Suchergebnisse

Yazar:NURHAN NAZ Danışman: DR. ÖĞR. ÜYESİ YASEMİN YULAF Yer Bilgisi: İstanbul Gelişim Üniversitesi / Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü / Psikoloji Anabilim Dalı / Klinik Psikoloji Bilim Dalı Konu: Psikoloji = Psychology ; Günümüz dünyasında otizm kavramı hala tam anlamıyla açıklanamamaktadır fakat her otizm tanılı bireyin diğerinden değişik olan bir niteliği barındırdığı söylenmektedir. Otizm kavramı incelendiğinde idrak ve algı bozukluğuna yol açan organik bir bozukluktur. Otizm tanılı çocuğa sahip ebeveynlerin karşılaştıkları problemlerden biriside evlilik uyumudur. İnsanın dünyada var olması kadar uzun ve köklü bir geçmişe sahip olan evlilik kurumu, kişilerin hayatlarına yön veren bir süreci temsil etmektedir. Evlilikle birlikte kişilerin kazandıkları toplumsal ve duygusal güçler partnerlerin, bedensel, psikolojik ve toplumsal iyiliklerini de olumlu bir şekilde etkilemektedir. Bununla birlikte, partnerlerin evliliklerindeki neşe ve uyum sayesinde birbirlerinden farklı iki insan bir bütün haline gelecektir. Duygu düzenleme, bireyin maksadı yönünde duygularını kontrol altına alabilmesi ve yönetebilmesini ve denetim kurabilmeyi açıklamaktadır. İçsel ve dışsal süreçler sonucunda form değiştirebilen bilinçli veya bilinçsiz şekilde meydana gelen bir beceri şeklidir. Amaç: Yaptığımız araştırmanın amacı otizm tanılı çocuğu olan anne-babaların evlilik uyumu ve duygu düzenleme güçlükleri arasındaki ilişkinin incelenmesidir. Metod: Çalışmada basit-rastgele örneklemler seçilmiş olup, çalışma evreni İstanbul'da ikamet eden ebeveynlerden oluşmaktadır. Araştırmanın örneklemini ise 40 otizm tanısı almış çocuğu olan anne-babalar ile 40 otizm tanısı almamış anne-babalardan meydana gelmektedir. Bulgular: Otizm tanılı çocuğa sahip olan bireylerin duyguları düzenleme güçlüklerinin daha yüksek olduğu görülmektedir. Duygu düzenleme güçlüğü alt boyutu olan farkındalığın otizm tanılı çocuğa sahip olmayan bireylerde daha yüksek olduğu görülmektedir. Duygu düzenleme güçlüğü alt boyutu olan açıklığın otizm tanılı çocuğa sahip olmayanlarda daha yüksek olduğu görülmektedir. Duygu düzenleme güçlüğü olan kabul etmemenin otizm tanılı çocuğa sahip olan bireylerde daha yüksek olduğu görülmektedir. Duygu düzenleme güçlüğünün alt boyutu olan dürtünün otizm tanılı çocuğa sahip olan katılımcılarda daha yüksek olduğu görülmektedir. Duygu düzenleme güçlüğünün alt boyutu olan amaçların otizm tanılı çocuğa sahip olan katılımcılarda daha yüksek olduğu görülmektedir. Otizm tanılı çocuğa sahip olmayan bireylerin evlilik uyumunun daha yüksek olduğu görülmektedir. Evlilik uyumu alt boyutu olan genel uyumun otizm tanılı çocuğa sahip olmayan bireylerde daha yüksek olduğu görülmektedir. Evlilik uyumu alt boyutu olan ilişki tarzının otizm tanılı çocuğa sahip olmayan bireylerde daha yüksek olduğu görülmektedir. Duyguları düzenleme güçlüğü ile ilişki tarzı alt boyutu arasında olumsuz bir anlamlı ilişki olduğu görülmüştür. Duyguları düzenleme güçlüğü puanları yükseldikçe, ilişki tarzı alt boyutu puanları düşmektedir. Farkındalık alt boyutu ile evlilik uyumu arasında olumlu bir anlamlı ilişki olduğu görülmüştür. Farkındalık puanları yükseldikçe, evlilik uyumu puanları yükselmektedir. Farkındalık alt boyutu ile genel uyum alt boyutu arasında olumlu bir anlamlı ilişki olduğu görülmüştür. Farkındalık alt boyutunun puanları arttıkça, genel uyum puanları da yükselmektedir. Amaçlar alt boyutu ile evlilik uyumu arasında olumsuz bir anlamlı ilişki olduğu görülmüştür. Amaçlar alt boyutu puanları yükseldikçe, evlilik uyumu puanları düşmektedir. ; In today's world, the concept of autism is still not fully explained, but it is said that each individual with autism disorder has a different quality from the other. When the concept of autism is examined, it is an organic disorder that causes perception and perception disorder. One of the problems faced by parents who have children with autism is marital adjustment. The marriage institution, which has a long and long-established history as long as human beings exist in the world, represents a process that guides the lives of individuals. Together with the marriage, the social and emotional powers that people gain have a positive impact on the physical, psychological and social well-being of the partners. Thanks to the joy and harmony of partners' marriages, two different people will become a whole. Emotion regulation describes the ability of an individual to control and manage his emotions in the direction of his or