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Background Improving survival and extending the longevity of life for all populations requires timely, robust evidence on local mortality levels and trends. The Global Burden of Disease 2015 Study (GBD 2015) provides a comprehensive assessment of all-cause and cause-specific mortality for 249 causes in 195 countries and territories from 1980 to 2015. These results informed an in-depth investigation of observed and expected mortality patterns based on sociodemographic measures. Methods We estimated all-cause mortality by age, sex, geography, and year using an improved analytical approach originally developed for GBD 2013 and GBD 2010. Improvements included refinements to the estimation of child and adult mortality and corresponding uncertainty, parameter selection for under-5 mortality synthesis by spatiotemporal Gaussian process regression, and sibling history data processing. We also expanded the database of vital registration, survey, and census data to 14 294 geography–year datapoints. For GBD 2015, eight causes, including Ebola virus disease, were added to the previous GBD cause list for mortality. We used six modelling approaches to assess cause-specific mortality, with the Cause of Death Ensemble Model (CODEm) generating estimates for most causes. We used a series of novel analyses to systematically quantify the drivers of trends in mortality across geographies. First, we assessed observed and expected levels and trends of cause-specific mortality as they relate to the Socio-demographic Index (SDI), a summary indicator derived from measures of income per capita, educational attainment, and fertility. Second, we examined factors affecting total mortality patterns through a series of counterfactual scenarios, testing the magnitude by which population growth, population age structures, and epidemiological changes contributed to shifts in mortality. Finally, we attributed changes in life expectancy to changes in cause of death. We documented each step of the GBD 2015 estimation processes, as well as data sources, in accordance with Guidelines for Accurate and Transparent Health Estimates Reporting (GATHER). Findings Globally, life expectancy from birth increased from 61·7 years (95% uncertainty interval 61·4–61·9) in 1980 to 71·8 years (71·5–72·2) in 2015. Several countries in sub-Saharan Africa had very large gains in life expectancy from 2005 to 2015, rebounding from an era of exceedingly high loss of life due to HIV/AIDS. At the same time, many geographies saw life expectancy stagnate or decline, particularly for men and in countries with rising mortality from war or interpersonal violence. From 2005 to 2015, male life expectancy in Syria dropped by 11·3 years (3·7–17·4), to 62·6 years (56·5–70·2). Total deaths increased by 4·1% (2·6–5·6) from 2005 to 2015, rising to 55·8 million (54·9 million to 56·6 million) in 2015, but age-standardised death rates fell by 17·0% (15·8–18·1) during this time, underscoring changes in population growth and shifts in global age structures. The result was similar for non-communicable diseases (NCDs), with total deaths from these causes increasing by 14·1% (12·6–16·0) to 39·8 million (39·2 million to 40·5 million) in 2015, whereas age-standardised rates decreased by 13·1% (11·9–14·3). Globally, this mortality pattern emerged for several NCDs, including several types of cancer, ischaemic heart disease, cirrhosis, and Alzheimer's disease and other dementias. By contrast, both total deaths and age-standardised death rates due to communicable, maternal, neonatal, and nutritional conditions significantly declined from 2005 to 2015, gains largely attributable to decreases in mortality rates due to HIV/AIDS (42·1%, 39·1–44·6), malaria (43·1%, 34·7–51·8), neonatal preterm birth complications (29·8%, 24·8–34·9), and maternal disorders (29·1%, 19·3–37·1). Progress was slower for several causes, such as lower respiratory infections and nutritional deficiencies, whereas deaths increased for others, including dengue and drug use disorders. Age-standardised death rates due to injuries significantly declined from 2005 to 2015, yet interpersonal violence and war claimed increasingly more lives in some regions, particularly in the Middle East. In 2015, rotaviral enteritis (rotavirus) was the leading cause of under-5 deaths due to diarrhoea (146 000 deaths, 118 000–183 000) and pneumococcal pneumonia was the leading cause of under-5 deaths due to lower respiratory infections (393 000 deaths, 228 000–532 000), although pathogen-specific mortality varied by region. Globally, the effects of population growth, ageing, and changes in age-standardised death rates substantially differed by cause. Our analyses on the expected associations between cause-specific mortality and SDI show the regular shifts in cause of death composition and population age structure with rising SDI. Country patterns of premature mortality (measured as years of life lost [YLLs]) and how they differ from the level expected on the basis of SDI alone revealed distinct but highly heterogeneous patterns by region and country or territory. Ischaemic heart disease, stroke, and diabetes were among the leading causes of YLLs in most regions, but in many cases, intraregional results sharply diverged for ratios of observed and expected YLLs based on SDI. Communicable, maternal, neonatal, and nutritional diseases caused the most YLLs throughout sub-Saharan Africa, with observed YLLs far exceeding expected YLLs for countries in which malaria or HIV/AIDS remained the leading causes of early death. Interpretation At the global scale, age-specific mortality has steadily improved over the past 35 years; this pattern of general progress continued in the past decade. Progress has been faster in most countries than expected on the basis of development measured by the SDI. Against this background of progress, some countries have seen falls in life expectancy, and age-standardised death rates for some causes are increasing. Despite progress in reducing age-standardised death rates, population growth and ageing mean that the number of deaths from most non-communicable causes are increasing in most countries, putting increased demands on health systems. Funding Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. ; We thank the countless individuals who have contributed to the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015 in various capacities. The data reported here have been supplied by the United States Renal Data System (USRDS). Data for this research was provided by MEASURE Evaluation, funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). Collection of these data was made possible by USAID under the terms of cooperative agreement GPO-A-00-08-000_D3-00. Views expressed do not necessarily reflect those of USAID, the US Government, or MEASURE Evaluation. Parts of this material are based on data and information provided by the Canadian institute for Health Information. However, the analyses, conclusions, opinions and statements expressed herein are those of the author and not those of the Canadian Institute for Health information. The Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics granted the researchers access to relevant data in accordance with licence number SLN2014-3-170, after subjecting data to processing aiming to preserve the confidentiality of individual data in accordance with the General Statistics Law–2000. The researchers are solely responsible for the conclusions and inferences drawn upon available data. The following individuals acknowledge various forms of institutional support. Simon I Hay is funded by a Senior Research Fellowship from the Wellcome Trust (#095066), and grants from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (OPP1119467, OPP1093011, OPP1106023 and OPP1132415). Panniyammakal Jeemon is supported by a Clinical and Public Health Intermediate Fellowship from the Wellcome Trust-DBT India Alliance (2015–20). Luciano A Sposato is partly supported by the Edward and Alma Saraydar Neurosciences Fund, London Health Sciences Foundation, London, ON, Canada. George A Mensah notes that the views expressed in this Article are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, or the United States Department of Health and Human Services. Boris Bikbov acknowledges that work related to this paper has been done on the behalf of the GBD Genitourinary Disease Expert Group supported by the International Society of Nephrology (ISN). Ana Maria Nogales Vasconcelos acknowledges that her team in Brazil received funding from Ministry of Health (process number 25000192049/2014-14). Rodrigo Sarmiento-Suarez receives institutional support from Universidad de Ciencias Aplicadas y Ambientales, UDCA, Bogotá, Colombia. Ulrich O Mueller and Andrea Werdecker gratefully acknowledge funding by the German National Cohort BMBF (grant number OIER 1301/22). Peter James was supported by the National Cancer Institute of the National Institutes of Health (Award K99CA201542). Brett M Kissela would like to acknowledge NIH/NINDS R-01 30678. Louisa Degenhardt is supported by an Australian National Health and Medical Research Council Principal Research fellowship. Daisy M X Abreu received institutional support from the Brazilian Ministry of Health (Proc number 25000192049/2014-14). Jennifer H MacLachlan receives funding support from the Australian Government Department of Health and Royal Melbourne Hospital Research Funding Program. Miriam Levi acknowledges institutional support received from CeRIMP, Regional Centre for Occupational Diseases and Injuries, Tuscany Region, Florence, Italy. Tea Lallukka reports funding from The Academy of Finland (grant 287488). No individuals acknowledged received additional compensation for their efforts. ; Peer-reviewed ; Publisher Version

Industrial organization focuses on imperfectly competitive markets to understand the behavior of firms and the resulting welfare effects. This is a broad definition as most markets are imperfectly competitive and industrial organization research can then focus on a wide variety of topics. Imperfect competition may be due to many reason. Perfect competition in fact requires: a large number of firms and consumers, free entry and exit, marketability of all goods and service including risk, symmetric information with zero search cost. Moreover the list includes no increasing returns, no externalities, and no collusion. Health care markets are a good example for imperfect competition as generally they violate all requirements included in the previous list. If we focus only on some violation like asymmetric information and no marketability, then health care markets fail in a more clear way than other markets. This justifies the often made claim that the health care market is "different" and implies that any evaluation of its performance must be based on models that explicitly take into account its deviations from the assumption required for perfect competition. The model of perfect competition can still serve as the benchmark of optimal performance, but generally it cannot be used to analyze how health care markets work. For this reason the common thread of this thesis is to analyze health care markets using the theoretical and empirical tools provided by industrial organization. This thesis is composed by three essays. In the first one I am going to propose a theoretical framework to analyze product differentiation with consumers misperception and information disparities. The model is an extension of standard vertical product differentiation (Gabsewictz and Thisse, 1979 and Shaked and Sutton, 1982), where I relax the assumption of perfect information. As I said before asymmetric information is one of the big problem to deal with in health economics. And if products are credence goods, as in case of drugs, many consumers may lack the expertise to ascertain the quality differential with respect to cheaper standard brands, even after purchase. In that case consumers face a risky decision and to the extent they lack information about the true quality differential they may carry out purchase decision according to misperceptions about product quality. In this paper I extend the analysis of Cavaliere (2005) to include the quality choice by firms, when providing higher quality requires a costly effort, and propose to analyse the case of a duopoly with vertically differentiated products with consumers' misperceptions and information disparities. Consumers are actually split between uninformed and informed consumers. Uninformed consumers are characterized by consumers' misperceptions as they can underestimate or overestimate the quality differential. As a minimum quality standard is imposed by the Government even uninformed consumers expect that any product sold in the market at least complies with the standard. As low quality can be said to be verifiable, even uninformed consumers can be confident about low quality products: firms are expected to provide at least the minimum quality standard. This last assumption well fits the case of pharmaceutical products. Actually every developed country has a national institution that enforces and verifies drug's minimum quality standard. The aim of this paper is to shed light on how firm set price and quality when consumers are characterized by asymmetric information and mispercemption obout quality. We do not analyze information decisions by consumers, which are exogenously given, therefore firms follow a Stackelber behavior vis à vis consumers. However we can analyze quality and price competition between firms for the full range of information disparities, i.e. for any split between informed and uninformed consumers that can affect demand functions. Furthermore we distinguish between the case of optimistic misperceptions (uninformed consumers overestimate the quality differential) and the case of pessimistic consumers (uninformed consumers underestimate the quality differential). Competition between firms is represented by a two stage game, in the first stage the two firms compete in qualities, given the market split between informed and uninformed consumers. In the second stage price competition takes place. We will show that both price and quality are strictly depend on asymmetric information as expectation and number of informed consumer affect firm's choice. For different quality expectations and share of informed consumer we found market failure. In some cases uninformed consumers are cheated by high quality firm when they purchase high quality product, in other cases, for different information level and expectations, adverse selection arises endogenously in the model. The second paper consists in a theoretical model where I analyse incentives for cooperative behaviour when heterogeneous health care providers are faced with regulated prices under yardstick competition. Providers are heterogeneous in the degree to which their interests match to those of the regulator. The basic idea behind yardstick competition is that the price (or price cap) faced by each provider is dependent on the actions of all the other providers (Schleifer, 1985; Laffont and Tirole, 1993). According to Schleifer's rule, the price each provider faces is based on the costs of all other providers in the industry but not its own. This creates strong incentives for cost control. When there is a large number of providers, this is unlikely to be a problem, mainly because the cost of collusion rises, but even in larger countries, provision might be concentrated among a handful of providers, as is likely for utilities, rail or postal services and for specialist health services, such as bone marrow or lung transplantation. The innovation with respect to the standard model of yardstick competition is the introduction of heterogeneity in the degree to which the provider's interests correspond to those of the regulator. Because the incentive to collude with other providers will depend on the objectives of the providers, particularly the extent to which their objectives correspond with those of the price-setting regulator. We use "altruism" to describe the behavior of providers whose aims are closely related to those of the regulator and "self-interested" to describe providers whose interests are more divergent from those of the regulator. If we consider the different ownership types in health services this heterogeneity in "altruism" is evident since we observe full public ownership i.e. altruistic providers and full private hospital i.e. self-interested providers. This paper aims then to analyse incentives for collusive behaviour when heterogeneous providers are faced with regulated prices under yardstick competition. We analyse the choice of cost when providers do not collude and when they do, and we consider incentives to defect from the collusion agreement Our results suggest that under the yardstick competition each provider's choice of cooperative cost is decreasing in the degree of the other provider's altruism, so a self-interested provider will operate at a lower cost than an altruistic provider. The prospect of defection serves to moderate the chosen level of operating cost. More general results show that collusion is more stable in homogeneous than in heterogeneous markets. The third paper is an empirical analysis where I test the hypotheses of physicians' altruism and ex-post moral hazard using a large national panel dataset of drug prescription records from Finland. We estimate the probability that doctors prescribe generic versus branded versions of statins for their patients as a function of the shares of the difference in prices between what patients have to pay out of their pocket and what are covered by insurance. The role of physicians and insurance in health care markets has been of interest to economists since the seminal contribution of Arrow (1963). Pioneering the economic analysis of physician behavior in the context of health care, Arrow (1963) noticed that doctors may have motives and objectives that differentiate them from purely profit-maximizing agents. The original 'ex-post moral hazard' hypothesis, predicts that health insurance increases the consumption of health care and leads to excessive consumption of services even in a competitive health care market. Ex-post moral hazard has since then been the focus of various empirical and theoretical studies in health economics (see e.g. Feldstein, 1973; Leibowitz, Manning, and Newhouse, 1985; Manning, Newhouse, Duan, Keeler, Leibowitz, and Marquis, 1987; Dranove, 1989; Zweifel and Manning, 2000). We simultaneously test both altruism and ex-post moral hazard in drug prescription behavior using a large national panel of administrative data from Finland. We first develop a theoretical model on physician decision-making, which, in line with Hellerstein (1998) and Lundin (2000), then use a large national panel dataset with all statin prescriptions in Finland between 2003 and 2010 (n=17 858 829 prescriptions) to test the physicians' altruism and ex-post moral hazard hypotheses, while controlling for a large range of physicians, patients, and drug characteristics. Taking advantage of the panel structure of our national administrative dataset, we directly observe the repeated prescriptions of statins by physicians over time. We find that although the estimated coefficients associated with ex-post moral hazard and altruism are statistically significantly different from zero, their size is very close to zero and the orders of magnitude is smaller than the effects associated with other key explanatory factors. We also find robust and strong evidence of prescription habit-dependency.

