69680.27. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 75447.27. The net income from Chilly cultivation was Rs. 5767. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.08.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Green gram was Rs. 26706.19. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 72900.97. The net income from Green gram cultivation was Rs. 46194.78. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.73.  The results indicated that, 39.47 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 7.89 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate also the data revealed that 39.47 per cent of the farmers opined that green fodder is adequate and 7.89 per cent of the farmers opined that green fodder is inadequate.  The results indicated that the average income from service/salary was Rs. 8578.95, business Rs. 5157.89, wage Rs. 4368.42, agriculture Rs. 53161.32 and non farm income Rs. 6842.11and dairy farm Rs. 5018.42.  The results indicated that the average expenditure from service/salary was Rs. 2289.47, business Rs. 2631.58, wage Rs. 1552.63, agriculture Rs. 31,815.79 and dairy farm Rs. 1921.05.  The results indicated that, sampled households have grown 53 coconut trees, 20 lemon trees and 1 mango tree in their field and also grown 1 coconut tree in back yard.  The results indicated that, 2.63 per cent of the households are interested in growing horticultural crops which include 14.29 per cent marginal farmers.  The results indicated that, households have planted 90 Neem, 8 Banyan trees and 2 people trees in their field and also grown 27 Neem tree in the backyard.  The results indicated that for 2.63 per cent of the households were dependent on government subsidy for irrigation facility and 5.26 percent of the households were have their own fund for additional investment. 7  The results indicated that, Bajra, Chilly, Green gram Cotton and Onion were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Banana, Bengal gram, Sorghum, Maize, Red gram and Sunflower were sold to the extent of 72 per cent, 96.30 per cent, 98.36 per cent, 85.30 per cent, 91.67 per cent and 95.19 per cent respectively.  The results indicated that, 65.79 percent of the households have sold their produce to agents/ traders, 34.21 percent of the households sold their produce in local/village merchant, 31.58 percent of the households sold their produce to regulated market and 7.89 percent of the households sold their produce to cooperative marketing society and contract marketing arrangement respectively.  The results indicated that 57.89 per cent of the households have used cart as a mode of transport, 71.05 per cent have used tractor and 2.63 per cent have used Bus and Truck respectively. 5.26 households have used head load as a mode of transport.  The results indicated that, 5.26 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems i.e. 14.29 percent of marginal farmers and 9.09 percent of semi medium farmers.  The results indicated that only 5.26 per cent of the households have showed interest in soil testing i.e. 14.29 per cent of marginal farmers and 9.09 per cent of semi medium farmers have showed interest in soil testing.  The results indicated that, 5.26 per cent of the households have adopted field bunding which includes 14.29 per cent of marginal and 9.09 per cent of semi medium farmers. Farm pond was adopted by 2.63 per cent of the households i.e. 9.09 per cent of the semi medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households who adopted farm pond opined that farm ponds are good, 50 per cent opined that field bunds are good and another 50 per cent of the households have opined that field bunds are slightly damaged.  The results indicated that 5.26 per cent of soil conservation structure is constructed by farmers on their own and 2.63 per cent of the soil conservation structures are constructed by the farmer's organization.  The results indicated that, 84.21 percent used fire wood, 10.53 percent of the households used LPG and 2.63 percent of the households used Biogas as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 50 per cent, 31.58 per cent of households used bore well water and 15.79 per cent of households used bore well water.  The results indicated that, electricity was the major source of light for 97.37 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 34.21 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 60 per cent of landless, 14.29 per cent of marginal, 50 per cent of small, 18.18 per cent of semi medium and 40 per cent of medium had sanitary toilet facility. 8  The results indicated that, 81.58 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card, 7.89 per cent of the sample households possess APL card and 7.89 per cent of the households have not possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 34.21 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 100 per cent of the landless, 28.57 percent of the marginal, 30 per cent of the small, 9.09 per cent of the semi medium and 40 percent of the medium farmers.  The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, fruits, milk, Egg and meat were adequate for 89.47 percent, 39.47 percent, 18.42 percent, 47.37 percent, 42.11 percent, 55.26 percent, 31.58 percent, and 13.16 percent of the households respectively.  The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, fruits, milk, egg and meat were inadequate for 7.89 per cent, 57.89 per cent, 50 per cent, 28.95 per cent, 34.21 per cent, 28.95 per cent, 44.74 per cent and 52.63 per cent of the households respectively.  The results indicated that, Lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 15.79 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (39.47%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (34.21%), inadequacy of irrigation water (18.42%), high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (36.84%), high rate of interest on credit (47.37%), low price for the agricultural commodities (18.42%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (31.58%), inadequate extension services (5.26%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (60.53%), less rainfall (89.47%) and Source of Agritechnology information(Newspaper/TV/Mobile) (57.89). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Bisarahalli-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 531 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 99 per cent is covered by soil and 1 per cent by water body. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below  The soils belong to 21 soil series and 30 soil phases (management units) and 7 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is 150cm) soils.  About 35 per cent loamy (sandy loam and sandy clay loam) and 64 per cent has clayey (sandy clay and clay) soils at the surface.  About 71 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 1 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) lands and 98 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 19 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 80 per cent is moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 3 per cent is slightly acidic (pH 6.0-6.5), 18 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 32 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8), 24 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4), 22 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) and 9.00) in reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are non saline (0.75%) in 89 per cent area of the soils.  Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in entire area of the microwatershed.  Available potassium is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in 48 per cent and high (>337 kg/ha) in 51 per cent of the soils.  Available sulphur is medium (10-20 ppm) in 1per cent and high (>20 ppm) in 98 per cent area of the soils.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire area.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 62(12) 275(52) Sapota 27(5) 93(18) Maize 27(5) 310(59) Pomegranate 27(5) 196(37) Bajra 66(12) 332(63) Musambi 32(6) 191(35) Groundnut 5(1) 358(67) Lime 32(6) 191(35) Sunflower 32(6) 159(30) Amla 66(13) 439(82) Redgram 27(5) 100(19) Cashew - 97(18) Bengal gram 16(3) 321(60) Jackfruit 27(5) 93(18) Cotton 43(8) 293(55) Jamun 27(5) 99(19) Chilli 61(11) 155(30) Custard apple 82(16) 422(79) Tomato 61(11) 155(30) Tamarind 27(5) 28(5) Brinjal 40(7) 339(65) Mulberry 27(5) 315(59) Onion 5(1) 254(48) Marigold 27(5) 310(58) Bhendi 5(1) 375(71) Chrysanthemum 27(5) 310(58) Drumstick 27(5) 271(50) Jasmine 27(5) 207(39) Mango 27(5) - Crossandra 27(5) 253(49) Guava - 119(22) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE STUDY  The results indicated that 35 farmers were sampled in Bisrahalli-2 micro watershed among them 6 (17.14%) were marginal farmers, 12 (34.29 %) were small farmers, 8 (22.86 %) were semi medium farmers, 7 (20%) were medium farmers and 2(5.71%) landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The data indicated that there were 190 population households were there in the studied micro watershed. Among them 97 (51.05%) men and 93 (48.95 %) were women. The average family size of landless was 5, marginal farmer was 4, small farmer was 5, semi medium farmer was 7 and medium farmer was 6. On an average the family size was 5.  The data indicated that 39 (20.53%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 87 (45.79 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 47 (24.74 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 17 (8.95 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that the Bisrahalli-2 had 28.95 per cent illiterates, 24.74 per cent of them had primary school education, 5.26 per cent of them had middle school, 15.79 per cent them had high school education, 7.37 per cent of them had PUC education, 2.63 per cent of them had ITI education, 3.68 per cent of them had degree education, 1.05 per cent of them had masters education and 10.53 per cent them had others.  The results indicated that, 82.86 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 5.71 per cent of the household heads were housewives and 2.86 per cent of the household heads were in government service and in trade & business respectively.  The results indicated that agriculture was the major occupation for 30 per cent of the household members, 35.26 per cent were agricultural labourers, 2.63 per cent government service and private sector, 0.53 per cent of them were trade and business, 17.37 per cent of them were students, 7.89 per cent of them were children and 2.11 per cent were housewives. In case of landless households 20 per cent were doing agriculture, 40 per cent of them were agricultural labour and 30 per cent were students. In case of marginal farmers 34.62 per cent were agriculturist, 46.15 percent was in agricultural labour and 15.38 per cent were students. In case of small farmers 33.33 per cent of them were agriculturist, 31.58 percent were in agricultural labour and 19.30 per cent of them were students. In case of semi medium farmers 30.19 per cent of the family members were agriculturist, 32.08 per cent of them were agricultural labour and 13.21 per cent of them were students. In case of medium farmers 25 per cent of the family members were agriculturist, 36.36 per cent of them were in agricultural labour and 18.18 per cent of them were students.  The results showed that 1.05 per cent of them participated in Sthree Shakthi Sangha, 0.53 per cent of them participated in Raitha Sangha and 98.42 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions. Landless and medium farmers were found to 2 have no participation in any local institutions. Marginal, small and semi medium farmers were found to participate in one or the other local institutions.  The results indicated that 65.71 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 22.86 per cent of the households possess Pucca house and 14.29 per cent of the households possess Semi Pacca house. 100 percent of the landless and marginal farmers possess Katcha house.  The results showed that, 2.86 per cent of the households possess radio, 80 per cent of the households possess TV, 14.29 per cent of the households possess DVD/VCD Player, 40 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 68.57 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 34.29 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.86 per cent of the households possess both Auto and tempo, 8.57 per cent of the households possess Car/Four Wheeler and 88.57 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results showed that the average value of radio was Rs.1000, television was Rs. 5123, DVD/VCD Player was Rs. 2200, mixer grinder was Rs.2030, bicycle was Rs.2503, motor cycle was Rs.27642, Auto was Rs. 300000, Tempo was Rs.500000, car was Rs.333333 and mobile phone was Rs.1346.  The results indicated that about 17.14 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 22.86 per cent of them possess plough, 2.86 per cent of the households possess power tiller, 14.29 per cent of the households possess tractor, 11.43 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 2.86 per cent of the households possess sprinkler, 28.57 per cent of the households possess weeder and 2.86 per cent of the households possess chaff cutter.  The results showed that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.21166; the average value of plough was Rs. 2812, the average value of power tiller was Rs. 200000, the average value of tractor was Rs. 460000, the average value of sprayer was Rs. 1825, the average value of sprinkler was Rs. 2000, the average value of weeder was Rs. 90 and the average value of chaff cutter was Rs. 1600.  The results indicated that, 20 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 22.86 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.86 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow and 8.57 per cent of the households possess sheep.  In case of marginal farmers, 16.67 per cent of the households possess local cow and sheep respectively. In case of small farmers, 8.33 per cent of households possess bullock, 16.67 per cent possess local cow and sheep respectively. In case of semi medium farmers, 50 per cent of the households possess bullock and 37.50 per cent of the households possess local cow and 28.57 medium farmers possess both bullock and local cow respectively and 14.29 per cent of them possess crossbred cow.  The results indicated that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.09, average own labour (women) available was 1.52, average hired labour (men) available was 4.19 and average hired labour (women) available was 3.28. 3  In case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 1.33, average own labour (women) was also 1.67, average hired labour (men) was 3 and average hired labour (women) available was 3.17. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 2, average own labour (women) was 1.42, average hired labour (men) was 4 and average hired labour (women) available was 2.92. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 2.25, average own labour (women) was 1.75, average hired labour (men) was 3.86 and average hired labour (women) available was 3. In medium farmers average own labour men available was 2.71 average own labour (women) was 1.29, average hired labour (men) was 5.86 and average hired labour (women) available was 4.29.  The results indicated that, 45.71 per cent of the household opined equally that the hired labour was adequate and hired labour was inadequate respectively.  The results indicated that, 1 person was migrated from micro-watershed that belonged to small farmer category. Total migration in the micro-watershed was only 0.53 per cent.  The results indicated that, people have migrated on an average of 650 Kms and average duration was 12 months. Small farmers have migrated 650 kms and on an average for 12 months.  The results indicated that, job/work was the only reason for migration for all the migrants.  The results indicate that, Construction of house was the major positive consequences of migration for 100 per cent of the persons who migrated from the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the migrated persons opined that there health hazards was the negative consequences of migration.  The results indicated that, households of the Bisrahalli-2 micro watershed possess 48.72 ha (77.13%) of dry land and 14.45 ha (22.87 %) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 3.24 ha (100 %) of dry land. Small farmers possess 14.96 ha (91.35 %) of dry land and 1.42 ha (8.65 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 11.04 ha (70.89 %) of dry land and 4.53 ha (29.11 %) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 19.49 ha (69.63%) of dry land and 8.50 ha (30.37%) irrigated land.  The results indicated that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 262,613.17 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 404,747.90. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 540,312.50 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 327,373.55 for dry land Rs. 705,714.29 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 303,428.68 for dry land and Rs. 573,392.85 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 143,634.47 for dry land and Rs. 264,642.86 for irrigated land.  The results indicated that, there were 13 functioning bore wells and 11 defunctioning bore wells in the micro watershed. 4  The results indicated that, bore well was the major irrigation source for 37.14 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicated that on an average the depth of the bore well was 27.01 meters.  The results indicated that, in case of small farmers there was 2.63 ha of irrigated land, in case of semi medium farmers there was 4.57 ha of irrigated land and medium farmers were having 8.91 ha of irrigated land. On an average there were 16.11 ha of irrigated land.  The results indicated that, farmers have grown bajra (4.45 ha), Bengal gram (3.64 ha), cotton (1.21 ha), sorghum (5.26 ha), maize (27.02 ha), red gram (0.61 ha) and sunflower (6.88 ha) in kharif season. Farmers also grown bajra (10.99 ha), Bengal gram (3.64 ha) and maize (3.64 ha) in Rabi season. Marginal farmers have grown maize and bajra. Small farmers have grown bajra, cotton, maize, red gram and sunflower. Semi medium farmers have grown bajra, Bengal gram, sorghum, maize and sunflower. Medium farmers have grown Bengal gram, sorghum, maize and sunflower.  The results indicated that, the cropping intensity in Bisrahalli-2 micro watershed was found to be 79.87 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 100 per cent, in small farmers it was 76.35, in semi medium farmers it was 78.31 and in medium farmers it was 80.88 per cent.  The results indicated that, 11.43 per cent of the households have bank account and 8.57 per cent of the households have savings. Among marginal farmers 33.33 percent of them possess bank account and 16.67 per cent of the households have savings. 8.33 per cent of small farmers possess both bank account and savings correspondingly. Medium farmers possess 14.29 per cent of both bank account and savings respectively.  The results indicated that, 16.67 per cent of marginal, 8.33 per cent of small and 14.29 per cent of medium farmers have borrowed credit from different sources.  The results indicated that, 66.67 per cent have availed loan in commercial bank and 33.33 per cent have availed loan in cooperative bank.  The results indicated that, marginal, small and medium have availed Rs.162000, Rs. 100000 and Rs. 305000 respectively. Overall average credit amount availed by households in the micro watershed is 199000.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan for agriculture production.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the household's barrowed private credit for household consumption.  Results indicated that 33.33 per cent of the households have repaid their institutional credit partially, 33.33 per cent of them were unpaid their loan and 33.33 per cent of them were fully paid their loan.  Results indicated that 100 per cent of the households have unpaid their private credit. 5  The results indicated that 66.66 per cent of the households were opined that easy accessibility of credit and 33.34 per cent of the households were opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfill the requirement.  The results indicated that, 50 per cent of the households were opined that higher rate of interest and 50 per cent of the households were opined that they were forced to sell the produce at low price to repay loan in time.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 40736.58. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 12830.39. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. -27906.19, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.31.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 30806.84. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 24111.70. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. -6695.14. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.78.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Sorghum was Rs. 17401.03. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 24763.72. The net income from Sorghum cultivation was Rs. 7362.69. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.42.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 59633.56. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 46312.50. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. -13321.06. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.78.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Bengal gram was Rs. 33952.88. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 39204.59. The net income from Bengal gram cultivation was Rs. 5251.71. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.15.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Sunflower was Rs. 44382.42. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 33152.89. The net income from Sunflower cultivation was Rs. -11229.53. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.75.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Red gram was Rs. 42805.27. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 37050.00. The net income from Red gram cultivation was Rs. -5755.27. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.87.  The results indicated that, 17.14 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 25.71 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate. Similarly 40 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate and 8.57 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was inadequate.  The results indicated that, in landless farmers, the average income from wage was Rs. 22500. In marginal farmers the average income from service/salary was Rs.4000, business was Rs.8333.33, wage was Rs.5833.33, agriculture was Rs.22916.67 and non farm income was Rs.21166.67. In small farmers the average income from 6 service/salary was Rs.11333.33, business was Rs.7333.33, wage was Rs.2000, agriculture was Rs.49933.33, non farm income was Rs.7750 and dairy farm was Rs.1500. In semi medium farmers the average income from service/salary was Rs.12000, wage was Rs.3750, agriculture was Rs.38750, non farm income was Rs.21875 and dairy farm was Rs.2330. In medium farmers the average income from service/salary was Rs.65714.29, business was Rs.9285.71, agriculture was Rs.169285.71, non farm income was Rs.17571.43 and dairy farm was Rs.5331.43. On an average, the average income from the service/ salary was Rs.20457.14, business was Rs.5800, wage was Rs.3828.57, agriculture was Rs.63762.86, non farm income was Rs.14800 and dairy farm was Rs. 2113.14.  The results indicated that, in landless farmers, the average expenditure from wage was Rs. 30000, in marginal farmers the average expenditure from service/salary was Rs.600, business was Rs.27000, wage was Rs.25000, agriculture was Rs.12833.33 and non farm income was Rs.3000. In case of small farmers the average expenditure from service/salary was Rs.25000, business was Rs.19500, wage was Rs.1333.33, agriculture was Rs.29000 and dairy farm was Rs.4250. In case of semi medium farmers the average expenditure from service/salary was Rs.20000, wage was Rs.1000, agriculture was Rs.23000, non farm income was Rs.2750 and dairy farm was Rs.2333.33.In case of medium farmers the average expenditure from service/salary was Rs.50000, business was Rs. 25000, agriculture was Rs.69500, non farm income was Rs.10000 and dairy farm was Rs.7500.  The results indicated that, sampled households have grown 16 coconut trees in their field and also planted 4 coconut and 2 mango trees in their back yard.  The results indicated that, households have planted 39 Neem, 1 tamarind, 1 acacia and 10 banyan trees in their field and also planted 3 neem and 1 peeple trees in their back yard.  The results indicate that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs.1142.26 for land development and Rs.1428.57 in irrigation facility. Marginal households have an average investment capacity of Rs.329.67 for land development. Small farm households have an average investment capacity Rs.166.75 for land development. Medium households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 5142.86 for land development and Rs. 7142.86 for irrigation facility.  The results indicated that for 14.29 per cent of the households were dependent on own funds for land development and 5.71 per cent of the households were depend on loan from bank for irrigation facility.  The results indicated that, Bajra, Bengal gram, cotton, maize and red gram crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Sorghum and sunflower were sold to the extent of 80.13 per cent and 72.58 per cent respectively. Average price obtained by bajra was Rs.1288.33/q, Bengal gram was Rs.3690/q, cotton was Rs.3750/q, sorghum was 7 Rs.1500/q, maize was Rs.1160.87/q, Red gram was Rs.4500/q and sunflower was Rs.2120/q.  The results indicated that, 51.43 percent of the households have sold their produce to agent/traders, 17.14 percent of the households have sold their produce to local/village merchant, 62.86 percent of the households sold their produce in regulated markets, 28.53 percent of the households sold their produce in cooperative marketing society and 8.57 percent of the households sold their produce in contract marketing arrangement.  The results indicated that 8.57 per cent of the households have used head load as a mode of transport, 25.71 per cent of them have used cart, 120 per cent have used tractor and 14.29 per cent have used truck as a mode of transport.  The results indicated that, 17.14 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems i.e. 33.33 percent of marginal farmers, 16.67 per cent of small farmers, 12.50 per cent of semi medium farmers and 14.29 percent of medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 22.86 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing including 66.67 per cent of marginal farmers, 16.67 per cent of small farmers, 12.50 per cent of semi medium farmers and 14.29 per cent of medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 17.14 per cent of the households have adopted field bunding which includes 16.67 per cent of marginal, 8.33 per cent of small farmers and 57.14 per cent of medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households who adopted field bunding opined that bunds are good.  The results indicated that 14.29 per cent of soil conservation structure is constructed by own and 2.86 per cent is constructed by farmers organization.  The results indicated that, 88.57 percent used fire wood as a source of fuel and 11.43 percent of the households used LPG.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the source of drinking water for 28.57 per cent, 48.57 per cent of them were using bore well, 20 per cent of the households were depend on open well and 2.86 per cents of the households were using canal/nala for drinking water.  The results indicated that, electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, 60 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 100 per cent of landless, 66.67 per cent of marginal, 75 per cent of small, 62.50 per cent of semi medium and 14.29 per cent of medium had sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 82.86 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card, 11.43 per cent of the sampled households have possessed APL card and 5.71 per cent of the sampled households have not possessed BPL card. 8  The results indicated that, 48.57 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 100 per cent of the landless, 66.67 percent of the marginal, 41.67 per cent of the small, 50 per cent of the semi medium and 28.57 percent of the medium farmers.  The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, fruits , milk, egg and meat were adequate for 100 per cent, 37.14 per cent, 8.57 per cent, 40 per cent, 40 per cent, 45.71 per cent, 34.29 per cent and 5.71 per cent respectively.  The results indicated that, pulses, oilseed, vegetables, fruits, milk, egg and meat were inadequate for 60 per cent, 48.57 per cent, 8.57 per cent, 17.14 per cent, 34.29 per cent, 51.43 per cent and 45.71 per cent respectively.  