her purpose and to establish control. It is a form of skill that can be changed consciously or unconsciously as a result of internal and external processes. Aim: The aim of this study is to investigate the relationship between the marital adjustment and emotion regulation difficulties of parents who have children with autism. Method: Sample selection was made by simple - random sample selection. The universe of the research consists of parents living in Istanbul. The sample of the study consisted of 40 parenst whose children autism-diagnosed and 40 parenst whose children non-autism-diagnosed parents. Results: Individuals with autism were found to have higher difficulty in regulating emotions. It is seen that the awareness with difficulty in emotion regulation is higher in individuals who do not have autism. It is seen that the aperture, which is the sub-dimension of difficulty in regulating emotion, is higher in those who do not have autism. It is observed that the inability to accept emotion regulation is higher in individuals with autism. It is seen that the impulse, which is the sub-dimension of the difficulty in regulating emotion, is higher in the participants with autism. It is seen that the goals which are the sub-dimension of the difficulty in regulating emotion are higher in the participants with autism. It is seen that the marital adjustment of individuals who do not have a child with autism is higher. It is observed that the general harmony which is the sub-dimension of marital adjustment is higher in individuals without autism. It is observed that the relationship style, which is the sub-dimension of marital adjustment, is higher in individuals without autism. A negative correlation was found between the difficulty of regulating emotions and relationship style sub-dimension. As the difficulty of regulating emotions increases, the relationship style decreases. A positive correlation was found between the awareness subscale and marital adjustment. As awareness scores increase, marital adjustment scores increase. A significant positive correlation was found between the awareness sub-dimension and the general fit subscale. As awareness increases, overall compliance is increasing. A significant negative correlation was found between marital adjustment and goals sub-dimension. As the goals increased, marital adjustment was reduced.

[spa] El presente trabajo de investigación tiene como objeto el análisis del Capitalismo contemporáneo de los últimos treinta años como sistema económico, social y de pensamiento que configura de forma determinante la realidad en la que vivimos a modo de sistema-mundo orgánico, así como también el realizar propuestas normativas de actuación para su posible desarrollo futuro. La convicción e hipótesis de partida de este estudio es que el Capitalismo no puede ser analizado sólo desde una perspectiva exclusivamente economicista. Necesita un conjunto de miradas interdisciplinares ante la complejidad de su formación, desarrollo y consecuencias no sólo económicas sino también sociales o personales. Se adopta de este modo una perspectiva Macrofilosófica que es transversal y multidisciplinar (psicología, historia, sociología, derecho, economía, etc.) y se realiza un análisis estructurado de la dinámica actual del Capitalismo a través de un modelo macrofilosófico: de sus influencias ideológicas, teóricas y culturales; así como de sus consecuencias económicas, personales y sociales. La tesis principal del trabajo que va a desarrollarse e intentar demostrarse, es que tras la reciente crisis de los últimos siete años, el Capitalismo como sistema-mundo de desarrollo orgánico no va a desaparecer: es un sistema que puede autoreproducirse y evolucionar a otros tipos a través de sus recurrentes crisis. Además consideramos también, que no existe un sistema alternativo que sea capaz de gestionar la creciente complejidad, ahora ya cada vez más globalizada, y su constatada mayor creación de riqueza, respetando la libertad individual como valor fundamental. Consecuentemente, y tras el análisis de la reciente evolución de este Capitalismo orgánico contemporáneo, constatamos como característica actual fundamental que actúa en contra de lo humano y que caracterizaremos conceptualmente como Capitalismo dislocativo: las consecuencias sociales y personales de la dinámica Capitalista no permiten el desarrollo de gran parte de los proyectos de vida lastrados por la precariedad, la desigualdad o la exclusión que produce la flecha