Backgrounds and Objective: Growth of the plastics industry in recent decades has been dramatic. Poly Vinyl Chloride is one of the most widely used plastics in the world that granules in the thermal process decompose to Vinyl Chloride Monomer and is released in work air environment. This study aimed to evaluate occupational exposure and estimate workers' exposure to vinyl chloride monomer risk. Materials and Methods: A cross-sectional study of 100 workers at two Plastic factories in Tehran (A, B) was performed. Personal monitoring of workers to Vinyl Chloride Monomer was conducted by Optimized Method No.1007 from NIOSH. Atmospheric conditions, such as temperature, pressure, air velocity, and relative humidity were measured simultaneously along with personal monitoring. Quantitative risk assessment of workers was computed in the form of Standard Mortality Rate and incident rate cancer. Statistical analysis of data was conducted by SPSS version 19. Results: Climatic parameters in the plant A and B for a relative humidity were 43.77± 16.71 and 37.16±14.45 % and temperature 20.95± 3.34 and 21.05± 2.20 ºC, air pressure 87.48 ± 0.54 and 87.41 ± 0.64 kPa and air velocity 0.13± 0.08 and 0.10 ± 0.06 meters per second were measured respectively. Occupational exposure to Vinyl Chloride Monomer plants A and B were 1.01 ± 0.51 and 0.72 ± 0.30 as ppm respectively. Quantitative risk of exposed workers based on Standard Mortality Rate was estimated 1.06 ± 0.03 times of the population without exposure. Incident rate cancer based on accounting measures of Integrated Risk Information System was calculated per 1000 person exposure population. The correlation of Standard Mortality Rate and the risk of cancer incidence was statistically significant (R2 =0.88). Conclusion: Thirty one percent of workers had higher exposure to Vinyl Chloride Monomer than the occupational exposure limits (1 ppm). In the present workers' exposure in this study is lower than international workforces reported in decades ago, but higher than studies recently published. The results clearly describe occupational hazard of workers in the current Iranian recession situation. Therefore, risk management of workers' health in these industries is imperative, especially in the coming years with projected economic growth. REFERENCES 1. Andrady AL, Neal MA. Applications and societal benefits of plastics. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 2009;364(1526):1977-84.2. Thompson RC, Moore CJ, vom Saal FS, Swan SH. Plastics, the environment and human health: current consensus and future trends. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 2009;364(1526):2153-66.3. Thompson RC, Swan SH, Moore CJ, vom Saal FS. Our plastic age. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 2009;364(1526):1973-6.4. 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Mutagenicity of vinyl chloride in man: comparison of chromosome aberrations with micronucleus and sister-chromatid exchange frequencies. Mutation Research/Genetic Toxicology. 1990;242(4):265-70.10. Leonard A, Decat G, Leonard E, Lefevre M, Decuyper L, Nicaise C. Cytogenetic investigations on lymphocytes from workers exposed to vinyl chloride. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A Current Issues. 1977;2(5):1135-41.11. Qiu Y-l, Wang W, Wang T, Liu J, Sun P, Qian J, et al. Genetic Polymorphisms, Messenger RNA Expression of p53, p21, and CCND1, and Possible Links with Chromosomal Aberrations in Chinese Vinyl Chloride–Exposed Workers. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention. 2008;17(10):2578-84.12. Zhu S, Wang A, Xia Z. Polymorphisms of DNA repair gene XPD and DNA damage of workers exposed to vinylchloride monomer. International journal of hygiene and environmental health. 2005;208(5):383-90.13. Bao Y. The effects of vinyl chloride on pregnancy parturition and fetal development among female workers]. Zhonghua yu fang yi xue za zhi [Chinese journal of preventive medicine]. 1988;22(6):343.14. Barakat RA, Bakery H, Salem MA, Abdelaleem NM. Early Investigation of Hepatocarcinogenic Effect of Polyvinyl Chloride in Rat. Global Veterinaria. 2014;12(1):67-75.15. Awara WM, El-Nabi SH, El-Gohary M. Assessment of vinyl chloride-induced DNA damage in lymphocytes of plastic industry workers using a single-cell gel electrophoresis technique. Toxicology. 1998;128(1):9-16.16. Smolianskiene G. Exposure assessment of vinyl chloride monomer in the workplace air of Lithuanian industries. Annals of occupational Hygiene. 2002;46(suppl 1):456-9.17. Azari MR, Nasermoaddeli A, Movahadi M, Mehrabi Y, Hatami H, Soori H, et al. Risk assessment of lung cancer and asbestosis in workers exposed to asbestos fibers in brake shoe factory in Iran. Industrial health. 2010;48(1):38-42.18. Azari MR, Rokni M, Salehpour S, Mehrabi Y, Jafari MJ, Moaddeli AN, et al. Risk assessment of workers exposed to crystalline silica aerosols in the east zone of Tehran. Tanaffos. 2009;8(3):43-50.19. Swaen G, de Hollander A, Kroes R, den Engelse L, Feron V, Mulder G, et al. A scientific basis for the risk assessment of vinyl chloride. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology. 1987;7(1):120-7.20. Hsieh H-I, Chen P-C, Wong R-H, Du C-L, Chang Y-Y, Wang J-D, et al. Mortality from liver cancer and leukaemia among polyvinyl chloride workers in Taiwan: an updated study. Occupational and environmental medicine. 2011;68(2):120-5.21. Integrated Risk Information System(IRIS). vinyl chloride. 2000 [cited 10 may 2012 ; Available from:http://www.epa.gov/iris/subst/1001.htm].22. Matsumura Y. Adsorption capacities of active carbon tubes for sampling atmospheric vinyl chloride vapor. Industrial health. 1980;18(2):61-7.23. Theriault G, Allard P. Cancer mortality of a group of Canadian workers exposed to vinyl chloride monomer. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 1981;23(10):671-6.24. American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH). TLVs and BEIs Based on the Dcumentation of the Thershold Limit Values for chemical Substances and Physical Agent & Biological Exposure Indices. 2013. [Available from: http://www.acgih.org/store/ProductDetail.cfm?id=2233].25. Hagmar L, Kesson B, Nielsen J, Andersson C, Lindan K, Attewell R, et al. Mortality and cancer morbidity in workers exposed to low levels of vinyl chloride monomer at a polyvinyl chloride processing plant. American journal of industrial medicine. 1990;17(5):553-65.26. Starnes Jr W. Structural and mechanistic aspects of the thermal degradation of poly (vinyl chloride). Progress in Polymer Science. 2002;27(10):2133-70. ; سابقه و هدف: رشد صنعت پلاستیک در چند دهه اخیر بسیار چشمگیر بوده است. پلیمر وینیل کلراید یکی از پرکاربردترین پلاستیک‌ها در جهان می­باشد که در طی فرایندهای حرارتی، مونومر وینیل کلراید آزاد می­گردد. این مطالعه با هدف ارزشیابی مواجهه شغلی و تخمین میزان ریسک مواجهه کارگران با مونومر وینیل کلراید انجام گردید.روش‌بررسی: این مطالعه از نوع توصیفی و مقطعی می­باشد که بر روی 100 نفر از کارگران دو کارخانه پلاستیک سازی شهر تهران (A,B) انجام پذیرفت. برای تعیین غلظت مونومر وینیل کلراید در هوای تنفسی، نمونه­های هوا توسط روش بهینه شده موسسه ملی بهداشت و امنیت شغلی آمریکا به شماره 1007 انجام گردید. پارامترهای شرایط جوي هوا شامل دما، فشار، سرعت جریان و رطوبت نسبی همزمان با نمونه­برداری اندازه گیری شد. ارزیابی ریسک کمی کارگران بر اساس دو معیار مرگ و میر استاندارد شده و ریسک بروز سرطان انجام شد. تجزیه و تحلیل یافته­ها با نرم­افزار آماری SPSS نسخه 19 انجام گرفت.یافته­ ها: پارامترهای جوی در کارخانه­ های A و B به ترتیب برای رطوبت نسبی 71/16±77/43 و 45/14±16/37 درصد، دمای هوا 34/3±95/20 و 20/2±05/21 سانتی‌گراد، فشار هوا 54/0±48/87 و 64/0±41/87 کیلو پاسکال و سرعت جریان هوا 08/0±13/0 و 06/0±10/0 متر بر ثانیه اندازه­گیری شد. میزان مونومر وینیل کلراید در هوای استنشاقی کارگران کارخانه­ های A و B به ترتیب 51/0±01/1 و 20/0±36/0 بر حسب ppm اندازه­ گیری شد. میزان ریسک کمی بر اساس مرگ و میر استاندارد شده در افراد مواجهه یافته 03/0±06/1 برابر جمعیت بدون مواجهه با برآورد شد. میزان ریسک بروز سرطان بر اساس معیار های محاسباتی سازمان سیستم اطلاعات جامع ریسک به ازای هر 1000 نفر جمعیت مواجهه یافته محاسبه گردید که همبستگی آماری بین دو میزان ریسک برابر 88/0=2R بدست آمد.نتیجه ­گیری: مواجهه فردی 31 درصد کارگران بیشتر از حد آستانه تماس شغلی (ppm1) بوده است. در تحقیق حاضر، میانگین مواجهه فردی با مونومر وینیل کلراید در مقایسه با مطالعات سال­های گذشته انجام شده کمتر و قابل قیاس با مطالعات اخیر می­باشد. نتایج این مطالعه به وضوح مخاطرات شغلی کارگران را در شرایط رکود تولید فعلی خاطر نشان می­ سازد و از این رو به‌کارگیری سیستم­های کنترلی فنی مهندسی به ویژه با رونق اقتصادی پیش بینی شده در سال­های آتی، برای تأمین سلامت و تندرستی کارگران الزامی می­ باشد.

Die Arbeit enthält in Kapitel 1 die Einleitung und die Ableitung der Fragestellung. Es wird zunächst das Umfeld des Sektors in den Jahren 1994 bis 2006 dargestellt. Der Ökolandbau hat sich einerseits am Markt für Lebensmittel gut etabliert und wächst dynamisch. Auch die Umstellungsraten sind positiv, bleiben aber hinter dem Marktwachstum zurück. Durch die verschiedenen Reformschritte der EU Agrarpolitik wird der Ökolandbau immer wieder vor umfassende Herausforderungen gestellt. Auf diese Herausforderungen kann der Ökolandbau mit Hilfe einer erhöhten Effizienz regieren. Es hat in den letzten Jahren eine Reihe von Studien zur Effizienz im Ökolandbau gegeben. Die Studien geben erste Einblicke in die einzelbetriebliche Effizienz von Ökobetrieben, häufig sind sie jedoch nicht auf die speziellen Fragestellungen des Ökolandbaus abgestimmt. So sind nur wenige Studien in der Lage die Effizienz in der Umstellungsphase zu modellieren und auch mögliche regionale Einflussfaktoren werden nicht berücksichtigt. Die vorliegende Arbeit modelliert die technische Effizienz auf ökologischen Futterbau-Betrieben und passt die Modelle den speziellen Erfordernissen der ökologischen Landwirtschaft an.In Kapitel 2 folgen vier zum Teil bereits publizierte Effizienzanalysen von ökologi-schen Futterbau- und Milchviehbetrieben. Das Modell wurde mit Hilfe einer stochastischen Frontieranalyse (SFA) geschätzt, in das SFA-Modell sind das "Heteroskedastizitäts-Modell" und das "technical effects Modell" das die Einflussfaktoren auf die technische Effizienz schätzt, integriert. Der gewählte Modellrahmen erweist sich als passend für die Analyse, was durch statistische Tests belegt werden kann. Es werden die Elastizitäten der einzelnen Input-Faktoren im Hinblick auf den Output diskutiert. Es zeigt sich, dass neben den "klassischen" Bestimmungsgründen der technischen Effizienz regionale Faktoren einen wichtigen Einfluss auf die technische Effizienz ausüben: Die technische Effizienz ist in den Regionen unterschiedlich ausgeprägt und Agglomerationseffekte beeinflussen die technische Effizienz. Dies deutet darauf hin, dass technologische Spill-Over-Effekte existieren. Die Entwick! lung der technischen Effizienz in der Umstellungsphase zeigt, dass sich die technische Effizienz nach etwa 5 Jahren verbessert, und sich dem Durchschnitt aller Betriebe annähert. Die Futterbau- und Milchvieh-Betriebe haben technologischen Rückschritt zu verkraften. Dies könnte mit geringen Ausgaben des Staates für auf den Ökolandbau zugeschnittene Forschung zusammenhängen.In Kapitel 3 folgt Analyse der verschiedenen Formen von Marktversagen, die einen Eingriff des Staates zu Gunsten der ökologischen Landwirtschaft eventuell volkswirschaftlich rechtfertigen. Die Formen des Marktversagens sind a.) externe Effekte, b.) Informations-Asymmetrien, c.) Marktversagen am Kapitalmarkt (Infant Industry-Argument) und d.) nicht-rationales Verhalten (meritorische Güter). Um die verschiedenen Formen des Marktversagens einordnen zu können, wird skizziert, welche Ergebnisse ein funktionierender Markt hervorbringen kann und welche Modell-Annahmen dem Funktionieren zu Grunde liegen. Eine sogenannte "first-best" Lösung wird dargestellt, deren Umsetzbarkeit im Umfeld der EU Agrarpolitik allerdings unwahrscheinlich erscheint. Daher erscheint die Diskussion einer pragmatischen "second-best"-Lösung gerechtfertigt.Die Theorien des Marktversagens werden anschließend erläutert, eine Anwendung der Theorien auf den ökologischen Landbau wird geprüft. Marktversagen aufgrund von externen Effekten ist der wichtigste Grund für einen Eingriff in den Markt für landwirtschaftliche Güter zu Gunsten der ökologischen Landwirtschaft. Dieses Argument wird auch in der politischen Praxis häufig angewandt. Die Gefahr einer adversen Selektion auf Grund von asymmetrisch verteilter Information ist im landwirtschaftlichen Kontext bisher kaum diskutiert worden. Es gibt zahlreiche gute Argumente, die für einen Eingriff des Staates sprechen. Die Gegenargumente sind grundsätzlicher Natur, allerdings kann man je nach politischem Leitbild auch zu einer Bejahung dieser Theorie als Eingriffsgrund kommen. Das Infant Industry-Argument ist für eine Förderung des Ökolandbaus abzulehnen, da die Kriterien einer Infant Industry überwiegend nicht auf den Ökolandbau zutreffen. Die Theorie der meritorischen Güter ist zwar eine der Komplexität der modernen Gesellschaft angemessene Problem-Analyse. Die Voraussetzung eines Eingriffs in den Markt und auch deren Implikationen sind bisher nicht konsistent ausgearbeitet. Daher wird auch die Theorie der meritorischen Güter als Grundlage der Förderung des Ökolandbaus abgelehnt.Das Kapitel 4 enthält eine Zusammenfassung der wichtigsten Ergebnisse sowie eine Schlussbetrachtung. Es wird eine kritische Würdigung der Ergebnisse der Stochastischen Frontier-Analyse vorgenommen. Die vorliegenden Ergebnisse unterliegen - wie viele andere Untersuchungen - einigen Restriktionen, einige mögliche Schwächen und Einwände im Datensatz werden kritisch diskutiert.Die Auswahl der Daten sowie deren Aufbereitung wird dargestellt. Es handelt sich um Buchführungsdaten, so dass der Auswahlprozess nicht zufällig sondern funktional ist. Die zeitliche und räumliche Verteilung der Daten ist von dieser Auswahl betroffen. Hierbei zeigt sich, dass der Datensatz die Grundgesamtheit gut abbildet, allerdings enthält der Datensatz keine Beobachtungen aus Schleswig-Holstein und Hessen. Daneben sind besonders kleine und sehr große Betriebe zu wenig repräsentiert, was ebenfalls mit der funktionalen Auswahl zu begründen ist.Es wird danach gezeigt, dass das Modellergebnis nicht von extremen Beobachtungen ("Outlier") verzerrt wird. Im Weiteren werden das Thema des technologischen Rückschritts, die Annahme der monotonen Produktionsfunktion und die Entwicklung der technischen Effizienz über die Zeit diskutiert. Technologischer Rückschritt könnte neben den erwähnten geringen Ausgaben des Staates für Ökolandbau-spezifische Forschung auch mit Größeneffekten und mit Preiseffekten erklärt werden. Die Annahme einer monotonen Produktionsfunktion wird überwiegend eingehalten. Die technische Effizienz scheint vor allem in den letzten Beobachtungsjahren angestiegen zu sein, allerdings lässt sich kein klarer Trend über den gesamten Zeitraum identifizieren.Am Ende werden politische Schlussfolgerungen aus den Ergebnissen gezogen. Es wird ein kurzer Blick auf die aktuellen Modelle in der stochastischen Effizienzanalyse geworfen. Schließlich wird zukünftiger Forschungsbedarf in der Effizienzanalyse im Ökolandbau skizziert, der vor allem im Hinblick auf Umwelteffizienz besteht. ; The following dissertation has the topic "Efficiency analysis in organic farming - status, empirical analysis and political conclusions".The dissertation begins in chapter 1 with an introduction to the topic and a deduction of the main research questions. The environment of the sector in the years 1994 to 2006 has been ambiguous: Organic market has gone through a dynamic and substantial growth. Also the share of converting farms is significant but below the growth rate on the market side. The different reforms steps in the EU s Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) were challenging for many organic farms in many respects. Organic farms can react on these developments by means of an increased efficiency. During the last decade there have been some studies on the efficiency in organic farming. These studies give a first introduction of the efficiency of organic farms, but often they are not addressing the special problems of organic farming systems. Only a few studies can address the development of efficiency in the conversion period of organic farms. Also regional determinants of technical efficiency are not included in most of the models. This paper models the technical efficiency of organic grassland farms and adapts the models that address some of the specific problems of organic farming systems.The chapter 2 follows with four empirical applications of the efficiency analysis of organic grassland and milk farms. The models are estimated using a stochastic frontier analysis (SFA). The "heteroscedastic model" and the "technical effects models" are added into the model-framework in order to take account the size effects and to estimate the influence of potential determinants of technical efficiency. The selected model framework proves to be suitable for the analysis, which is shown by different statistical tests. The elasticities of the inputs with respect to output are discussed. Besides the "traditional" determinants, the regional factors exert an important influence on of technical efficiency: Technical efficiency is different depending on the respective region and agglomeration affects the efficiency of the single farms. This suggests that there are technological spillover effects. The development of technical efficiency in the conversion period shows that efficiency is improving after 5 years and finally reaching the average performance of all farms after 6-11 years. The grassland and dairy farms have to cope with technological regress. This might be explained by low expenditure of the government for research and development specially addressed to organic farming.The chapter 3 is concentrated on an analysis of the various forms of market failure, which might justify government intervention in favor of organic farming from an economic point of view. The forms of market failure are a.) Externalities, b.) Information asymmetries, c.) Market failure on the capital market (the "infant industry argument") and d.) Non rational behavior ("merit goods"). In order to classify the various forms of market failure, the results of a functioning market and the model assumption underlying the neoclassical model are described. The so called "first best" solution is presented, their feasibility in the context of EU"s Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), however, seems to be unlikely. Therefore, a "second best"-solution seems to be more realistic.The different theories and forms of market failure with respect to organic farming are explained. Market failure due to externalities still seems to be the most important argument for state intervention in agricultural markets in favor of organic farming. This argument is also often applied in political practice. The risk of adverse selection processes due to asymmetric information has been rarely discussed in the agricultural context. There seems to be some good arguments in favor of a state intervention. However, the arguments against state intervention are of more general nature. Therefore a state intervention can be justified by this theory depending from the individual political point of view. The infant industry argument is rejected for supporting organic farming in specific, since the criteria of an "infant industry" do not completely apply on organic farming. The theory of merit goods takes into account the complexity of modern societies providing a solution for non rational behavior. Nevertheless, the preconditions for a state intervention are not consistently defined; therefore the "merit goods" argument does not seem to justify a state intervention in favor of organic farming.Chapter 4 contains a summary of the main results of the dissertation and summary and conclusions. A critical assessment of the results of the stochastic frontier analysis is conducted. The results are - like in many other studies - subject to some restrictions. Problems and potential weaknesses mainly in the dataset are discussed. The selection and treatment of the data are presented in detail. The dataset consists of accounting data therefore the selection process is not strictly random but also due to function (tax-declaration). The temporal and spatial distribution of the data-set is affected by the functional selection. The overall population of organic farms in Germany is represented by the data-set; nevertheless, organic farms in Schleswig-Holstein and Hessen are underrepresented. In addition very small and very large farms are underrepresented, which can be explained by the function of the data-set.It can be shown that the model results are hardly distorted by extreme values ("out-lier"). The issues of technological regress, the adaption of the monotonistic production function and the development of technical efficiency over time are discussed in detail. Some of the technological regress can be explained by the low expenditure of the government for research and development addressed to organic farming. Also some size and price effects might play a role. The assumption of a monotonistic production function is only violated in a few cases. The technical efficiency seems to be increasing during the last three years in the data set, but no clear trend over the whole period could be identified. At the end in of the dissertation policy conclusions are drawn from the results. Some of the recent developments in stochastic frontier analysis are shortly described. Finally, future research questions and topics with respect to organic farming are outlined. One of the main research questions, however, seems to deal with the topic of environmental efficiency.