The results indicated that oilseed were market surplus for 40 per cent of the households, vegetables were market surplus for 51.43 per cent, fruits were market surplus for 40 per cent and milk was market surplus for 2.86 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, Lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 22.86 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field was experienced by 17.14 per cent of the households, frequent incidence of pest and diseases was experienced by 85.71 per cent of the farmers, inadequacy of irrigation water was experienced by 14.29 per cent of the households, high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals was experienced by 40 per cent of the farmers, high rate of interest on credit was experienced by 14.29 per cent of the farmers, low price for the agricultural commodities was experienced by 22.86 per cent of the farmers, lack of marketing facilities in the area was experienced 91.43 per cent of the households, lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market was experienced by less rainfall was experienced by 97.14 per cent of the farmers and source of Agri technology information was experienced by 74.29 per cent of the farmers. ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Yukarı Dicle bölgesi, Güneydoğu Anadolu dağ sistemi içerisinde önemli bir alanı temsil etmekte olup, söz konusu özellik Mezopotamya çukur bölgesini hem kuzey hem de doğu Anadolu alanlarına bağlayan bir rol oynamasına imkan sağlayan coğrafi konumu ile ilişkilidir. Dicle nehrinin yukarı çığırında son otuz yılda gerçekleştirilen arkeolojik araştırmalar sayesinde, yerel bir kültürel sistemin tanımlanmasını sağlayacak yeni önemli göstergelere ek olarak, gerek bölge içerisinde gerekse ötesinde zamandizinsel ayrımlar ve eşzamanlılıklara açıklık getirmekte kullanılabilecek kapsamlı bir veri bütüncesi de elde edilmiştir. Bu kitap, Erken ve Orta Tunç Çağı'nın son kısmına ilişkin yakın dönemde yürütülen arkeolojik etkinliklerin sonuçlarını araştırmayı amaçlamaktadır. Yayımlanan verilerin ayrıntılı bir çözümlemesinden başlayarak yerleşkeler, stratigrafi, mimari, çanak çömlekler, bölgesel bağlantılar ve zamandizine ilişkin temel konular ele alınmıştır. Ṭūr ʿAbdīn tepelerinin kuzeyinde, yüksek Güneydoğu Torosların eteklerinde yer alan Yukarı Dicle bölgesi, arkeolojik bulgular açısından tutarlı ve uyumlu bir görüntü çizmektedir. Yürütülen araştırma ve kazılar, vadideki kayda değer bir yerleşim döneminin, ufak boyutlu yerleşimlerin Dicle taşkın ovası kenarındaki akarsu taraçalarında ve ana akarsu kolları boyunca kurulma eğilimi içerisinde oldukları M.Ö. III. binyılın sonu ile M.Ö. II. binyılın ilk yarısı arasında tarihlendirilmesi gerektiğini belgelemektedir. Bunların çoğu, iri yapılar ya da yapı bütünleri ile komşu bölgelerdeki eşzamanlı seramik geleneklerinden farklı nitelikteki yerel bir seramik topluluğu tarafından karakterize edilmektedir. Ağırlıklı olarak kırmızı-kahverengi astarlı ve boyalı çömleklerden oluşan seramik topluluğu, yerel sistemin tanımlanması ve Yukarı Dicle bölgesindeki sahalararası kültürel bağlantıların belirlenmesi açısından önem taşımaktadır. Alanda ele geçirdiğimiz buluntuların büyük kısmını teşkil eden çanak çömlek parçalarının yaygın olarak yer alışı, halihazırda araştırmaların temelini oluşturmalarını sağlamaktadır. Özellikle son dönemdeki araştırmaların üzerinde yoğunlaştığı Yukarı Dicle bölgesinde ele geçirilen çanak çömlekler, diğer buluntu kategorileri ve alandaki varlıklarına kıyasla, yalnızca farklı katman bağlamları dahilinde değil aynı zamanda henüz kazılmamış alanların yüzeylerinde de dikkat çekici nitelikte olup; bu belirgin coğrafi alandaki maddi üretimin belirleyici özelliklerini saptamak ve Yukarı Dicle bölgesindeki kültürel gelişimi daha geniş bir yelpazede yorumlayabilmek adına en güvenilir araçlardan biri olma özelliğine sahiptir. Coğrafi ve tarihi nitelikli kısa önsöz hariç (Bölüm 1), kitabın esas içeriğini bölgede yürütülan arkeolojik araştırmalar ve çözümlemeleri olusturmaktadır (Bölüm 2 & 4). İkinci bölümün konusu, araştırılan alanlar ve kazılan verleşimler olup (Bölüm 2); söz konusu alanlar, bugün itibarıyla sahip olduğumuz arkeolojik bilgilerin en üst seviyesine ışık tutmaktadır. Bu konuda bir diğer önemli katkı sunan Hirbermerdon Tepe'deki kazılar kitabın üçüncü bölümünün ana konusunu teşkil etmekte ve yerleşim evreleri ve ilgili çömlek buluntularını (3.4) da içeren arkeolojik bağlam (3.2) üzerine çoğunluğu yayımlanmamış akla yatkın önermelerde de bulunulmaktadır. Çanak çömlek parçalarının gerek teknolojik gerekse biçimsel açıdan sınıflandırılması (3.3) ile, alandaki varlıklarının mekansal ve zamansal devamlılık özellikleri ve çanak çömlek çeşitlerinin analizine geniş yer ayrılmıştır. Ayrıca temel küçük buluntular da gerek bölgesel gerekse zamandizinsel çerçeve açısından yorumlanmış ve ilgili ögelerle birlikte değerlendirilmiştir (3.5). Seramik buluntularının ayrıntılı bir analizini gerçekleştirebilmek adına yararlandığımız temel bilgi kaynağı Hirbemerdon Tepe höyüğünde gün ışığına çıkarılan yapılar bütünü olmakla birlikte, yerleşimde açılan sondajlardan elde edilen bulgulardan da yararlanılmıştır. Dicle nehrinin sağ kıyısında yer alan Hirbermerdon Tepe'de gerçekleştirilen ilk kazı dönemi (2005-2007), yararlı arkeolojik verileri göz önüne sermenin ötesinde, çoğunluğu M.Ö II. binyılın ilk kısmına tarihlendirilen bol miktarda çanak çömlek buluntusu ve buluntu elde edilmesini de sağlamıştır. Farklı katmanlara ait yeni veriler sunan Hirbermerdon Tepe, böylece Yukarı Dicle vadisinin kültürel profilini belirlemek adına önemli bir katkıda bulunmaktadır. Kazılar, her biri form ve teknolojik özellikleri sayesinde belirlenen üç ana seramik evresi sıralamasını gün ışığına çıkarmıştır (3.6). Yaklaşık olarak Erken Tunç Çağı'nın sonlarına, yani Erken Tunç Çağı III-IV'e (Erken Cezire III-V'in sonu) tarihlendirilen erken evre (1. Evre), kırmızı-kahverengi boya astarlı çanak çömlekler (RBWW) ve koyu turuncu ağızlı çanaklar (DROB) tarafından; Orta Tunç Çağı'na tarihlendirilen orta evre (2. Evre), çoğunlukla kırmızı-kahverengi boya astarlı çanak çömlekler ve şerit boyama çömlekler (band painted ware) tarafından karakterize edilmektedir. Son evre ise (3. Evre) Orta Tunç Çağı ile kırmızı-kahverengi boya astarlı çömleklerden oluşan karmaşık bir repertuvarı gözler önüne sermekte ve Geç Tunç Çağı'na tarihlendirilen Habur ile Nuzi çömlek parçalarını da içermektedir. Hirbemerdon'da Geç Tunç Çağı'na ait kırmızı-kahverengi boya astarlı çömlek bulunup bulunmadığı henüz kesinlik kazanmamıştır. Seramik repertuvarının teknolojik ve biçimsel özellikleri kapsamında tartışılması ve bölgesel bir bağlama yerleştirilmesine ayrıca bir bölüm ayrılmış (3.7) olup; yerel seramik sistemi ile komşu bölgelerdekiler arasındaki ilişkinin altını çizebilmek adına, eldeki veriler diğer sit alanları ve bölgelerden elde edilenlerle karşılaştırılmıştır. Bölümün sonunda ise, bölgesel dönemlendirmeye ilişkin yorumlar yer almakta ve repertuvar için bir tarihlendirme önerisi sunulmaktadır. Bölüm 4, Yukarı Dicle bölgesindeki yerleşim düzeninin gelişimi, yapılar ile elde edilen çanak çömlekler ve önemli küçük buluntulara ilişkin bazı genel yorumlar sunmaktadır. Halihazırda yayımlanmış ve mevcut veriler ile Hirbemerdon Tepe'den elde edilen bulgulara dayanan bu araştırmanın sonuçlarına göre, yerel Orta Tunç Çağı kültürünün yükselişinin M.Ö. III. ile II. binyıl arasındaki geçiş dönemine tarihlendirilmesi gerekmektedir. Yukarı Dicle topluluklarının en etkin oldukları dönemin ise M.Ö. 19. ile 17. yüzyıllar arasına tarihlendirilmesi gerekmekte olup, söz konusu dönem kırmızı kahverengi astarlı/ boyalı çömleklerin ana üretim dönemiyle örtüşmektedir. Yukarı Dicle bölgesine özgü ortak bir seramik repertuvarı tespit edilebilmekte ve özellikle kırmızı-kahverengi boya astarlı çömlekler (RBWW), kırmızı-kahverengi perdahlı çömlekler (RBBW), koyu turuncu ağızlı çanaklar (DROB/DROW) ve çömleğin yüzünü tamamen ya da kısmen örtmek ve dekore etmek amacıyla kullanılan kırmızı-kahverengi astarların karakterize ettiği şerit boyama çömleklerin (BD) varlığı dikkat çekmektedir. Çömlek şekillerinin münferit parçalarını ile paralellik gösteren unsurlara Anadolu ve Suriye'deki Yukarı Fırat bölgesi, Belih Vadisi, Yukarı Habur ve Kuzey Irak düzlük arazileri ve bazen yüksek Anadolu arazilerini de içine alan yaygın bir coğrafyada rastlanmak olsa da, çanak çömleklerin maruz kaldığı yüzey işlemlerinin kendine özgü yerel bir özellik taşıması nedeniyle Dicle vadisi kültürünün belirgin bir ifadesi olarak kabul edilmesi gerekmektedir. Kırmızı-kahverengi astarlı ve boyalı çömleklerin hayli yüksek bir yüzdeye sahip oluşu, Güneydoğu Toros sıradağları ile Van dağ sırasının güneybatısında yer alan Ṭūr ʿAbdīn yüksek arazileri arasında yerel geleneğe yakından bağlı kalmış kendine özgü bir seramik bölgesinin varlığını ileri sürer niteliktedir. Kırmızı-kahverengi çömlekler (DROB/DROW, RBWW, BD), Dicle nehri bölgesindeki aynı imalat geleneğinin ürünleridir. Büyük olasılıkla koyu turuncu ağızlı çanaklar (DROB) M.Ö. II. binyılın başlarında bazı sınırlı istisnalar hariç kullanımdan kalkmış olduğu halde, kırmızı-kahverengi boya astarlı çömlekler (RBWW) ise Orta Tunç Çağı'nın tamamı boyunca ve muhtemelen Geç Tunç Çağı'nın başlarına kadar var olmaya devam etmiştir. Dicle çanak çömlek seçkisi, Fırat bölgesinden Cezire'ye kadar uzanan farklı akımlardan etkilenmiş olup; etkileşimin bazı dönemlerle oldukça yoğun, bazen ise daha seyrek nitelikte olduğu belirlenmiştir. Sonuç kısmını teşkil eden Bölüm 5'te ise, türdeşliğin Dicle Bölgesi'ndeki maddi kültür bağlamında toplumsal ve kültürel değeri araştırılmakta ve belki de siyasi oluşumlarla ilintili bir genel örgütlenmenin varlığına ilişkin görüşler ileri sürülmektedir. Kırmızı-kahverengi seramik tarafından karakterize edilen sit alanları, Erken ve Orta Tunç Çağı arasındaki kültürel devamlılığa dair kanıtlar sunmaktadır. Verilerden hareketle, yerel toplumsal ve siyasi düzenin bir noktada değişime uğradığı ve çok işlevli yapılar barındıran küçük yerleşkeler etrafında odaklanan yeni bir yerleşim düzenine geçildiği ve bu değişimin başta kırmızı-kahverengi boya astarlı çömlekler (RBWW) ve koyu turuncu ağızlı çanaklar (DROB) olmak üzere, kırmızı-kahverengi çömlek gruplarının üretildiği yerleşim alanlarının gelişimiyle özdeşleştirilebileceği varsayımında bulunmak mümkündür. Erken Tunç Çağı dönemine dair fazla bir yorumda bulunmak mümkün değildir. M.Ö III. binyılın ikinci yarısına ait ya da son yüzyıllarına tarihlendirilen buluntular ve katmanlar, birkaç sit alanında gün ışığına çıkartılmasına rağmen, hiçbiri açık bir stratigrafik sıralama ya da nispeten bütünlüklü bir bağlamlar topluluğu sunmamaktadır. Kalıntılar, bir sonraki dönem olan Orta Tunç Çağı'ndakilere kıyasla cılız kalmakta ve sit alanının kenar noktalarında yer almaktadır. Vadi bu dönemde önemli yerleşimlerden neredeyse tamamen yoksun olup, bunun nedeni muhtemelen yerleşim düzeninin Orta Tunç Çağı'ndakinden hayli farklı ve/veya arkeolojik açıdan kolayca tespit edilemez nitelikte oluşudur. Bazı sit alanlarından oldukça seyrek bulgular elde edilmiş (gömütler, duvar ve zeminlerin bazı bölümleri, çanak çömlek parçaları), fakat bugün itibarıyla kayda değer herhangi bir katmana rastlanmamıştır. Gel gelelim ince katmanların kısa ve aralıklı yerleşim dönemlerine işaret etmesi mümkündür. Elbette bazı ana höyüklerin altında henüz gün ışığına çıkartılmamış kayde değer M. Ö III. binyıl yerleşimlerinin yer alma olasılığı bulunmakla birlikte, henüz bu yönde somut herhangi bir kanıt ele geçirilmemiş, Pornak ve Pir Hüseyin'deki olası geniş yerleşke buluntuları da nehir boyunca ilerleyen vadi bağlamında neredeyse fark edilmeyecek kadar ufak yerleşkelerden ibaret kırsal bir arazi şeklinde beliren genel görüntüyü değiştirecek nitelikte değildir. Muhtemelen M.Ö III. ile II. binyıl arasında geçiş döneminde vadideki yerleşke ve topluluklar, yerleşim alanlarının artması suretiyle bir yeniden yapılanma süreci yaşamış; söz konusu süreç, Yukarı Dicle bölgesinde yaşayan gerek yerleşik gerekse yerel toplumun parçası olan hareketli grupların toplumsal karmaşıklığının gelişmesini tetikleyen ve bu sayede topluluklar arasında yeni etkileşim, kontrol ve idare yöntemleri meydana getiren, niteliği henüz belirsiz fakat önemli bazı değişiklikleri takiben hayata geçmiştir. Bu dönemde, muhtemelen M.Ö III. binyıl sosyopolitik düzeninin belirgin özelliği olan gevşek köy örgütlenmelerine kıyasla daha karmaşık bir toplumsal yapı geliştirilmiştir. Örneğin Giricano, Salat Tepe, Hirbemerdon Tepe'de bulunan ve Orta Tunç Çağı'na tarihlendirilen yapılara ve birleşik mimari komplekslere ait bölümler ile benzer mimari özellikler taşıyan Kavuşan ve Üçtepe kalıntıları, muhtemelen üretim kaynakları üzerinde belirli denetim yöntemlerinin uygulandığı bir toplum planlaması düzenine ya da yerel ekonomik yaşantı yapılanmasına işaret etmekle birlikte, merkezi bir güce biat edildiğini ima etmek için yeterli bir karmaşıklık seviyesinde olmadığı görülmektedir. Yapı ve buluntular elit bir sınıfın varlığını doğrulamamakta olup, yerel ekonomi yönetimini mütevazı ölçekte organize eden ufak toplulukların varlığını ortaya koymaktadır. Söz konusu sitler arasında bir hiyerarşi olduğunu iddia etmeye yetecek bulguya sahip olmamamıza rağmen, eşgüdüm bağlamında önemli bir rol üstlendiklerini ve toplulukları kendilerine çeken, üretilen ürünlerin işlendiği, hayvancılık, tarım, avcılık ve dağlar arası ticaretten elde edilen malların depolandığı ve aynı zamanda toplumsal ve dini nitelikli eylemlerin gerçekleştirildiği önemli birer merkez teşkil ettikleri görülmektedir. Yerleşim yoğunluğundaki artış, yöreye özgü grupların sosyoekonomik anlamdaki yeniden yapılanmasının göstergesi olarak kabul edilebilir. Bu yenilenme süreci, ticari bir ağın kurulmasına ve/veya temel geçim etkinlikleri arasındaki dengede meydana gelen bir değişime ya da bölgeye yeni toplulukların gelişi gibi diğer dış etkenlere de bağlantılandırılabilir. Aynı şekilde önemli olabilecek bir başka faktör ise, aynı grup veya kabile içerisindeki iki farklı kesim, diğer bir deyişle yerleşikler (çoğunlukla çiftçi) ve seyyar (yaylacı çobanlar ve göçebeler) arasındaki ilişkinin değişmesi ve bu sayede bütünleşik bir ekonomi ile genişlemiş bir sosyo-politik düzenin gelişmesine neden olmasıdır. Şimdilik yerli toplumun gelişiminin olası nedenleri üzerine tahmin yürütmekle yetinmek zorundayız. Söz konusu iki kesim, yani aynı grup ya da kabile içerisindeki yerleşikler ve seyyarlar arasındaki ilişki ve bu ilişkinin yol açtığı bütünleşik bir ekonomi ile genişlemiş bir sosyopolitik düzenin gelişmesi olguları, Yukarı Dicle bölgesinde M.Ö III. binyılda hayat bulan yeni bir toplum yapısının temellerini teşkil etmekteydi. Daha karmaşık bir süreci basite indirgemek suretiyle zihnimizde bir senaryo canlandırmak gerekirse, bu bölgede yaşadıkları antik metinler ve modern araştırmalarca doğrulanan göçebe ya da yarı göçebe çoban gruplarının farklı gerekçelerle tarımsal etkinlikler ve köy yaşantısına geçmeye karar verdiklerini ve bu amaçla dağlar, vadiler ve stepler arasında önceleri yüzyıllar boyunca mevsimlik göç ve yaylacılık çerçevesinde yararlandıkları alanlardan birine yerleşmeyi seçtiklerini; grubun diğer kısmının ise sürülerle geleneksel rotaları izleyerek ilerledikleri ve yerleşik topluluklarla etkileşime devam ettiklerini düşünmek mümkündür. Eldeki mevcut yazılı belgeler yetersiz olup, güney şehir devletleriyle etkileşim ve ticaret ağlarına katılım yöntemlerinin belirlenmesine henüz imkan sağlamamaktadır. Yerel toplulukların sosyal ve ekonomik yapılarının yeniden düzenlenmesi olgusu Orta Tunç Çağı toplumlarının belirgin bir özelliği olarak öne çıkmakta; nitekim söz konusu toplumların önce M.Ö II. binyıl ve takiben M.Ö I. binyıl boyunca yerel niteliklerine sıkıca bağlı kaldıkları ya da güney imparatorluklarının sabit sömürgeleştirme girişimleri ve baskılarına rağmen, zaman zaman Anadolu'nun doğusuna yöneldikleri görülmektedir. Bu durumun toplumsal ve tarihsel değerinin önemli çıkarımlarından birine, yerel toplumun farklı unsurları ve üyelerinin bu arkeolojik arazi kapsamında üstlendikleri roller üzerinden ulaşmak mümkündür. Oluşturduğumuz taslak doğru ise, M.Ö III. binyıla tarihlendirilen sitlerin azlığı ya da başka bir ifadeyle bu yerleşim alanlarının sınırlı görünürlükte oluşlarının, dengesiz bir yerleşme düzenine işaret ediyor olabilir. Zira nüfusun büyük bir kısmı, bölge şartlarına en iyi uyum gösterme yöntemi olarak seyyar, yarı göçmen ya da göçmen bir yaşam tarzını tercih etmiştir. Yukarı Dicle vadisi örneğinde ise, sistemin karmaşıklaşması ve yerel toplumdaki dönüşümün tetiklenmesinde ticaret ağlarının mı yoksa yerel gruplar arasındaki belki de Akkadların bölgedeki etkilerini artırmaları sonucu doğan dinamiklerin mi etkili olduğunu sorgulamamız mümkündür. Vadi, maddi kültürü ve özellikle de çanak çömlek geleneği açısından kendisini çevreleyen diğer bölgelerden ayrılan bir niteliğe sahiptir. Aslında Dicle kültürünün kendine has ve özel konumu, birçok yüzyıl boyunca metinsel herhangi bir ize rastlanmaması, Mezopotamyalıların bölgeyi kontrol altına almakta yaşadıkları zorluklar ve maddi kalıntıların özellikleri, bu alanın iyi tanımlanmış ve belirgin bir kültürel ve belki de siyasi oluşuma ev sahipliği yaptığını düşündürmekte ve bunun bağlantılı olarak, kırmızı-kahverengi seramiklerin varlığı ile karakterize edilen yerleşkelerin gelişiminden de anlaşıldığı üzere, M.Ö III. binyılda gerçekleşen değişimlere de yön verdiği ihtimalini güçlendirmektedir. Yukarı Dicle'deki kazılarda gün ışığına çıkartılan kalıntıların Hurri medeniyetinin doğrudan bir ifadesi olarak kabul edilip edilemeyeceği ise, şimdilik ilginç fakat metinsel kanıtların yokluğunda ispat edilemeyecek bir varsayımın ötesine geçememektedir. Ancak Yukarı Dicle bölgesinde yakın dönemde yürütülen araştırmalar, M.Ö. III. binyılın sonu ile M.Ö. II. binyılın başı arasında Anadolu'nun güneydoğusunda yaşayan ve Antik Yakın Doğu'nun tarihsel arka planı kapsamında henüz tam anlamıyla belirlenememiş de olsa önemli bir rol oynayan toplulukların daha iyi tanımlanabilmeleri adına yeni ve önemli bazı kanıtlar elde edilmesini sağlamıştır. ; La regione attraversata dal corso superiore del fiume Tigri, in Turchia sud-orientale, è stata per molto tempo un'area poco conosciuta dal punto di vista archeologico. L'intensificarsi delle ricerche sul campo, a partire dagli anni novanta del secolo scorso, ha prodotto le evidenze su cui basare una prima ricostruzione della storia dell'insediamento e della cultura materiale di questi territori, tra le alte terre anatolico-orientali e le pianure mesopotamiche. I risultati degli scavi e le ricognizioni indicano che tra la fine del Bronzo Antico e l'inizio del Bronzo Medio giunge a maturazione un processo di trasformazione e riorganizzazione delle comunità locali. La comparsa di ampi complessi architettonici ed edifici in siti di medio-piccole dimensioni, caratterizzati da un particolare repertorio di oggetti e da ceramiche rosso-brune, potrebbe nascondere la formazione di realtà socio-politiche più strutturate rispetto a quelle del periodo precedente ed essere espressione di quel mondo khurrita che avrebbe avuto proprio nella regione del Tigri, secondo le ricostruzioni storiche, una delle zone di insediamento principale. ; The Upper Tigris region represents an important area within the mountainous system of south-eastern Anatolia and its relevance is related to its geographical position that plays a role in connecting the Mesopotamian lowlands to both northern and eastern Anatolian areas. Archaeological researches carried out during the last thirty years along the upper course of the Tigris river have provided new important evidence for the definition of a local cultural horizon and a large corpus of data that may be used to clarify chronological divisions and synchronism within the region itself and beyond. The aim of this book is to investigate the results of the recent archaeological activities concerning the final part of the Early and the Middle Bronze Age. Starting from a detailed analysis of the published data, central issues concerning settlements, stratigraphy, architecture, pottery, regional links, and chronology have been treated. The region of the Upper Tigris river, north of the Ṭūr ʿAbdīn hills and at the foot of the high south-eastern Anatolian mountains, show a coherent picture in terms of archaeological evidence. Surveys and excavations have documented that an important occupational period of the valley should be dated back to the end of the 3rd and the first half of the 2nd millennium BC, when mainly small sized settlements tend to be established on the river terraces on the edge of the Tigris floodplain and along the main river tributaries. Many of them are characterized by large buildings or architectural complexes and the presence of a typical ceramic assemblage which appears to be distinct from the other contemporaneous ceramic traditions of the neighbouring regions. The assemblage of pottery, mainly red-brown slipped and painted wares, is important for the definition of a local horizon and for the identification of intersite cultural connections in the upper Tigris region. The ubiquity of pots sherds, essentially representing the bulk of what we found in the field, make them currently the basis of this investigation. In the particular case of the Upper Tigris, area of recent investigation, the pottery is remarkable when compared with other categories of finds and their presence, not only in stratified contexts but also on the surface of non-excavated sites, makes one of the most reliable tools for characterizing the material production of this specific geographical area and interpreting wider features of the cultural development in the Upper Tigris. A part a brief geographical and historical introduction (Chapter 1), the core of the book is represented by the results of the archaeological researches in the region and their analysis (Chapters 2 and 4). Surveyed areas and the excavated sites are the subjects of the second chapter (Chapter 2) that provides also the current state of the art for our archaeological knowledge. An important contribution is offered by the excavations at Hirbemerdon Tepe and to this site is dedicated the Chapter 3 where is reasoned argument of the archaeological context (3.2) with its phases of occupation and associated pottery (3.4), mainly unpublished. Much space is given to the classification of pottery sherds (3.3) both in technological and morphological terms and the analysis of spatial and diachronic occurrence of wares and types. Also main small findings are interpreted and contextualized in the regional and chronological frameworks (3.5). Our primary source of information for a detailed analysis of the pottery is the architectural complex, discovered on the mound of Hirbemerdon Tepe but also the evidence from other soundings opened on the site. The first excavations campaigns (2005-2007) carried out at Hirbermerdon Tepe, on the right bank of Tigris river, yielded good archaeological contexts and a conspicuous amount of pottery and artefacts mainly dating back to the first part of the 2nd millennium BC. Providing a new set of stratified data, Hirbemerdon Tepe offers an important contribution to defining the cultural profile of the Upper Tigris valley area. The excavations provided us with a sequence of three main ceramic phases, each individuated by morphological and technological attributes (3.6). The early phase (Fase 1), dating to the end of the Early Bronze Age, approximately to Early Bronze Age III-IV (end of Early Jazirah III-V), is characterized by the presence of an early version of RBWW and DROB; the middle phase (Fase 2), dated to the Middle Bronze Age, is characterized mainly by RBWW and band painted ware. The last phase (Fase 3) comprises a mixed assemblage with RBWW types of MBA date and others in common ware together with some Khabur and Nuzi sherds of Late Bronze Age date. It is not ascertained that at Hirbemerdon exists RBWW of LBA date. A section is dedicated to discuss the pottery repertoire, its technological and morphological characteristics, and in the regional context (3.7), comparing data with those from other sites and regions in order to underline the relationship between the local ceramic horizon and those of the neighbours. The end of the chapter concerns remarks on the regional periodization and propose a date for the repertoire. Chapter 4 offers general remarks about the settlement developments, architecture, pottery and significative small finds recovered in the Upper Tigris region. According to the results of this study, based on the published data currently available and the evidence from Hirbemerdon Tepe, the rise of the local Middle Bronze Age culture has to be dated to the passage between the 3rd and the 2nd millennium. The floruit of the Upper Tigris communities has to be dated to the period between the 19th and 17th centuries that coincides with the main phase of production of the red-brown slipped/painted pottery. A common pottery horizon is widely recognizable in the Upper Tigris region, marked specifically by the presence of categories known as Red Brown Wash Ware (RBWW), Red Brown Burnished Ware (RBBW), Dark Rimmed Orange Bowls/Ware (DROB/DROW) and Band Painted Ware (BD) which are characterized by a layer of red/brown slips used to cover, entirely or partially, the surface of the pot and to decorate it. Parallels of single components of the pottery shape are geographically widespread, encompassing the Upper Euphrates in Anatolia and Syria, the Balikh area, the Upper Khabur and the northern Iraqi lowlands, sometimes the Anatolian highlands, but the particular surface treatment is a specific local characteristic and has to be considered as a distinctive expression of the Tigris valley culture. The high percentage of red-brown slipped and painted wares suggests that a proper ceramic region existed between the South-Eastern Taurus fringes and the Ṭūr ʿAbdīn uplands, south-west of the Van mountain system, resting firmly within a local tradition. Red-brown wares (DROB/DROW, RBWW, BD) are products of the same manufacturing tradition, centred on the Tigris river area. It is likely that the DROB were out of use at the beginning of 2nd millennium, a part some marginal exceptions, whereas the RBWW continued for the entire span of the Middle Bronze Age and probably until the beginning of the Late Bronze Age. The Tigris pottery assemblage experienced the effects of different influxes, from the Euphrates area and to the Jazirah, with a period of major interaction and others of less intensive contacts. In conclusion, Chapter 5 explores the social and cultural value of the homogeneity in material culture within the Tigris region, suggesting the existence of a communal organization maybe connected with political entities. The sites characterised by red-brown wares represent evidence of cultural continuity between the Early and Middle Bronze Ages. It may be assumed that at a certain point a transformation of the local social and political system occurres, with the conversion to a new settlement pattern organized around little sites with multifunctional buildings and this change is also identified by the growth of settled sites producing red-brown pottery, like DROBs and principally RBWW. Not much can be said as regards the end of the Early Bronze Age period. Findings and strata of the second half of 3rd millennium or dating to the last centuries have been exposed at few sites but none provides a clear stratigraphic sequence or fairly well articulated contexts. In general, the remains are poor compared with those of the following Middle Bronze Age and cover marginal areas of the site. The valley was almost devoid of significant settlements during this period, probably because the settlement pattern was substantially different from the Middle Bronze Age pattern and/or not easily recognizable archeologically. Some sites produced very sparse evidence (tombs, portion of walls and floors, pot-sherds) but no substantial layers have been found up to now. In fact the thin layers could indicate brief and intermittent periods of occupation. Of course there might have been considerable 3rd millennium sites not yet excavated beneath some of the major and important mounds but as yet there is no evidence for them and the possible finding of large settlements in Pornak and Pir Hüseyin do not change the general picture of a rural landscape with evanescent presence of very small sites, as for the valley along the river. Probably during the passage between the 3rd and 2nd millennium there was a reorganization of settlements and populations in the valley with an increase of settled sites, after important but unclear changes in the whole region that stimulated the growth of the social complexity among the groups inhabiting the Upper Tigris, both sedentary and mobile segments of local society, producing new forms of interaction between the communities, control and management of the resources. In this period a social structure more complex than loose village organizations that probably characterized the sociopolitical landscape of the 3rd millennium was developed. The portions of buildings and composite architectural complexes, dating to the Middle Bronze Age, found for example at Giricano, Salat Tepe, Hirbemerdon Tepe, but also the remains of Kavuşan and Üçtepe showing similar architectural features, suggest a community planning with the possible existence of a form of control over productive resources or organization of the local economic life, but not a level of complexity implying the subordination to a centralizing power. Architecture and artifacts do not confirm the presence of elites but indicate small communities organizing the management of local economy on a modest scale. We do not have elements to recognize a hierarchy between these sites yet but it seems that these played a role of coordination and were centers of attraction for populations; for processing products and storing commodities coming from herds, agriculture, hunting and intermountain trade as well as for communal and ritual performances. The growing of settlement density can be considered as an indicator of a socio-economic reorganization of indigenous groups. This regenerative process can be linked to the establishment of a commercial network and/or to a change in the balance between main subsistence activities or to other external stimuli as the arrival of newcomers. Not less important could have been the changing relation between the two segments, settled (mainly farmers) and mobile (transhumant shepherds and nomads) of the same group or tribe, developing an integrated economy and an enlarged socio-political system, At present we can only speculate about what the development of the indigenous society holds. The relation between these two segments, settled and mobile of the same group or tribe, developing an integrated economy and an enlarged socio-political system, was at the base of a new society inaugurated at the end of the 3rd millennium in the Upper Tigris. It is possible to imagine a scenario, simplifying a more complex process, where groups of shepherds, nomadic or semi-nomadic, who have lived in this area as ancient texts and modern studies confirm, decided to convert to agricultural activities and village life, for different motives, settling in one of the areas that for centuries they had used during the seasonal migrations and transhumance between mountains, valleys and steppes; whereas the other part of the group continued to bring herds along traditional routes interacting with the sedentary communities. The available textual documentation is meager and does not permit to establish yet the modalities of interaction with the southern city states as well as the involvement within commercial circuits. This new organization of the social and economic structure of the local community is a trait of the Middle Bronze Age society that in the course of the 2nd millennium and then during the 1st millennium, will keep firmly a local character or will be occasionally oriented towards eastern Anatolia in spite of the pressure and attempts at stable colonization by southern empires. An important implication of social and historical significance is involved in the role assumed by the different components and members of the local society in this archaeological landscape. If this outline is correct, the scarcity of sites dated to the 3rd millennium or otherwise, the low visibility of these settlements, might point to unstable occupation: a mobile, semi-nomadic or nomadic style of life was for most of the population the best adaptation to the surrounding regional environment. We can question if in the case of the Upper Tigris river valley it has been the trade network to generate the rise of complexity or dynamics internal to local groups (maybe stimulated after the Akkadians established their influence over the region) have had been more effective to prompt the transformation of local society. The valley represents a distinct unit from the surrounding regions with regard to its material culture and particularly its pottery tradition. Actually, the particular setting of Tigris culture, the lack of textual records for several centuries, the difficulties met by Mesopotamians to control these territories, and the characteristics of the material remains could suggest that the area was a place of a well-defined cultural and maybe political entity and resulting in the changes at the end of 3rd millennium that we can recognize in the growth of the settlements characterized by the presence of red-brown ceramics. If the archaeological remains emerged through the excavation in the Upper Tigris have to be considered direct expression of the Khurrian world is at the moment an intriguing hypothesis that in absence of textual evidence cannot be demonstrated. However the results of the recent research in the Upper Tigris provide new fundamental evidence for a better definition of the communities inhabiting the south-eastern Anatolia between the end of 3rd and the beginning of 2nd mill. BC that played an important, yet poorly defined role within the historical scenario of the Ancient Near East.