de expansión Capitalista. Asimismo y también como una serie de conclusiones previas postulamos todo será económico o no será: la economía seguirá dominando la construcción de la realidad social y que se tenderá hacía una mayor convergencia e inestabilidad global. Se hace necesario de nuevo realizar intervenciones de tipo político configurando el desarrollo del Capitalismo, como cortafuegos del incendio social que las consecuencias sociales de esa dinámica tienen, y que devuelvan al Capitalismo el rostro humano que aún puede volver a tener. Abogamos en definitiva, por la protección de una vida que merezca la pena ser vivida: sostenida en una estructura socioeconómica que proporcione las capacidades de desarrollo a todos los seres humanos y sostenida también, por un posicionamiento ético y político propio desde el sentido que cada uno es libre de poder construir. Se finaliza con unas conclusiones que caracterizan el fenómeno del Capitalismo contemporáneo y con la realización de una serie de propuestas de actuación normativas a modo de pensamiento operativo para conseguir ese redefinición del Capitalismo contemporáneo desde: 1) el ámbito teórico: devolver la economía a la Filosofía moral; 2) desde el ámbito político: repolitizar la realidad social y 3) desde el ámbito personal: cuidar de sí mismo y de los demás. ; [eng] This research aims to analyze the contemporary Capitalism over the last thirty years as an economic, social and thought system that decisively set reality in which we live as an organic world system; as well as make policy proposals for possible future development of Capitalism. The conviction and hypothesis of this study is that Capitalism cannot be analyzed only from purely economic terms. It is needed a set of interdisciplinary looks at the complexity of its formation, development, and consequences not only economic but also social and personal ones. Thus it is adopted a Macrophilosophical perspective, that is transversal and multidisciplinary (psychology, history, sociology, law, economics, etc.) and also is performed a structured analysis of current dynamics of Capitalism through a Macrophilosophic model: its ideological influences theoretical and cultural; and their economic, personal and social consequences. The main thesis of the research work that will be developed and will try to be proved, is that after the recent crisis in the last seven years, Capitalism as a world system of organic development will not disappear: it is a system that can reproduce itself and evolve to other types through its recurrent crisis. In addition, we also consider that there is no a global alternative system capable of managing the growing complexity, now even more globalized, and its greater proven wealth creation, including the respect for individual freedom as a fundamental value. Consequently, and after the analysis of the recent developments in this contemporary organic Capitalism, we find as a fundamental current characteristic: that it acts against humanity, we conceptualize this as Dislocative Capitalism: social and personal consequences of Capitalist dynamics does not allow the development of much of life projects burdened by insecurity, inequality and exclusion that it is produced by the arrow Capitalist expansion. Also, and as a number of previous conclusions, we postulate that everything will be economic or not will be: the economy will continue to dominate the construction of social reality and we would tend towards a greater convergence and global instability. It is again necessary interventions of a political nature setting the development of Capitalism, as firewalls for the social fires that consequences of these dynamics have, returning to a Capitalism with a human face, that we believe can still have again. Definitely we plead for the protection of a life worth being lived: sustained in a socioeconomic structure that provides development capabilities to all human beings and also sustained by its own ethical and political positioning from the sense that each one is free to construct. We end with several conclusions that characterize the phenomenon of contemporary Capitalism and the realization of a series of action policy proposals as an operational thinking for the redefinition of contemporary Capitalism: 1) from a theoretical level: the economy should return to moral philosophy; 2) from the political sphere: we should repoliticize social reality and 3) from the personal sphere: take care of yourself and others.