Exposure to secondhand smoke (SHS) is harmful and hazardous to the health of the general public. A large body of research has been conducted in this topic, and great efforts have been made to prevent people from being exposed to SHS. Legislation on restricting smoking in workplaces and many public places has also been increasing. However, tobacco industries have been fighting against smoking bans in restaurants and bars with multiple strategies, which has led to the current situation that smoking bans in restaurants and bars usually lag behind other environments in many countries. As of January 2012, a total of 66 nations worldwide have enacted a 100% smoke-free law in workplaces and hospitality venues, while only 46 of the 66 include both restaurants and bars, and more than 90% of the world population can't enjoy smoke-free restaurants and bars. In addition, tobacco industries have made continuing efforts to remove existing smoking bans, and such efforts are sometimes successful. For example, as of October 2011, 15 U.S. municipalities that had adopted effective smoke-free laws subsequently repealed, weakened, or postponed them due to such efforts. This dissertation aims to quantify SHS exposure and the attendant health risks, morbidity and mortality, among restaurant and bar servers and patrons, to provide scientific evidence on whether SHS exposure in restaurants and bars can be ignored and whether restaurants and bars should be exempted from smoking bans. The dissertation consists of seven chapters. Chapter 1 presents the general background, Chapters 2 and 3 focus on quantifying SHS exposure in restaurants and bars by workers and patrons; Chapter 4 evaluates the efficacy of different smoking policies adopted to reduce SHS exposure in restaurants and bars in Beijing China; and Chapters 5 and 6 assess the excess heath risks, morbidity and mortality, due to SHS exposure in restaurants and bars, and the last chapter summarizes the findings and conclusions from the previous five chapters. The study in Chapter 2 applies multiple approaches to assess restaurant and bar servers' and patrons' exposure to SHS two years after the implementation of the governmental smoking restriction in Beijing, 2010. Of the 79 restaurants and bars monitored in the study, 37 (47%) nominally prohibited smoking, and 14 (18%) restricted smoking to designated sections. A total of 121 visits were made during peak-patronage times, and smoking was observed in 26 (51%) of these nominal nonsmoking venues or sections. Patrons were exposed to a median (interquartile range IQR) of 27 (4-93) µg/m 3 of fine particulates derived from SHS (SHS PM) and a median (IQR) of 1.53 (0.69-3.10) µg/m 3 of airborne nicotine during their visits. For servers, continuous real-time sampling of SHS PM and sequential area sampling of airborne nicotine, for more than 24 hours in two restaurants, showed obvious spikes of SHS concentrations during peak-patronage times, and SHS concentrations remained high during intervals between peak-patronage times or in evenings due to staff smoking. Servers were exposed to a median (IQR) of 2.62 (1.22-5.40) µg/m 3 of airborne nicotine during their day-time working hours by one-day active personal sampling, and 1.83 (0.92-3.21) µg/m 3 of airborne nicotine during a whole week by week-long passive sampling. Nonparametric Kruskal-Wallis rank tests of SHS concentrations by different nominal smoking policies showed statistically significant difference of peak-patronage-time SHS PM and airborne nicotine concentrations, while no statistically significant differences of one-day average nicotine concentration by active area or personal sampling, or of week-long average nicotine concentration by passive sampling. Comparison of results by different sampling approaches showed that both measured SHS PM and airborne nicotine concentrations were significantly related to observed active smoker activities. A slope of 17 µg/m 3 of SHS PM per one µg/m 3 of nicotine was observed. Time-weighted nicotine concentrations by one-hour peak-patronage time area sampling were higher than those by one-day area sampling and by week-long area sampling; and results of peak-patronage-time sampling could explain about half of the variance of the results by the latter two sampling approaches. One-hour peak-patronage-time area nicotine sampling results were very close to one-day personal nicotine sampling results. Thus, peak-time area sampling is a feasible and also a reasonably accurate way to access patrons' exposure to SHS during their short-term visits and servers' exposure during their full shifts. Chapter 3 develops and evaluates a mass balance model to predict SHS concentrations in restaurants and bars in China during peak-patronage times. The model is based on field data from an intensive study, with field monitoring of SHS concentrations in a representative sample of Minnesota restaurants and bars during representative peak-patronage times, and field data from existing studies of Chinese restaurants and bars. The model could predict SHS PM concentrations reasonably well, but not so well for airborne nicotine concentrations. Using the model and Monte Carlo simulation, the mean (SD) of simulated SHS PM concentrations was predicted to be 135 (182) μg/m 3 , 90 (129) μg/m 3 , and 49 (79) μg/m 3 in restaurants with smoking allowed everywhere, designated smoking sections of restaurants, and designated nonsmoking restaurants, respectively. Predicted SHS concentrations in bars were about two times as in restaurants with the same smoking policy. These predicted concentrations were used to assess the health risks for both servers and patrons in Chapter 6. Chapter 4 uses field data collected in three previous studies from 2006 to 2008 and the study conducted in 2010, which is presented in Chapter 2, to evaluate the efficacy of different smoking policies adopted in Beijing restaurants and bars during this time period. There were significant overlaps of sampling venues included in each year. In 2006, all voluntary smoking bans in restaurants and bars were completely self-motivated by owners, and in 2007, they were encouraged by the government. Less than 20% of restaurants and bars prohibited or restricted smoking in 2006 or 2007. This indicates that both the self-motivated and governmental encouraged voluntary smoking bans are rarely adopted; thus, voluntary smoking bans cannot protect people from SHS exposure in restaurants and bars. When the Beijing government started to require smoking restrictions in restaurants and bars in 2008, more than 80% of venues did so as required; in these venues, the active smoking rate of patrons decreased, while no significant changes were observed in venues without any policy changes. However, some venues stopped prohibiting or restricting smoking two years later in 2010, resulting in less than 60% restaurants and bars nominally prohibited or restricted smoking, showing non-continuous enforcement by the government and decreasing compliance by venue owners. Though SHS PM concentrations in Beijing restaurants and bars decreased after the governmental smoking restriction in both 2008 and 2010, compared to those in 2006 and 2007, this happened in all the venues followed up with, regardless of the policy changes. In 2010, two years after the smoking restrictions, both SHS PM concentrations and active smoking rates in restaurants and bars were higher than in 2008, regardless of the changes in smoking policy. The similarity of SHS levels experienced by servers of restaurants and bars with different nominal smoking policies during their full shifts in 2010 also showed poor enforcement and compliance of the restrictions two years after the implementation.Chapters 5 and 6 estimate the health risks and excess morbidity and mortality caused by SHS exposure in restaurants and bars in Minnesota, in the U.S., and in China. Intensive field monitoring of SHS exposure in a representative sample of 65 Minnesota restaurants and bars, for multiple times in each venue, showed that more than 80% of patrons were exposed to SHS concentrations above the threshold of eye and nasal irritation during more than 80% of their visits. Patrons' and servers' lifetime excess risk (LER) of lung cancer death (LCD) due to SHS exposure in restaurants and bars in both Minnesota and in China was well above the acceptable level of 1×10 -6 . And this was true even for patrons who visited designated nonsmoking sections only for about 1.5 hours a week in their lifetime. The LER can be much higher for patrons who visit restaurants and bars more often, or for patrons who also visit smoking sections or venues allowing smoking everywhere. As for servers, their LER of LCD or asthma initiation (estimated for Minnesota and U.S. restaurant and bar servers only) could be higher than the significant risk of 1×10 -3 , considered an unsafe level by the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). In the population level, SHS exposure in restaurants and bars was estimated to cause three LCDs and 32 ischaemic heart disease (IHD) deaths per year among the general nonsmoking population, and 53 new asthma cases per year among nonsmoking servers in Minnesota, 214 LCDs and 3001 IHD deaths per year among the general nonsmoking population, and 1420 new asthma cases per year among nonsmoking servers in the U.S. This death toll was predicted to be 1325 LCDs and 1525 IHD deaths a year in China.In all, restaurants and bars are major employers, and they are also important public places for the general population. This dissertation shows that both servers and patrons are exposed to high concentrations of SHS in restaurants and bars, and the attendant health risks, morbidity, and mortality are too significant to be ignored. Thus, to protect people from the health hazards of SHS exposure, restaurants and bars should not be exempted from any smoking bans. The only effective way is to create 100% smoke-free environments by comprehensive smoking bans, and just passing a smoking ban is not enough, while full enforcement and compliance is extremely important.

Joseph Prantil, July 17, 2013 ; Business at the Crossroads - Ogden City is a project to collect oral histories related to changes in the Ogden business district since World War II. From the 1870s to World War II, Ogden was a major railroad town, with nine rail systems. With both east-west and north-south rail lines, business and commercial houses flourished as Ogden became a shipping and commerce hub. ; The following is an oral history interview with Joseph Prantil. The interview was conducted on July 17, 2013, by Sarah Langston. Joseph discusses his experiences with 25th Street. ; 17p.; 29cm.; 2 bound transcripts; 4 file folders. 1 videodisc: digital; 4 3/4 in. ; Oral History Program Joseph Prantil Interviewed by Sarah Langsdon 17 July 2013 Oral History Program Weber State University Stewart Library Ogden, Utah Joseph Prantil Interviewed by Sarah Langsdon 17 July 2013 Copyright © 2014 by Weber State University, Stewart Library Mission Statement The Oral History Program of the Stewart Library was created to preserve the institutional history of Weber State University and the Davis, Ogden and Weber County communities. By conducting carefully researched, recorded, and transcribed interviews, the Oral History Program creates archival oral histories intended for the widest possible use. Interviews are conducted with the goal of eliciting from each participant a full and accurate account of events. The interviews are transcribed, edited for accuracy and clarity, and reviewed by the interviewees (as available), who are encouraged to augment or correct their spoken words. The reviewed and corrected transcripts are indexed, printed, and bound with photographs and illustrative materials as available. Archival copies are placed in Special Collections. The Stewart Library also houses the original recording so researchers can gain a sense of the interviewee's voice and intonations. Project Description Business at the Crossroads - Ogden City is a project to collect oral histories related to changes in the Ogden business district since World War II. From the 1870s to World War II, Ogden was a major railroad town, with nine rail systems. With both east-west and north-south rail lines, business and commercial houses flourished as Ogden became a shipping and commerce hub. After World War II, the railroad business declined. Some government agencies and businesses related to the defense industry continued to gravitate to Ogden after the war—including the Internal Revenue Regional Center, the Marquardt Corporation, Boeing Corporation, Volvo-White Truck Corporation, Morton-Thiokol, and several other smaller operations. However, the economy became more service oriented, with small businesses developing that appealed to changing demographics, including the growing Hispanic population. ____________________________________ Oral history is a method of collecting historical information through recorded interviews between a narrator with firsthand knowledge of historically significant events and a well-informed interviewer, with the goal of preserving substantive additions to the historical record. Because it is primary material, oral history is not intended to present the final, verified, or complete narrative of events. It is a spoken account. It reflects personal opinion offered by the interviewee in response to questioning, and as such it is partisan, deeply involved, and irreplaceable. ____________________________________ Rights Management Special Collections All literary rights in the manuscript, including the right to publish, are reserved to the Stewart Library of Weber State University. No part of the manuscript may be published without the written permission of the University Librarian. Requests for permission to publish should be addressed to the Administration Office, Stewart Library, Weber State University, Ogden, Utah, 84408. The request should include identification of the specific item and identification of the user. It is recommended that this oral history be cited as follows: Prantil, Joseph, an oral history by Sarah Langsdon, 17 July 2013 , WSU Stewart Library Oral History Program, Special Collections, Stewart Library, Weber State University, Ogden, UT. iii Joseph Prantil July 17, 2013 Abstract: The following is an oral history interview with Joseph Prantil. The interview was conducted on July 17, 2013, by Sarah Langston. Joseph discusses his experiences with 25th Street. SL: This is Sarah Langsdon and I am interviewing Joseph Prantil at his home in South Weber, Utah. Today is July 17, 2013. Joe, tell me a little bit about when and where you were born. JP: I was born in Ogden in 1943. So that makes me 70-years-old. I've lived here all of my life. I've been out of the state for periods of time, but I have lived here almost all of my life. SL: Where is your family from? JP: My grandmother and grandfather on my dad's side, who are the focus of our interview today, were born in Prio, Italy and migrated here. It's just a guess, but I think it was around 1900. My mother's parents migrated to America from southern Italy. SL: What was your grandfather's occupation? JP: In Italy, he was a stone mason and the family had a marble quarry. That was one of the major industries of that particular town in addition to orchards and vineyards. The quarry is still in operation today. I was there about five years ago and had a chance to see the whole operation. It's still in operation by the Prantil family. SL: When he moved here, what became his business? 1 JP: The story is that he went to Argentina first. My grandmother had brothers living there, so he stopped there. When he came here he worked as a coal miner. For a brief period of time he went to Elkhorn, Montana to mine, but ended up in Superior, Wyoming working in a coal mine. Shortly afterward he went back to Italy and brought my grandma to America. SL: How did he end up in Ogden? JP: He contracted Black Lung disease from the mines, which many of the miners did at that time, so he had to leave the mine and a lot of his friends from the same area of Italy lived in Ogden. Most of them were dairy farmers out in West Weber. He moved here to be with them and they encouraged him to come. SL: What stories were you told about his business at the Utah Hot Springs? JP: After my grandparents arrived here, my dad was born in 1910 in Superior, Wyoming and so were some of his siblings. My dad was the oldest of four siblings. I think that my grandfather came to Ogden around 1917 and he used the money that he saved and bought the Utah Hot Springs. I think that was probably one of his first purchases. My dad told me that at the time that they had a big hotel, the mineral water pools and swimming pools. It was quite an operation and people would come from all over to stay there. They had a railroad spur that went near there. He operated that business for quite some time until it burned down. I'm not sure when it did burn down, but Dad mentioned that they lost a lot of their possessions in that fire. They never did rebuild it. People in that day didn't believe in insurance, so when they had a disaster of some kind they just lost the 2 money. Around that time he bought the property on 25th Street and started operating that business as well. SL: What was the business on 25th Street and where was it? JP: It was on the corner of Lincoln Avenue and 25th Street. SL: What business did he run? JP: According to what Dad told me, it was an ice cream parlor, but in those days they called it a soda fountain. There was another area in the back that was a drug store, which they called an apothecary at the time. I think he may have rented that out and had somebody else run it because he wasn't a pharmacist. There were two businesses in there and then there were rooms upstairs. It was like a small hotel. SL: Was he ever arrested for bootlegging? JP: Yes. Before prohibition, the place may have been just a bar and they sold alcohol there. Prohibition came along and it was natural for him to turn it into the soda fountain. During those days, they were also selling alcohol on the street. I think downstairs they were probably gambling and having card games too and doing what they did back in those days. SL: Do you know what his set up was for running the alcohol? JP: Dad tells me that since my grandpa was a stone mason, he built a false wall in the basement and put a tank behind it. They plumbed the tank up into the faucets in the sink in the bathroom and had valves that would turn on the faucet and the booze would flow through it. They also had a tank above one of the doors where 3 there was a false ceiling. How many other tanks I don't know, but those are the two I know about. SL: Do you know how he was caught bootlegging? JP: I don't know how he was caught. I'm sure there was some kind of an informant that tipped them off to that. I heard stories that my uncles were caught bringing the booze from West Weber. The farmers were growing corn and they had stills where they made the alcohol and then they'd run it in. My uncles got caught one time running it in, but that's all I know about that piece of it. SL: Did he end up having to shut down the soda shop? JP: I think the local police were overlooking what was going on, but the federal police were not. It was federal police that arrested him for selling booze there. He was also arrested for selling booze at the Hot Springs, so he was arrested a couple of different times. In one of the articles I read (and I didn't know this before I got the article), but they listed his name as Luis Smith. He didn't give whoever arrested him his proper name. He didn't have to shut down the soda shop. SL: What was your grandfather's name? JP: It was Luis, but it was Luigi originally. SL: And your grandmother's name? JP: Her name was Josepina, but she he went by Josepine. As a kid, I didn't know their names. I only knew them by the Italian name for grandma and grandpa which was Nono and Nona. That's how I knew them and that's what I called them. Later, I learned their names. 