THE EFFECT OF INFORMATIONAL GAP ACTIVITY TO THE UNMOTIVATED STUDENTS' ABILITY OF 8th GRADERS AT MTS AL HASANAH 1 SLAHUNG, PONOROGO Diyan Novika English Education Department, Language and Art Faculty, Surabaya State University. ndidy71@gmail.com Drs Fahri, M.A English Education Department, Language and Art Faculty, Surabaya State University. fahri@englishunesa.com Abstract The aims of this research is to find out the improvement of unmotivated students' speaking ability after treating by using Informational Gap Activity in teaching English of the eight grader of Mts Al Hasanah 1 Slahung Ponorogo. The method that is used in this study is a quantitative method. This design of study had more potential threat to internal validity as the time between pretest and posttest increases and as experimental situation become less controlled and contrived (Mc Millan, 1992 : 175) the design of single group of pretest and posttest. The data on students' English speaking ability were collected with a performance test. The hypothesis were tested with two-ways analysis using statistic calculation of T-test formula with significance degree 5% and 1%. And the other one is using questionnaire. The results of analysis showed that: (1) there were differences of the English speaking ability between the unmotivated students who learned through and that of the unmotivated students who learned through conventional method The result is 2,045 2,756 (2) and the other one is from their responses based on the questionnaire. The conclusion is that the implementation of Informational Gap Activity method has an effect on the English speaking ability viewed from students' verbal aptitude. Keywords: Unmotivated students, Informational Gap Activity INTRODUCTION English becomes the most essential language in the world. Almost all the people from many different countries around the world use it to communicate. The area of English has always become a special interest. It is spoken by millions of people all over the world. Genc (2007, p. 6) says that "when we learn a language, there are four skills that we need for complete communication. When we learn our native language, we usually learn to listen first, then to speak, then to read, and finally to write. These are called the four "language skills". As a consequence, English serves for many times many more people as a barrier between themselves and those some fields of interest, many people in their own countries will not be able to become doctors, for example if they cannot learn enough English. That's some reasons why English is important. Actually, learning process becomes the primary reference for determining success in learning. But, the more we get in our nation nowadays are most teachers do not pay attention and assume that this is not an important thing to discuss. On the contrary, it is very important for our education. According to the 2006 National Study of Junior/Senior High School Student Engagement (Yazzie-Mintz, 2007), two of three high school students are bored every day in class—typically, they say, because the work isn't interesting, challenging, or relevant for them. It seems that the classroom activities didn't interesting anymore for them. One more thing that we have to know is that the classroom is a social construct that is designed to facilitate learning. While learning can occur even when the only active participant is the student-as is the case when a person is reading a user manual the most effective learning scenarios are those that involve the proactive involvement of both instructors and students. The fundamental benefit of a personal student-teacher type of interaction is that the feedback and control mechanism is firmly established and can always be invoked to maintain the learning direction towards pre-set objectives. Moreover, the learning process is essentially affected by peer-group relationships within the classroom environment. That is, the interactions between teachers and students as well as among students constitute the learning network within which lesson concepts are shared, affirmed, and built upon. When disconnect occurs between teachers and students, the class becomes ineffective. Sutherland and Singh ( 2004 ) said "states that passive learning contributes to the failure of students". The lack of adequate student involvement almost certainly spells cognitive failure, especially when the opportunities to learn and practice English outside the classroom are rare or isolated. We can imagine what will happen with the student in that condition. Sure, unmotivated student will really increase just because of passive learning. And the more problem frequently found caused from that condition is that because of motivation lack to practice the second language in daily conversation. They are also too shy and afraid to take part in the conversation and afraid to make mistakes. Many factors can cause the problem of the students. Speaking skills here namely the students that learning language. Interest the material and the media among others including the technique in teaching English. Educator in general will agree with the importance of motivation as a key to success in language acquisition as it's both of condition and a result of effective interaction (winne and mark, 1989) "journal of information management education volume 11, 2012" Now, let's compare between what Yazzie-Mintz and Genc. Yazzie-Mintz said based on their research that there are two of three high school students are bored every day in class and the typically cause is that the work isn't interesting, challenging, or relevant for them. It seems that the classroom activities didn't interesting anymore for them. The second is about Genc statement (2007, p. 6) he said "when we learn a language, there are four skills that we need for complete communication. In the other hand, the class activity should be continuing as well as possible to make the student able to speak English, at least they have braveness to speak. Especially for the unmotivated student, and there should be good activities to face them. Of course the methods/activity should be interesting. One of them is by giving students information – gap activity which might make the students interact easily in speaking activity. Sari (2008,p. 3) says, "the core of information gap method is a corporation between groups and pairs". Information gap activities involve the learners in sharing the information that they have in order to solve a problem, gather information or make decisions (Rees,2005, p. 156). So, English language learning students should be involved in as many situations as possible where one of them has some information and another does not, but has to get it. In other words, situations containing an information gap between the participants are very useful. Neu and Reeser (1997, p. 127) said that in an information gap activity, one person has certain information that must be shared with others in order to solve a problem, gather information or make decisions. Information gap is a useful activity in which one person has information that the other lacks. Another advantage of information gap activities is that students are forced to negotiate meaning because they must make what they are saying comprehensible to others in order to accomplish the task (Neu and Reeser, 1997, p. 128). For these reasons, the writer is interested in analyzing the effect of Information Gap Activity to the unmotivated students' speaking ability of 8th graders at Mts Alhasanah 1 Slahung, Ponorogo METODE This section presented the steps how the researcher conducts the study. It covers the research design, participant of study, research instrument, procedure of collecting data, and data analysis. This research was an experimental research. It was done to find out the effect of Information Gap Activity to teach the unmotivated students speaking ability of the eight graders junior high student of Mts Al-Hasanah 1 Slahung. The method that is used in this study is a quantitative method. The study is based on both library and a field research. In the field research, the writer collected the data by using observing teaching and also treat the student (teaching English using information gap activity) learning the subjects. In this study, the researcher just used one group an experimental group. It is called as single group pretest-posttest design. And the results were determined by comparing the pretest and posttest scores. This design of study had more potential threat to internal validity as the time between pretest and posttest increases and as experimental situation become less controlled and contrived (Mc Millan, 1992 : 175) the design of single group of pretest and posttest is presented below: Table 2 Single group pretest and posttest design Group Pretest Treatment Posttest A Y1 X Y2 In which: A : The group of subjects Y1 : The pre-test given before treatment X : The independent variable or treatment where information gap activity was applied Y2 : The post-test given before treatment There were two variables in this study. There were dependent variable and independent variable. In this case, the independent variable is the teaching technique "informational gap activity". And the dependent variable would be the students' speaking ability. Based on (Mc Millan, 1992:22) stated that independent variable is the first thing that influence or predict the result. As the dependent variable is the students' speaking score. According to Mc Millan (1992:22), dependent variable is something that affected and predicted by the independent variable. The Participants of the study is ninth graders of mts Al Hasanah 1 Slahung, Ponorogo. It is located at Jalan Ponorogo-Pacitan. The researcher chose the place because the researcher graduated from there so that it makes the researcher easier to conduct the research there. There is one instruments use by the researcher in his study. There is: speaking performance (which is the score of pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, fluency and comprehension) that would be applied using pre-test and post-test. The data from the score of speaking performance test are collected from two tests which are pre-test and post-test. And the data is presented in quantitative manner since the study is experimental research. These tests are to find out the unmotivated students' speaking ability. Before implementing the technique, the researcher teaches them without using Information Gap Activity. Then the researcher administered pre-test to the students. The students are asked to perform their speaking in front of the class with their friend then the researcher asked the some question about the materials about telling the time. In the next day the researcher gives them two times treatment or teaching speaking using Information Gap Activity then he gives the post-test to know the result by using rubric of speaking as below: a. Accent Pronunciation frequently unintelligible. Frequent gross errors and a very heavy accent make understanding difficult, require frequent repetition. "Foreign accent" requires concentrated listening and mispronunciation lead to occasional misunderstanding and apparent errors in grammar or vocabulary. Marked "foreign accent" and occasional mispronunciations which do not interfere with understanding. No conspicuous mispronunciations, but would not be taken for a native speaker. Native pronunciation, which no trace of "foreign accent". b. Grammar Grammar almost entirely inaccurate except in stock phrases. Constant errors showing control of very few major patterns and frequently preventing communication. Frequent errors showing some major patterns uncontrolled and causing occasional irritation and misunderstanding. Occasional errors showing imperfect control of some patterns but no weakness that causing misunderstanding. Few errors, with no patterns of failure. No more than two errors during the interview. c. Vocabulary Vocabulary inadequate for even the simplest conversation. Vocabulary limited to basic personal and survival areas (time, food, transportation, family, etc.) Choice of words sometimes inaccurate, limitation of vocabulary prevent discussion of some common professional and social topics Professional vocabulary adequate to discuss special interest; general vocabulary permits discussion of any non-technical subject with some circumlocutions. Professional vocabulary broad and precise; general vocabulary adequate to cope with complex practical problems and varied social situation. Vocabulary apparently as accurate and extensive as that of an educated native speaker d. Fluency Speech is so halting and fragmentary that conversation is virtually impossible. Speech is very slowly and uneven except for short or routine sentences. Speech is frequently hesitant and jerky; sentences may be left uncompleted. Speech is occasionally hesitant, with some unevenness caused by rephrasing and grouping for words. Speech is effortless and smooth, but perceptibly non-native in speed and evenness. Speech is on all professional and general topics as effortless and smooth as a native speaker's. e. Comprehension Understanding only slow, very simple speech on common social and touristic topic; requires constant repetition and rephrasing. Understanding little for the simplest type of conversation. Understanding careful, somewhat simplified speech directed to him, with considerable repetition and rephrasing. Understands quite well normal educated speech directed to him, but requires occasional repetition and rephrasing. Understands everything in normal educated conversation except for every colloquial or low-frequency items, or exceptionally rapid or slurred speech. Understands everything in both formal and colloquial speech to be expected of an educated native speaker. To know the result of teaching speaking by using Information Gap Activity, the writer gives oral test to the students. Because the test is oral test, the writer divided the score into five criteria, which are the scores of pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, fluency and comprehension. Then, the data from pre-test, they were analyzed and processed by using statistic calculation of T-test formula with significance degree 5% and 1%. The formula as follows: To = TO : Test observation MD : Mean of differences; the average score from the differences gained scores between I variable and II variable, which are calculated with the formula; MD = ΣD : Total score between I variable (X variable) and II variable (Y variable). And D is gained with formula; D = X-Y N : Number of cases SDD : The standard deviation from differences between score of X variable and Y variable, which is gained with the formula; SDD = -[ ]2 SEMD : The standard error from mean of differences that is gained with the formula; SEMD = DF : Degree of freedom with formula: N-1 The other data will be done by giving questionnaire to students, and giving the some causes that usually make the boring and ask them to make list based on their opinion. From the questionnaire that had been answered and the list had been arrange it will answer question number one and. Table 3. Conversion Table Total score FSI Level 16 – 25 0+ 26 – 32 1 33 – 42 1+ 43 – 52 2 53 – 63 2+ 63 – 72 3 73 – 82 3+ 83 – 92 4 93 – 99 4+ RESULT AND DISCUSSION Result In this chapter the researcher presented and analyzed the data. Dealing with analyzing the data, the researcher used t-test formula. The data were obtained from the test had been done previously. A. Description of Data After conducting the research, the writer obtained two kinds of data the scores of pre-test and the scores of post-test. And the other one is questionnaire. 1. Pre-test and Post-Test data a. The Pre-Test Scores The data of the pre-test scores can be seen in the table 4 below: No P G V F C T 1 75 53 52 63 52 295 2 76 73 60 68 73 350 3 74 75 68 70 73 360 4 60 85 74 65 86 370 5 72 95 73 77 93 410 6 64 76 73 73 74 360 7 56 48 55 43 45 250 8 56 48 55 43 45 250 9 - - - - - 10 64 76 73 73 74 360 11 77 93 83 78 90 421 12 55 45 60 45 47 252 13 55 56 77 54 54 296 14 53 55 52 53 50 263 15 64 66 62 62 66 320 16 64 66 62 62 66 320 17 72 95 73 77 93 410 18 64 76 73 73 74 360 19 62 74 60 66 68 330 20 63 57 55 60 65 300 21 55 90 65 65 90 365 22 65 84 86 73 82 390 23 63 57 55 60 65 300 24 58 55 55 50 55 273 25 58 55 55 50 55 273 26 65 84 86 73 82 390 27 55 67 55 58 63 298 28 55 67 55 58 63 298 29 64 66 62 62 66 320 After the data is analyzed, it shows that the mean ( x ) is 328 the standard deviation is 15,55 the median is 350 the highest score is 421 and the lowest score is 250. b. The Post-Test Scores The data of the post-test score can be seen in the table 5 below: No P G V F C T 1 82 93 90 80 93 438 2 82 96 80 81 91 430 3 82 92 80 74 93 421 4 74 90 82 74 90 410 5 83 90 82 75 90 420 6 75 90 70 71 90 497 7 82 80 74 72 80 388 8 72 74 72 75 72 365 9 - - - - - 10 82 93 85 72 93 425 11 76 90 82 82 90 420 12 74 90 82 74 90 410 13 80 84 75 75 80 394 14 84 90 83 83 90 430 15 66 70 70 64 72 342 16 74 80 82 74 80 390 17 82 92 80 76 84 416 18 75 90 76 73 90 404 19 75 80 74 71 80 380 20 80 90 82 76 90 418 21 73 90 80 65 90 398 22 82 92 90 84 92 440 23 74 90 82 74 90 410 24 64 72 70 65 72 343 25 72 62 70 55 60 319 26 72 84 80 74 82 392 27 74 70 64 62 70 340 28 74 70 64 62 72 342 29 73 80 65 72 80 370 After the data is analyzed, it shows that the mean ( X ) is 398,28 the standard deviation is 67,684 the median is 394 the highest score is 497 and the lowest score is 319. c. The Comparison of the Test Result The comparison of the test result can be seen in the table 6 below: No Pre Post D D2 1 295 438 -143 20449 2 350 430 -80 6400 3 360 421 -61 3721 4 370 410 -40 1600 5 410 420 -30 900 6 360 497 -137 18769 7 250 388 -138 19044 8 250 365 -115 13225 9 - - - - 10 360 425 -65 4225 11 421 420 1 1 12 252 410 -158 24964 13 296 394 -98 9604 14 263 430 -167 27889 15 320 342 -22 484 16 320 390 -70 4900 17 410 416 6 36 18 360 404 -44 1936 19 330 380 -50 2500 20 300 418 -118 13924 21 365 398 -33 1089 22 390 440 -50 2500 23 300 410 -110 12100 24 273 343 -70 4900 25 273 319 -46 2116 26 390 392 -2 4 27 298 340 -42 1764 28 298 342 -44 1936 29 320 370 -50 2500 N:29 ΣX = 9184 ΣY = 11152 ΣD = -1976 ΣD2 = 203480 Based on the data in table 5, the researcher calculated the result of ΣD = -1976 and ΣD2 = 203480. Then, he tried to find out the standard deviation of differences (SDD) with the formula: SDD = 2 SDD = 2 SDD = SDD = SDD = SDD = 48,72 To find out the mean of differences (MD) between variable X and Y, the researcher used the formula: MD = ∑ MD = MD = 68,13 After gaining the result of SDD = 68.13 the researcher calculated the standard error from mean of differences (SEMD) between variable X and Y: SEMD = SEMD = SEMD = SEMD = SEMD = 9,22 The last calculation is determining the result of t observation (to) of the test with formula: To = To = To = 7,389 The result 7,389 indicated that there was a difference of degree as much as 7,389. Regardless the minus, it doesn.t indicate negative score. Then, to complete the result of the research, the writer finds out the degree of freedom (df) with the formula: df = N - 1 = 29-1 = 28 df = 28 (see table of .t. value at the degree of significance of 5% and 1%) At the degree of significance 5% = 2,045 At the degree of significance 1% = 2,756 The result is 2,045 2,756 The result of analyzing the data by using the above formula shows that the coefficient is 7,389. It means that there is a significance improvement after the informational gap activity is used to teach speaking. B. Discussion After doing the research and analyzing the data. Let me analyze in other way as below : Table 7. The Result of Pre-test and Post-test Group Pre-test Post-test Observed-t Pre-Test and Post-test Single Group 328 398.28 7,389 From the table above, it showed the mean score of pre-test is 328 and the mean score of post-test is 398.28 It means that there was really significant difference and improvement of the score between them. Based on the result of the data analysis, it is proven that the students. Score of speaking taught by using Informational Gap Activity is better. It means that the use of information gap activity in teaching speaking is quite effective. Another reason based on the students. Responses are because most students find that information gap activity is enjoyable. This reason leads to better attention in learning and stimulate them to participate in information gap activity. But the problem that they faced mostly is lack of confidence and lack of vocabulary. In the early stages of the Informational Gap Activity the students were uncomfortable and uncertain. This led to initial lapses of silence. But soon they began helping one another to decide who should speak. Towards the end, their shyness left them and they began prompting each other with ideas. It can be told that "Informational Gap Activity" is the one of methods that can be used to teach and improve unmotivated students' speaking ability. The prove is that there is improvement of students' speaking score after treated by using Informational Gap Activity and that is really good effect of Informational Gap Activity. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION Conclusion Based on the research, the writer concludes that: From the result of the analysis of the research, it is proven that the students. Score of speaking taught by using Informational Gap Activity is better than before. And based on the result has answered by the research question, shows that using information activity in teaching speaking is quite effective. The use of information activity makes teaching learning and speaking activity more enjoyable and interesting. Simply that the technique the teacher use is quite attracting them and helps the shy students by providing a mask, where students with difficulty in conversation are liberated. In addition, it is fun and most students will agree that enjoyment leads to better learning. Here, the students have to practice speaking and find the answer themselves of course by asking friend. It will make them confident to speak. In information activity, the world of the classroom is broadened to include the outside world. This offers a much wider range of language opportunities. So, the students can be anyone and in any situation they wish. The use of information activity makes the class more active and alive. Students are willing to participate without any forces from the teacher. The use of information activity makes the students more motivated in learning and easier to grasp the lesson. Problems that the students faced mostly in Informational Gap Activity are lack of confidence and lack of vocabulary. B. Suggestion The success in teaching doesn.t depend on the lesson program only, but more important is how the teacher presents the lesson and uses various techniques to manage the class more lively and enjoyable. Regarding to the teaching speaking by using Informational Gap Activity, the writer gives some suggestion for the teacher and students as follow: For the teacher: The teacher should choose the materials that are appropriate and not too difficult for the students. Before assigning the information activity to the students, the teacher should make sure that the students have fully understood and have the information they need. The teacher should keep control the student activities. The teacher should present the language in an enjoyable, relaxed and understandable way. For the students: The students are hoped not to be shy in acting out their role. The students are hoped to be active and creative in enriching their vocabularies. The students are hoped to use English when they practice Informational Gap Activity although it is hard for them. The students should take part REFERENCES Sasson, Dorit. 2008. Information Gap Activities: Working in Groups or Pairs during Cooperative Learning Lessons. Available on http://lesson-plan-help.suite101.com/article.cfm/ learning games Bartz, HE. 1976. Basic Statistical in Education and Behavioral Sciences. Burgess Publishing Company. Mc Millan, J. H. 1992. Education Research Fundamentals for the customer. New York: Harper Collin Publisher Beard, P. R. (2008, November Thursday 13). What is the Role of the Teacher Today? Teacher's quality. Brewster, C. &. (October 22, 2007). Increasing Student engagement and motivation. Donald ary, l. c. (2006). Introduction to research in education. Dornyei, Z. (1994). Motivation and Motivating in the Foreign Language Classroom.The Modern Language Journal, Vol. 78, No. 3, pp. 273-284 . Hicks, C., & Glasgow, N. &. ((2005)). what successful mentors do. Leech, B. L. (2003). Techniques for Semi-structured Interviews. Political Science and Politics, Vol. 35, No. 4. Defrioka, A (2009). Improving Students' Interaction in Speaking Class Through Information GAP Activities, Vol.3 No.2 33-45 Richards, k. (2003). Qualitative Inquiry in tesol. Qualitative Inquiry . Schmidt, B. &. (1996). Foreign Language Motivation: Internal and external connections. Path Ways to the New Century. Fitriah, M. 2010. Improving Speaking Ability of Descriptive Text Use "Three-Step Interview for Eight Graders of SMPN 26 Surabaya". Brown, H. Douglas. 1994. Principal of Language Learning and Teaching. Third Edition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Tudor, Ian. 2001. The Dynamic of the Language Classroom. UK: Cambridge University