Abstract Impossible Landings: Precarity, Populism and Walling in a 'European' Refugee CrisisbyAlessandro TiberioDoctor of Philosophy in Geography University of California, BerkeleyProfessor Michael Watts, Co-ChairProfessor Jon Kosek, Co-ChairThe rise of populist movements that gathered momentum in 2016 across Europe and the European settler-colonial world has seriously challenged the US-led neoliberal order as much as the discourse around 'globalization' that such order promoted and defended. Such crisis has been most striking in countries like the UK and the US, with the votes for Brexit and Trump, given that for the last 30 years successive government administrations of both center-right and center-left political alignments there have been championing neoliberal reforms domestically and internationally, but the rise of populist movements has been years in the making in the folds of ordinary life across the 'European' world, and can arguably be best understood through an ethnographic research of the everyday space-making and border-renegotiating social processes that made a rightward shift possible in individual and collective consciences and that also allowed it to gather momentum at a wider scale.I have focused my research on the borderlands of what I call 'Mediterranean Central Europe' in and around the now mostly white-Italian border-town of Trieste, formerly the main port of the Austrian-Hungarian Empire and today sitting at the Italian border to Slovenia. Dominant discourses on a local level have traditionally idealized the city and its inhabitants as quintessentially 'European' even more than 'Italian', and in its borderlands at the edge of the Balkans the renegotiation of borders with non-European 'Eastern' and Muslim othered subjects and spaces has historically been particularly explicit. At the same time, Trieste has also represented a model of border un-making or un-walling thanks to the local anti-psychiatric movement led by Doctor Basaglia, that in the 1970s successfully advocated for the closure of asylums and for the transformation of wider society by multiplying spaces of encounter between formerly interned patients and the general population at large. The current model of asylum seekers' reception in the city promoted by ICS (the Italian Consortium of Solidarity) inherited and followed the same decentralizing logic, and since the 1990s has been promoting the transformation of the 'European' space of the city though everyday practices of border renegotiation. Over the course of a multi-year ethnographic fieldwork since 2013, I have looked at the longer history of experiments with walling and un-walling in the city, and finally focused on the 2015/16 moment, when I have explored the remaking of 'European' borders in Trieste's borderlands during the boom of the 'Balkan migration route(s)'. At that time, I have investigated different forms of border renegotiation practices from a neo-liberal standpoint, by far-right groups and by radical-left activists, and attempted to understand their different politics on an individual, collective and regional level.In the midst of a strong reactionary wave on a wider scale, 2016 also saw the election of a far-right city administration in Trieste at the conjuncture of lingering economic stagnation and of a boom in the arrivals of asylum-seeking migrants traveling across the Balkans and hailing especially from Pakistan and Afghanistan. In an attempt to understand the reactionary closure of European borders in the conjuncture of 2015/16, in the context of both the post-2008 'economic crisis' and of what has been commonly referred to as the 'European refugee crisis' of 2015, in my work I show the ways in which the two processes have articulated with one another though the lived and perceived experience of what Italians call 'precarietà' or precarity, referring to the widespread sense of insecurity resulting from the introduction of sweeping neoliberal reforms in Italy and Europe at large, and in particular from the 'flexibilization' of the job market and life conditions in general. I further show how in Trieste and elsewhere the articulation of these two processes has engendered a third crisis, namely an 'identity crisis', a crisis of 'Europe' and of what may be called 'European', and has led to the new desires for border closure or walling and to the rise of far-right populist movements possibly heralding a post-neoliberal moment. In particular, I argue that current reactionary tendencies in Trieste and in many parts of the 'European' world in the current conjuncture are the result of the widespread perception of a deep crisis in the gendered and racialized commonsensical idea of 'Europe', and particularly of 'European' privilege and exceptionalism, and have emerged in the attempt to defend it. Further, I argue that the perception of such crisis and the related desires for border closure among many white-Europeans stem from the widespread idealization of 'precarity' or insecurity as a European problem, in their eyes justifying wall-building of a 'natural' reaction. Finally, in my study I also question the naturalized necessity of such a reactionary logic in the contemporary conjuncture and present the possibility for radical alternatives.In this sense, I argue that the different politics of far right and radical left 'anti-globalization' movements, both opposing the 'free movement' of capital, are produced through alternative forms of space-making and border-renegotiation in everyday life on a 'local' level, understanding their sense of belonging as tied to a bounded homeland or to a shared space of encounter respectively. In order to understand these different politics, I looked at the production of 'local' communities in collective gardening projects where highly precarized Italians renegotiated their relationship with both land and homeland in everyday life. I have then also carried out participant observation in mixed collective gardens shared by Italians and Afghan or Pakistani asylum seekers, and in other mixed spaces that offered interesting opportunities to understand ordinary border renegotiation practices in relationship to one's sense of precarity or insecurity. Finally, in order to understand border renegotiation both on a communal and on an individual level, during long interview sessions with both Italians and Central Asian migrants I have used individual 'mad map' drawing exercises to encourage the representation of one's condition of precarity and ways to renegotiate any perceived need for security, as a form of mental mapping method adopted and adapted from the American anti-psychiatric movement Icarus, of which I have been part of for years in California. In this context, my work finally also argues that in places like Trieste it is alternative readings of 'precarity', questioning exclusivists senses of belonging and based on appreciating relational forms of insecurity between differently-precarious 'European' and 'non-European' subjects, that may make a different politics of border renegotiation possible. In particular, the production of common spaces enabling the acceptance of mutual vulnerability between such differently-precarious subjects may allow not only for the renegotiation but also for the actual questioning and un-walling of the borders of 'Europe' themselves.