4 SL: They also owned a gas station on 27th Street? JP: Yes, he bought a gas station and they ran it for a lot of years during the depression. According to what Dad told me, people would barter for gas. Someone had chickens and he had gasoline so they'd barter for food and other things. Growing up, I remember there was a Dr. Moyes who was a dentist and he would give us dental services for free and I never knew why until Dad eventually told me that he owed the family money for gas during the depression. SL: Where was the gas station? JP: The gas station was on the corner of 27th and Grant. It was a Mobile gas station, but I don't know what they named it back then. When I was a kid they had rented it out to Clix Swaner Sr., who ran it for most of the time that I was a kid. He's quite a well-known figure in town too. He lived to be 103-years-old. SL: Going back to the soda shop. They're most famous for the rooms upstairs being the Rose Rooms. What were you told about the Rose Rooms? JP: I wasn't told a whole lot because I don't think they talked about that other than when Dad told me that it had been a brothel upstairs. By the time I was old enough to remember it wasn't a brothel anymore. It had been shut down by then and I know that they had a lot of single men living up there. They were renting them out by the room. He did tell me that the Madame had a big cat and I'm not sure if it was a leopard or what it was, but he told me that story and that's about all I knew about that. SL: What about the doors? 5 JP: Oh yeah. When I went in there I'd help him do maintenance on it and that sort of thing. There was a door that went upstairs and came in from the street. It was a separate door and it went up the north side of the building and it had a separate stairwell that didn't actually go into the ice cream parlor or anything, it was its own entryway. At the top of the stairs there was another door and Dad told me that there were electric switches on it and there was a little peep-hole with bars over the window so they would watch to see who was coming up before they would let them in to make sure they weren't police. I asked him about all the holes around the window and he told me that someone had shot it with a shot gun, so I guess it was a pretty rough place. SL: Probably. What were some of the shops that you remember being on 25th Street when you were growing up? JP: The only thing I remember really is that they were bars. I don't remember a lot of shops down there, but there were businesses that may be still there like the Gift House, but it was when they were a pawn shop. That's how they started out, they were a pawn shop and they sold pawn items and guns and that sort of thing and still do to this day. The street was full of bars and some restaurants, mostly Mexican and Chinese food. SL: So not very much shopping. JP: No, not very much shopping. SL: Was that more a long Washington? JP: Yes, there were more along Washington. 6 SL: Do you remember any of the shops along Washington that your family used to go to? JP: Yes I do. There was a Woolworths Store and everyone would stop in at the soda fountain there. There was B&B clothes shop and Nye's and Perkin's had a clothing store along there. It was the place to go for shopping. In later years, as we all know, everything left Ogden City and it became pretty dilapidated, but it was the place to go. It was fun Christmas shopping there because of all the shops and stores and clothing stores along there. It was a fun place to shop. SL: Did you ever go to any of the theaters there? JP: Yes, there were several theaters in town and that's where we would go on Saturday morning. We'd all go see the show for cheap. SL: Was it usually the Egyptian or Paramount? JP: The Paramount Theater, the Egyptian, the Orpheum are the ones I remember. SL: Did you ever go to the Ogden Theater? JP: I don't remember that one. SL: It was across the street from the Ben Lomond Hotel on 25th Street. JP: I don't remember that one for some reason. There was also a big hotel on the corner of 25th Street and Washington and I think it was called the Broom Hotel. There were shops along the bottom of the building and the hotel was above it. SL: I think that's where Woolworths was. JP: That is where that was. 7 SL: Speaking of the Broom, do you remember any other buildings that are no longer there on 25th Street or Washington? JP: There were different shops and stores along there, but I don't remember exactly what they were. I know there was a sporting goods store called Wolfe's on 23rd Street and they tore that down and built other things. SL: Did you ever go to the Berthana or White City? JP: We'd go there to roller skate, but they were major dance halls and people would go dancing at Berthana or White City so they were ballrooms more than anything, but then we'd go roller skating there. SL: What were some other places that you'd hang out or what did you do for fun? JP: When we were kids we didn't have a television, but we had the radio. I remember sitting by the radio with Dad listening to the fights and to some of the shows like The Shadow. There were a lot of different radio shows that were mysteries, so we'd listen to the mystery sometimes. Television came along as time went on and we'd watch some, but not very much. It was something you watched on the weekend or occasionally. We mostly played outside. We had fields down below where we lived on 15th Street and the Mill Stream went through here. We'd play by the stream and go fishing in the summer and there was a little pond down there that we'd ice skate on in the winter. We spent most of our time outdoors. SL: Do you have any other things you'd like to share with us? JP: We talked some time ago about tunnels under the street. I do remember when Dad took me down there the first time in the basement of the building and by 8 then it was called the El Borracho and they had rented it out. After my grandpa died they rented the whole building out. He died in 1948. He was a pretty young man really, but I think Black Lung was part of his demise. You probably know the story of my grandmother being arrested. It was her building and the brothel was upstairs so they arrested her too and she had to quit renting it to the Madame. SL: How long did your family own that building? JP: I don't know exactly when they bought it, but I think it was somewhere in the early twenties and they didn't sell it until after my grandma died in the 1980's. They had everything all rented out and my grandma lived on the rentals from the buildings and the gas station. She lived on that and whatever my grandpa left her. Getting back to the tunnel issue, my Dad took me downstairs and I could see where they had cinder-blocked an area that was kind of a squared out area and Dad said that there was some kind of room back there and he talked about tunnels, but that's the only conversation we ever had about some kind of egress out that way. SL: With the reputation of El Borracho, did your family ever get caught up in the things that were happening down there? JP: Not really. They rented it out, so I know my dad would go collect the rent for my grandma and I remember going in there with him several times to collect the rent. I know that he was a little bit cautious depending on when he went in there because there were some pretty rough characters in there. 9 SL: It had quite a reputation. JP: I think what happened is that as time went on, the city wanted to try to close all the bars and that sort of thing down there and had plans to redevelop it, so they were involved in the purchase of the building. SL: So the city bought it from your family? JP: I think they did. They had a ghost buyer. Dean Perkins bought it, but I think he was actually a ghost buyer for the city as I understand it. SL: Well, thank you Joe. We appreciate it. 10

We gratefully acknowledge the support of the National Institute of Health-National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) conference grant travel support (R13ES023276); Glenn Rice, Office of Research and Development, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH, USA also deserves thanks for his thoughtful feedback and inputs on the manuscript; William H.Goodson III was supported by the California Breast Cancer Research Program, Clarence Heller Foundation and California Pacific Medical Center Foundation; Abdul M.Ali would like to acknowledge the financial support of the University of Sultan Zainal Abidin, Malaysia; Ahmed Lasfar was supported by an award from the Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey; Ann-Karin Olsen and Gunnar Brunborg were supported by the Research Council of Norway (RCN) through its Centres of Excellence funding scheme (223268/F50), Amancio Carnero's lab was supported by grants from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitivity, ISCIII (Fis: PI12/00137, RTICC: RD12/0036/0028) co-funded by FEDER from Regional Development European Funds (European Union), Consejeria de Ciencia e Innovacion (CTS-1848) and Consejeria de Salud of the Junta de Andalucia (PI-0306-2012); Matilde E. Lleonart was supported by a trienal project grant PI12/01104 and by project CP03/00101 for personal support. Amaya Azqueta would like to thank the Ministerio de Educacion y Ciencia ('Juande la Cierva' programme, 2009) of the Spanish Government for personal support; Amedeo Amedei was supported by the Italian Ministry of University and Research (2009FZZ4XM_002), and the University of Florence (ex6012); Andrew R.Collins was supported by the University of Oslo; Annamaria Colacci was supported by the Emilia-Romagna Region - Project 'Supersite' in Italy; Carolyn Baglole was supported by a salary award from the Fonds de recherche du Quebec-Sante (FRQ-S); Chiara Mondello's laboratory is supported by Fondazione Cariplo in Milan, Italy (grant n. 2011-0370); Christian C.Naus holds a Canada Research Chair; Clement Yedjou was supported by a grant from the National Institutes of Health (NIH-NIMHD grant no. G12MD007581); Daniel C.Koch is supported by the Burroughs Wellcome Fund Postdoctoral Enrichment Award and the Tumor Biology Training grant: NIH T32CA09151; Dean W. Felsher would like to acknowledge the support of United States Department of Health and Human Services, NIH grants (R01 CA170378 PQ22, R01 CA184384, U54 CA149145, U54 CA151459, P50 CA114747 and R21 CA169964); Emilio Rojas would like to thank CONACyT support 152473; Ezio Laconi was supported by AIRC (Italian Association for Cancer Research, grant no. IG 14640) and by the Sardinian Regional Government (RAS); Eun-Yi Moon was supported by grants from the Public Problem-Solving Program (NRF-015M3C8A6A06014500) and Nuclear R&D Program (#2013M2B2A9A03051296 and 2010-0018545) through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) and funded by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MEST) in Korea; Fahd Al-Mulla was supported by the Kuwait Foundation for the Advancement of Sciences (2011-1302-06); Ferdinando Chiaradonna is supported by SysBioNet, a grant for the Italian Roadmap of European Strategy Forum on Research Infrastructures (ESFRI) and by AIRC (Associazione Italiana Ricerca sul Cancro; IG 15364); Francis L.Martin acknowledges funding from Rosemere Cancer Foundation; he also thanks Lancashire Teaching Hospitals NHS trust and the patients who have facilitated the studies he has undertaken over the course of the last 10 years; Gary S.Goldberg would like to acknowledge the support of the New Jersey Health Foundation; Gloria M.Calaf was supported by Fondo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (FONDECYT), Ministerio de Educación de Chile (MINEDUC), Universidad de Tarapacá (UTA); Gudrun Koppen was supported by the Flemish Institute for Technological Research (VITO), Belgium; Hemad Yasaei was supported from a triennial project grant (Strategic Award) from the National Centre for the Replacement, Refinement and Reduction (NC3Rs) of animals in research (NC.K500045.1 and G0800697); Hiroshi Kondoh was supported in part by grants from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology of Japan, Japan Science and Technology Agency and by JST, CREST; Hsue-Yin Hsu was supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology of Taiwan (NSC93-2314-B-320-006 and NSC94-2314-B-320-002); Hyun Ho Park was supported by the Basic Science Research Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) of the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (2012R1A2A2A01010870) and a grant from the Korea Healthcare Technology R&D project, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Republic of Korea (HI13C1449); Igor Koturbash is supported by the UAMS/NIH Clinical and Translational Science Award (UL1TR000039 and KL2TR000063) and the Arkansas Biosciences Institute, the major research component of the Arkansas Tobacco Settlement Proceeds Act of 2000; Jan Vondráček acknowledges funding from the Czech Science Foundation (13-07711S); Jesse Roman thanks the NIH for their support (CA116812); John Pierce Wise Sr. and Sandra S.Wise were supported by National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (ES016893 to J.P.W.) and the Maine Center for Toxicology and Environmental Health; Jonathan Whitfield acknowledges support from the FERO Foundation in Barcelona, Spain; Joseph Christopher is funded by Cancer Research UK and the International Journal of Experimental Pathology; Julia Kravchenko is supported by a philanthropic donation by Fred and Alice Stanback; Jun Sun is supported by a Swim Across America Cancer Research Award; Karine A.Cohen-Solal is supported by a research scholar grant from the American Cancer Society (116683-RSG-09-087-01-TBE); Laetitia Gonzalez received a postdoctoral fellowship from the Fund for Scientific Research–Flanders (FWO-Vlaanderen) and support by an InterUniversity Attraction Pole grant (IAP-P7-07); Laura Soucek is supported by grant #CP10/00656 from the Miguel Servet Research Contract Program and acknowledges support from the FERO Foundation in Barcelona, Spain; Liang-Tzung Lin was supported by funding from the Taipei Medical University (TMU101-AE3-Y19); Linda Gulliver is supported by a Genesis Oncology Trust (NZ) Professional Development Grant, and the Faculty of Medicine, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand; Louis Vermeulen is supported by a Fellowship of the Dutch Cancer Society (KWF, UVA2011-4969) and a grant from the AICR (14–1164); Mahara Valverde would like to thank CONACyT support 153781; Masoud H. Manjili was supported by the office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Health Affairs (USA) through the Breast Cancer Research Program under Award No. W81XWH-14-1-0087 Neetu Singh was supported by grant #SR/FT/LS-063/2008 from the Department of Science and Technology, Government of India; Nicole Kleinstreuer is supported by NIEHS contracts (N01-ES 35504 and HHSN27320140003C); P.K. Krishnakumar is supported by the Funding (No. T.K. 11-0629) of King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Paola A.Marignani is supported by the Dalhousie Medical Research Foundation, The Beatrice Hunter Cancer Institute and CIHR and the Nova Scotia Lung Association; Paul Dent is the holder of the Universal Inc.Chair in Signal Transduction Research and is supported with funds from PHS grants from the NIH (R01-CA141704, R01-CA150214, R01-DK52825 and R01-CA61774); Petr Heneberg was supported by the Charles University in Prague projects UNCE 204015 and PRVOUK P31/2012, and by the Czech Science Foundation projects P301/12/1686 and 15-03834Y; Po Sing Leung was supported by the Health and Medical Research Fund of Food and Health Bureau, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, Ref. No: 10110021; Qiang Cheng was supported in part by grant NSF IIS-1218712; R. Brooks Robey is supported by the United States Department of Veterans Affairs; Rabindra Roy was supported by United States Public Health Service Grants (RO1 CA92306, RO1 CA92306-S1 and RO1 CA113447); Rafaela Andrade-Vieira is supported by the Beatrice Hunter Cancer Research Institute and the Nova Scotia Health Research Foundation; Renza Vento was partially funded by European Regional Development Fund, European Territorial Cooperation 2007–13 (CCI 2007 CB 163 PO 037, OP Italia-Malta 2007–13) and grants from the Italian Ministry of Education, University and Research (MIUR) ex-60%, 2007; Riccardo Di Fiore was a recipient of fellowship granted by European Regional Development Fund, European Territorial Cooperation 2007–2013 (CCI 2007 CB 163 PO 037, OP Italia-Malta 2007–2013); Rita Dornetshuber-Fleiss was supported by the Austrian Science Fund (FWF, project number T 451-B18) and the Johanna Mahlke, geb.-Obermann-Stiftung; Roberta Palorini is supported by a SysBioNet fellowship; Roslida Abd Hamid is supported by the Ministry of Education, Malaysia-Exploratory Research Grant Scheme-Project no: ERGS/1-2013/5527165; Sabine A.S.Langie is the beneficiary of a postdoctoral grant from the AXA Research Fund and the Cefic-LRI Innovative Science Award 2013; Sakina Eltom is supported by NIH grant SC1CA153326; Samira A.Brooks was supported by National Research Service Award (T32 ES007126) from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences and the HHMI Translational Medicine Fellowship; Sandra Ryeom was supported by The Garrett B. Smith Foundation and the TedDriven Foundation; Thierry Massfelder was supported by the Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale INSERM and Université de Strasbourg; Thomas Sanderson is supported by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR; MOP-115019), the Natural Sciences and Engineering Council of Canada (NSERC; 313313) and the California Breast Cancer Research Program (CBCRP; 17UB-8703); Tiziana Guarnieri is supported by a grant from Fundamental Oriented Research (RFO) to the Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy and thanks the Fondazione Cassa di Risparmio di Bologna and the Fondazione Banca del Monte di Bologna e Ravenna for supporting the Center for Applied Biomedical Research, S.Orsola-Malpighi University Hospital, Bologna, Italy; W.Kimryn Rathmell is supported by the V Foundation for Cancer Research and the American Cancer Society; William K.Decker was supported in part by grant RP110545 from the Cancer Prevention Research Institute of Texas; William H.Bisson was supported with funding from the NIH P30 ES000210; Yon Rojanasakul was supported with NIH grant R01-ES022968; Zhenbang Chen is supported by NIH grants (MD004038, CA163069 and MD007593); Zhiwei Hu is grateful for the grant support from an institutional start-up fund from The Ohio State University College of Medicine and The OSU James Comprehensive Cancer Center (OSUCCC) and a Seed Award from the OSUCCC Translational Therapeutics Program.