PAULO'S SPIRITUAL IDENTITY IN PAULO COELHO'S ALEPH Achmad Furqon English Literature, Art and Language Faculty, State University of Surabaya lonelyliar91@gmail.com Dr. Ali Mustofa, SS., M.Pd. English Literature, Art and Language Faculty, State University of Surabaya ali_mustofa2005@yahoo.co.uk Abstrak Fokus permalasahan pembentukan identitas berkembang selama tahap dewasa . Permasalahan tersebut meliputi kejuruan, politik, agama / spiritual , dan seksualitas . Sebagai salah satu fokus permasalahan pembentukan identitas , spiritualitas mencakup isu-isu utama dalam pembentukan identitas pada tahap dewasa . Spiritualitas berkontribusi penting dalam pembentukan identitas. Spiritualitas membawa kesadaran diri dalam hubungan dengan orang lain. Melakukan aktivitas spiritual memberikan rasa keterhubungan dengan Tuhan , manusia , atau alam, memberikan kesempatan bagi individu untuk mnegenali dirinya sendiri dalam hubungannya dengan Tuhan , komunitas orang percaya , atau alam. Pencarian identitas spiritual Paulo telah menyebabkan dia untuk menuntaskan proses perkembangan dalam pembentukan identitas spiritual. Sejalan dengan itu, tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mendeskripsikan proses pembentukan identitas spiritual Paulo. Penelitian ini menggunakan pendekatan psikososial oleh Erik H. Erikson untuk menganalisis masalah. Berdasarkan hasil analisis, studi ini menunjukkan bahwa ada beberapa langkah dalam proses perkembangan pembentukan identitas spiritual. Kata Kunci: spiritualitas, agama, identitas spiritual Abstract The identity formation concerns develop during the adulthood stage. The concerns include vocational, political, religious/spiritual, and sexual issues. As one of the concerns of identity formation, spirituality covers the major issues in identity formation of adulthood. Spirituality contributes an important role in identity formation. Spirituality brings an awareness of self in relationship to others. Engaging in the spiritual provides connectedness with divine, human, or natural other, giving individuals an opportunity to experience himself or herself in relationship to God, a community of believers, or nature. Paulo's search of his spiritual identity has led him to fulfill the developmental tasks of spiritual identity formation. In line with that, the purpose of this study is to describe the process of Paulo's spiritual identity formation. This study uses psychosocial approach by Erik H. Erikson to analyze the problem. Based on the analysis, this study shows that there several steps in the developmental tasks of spiritual identity formation. Keywords: spirituality, religion, spiritual identity. INTRODUCTION One of the most successful and popular writers in the recent years is Paulo Coelho. Paulo Coelho was born in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil on August 24, 1947. He was a journalist, an actor and a theatre director before becoming an author. His personal and spiritual lives give a big influence to most of his works. For instance, The Pilgrimage (1988), The Alchemist (1988), and Aleph (2011) seem to be his biographical novels. These novels were written based on his personal and spiritual life. As for Aleph it looks like a documentation of his personal and spiritual journey after making a catholic pilgrimage to Spain. Coelho also claimed that these novels are the adaptation of his own spiritual journey. In the novel Aleph, Paulo is pictured as a fifty-nine years old man and also a successful writer who has achieved everything in his life except one thing, he feels something wrong about himself. He thinks that he is not what he wants to be and considers himself to be in the wrong path. Generally known, people of his age should have a fixed identity since the identity forming happens in adolescence. Yet in this case, adulthood people perhaps have different opinion about identity. In adolescence, identity is defined as who one is and where his place in this world. As time passes by, adolescents will grow old and may change their perception about their identity. Identity is no longer a mere question about "Who am I?", rather it concerns with religious and spiritual matters. As Erikson (in Hoare, 2002), identity does not end in adolescence. He says that identity is a progressing process that happens throughout the stages of adulthood. In other words, identity is not really fixed in adolescence and it is an evolving aspect of adulthood life which continues to renew as time goes by. As Erikson (in Hoare,2002) suggests that identity could change during the adulthood stage due to life experiences that one encounters, the identity formation in adulthood is flexible to modify and evolve due to individuals' experiences. It tends to be a development of the previous stage in which identity has been formed in the adolescence. One of identity issues of adulthood is spiritual/religious identity. Generally, there is an unclear distinction between spirituality and religion, but there is a different point between the two domains. Contemporary research often attempts to differentiate religion from spirituality. In this case, religion generally becomes associated with the institutional and the sociological (prescribed systems, rituals, and traditions or beliefs), and spirituality becomes associated more with personal, psychological, and individual phenomena (Hood, Spilka, Hunsberger, & Gorsuch, 1993). In the spiritual identity formation, the two domains, spirituality and religion contribute an importing as wholeness. Indeed, all dimensions of spirituality can be addressed by religion as well as by other ideologies and practices (Roehlkepartain et al., 2006). Identity formation in adulthood, as Erikson (1968) notes it, has the same methodology as the other stages do. It begins with identification /exploration of individuals about the outer world (society) to coin a sense of identity. Then it is followed by conflicts and crises as Erikson (1968) has stated that conflicts and crises are psychosocial needs in nature. Given the right condition and enough time and space, individuals may achieve a balanced perspective of identity of what they need to be and what the society expects them to be, therefore identity has been formed. Nonetheless, based on facts laying on the background of the study above, then the problem is stated in: (1) how is Paulo's spiritual identity in Paulo Coelho's Aleph viewed by Erikson's concepts of spirituality? As referred to the background and statement of the problem above, the objective of the study is devoted to know a purpose as results of analyzing the problem: (1) to describe the process of spiritual identity formation of Paulo in Paulo Coelho's Aleph viewed by Erikson's concepts of spirituality. In accordance, it is expected that this study can give both theoretical and practical significance. In theoretical significance, Paulo Coelho's Aleph contains issues regarding spiritual identity formation. Therefore, this study is expected to give positive contribution towards the development of literary theory, which studies literature and society under the concepts of spirituality and personality development. Additionally, in practical significance, this study is expected to contribute to the practice of analyzing literary works by applying proper literary concept and theory. Hopefully, to whom this study may concern, it can be used as reference. Furthermore, this study expectantly can assist the institution to provide rich collection of research references. RESEARCH METHOD To collect the data, the first step is doing close reading the novel entirely. It is done over and over in order to be able to catch and understand the core story—intrinsically and extrinsically—of the novel. Besides, it also aims to support in collecting and analyzing the statement of the problems later on. Secondly, it comes to the step of collecting data. At this point, the data is collected through noting the narration and characters' dialogue and action in the novel, which reflects the idea of the process of spiritual identity formation in the form of quotation. To simplify the analysis of this study, there are two important steps needed to be done. The first is describing the facts. At this point, the facts are the data in the novel which supports the study or the statement of the problem. It is done by describing the collected data based on the subject of this study—spiritual identity formation of Paulo. Last but not least, the second is doing analysis towards the described data. It will dig the information beyond the data deeper by explaining it thoroughly. It is taken from the data in the novel first and, then, it will be analyzed by based on the thought of the researcher. At this point, to make best explanation and understanding of the study, Erikson's concepts of spirituality are included. ERIKSON'S CONCEPTS OF SPIRITUALITY Erikson (in Hoare, 2002) states that identity development does not end in the adolescence stage. He views identity as a progressing process that evolves throughout the stages of adulthood. Therefore, identity development is considered as a normative period of adolescence and evolving aspects of adulthood. Many experts disagree with his statement. They claim that identity is fixed at the end of adolescence stage. However, Erikson proposes that identity formation of adolescence does not remain fixed. He adds that identity formation holds a flexibility to modify throughout the adulthood stage. That is why he states that identity development does not end at the end of adolescence stage. Erikson suggests that identity could change during the adulthood stage due to life experiences that one encounters. Identity formation in adulthood, as Erikson (1968) notes it, has the same methodology as the other stages do. It begins with identification /exploration of individuals about the outer world (society) to coin a sense of identity. Then it is followed by conflicts and crises as Erikson (1968) has stated that conflicts and crises are psychosocial needs in nature. Given the right condition and enough time and space, individuals may achieve a balanced perspective of identity of what they need to be and what the society expects them to be, therefore identity has been formed. The identity formation concerns develop during the adulthood stage. The concerns include vocational, political, religious/spiritual, and sexual issues. As one of the concerns of identity formation, spirituality covers the major issues in identity formation of adulthood. As Erikson (1968) and Loder (1998) suggest, the beliefs, worldview, and values of religious traditions provide an ideological context in which individuals can generate a sense of meaning, order, and place in the world that is crucial to identity formation. Moreover, spirituality contributes an important role in identity formation. Spirituality brings an awareness of self in relationship to others (Benson, 1997). Engaging in the spiritual provides connectedness with divine, human, or natural other, giving a young person an opportunity to experience himself or herself in relationship to God, a community of believers, or nature for example. This moving beyond the self provides the opportunity for the search for meaning and belonging that is central to the task of identity exploration (Benson, 1997; Hill et al., 2000). Erikson (1965) adds that awareness that stems from this search provides the ultimate answers and perspective in the larger issues of life that are crucial to the resolution of identity crisis. In this sense, spiritual identity can refer to a connectedness to both divine and human. In achieving the spiritual balance, Erikson (in Hoare, 2002) introduces the images of the spiritual adult involved holistic concepts such as (1) actuality and mutuality: the release of defensiveness naturally acquired in attaining autonomy that frees one to participate and share effectively; (2) leeway: the freedom to be oneself and to grant such freedom to others; (3) adaptation: the move from passive acceptance of unacceptable life conditions to ego strength whereby one gains the power to fit the environment to one's needs and the needs of others; (4) insight: truth gained via contemplation of seeing into oneself and into a situation that it obliges toward ethical action; and (5) virtue and centrality: the spiritual and ethical center that with optimum resolution of life stages allows the self to be bound together around transcendent values of hope, purpose, fidelity, love, wisdom, and so on. PAULO'S SPIRITUAL IDENTITY FORMATION One of this study concerns is to describe how identity is defined in Paulo Coelho's Aleph by analyzing the character of Paulo. In the novel, Paulo is pictured as a fifty-nine years old man and also a successful writer who has achieved everything in his life except one thing, he feels something wrong about himself. He thinks that he is not what he wants to be and considers himself to be in the wrong path. Generally known, people of his age should have a fixed identity since the identity forming happens in adolescence. Yet in this case, adulthood people perhaps have different opinion about identity. In adolescence, identity is defined as who one is and where his place in this world. As time passes by, adolescents will grow old and may change their perception about their identity. Identity is no longer a mere question about "Who am I?", rather it concerns with religious and spiritual matters. As Erikson (in Hoare, 2002) earlier suggests, identity does not end in adolescence. He says that identity is a progessing process that happens throughout the stages of adulthood. In other words, identity is not really fixed in adolescence and it is an evolving aspect of adulthood life which continues to renew as time goes by. As Erikson (in Hoare,2002) suggests that identity could change during the adulthood stage due to life experiences that one encounters, the identity formation in adulthood is flexible to modify and evolve due to individuals' experiences. It tends to be a development of the previous stage in which identity has been formed in the adolescence. One of identity issues of adulthood is spiritual/religious identity. Generally, there is an unclear distinction between spirituality and religion, but there is a different point between the two domains. Contemporary research often attempts to differentiate religion from spirituality. In this case, religion generally becomes associated with the institutional and the sociological (prescribed systems, rituals, and traditions or beliefs), and spirituality becomes associated more with personal, psychological, and individual phenomena (Hood, Spilka, Hunsberger, & Gorsuch, 1993). In the spiritual identity formation, the two domains, spirituality and religion contribute an importing as wholeness. Indeed, all dimensions of spirituality can be addressed by religion as well as by other ideologies and practices (Roehlkepartain et al., 2006). Identity formation in adulthood, as Erikson (1968) notes it, has the same methodology as the other stages do. It begins with identification /exploration of individuals about the outer world (society) to coin a sense of identity. Then it is followed by conflicts and crises as Erikson (1968) has stated that conflicts and crises are psychosocial needs in nature. Given the right condition and enough time and space, individuals may achieve a balanced perspective of identity of what they need to be and what the society expects them to be, therefore identity has been formed. In the novel Aleph, Paulo is beginning to search the meaning of his spirituality by conducting identifications, exploration and experiments through magical and religious traditions to discover his spiritual identity. Erikson (1965) states that ne way religion promotes a sense of belongingness is through religious rituals. In this case, Paulo conducts magical and religious traditions in order to search the meaning of his spiritual being. It has made Paulo engage into a man named J. who serves as his master. The purpose of these rituals/traditions, as Erikson states it, is to promote a sense of belongingness of Paulo. In the other words, it leads Paulo to where his spirituality belongs to. Still in the same subject, what individuals need are exploring and experiment that provide them the opportunity to search the meaning of their belongingness in spiritual context. In order to explore and experiment his spiritual life, Paulo has taken the road of a pilgrim since he was a teenager. He traveled continents to search the meaning of his spiritual being and now he comes to a point where he finally understands that in order to search his spiritual being, he has to explore and experiment with his spirituality by following religious paths. As Erikson (1968) and Loder (1998) suggest, the beliefs, worldview, and values of religious traditions provide an ideological context in which individuals can generate a sense of meaning, order, and place in the world that is crucial to identity formation. Religion in Paulo's life has been becoming meaningful since he took the paths of Pilgrim since he was young. As what Erikson and Loder have stated, one way individuals can generate a sense of meaning of self is by exploring and experimenting the values of religious traditions in which Paulo has followed for years. Guided by J, Paulo has followed the religious traditions to regain the touch of his inner being/spirituality. Besides performing that religious tradition as mentioned above, spirituality can also be achieved by doing the other religious traditions such as performing confessional prayers, going to church, mosque and temple, or following the path of Pilgrimage. Since Paulo believes in Christianity, he follows the Pilgrimage Path to search his spiritual identity. This, as Erikson calls it "developmental task", is the process of exploring and experimenting to re-establish identity. The developmental tasks of finding spiritual identity are determined by the gradual process of the individuals' spiritual or religious experiences. Thus, Paulo's effort by following the religious traditions has put him in the correct order to attain his spiritual identity. Referring to the meaning of religion as mentioned above, a person may experience and generate a sense of belonging to God or a community of believers. This moving beyond the self provides the opportunity for the search for meaning and belonging that is central to the task of identity exploration (Benson, 1997; Hill et al., 2000). Thus, it proves that religion promotes a central role to spiritual identity formation. Religion helps the individual to achieve the connectedness to the Divine. In this case, Paulo has achieved the connectedness to the Divine by performing religious traditions. The developmental tasks of identity formation in spiritual context do not end by only achieving the connectedness to the Divine. There is more to do before achieving the spiritual identity. The next developmental tasks are to build the connectedness to the other human being. This kind of connectedness is personal and psychological in nature. According to Benson (1997), spirituality contributes an important role in identity formation. Spirituality brings an awareness of self in relationship to others. Therefore, spirituality helps the individuals to fulfill the developmental tasks and achieving the connectedness to the others. In achieving the spiritual balance, Erikson (in Hoare, 2002) introduces the images of the spiritual adult involved holistic concepts such as (1) actuality and mutuality: the release of defensiveness naturally acquired in attaining autonomy that frees one to participate and share effectively; (2) leeway: the freedom to be oneself and to grant such freedom to others; (3) adaptation: the move from passive acceptance of unacceptable life conditions to ego strength whereby one gains the power to fit the environment to one's needs and the needs of others; (4) insight: truth gained via contemplation of seeing into oneself and into a situation that it obliges toward ethical action; and (5) virtue and centrality: the spiritual and ethical center that with optimum resolution of life stages allows the self to be bound together around transcendent values of hope, purpose, fidelity, love, wisdom, and so on. Related to the five images of Erikson's adult spiritual, there seems to be compatibility between those characteristics and Paulo's spirituality regarding to build connectedness or harmony to the others. In Paulo's case, he builds relationships with the others to keep in touch with his inner self and his surroundings (people and environments). Having followed the path of religion, he chooses the method of his beliefs to gain his spirituality in the matter of connecting with the others by making relationships with people and his surroundings. Therefore, in order to make relationships with the others, Paulo decides to have a meeting with people he has never met before after book signing session. Relating those efforts from Paulo to the images of spiritual adult introduced by Erikson, Paulo has attained the first image as a spiritual adult, which is actuality and mutuality. Paulo releases his defensive nature to gain the autonomy as an independent person that frees him to share and participate in the party. His efforts have put him to the foundation of spiritual being of his self in relation with the others. Thus, after achieving the stage of actuality and mutuality, adults have to pass the other gradual processes in forming the spiritual identity. As Erikson (in Hoare, 2002), there are five images of spiritual adults in the adulthood stages. Those images can only be achieved by experiencing gradual processes. As Paulo moves forward in the developmental tasks, he finds that actuality and mutuality do not meet his spiritual needs. He needs to experience more spiritual processes to attain the awareness of self in spirituality. He goes forward and experiments his spiritual side by conducting more chances to meet people. Yet it seems to him, there is a woman that could be the key to explore deeper his spiritual life and the woman is Hilal. Through Hilal point of view, Paulo has already met her in past lives. Yet Paulo rejects Hilal's existence and the fact that they are bound together in this life. This leads Paulo to a state of desperation. Erikson (1968) refers to the developmental tasks of this condition as ego integrity versus despair. In this case, despair is the crisis in the developmental tasks of adulthood. These tasks involve the integration of all elements of the past and the acceptance that this is the only life to be lived. In Paulo's case, he denies the fact that he was bound to Hilal in the past times and neglecting Hilal's presence in the present time. Being in the state of desperation, Paulo is haunted by the past lives and tries to recollect solve the maze of his past lives. According to Erikson (1968), the goal of this time in life is to be able to look back on life as meaningful and fulfilling. Yet, Paulo is striving to complete these developmental tasks. In these circumstances, as what Erikson suggests, Paulo has to be able to integrate all elements of his past. In this case, Paulo seems to have contradiction towards Hilal about their past lives. In Paulo's point of view, he was priest who had made several women sentenced to death because he did not testify that the women were innocent. In the other hand, according to Hilal, Paulo was the priest and the man she loved that made him burned to death and he was responsible for doing that. As Erikson (1968) has already assumed, conflicts or crises are in nature in psychosocial. The conflicts between the two in contradicting their past lives promotes to them to a deeper spiritual side of them. Through The Aleph, they are reliving their past in a fraction of seconds. The goal of this effort, as what Erikson suggests, is to look back on life as meaningful and fulfilling. After several time revisiting the past lives, Paulo come into a realization that the goal and the meaning of this life was to fulfill the unfinished tasks from his past. He realizes that the pilgrimage leads him to fulfill his redemption for making those women in past suffer. Thus, Paulo has managed this Ego integrity versus despair. Succeeding in his developmental tasks so far, Paulo has reviewed his contributions he made to the others. Besides having form the integration of his past live, Paulo is really fulfilling Erikson's third image of spiritual adult, which is adaptations. Erikson (in Hoare, 2002) refers adaptations to the move from passive acceptance of unacceptable life conditions to ego strength whereby one gains the power to fit the environment to one needs and the needs of others. By receiving Hilal, forgiveness, Paulo has attained Erikson's image of adaptations because he has finally accepted his life conditions where he has to fulfill his redemption in this time of life. Thus, he gains the power to fit environment to his needs as an independence being and the need of other (Hilal). Those descriptions of Paulo's efforts in search of his spirituality have put him to the connectedness to the Divine and the human. Yet, Paulo has not gained the spiritual identity though he has gone through gradual processes of spirituality and religion. The final task of the developmental tasks is to integrate the concept of spirituality (connectedness to others) and religion (connectedness to the Divine) wholeness or unity. Religion and spirituality seeks to integrate rather than polarize. Therefore, spiritual identity is not only inclusive religious beliefs and practice but may also involve pathways and sacred not found in religion (Zinnbauer, Pargament, & Scott, 1999). To discover the ultimate answer of the developmental tasks, Paulo is brought to an island in the middle of Lake Baikal. The ultimate answer is similar to that Erikson's fifth image of spiritual adult, which is virtue and centrality. This image refers to the integration of spiritual ethical center that allows the self to be bound together around transcendent values hope, purpose, fidelity, love and wisdom. In the other words, if one has achieved this image of spiritual adult, therefore spiritual identity is formed. In the island, Paulo meets a shaman that guides him to engage in a traditional spirituality tradition that allows him to integrate the religious side and spiritual side of his self to achieve the ultimate answer of his search. Engaging in such spiritual tradition, Paulo has been aware of what he is and where his spiritual side leads him to. As what Erikson (1968) assumes, engaging in the spiritual provides connectedness with divine, human, or natural other, giving a young person an opportunity to experience himself or herself in relationship to God, a community of believers, or nature. Thus, Paulo's engagement to the shaman in the spiritual tradition has brought him awareness of his spiritual and religious being. Awareness that stems from this search provides the ultimate answers and perspective in the larger issues of life that are crucial to the resolution of identity crisis. Therefore, Paulo's spiritual identity has been formed after going through gradual processes of spirituality and religion. It concludes that the identity formation of Paulo is completed. CONCLUSION Based on the recent analysis of the data, the result can be concluded that Paulo has to encounter gradual process before achieving the spiritual identity. The gradual process is simplified into several steps. The first step is doing exploration and experiment. In this case, Paulo is engaging in religious tradition to explore and experiment his spiritual side. Secondly, the step is achieving Erikson's images of spiritual adult. From the analysis, Paulo has achieved three of five images of spiritual adult. The images are (1) actuality and mutuality, (2) adaptation, and (3) virtue and centrality. Thirdly, the step is facing crisis (despair). Paulo turns to despair when he cannot find the harmony between his religious and spiritual values. Besides, he is also conflicting with Hilal. The Last step is integrating religious and spiritual values (ego integrity) and discovering spiritual identity. Paulo has managed to integrate the religious and spiritual values. Therefore, Paulo is completing the spiritual identity formation. REFERENCES Benson, P. L. 1997. Spirituality and the adolescent journey. Reclaiming Children and Youth, 5, 206–209. Erikson, E. H. 1965. Youth: Fidelity and diversity. In E. H. Erikson(Ed.), The challenges of youth (pp. 1–28). Garden City,NY: Anchor. Erikson, Erik H. 1968. Identity, youth, and crisis. New York: Norton. Hill, P. C., Pargament, K. I., Hood, R. W., McCullough, M. E., Swyers, J. P., Larson, D. B., et al. 2000. Conceptualizing religion and spirituality: Points of commonality, points of departure. Journal for the Theory of Social Behavior, 30, 51–77. Hoare, C. H. 2002. Erikson on development in adulthood: New insights from the unpublished papers. New York: Oxford University Press. Hood, R.W., Spilka, B., Hunsberger, B., & Gorsuch, R. 1996. The psychology of religion: An empiricalapproach (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford. Loder, J. E. 1998. The logic of the spirit: Human development in a theological perspective. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Roehlkepartain, E. C., King, P. E.,Wagener, L., & Benson, P. L. (Eds.). 2006. The handbook of spiritual development in childhood and adolescence. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Zinnbauer, B. J., Pargament, K. I., & Scott, A. B. 1999. The emerging meanings of religiousness and spirituality: problems and prospects. Journal of Personality, 67, 889–916.