The crisis of authority in the U.S.S.R. (1988 - July 1991).
After a preliminary reference to the ideological options open to Mikhail Gorbachev, initiator of the break-up of Stalinism, and the mistrust which be inspires, both among some of his opponents as well as among right-wing conservatives, the author considers the recent evolution of the Soviet Union, from the monopoly of Party rule to the difficult birth of a pluralistic regime.
He first raises the question of the Party's attitude to perestroika. Article 6 of the Constitution of 1977, which aknowledges the leading role of the Party, was reluctantly annulled by Gorbachev, but annuled it was, thus leaving the way open for pluralism. Condemnation of factionalism within the body of the Party has not prevented the emergence of various "tendencies" (particularly the democratic Platform and the marxist Platform) which find official expression. Similarly, political and social groupings, independent of authority, began to proliferate : from groupings moved by a common principle, for example tne Safeguarding of the national heritage, or the defense of the environment, they rapidly became popular fronts, lending the system a de facto pluralism which would only later enjoy a de jure existence.
This spontaneous development took shape first of all in the Baltic countries, and then with increasing momentum spread to all the republics. In parallel with this, the communist Party leadership initiated a reform of the political system, which found expression in the semi-free elections of March 1989, marked by the defeat of various party and State notables. This was the beginning of a multi-party system, there having been two major opposing tendencies during the campaign for the regional elections in the spring of 1990 : the democratic Russia bloc (liberal) and the patriotic Russian bloc (conservative), surrounded by a multiplicity of organizations of the most diverse and constantly evolving tendencies. The charge levelled against them is that they have no autonomous ideas or initiative, and have only one single programme : mass rejection of the Party apparatus. Some observers are of the opinion that a deep schism will develop within the CPSU, and that this will give rise to a real multi-party system. The first stage of this development has just begun, with the movement for democratic reforms, which was launched in July 1991 by frontline reformers.
The other major problem which arises is that of the preservation or the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The authority of the Center is in question, and already six republics have decided to leave the union, proclaiming their sovereignty loud and long (the three Baltic states, Armenia, Georgia and Moldavia). But although the right of scission is officially acknowledged, its implementation is a vast battleground (see the law of 3rd April 1990). The upsurge of centrifugal forces has led the republics, one after the other,
to proclame their sovereignty (primacy of republican laws over federal laws, economic autonomy, ownership of the soil and mineral deposits, etc.) or their outright indépendance. Autonomous Republics and territories followed suit, opposing the authorities of the republics to which they belonged. Inter-ethnic conflict broke out all over.
The dispute over federal authority led to a "way over laws", setting the Centre at odd with republics resolved to insist on recognition of their rights (ownership of all the ressources found on their territory, freedom to exploit these resources, etc.). In this context, the question of finance and the budget had pride of place, together with that of material and technological supplies. The entire supply system was disorganized, with the republics refusing to carry out the orders of the State, or to deliver consumers' goods outside of their frontiers, in order to avoid a worsening of their own shortages. The Soviet government tried to combat the supply problems, at least in part, by setting up commodity markets. A series of economic programms was worked out, including V. Pavlov's anti-crisis plan (April 1991) which was adopted by the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, but it is not entirely clear how the economic responsabilities will be apportioned among the Central authorities, the republics and the lower-rank administrative bodies, and what will be the share of the state and private sectors. Also, it is not known how he proposes to overcome the present crisis, and how long this will take.