More than 16 years post-apartheid, South Africa is still regarded as the most unequal society in the world. The government is facing various obstacles and challenges in improving the standard of living and quality of life for all its citizens, for example in facilitating the access to clean drinking water and sanitation, building houses and providing basic education. In addition, the country is facing the world's largest HIV/AIDS epidemic with a national prevalence rate of 18.1 %, equalling approximately 5.7 million people who are currently infected. (Pressly, 2009; UNAIDS, 2008c) Against this background, the aim of this thesis was to study the Madwaleni community, situated in a deeply rural area of the former apartheid homeland Transkei. Applying the Community Oriented Primary Care approach, a strategy of 'community assessment and diagnosis' was used to obtain a holistic community profile and to determine the perceptions of its community members regarding their health and social problems and needs, intending to make recommendations to health care providers working at Madwaleni Hospital regarding future health education and disease prevention programmes. (Brown and Fee, 2002) This research used a cross-sectional design. In a preliminary survey, qualitative data was collected in short interviews with health care providers working at Madwaleni Hospital (N=46). The information served as a basis to develop and design parts of the Madwaleni community survey questionnaire. The questionnaire consisted of 36 questions, complying with the aim and objectives of this thesis. It was used for the structured interviews with the main study population, all of whom were members of the Madwaleni community (N=200), whereas half of the main study population were men and half were women, then again, half were unaware of their HIV status and half were HIV+ and had joined the Madwaleni HIV/AIDS programme. Key findings 1) Madwaleni community profile and characteristics Thoughtful sexual behaviour: Particularly interesting in light of the HIV/AIDS epidemic, more than 90 % of the sexually active community members were monogamous at the time of the survey. While only 36.4 % of the men and women unaware of their HIV status used condoms, 76.5 % of the HIV+ community members claimed to do so, indicating that the Madwaleni HIV wellness programme and especially its counselling and health education components are adequate and valuable in serving their purpose. High rates of illiteracy and insufficient education: Only 56.5 % of the interviewed community members were 'functionally literate' at the time of the survey. Of those, only 8 % had received a matriculation and not one of the community members had received any higher degree. In addition, 19.5 % of the sampled men and women were not able to read at all. High rates of unemployment, poverty and dependency on welfare grants: Only 20 % of the Madwaleni community members were employed at the time of the survey. Taking the daily income per capita as a reference, one third of the community members suffered from 'moderate poverty', defined as an income of 1 to 2 US $ per day, while the other two thirds suffered from 'extreme poverty', defined as an income of less than 1 US $ per day, although more than 90 % of the corresponding households received at least one type of welfare grant already. Large household sizes and predominance of traditional dwellings: In the Madwaleni community, an average of eight people lived together per household at the time of the survey, whereas 95 % of the community members lived in traditional dwellings, constructed from freely occurring natural resources. In need of safe drinking water, sanitary systems and access to electricity: More than 80 % of the Madwaleni community members obtained their drinking water from rivers or stagnant dams, while only 6.5 % used rain water and 9.5 % had access to piped water. In addition, almost 70 % of the community members had no access to any sanitary systems, using nearby bushes instead. Furthermore, more than 90 % had no access to electricity. The majority used paraffin for cooking, candles for lighting and wood for heating their homes. Small-scale cultivation to provide an extra source of food: In the Madwaleni area, 90 % of the families owned a small garden patch attached to their houses, used for small-scale cultivation. In addition, almost 90 % owned livestock, mainly poultry, cattle and goats. Crops and animals were used to provide an extra source of food; however, not one of the households could solely live on subsistence farming. Difficulties in accessing health care facilities: On average, each of the community members needed three-quarters of an hour to access their closest clinic and almost one and a half hours to reach Madwaleni Hospital, with 40 % and 60 % respectively depending on public taxi transport to get there. No substantial improvement of the living circumstances since apartheid: Comparing the Madwaleni community characteristics with corresponding data from apartheid-times, no substantial improvement of the living circumstances and conditions could be noticed, proving that governmental and non-governmental actions, programmes and services have not yet reached all remote communities. Similar community characteristics in the neighbouring communities: Comparing these characteristics with corresponding features of communities in the immediate or surrounding areas, namely Cwebe, Ntubeni, Mboya, Shixini and Zithulele, various similarities could be detected, indicating that the living circumstances and conditions might be generalisable to a certain degree, at least to deeply rural communities in the former Transkei area. More disadvantaged than the general South African population: The Madwaleni community differed significantly from the general South African population in 75 % of the compared characteristics. For example, amongst the community members the illiteracy rate (21.7 % vs. 13.6 %, p = 0.002) and unemployment rate (80.5 % vs. 25.5 %, p < 0.001) were significantly higher. In addition, the 'poverty headcount ratio of 2 US $ per day' showed that significantly more people were suffering from poverty in the Madwaleni area (92.2 % vs. 34 %, p < 0.001). The Madwaleni community members were less likely to have access to clean drinking water, along with significantly higher proportions of them using river water as their main source of drinking water (75.5 % vs. 5.1 %, p < 0.001). Also, they were less likely to have access to any sanitation or toilet facilities (31.3 % vs. 91.8 %, p < 0.001) or to electricity (8.5 % vs. 80.2 %, p < 0.001). 2) Weightiest health and social problems as experienced by the Madwaleni community In the Madwaleni area, the three health problems with the highest impact on the community were TB, HIV/AIDS and hypertension. On the basis of the applied 3-to-0-point rating matrix, they were rated by more than 95 % of the community members as being relevant problems, with mean values of 2.33, 2.30 and 2.14 respectively. Interestingly, women rated HIV/AIDS higher than men. Musculoskeletal problems and headache were additional health problems with relevant impact on the Madwaleni community, rated by more than 90 %, with mean values above 1.80. While pain and discomfort experienced by PLWHA have been recognised and researched before, there are no corresponding studies on rural communities and further research is necessary to identify the contributing factors. Additional relevant health problems: Interestingly, six health problems were rated higher by HIV untested than by HIV+ community members, namely bilharzia/ schistosomiasis, epilepsy, Herpes Zoster, HIV/AIDS, lung infections and stroke. Since the HIV+ men and women were educated about and screened for all of those diseases within the Madwaleni HIV/AIDS programme, this might explain the deviating rating patterns between the different sub-samples. Moreover, these results demonstrate that health education and disease prevention programmes are able to reduce the perceived burden of health problems and might therefore serve as a substantial argument in their favour. Interestingly, for the Madwaleni community, social matters had a higher impact on their lives than health problems, whereas the three social problems with the highest impact on the community were alcohol abuse, dependency on social grants and smoking. They were rated by more than 98 % of the community members as being relevant problems, with mean values of 2.75, 2.73 and 2.72 respectively. In accordance with these findings, employment & lack of work opportunities, education & illiteracy, food supply and poverty were additional social problems with relevant impact in the Madwaleni area, rated by more than 90 %, with mean values above 2.00. 3) Recommendations for future health education and disease prevention programmes At the time of the survey, the three most relevant health education and disease prevention topics for the Madwaleni community were HIV/AIDS, TB and healthy nutrition. They were rated by more than 95 % of the community members as being relevant health education problems, with mean values of 2.65, 2.51 and 2.36 respectively. In addition, STIs, alcohol & drug-related problems, water & sanitation and body & muscle pain were rated as the subsequent issues of relevance, with mean values above 2.00, supporting the identified community characteristics as well as the listing of the weightiest health and social problems. In addition, valuable new insight could be gained. For instance, HIV untested men rated the topic HIV/AIDS lower than all other community members, which is particularly interesting since men only constitute a minority of 20 % of the people testing for HIV in the Madwaleni area. Besides, topics not previously considered, such as injury prevention and basic first aid, were in-fact relevant for more than 85 % of the community members and require further attention. Furthermore, deviating rating patterns between men and women and the corresponding need for gender-specific educational workshops became evident, for example, for men about prostate & testicular cancer check-up or erectile dysfunction and for women about breast & cervical cancer check-up & papsmears or nutrition & growth. In addition, HIV+ community members rated depression & stress and psychiatric diseases higher than HIV untested men and women, with further studies required to identify the underlying reasons for these deviating rating patterns. Taking all findings from this Madwaleni community survey into consideration, health care providers working at the hospital and its peripheral clinics should first and foremost concentrate their efforts on maintaining the existing programmes, particularly, the Madwaleni HIV/ARV programme and the workshops on hypertension and diabetes mellitus. In addition, if qualified and motivated personnel can be recruited and the necessary funding can be raised, future health education and disease prevention programmes should focus on TB, alcohol & substance abuse-related problems as well as water & sanitation.

El proceso de urbanización origina grandes transformaciones en el medio ambiente. El deterioro de la calidad del aire en las grandes ciudades es un problema mundial que se incrementa con el crecimiento de la población. Entre los contaminantes del aire urbano, el material particulado en suspensión es considerado uno de los más importantes, por sus posibles efectos sobre la salud de las personas. La mayor peligrosidad está relacionada con su capacidad de ingresar en los pulmones, alojándose allí y dañando los tejidos involucrados en el intercambio de gases. Otros efectos del material particulado en suspensión están relacionados con la reducción de la visibilidad, con el aumento de la dispersión y/o de la absorción de la radiación solar afectando la radiación de onda corta y con el aumento del número de núcleos de condensación en la atmósfera. También, existen evidencias de los daños originados por el depósito de material particulado sobre edificios y monumentos. En este trabajo se estudian algunas características de la concentración de fondo de material particulado en suspensión total y PM10 en la atmósfera de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires. Además, se obtuvieron estimaciones del depósito de material particulado en la ciudad y se analizan sus distribuciones espacial y temporal. Fundamentalmente, se desarrolló y utilizó el modelo de dispersión-depósito DAUMOD-D, para estimar la concentración en aire y el depósito de material particulado en áreas urbanas y se lo aplicó a las emisiones de material particulado en la Ciudad de Buenos Aires. Este modelo incluye una parametrización de los procesos de depósito seco y húmedo de material particulado en un área urbana. Se describe la metodología utilizada para evaluar la "velocidad de depósito" en función de la distribución del tamaño de las partículas, de las condiciones atmosféricas y de la rugosidad de la superficie. Asimismo, se presenta la parametrización del "coeficiente de lavado" de partículas por la precipitación, en función de la distribución del tamaño de las partículas, de la eficiencia de colisión de las gotas de lluvia y de la intensidad de la precipitación. Para la aplicación del modelo desarrollado a la Ciudad de Buenos Aires, se presentan los resultados de un inventario de emisiones de material particulado en la ciudad. Los valores de las concentraciones de fondo de material particulado y del flujo de partículas sedimentables estimados por el modelo desarrollado han sido comparados con las observaciones realizadas por el Gobierno de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires en diferentes zonas de la ciudad. Los resultados del modelo sobre-estimaron levemente el flujo de partículas sedimentables: el error cuadrático medio normalizado fue 37%, el error fraccional –9.1% y la varianza fraccional 1.8%. El 72% de las estimaciones resultó dentro de un factor 2 de las observaciones. Por otra parte, los valores estimados de la concentración de fondo de material particulado en suspensión resultaron algo inferiores a los observados: el error cuadrático medio normalizado fue 20.0%, el error fraccional 21.5%, la varianza fraccional 7.7% y el 87% de las estimaciones resultaron dentro de un factor 2 de las observaciones. De esta forma, los resultados obtenidos por el modelo DAUMOD-D para la ciudad de Buenos Aires pueden considerarse satisfactorios. Se estudió la variación mensual de la distribución espacial del depósito de material particulado en la ciudad, encontrándose que pueden existir zonas donde el depósito mensual de material particulado supere 1 mg/(cm2.30d) (límite establecido por la Ley 1356, de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires). Se presentan distribuciones horizontales de la concentración de fondo de material particulado en suspensión total en la ciudad para diferentes tiempos de promedio. Las zonas de la ciudad con los mayores valores de concentraciones horarias varían con las condiciones atmosféricas y la hora del día. Por otra parte, las máximas concentraciones mensuales de material particulado en suspensión pueden superar los 0.15mg/m3, principalmente en los meses invernales. Las zonas de la ciudad que presentan los mayores valores de concentración de material particulado en suspensión incluyen los barrios de Constitución-Retiro, Palermo, y alrededor de la Autopista 25 de Mayo y la Avenida Rivadavia. Asimismo, se estimaron las concentraciones de fondo , diaria y anual, de material particulado PM10 en la Ciudad de Buenos Aires. La concentración media anual de PM10 presentó valores superiores a 0.05 mg/m3 (límite establecido por la Ley 1356, Ciudad de Buenos Aires) en el microcentro y en los barrios de Constitución y Retiro. Las concentraciones medias diarias de PM10 superaron los 0.15 mg/m3 (límite establecido por la Ley 1356, Ciudad de Buenos Aires) en Constitución, Retiro y en los alrededores del Aeroparque y la Autopista 25 de Mayo. Estas situaciones pondrían en riesgo al 51.6 % de la población total de la ciudad al menos 1 vez/año. Además, se estudió la ocurrencia consecutiva de concentraciones diarias altas, obteniéndose 3 rachas de 3 días de duración, que pondrían en riesgo al 0.6 % de la población menor que 14 años y al 0.7 % de la población mayor que 65 años. Se evaluó el aporte relativo de las diferentes fuentes de emisión a la contaminación por material particulado en diferentes zonas de la ciudad. Los automotores contribuyen con más del 60% de la concentración estimada y en segundo lugar se encuentra el aporte del transporte automotor de pasajeros (con alrededor del 20%) a la concentración estimada. ; The urbanization process causes large environmental changes. The deterioration of the air quality in big cities is a world problem, aggravated by demographic growth. Among urban air pollutants, suspended particulate matter is considered to be one of the most important because of its effect on human health. The greatest risk is related to its capacity of entering the lungs, depositing there and injuring the tissues involved in gas exchange. Other effects of these particles are related to decreased visibility, greater scattering and/or absorption of solar radiation, affecting short wave radiation and increasing the number of atmospheric condensation nuclei. There is also evidence about the damage caused by particle deposition on buildings and monuments. This study reports some characteristics of the background concentration of total and PM10 suspended particulate matter in the atmosphere of Buenos Aires. Particulate matter deposition in the city was estimated and an analysis was made of its spacial and temporal variations. Basically, the DAUMOD-D dispersion-deposition model was developed and used to determine particulate matter air concentration and deposition in urban areas and it was applied to particulate matter emissions in Buenos Aires. This model includes a parameterization of dry and wet deposition of particles in an urban area. The methodology used to assess the "deposition velocity" in function of particles size distribution, atmospheric conditions and surface roughness is described. The parameterization of the "scavenging coefficient" for particles, that describes the rate of removal of particles by rain, includes particle size distribution, raindrop collision efficiency and rainfall intensity. The results of an emission inventory for particulate matter in Buenos Aires is presented for the application of the model. The particulate matter background concentration values and particle deposition flux, estimated using the developed model have been compared with observations obtained by the City Government of Buenos Aires at different sites. The results of the model slightly over-estimated the deposition flux the normalized mean square error was 37%, fractional error –9.1% and fractional variance 1.8%. A 72% of the estimations were within a factor of 2 the observed values. On the other hand, the estimated background concentration values of suspended particles were found to be slightly lower than those observed: the normalized mean square error was 20%, the fractional error 21.5%, fractional variance 7.7% and a 87% of the estimates were within a factor of 2 the observations. In this way, the results obtained with the DAUMOD-D model for Buenos Aires may be considered satisfactory. The monthly spatial variation of particulate matter deposition is studied and it is found that there may be zones where the monthly particle deposition flux is greater than 1 mg/(cm2.30d) (air quality standard value set by Buenos Aires City Law 1356). Horizontal distributions of total suspended particles background concentrations for different averaging time are presented. The areas in the city with the highest hourly concentration vary according to atmospheric conditions and the time of day. On the other hand, maximum monthly-suspended particulate matter concentrations may exceed 0.15 mg/m3, particularly during winter months. The areas of the city with the highest suspended particulate matter concentrations include Constitución-Retiro, Palermo and along the 25 de Mayo Highway and Rivadavia Avenue. Daily and annual PM10 particulate matter background concentrations in Buenos Aires were also estimated. The mean annual concentration of PM10 exceeded 0.05 mg/m3 (air quality standard value set by Buenos Aires Law 1356) in the area of downtown, Constitución and Retiro. Daily mean concentrations of PM10 exceeded 0.15 mg/m3 (air quality standard value set by Buenos Aires City Law 1356) in Constitución, Retiro, in the surrounding of the Domestic Airport and the 25 de Mayo Highway. These risky situations could expose 51.6% of total population in the city once a year. The persistence of risky situations of daily mean concentrations was studied. Results showed that a persistence of 3 days might occur. This condition could expose 0.6% of children up to 14 years old and 0.7% of elderly people greater than 65 years old during three times a year. It was also estimated the relative contribution of the different emission sources to total suspended particles concentration in different locations of the city. Results show the contribution of vehicles is greater than 60 % and around 20 % of the concentration value can be allocated to public buses. ; Fil:Martin, Paula Beatriz. Universidad de Buenos Aires. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales; Argentina.