A STUDY OF TURN-TAKING USED IN INTERVIEW TV PROGRAM "INDONESIA NOW EXCLUSIVE AGNES MONICA WITH DALTON TANONAKA" ON METRO TV Ari Nugroho English Literature Study Program, Faculty of Languages and Arts, Surabaya State University Ari.cicit@yahoo.com Lisetyo Ariyanti, S.S., M.Pd. English Literature Study Program, Faculty of Languages and Arts, Surabaya State University lisetyo.a@yahoo.com Abstrak Percakapan sebagai perilaku manusia terjadi ketika ada dua peserta atau lebih yang membahas sesuatu . Dalam percakapan , giliran untuk bicara memiliki struktur dasar yang adalah hanya satu peserta yang dapat bicara pada satu waktu kemudian yang lain seperti yang dinyatakan oleh Levinson (1983:296) bahwa percakapan yang ditandai dengan turn taking , yaitu: salah seorang peserta , A , bicara , berhenti ; yang lain , B , mulai berbicara , dan berhenti jadi dapat distribusi dari A-B-A-B-A-B pada dua peserta . Tesis ini tentang pengambilan giliran berbicara dalam acara wawancara TV Indonesia Now eksklusif Agnes Monica dengan Dalton Tanonaka di Metro TV . Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk menemukan cara peserta dalam mengambil dan membangun giliran untuk berbicara . Ada tiga pertanyaan penelitian yang muncul dalam tesis ini , pertama adalah sistem pengambilan berbicara seperti apa yang digunakan oleh peserta dalam wawancara program televisi Indonesia Now , kedua adalah bagaimana peserta membangun giliran mereka dalam percakapan dan yang terakhir adalah efek pada alur sesi program dan peserta saat menggunakan giliran mengambil strategi yang didasarkan pada latar belakang budaya percakapan mereka. Desain tesis ini adalah deskriptif kualitatif dan menggunakan beberapa teori dari Sacks , et al ( 1974 ) teori tentang sistem pengambilan giliran dan juga Tannen (2005) , dan Yule ( 1996) teori tentang strategi mengambil giliran berbicara seperti tumpang tindih , gangguan dan backchannel sinyal , dan Kurylo ( 2013 ) tentang latar belakang budaya percakapan dalam menggunakan strategi mengambil giliran. Proses analisis data yaitu menggambarkan data, kemudian mengklasifikasi , setelah itu menghubungkan ke teori dan penelitian sebelumnya tentang mengambil giliran berbicara. Setiap orang memiliki cara sendiri saat mengambil giliran untuk berbicara . Mereka hanya tidak menyadari bahwa dalam setiap sistem dan strategi mengambil giliran dalam percakapan memberikan banyak efek kepada para peserta, program , dan juga penonton . Data analisis ini menunjukkan banyak fenomena tentang mengambil giliran untuk berbicara dan juga menemukan hal baru tentang gangguan yang memiliki hubungan dengan tumpang tindih . Kata Kunci: percakapan, pengambilan giliran Abstract Conversation as human behaviour happens when there are two or more participants who are discussing something. In a conversation, the turn to talk has a basic structure that only one participant can talk at a time then another as Levinson (1983:296) stated that conversation is characterized by turn taking, that is: one participant, A, talks, stops; another, B, starts, talks, stops and so we obtain as A-B-A-B-A-B distribution of across two participants. This thesis is about turn-taking in interview TV program Indonesia Now exclusive Agnes Monica with Dalton Tanonaka on Metro TV. The aim of this thesis is to find the way participants in a conversation take and construct the turn to talk. There are three research questions that arise in this thesis, first is what turn-taking systems are used by the participants in interview TV programme Indonesia Now, second is how do the participants construct their turn in conversation and the last is hat are the effects to the flow of session of the programme and to the participants while using the turn taking strategies based on their cultural background of conversation. The design of this thesis is descriptive qualitative and use some theories from Sacks, et al (1974) theory about turn-taking systems and also Tannen (2005), and Yule (1996) theory about turn taking strategies such as overlap, interruption and backchannel signal, and Kurylo (2013) about the cultural background of conversation in using turn taking strategies. The processes of data analysis are describing the data, then classifying, after that connecting to the theory and previous study about turn taking approach. Every people have their own way while taking the turn to talk. They are just not realize that in every systems and strategies of turn taking in conversation give a lot of effects to the participants, programme, and also the audiences. The data of this analysis shows a lot of phenomena about taking the turn to talk and also find new thing that interruption have relation with overlap. Keywords: conversation, turn-taking Introduction Every person always interacts with others to socialize their lives in order to understand each other. They have their own way to do it. In this case, they use a different language conversation to show what their purpose and expectations. Conversation as discourse type has been defined by Cook (1989:51) in the following way, it is not primary necessitated by a practical fast, any unequal power of participants is partially suspended, the number of participants is small, turns are quite short and talk is primarily for the participants and not for an outside audience. In a conversation, people mutually explicate intents and purposes using a variety of ways. The conversation has a number of reasons why it could happen, such as where that conversation took place, How close they get to know each other, Topics of conversation, how do they convey what is in their minds, when they get a turn to talk. For example, when someone was jogging in the park, and then saw someone falling over due to the stumbling stone, the first person will start a conversation to offer help even though they didn't know each other, then automatically the first speaker will directly show the intention and the objective without further small talks. This contrasts with an incident where there was a conversation that occurs between people who know each other. Most of them start a conversation with a greeting or a bit of humour, such as "Hi", "wow you are so cute like a puddle". Conversation is a natural human behaviour that always occurs when there are two or more participants. Levinson (1983:296) stated that conversation is characterized by turn taking, that is: one participant, A, talks, stops; another, B, starts, talks, stops and so we obtain as A-B-A-B-A-B distribution of across two participants. This explains that only one participant speaks at a time then another when the turn is possible. But in every conversation there is definitely some phenomenon of turn-taking that often occurs as Yule given example about turn-taking below ; Mr. Strait : What's your major Dave? Dave : English—well I haven' really decided yet. (3 seconds) Mr. Strait : So—you want to be a teacher? Dave : No—not really—well not if I can help it (2.5 seconds) Mr. Strait : Wha—//Where do you— go ahead Dave : I mean it's a—oh sorry //I em— (adapted from Yule, 1996: 73) George Yule has given an example in his book "Pragmatics" of overlap interaction between a student and his friend's father during their first meeting. The conversation above shows that there are very short pauses which marked by a line are hesitations, but longer pauses became silence. When there is a silence from the speaker, and another speaker tries to take his or her turn in that conversations as Mr. Strait speech "wha—//where do you— go a head", then Dave try to take his turn at that time and Mr. Strait tries to complete his speech, then Mr. Strait stop and gave Dave the opportunities to talk by said "go ahead". That's call as an overlap. Note that the overlaps marked by double slash (//) at the beginning of overlapping talk. Some people may have their cultural background of conversation or taking the turn to talk such as for English man, overlap and interrupt may not tolerated in a conversation as stated by Sacks et al (1974) that U.S. English-style turn taking overwhelmingly includes quick speaker changes and little overlapping speech. It means that for English man, when in a conversation, they tend to minimize the gap and avoid the overlap that can be interruption of speech because they want to each speaker finish their speech to get full information and this makes the flow of conversation itself run smoothly. It could also happen in a talk show where the host when being asked to the guest star, at the same time the guest stars suddenly answer when the question has not yet been completed. Even then the emcee also interrupted because the answer was nothing like what he wants. Here the host has full power to regulate turn of speech. These events sometimes interfere in the enjoyment of the viewers who are watching it and the speaker who get the overlapping talks due to they use the overlap as the device to get the turns. In this case, the host has full power to regulate a turn to talk. Turn as the organization of talk in conversation and the opportunity of the speaker to get the right of speak is fundamental in conversation because people may not be continuously talk, they need to take a breath for a while then the next speaker tries to get the turn of speak. But sometimes it is inversely proportional to the fact that some people often can't wait until their turns is possible and the researcher wants to know why they did that. To covering the phenomenon as explained above, Conversation Analysis (CA) is useful device to find the observable rules and procedures by which participants manage their conversation behaviour such as who gets the next turn, when the turn is possible and so on. CA aims as discovering how participants understand and respond to another in the turns at talk with a central focus on how sequence of actions generated. Through out the course of a conversation or talk in interaction, speaker display in the next turns an understanding of what the prior turn was about. CA also the device to analysing the way that what speaker say dictates the type of answer expected and that speakers take turns when they interact. Several previous study mention them only marginally, mostly merely presenting a definition of turn-taking, usually categorised in turn-taking system, while the system needs to proved in the use of turn taking strategies and show the effect while using it. An outstanding study concerning turn-taking system was introduced by Indri Manisha, Diponegoro University about The Turn – taking System used in TODAY'S DIALOGUE broadcast On METRO TV March 8th 2011 just analyse about the type and again about the kind of turn taking systems that used in the data. From that phenomenon, the researcher chooses Indonesia Now as the main data of this research. This program broadcasts once a week on Tuesday on Metro TV at 9.30 p.m to 10.30 p.m. It is hosted by Danton Tanaka as the interviewer and Agnes Monica, the international singer as the interviewees. The researcher curiosity in finding out how the turn is accepted, held, and why the participants some time can't wait the possible turn. The topic of the main data is about Agnes's experiences in becoming international singer. RSEARCH QUESTION Based on the phenomena in the background of the study above, it is intended to answer some of the research questions as follows; 1. What turn-taking systems are used by the participants in interview TV programme Indonesia Now? 2. How do the participants construct their turn in conversation? 3. What are the effects to the flow of session of the programme and to the participants while using the turn taking strategies based on the cultural background of conversation ? PURPOSE OF THE STUDY The purpose of the creation of this research is to provide the answer of the research question described above, namely; 1. To know about the turn-taking systems are used in interview TV programme Indonesia Now 2. To find out how the participants construct their turn to speak 3. To know the effects of the flow of the programme and participants if they use the turn strategies which they are from different cultural conversation background METHOD This study uses descriptive qualitative method which is not focus on number but tends to focus on the phenomenon of words, phrases, and sentences. According to Munhall (2007), descriptive qualitative research is not reducible to numbers and categories but it situated in the person's life and the participant's words to understand social interaction. The object of this study is the turn-taking system and strategies used by the participants in interview TV program Indonesia Now on Metro TV. This study uses their turn-taking systems and strategies as the research by noting the transcript of the object in data collection. The participants in interview TV program Indonesia Now exclusive Agnes Monica with Dalton Tanonaka on Metro TV become sources of the data, specifically the host, and the guest star. The data are in form of speech times, utterances, words and phrases. In the process of collecting the data, the use of observation data technique is important to get an easy way while choosing the data to be analysed. According to Bloomer (1998:186), observation is a technique of collecting the data for studies in psycholinguistics, first-language acquisition, second-language acquisition, literacy, accent and dialect studies, sociolinguistics, language and gender, and conversation analysis. In this technique, the data can be finds out in various ways such as secret or open observation, recording from TV or radio program, or reusing previous study which contain of transcriptions and notes relating to the object. The researcher as the key instrument in this study uses his science and ability to collect the data as explained by Heigham (2009: 11) that in qualitative research, the researcher is the primary research instrument and researchers use themselves to collect the data. The researcher is one of English Department student in State University of Surabaya, specifically focus on Linguistics. When the data was got, the phenomena of the way the participants talk which is sometimes irregular was became the main problem to analysed next. In order to get a good data including well audio and video, after observation was done, then continued with record the data by using a tool which was called tape-recording. This will support many types of work or project such as sociolinguistics, accent and dialect studies, conversation analysis and so on, where it may help to make notes of transcript and avoid missing important information as explained by Bloomer (1998: 153) that the use of collecting recorded data is to listen over and over again for the detail. It would be badly need of a good video and audio, because some people are often unclear in utter the words. In this part, the data was recorded by using a video tape recorder. In order to get a good data involve well audio and video, the use of one of internet's most popular sites, namely YouTube was choose. After the data was found, then it was downloaded. The need of well audio and video was to get the transcripts and well understand about the phenomenon of the TV programme really occurs. Once all the data is obtained, it is now time to analyse. In this study, the researchers used the technique of data analysis from Dey (1993:31-56) which show the way to analyse qualitative research. According to Dey, the qualitative analysis includes processes of describing phenomena, classifying it, and seeing how the concepts interconnect. the data used to conduct this study will be described first in order to give the information about the phenomenon that is found in this research as explained by Dey (1993: 32) that the first step in qualitative analysis is to develop thorough and comprehensive descriptions of the phenomenon under study. It was continued by classifying the data as Dey (1993; 41) stated that without classifying the data, we have no way of knowing what it is that we are analysing. This means that by classifying data, the researcher will be able to analyse a research. In this part, the researcher makes a table of list about the turn-taking systems and the thing that doesn't related to the object will not be entered into the list. Describing and classifying is not finish yet, the researcher must continue the analysis by making connection between data and theories. This part is to make building blocks which mean that the researcher has to connecting the data with the theories in order to keep it on topic and goals analysis. DISCUSSION After analyzing the data, it can be found that the participants use the systems in different way and words. The table below are the most commonly system used by the participants; No Turn-Taking Systems Type of Words 1 Turn-Constructional Component Single Word Yeah Okay Because Really Sure Confidence Yes No Exactly Single Phrasal I don't I listen Work harder I can Out of window Of course Single Clausal Is there one of good thing? But then becomes harder? But that's the goal So you admit it? It just happens? But you say you plan thing? 2 Turn-Allocation Component Self Selecting Selecting by another From the table above shows how the participants use the systems in conversation. It can be described that the participants use the first system Turn-Constructional Component which divided into three parts, single word, single phrasal, single clausal with many kind of words. For the first, single word, the participants which are the host Dalton Tanonaka and the guest star Agnes Monica use the word yeah, okay, because, really, sure, confidence, yes, no, and exactly as the way in using this system. From those data, the participants didn't use the same way or word while constructing their turn by using single word, single phrase and single clause component because this is only a single unit types and it will not be usable if use in the same way as Sakcs, et al (1974;702) stated that the use of unit-types lacking feature in the same way may not be usable. The use of single word, single phrase, single clause turn and also the allocation component which are self-selecting and selecting by other in taking the turn to talk are the techniques to make a bridge to know their turn status in conversation and the way of turn to talk was allocated as stated by Sacks, et al (1974;699) that there are techniques for the construction of utterances relevant to their turn status and the allocation of speaker. In a conversation, sometime the speakers can't wait for the TRP or the possible sentence completion to get the turn to talk. They tend to use the strategies in taking the turn which are overlap, interruption and backchannel signal. Overlap Here the overlap and interruption have a connection in use. In the analysis of this study, the participants in interview TV program Indonesia Now use overlap strategies as a way in taking the turn and also show their enthusiasm of the topic in conversation. As Tannen (2005;98) stated that overlap, and latching of utterances are devices by which some speakers show solidarity, enthusiasm, and interest in others' talk, that's can be called as cooperative overlap. Why the overlap strategy has a connection with overlap because the overlap tends to be positive way in taking the turn and interruption is the negative. The overlap will be useful for the participants and the flow of the program itself can be more interest to watch. According to Coates (2004:113), overlaps are instances of slight over anticipation by the next speaker, instead of beginning to speak immediately following the current speaker's turn, and the next speaker begins to speak at the end of the current speaker's turn (TRP). This could be the way of next speaker anticipate the silence of the current speaker's talk by following the current speaker's turn and topic of conversation. Interruption Meanwhile, interruption is begun by overlap but in wrong place and seems like competing the turn to talk because the next speaker was difficult to find the last word where the turn was come. Coates (2004:113-114) stated that interruptions are violations of turn taking when the next speaker begins to talk while the current speaker is still speaking and the current speaker's turn could not be defined as the last word. Interruption can make the interlocutor angry because when the current speaker is talking about serious topic, next speaker tries to get the turn with overlap strategies but in wrong place and moment, so this become an interruption and broke the flow of the conversation in the program. The conversation below show how the participant uses overlap strategies in a right and wrong way; D: you have the performance skill, you know what I think will do for you? Just my limited experience in the broadcast, a movie role like things that need did for Zang ziyi or Michelle Yeoh, they take role in a serious movie, they serious actress and you can singing further because there is so many //singer A: Actually there has been over but I am not gonna// talk about it first ((laugh)) D: But you let us// know? A: OF COURSE OF COURSE I will definitely (scene 2, line 88-91) The conversation above shows that there are two arrows which are the first is overlap and second is overlap but become interruption. As the first arrow shows that when D didn't finish his talk yet, A overlap him as seen where the double slash (//) was the time A overlap D's talk. It was called as an overlap strategy because D didn't feel that A competing him in taking the turn. It contrast with second arrow which is an overlap became interruption as seen in A's talk in the last line. There are up arrow and bold letter which show that A felt angry because D forced her to answer his question which A didn't want to answer it in line 89 and when D forced her, A answer it with raising pitch. This proves that overlap can be interruption if the user can't place it in the right way. Backchannel Signal Meanwhile, the use of backchannel signal makes the flow of the program run smoothly, no overlap or interruption phenomena when the participants use this strategy. Backchannel signal as the way of participants indicate that they are listening the current speaker speech made the flow of conversation run attractively because the participants seem like they are understand about the topic. Yule (1998) maintains that backchannels are "vocal indications of attention, e.g. uhhuh, hmm when someone else is talking". The effect in using the turn-taking strategies All of turn taking strategies has their own effect to the program even to the flow of the program itself. Here the host, Dalton Tanonaka as an American and Agnes Monica as an Indonesian have their own cultural background of conversation. As Robles in Kurylo (2013) stated that United States people tend to give quick response and answer just to minimize the gap and conversation and for outside U.S such as Indonesia, the longer pause may not be a problem in conversation as the conversation below show the participant (A) Agnes Monica didn't pay attention that when she was speaking, there was a longer pause up to 9 seconds; D: Now what could you be better act? A: ehhh (9 seconds) politics?(0.2)//may be probably D: pol politics? Playing the business and the industry and// A: But for now I mean I don't em I am not thinking of going into politics but if you know(.) if I was born// (scene 1, line 35-38) When the participants use an overlap strategy, the flow of the program become more interest and attractive because they use this strategy to show that they are enthusiasm while discussing the topic of conversation and make the audiences want to watch it until the program is end. It different with the use of interruption, the flow of the program become flat because the audience and the participants involve it competing the turn to talk and for the audiences, they can't enjoy the program as stated by Sacks et al (1974) that interruption is a violation of the current speaker's right to the floor and disruption to the flow of the conversation. On the other hand, Halliday in Paltridge (2006;14) argues that speech or spoken discourse are no less highly organized. There is no organization or rule of using overlap and interruption. A conversation or in the DA it was called as spoken discourse, no grammatical structure for spoken discourse and as natural aspect for speaker says something. People allowed to overlap or interruption someone speaks to ask for clarification to reach information clearly. For this, it may allowed for people outside U.S English community, because for the U.S English community, in a conversation, the gap, silence, overlap, and interruption must be avoided as Philips in Kurylo (2013;100) mentioned that In other speech communities within and outside of the United States, however, longer pauses may occur between speakers with more or less than the expected overlap. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION Conclusion Basically, all theories of turn takings systems and strategies are applicable to analyse the phenomena of the use of turn taking systems and strategies based on their theories category. In preceding chapter, the background of the study here give a little view about turn taking, and anything about conversation that will be analysed next. In doing analysis, there are a lot of new phenomena in using the turn taking systems and strategies. For the turn taking systems, turn allocation component, self selecting system is always not a question. The use of strategies also given a lot of phenomena which is if the speaker uses overlap strategies, it will useful for the conversation become more interest but if the speaker use overlap in a wrong way, it will be interruption that can make the flow of the program was not interest and for the effect in using the turn taking strategies, the use of overlap and interruption may allowed for people outside U.S English community because for the U.S English speaker, in a conversation, the long pause, interruption and overlap phenomena must be avoided to minimize the gap and make the flow of the program run smoothly based on the rule in conversation which is the next speaker should wait until the TRP is come or in other word, the next speaker should wait for the current speaker finishes the speech. Suggestion Based on the result, the researcher thinks that conducting research of turn taking is very challenging. By using conversation analysis, turn taking approach, or other approaches, such as discourse analysis approach. For the net researcher, the researcher of this study suggests that in doing turn taking analysing phenomena, its better to choose the data that the background of the participants has a lot of information, knowledge and so on to get a lot of phenomena off turn taking. Turn taking phenomena is not only in interview TV program, but also in another forms of conversation. REFERENCES Brown, G. and Yule, G. (1983) Discourse Analysis, Cambridge University Press. Coates, J. (2003) Men Talk, Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Coates, J. (2004) Women, Men And Language: A Sociolinguistic Account Of Gender Differences In Language (3rd ed). Pearson ESL Cook, G. (1989) Discourse, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Dey, Ian. (1993) Qualitative data analysis; A user-friendly guide for social scientists, London & New York, Routledge Heritage, J and Clayman, S. Talk in Action; Interactions, Identities, and Institutions, Wiley-Blackwell Jorgensen, M and Phillips, Louise J. (2002) Discourse Analysis; as Theory and Method, Sage Publication Ltd. Kurylo, A (2013) Inter/Cultural Communication. Marymount Manhattan College; Sage Publications, Inc. Lerner, G.H. (2000) Conversation Analysis; Studies from the first Generation. University of California, Santa Barbara Levinson, Stephen C. (1983). Pragmatics .Great Britain, Cambridge University Press. Liddicoat, Anthony J. (2007). An Introduction to Conversation Analysis, Continuum Litosseti, L. (2010). Research Method in Linguistics, Continuum Intenational Publishing Group. Munhall, P. (2007). The landscape of qualitative research. In P. Munhall(E.d), Nursing research: A qualitative perspective (4th ed., pp 3-36). Sudbury, MA: Jones & Bartlett. Paltridge, B. (2006), Discourse Analysis; An Introduction, Great Britain: MPG Books Ltd, Bodmin, Cornwall Sacks, Harvey, Schegloff, Emanuel A. and Jefferson, Gail (1974) 'A simplest systematics for the organisation of turn-taking in conversation', Language 50, 696–735. Tannen, D. (2005), Conversational Style; Analyzing Talk among Friends New Edition, Oxford University Press Tannen, D. (1994), Gender and Discourse, Oxford University Press Woffitt,R. (2005), Conversation Analysis and Discourse Analysis. Sage Publication Ltd. Yule, G. (1996). Pragmatic. Oxford University Press.