Another major source of discord is the army and the police. The republics demand the right to raise armed forces, and to assume the responsability for maintaning order within their territory. Certain of them, who have been the victims of attacks by the special forces of the Ministry of Interior, the OMON, have organized militias and defense groups, wich are virtually republican armies in embryo.
In the end, there was an overriding necessity for redefining the Union, and the first version of the new Union Treaty was adopted by referendum on the 17th March 1991. A slightly modified version of it was published on the 19th June, but neither the one nor the other gives a very clear idea of the respective areas of competence and the common areas of competence of the Centre and the constituent republics of the Union (and still less of the fate in store for secessionist republics). On the other hand, one can be sure that the Treaty will be the source of innumerable controversies and disputes, especially on the particularly explosive issue of the budget, taxation and the distribution of ressources. In the final part, the author ventures some thoughts on the future. He sets perestroika in the continuing context of the history of the Russian empire, recalling that the demands made (individual freedoms and democracy, self-determination and decolonization) were already those of the protagonists of the Russian democratic revolution of February-March 1917, which was "taken over" by the Bolshevik coup d'Etat. Now that the empire has fallen victim to its contradictions and weaknesses, and finally disintegrated, what will take its place ? The cure prescribed by the Union Treaty seems ill-adapted to the task, and several outcomes are possible : a resolute commitment to the way of democracy and decolonization, a return to an authoritarian régime but one establishing a market economy, the option of passivity while waiting for a solution "which will come of itself, or a return to thorough-going, tough dictatorship accompanied by a blood bath. If Gorbachev does not once more take his courage in both hands, and proceeds to decolonize the empire, however slow and piecemeal the process, others will do it for him. And in that case, we may fear the worst.

Suid-Afrika se toekoms word wesentlik bedreig deur 'n uiters beperkte water-hulpbron wat vanweë 'n lae reënvalsyfer en onvoorspelbare droogtes vergelyk kan word met van die droogste lande ter wêreld. Suid-Afrika het boonop 'n swak rekord van waterbesparing, die behandeling van afvalwater asook die instandhouding van waterinfrastruktuur. Hierdie gebreke lei tot groeiende kommer oor die land se beskikbare volume water, asook die gehalte daarvan. Die Nasionale Waterwet 36 van 1998 (NWW) is uitgevaardig met die primêre doel om die reg rakende Suid-Afrika se waterhulpbronne fundamenteel te verander. Die aanhef van die NWW verklaar dat water "'n skaars nasionale hulpbron is" en "'n natuurlike hulpbron is wat aan alle mense behoort". Artikel 3 van die NWW brei hierdie standpunt uit deur te bepaal dat alle watergebruiksregte onder die gesentraliseerde beheer van die nasionale regering as openbare trustee val om onder meer die verspreiding, bestuur, gebruik en bewaring van en gelyke toegang tot dié skaars hulpbron te verseker. Die inkorporering van die konsep van openbare trusteeskap het 'n paradigmaskuif in die waterreguleringsraamwerk meegebring, met die gevolg dat alle privaat regte in water afgeskaf is en dat alle water effektief genasionaliseer is. Ten spyte van hierdie statutêre hervorming dui beskikbare data daarop dat die toestand van waterhulpbronne in Suid-Afrika besig is om gaandeweg en voortdurend te verswak. Hierdie artikel het ten doel om te bepaal of die nuwe waterreguleringsraamwerk van Suid-Afrika, geskoei op die konsep van openbare trusteeskap, voldoende oplossings vir Suid-Afrika se groeiende waterkrisis bied. Die artikel ontleed derhalwe Suid-Afrika se waterreguleringsraamwerk, met spesifieke verwysing na die konsep van openbare trusteeskap. Die verswakkende toestand van die land se water word vervolgens bespreek, waarna die artikel afsluit met 'n gefundeerde opinie oor of die waterreguleringsraamwerk, geskoei op die konsep van openbare trusteeskap, geskik is om Suid-Afrika se waterhulpbron op 'n volhoubare en billike wyse te bestuur en te beskerm ; Water is an essential but scarce resource. Worldwide, an estimated 663 million people do not have access to sufficient and safe water for domestic use, and the demand is on the increase. It is estimated that the world will have to cope with a 40 per cent water supply shortfall by 2030, which will unavoidably affect the availability