Background: Preterm birth, low birth weight, and infant catch-up growth seem associated with an increased risk of respiratory diseases in later life, but individual studies showed conflicting results. Objectives: We performed an individual participant data meta-analysis for 147,252 children of 31 birth cohort studies to determine the associations of birth and infant growth characteristics with the risks of preschool wheezing (1-4 years) and school-age asthma (5-10 years). Methods: First, we performed an adjusted 1-stage random-effect meta-analysis to assess the combined associations of gestational age, birth weight, and infant weight gain with childhood asthma. Second, we performed an adjusted 2-stage random-effect meta-analysis to assess the associations of preterm birth (gestational age <37 weeks) and low birth weight (<2500 g) with childhood asthma outcomes. Results: Younger gestational age at birth and higher infant weight gain were independently associated with higher risks of preschool wheezing and school-age asthma (P < .05). The inverse associations of birth weight with childhood asthma were explained by gestational age at birth. Compared with term-born children with normal infant weight gain, we observed the highest risks of school-age asthma in children born preterm with high infant weight gain (odds ratio [OR], 4.47; 95% CI, 2.58-7.76). Preterm birth was positively associated with an increased risk of preschool wheezing (pooled odds ratio [pOR], 1.34; 95% CI, 1.25-1.43) and school-age asthma (pOR, 1.40; 95% CI, 1.18-1.67) independent of birth weight. Weaker effect estimates were observed for the associations of low birth weight adjusted for gestational age at birth with preschool wheezing (pOR, 1.10; 95% CI, 1.00-1.21) and school-age asthma (pOR, 1.13; 95% CI, 1.01-1.27). Conclusion: Younger gestational age at birth and higher infant weight gain were associated with childhood asthma outcomes. The associations of lower birth weight with childhood asthma were largely explained by gestational age at birth. ; Per cohort. ABIS: Data used for this research was provided by the Cohort Study, which is supported in part by JDRF-Wallenberg foundations (K 98-99D-12813-01A), the Swedish Medical Research Council (MFR; Vetenskapsrådet; K99-72X-11242-05A), the Swedish Child Diabetes Foundation (Barndiabetesfonden), and the Swedish Diabetes Association, Medical Research Council of South East Sweden (FORSS), Novo Nordisk Foundation, Prevention of Diabetes, and its Complications Strategic Area-LiU. ALSPAC: We are extremely grateful to all the families who took part in the study, the midwives for their help in recruiting them, and the whole ALSPAC team, which includes interviewers, computer and laboratory technicians, clerical workers, research scientists, volunteers, managers, receptionist, and nurses. The UK Medical Research Council and the Wellcome Trust (grant reference 092731) and the University of Bristol provide core support for ALSPAC. BILD: Data used for this research were provided by the Cohort Study, which is supported in part by funds of the Swiss National Science Foundation; the European Respiratory Society (ERS); the Austrian, German and Swiss Paediatric respiratory Society; and the Swiss Governmental Anti-Tobacco Fund. CONER: Data used for this research were provided by the Cohort Study, which is supported in part by funds of the Italian ministry of health. COPSAC: COPSAC is funded by private and public research funds listed on www.copsac.com. The Lundbeck Foundation, the Danish Strategic Research Council, the Pharmacy Foundation of 1991, the Augustinus Foundation, the Danish Medical Research Council, and the Danish Pediatric Asthma Centre provided the core support for the COPSAC research center. No pharmaceutical company was involved in the study. The funding agencies did not have any role in design and conduct of the study; collection, management, and interpretation of the data; or preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript. CZECH: Data used for this research was provided by the Cohort Study, which is supported in part by funds of the Ministry of Environment of the Czech Republic (SP/1b3/8/08). DNBC: The Danish National Research Foundation has established the Danish Epidemiology Science Centre that initiated and created the Danish National Birth Cohort. The cohort is furthermore a result of a major grant from this foundation. Additional support for the Danish National Birth Cohort is obtained from the Pharmacy Foundation, the Egmont Foundation, the March of Dimes Birth Defects Foundation, and the Augustinus Foundation. EDEN: We acknowledge all the funding sources for the EDEN study: Fondation pour la Recherche Médicale (FRM), the French Ministry of Research: IFR program, the INSERM Nutrition Research program, the French Ministry of Health Perinatality Program, the French Agency for Environment security (AFFSET), the French National Institute for Population Health Surveillance (INVS), Paris-Sud University, the French National Institute for Health Education (INPES), Nestlé, Mutuelle Générale de l'Education Nationale {MGEN), the French-speaking Association for the Study of Diabetes and Metabolism (Alfediam), and the National Agency for Research (ANR). GASPII: Data used for this research was provided by the Cohort Study, which is supported in part by funds of the Italian Ministry of Health, 2001. GECKO Drenthe: The GECKO Drenthe cohort is supported and funded by an unrestricted grant from Hutchison Whampoa, the University of Groningen, and Well Baby Clinic Foundation Icare. GENERATION R: The Generation R Study is made possible by financial support from the Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam; the Erasmus University Rotterdam; and the Netherlands Organization for Health Research and Development. The researchers are independent from the funders. The study sponsors had no role in study design, data analysis, interpretation of data, or writing of this report. Additional support was available from the Netherlands Organization for Health Research and Development (VIDI) and the Dutch Asthma Foundation. GENERATION XXI: Data used for this research were provided by the Cohort Study, which is supported in part by funds of the Programa Operacional de Saúde–Saúde XXI, Quadro Comunitário de Apoio III (FEDER), the Northern Regional Administration of Health, the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (PTDC/SAUESA/105033/2008), and the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation. HUMIS: The research leading to these results has received funding from the Norwegian Research Council under grant agreement 213148 (MILPAAHEL) and the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013), project Early Nutrition under grant agreement number 289346, and project OBELIX under grant agreement number 22739. INMA: Gipuzkoa/Sabadell/Valencia/Menorca Data used for this research were provided by the INMA–Environment and Childhood Project (www.proyectoinma.org), which is supported in part by funds. This study was funded by grants from Instituto de Salud Carlos III (Red INMA G03/176 and CB06/02/0041), the Spanish Ministry of Health (FIS- PI041436, PI042018, PI06/0867 PI07/0252, PI081151, and PI09/02311,and FIS-FEDER 03/1615, 04/1509, 04/1112, 04/1931, 05/1079, 05/1052, 06/1213, 07/0314, and 09/02647), Generalitat de Catalunya-CIRIT 1999SGR 00241, the Conselleria de Sanitat Generalitat Valenciana, the Department of Health of the Basque Government (2005111093 and 2009111069), the Provincial Government of Gipuzkoa (DFG06/004 and DFG08/001), Obra Social Cajastur, Universidad de Oviedo, the EU Commission (QLK4-1999-01422, QLK4-2002-00603 and CONTAMED FP7-ENV-212502), Consejería de Salud de la Junta de Andalucía (grant number 183/07), and Fundació Roger Torné. ISLE OF WIGHT: Data used for this research were provided by the Cohort Study, which is supported in part by funds of the National Institute of Health, the British Medical Association, and David Hide Asthma and Allergy Research Centre Trustees. KOALA: Data used for this research were provided by the Cohort Study, which is supported in part by funds from the Netherlands Asthma Foundation (grant nos. 3.2.03.48 and 3.2.07.022). LEICESTER 1990/1998: Data used for this research were provided by the Leicester Cohort Studies, which are supported by funds from Asthma UK (grant no. 07/048), the Swiss National Science Foundation (grant no. 32003B-144068), the Wellcome Trust, and many others. LIFEWAYS: Data used for this research were provided by the Cohort Study, which is supported in part by funds of the Health Research Board, Republic of Ireland. MAS: Data for this research question were obtained by the study centre of the cohort study. The Multicentre Allergy Study (1990) was supported by grants from the German Federal Ministry for Education and Research (BMBF) under reference numbers 07015633, 07 ALE 27, 01EE9405/5, and 01EE9406.NINFEA: Data used for this research were provided by the Cohort Study, which is supported in part by funds of Compagnia di SanPaolo Foundation, Piedmont Region, and the Italian Ministry of University and Research. PCB: Data used for this research was provided by the Cohort Study, which is supported in part by funds from National Institutes of Health grant R01-CA096525 and EU project OBELIX (no. 227391). PIAMA: The PIAMA study has been funded by the Netherlands Organization for Health Research and Development; the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research; the Netherlands Asthma Fund; the Netherlands Ministry of Spatial Planning, Housing, and the Environment; and the Netherlands Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport. REPRO PL: Data used for this research were provided by the Cohort Study, which is supported in part by funds from the National Center for Research and Development, Poland (grant no. PBZ-MEiN-/8/2//2006; contract no. K140/P01/2007/1.3.1.1.) and grant PNRF-218-AI-1/07 from Norway through the Norwegian Financial Mechanism within the Polish-Norwegian Research Fund. RHEA: Data used for this research were provided by the Cohort Study, which is supported in part by funds of European Commission. SEATON: Data used for this research were provided by the university, which is supported in part by funds from Asthma UK and the Medical Research Council. SWS: The Southampton Women's Survey is supported by grants from the Medical Research Council, the British Heart Foundation, the Food Standards Agency, the British Lung Foundation, Arthritis Research UK, NIHR Southampton Biomedical Research Centre, the University of Southampton and University Hospital Southampton NHS Foundation Trust, and the Commission of the European Community, specific RTD Programme "Quality of Life and Management of Living Resources," within the 7th Framework Programme, research grant no. FP7/2007-13 (Early Nutrition Project). This manuscript does not necessarily reflect the views of the funders and in no way anticipates the future policy in this area. WHISTLER: Data used for this research were provided by the Cohort Study, which is supported in part by funds from the Netherlands Organization for health Research and Development (ZON-MW), the University Medical Center Utrecht, and an unrestricted research grant from GlaxoSmithKline, The Netherlands

Background: The Pan-African Society of Cardiology (PASCAR) has identified hypertension as the highest area of priority action to reduce heart disease and stroke on the continent.Objectives: The aim of this PASCAR roadmap on hypertension was to develop practical guidance on how to implement strategies that translate existing knowledge into effective action and improve detection, treatment and control of hypertension and cardiovascular health in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) by the year 2025.Methods: Development of this roadmap started with the creation of a consortium of experts with leadership skills in hypertension. In 2014, experts in different fields, including physicians and nonphysicians, were invited to join. Via face-to-face meetings and teleconferences, the consortium made a situation analysis, set a goal, identified roadblocks and solutions to the management of hypertension and customized the World Heart Federation roadmap to Africa.Results: Hypertension is a major crisis on the continent but very few randomized controlled trials have been conducted on its management. Also, only 25.8% of the countries have developed or adopted guidelines for management of hypertension. Other major roadblocks are either government and health-system related or health care professional or patient related. The PASCAR hypertension task force identified a 10-point action plan to be implemented by African ministries of health to achieve 25% control of hypertension in Africa by 2025.Conclusions: Hypertension affects millions of people in SSA and if left untreated, is a major cause of heart disease and stroke. Very few SSA countries have a clear hypertension policy. This PASCAR roadmap identifies practical and effective solutions that would improve detection, treatment and control of hypertension on the continent and could be implemented as is or adapted to specific national settings.

Acrylamide is a monomer which has a molecular formula of C3H5NO (CH2=CH-CONH2) and has a molecular weight of 71.08 g, is colorless, odorless and has crystalline form (IARC, 1994).The acrylamide used in the production of polyacrylamide is also extremely used in the treatment of drinking and waste water, paper production, petroleum industry, the production of mine, mineral, asphalt and the treatment of land and soil. Moreover, it is also commonly used as an additive in cosmetic industry, in electrophoresis, the production of photographic film, the manufacturing of adhesive, varnish and dye and in the preparation of some alloys in dentistry European Union Risk Assessment Report (EURAR, 2002).In early 2002, high concentrations of acrylamide were reported in certain fried, baked, and deep-fried foods Swedish National Food Agency (SNFA, 2002). This discovery dramatically increased the interest in no industrial sources of acrylamide exposure to the general public. Subsequent research in many European countries and the United States determined that acrylamide is formed primarily in carbohydrate-rich foods prepared or cooked at high temperatures (i.e., >120°C) (Tareke et al., 2000 and 2002). Acrylamide has neurotoxic and genotoxic properties (Capuano and Fogliano, 2011). The contents of acrylamide vary among different types of food. Fried potato chips, coffee and toasted chicory contain much higher levels of acrylamide than other high temperature-processed foods (Delatour et al., 2004 as well as Capuano and Fogliano, 2011). The levels of acrylamide varies considerably between single foodstuffs within food groups, with crisps and chips generally containing high levels 1000 µg/kg and 500 µg/kg respectively (Kelly, 2003).Factors affecting acrylamide formation and degradation in foods are acrylamide precursors such as free amino acids (mainly asparagine), reducing sugars and processing conditions, (baking time and temperature, moisture content and matrix of product).The obvious toxicological implications of food-borne acrylamide has initiated substantial public and scientific concern (World Health Organization Meeting, 2002 June and United States Food and Drug Administration (US FDA) meeting, 2002 September) and has significantly increased interest in the toxic effects of acrylamide.The importance of acrylamide in food was mentioned for the first time by Tareke et al. (2002) who showed that feeding rats with fried feed led to a large increase in the level of the haemoglobin adduct, which was concluded to be N-(2-carbamoyl methyl) valine.In human, acrylamide has some mutagenic and carcinogenic effects. Hence, it is classified in class 2A of carcinogenic materials as an agent that increases the probability of endometrial, pulmonary, and pancreatic cancers (El-Kholy et al., 2012 as well as LoPachin and Gavin, 2012). Studies indicated that liver, kidney, brain and erythrocyte GST have significant binding capacity with acrylamide, with liver GST is three times more efficient in conjugating acrylamide compared to brain GST in rats (Alturfan et al., 2011).Acrylamide have significant binding capacity to liver, kidney, brain and erythrocyte (Sumner et al., 1997). The other additional toxicological effects reported are depletion of adipose tissues, decreased liver and kidney, mottled lungs, atrophy of skeletal muscle, distension of urinary bladder, thickening of stomach and decrease in red blood cell (RBC) count and packed cell volume (PCV) (Miller et al., 1982), making it an important researchable substance.The neurotoxic effects of acrylamide can be observed at low dose with long exposures (Erkekoglu and Baydar, 2014), suggesting that dietary acrylamide is harmful to humans, especially children. The presence of acrylamide in food remains a health risk. According to WHO, the mean margin of exposure (MOE) value based on the carcinogenic effect of acrylamide in mammary glands is 300 -310 (Pedreschi et al., 2014), which is lower than 10,000, a criterion regarded as low health concern. Moreover, the detected concentrations of acrylamide and glycidamide haemoglobin adducts in Canadian teenagers indicate the need to reduce acrylamide exposure in the population (Brisson et al., 2014).Grape (Vitis vinifera ) leaves have been used in medicine due to various biological activities including stop bleeding, inflammation, and pain (Baytop, 1999), hepatoprotective, spasmolytic, hypoglycemic and vasorelaxant effects, as well as, antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, antiviral and particularly antioxidant properties (Xia et al., 2010). In addition, Orhan et al. (2009) reported that V. vinifera leaves have role in the formulation of dietary antioxidant supplements.The objective of the present study is to estimate acrylamide levels in some different food samples obtained from Egyptian local market and to determine the levels of acrylamide formation during different processing conditions, in addition, to investigate the effects of pre-frying treatments on acrylamide reduction of acrylamide in some Egyptian foods. Thus an investigation of acrylamide effects on biochemical and pathological effects become vital. In present studies, investigation of the effect of acrylamide formed in fried rice and different concentrations in drinking water. The monitoring of the thyroid hormone levels and hematological values in the plasma collected from the experimental animals. The preventive effect of feeding grape leaves as a source of antioxidant was also studied.b. Material and MethodSurvey of acrylamide levels in some Egyptian foods. Samples were taken from the Egyptian market, prepared and homemade samples, i.e., Potato, Toast, Coffee, Peanut, Fried onion, Falafel, Fried noodles, Fried rice and Cooked Rice .Then evaluation effect of different temperatures and/or times on acrylamide formation in fried rice and fried potatoes. From previous results showed significant increases in the concentrations of acrylamide in rice compared with potatoes. Frying rice is one of the methods used by Egyptians, so we went to study the effect of temperatures and time on the rice in more details. Several treatments were carried out on rice before frying on reduction of acrylamide formation of fried rice at 180 °C for 10 min, i.e., (1) Untreated rice was used as a control. (2) Rice was washed under tap running water for 2 min. (3) Rice was washed and soaking in water for 20 min. (3) Soak rice in citric acid (1%) for 20 min. (4) Soak rice in acetic acid (1%) for 20 min. (5) Soaking rice in water "resulting from grape leaves soaking" for 20 min. (6) Soaking rice in water "resulting from grape leaves boiling" for 20 min. (7) Soaking rice in water "resulting from poached grape leaves soaking" for 20 min. Determination of acrylamide in foods performed using GC /MS technique.SamplesDifferent types of market samples (potato samples, toast samples, coffee samples and peanut sample) were purchased from local markets. Prepared samples were divided into two brands, first brand is used in Egyptian popular prepared meals i.e. "onion in Koushari" and "Falafel", second brand is used in Egyptian homemade meals i.e. fried noodles, fried rice and cooked rice.Determination of acrylamide by GC/MSSamples were allowed to swell adding water in an amount normally corresponding to 3 times the weight of the sample (more for exceptionally dry samples). Taking into consideration homogeneity and availability of the sample, often 25 g of sample and 75 ml of water were combined in a 150 ml beaker glass. After mixing, the homogenate was allowed to swell during 30 min at 70 °C in a water bath (GFL, German). The glass beaker was covered by aluminium foil to prevent evaporation of water.Ten grams of the homogenate was weighed into a 100 ml centrifuge glass with a screw cap and thoroughly mixed with 40 ml of 1-propanol at 4000 rpm for 10 min (Sigma, German). When the solids form lumps, mixing was supported by a blender (Polytron). 10 ml (8.4 g) of the supernatant (possibly after centrifugation of about 12 ml of turbid supernatant) was transferred to a 25 ml pointed flask. Fifteen droplets (about 200 mg) of a vegetable oil were added and the water/propanol removed in a rotary evaporator at about 50 Torr (unit) and 60-70 °C in a water bath. Evaporation was stopped as soon as no liquid was left. The residue from the evaporation, consisting of fat/added oil and often much salt, was extracted with acetonitrile and defatted with hexane. 3 ml acetonitrile and 20 ml hexane were added and mixed with the sample with the help of an ultrasonic bath for 15 min (JEIOTECH, Canada). The acetonitrile (lower) phase was transferred into a 10 ml reagent glass with screw cap by means of a Pasteur pipette, losing acetonitrile rather than carrying along hexane. The acetonitrile phase was extracted by another 5 ml hexane, now transferring 1.5 ml of the acetonitrile phase (assumed to be half) into a 1.5 ml autosampler vial (Biedermann et al., 2002). The samples were analyzed in Organic Pollutants Laboratory, Regional Centre for Food and Feed, Agriculture Research Centre, Giza.Chemical examination of grape leavesGrape leaves and its ethanolic extract preparation The leaves were cleaned and dried in shade at room temperature for 3 days then coarsely powdered with the help of a hand-grinding mill. 20 g dried powder of plant leave was weighed and transferred into a beaker. 100 mL of ethanol 70% was added into the beaker and the mixture was shaken using mechanical shaker (Thermo, Canada) for 12 h at room temperature. The extract was filtered using Whatman No.1 filter paper. The filtrate was collected and the residue was re-extracted twice. Then 0.2 ml of the mixture was diluted with 2 ml of ethanol and injected in the GC/ MS/ MS. The sample was analyzed in Organic Pollutants Laboratory, Regional Centre for Food and Feed, Agriculture Research Centre, Giza.GC/ MS analysis programThe analysis of the grape leaves extract was using preference mention GC/MS above. The carrier gas was helium with the linear velocity of 1ml/min. The oven temperature was set at 55 oC for 3 min and then programmed until 280 oC at a rate of 11 oC/min. The injector and detector temperatures were 220 oC and 220 oC respectively. Injection mode, splitless, volume injected 1 μl. The MS operating parameters were as follows: ionization potential 70 eV, interface temperature 280 oC. Selected ion monitoring (Scan) mode was applied used m/z at start mass 35 and end mass 600.The identification of components was based on a comparison of their mass spectra and retention time with those of the authentic compounds and by computer matching with NIST and WILEY library as well as by comparison of the fragmentation pattern of the mass spectral data with those reported in the literature (Santana et al., 2013).Evaluation of radical scavenging activityThe free radical scavenging effect of grape leaves ethanolic extract was assessed by the decolouration of a methanolic solution of 1, 1 –diphenyl-2- picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical (violet colour) according to the method of Blois (1958).Various concentration of test solution in 0.1ml was added to 0.9 ml of 0.1 mM solution of DPPH in methanol. Methanol only (0.1ml) was used as experimental control. After 30 minute of incubation at room temperature, the reduction in the number of free radical was measured, reading the absorbance at 517nm. Ascorbic acid was used as reference standard by concentration of 200, 400, 600, 800 and 1000 ppm. The scavenging activity of the samples corresponded and to the intensity of quenching DPPH.Preparation of blood samplesFive blood samples were collected from rats of each group from eye plexus after 28 days in clean dry sterile and labeled centrifuge tubes. Each collected sample was divided in to two parts, one for serum was collected in heparinized tube and the other for plasma was collected in non- heparinized tube .Rats were fasted for 12 h, and then slightly anaesthetized with carbon dioxide gas. Separating serum was done by centrifugation at 1500 r.p.m for 5 min. Organs of rats were weighted and extracted for dissection.