La presente Tesis Doctoral viene titulada como "Presencia de las Redes Sociales y Medios de Comunicación: representación y participación periodística en el nuevo contexto social". Se hace preciso advertir que esta investigación que elaboro pretende cumplir los requisitos necesarios para la obtención del título de Doctor bajo la modalidad de "Tesis por compendio de publicaciones" según viene determinado por el artículo 9 de la Normativa Reguladora del Régimen de Tesis Doctoral (acuerdo 9.1/CG 19-4-12) de la Universidad de Sevilla, publicada en el Boletín Oficial de la Universidad de Sevilla (BOUS) número 3, de 23 de mayo de 2012, y que se desarrolla en el Real Decreto 99/2011 de 28 de enero, por el que se regulan las enseñanzas oficiales de doctorado (BOE de 10 de febrero), donde sus artículos del 11 al 15 establecen el régimen relativo a la admisión a un programa de doctorado, realización, evaluación y defensa de la Tesis Doctoral. Según lo dispuesto por la Disposición Transitoria Primera del RD 99/2011 que habilita la aplicación de la nueva regulación del régimen de Tesis a los estudiantes de anteriores ordenaciones en lo relativo a tribunal, defensa y evaluación de la Tesis Doctoral, la Normativa Reguladora del Régimen de Tesis Doctoral (acuerdo 9.1/CG 19-4-12) de la Universidad de Sevilla indica en su artículo 1 que "queda por tanto así derogada la Normativa de régimen de tesis adoptada por Acuerdo 6.1/C.G. 30-9-08 que es sustituida por la presente Normativa". Esta advertencia es imprescindible para entender la estructura y forma de la materialización escrita de un largo proceso investigador. Es preciso apuntar que, según la Normativa antes indicada, se pueden presentar para su evaluación como Tesis Doctoral un conjunto de trabajos publicados por la doctoranda que "deberá estar relacionado con el proyecto de tesis doctoral en programas regulados por el RD 1393/2007 o anteriores, o con el plan de investigación que conste en el documento de actividades del doctorando en programas regulados por el RD 99/2011". Además, "el conjunto de trabajos deberá estar conformado por un mínimo de dos artículos publicados o aceptados o capítulos de libro o un libro, debiendo ser el doctorando preferentemente el primer autor […]". El compendio de la presente Tesis Doctoral está compuesto por dos libros que son los siguientes: § GARCÍA ESTÉVEZ, Noelia: Redes Sociales en Internet. Implicaciones y consecuencias de las plataformas 2.0 en la sociedad. Editorial Universitas, Madrid, 2012. ISBN: 978-84-7991-359-5. D.L.: M-7755-2012. § GARCÍA ESTÉVEZ, Noelia: Realidad Periodística, contexto social y era tecnológica. Equipo de Investigación de Análisis y Técnica de la Información, Sevilla, 2012. ISBN -13: 978-84-695-6109-6. ISBN -10: 84-695-6109-X. D.L.: SE-6872-2012. Comprobamos que la Tesis Doctoral aquí presentada por compendio de publicaciones cumple los requisitos de la Normativa. Así, el título que encabeza estas páginas fue el propuesto para el Proyecto de Tesis Doctoral presentado en su día y con la posterior aprobación de la Comisión de Doctorado del Departamento de Periodismo II de la Universidad de Sevilla, en el que se circunscribe esta Tesis. Por lo tanto, observamos una evidente relación entre el tema del Proyecto de Tesis Doctoral y las publicaciones aquí presentadas: las Redes Sociales, el Periodismo y la Sociedad. Por otro lado, en cuanto a la autoría de los trabajos presentados, en ambas publicaciones la única autora es la doctoranda, Noelia García Estévez, ciñéndose así a lo indicado en la Normativa que precisa que debe ser la primera autora, y que como puede apreciarse es la única. Siguiendo las indicaciones de la citada Normativa que regula la presentación de una Tesis Doctoral por compendio, a las publicaciones ya mencionadas se incluyen estas páginas en las que figuran los siguientes apartados: A. Una introducción en la que se desarrolla la justificación de la unidad temática de la Tesis. (Véase Capítulo 1). B. Los objetivos, las hipótesis y los principales aspectos del sistema metodológico que ha regido esta investigación. (Véase Capítulo 2). C. Un resumen global de los resultados, donde se enlazan y se contrastan los principales resultados obtenidos y plasmados de forma independiente en las publicaciones presentadas. (Véase Capítulo 4). D. Una discusión de estos resultados, en la que se contrasten estos resultados con las hipótesis planteadas y se reflexione de manera crítica sobre la calidad de la validez interna y externa de la investigación. (Véase Capítulo 5). E. Las conclusiones alcanzadas tras la investigación. (Véase Capítulo 6). F. Aunque la Normativa no lo exige, hemos creído conveniente añadir los apartados de "Publicaciones y sus canalizaciones" donde desarrollamos la optabilidad de editar nuestras investigaciones y las tangibilidades al efectuar las ediciones (véase Capítulo 3) y de "Bibliografía utilizada" en el cual hemos recopilado y clasificado todas las fuentes bibliográficas y hemerográficas que han sido utilizadas a lo largo de las dos publicaciones presentadas y de las siguientes páginas. (Véase Capítulo 7). La presente Tesis Doctoral, titulada "Presencia de las Redes Sociales y Medios de Comunicación: representación y participación periodística en el nuevo contexto social", tiene como objeto de estudio el análisis de la actividad periodística en el nuevo contexto social donde las Tecnologías de la Información y la Comunicación han adquirido un papel crucial. Centraremos nuestra investigación en el ámbito de las Redes Sociales en Internet, pues se han erigido como un elemento fundamental cuyas implicaciones se extienden de manera transversal en todos los aspectos de la sociedad. Por lo tanto, nos enfrentamos al estudio del Periodismo en un momento en el que los avances tecnológicos y la comunicación basada en el paradigma 2.0 influyen, por un lado, en el propio quehacer periodístico, desde el punto de vista del profesional de la información, y, por otro, afecta de manera importante en el entorno social en el que encontramos un ciudadano, receptor de la información periodística, con nuevos hábitos y costumbres y con nuevas demandas y exigencias. Dice Klaus Krippendorff que "toda investigación científica está motivada por el deseo de conocer o entender mejor una porción del mundo real". Esa porción del mundo real a la que se refiere el citado autor y que de forma genérica se conoce como acotación del objeto de estudio es en esta investigación la interrelación entre las Redes Sociales, el Periodismo y la Sociedad. Más concretamente, el papel del Periodismo en un nuevo contexto social en el que impera una comunicación 2.0. Desde finales del pasado siglo y muy especialmente con el inicio del siglo XXI se inauguró una nueva etapa para la humanidad, marcada en gran medida por el imparable desarrollo de las Tecnologías de la Información y la Comunicación. Es obvio que hoy día el ciudadano posee una gran capacidad para comunicarse y mantener relaciones profesionales y/o afectivas con otras personas situadas en cualquier parte del globo terráqueo, superando barreras no sólo geográficas, sino también sociales, culturales, políticas, etc. Además, la popularización y el abaratamiento paulatino de los dispositivos y terminales desde los que se pueden acceder a estas redes ha impulsado la generación de conexiones en el ciberespacio. Como dice Cebrián "la web 2.0 es una plataforma de redes sociales de información en sentido amplio y general concerniente a muchos campos del conocimiento y de la vida real, en sentido periodístico o de información de actualidad, veraz y de interés general de la sociedad, en sentido interpersonal, o de relaciones entre dos o más personas y grupos, y en sentido personal o de comunicación de cada individuo con su entorno inmediato a través de sus sistemas captores del exterior y de sus reacciones ante ellos". Con todo ello, nosotros abordamos una investigación de un fenómeno comunicacional que ha supuesto un profundo cambio en la estructura de los Medios de Comunicación y en los modos en que la sociedad recibe la información. El impacto de la web 2.0 ha supuesto una mutación del receptor pasivo de la comunicación a un creador y gestor de contenidos. Ha supuesto, además, la ruptura del paradigma tradicional de la comunicación consistente en la tríada emisor-canal-receptor, donde el mensaje ya no es unidireccional, sino que fluye de manera transversal hasta convertirse en una gran conversación global y multidireccional gracias a la accesibilidad, instantaneidad y viralidad de la red. La planificación y el trazado del proyecto de la investigación por realizar supusieron el inicio de esta investigación, pues se trata de una etapa crucial para el éxito del proceso investigador ya que sin una buena planificación difícilmente se podrán establecer unos objetivos concretos y los mecanismos necesarios para conseguiros. Esta etapa se divide en los siguientes pasos: Selección del tema: consiste en "la definición y posterior delimitación del campo de conocimientos sobre el que piensa trabajar". Identificación de un problema: se trata de detectar algún aspecto no conocido dentro de un área temática y que amerite de una indagación para su solución, también enunciado. Formulación del anteproyecto: se refiere a la realización de "un primer borrador o papel de trabajo que ha de contener las ideas básicas sobre la investigación que nos proponemos llevar a cabo". La elección del tema es la primera gran encrucijada a la que se enfrenta todo investigador en su andadura hacia la obtención del Título de Doctor. No obstante, antes del tema está el problema, pues tal y como apunta Jorge Felibertt "el problema es el punto de partida de toda investigación. Se origina cuando el investigador observa dudas sobre una realidad, o hecho o teorías, aparece a raíz de alguna dificultad, nace de una necesidad, con dificultades sin resolver. Una vez que se viene una idea sin resolver, se procede a enmarcar dicho problema en forma de un título de investigación, luego se plantea de forma específica el problema que se acaba de originar el cual estará contenido en el tema seleccionado". Ahora bien, está claro que el problema que el investigador detecte y que le incite a embarcarse en una investigación profunda como es una Tesis Doctoral estará enmarcado en las áreas de conocimiento y de interés del propio investigador. Esto es, una persona puede hallar diversos problemas que se presten a ser investigados, pero la elección del problema a investigar vendrá determinado en gran medida por las características y la propia naturaleza del investigador. Así, el tema, y su pertinente problema, es el primer interrogante que, una vez resuelto, iniciará un largo camino hasta su materialización en una Tesis Doctoral. No siempre es posible formular el problema de forma clara, precisa y manipulable. Éste es propio de la naturaleza misa de la investigación científica, de sus dificultades y complejidades. La capacidad de plantear problemas, dice Cohen y Nagel, "es una señal de posesión del genio científico" y es que los problemas no surgen de la nada, sino que son los investigadores con sus conocimientos y bases teóricas quienes los formulan. En nuestro caso, la elección del tema vino determinada, en primer lugar, por corresponderse a las predilecciones de la doctoranda y estar en sintonía con el Equipo de Investigación de Análisis y Técnica de la Información de la Universidad de Sevilla, al que pertenece la doctoranda desde 2009. Además, y siguiendo las recomendaciones de Umberto Eco, las fuentes a las que se debía recurrir eran, en general, accesibles y manejables. Por su parte, los directores de la Tesis y la propia investigadora han trabajado en la elaboración de un cuadro metodológico apto y efectivo para esta investigación y para la obtención de unos resultados. Recordemos que la realización de una Tesis Doctoral "constituye un trabajo original de investigación con el cual el aspirante ha de demostrar que es un estudioso capaz de hacer avanzar la disciplina a la que se dedica". Esa es la verdadera vocación de este trabajo, hacer avanzar las Ciencias del Periodismo e incluir en ellas investigaciones y teorías válidas sobre fenómenos actuales que repercuten en la sociedad en general y en el Periodismo en particular y que nos obligan a un replanteamiento constante de las bases teóricas de la ciencia. Las Redes Sociales en Internet han calado en la sociedad como en su día lo hiciera la televisión, el teléfono móvil o el propio Internet. Como ya lo dijera el sociólogo Marshall McLuhan en la década de los 60 del pasado siglo, la tecnología constituye una prolongación de nuestro cuerpo. Internet, que más que una tecnología es un efecto de la misma, ha creado el marco de la nueva sociedad, un entorno vital a medio camino entre lo virtual y lo real. El surgimiento de la web 2.0 o web social ha supuesto un antes y un después para el conjunto de la sociedad en, prácticamente, todas las esferas de la vida. Desde el plano más personal e íntimo, hasta el profesional o académico. Todo se ha visto impregnado de la presencia de Blogs, Wikis o Redes Sociales (como Facebook, Twitter…). La tecnología es omnipresente hoy día y media gran parte de la comunicación social. Este nuevo paradigma en el proceso de la comunicación subyace también en el entorno del Periodismo y los Medios de Comunicación. Por lo tanto, en esta investigación nos aproximamos al papel del Periodismo como un ente que ha de evolucionar y adaptarse al propio desarrollo tecnológico, por un lado, y a la nueva sociedad receptora del discurso mediático, por otro. Desde la ciencia poco se ha abordado aún un estudio profundo y amplio sobre el surgimiento, desarrollo y situación actual de las plataformas sociales y sus implicaciones en el Periodismo. Estamos convencidos de que, como bien apuntaba Castells, "la teoría y la investigación […] deben considerarse medios para comprender nuestro mundo y deben juzgarse por su precisión, rigor y pertinencia". De aquí deriva el interés de esta investigación la cual pretende analizar cómo funciona la actividad periodística en el marco de la sociedad actual desde la inclusión de la web 2.0 y las Redes Sociales. Aspirando a ofrecer un conocimiento válido y útil para hacer frente a las nuevas exigencias del profesional de la información de nuestro mundo. Asistimos a cambios profundos, más grandes de los que vivieron cualquiera de nuestros antepasados. Se trata, según palabras de Vázquez Medel, de un proceso de "trashumanización, en el que se están transformando radicalmente las claves que rigen la economía y el mundo empresarial, la política y las organizaciones sociales, las relaciones interculturales y el mundo del derecho, la evolución de la ciencia y la tecnología, y hasta la experiencia individual del mundo, de la vivencia de la espacialidad, la temporalidad, la corporeidad, la relacionalidad". En esta encrucijada ya no sirven las respuestas que hasta ahora eran válidas, ya se quedan obsoletas las fórmulas que parecían efectivas. Ahora, advierte Vázquez Medel, "se hace imprescindible buscar activa y creativamente nuevas soluciones". En última instancia, ése es precisamente nuestro objetivo: buscar respuestas a las nuevas preguntas surgidas en el ámbito del Periodismo tras una revolución tecnológica y cibernética masiva, en la que los usuarios ya no sólo consumen sino que también producen. Un espacio heterogéneo en cuanto a las características de sus miembros así como a la naturaleza de las relaciones que entre ellos se establecen. 1.3. Antecedentes e interés actual de la investigación. El Análisis de Redes Sociales (en adelante, ARS) y la Teoría de Redes se han configurado como una metodología clave en las modernas Ciencias Sociales, entre las que se incluyen la Sociología, la Antropología, la Psicología Social, la Economía, la Geografía, las Ciencias Políticas, la Cienciometría, los estudios de Comunicación, estudios Organizacionales y la Sociolingüística. También ha ganado un apoyo significativo en la Física y la Biología entre otras. En el ámbito de las Ciencias Sociales, una Red Social es una estructura, un grupo de personas relacionadas entre sí que puede representarse analíticamente en forma de uno o varios grafos, en los cuales los nodos representan a los agentes o individuos -también llamados actores- y los arcos -o lazos- representan las relaciones entre ellos. El ARS surge en la década de 1950 con una ingente cantidad de estudios desde diferentes disciplinas: en la sociometría Jacobo Moreno desarrolla la teoría matemática de los grafos; en la psicología social encontramos las teorías del equilibrio estructural de Harary y Cartwright; en la antropología destacan John Barnes, J. Clyde Mitchell y, especialmente, Elizabeth Bott; desde la sociología también se ha entendido el ARS como una variedad de la teoría general de la Sociología estructural con autores como Radcliffe-Brown y, sobre todo, Simmel. En el ámbito español suele considerarse pionero en la introducción del ARS el artículo "El concepto de red social" de Félix Requena Santos en la Revista Española de Investigaciones Sociológicas (REIS). También ha sido fructífero el trabajo de Josep A. Rodríguez desde el Departamento de Sociología y Análisis de las Organizaciones de la Universidad de Barcelona y el Grupo de Análisis de Redes (NAGAR) y el de José Luis Molina desde el Departamento de Antropología Social y Cultural de la Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona y su grupo de investigación Egoredes. Sin embargo, hemos de advertir que nuestro objeto de estudio no es el concepto tradicional y sociológico de Red Social, sino que nosotros indagamos sobre las características, efectos, desarrollo y evolución de las Redes Sociales en Internet. En esta parcela, son mucho menos numerosos los estudios e investigaciones que actualmente encontramos, especialmente en el campo de las Ciencias del Periodismo. Si bien es cierto que desde el principio Internet, las Redes Sociales y el desarrollo tecnológico han despertado el interés de la Academia, la mayoría de los estudios que encontramos carecen aún de la profundidad y la amplitud necesarias. En efecto, nos hallamos ante un fenómeno coetáneo y de imparable evolución, lo cual no nos permite gozar de perspectiva histórica para su análisis. Sin embargo, es imprescindible la realización de investigaciones exploratorias que empiecen a teorizar y argumentar sobre los procesos de los que son testigos. En el ámbito internacional hallamos las aportaciones de autores como el propio Stanley Milgram y su teoría del mundo pequeño; Dan Gillmor y sus aportaciones sobre el Periodismo Ciudadano; Davenport y Prusak y sus estudios sobre la gestión del conocimiento; Fowler y Christakis y sus estudios sobre el poder las Redes Sociales; Godins y su concepto de ideavirus; Jeff Jarvis y el marketing de código abierto; Palfrey y Gassser y su descripción del nativo digital; Rheingol y sus observaciones sobre las comunidades virtuales y las multitudes inteligentes; Lévy y su idea de inteligencia colectiva; Prensky y su teoría de la inmigración digital… Dentro del habla castellana o española también encontramos una serie de autores que se han convertido en referencia dentro de la temática de Redes Sociales en Internet y sus diversas implicaciones sociales y profesionales. No podemos dejar de citar el trabajo y las contribuciones de autores como Manuel Castells y su teoría sobre la Sociedad de la Información y la Sociedad en Red; Enrique Dans y sus constantes reflexiones sobre tecnología y evolución; José Luis Orihuela y sus indagaciones en torno a la Cibercultura, Periodismo y Comunicación digital; Ugarte y su concepto de ciberturba en torno al papel de las Redes Sociales en la movilización social; Alfons Cornellá y su indagación sobre la gestión del conocimiento en red; Juan Varela, José Manuel Gómez y Méndez y Sandra Méndez Muros y su visión del Periodismo Ciudadano; Juan Freire; Mariano Cebrián; Jesús Miguel Flores Vivar; María Ángeles Cabrera González; Antonio Fumero; Adolfo Plasencia; Javier Celaya; Ramón Salaverría; Luis Rull… Diversos investigadores han optado también por esta temática en su andadura hacia la consecución del título de Doctor. Aparte de nuestro caso y de la presente Tesis Doctoral, debemos señalar la investigación llevada a cabo por Sonia Ruiz Blanco sobre la evolución del blog y el papel del receptor en generador y emisor de contenidos y la de César Viana Teixeira en torno a una concepción de las Redes Sociales como modelos de agencias ciudadanas de Comunicación. Desde el ámbito de la Comunicación también encontramos investigaciones de Tesis Doctoral que indagan acerca de los aspectos publicitarios y de marketing de estas herramientas, tal y como la de Fanny Yolanda Paladines Galarza, la de Pedro Álvaro Pereira Correia o la de Virginia Piazzo. Desde la organización y la gestión de empresas encontramos las Tesis Doctorales de Mª. del Carmen Alarcón del Amo o la de Silvia Rodríguez Donaire. Destacamos también las investigaciones de Pedro Román Graván, de Marco Vinicio Ferruzca Navarro o de Paloma López Sánchez, todas ellas insertadas en el campo educativo. Desde otras parcelas como las Matemáticas o la propia Informática también se han realizado interesantes trabajos de Tesis Doctorales, si bien las perspectivas aplicadas en estas investigaciones se alejan considerablemente de nuestra acotación del objeto de estudio, por lo que tienen menos pertinencia en nuestra investigación. Consideramos oportuna la realización de una investigación con rigor científico que sea capaz de analizar el papel de los Medios de Comunicación y de la propia profesión ante una evolución tecnológica evidente que ha conllevado nuevas fórmulas de comunicación social y ante una sociedad interconectada con nuevos hábitos y costumbres pero también con nuevas demandas y exigencias. Los orígenes de Internet se remontan a los años de la Guerra Fría y nace como un proyecto de investigación en redes de conmutación de paquetes, dentro del ámbito militar. A finales de los años sesenta el Departamento de Defensa Americano (DoD) llegó a la conclusión de que su sistema de comunicaciones basado en la comunicación telefónica (Red Telefónica Commutada, RTC) era demasiado vulnerable, puesto que establecía enlaces únicos y limitados entre importantes nodos o centrales, con el consiguiente riesgo de quedar aislado parte del país en caso de un ataque militar sobre esas arterias de comunicación. Como alternativa, el citado Departamento de Defensa, a través de su Agencia de Proyectos de Investigación Avanzados (Advanced Research Projects Agency, ARPA) decidió estimular las redes de ordenadores hasta llegar a una red experimental de cuatro nodos, que arrancó en diciembre de 1969, se denominó ARPAnet. La idea central de esta red era conseguir que la información llegara a su destino aunque parte de la red estuviera destruida. De esta manera nacen los cimientos de Internet. Hoy, su gran popularización y asimilación por parte de la ciudadanía nos lleva a reflexionar sobre la evolución de una herramienta que nació con fines militares y que en la actualidad tiene una clara orientación social. Como expresa Millán, Internet es el fruto caliente de la Guerra Fría pues "aquel producto de la guerra fría se ha convertido (valga el juego de palabras) en el medio más caliente de la actualidad". Al hablar de Internet en España hemos de tener en cuenta que su origen, evolución y situación actual tienen unas características definitorias concretas. Si bien es cierto que los inicios fueron más tardíos y lentos que en otras áreas geográficas, hemos de reconocer que en la actualidad existe un abultado número de usuarios con una gran actividad en los contextos digitales. Desde la aparición de Internet, el crecimiento de número de usuarios ha ido a un ritmo exponencial, alcanzando los 2.400 millones de usuarios en todo el mundo en 2012, según la empresa de servicios online Pingdom. En España, un total de 25 millones de personas se conectaron a Internet en diciembre de 2013, lo que supone un 9,5% más que en el mismo mes de 2011, según el informe elaborado por la consultora Barlovento con datos de la empresa de medición comScore. En octubre de 2012, Facebook llegó a los 1.000 millones de usuarios, con más de 600 millones de usuarios móviles. En Twitter existen ya más de 140 millones de usuarios activos, enviándose más de 340 de millones de tweets al día. Más de mil millones de usuarios únicos visitan YouTube cada mes, reproduciéndose más de 4.000 millones de horas de vídeo al mes. Cada vez más gente se conecta y por más tiempo. En 2012 ese tiempo aumentó un 21%, con respecto a 2011. Los usuarios invierten más tiempo en las Redes Sociales que en otros sitios de Internet. En EE.UU., por ejemplo, el 17% del tiempo en Internet están en la Red Social Facebook. En cuanto al tiempo dedicado por persona a las Redes Sociales: por género, son las mujeres con 8:37 horas al mes a través del ordenador y 9:43 horas a través de dispositivo móvil. En cuanto a franja de edad y género, quienes más tiempo pasan son los hombres de entre 18 a 24 años y las mujeres de entre 25 a 34 años que están 11 horas al mes. Sociales han irrumpido en nuestra sociedad y en nuestras formas de comunicación transformando el panorama actual. Como ya hemos dicho, el paradigma comunicacional ha variado, se ha visto alterado por estas plataformas 2.0 generando nuevas maneras de informar y ser informados. Por lo tanto, la principal innovación en esta investigación es que en ella se entremezclan tres elementos que en la práctica están inevitablemente vinculados: las Tecnologías de la Información y la Comunicación en general y las Redes Sociales en particular; la sociedad interconectada y el ciudadano 2.0 "prosumidor"; y el Periodismo, los Medios de Comunicación y el periodista. La actual sociedad "viene marcada por la aparición de nuevos sectores laborales, la complejidad de los procesos y los productos alcanzados, la inmediatez, el progreso y la búsqueda constante de la eficacia, la globalización de los medios de comunicación, el pluralismo ideológico y la multifocalidad de la comunidad. Pero de todos estos hechos, sobresale el hecho de que las nuevas tecnologías giran en torno a todos los procesos de la información y de la comunicación". La realización de esta Tesis Doctoral se justifica por la necesidad de estudiar las características comunicacionales surgidas tras el fenómeno 2.0 y sus repercusiones en el ejercicio, estructura y recepción del Periodismo. Se ha indagado esta temática en primer lugar desde un punto de vista de la teoría, creando un importante corpus teórico sobre nuestro objeto de estudio. Además, se ha realizado un estudio de campo analizando aspectos concretos de nuestro objeto de estudio e intentando vislumbrar algunas dinámicas y tendencias en el Periodismo y la sociedad actual. Por lo tanto, se trata de una justificación doble: la primera consiste en hacer una aportación teórica, lo más completa posible, sobre las características de las Redes Sociales en Internet y el Periodismo y la sociedad bajo el paraguas de la comunicación 2.0; y la segunda es ofrecer un estudio detallado sobre las repercusiones y transformaciones reales que se están dando en el Periodismo y en el contexto social donde éste tiene lugar.