Publisher's version (útgefin grein) ; Objective: To explore genetic and lifestyle risk factors of MRI-defined brain infarcts (BI) in large population-based cohorts. Methods We performed meta-analyses of genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and examined associations of vascular risk factors and their genetic risk scores (GRS) with MRI-defined BI and a subset of BI, namely, small subcortical BI (SSBI), in 18 population-based cohorts (n=20,949) from 5 ethnicities (3,726 with BI, 2,021 with SSBI). Top loci were followed up in 7 population-based cohorts (n = 6,862; 1,483 with BI, 630 with SBBI), and we tested associations with related phenotypes including ischemic stroke and pathologically defined BI. Results: The mean prevalence was 17.7% for BI and 10.5% for SSBI, steeply rising after age 65. Two loci showed genome-wide significant association with BI: FBN2, p = 1.77 × 10-8; and LINC00539/ZDHHC20, p = 5.82 × 10-9. Both have been associated with blood pressure (BP)-related phenotypes, but did not replicate in the smaller follow-up sample or show associations with related phenotypes. Age- and sex-adjusted associations with BI and SSBI were observed for BP traits (p value for BI, p[BI] = 9.38 × 10-25; p [SSBI] = 5.23 × 10-14 for hypertension), smoking (p[BI]= 4.4 × 10-10; p [SSBI] = 1.2 × 10 -4), diabetes (p[BI] = 1.7 × 10 -8; p [SSBI] = 2.8 × 10 -3), previous cardiovascular disease (p [BI] = 1.0 × 10-18; p [SSBI] = 2.3 × 10-7), stroke (p [BI] = 3.9 × 10-69; p [SSBI] = 3.2 × 10 -24), and MRI-defined white matter hyperintensity burden (p [BI]=1.43 × 10-157; p [SSBI] = 3.16 × 10-106), but not with body mass index or cholesterol. GRS of BP traits were associated with BI and SSBI (p ≤ 0.0022), without indication of directional pleiotropy. Conclusion: In this multiethnic GWAS meta-analysis, including over 20,000 population-based participants, we identified genetic risk loci for BI requiring validation once additional large datasets become available. High BP, including genetically determined, was the most significant modifiable, causal risk factor for BI. ; CHAP: R01-AG-11101, R01-AG-030146, NIRP-14-302587. SMART: This study was supported by a grant from the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research–Medical Sciences (project no. 904-65–095). LBC: The authors thank the LBC1936 participants and the members of the LBC1936 research team who collected and collated the phenotypic and genotypic data. The LBC1936 is supported by Age UK (Disconnected Mind Programme grant). The work was undertaken by The University of Edinburgh Centre for Cognitive Ageing and Cognitive Epidemiology, part of the cross-council Lifelong Health and Wellbeing Initiative (MR/K026992/1). The brain imaging was performed in the Brain Research Imaging Centre (https://www.ed.ac.uk/clinical-sciences/edinburgh-imaging), a center in the SINAPSE Collaboration (sinapse.ac.uk) supported by the Scottish Funding Council and Chief Scientist Office. Funding from the UK Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC) and the UK Medical Research Council is acknowledged. Genotyping was supported by a grant from the BBSRC (ref. BB/F019394/1). PROSPER: The PROSPER study was supported by an investigator-initiated grant obtained from Bristol-Myers Squibb. Prof. Dr. J.W. Jukema is an Established Clinical Investigator of the Netherlands Heart Foundation (grant 2001 D 032). Support for genotyping was provided by the seventh framework program of the European commission (grant 223004) and by the Netherlands Genomics Initiative (Netherlands Consortium for Healthy Aging grant 050-060-810). SCES and SiMES: National Medical Research Council Singapore Centre Grant NMRC/CG/013/2013. C.-Y.C. is supported by the National Medical Research Council, Singapore (CSA/033/2012), Singapore Translational Research Award (STaR) 2013. Dr. Kamran Ikram received additional funding from the Singapore Ministry of Health's National Medical Research Council (NMRC/CSA/038/2013). SHIP: SHIP is part of the Community Medicine Research net of the University of Greifswald, Germany, which is funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (grants no. 01ZZ9603, 01ZZ0103, and 01ZZ0403), the Ministry of Cultural Affairs, as well as the Social Ministry of the Federal State of Mecklenburg–West Pomerania, and the network "Greifswald Approach to Individualized Medicine (GANI_MED)" funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (grant 03IS2061A). Genome-wide data have been supported by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (grant no. 03ZIK012) and a joint grant from Siemens Healthineers, Erlangen, Germany, and the Federal State of Mecklenburg–West Pomerania. Whole-body MRI was supported by a joint grant from Siemens Healthineers, Erlangen, Germany, and the Federal State of Mecklenburg–West Pomerania. The University of Greifswald is a member of the Caché Campus program of the InterSystems GmbH. OATS (Older Australian Twins Study): OATS was supported by an Australian National Health and Medical Research Council (NHRMC)/Australian Research Council (ARC) Strategic Award (ID401162) and by a NHMRC grant (ID1045325). OATS was facilitated via access to the Australian Twin Registry, which is supported by the NHMRC Enabling Grant 310667. The OATS genotyping was partly supported by a Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation Flagship Collaboration Fund Grant. NOMAS: The Northern Manhattan Study is funded by the NIH grant "Stroke Incidence and Risk Factors in a Tri-Ethnic Region" (NINDS R01NS 29993). TASCOG: NHMRC and Heart Foundation. AGES: The study was funded by the National Institute on Aging (NIA) (N01-AG-12100), Hjartavernd (the Icelandic Heart Association), and the Althingi (the Icelandic Parliament), with contributions from the Intramural Research Programs at the NIA, the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI), and the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) (Z01 HL004607-08 CE). ERF: The ERF study as a part of European Special Populations Research Network (EUROSPAN) was supported by European Commission FP6 STRP grant no. 018947 (LSHG-CT-2006-01947) and also received funding from the European Community's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007–2013)/grant agreement HEALTH-F4-2007-201413 by the European Commission under the programme "Quality of Life and Management of the Living Resources" of 5th Framework Programme (no. QLG2-CT-2002-01254). High-throughput analysis of the ERF data was supported by a joint grant from Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research and the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (NWO-RFBR 047.017.043). Exome sequencing analysis in ERF was supported by the ZonMw grant (project 91111025). Najaf Amin is supported by the Netherlands Brain Foundation (project no. F2013[1]-28). ARIC: The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities study was performed as a collaborative study supported by NHLBI contracts (HHSN268201100005C, HSN268201100006C, HSN268201100007C, HHSN268201100008C, HHSN268201100009C, HHSN268201100010C, HHSN268201100011C, and HHSN268201100012C), R01HL70825, R01HL087641, R01HL59367, and R01HL086694; National Human Genome Research Institute contract U01HG004402; and NIH contract HHSN268200625226C. Infrastructure was partly supported by grant no. UL1RR025005, a component of the NIH and NIH Roadmap for Medical Research. This project was also supported by NIH R01 grant NS087541 to M.F. FHS: This work was supported by the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute's Framingham Heart Study (contracts no. N01-HC-25195 and no. HHSN268201500001I), and its contract with Affymetrix, Inc. for genotyping services (contract no. N02-HL-6-4278). A portion of this research utilized the Linux Cluster for Genetic Analysis (LinGA-II) funded by the Robert Dawson Evans Endowment of the Department of Medicine at Boston University School of Medicine and Boston Medical Center. This study was also supported by grants from the NIA (R01s AG033040, AG033193, AG054076, AG049607, AG008122, and U01-AG049505) and the NINDS (R01-NS017950, UH2 NS100605). Dr. DeCarli is supported by the Alzheimer's Disease Center (P30 AG 010129). ASPS: The research reported in this article was funded by the Austrian Science Fund (FWF) grant nos. P20545-P05, P13180, and P20545-B05, by the Austrian National Bank Anniversary Fund, P15435, and the Austrian Ministry of Science under the aegis of the EU Joint Programme–Neurodegenerative Disease Research (JPND) (jpnd.eu). LLS: The Leiden Longevity Study has received funding from the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007–2011) under grant agreement no. 259679. This study was supported by a grant from the Innovation-Oriented Research Program on Genomics (SenterNovem IGE05007), the Centre for Medical Systems Biology, and the Netherlands Consortium for Healthy Ageing (grant 050-060-810), all in the framework of the Netherlands Genomics Initiative, Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO), UnileverColworth, and by BBMRI-NL, a Research Infrastructure financed by the Dutch government (NWO 184.021.007). CHS: This CHS research was supported by contracts HHSN268201200036C, HHSN268200800007C, N01HC55222, N01HC85079, N01HC85080, N01HC85081, N01HC85082, N01HC85083, N01HC85086, N01HC15103, and HHSN268200960009C and grants U01HL080295, R01HL087652, R01HL105756, R01HL103612, R01HL120393, R01HL085251, and R01HL130114 from the NHLBI with additional contribution from NINDS. Additional support was provided through R01AG023629 from the NIA. A full list of principal CHS investigators and institutions can be found at CHS-NHLBI.org. The provision of genotyping data was supported in part by the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, CTSI grant UL1TR001881, and the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Disease Diabetes Research Center grant DK063491 to the Southern California Diabetes Endocrinology Research Center. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the NIH. Rotterdam Study: The generation and management of GWAS genotype data for the Rotterdam Study is supported by the Netherlands Organisation of Scientific Research (NWO) Investments (no. 175.010.2005.011, 911-03-012). This study is funded by the Research Institute for Diseases in the Elderly (014-93-015; RIDE2), the Netherlands Genomics Initiative (NGI)/NWO project no. 050-060-810. The Rotterdam Study is funded by Erasmus MC Medical Center and Erasmus MC University, Rotterdam, Netherlands Organization for Health Research and Development (ZonMw), the Research Institute for Diseases in the Elderly (RIDE), the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science, the Ministry for Health, Welfare and Sports, the European Commission (DG XII), and the Municipality of Rotterdam. M.A.I. is supported by an NWO Veni grant (916.13.054). The 3-City Study: The 3-City Study is conducted under a partnership agreement among the Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), the University of Bordeaux, and Sanofi-Aventis. The Fondation pour la Recherche Médicale funded the preparation and initiation of the study. The 3C Study is also supported by the Caisse Nationale Maladie des Travailleurs Salariés, Direction Générale de la Santé, Mutuelle Générale de l'Education Nationale (MGEN), Institut de la Longévité, Conseils Régionaux of Aquitaine and Bourgogne, Fondation de France, and Ministry of Research–INSERM Programme "Cohortes et collections de données biologiques." C.T. and S.D. have received investigator-initiated research funding from the French National Research Agency (ANR) and from the Fondation Leducq. S.D. is supported by a starting grant from the European Research Council (SEGWAY), a grant from the Joint Programme of Neurodegenerative Disease research (BRIDGET), from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreements No 643417 & No 640643, and by the Initiative of Excellence of Bordeaux University. Part of the computations were performed at the Bordeaux Bioinformatics Center (CBiB), University of Bordeaux. This work was supported by the National Foundation for Alzheimer's Disease and Related Disorders, the Institut Pasteur de Lille, the Labex DISTALZ, and the Centre National de Génotypage. ADGC: The Alzheimer Disease Genetics Consortium is supported by NIH. NIH-NIA supported this work through the following grants: ADGC, U01 AG032984, RC2 AG036528; NACC, U01 AG016976; NCRAD, U24 AG021886; NIA LOAD, U24 AG026395, U24 AG026390; Banner Sun Health Research Institute, P30 AG019610; Boston University, P30 AG013846, U01 AG10483, R01 CA129769, R01 MH080295, R01 AG017173, R01 AG025259, R01AG33193; Columbia University, P50 AG008702, R37 AG015473; Duke University, P30 AG028377, AG05128; Emory University, AG025688; Group Health Research Institute, UO1 AG06781, UO1 HG004610; Indiana University, P30 AG10133; Johns Hopkins University, P50 AG005146, R01 AG020688; Massachusetts General Hospital, P50 AG005134; Mayo Clinic, P50 AG016574; Mount Sinai School of Medicine, P50 AG005138, P01 AG002219; New York University, P30 AG08051, MO1RR00096, UL1 RR029893, 5R01AG012101, 5R01AG022374, 5R01AG013616, 1RC2AG036502, 1R01AG035137; Northwestern University, P30 AG013854; Oregon Health & Science University, P30 AG008017, R01 AG026916; Rush University, P30 AG010161, R01 AG019085, R01 AG15819, R01 AG17917, R01 AG30146; TGen, R01 NS059873; University of Alabama at Birmingham, P50 AG016582, UL1RR02777; University of Arizona, R01 AG031581; University of California, Davis, P30 AG010129; University of California, Irvine, P50 AG016573, P50, P50 AG016575, P50 AG016576, P50 AG016577; University of California, Los Angeles, P50 AG016570; University of California, San Diego, P50 AG005131; University of California, San Francisco, P50 AG023501, P01 AG019724; University of Kentucky, P30 AG028383, AG05144; University of Michigan, P50 AG008671; University of Pennsylvania, P30 AG010124; University of Pittsburgh, P50 AG005133, AG030653; University of Southern California, P50 AG005142; University of Texas Southwestern, P30 AG012300; University of Miami, R01 AG027944, AG010491, AG027944, AG021547, AG019757; University of Washington, P50 AG005136; Vanderbilt University, R01 AG019085; and Washington University, P50 AG005681, P01 AG03991. The Kathleen Price Bryan Brain Bank at Duke University Medical Center is funded by NINDS grant NS39764, NIMH MH60451, and by GlaxoSmithKline. Genotyping of the TGEN2 cohort was supported by Kronos Science. The TGen series was also funded by NIA grant AG041232, the Banner Alzheimer's Foundation, The Johnnie B. Byrd Sr. Alzheimer's Institute, the Medical Research Council, and the state of Arizona and also includes samples from the following sites: Newcastle Brain Tissue Resource (funding via the Medical Research Council [MRC], local NHS trusts, and Newcastle University), MRC London Brain Bank for Neurodegenerative Diseases (funding via the Medical Research Council), South West Dementia Brain Bank (funding via numerous sources including the Higher Education Funding Council for England [HEFCE], Alzheimer's Research Trust [ART], BRACE, as well as North Bristol NHS Trust Research and Innovation Department and DeNDRoN), The Netherlands Brain Bank (funding via numerous sources including Stichting MS Research, Brain Net Europe, Hersenstichting Nederland Breinbrekend Werk, International Parkinson Fonds, Internationale Stiching Alzheimer Onderzoek), Institut de Neuropatologia, Servei Anatomia Patologica, and Universitat de Barcelona). ADNI: Funding for ADNI is through the Northern California Institute for Research and Education by grants from Abbott, AstraZeneca AB, Bayer Schering Pharma AG, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Eisai Global Clinical Development, Elan Corporation, Genentech, GE Healthcare, GlaxoSmithKline, Innogenetics, Johnson & Johnson, Eli Lilly and Co., Medpace, Inc., Merck and Co., Inc., Novartis AG, Pfizer Inc, F. Hoffman-La Roche, Schering-Plough, Synarc, Inc., Alzheimer's Association, Alzheimer's Drug Discovery Foundation, the Dana Foundation, and the National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering and NIA grants U01 AG024904, RC2 AG036535, and K01 AG030514. Support was also provided by the Alzheimer's Association (LAF, IIRG-08-89720; MAP-V, IIRG-05-14147) and the US Department of Veterans Affairs Administration, Office of Research and Development, Biomedical Laboratory Research Program. SiGN: Stroke Genetic Network (SiGN) was supported in part by award nos. U01NS069208 and R01NS100178 from NINDS. Genetics of Early-Onset Stroke (GEOS) Study was supported by the NIH Genes, Environment and Health Initiative (GEI) grant U01 HG004436, as part of the GENEVA consortium under GEI, with additional support provided by the Mid-Atlantic Nutrition and Obesity Research Center (P30 DK072488); and the Office of Research and Development, Medical Research Service, and the Baltimore Geriatrics Research, Education, and Clinical Center of the Department of Veterans Affairs. Genotyping services were provided by the Johns Hopkins University Center for Inherited Disease Research (CIDR), which is fully funded through a federal contract from the NIH to Johns Hopkins University (contract no. HHSN268200782096C). Assistance with data cleaning was provided by the GENEVA Coordinating Center (U01 HG 004446; PI Bruce S. Weir). Study recruitment and assembly of datasets were supported by a Cooperative Agreement with the Division of Adult and Community Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and by grants from NINDS and the NIH Office of Research on Women's Health (R01 NS45012, U01 NS069208-01). METASTROKE: ASGC: Australian population control data were derived from the Hunter Community Study. This research was funded by grants from the Australian National and Medical Health Research Council (NHMRC Project Grant ID: 569257), the Australian National Heart Foundation (NHF Project Grant ID: G 04S 1623), the University of Newcastle, the Gladys M Brawn Fellowship scheme, and the Vincent Fairfax Family Foundation in Australia. E.G.H. was supported by a Fellowship from the NHF and National Stroke Foundation of Australia (ID: 100071). J.M. was supported by an Australian Postgraduate Award. BRAINS: Bio-Repository of DNA in Stroke (BRAINS) is partly funded by a Senior Fellowship from the Department of Health (UK) to P.S., the Henry Smith Charity, and the UK-India Education Research Institutive (UKIERI) from the British Council. GEOS: Genetics of Early Onset Stroke (GEOS) Study, Baltimore, was supported by GEI Grant U01 HG004436, as part of the GENEVA consortium under GEI, with additional support provided by the Mid-Atlantic Nutrition and Obesity Research Center (P30 DK072488), and the Office of Research and Development, Medical Research Service, and the Baltimore Geriatrics Research, Education, and Clinical Center of the Department of Veterans Affairs. Genotyping services were provided by the Johns Hopkins University Center for Inherited Disease Research (CIDR), which is fully funded through a federal contract from the NIH to the Johns Hopkins University (contract no. HHSN268200782096C). Assistance with data cleaning was provided by the GENEVA Coordinating Center (U01 HG 004446; PI Bruce S. Weir). Study recruitment and assembly of datasets were supported by a Cooperative Agreement with the Division of Adult and