1- Introducción En un breve artículo ciertamente premonitorio, William Schneider (1994) identificaba las características de la nueva cultura política que, condicionada y a su vez potenciada por las nuevas tecnologías de la información, estaba cambiando la relación histórica entre partidos, líderes y electores. Schneider avanzaba tres características principales de este nuevo acontecer político (Schneider, 1994: 779), a saber: el pragmatismo entendido como la dilución de las ideologías; el personalismo con la emergencia de la figura del candidato por sobre la del partido; y por último el populismo como un movimiento claramente anti-elitista y anti-establishment. En el mundo post guerra fría, la demanda acentuada de participación popular y de control del demos sobre los procesos de decisión y las herméticas elites gubernamentales, obligaría al sistema político a rever las estrategias de comunicación, facilitar la inclusión de las masas y mejorar los procesos de rendición de cuentas. Esto conduciría a une mejora del sistema político y del funcionamiento democrático de las instituciones2. Sin embargo, escasos son los cambios que las principales democracias del mundo han introducido en sus instituciones para mejorar el proceso de inclusión democrática, como así lo atestan el mantenimiento de sistemas electorales a menudo arcaicos y la renuencia de las élites políticas a la utilización de mecanismos de democracia directa. Donde sí ha existido una modificación orientada a complacer a la ciudadanía es, como bien menciona Schneider, en el discurso y en la estrategia política. Cortejar a las masas e incluirlas en un proyecto común (del cual excluiremos a las élites) ha progresivamente reemplazado el debate ideológico. El discurso político se transforma entonces en una técnica de movilización del pueblo en contra de una comunidad política desarticulada y debilitada cuyas instituciones flaquean en sus componentes organizativo y representativo (Badie, 1997: 227). Es en este ámbito de quebranto de los valores de la democracia representativa donde la crisis de la representación y "la faillite du politique" cobran amplio sentido y donde el populismo se inscribe entonces como un proceso subversivo de los canales tradicionales de movilización política, creando nuevas lealtades (apolíticas o anti políticas) culturales, nacionales, comunitarias, étnicas, etc., en reemplazo de las anticuadas construcciones sociales (élites, establishment, clase política, etc.). Pero si el populismo se define antes que nada en oposición al sistema político, no es en sí ni una teoría política ni un programa económico alternativo (Touraine, 1997: 242), y es por eso que podemos argumentar que el populismo se inscribe más en la práctica discursiva que en el dominio de lo normativo. Pero, a fin de cuentas, ¿qué es el populismo? Todo y nada se ha escrito sobre este fenómeno que apasiona y confunde tanto por su complejidad (e inconsistencia) teórica, su variabilidad histórica y la ambigüedad moral que este fenómeno histórico, político e ideológico ha generado entre críticos y defensores. El estudio del populismo ha sido objeto de enfoques disciplinarios que, en lugar de integrar el fenómeno en un contexto general, han contribuido a su compartimentación (Holmes, 1990: 27). Así, los historiadores se han focalizado en los aspectos descriptivos del fenómeno, los politólogos han intentado construir definiciones operativas del concepto, los sociólogos se han centrado en aplicar las teorías de la movilización para explicar la construcción de los movimientos populistas, y los enfoques marxistas, por ejemplo, han aportado clarificaciones sobre la relación entre el populismo y el desarrollo del sistema capitalista moderno. Ernesto Laclau, uno de los más fecundos pensadores sobre la cuestión, ha propuesto que el sustento del populismo reside en la oposición semiótica entre una entidad denominada Pueblo y otra denominada Poder (Laclau, 1977: 167) y que es la propia vaguedad de estas construcciones discursivas la que avala la permanencia y resistencia de este fenómeno. El populismo se articularía y construiría a partir de dos premisas centrales. La primera es una dependencia epistemológica de lo negativo, del enemigo; el populismo, como movimiento con un débil componente ideológico y normativo, se construye preferentemente sobre la crítica más que sobre la propuesta. Es en la identificación del enemigo donde el populismo gana la mitad de la batalla. La segundad premisa, igualmente negativa, es la construcción de un sentido y vínculo comunitario a través del "sacrificio colectivo". Es necesario para esto una articulación narrativa que oponga al Pueblo (o sociedad virtuosa) a una élite egotista destinada al sacrificio (Schulte-Sasse, 1993: 96). El populismo, por lo tanto, no sólo debe definir (y construir) un enemigo, sino que la eliminación de ese enemigo pasa a ser el factor aglutinante del discurso y el accionar político. Si el enfoque de Laclau permite efectivamente un amplio espectro de análisis, es la imprecisión conceptual del "fenómeno populista" lo que ha llevado a la manipulación y abuso teóricos de un concepto por demás interesante. En efecto, la política del antagonismo no es privilegio exclusivo de los movimientos populistas, sino que es producto de la banalización y pauperización del discurso político, contribuyendo así a la creación de sociedades binarias donde los matices y la búsqueda de compromisos inclusivos ceden terreno frente a posiciones radicales. Aquellos que anunciaban el amanecer de una "política de consenso" más allá de las tradicionales demarcaciones izquierda/derecha, constatan en la actualidad la emergencia de nuevas fronteras políticas que fragilizan el consenso y de partidos políticos que aprovechan la debilidad del debate democrático para anunciarse como representantes directos investidos de la voz del pueblo (Mouffe, 2005: 51). En este sentido, la práctica discursiva que construye categorías excluyentes como pueblo/poder, amigo/enemigo, sociedad civil/élites, nacional/foráneo etc., no define únicamente al populismo, sino que ha pasado a ser una estrategia recurrente de movilización política en las democracias modernas. Por lo tanto, la fuerza explicativa de este proceso semiótico en referencia al populismo se diluye, ya sea porque se ha "populizado" la política o porque se ha politizado el populismo. 2- El populismo europeo El populismo europeo, vigente desde mediados/fines del siglo XIX, está fuertemente ligado al sentimiento nacionalista y, en algunos casos, a la consolidación del Estado. Desde fines del siglo XVIII, las nociones de nación y pueblo han articulado las construcciones de las diferentes instituciones y regímenes políticos, pero independientemente de cuáles hayan sido los caminos recorridos, todos se han visto inculcar por el Estado un cuerpo de valores destinado a exaltar las particularidades propias de cada pueblo, cimentadas en un sentimiento de solidaridad excluyente (Hermet, 1997: 34). Esta construcción de una solidaridad e identidad nacional siguió dos caminos diferentes. En los países liberales como Gran Bretaña y Francia, donde existía ya una ciudadanía en vías de expansión, la adhesión al proyecto nacionalista se logró bajo el entendido que si las masas hasta ahora sometidas devenían progresivamente actores políticos, el sistema sólo podría sostenerse a través de la solidaridad y pertenencia a una identidad común, a la vez nacionalista y cívica. Es en el ejercicio creciente de sus responsabilidades y derechos cívicos y políticos donde el pueblo (la ciudadanía en este caso) edifica un proyecto único del cual todos son parte. Por el contrario, en estados más autoritarios que liberales y de creación reciente y cuyo proceso de unificación aún no estaba terminado, como en Alemania o Italia, la nacionalización acelerada de esas identidades fragmentadas, tanto a nivel político como religioso, se construyó antes que nada sobre la solidaridad cultural de la población, a fin de paliar el lento (o inexistente) proceso de construcción cívica (Hermet, 1997: 35). El primer tipo de construcción nacional es lo que ha pasado a denominarse nacionalismo cívico liberal, más acotado a los Estados de Europa occidental. El segundo caso es el de un nacional-populismo o un nacionalismo orgánico y autoritario, más propio de Europa central y oriental Estas construcciones arquetípicas reflejan las dos grandes concepciones sobre la nación y la ciudadanía. La idea de nacionalismo occidental u oriental es intercambiable con la noción de nacionalismo político (el caso francés) o cultural (caso alemán). Si bien es sabido que todos los nacionalismos poseen a su vez características políticas o culturales, la distinción entre estas dos vertientes dependerá de la importancia relativa y de la prioridad histórica de los principios de la organización política o de las preocupaciones culturales (lengua, literatura, historia, folklore, etc.). En el caso de la nación política (Francia): el pueblo = Estado = nación. Toda la población residente sobre el territorio controlado por el Estado constituye la nación. Es el Estado quien crea, quien define la nación (creación desde arriba). En este caso, la unidad política precede a la unidad cultural. En este modelo, la ciudadanía puede ser adquirida por todos aquellos nacidos en el territorio (ius solis), y que adhieran a esta concepción (en el caso francés, a los valores republicanos). Típicamente esta forma de nacionalismo no reconoce la diferencia cultural (ej. velo musulmán). En el caso del nacionalismo cultural (Alemania), la unión se logra a través de una identidad común, lingüística, étnica o cultural. La Nación crea el Estado; la unidad cultural precede a la unidad política. En estos casos, la ciudadanía no puede ser adquirida, sino que es innata, reservada a un grupo primigenio definido en términos étnico-culturales (ius sanguinis). Este nacionalismo no reconoce la asimilación cultural (ej: los judíos o los turcos) (Greenfield, 1999: 48-49). El nacionalismo cívico liberal fue en gran medida impulsado por la clase dominante del momento-la burguesía económica-, y reposa sobre principios abstractos de igualdad y libertad propios de individuos desarraigados de los lazos comunitarios y necesarios para la creación de regímenes burgueses liberales (Khon, 1967). La burguesía, que no se reconocía en le "petit peuple", se oponía a la creación de una identidad nacional basada en características culturales populares. El nacional-populismo, por el contrario, más pasional que intelectual, se desarrolló ahí donde los constructores del Estado nación no tenían otro recurso que exaltar los particularismos culturales (o étnicos) de la comunidad en su proceso de construcción política. En los países de Europa Oriental, donde las élites burguesas carecían del empuje necesario (en parte por una débil industrialización y la permanencia de fuertes estructuras rurales, con históricos lazos de solidaridad entre sí y de subordinación a la autoridad), los valores liberales no lograron influenciar la construcción del Estado. El nacional populismo puede ser visto, igualmente, como un fenómeno de resistencia y de rechazo hacia una opresión exterior, como fue el caso de los Balcanes bajo la dominación Austro-Húngara, de Irlanda hacia Inglaterra o del país vasco contra España. Esta forma de solidaridad se cristalizó en gran medida en las minorías oprimidas en el seno de imperios multiétnicos que, ansiosos por imponer una uniformidad liberal o autoritaria, provocaron como reacción la consolidación de identidades nacionales deseosas de garantizar su libertad, autonomía e integridad a través de la edificación de un Estado propio. El nacional populismo, exacerbando en algunos casos el carácter casi mesiánico de pertenencia a una cultura única, producirá emancipaciones ideológicas peligrosas como el fascismo. El populismo europeo ha conocido diferentes corrientes políticas a lo largo del siglo XX que desgraciadamente no podemos tratar aquí. Conviene sin embargo mencionar que en su acepción más reciente, el populismo europeo se ha visto revigorizado por una unión discursiva con la extrema derecha (o lo que se ha denominado como la "nouvelle droite"), que maneja a placer los discursos identitarios, nacionalistas y anti-elites en un peligroso cocktail ideológico a fuerte potencial de movilización. Mazzolenni ha identificado 5 características centrales de este "neo-populismo" europeo (2003: 117). En primer lugar el populismo conduce a una valorización del pueblo, del "hombre de la calle". El llamado al pueblo implica la participación política directa y la desconfianza de la democracia representativa. El "culto al pueblo" se acompaña con la crítica a las élites. En cuarto lugar, un equilibrio precario se instala entre crítica y aceptación del sistema. Como las instituciones son necesarias para aportar la legitimidad política, la crítica no puede abiertamente intentar destruir el sistema político; en algunos países pueden entonces instalarse "simulacros de democracia". Por último, el populismo es acompañado casi siempre de la exaltación del líder carismático en el cual se concentran el proyecto y las aspiraciones del pueblo. Convengamos, sin embargo, que no todos los movimientos populistas europeos son de derecha, reflejando así la "flexibilidad" ideológica (u oportunismo político) de estos partidos así como la heterogeneidad de la base de apoyo a los movimientos populistas. Estos y otros puntos han conducido a ciertos autores a ver en el resurgimiento del populismo de derecha una amenaza al orden democrático (Mouffe, 2005), pero otros, más mesurados, ven en el éxito de estos partidos de "nueva derecha" un realineamiento de los clivajes tradicionales y de las lealtades partidarias (Sciarini et al. 2002, Hug y Treschel, 2002, Lachat y Kriesi, 2008, Oesch, 2008). En este sentido, los partidos populistas se beneficiarían de un posicionamiento ideológico en terreno fértil y de una hábil estrategia política frente al inmovilismo de los partidos más tradicionales, socialistas y de centro derecha, limitados en su accionar por lealtades de clase y concepciones morales anquilosadas. 3- El populismo Latinoamericano El caso latinoamericano no escapa, como sus colegas europeo o norteamericano, a las dificultades de conceptualización producto de diferentes enfoques disciplinarios. Weyland (2001) ha realizado un importante trabajo estudiando los diferentes conceptos que han sido utilizados para abarcar el populismo latinoamericano y demostrar que la confusión conceptual proviene del hecho que los académicos enfatizan diferentes atributos como características decisivas del concepto, sin ponerse de acuerdo si estamos hablando del ámbito político, económico, social, discursivo u otro (Weyland, 2001:2). Tres grandes enfoques han predominado en el estudio del populismo. Entre 1960-80, la utilización de conceptos cumulativos predominó en el estudio del fenómeno3, influenciada por las teorías desarrollistas (modernización y dependencia) que argumentaban la fuerte subordinación de la esfera política a los factores socio económicos. Estos autores resaltaban en el populismo un conjunto central de características políticas y socioeconómicas. Los regímenes populistas serían en parte una respuesta a los fenómenos de urbanización, de industrialización y de participación masiva que fragilizaron las instituciones existentes y permitieron la emergencia de regímenes inestables centrados a menudo en una lógica de acción política personalista y carismática, plebiscitaria y redistributiva, destinada a agrupar y movilizar las masas desorganizadas y amorfas (Germani, 1974). Ciertos autores han querido ver en el populismo un proceso de desarrollo intermedio entre el pasaje de una sociedad tradicional o pre industrial hacia una sociedad moderna industrializada, orientada a la sustitución de importaciones y donde un régimen oligárquico cede terreno frente a la emergencia de la sociedad de masas (Cardoso y Faletto, 1979). Otros autores, como Roberts (1995: 89), han intentando descifrar el populismo utilizando conceptos radiales o de adición4. Así, los populismos latinoamericanos tendrían las siguientes características: Un liderazgo paternalista y personalista; una coalición política heterogénea y multi –clase; un proceso de movilización política top down que cortocircuita las instancias tradicionales de mediación; una ideología amorfa y ecléctica; y un proyecto económico que utiliza importantes políticas redistributivas y clientelares. La existencia de estos 5 aspectos caracterizaría al populismo pleno, mientras que la presencia de una o más características constituiría sub-tipos particulares de populismo. Por último, la tradición más reciente se ha centrado en el estudio del populismo latinoamericano como un concepto clásico en el ámbito político. El populismo no puede ser enfocado como un concepto económico, argumenta Weyland (2001:11) porque su utilización es confusa y problemática y la política económica es, en manos populistas, un instrumento, no un fin. La definición política ve al populismo como una manera particular de competir y ejercer el poder. El populismo se sitúa en la esfera de la dominación, no de la distribución. El populismo intenta antes que nada construir formas de control político, y la distribución de beneficios a través de políticas socio-económicas es una herramienta para facilitar ese control. El líder populista busca ganar y ejercer el poder, y su oportunismo tiene como corolario un débil compromiso en el campo ideológico y programático. Construido a partir de la dicotomía amigo/enemigo que permea toda acción política, el populismo debe ser definido como una estrategia política, entendida como la capacidad de los líderes de perpetuarse en la arena política. Bajo el populismo, el "gobierno" es ejercido por un líder carismático, no por un grupo u organización política (Weyland, 2001: 18). El populismo surge principalmente cuando ese líder logra arrear y agrupar el apoyo masivo de gran parte del pueblo en un movimiento espontaneo y atomizado donde la lealtad de cada individuo se inscribe en una lógica vertical de subordinación entre él y el líder, y no en una lógica horizontal de solidaridad mecánica de pertenencia a un proyecto común. En este sentido, los movimientos populistas y sus adherentes carecen de la cohesión ideológica necesaria para que el movimiento sobreviva a la partida/muerte del líder. 4- Democracia populista Vs. Populismos semi-democráticos A modo de breve conclusión, desearía discutir brevemente uno de los puntos subrayados en la introducción. Si una de las características principales de la nueva cultura política y democrática es el populismo, entendido como un discurso anti élite y anti establishment (y hasta anti intelectual), conviene interrogarse entonces en qué se parecen las democracias populistas modernas (como la Americana o la Francesa) y los regímenes populistas democráticos o semi-democráticos (Argentina, Venezuela, Ecuador, etc.). Por lo tanto, hay que distinguir entre lo que es una característica secundaria del sistema – el populismo como lenguaje político – de un principio ordenador y legitimador del poder -el populismo en los regímenes latinoamericanos-. La diferencia puede ser entendida con un claro ejemplo. Mientras que el lenguaje populista en las democracias modernas tiene como cometido "igualar" al líder político con el votante común, el populismo latinoamericano presupone todo lo contrario, la excepcionalidad del líder. El populismo americano o francés actual elimina todo privilegio, todo "passe-droit" que la figura del líder político piense poder tener por su pertenencia a un grupo privilegiado; por el contrario, presupone que el contrato de confianza ciudadano entre gobernados y gobernantes demanda una conducta intachable y responsable de estos últimos. En el caso de los populismos semi-democráticos, el líder es por naturaleza excepcional y, ya sea por la escasa instrucción cívica y ciudadana, por la corrupción del sistema político o por lo que es aún peor, la creencia dogmática en el carácter mesiánico del líder, éste se encuentra, de facto, por encima de la ciudadanía (y por ende de la ley). El culto al líder al que se libran los populismos latinoamericanos y la triste complacencia de las ciudadanías amorfas erosionan el accionar democrático, debilitan la separación de poderes y conducen a la utilización irresponsable y clientelista de los recursos nacionales. Si es innegable igualmente que el discurso populista en las democracias modernas puede ser antes que nada una estrategia política en época de crisis y vacas flacas, no obstante éste se construye sobre una premisa incuestionable: la igualdad ciudadana y la necesidad de contralor del poder político. Lo importante aquí no es la incorporación ética por parte de las élites de los principios de igualdad y responsabilidad, sino la sanción, electoral o legal, de todo comportamiento que infrinja ese contrato de confianza. Lejos de mí la idea de asimilar al elector francés o americano a un quijote cívico y moralizador, pero en su estrategia "maximizadora" de bienestar no se encuentra la tolerancia a la corrupción política, al abuso de poder o a la desigualdad manifiesta entre gobernantes y gobernados. Si bien admitimos que el populismo latinoamericano emerge en un contexto histórico de débil institucionalización en las décadas del 20-30 en adelante (en cierta medida heredero de las tradiciones caudillistas), y que el vínculo primordial entre líder y pueblo fue en parte necesario para asegurar derechos sociales y cívicos antes del otorgamiento de plenos derechos políticos, ¿qué argumentos justifican 60 años después de un Perón o un Vargas la ciega obsecuencia ante un "déspota iluminado"?.1- El presente artículo retoma partes de un trabajo más extenso dedicado al estudio del fenómeno populista en los Estados Unidos (en vías de publicación). Lo que se presenta a continuación sirve como introducción teórica en dicho artículo. La conclusión de este artículo sí representa una reflexión original.2- Autores como Schumpeter, sin embargo, han argumentado contra el concepto clásico de democracia popular extendida, avanzando que una parte importante de la ciudadanía carece de los conocimientos necesarios para realizar juicios instruidos y determinar el bien común y que por lo tanto estaría ésta a la merced de élites políticas "manipuladoras". En este sentido, el ciudadano debería limitarse a la elección de líderes y a su sanción periódica vía los procesos electorales. Ver J. SHUMPETER, 1994 (rev. ed), Capitalism. Socialism and Democracy, Routledge.3- Los conceptos cumulativos elaboran definiciones combinando los atributos de diferentes campos a través de la lógica de inclusión "Y". Sólo las características comunes de todos los dominios son adoptadas como determinantes del concepto. Los conceptos cumulativos aportan un alto estándar de inclusión con un pequeño número de casos y excluyen la posibilidad de casos "límite". Un problema recurrente de los conceptos cumulativos es su debilidad empírica si hay escasa superposición entre las diferentes áreas de estudio, generando así pocos casos reales que cumplan con el fuerte contenido teórico.4- Los conceptos radiales utilizan la preposición lógica "O", conectando los atributos propuestos por los autores en diferentes campos. Si un caso posee al menos una de estas características puede ser incorporado al estudio del concepto. Si los conceptos radiales poseen las ventajas de abarcar un amplio universo de casos, la pertinencia de cada caso dependerá del número de características totales que posea, falseando entonces la comparación entre los diferentes casos. Así, en el caso del populismo, tendríamos populismos "leves" que poseen unas pocas características conceptuales contra populismos fuertes que se asemejarían a los "tipos ideales". 5- BibliografíaAERSINGER, P., «Ideology and Behavior : Legislative Politics in Western Populism» in Agricultural History, Vol. 58 (jan. 1984), pp. 43-58.AGULHON, M., et al. «Le populisme ? Neuf réponses» in Vingtième Siècle. Revue d´histoire, Nº56, Numéro spécial : Les populismes (Oct.-Dec., 1997), pp. 224-242.BADIE, B., «Une Faillite du Politique» in «Le populisme ? Neuf réponses» in Vingtième Siècle. Revue d´histoire, Nº56, Numéro spécial : Les populismes (Oct.-Dec., 1997), pp. 226-228.CARDOZO, F.H. and FALETTO, E., 1979, Dependancy and development in Latin America, University of California Press, Berkeley.FERKISS, C., «Political and Intellectual Origins of American Radicalism, Right and Left» in Annals of the American Academy of Political Science, Vol. 344 (Nov., 1962), pp. 1-12.GERMANI, G., 1974, Política y Sociedad en una Epoca de Transición, Paidós, Buenos Aires.GOODWYN, L., 1976, Democratic Promise : The Populist Movement in America, Oxford University Press, New York.GREENFIELD, L., «Is Nation Unavoidable ? Is Nation Unavoidable Today ?» in KRIESI, H., et al. (eds), 1999, Nation and Nationality Identity. The European Experience in Perspective, Verlag Rüegger, Chur, pp. 37-54.HERMET, G., «Populisme et Nationalisme» in Vingtième Siècle. Revue d´histoire, Nº56, Numéro Spécial : Les populismes (Oct. –Dec., 1997), pp. 34-47.HOLMES, W., «Populism : In Search of Context» in Agricultural History, Vol. 64, Nº4 (Autumn, 1990), pp. 26-58.HUG, S., and TRECHSEL, A., « Clivages et identification partisane » in HUG, S., et SCIARINI, P. (eds.), 2002, Changements de valeurs et nouveaux clivages politiques en Suisse, L´Harmattan, Paris, pp. 207-235.KOHN, H., 1967 (rev. ed.), The Idea of Nationalism, Collier-Macmillan, New York.LACHAT, R. et KRIESI. H., «Supply Side: the Positioning of the Political Parties in a Restructuring Space», in Kriesi, H., Grande, E., Lachat, R. et al., 2008, West European Politics in the Age of Globalization, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.LACLAU, E., 1977, Politics and Ideology in Marxist Theory, Verso, London.MATTHEWS, F., «"Hobbesian Populism" : Interpretative Paradigms and Moral Vision in american Historiography» in The Journal of Amercain History, Vol. 72, Nº1 (Jun., 1985), pp. 92-115.MAZZOLENI, O., 2003, Nationalisme et Populisme en Suisse : la radicalisation de la nouvelle UDC, Presses polytechniques et universitaires romandes, Lausanne.MELANDRI, P., «La rhétorique populiste aux Etats Unis» in Vingtième Siècle. Revue d´histoire, Nº56, Numéro Spécial : Les populismes (Oct. –Dec., 1997), pp. 184-200.MOUFFE, C., «The "End of Politics" and the challenge of Right-Wing Populism» in Populism and the Mirror of Democracy, Panizza, F. (ed), (2005), Verso, London, pp. 50-71.OESCH, D., 2006, Redrawing the class map: stratification and institutions in Britain, Germany, Sweden and Switzerland, Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke.ROBERTS, K., «Neoliberalism and the Transformation of Populism in Latin America» in World Politics, Vol. 48 (oct. 1995), pp. 82-116.SCHNEIDER, W., «The New Populism» in Political Psychology, Vol. 15, Nº4 (Dec., 1994), pp. 779-784.SCHULTE-SASSE, L., «Meet Ross Perot : The Lasting Legacy of Capraesque Populism» in Cultural Critique, Nº25 (autumn, 1993), pp.91-119.SCHUMPETER, J., 1994 (rev. ed.), Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy, RoutledgeSCIARINI, P., and NICOLET, S. (eds), 2010, Le Destin Electoral de la Gauche : Analyse du vote socialiste et vert en Suisse. Georg, Genève.SHOGAN, C., «Anti-Intellectualism in the Modern Presidency : A Republican Populism» in Perspectives on Politics, Vol.5, Nº2 (Jun., 2007), pp. 295-303.TOURAINE, A., «Le Brun, le Rouge et le Français» in «Le populisme ? Neuf réponses» in Vingtième Siècle. Revue d´histoire, Nº56, Numéro spécial : Les populismes (Oct.-Dec., 1997), pp. 239-242.TURNER, J., «Understanding the Populists» in Journal of American History, Vol. 67 (Sep. 1980), pp. 354-373.WEYLAND, K., «Clarifying a Contested Concept : Populism in the Study of Latin American Politics» in Comparative Politics, Vol. 34, Nº1 (Oct., 2001), pp.1-22. Germán Clulow - Universidad-ORT.

Ashland, Oregon is a smart little community nestled in the foothills of the Siskiyou Mountains about 20 minutes north of the California border. Home to Southern Oregon University and host to the yearly Shakespeare Festival, Ashland is one of those places both progressive and picturesque that often occupies a top spot on waiting-room magazines' "Best Small Towns" or "Best Places to Retire" lists. It's got a walkable business district with cozy fine-dining bistros, new-age book shops and old-school hotels. It's got the requisite breathtaking views—Oregon's famed firs snake up and down steep, mist-laden hills to the east and west. It's got equal parts West-Coast hippie charm and urbane artiness, but it still retains the ruddy feel of the Northwest wilderness. Less well-known is the fact that Ashland is home to the Church of the Holy Light of the Queen, the unofficial base in the United States for a growing alternative religion called Santo Daime. With origins in the Brazilian Amazon, Santo Daime would attract little attention if not for one fact: worshipers drink ayahuasca, an imported jungle brew that contains dimethyltryptamine, or DMT, a highly potent hallucinogen. DMT can cause intense dissociation—the feeling that you've left your body—and everything from excruciating horror to intense euphoria. It's often associated with the near-death experience; some scientists postulate that the human brain contains otherwise dormant amounts of the psychedelic compound, and it releases that cache when your mind thinks it's done for. Ayahuasca contains DMT and is used widely by various shamans and tribes in the Amazon, where it's known as yage, hoasca, or La Purga ("the purge"). Santo Daime's followers, the Daimestas, refer to ayahuasca as Daime Tea, and they drink it as their one and only sacrament. The DMT-packed tea is the cornerstone of their religion and all church functions. DMT is also listed by the U.S. DEA as a Schedule-I substance, the department's strictest classification. Ashland's Church of the Holy Light of the Queen was founded by Padrinho ("Godfather" in Portuguese) Jonathan Goldman, an ebullient yet laid-back former Boston acupuncturist with a working-class, midwestern Jewish upbringing and a lifelong intuition for battling the status quo. Goldman, his family and his church have been under fire from the DEA since the church formed and started hosting underground Santo Daime rituals in Ashland in 1993. Police stormed Goldman's house in a 1999 raid, and they arrested him and effectively shut down the church. He responded by filing a lawsuit against the federal government, seeking a religious freedom exemption from the Controlled Substances Act. Nine years later, Ashland's Daimestas prevailed in an Oregon district court, and they've been drinking Daime Tea with impunity since March 2009. Daime Tea is an entheogen—a substance meant purely for spiritual and psychotherapeutic purposes. The Daimestas say it's something everyone should be allowed to have. They believe it grants direct access to the divine and can lead to life-changing insights and sustained happiness. I wondered, is there any real spiritual healing going on here, or are the Daimestas just futzing around with an acute psychedelic for kicks? Just who are these people anyway, and do they believe there's a real connection between God and drugs? After learning of these strange folks, I had to take a trip to Ashland to find out the answers. *** The way Santo Daime's doctrine works is simple: the religion is open to anyone who shows interest. So one day last fall I wrote to Goldman and asked if I could come to Ashland and observe the church's members doing whatever it is they do. It was weeks before I heard back. Goldman informed me that he would be open to a story, but under one condition: I had to attend a church service, which he called a "work." And not as an observer. As a participant. He instructed me to set up an interview with someone named John Seligman, a fellow Daime expert and the chief screener of new church applicants. Seligman sent me a Goldman-penned introduction to the Daime, a blank medical waiver and a note scheduling my interview for early January. I read the airy introduction, scratched my head and called Goldman for some basic background. He said the work would involve a kind of dancing that puts participants in a trance state of "active meditation." Add in the Daime Tea, which he called a "super-powerful, altering, natural substance," and you've got a shortcut—a very intense, demanding shortcut—to profound spiritual vision. "What the Daime offers is a direct experience that is only reserved for mystics," Goldman said. That sounded alright, but I wanted some objective information on the strange psychedelic brew I was about to swallow. Not surprisingly, dredging up coherent accounts about ayahuasca isn't easy. And, as with most substances of its ilk, user experience varies wildly from person to person. Take The Yage Letters, for instance, a tortuous, fragmented tale about Burroughs' and Ginsberg's frustrating quests for the drink in South and Central America. Ginsberg wrote of a pleasant (if bizarre) first ayahuasca experience, where he peered "at a mystery" through a "big black hole of God-Nose." His next trip, however, was all vomiting and horrifying snake hallucinations. "I was frightened," he complained, "and simply lay there with wave after wave of death-fear rolling over me till I could hardly stand it." And his final summation of ayahuasca doesn't quite read like a ringing endorsement: "I am afraid of some real madness, a Changed Universe permanently changed." By the time January came around, I had decided the short version was twofold: the Daime would be very intense and demanding yet simple and beautiful. And I might puke my guts out. So I headed north through the flatlands and into the mountains on Interstate 5. The sun shone through the thickly misty sky like an incandescent silver dollar, and I wondered if I might soon be tripping with the angels, talking to God and driving back home as a mystic. *** My orientation was set for the morning of the work. It was a damp, snowy Saturday when I arrived at the church's headquarters, a nondescript, street-level office space at the end of a short commercial strip. I knocked on a door marked with a Star of David festooned with birds and circles and a glowing, double-beamed cross in the center. Seligman appeared and beckoned me in, instructing me to take off my shoes. He looked a little disheveled, sporting ragged, paint-splattered pants and a day or two of stubble on his face, with eyebrows like miniature scouring pads and a chunk of gray tufts protruding from either side of his head. Other than the strangeness of his eerie calm and a clear, steady look in his eye—qualities I later noticed were present in all the Daimestas I would meet—he struck me as a pretty benign guy. "Welcome, Alex," he said. We shook hands and sat down on folding chairs at an altar shaped like a six-pointed star. A certain degree of anonymity is important to the Daimestas, so rather than engaging me in a lot of small talk, Seligman merely closed his eyes. We sat for a few minutes in silent meditation. Then, Seligman opened his heavy-lidded eyes and in a half-whispered tone declared the room we were sitting in a "sacred space." In a slow, considered way, Seligman began by explaining the basics. This particular work would be an important one, a celebration of Three Kings Day, which sounded familiar to me from having grown up Catholic (although all I remembered was that it had something to do with Christmas). For this work, we'd be singing the entirety of a 128-song hymnbook in Portuguese and dancing for up to 12 hours. And every two hours, we'd be drinking another swig of Daime Tea. Once the work started, Seligman said, what I could expect and what would be expected of me would include the following: maintaining vibrational cohesiveness and harmony through music and dancing. holding the current. creating a bridge. allowing celestial energies to come down through the altar metaphorically and actually. and holding a sacred communion both private and communal with divine guides. What the hell was this man talking about? Seligman's soothing voice and nebulous syntax only amplified my anxiety. I was starting to feel pretty awkward. As his exposition on something about divine entities ground to a halt, I was thinking about weaseling out. Maybe I could fail the interview. "Having strangers come in—it doesn't distract from the energy, the current, at all?" I asked in a loud, abrupt voice. Seligman smiled calmly and watched me squirm. I wasn't getting away that easily. "There are no visitors," he said. "Everybody's a participant." He explained to me that all are guaranteed a protective and nurturing environment, a container to process the unpredictable and often demanding revelations brought forth by drinking Daime Tea. The container provides the proper setting, as I imagined Timothy Leary might put it, for the revelations, which may send me on a brutal ride through latent emotional traumas and truths. "Throwing up may be part of that," Seligman said. "What we allow—this container that we create—is to process it. There's an invitation. It's not expected of you, but if it comes up, we are holding space for you to move through that. We invite you to cry. We are there to help." Really? I was about to spend twelve hours in the divine container with a bunch of caterwauling strangers, feet sore, sobbing, puking, and high on DMT the whole time? "About the tea," I said, trying to maintain a tone of composure. "What if it's not working out for me and I'm having a bad time of it after the first drink? Could I skip the next go-round?" "The answer is yes," Seligman replied. "But the answer is also no." It would all be up to the divine guides. "If you feel like you're gonna die," he assured me, "sit back down, close your eyes and breathe." To stall the onset of total panic, I focused on picking out and memorizing the practical rules Seligman was laying out. If I wanted to get out of the dancing line and go sit down or vomit, I should do so only between hymns. If I wanted to go outside and "take a leak or commune with a tree," I had to let a guardian at the door know about it. I was not to cross my arms or legs at any time during the work. And I had to dress in all white. That sounded eerily cultish to me. I looked down at my unwashed, cream-colored jeans. "These alright?" I asked. Seligman scoffed and shook his head. "They're dirty. It's important that you be clean." He grabbed a pencil and drew me a map to the local paint store, where I could get a nice, crisp, brilliantly colorless pair of painter's pants—ones pleasing to the divine guides, who might otherwise be bummed if I didn't show up looking as pure as a virgin bride on her wedding day. He handed me the map and a packet with more rules, guidelines and a massive list of drugs, medications and foods to avoid. I sat down at a desk and for the second time filled out the medical waiver, a three-page affair that I had of course forgotten to bring with me. I was not taking any antidepressants. Check. Never been hospitalized for psychological problems. Check. "Is there anything else about your physical or emotional status of which we should be made aware?" I guess not. I signed my name at the bottom of the last page, indemnifying the church from any nausea, diarrhea or "mental changes" I might suffer as a result of the work, and I promised to take full personal responsibility for "whatever may occur, anticipated or unanticipated." And with that, my orientation was complete. "I'm very glad you came," Seligman said. He stuck my papers into a file and sent me out the door. *** Later that day, I met my sponsor, Maleko Dawnchild, at his ex-girlfriend's parents' house, where he was living temporarily. It was a comfortable, normal suburban two-story on an Ashland cul-de-sac. Dawnchild answered the door shirtless and in loose-fitting pajama pants. I had caught him in the middle of a stretching session. "This is gonna be a good work," he said, wide-eyed and smiling. As Dawnchild limbered up on a yoga mat in the middle of the living room, he told me about how he first discovered the Daime in Hawaii—he went there after tiring of his hard-partying life as a model in Los Angeles. Then he got up and ran to the kitchen, where he slammed a kale smoothie. He sprinted upstairs to change and descended in a snappy white suit with a gold star pinned on the lapel. We were ready for the work. Dawnchild and I drove about 10 miles outside of town and navigated a winding, unpaved path through the wilderness until we finally made it to our destination. It was Goldman's hillside property, on which he had built a salão, a round, domed building where the church's works are held. It was nestled in the woods right behind Goldman's house. Men in white suits and black ties emerged from cars with women wearing tiara-like crowns and long, white dresses with green strips of fabric that formed a "y" across their chests. They looked like girl scouts. People of all ages kept arriving, hugging each other and saying hello, until the salão was almost full, with almost 60 white-clad worshipers crammed into the building. Then all of us lined up three rows deep around an altar just like the one in Seligman's office, men on one side and women on the other. Goldman arrived to begin the service with armloads of Daime Tea in big jugs. We said a couple Hail Marys and Our Fathers. Then, just as I had every week for years when I was a Catholic schoolboy, I got in line for the sacrament. Except this time, it wasn't the communion wafer and sip of wine I was waiting for. It was Daime Tea. As I watched Daimestas who were in line in front of me walk past with empty double-shot-sized glasses and scrunched-up faces, I desperately forced thoughts of Jonestown out of my mind. It was my turn. I approached the guardian, who was holding a glass at eye level and gazing at the mahogany broth inside. He offered it to me. I took the glass, closed my eyes and gulped down the tea. It was thick and boasted major overtones of chewing tobacco, licorice, Listerine and dirt. I felt a mild wave of calm—but that was it. Everyone returned to formation around the altar, and thus began the work. We opened our hymnbooks and started to sing the hinarios, hymns written by Afro-Portuguese rubber plantation worker Raimundo Irineu Serra, who founded Santo Daime in the 1930s. The songs were about God, heartbreak and happiness. Men with shakers kept the rhythm. Everyone sang, and I mumbled and stepped on my feet in the back row until I finally picked up on it, shuffling three steps to the left, pivoting, and shuffling three steps to the right. This went on for a good hour and a half, with pauses between songs during which Goldman would incant various thanksgivings ("Viva Santo Daime!"). The whole crowd would respond with a hearty "Viva!" Then it was time to drink tea again. Seligman was distributing the stuff this time, and he looked like a new man—cleaned up, freshly shaven and impressive in his crispy whites. He handed me the glass. "You startin' to feel it yet?" he asked me, winking. I nodded and downed the bitter brew. This seemed to be the effective dose, the one that really put us "in the power," as the Daimestas say—I would just say it got us fucked up. A few people got out of the dancing line to sit down and puke into plastic bowls, while guardians stood watch and cleaned up after them. Dawnchild, my sponsor, made shooing sounds, swayed like a gymnast warming up for floor exercises and snatched invisible flies out of the air. One woman sat on the floor with a sheet over her head and began to cry, and another went outside to wail and run around in the darkness. Goldman, reminiscent of Bill Murray in one of his younger, more charismatic roles, listed from side to side and bellowed out the hymns just a bit louder than anyone else. I looked up at the streamers and tinsel that stretched from the skylight at the top of the salão to the edges of the walls, and half the ceiling began to overlap with the other. I could feel the loud resonance of the acapella hymns, and I marveled at this whole room full of people moving in unison. It was at this point that I understood the appeal of this religion: it is primal rather than modern. It follows no dogma, nor does it promote proselytizing. It's based on simplicity, rhythm and synchronicity—just add drugs and music. The tea is basically fuel to keep people focused on singing and dancing as the primary activity, but they're also allowed to remove themselves for moments of personal therapy and expression while guardians keep an eye on them to ensure their safety. I glanced at the hymnbook in my hand and noticed that we were only about a quarter of the way through it, and I had one more realization: Santo Daime requires the sort of discipline that your average recreational drug enthusiast or thrill-seeker simply wouldn't have the patience to stick with. They don't call it a "work" for nothing. *** Jonathan Goldman is proud of what he's created. "I knew we would be involved in creating a legal sanction for the Daime to operate in the U.S.," he says. "We planned it from the beginning." It's the afternoon after the work, and Goldman is at home in a state of relaxed glory. Surrounded by countless indoor plants and an exhaustive array of icons from most major world religions, he reclines on a leather couch facing a massive picture window that frames a killer view of the Siskiyou Mountains. Padrinho Goldman considers himself a representative of the Daime ("the masters of the astral," he calls it), not to mention a shaman, a healer and a master of ceremonies. He says that when he established the Church of the Holy Light of the Queen in Ashland in 1993, he had a feeling he was going to "liberate the Daime." What Goldman didn't plan was what happened in 1999, when he received a shipment of Daime Tea that had been traced by federal authorities. When the tea arrived, so did Ashland police. They held guns on his family, ransacked his house and took him to jail. Goldman fought back, hiring a team of lawyers to sue the U.S. Department of Justice under President George W. Bush. The ten-year legal battle culminated in a March 2009 ruling by U.S. District Judge Owen Panner, who found that the government had indeed overreacted, substantially burdening the church's sincere exercise of its religion, and that the Department of Justice had failed to prove that the Controlled Substances Act should apply to these harmless, if somewhat out-there, Diamestas. And almost as if to fulfill the Padrinho's prophesy, Panner gave the church a pass under the Religious Freedom Restoration Act. It was an exceptionally rare exemption granted also to Native Americans for their use of peyote and more recently upheld (with some restrictions) by the U.S. Supreme Court for New Mexico's União do Vegetal (UDV), another Brazil-based, ayahuasca-sipping sect. The DEA's people aren't happy about Judge Panner's ruling, and the department is scrutinizing the church yet again. Goldman says the officials he's been dealing with don't think any district court judge has the power to grant exemptions to anyone for schedule-I substances. DEA Associate Chief Council Karen Richardson refused to comment on "ongoing litigation," but she confirmed in a letter that the department has indeed appealed Panner's decision in the Ninth Circuit Court. And a call to DEA spokesman Chris Jakim yielded little more than proof that Jakim knows how to do his job—the only information he'd offer in regards to the church specifically or ayahuasca in general was a reiteration of the DEA's party-line on schedule-I drugs. He said that DMT is not accepted for use by anyone in the medical field and that there's a high risk in the use of ayahuasca as medicine, as it's not done under professional supervision. In a way, Jakim has a point: The Diamestas aren't a bunch of doctors or psychiatrists. And for a lot of people, drinking ayahuasca is a psychotherapeutic procedure done in an attempt to heal some very serious psychic wounds. In fact, that was the context through which Goldman himself first discovered Daime Tea at the end of 1987; never a particularly spiritual man, he had been struggling for years with issues of guilt, self-hatred and repression, he says. Nothing was really working. He was miserable. His heart, he says, was a "stone peach pit." Then Goldman's psychotherapist took him and a group of former clients to Brazil. "He told me that if I went," Goldman says, "I'd have the equivalent of ten years of psychotherapy and ten years of meditation in one month by drinking this weird tea. I was like, 'Good deal. Let's go.'" Did it work? "Without Daime I'd be dead," Goldman says, "and if not dead, I'd be miserable, sick, neurotic, crazy, divorced, alone." He trails off before telling of his first psychoactive-aided healing. "We were dancing and singing all night," he says, "and I felt so sick and nauseous the whole time. Because of all this repression I had, I had so much to clean. And I was really arrogant and I was really controlling and I was slippery and I was smart so I could avoid the really deep stuff in me—and the Daime didn't allow any of that. It was the first force I met that was smarter, quicker, way more knowledgeable and way more wise than I was. So I was impressed." It is that very impressive promise of spiritual deep-cleaning that brings many to the fold. A number of Daimestas claim to have cured—or at least greatly alleviated—their addictions and neuroses by drinking Daime Tea, sometimes after only one session. And while the little medical research that's been done on ayahuasca drinkers seems to support their claims, the Daimestas at the church have no real way of knowing whether or not their inductees will benefit from the stuff or be driven mad by it; they rely largely on the honor system to drum out anyone for whom ayahuasca would be "inappropriate." "Their screenings are relatively superficial," UCLA Professor of Psychiatry Dr. Charles M. Grob says of Santo Daime. "These churches are not that thorough." In 1996, Grob studied Brazilian followers of UDV, whose adherents call ayahuasca "hoasca." In his report, "Human Psychopharmacology of Hoasca," he concludes that for members who had entered the UDV with issues ranging from alcoholism to depression, all disorders had indeed remitted without recurrence. Churchgoers were emphatic that they had undergone radical transformations of behavior and attitudes and that they were able to use ayahuasca to "eliminate their chronic anger, resentment, aggression and alienation," according to the report. But only in the proper context, and only for the right people. "With ayahuasca," Grob says, "you have a powerful means by which to achieve a transpersonal experience. But only if you do adequate screening and control conditions." Driving out to the woods to do something akin to an acid test in an attempt to overcome serious psychological troubles may be a dicey proposition. For instance, Grob says, if an ayahuasca neophyte has a latent, unknown family history of schizophrenia, he or she may have an "untoward reaction" to the DMT. That could mean anything from intense hallucinations to outright psychotic breaks. And if any aspiring Daimestas are less than forthcoming during the interview and don't disclose to Seligman that they're taking antidepressants, after quaffing the tea they may find themselves suffering from serotonin syndrome. That happens when the monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI), the other active ingredient in the ayahuasca, interacts with the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) component of the depression medication. Serotonin syndrome can lead to tremors, high fever and even death. "It's a medical crisis when it occurs," Grob says. These possibilities are ostensibly what's keeping the DEA sniffing around the church. But Goldman remains confident that the church's screening process and its guardian system provide the essential safeguards to ensure that a good time is had by all. He has a feeling the Diamestas will emerge victorious against any appeals. After all, there seems to be a demand for what he's offering. "Things have changed a lot," Goldman says of the time since the ruling. "Operating freely is a big deal, and our mission is starting to grow." Last year's 12-hour Three Kings Day work had drawn only about 30 worshipers. This year, Goldman says, the number had more than doubled. As for my own spiritual experience with DMT—it was alright. I may not have gotten lasting satisfaction or fulfillment from my first time drinking Daime Tea. I didn't throw up, see snakes or have a conversation with Christ. But I certainly enjoyed myself in the moment. I also gained an understanding of how spirituality can coexist in a very simple way with what is for all intents and purposes an intoxicant, and how that sensation can be so meaningful for so many people. Unless the DEA gets its way, more curious seekers like me will continue to make the pilgrimage to Goldman's church for a completely unique spiritual experience—and the Daimestas will be shouting "Viva!" with open arms for years to come.