Community Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and by grants from NINDS and the NIH Office of Research on Women's Health (R01 NS45012, U01 NS069208-01). HPS: Heart Protection Study (HPS) (ISRCTN48489393) was supported by the UK MRC, British Heart Foundation, Merck and Co. (manufacturers of simvastatin), and Roche Vitamins Ltd. (manufacturers of vitamins). Genotyping was supported by a grant to Oxford University and CNG from Merck and Co. J.C.H. acknowledges support from the British Heart Foundation (FS/14/55/30806). ISGS: Ischemic Stroke Genetics Study (ISGS)/Siblings With Ischemic Stroke Study (SWISS) was supported in part by the Intramural Research Program of the NIA, NIH project Z01 AG-000954-06. ISGS/SWISS used samples and clinical data from the NIH-NINDS Human Genetics Resource Center DNA and Cell Line Repository (ccr.coriell.org/ninds), human subjects protocol nos. 2003-081 and 2004-147. ISGS/SWISS used stroke-free participants from the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging (BLSA) as controls. The inclusion of BLSA samples was supported in part by the Intramural Research Program of the NIA, NIH project Z01 AG-000015-50, human subjects protocol no. 2003-078. The ISGS study was funded by NIH-NINDS Grant R01 NS-42733 (J.F.M.). The SWISS study was funded by NIH-NINDS Grant R01 NS-39987 (J.F.M.). This study used the high-performance computational capabilities of the Biowulf Linux cluster at the NIH (biowulf.nih.gov). MGH-GASROS: MGH Genes Affecting Stroke Risk and Outcome Study (MGH-GASROS) was supported by NINDS (U01 NS069208), the American Heart Association/Bugher Foundation Centers for Stroke Prevention Research 0775010N, the NIH and NHLBI's STAMPEED genomics research program (R01 HL087676), and a grant from the National Center for Research Resources. The Broad Institute Center for Genotyping and Analysis is supported by grant U54 RR020278 from the National Center for Research resources. Milan: Milano–Besta Stroke Register Collection and genotyping of the Milan cases within CEDIR were supported by the Italian Ministry of Health (grant nos.: RC 2007/LR6, RC 2008/LR6; RC 2009/LR8; RC 2010/LR8; GR-2011-02347041), FP6 LSHM-CT-2007-037273 for the PROCARDIS control samples. WTCCC2: Wellcome Trust Case-Control Consortium 2 (WTCCC2) was principally funded by the Wellcome Trust, as part of the Wellcome Trust Case Control Consortium 2 project (085475/B/08/Z and 085475/Z/08/Z and WT084724MA). The Stroke Association provided additional support for collection of some of the St George's, London cases. The Oxford cases were collected as part of the Oxford Vascular Study, which is funded by the MRC, Stroke Association, Dunhill Medical Trust, National Institute of Health Research (NIHR), and the NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, Oxford. The Edinburgh Stroke Study was supported by the Wellcome Trust (clinician scientist award to C.L.M.S.) and the Binks Trust. Sample processing occurred in the Genetics Core Laboratory of the Wellcome Trust Clinical Research Facility, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh. Much of the neuroimaging occurred in the Scottish Funding Council Brain Imaging Research Centre (https://www.ed.ac.uk/clinical-sciences/edinburgh-imaging), Division of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Edinburgh, a core area of the Wellcome Trust Clinical Research Facility, and part of the SINAPSE (Scottish Imaging Network: A Platform for Scientific Excellence) collaboration (sinapse.ac.uk), funded by the Scottish Funding Council and the Chief Scientist Office. Collection of the Munich cases and data analysis was supported by the Vascular Dementia Research Foundation. This project has received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreements no. 666881, SVDs@target (to M.D.) and no. 667375, CoSTREAM (to M.D.); the DFG as part of the Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (EXC 1010 SyNergy) and the CRC 1123 (B3) (to M.D.); the Corona Foundation (to M.D.); the Fondation Leducq (Transatlantic Network of Excellence on the Pathogenesis of Small Vessel Disease of the Brain) (to M.D.); the e:Med program (e:AtheroSysMed) (to M.D.) and the FP7/2007-2103 European Union project CVgenes@target (grant agreement no. Health-F2-2013-601456) (to M.D.). M.F. and A.H. acknowledge support from the BHF Centre of Research Excellence in Oxford and the Wellcome Trust core award (090532/Z/09/Z). VISP: The GWAS component of the Vitamin Intervention for Stroke Prevention (VISP) study was supported by the US National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI), grant U01 HG005160 (PI Michèle Sale and Bradford Worrall), as part of the Genomics and Randomized Trials Network (GARNET). Genotyping services were provided by the Johns Hopkins University Center for Inherited Disease Research (CIDR), which is fully funded through a federal contract from the NIH to Johns Hopkins University. Assistance with data cleaning was provided by the GARNET Coordinating Center (U01 HG005157; PI Bruce S. Weir). Study recruitment and collection of datasets for the VISP clinical trial were supported by an investigator-initiated research grant (R01 NS34447; PI James Toole) from the US Public Health Service, NINDS, Bethesda, MD. Control data obtained through the database of genotypes and phenotypes (dbGAP) maintained and supported by the United States National Center for Biotechnology Information, US National Library of Medicine. WHI: Funding support for WHI-GARNET was provided through the NHGRI GARNET (grant no. U01 HG005152). Assistance with phenotype harmonization and genotype cleaning, as well as with general study coordination, was provided by the GARNET Coordinating Center (U01 HG005157). Funding support for genotyping, which was performed at the Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, was provided by the GEI (U01 HG004424). R.L. is a senior clinical investigator of FWO Flanders. F.W.A. is supported by a Dekker scholarship-Junior Staff Member 2014T001–Netherlands Heart Foundation and UCL Hospitals NIHR Biomedical Research Centre. ; Peer Reviewed

Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui pengaruh beauty vlogger dan celebgram endorser pada brand image dan dampaknya terhadap purchase intention pada produk Make Over. Tipe penelitian ini menggunakan pendekatan explanatory research dengan pendekatan kuantitatif. Dengan metode pengumpulan data menggunakan kuesioner dengan sampel sebesar 100 responden yang disebar secara online dengan menggunakan metode path analysis. Berdasarkan hasil analisis data disimpulkan bahwa beauty vlogger berpengaruh signifikan pada brand image dan purchase intention, celebgram endorser berpengaruh signifikan pada brand image, celebgram endorser tidak berpengaruh secara signifikan pada purchase intention dan brand image berpengaruh signifikan sebagai variabel mediasi antara beauty vlogger dan purchase intention.Kata Kunci: Beauty Vlogger, Celebgram Endorser, Brand Image, Purchase Intention dan Make Over. DAFTAR PUSTAKA Abdullah, T. & Tantri, F. 2012. Manajemen Pemasaran. Jakarta: PT. Raja Grafindo Persada. 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RIJEČ UREDNIŠTVANaslov uvodnika potaknut je građanskom inicijativom koja se u posljednje vrijeme širi Hrvatskom. Iako na facebook grupi, koja poziva na "tri zajednička dana uživanja u sadnji diljem Države" pod motom "Zasadi drvo, ne budi panj", prevladava entuzijazam i želja za jačanjem svijesti hrvatskih građana o očuvanju i zaštiti prirode, postoje i radikalniji osvrti na šumarsku struku i na trgovačko društvo Hrvatske šume, poput pitanja zašto se ne organiziraju javni radovi pošumljavanja? Tvrdi se da je to zato jer im je sječa prioritetnija od sadnje. Podmeće se teza: "Ne smiju oni posjeći više nego što mi možemo zasaditi!" Uzori akciji su velike sadnje u nekim zemljama poput Indije i Etiopije. Također poticaj akciji su i katastrofalni požari u plućima svijeta, Amazonskoj prašumi. Pohvalna je dobra volja i želja za ozelenjivanjem, ali ne mogu se uspoređivati zemlje u kojima vladaju drukčiji klimatski i stanišni uvjeti pa nakon sječe ili uništavanja šume požarima dolazi do deforestacije, nestaje tlo i šuma se ne obnavlja. U Republici Hrvatskoj je upravo obrnuto, na djelu je reforestacija, tj. šuma se širi na napuštene poljoprivredne i druge površine, tako da je danas gotovo pola države pod šumom, ali u različitim starosnim kategorijama. Ova akcija je samo odraz zabrinutosti običnog čovjeka, ali i određene neargumentirane histerije koja je pokrenuta protiv šumara u Hrvatskoj.S obzirom na sve učestalije i nekorektne napade na šumarsku struku, što je prevršilo svaku mjeru, potiče nas da se mi kao struka oglasimo. Možemo smireno, stručno i argumentirano, a možemo i bezobrazno kao što se nas napada. Ponajprije, za laike koji to žele čuti, kažemo da je sječa uzgojni zahvat. Šuma ili stablo ima nazovimo ga početak, rast kroz razne uzgojne faze do optimuma, a potom slijedi faza "odumiranja". Zadaća šumarske struke je prebroditi tu zadnju fazu upravo sječom starih stabala, polučiti korist društvu njihovom preradom, ali osiguravši prethodno u jednodobnim sastojinama u godini dobrog uroda sjemena prirodno pomlađivanje. Svakako prije bilo kakvog negativnog stava glede sječe, treba prići vrlo blizu površini gdje je do "jučer" bila npr. stara hrastova šuma te provjeriti da li i što sada raste na toj površini. U prebornoj pak šumi, npr. bukve i jele, prebiru se sječom stara dozrela stabla i ona koja smetaju podmlatku koji treba svijetla da bi ih zamijenio. Samo tamo gdje u potpunosti nije uspjelo prirodno naplođivanje, pa tako i na opožarenim površinama, ide se na pošumljavanje sjemenom ili tzv. "školovanim" sadnicama. Održati šumu vječnom, načelo je potrajnog gospodarenja, čime se ponosi hrvatska znanost i praksa, a što joj i šumarski svijet priznaje. Što rade Hrvatske šume d.o.o. pitaju se pojedini prosvjednici? Zadaća Hrvatskih šuma d.o.o. kao trgovačkog društva u državnom vlasništvu, kojima je Država povjerila gospodarenje, je obavljati poslove sukladno Osnovama gospodarenja, što znači ne stihijski nego po Zakonu o šumama, sukladno šumarskoj politici i strategiji. Osnove gospodarenja za svaku gospodarsku jedinicu propisuju desetgodišnje aktivnosti, provjerava ih stručno povjerenstvo, a Rješenjem ih odobrava resorni ministar. U njih je ugrađeno i niz propisa i popisa koje propisuje Ministarstvo zaštite okoliša. Znači ništa se ne radi amaterski – sve počiva na znanstvenim i stručnim saznanjima u šumarskoj praksi stečenoj kroz preko 250 godina organiziranog šumarstva. Klimatske promjene, ledolomi, vjetrolomi i štetnici, čemu su posebice u zadnje vrijeme izložene šume, samo još otežavaju rad u šumarstvu i zahtijevaju još veću stručnost i znanje, a nikako amaterizam. Nije bez razloga još u pretprošlom stoljeću zaključeno da za gospodarenje šumom nije dovoljna viša, nego je potrebna visoka stručna sprema, što je kod nas ostvareno 1898. godine početkom rada Šumarske akademije (današnjeg Šumarskog fakulteta), kao četvrte visokoškolske ustanove Sveučilišta u Zagrebu.No, s prekomjernom sječom treba se boriti na dijelu privatnih šumskih parcela, ali s tom stihijom se odnosne udruge ne hvataju u koštac. U istoj rečenici pitamo se bezobrazno: tko su to "oni" koji ne smiju posjeći? Da li su to možda oni koji su pet godina studirali šumarstvo, skupljajući znanja iz botanike, više matematike, kemije, meteorologije, anatomije i fiziologije bilja, pedologije, dendrologije, dendrometrije, uzgajanja šuma, ekologije, uređivanja šuma, zaštite šuma i dr., prisegavši na promociji dipl. ing. šumarstva da će raditi po stručnim šumarskim načelima. Lekcije im pak dijele oni koji su u slobodno vrijeme malo "proguglali" i na vikend izletima uz dobru zabavu, "učvrstili" svoje znanje o šumarstvu. Njihovi stručni sufleri, a kažu da ih imaju, mogli bi konačno javno polemizirati. Očekivali bi od odnosnih udruga da nas podupru u protivljenju smanjenja naknada za općekorisne funkcije šuma (OKFŠ), iz kojih se financiraju izgradnja protupožarnih prometnica, gašenja požara, pošumljavanje opožarenih površina i razminiranje površina, no one očito pristaju da se to "gura" u parafiskalne namete. Hrvatska Vlada od Hrvatskih šuma d.o.o. očekuje uplatu u državni proračun, dok čitamo, Njemačka Vlada ulaže 500 mil. EURA za sanaciju šuma, jer ih se prošle godine osušilo preko 110.000 ha.Nemamo ništa protiv toga da se ozelenjuju neke gradske površine, ali i to mora biti planski, kako izborom površina, tako i vrstom drveća, poznavajući i poštujući njihove ekološke i biološke zahtjeve. Saditi bilo što i bilo gdje, što iščitavamo iz upućenog poziva, je neodgovorno i prema prostoru, ali i prema biljci.Uredništvo ; EDITORIALThe headline of the editorial was prompted by a civil initiative sweeping through Croatia in recent times. The Facebook group, which calls for "three enjoyable days of planting trees across the State" under the motto "Plant a tree, don't be a stump", is imbued with enthusiasm and a wish to raise the awareness of Croatian citizens of the need to preserve and protect the nature; however, there are also more radical views on the forestry profession and the company Croatian Forests Ltd. Among others, they ask why there are no public afforestation activities and conclude that the reason lies in the fact that cutting trees has priority over planting them. There is an undergoing statement: "They cannot fell more than we can plant!" The campaign was prompted by large-scale planting campaigns in some countries such as India and Ethiopia. Another incentive to the campaign was provided by the devastating fires taking place in the lungs of the world, the Amazonian rain forest. The will and wish to plant trees deserves full credit, but we cannot be compared with the countries with different climatic and habitat conditions, in which felling or forest fires result in deforestation, loss of forest soil and inability of forests to regenerate. The situation in the Republic of Croatia is diametrically opposite: reforestation is an ongoing process; in other words, the forest spreads into abandoned agricultural and other areas, so that currently almost half of the country is covered with forests of different age categories. This campaign reflects the concern of the ordinary person, but also contains certain ill founded hysterical reactions targeted at foresters in Croatia.In view of the ever more frequent and unfounded attacks on the forestry profession, which has gone out of hand, it is time for the profession to voice its opinion. We can do it in two ways: we can either put forward professional and well founded arguments, or retaliate in the same impertinent manner in which we are being attacked. To start with, for those who are ready to listen, let us stress that felling is a silvicultural operation. A forest or a tree has its beginning, followed by growth through different silvicultural stages until it reaches its optimum and finally the stage of "dying". The task of the forestry profession is to deal with this last stage by cutting down old trees, making profit for the society by processing these cut trees, and ensuring natural regeneration in even-aged stands in the years of good seed mast. Before any negative attitude on a felling operation is taken, it would be advisable to inspect closely the area which was until "yesterday" covered by an old oak forest and check what is being planted in this area, if anything. In a selection forest of, e.g. beech and fir, felling is applied to remove old mature trees and those trees which prevent young trees from reaching the necessary light for growth. Reforestation with seeds or with so-called "trained" seedlings is applied only in those areas in which natural seedling has not been completely successful or in areas badly affected by fires. Maintaining the forest in a perpetually stable condition is the principle of sustainable management. This principle is something that Croatian science and practice is rightly proud of and for which it receives acknowledgement from the global forestry world.What does the company Croatian Forests Ltd do, some protesters ask? The task of the company, as a state-owned company which has been entrusted by the State with caring for the forests, is to manage forests and carry out all the jobs set down in management plans, in line with the Forest Act, the forestry policy and strategy. There is no question here of chaotic and disorganized management. Management plans for every management unit prescribe the execution of ten-year activities. These plans are verified by expert committees and approved by the corresponding minister. They also contain regulations and rules set down by the Ministry of Environmental Protection. As seen from the above, nothing is done on an amateur basis - everything is firmly grounded on scientific and expert knowledge of the forestry practice, which has been acquired through 250 and more years of organized forestry. Climate change, damage caused by ice and wind, as well as pests, to which forests have been particularly exposed in recent times, make work in forestry even more difficult and require even more expertise and knowledge - certainly not amateurism. This is the reason that as far back as the 18th century it was realized that management of forests required not just a college degree but academic education. In Croatia, this was put to practice in1898, when the Forestry Academy (the present day Faculty of Forestry) was opened as the fourth institution of higher education within the University of Zagreb.A battle against excessive felling should be fought in parts of privately owned forest areas, yet the above groups fail to grapple with this problem. Allow us to be impertinent enough to ask: who are "they" who are not allowed to perform felling operations? Perhaps those who have studied forestry for five years, acquired knowledge of botany, higher mathematics, chemistry, meteorology, plant anatomy and physiology, pedology, dendrology, dendrometrics, silviculture, ecology, forest planning, forest protection and other fields, and who have, when receiving their degrees of graduate engineers of forestry, pledged to adhere to expert forestry principles in their work? Such professionals are then lectured by those who have "googled" something about forestry and who have gained their knowledge of forestry at weekend outings in forests. We would welcome with open arms their expert advisors, which they claim there are many, to finally come out and engage in public debates. We would expect from these groups to support us in opposing the move to cut down on non-market forest function fees, which are used to finance the construction of fire breaks, fire suppression, reforestation of burnt areas and demining areas. Obviously, they prefer these fees to be "pushed" into parafiscal levies. While the Croatian government expects from the company Croatian Forests Ltd to pay into the state budget, the German government invests 500 million euro into the recovery of forests, since over 110,000 ha of forests dried only last year.We have nothing against making city areas green, but this should be carried out in a planned manner, both as regards the choice of areas and the choice of tree species, taking into account their ecological and biological requirements. Planting anything and anywhere, as seen from the initiative, is irresponsible both for the area and for the plant.Editorial Board