of drinking water, sanitation and food production. South Africa faces a particularly gloomy water reality. Not only is South Africa plagued by severe drought conditions, but it also has a poor record of water conservation, outdated and inadequate water treatment infrastructure, and lingering concerns about the quality and degradation of the already limited volume of available water. South Africa's political history, characterised by a reality of unequal access to water, adds additional and unique challenges as far as water resource regulation is concerned. Following the advent of the constitutional era, a novel legal framework for water resources regulation was developed in South Africa. The National Water Act 36 of 1998 (NWA) was promulgated with the primary aim of reforming the law relating to water resources. The NWA broke new ground by inter alia introducing the concept of public trusteeship into the South African water law. Section 3 of the NWA provides that all water use rights fall under the centralised control of the state, or public trustee, to improve the distribution, management, use, conservation and equitability of access to this scarce resource. Although the concept of public trusteeship entered the South African legal realm without much fanfare, it fundamentally changed the foundation and regulatory practices of the South African water law dispensation. The water regulatory framework changed from one that linked access to water to land ownership and differentiated between private and public water, to a framework that applies to "all water" in South Africa and that acknowledges that the country's water "belongs to all people". Accordingly, the old system that provided for exclusive water use rights, and that was generally to the detriment of the majority of South Africans, has been replaced by a system that provides for water allowances granted at the discretion of government. The introduction of the notion of public trusteeship therefore denotes a major transformation in which existing property rights are re-defined. With this new system of the NWA, the South African government has effectively nationalised all of the nation's water resources. It has been almost 20 years since the transformation of South Africa's water regulatory framework, but the reality is that, despite the transformation brought about by the NWA, studies show a decline in the quantity and quality of South Africa's water resources. Adding to the problem that South Africa is a water scarce country, the demand for water is on the increase. Severe pollution such as the fact that approximately 4 billion litres of raw or partially purified sewage are discharged daily into South Africa's dams and rivers, as well as the widespread destruction of wetlands by mining and agricultural activities continue to impact negatively on the quality of the scarce water resource. One of the consequences of this is the growing presence of toxic blue-green algae in the water resources of South Africa, with an estimated 62 per cent of aquatic bodies already contaminated with cyanobacteria – the highest incidence in the world. In light of this water crisis, some may argue that the new regulatory framework, with its statutory objectives and strategies, is flawed. In order to determine whether the new regulatory framework for South Africa's water resources is indeed flawed, or whether the NWA is rather a beacon of hope amid the country's water crisis, this article analyses the novel water regulatory framework with specific reference to the concept of public trusteeship. In the second part, the article scientifically describes the state of South Africa's water resources. The third and last part of the article provides a legal response to the growing pressure on South Africa's water resources. It considers how the public trusteeship paradigm can be used to ensure that water is protected, used, developed, conserved, managed and controlled in a sustainable manner, for the benefit of all persons. The article confirms that the public trust regulatory regime is sufficient for water regulation in South Africa, and particularly relevant to a solution to the country's water crisis, as it offers the necessary mechanisms to achieve lasting protection for water resources, and ultimately to enhance sustainable water resource management

在十六、十七世紀科學革命時代的歐洲,知識的渴求成為當時社會菁英極為關切的課題之一。隨著現代科學的萌芽,知識領域逐漸擴展,世界觀更加開闊,歐洲人面臨了一個知識爆炸的時代,而這樣的轉變對於基督教會的權威及個別的思想家都是一場極大的挑戰。如何在知識的渴求與基督教信仰之間取得平衡,使得彼此相容而不衝突,成為當時許多作家論辯的議題。在彌爾頓的兩部主要史詩《失樂園》與《復樂園》裡,知識成了失去樂園與回復樂園的關鍵。善惡知識樹作為一種上帝的禁令,促使《失樂園》中的角色以及讀者,重新審視對知識的定義和理解,包括對上帝的認識、對自己的認識,以及何謂真正的知識。天使拉斐爾和亞當的對話,討論的往往是上帝要人類知道什麼、人類應該和不應該知道什麼、應該如何恰當理解所知的事物,以及如何以信仰來駕馭知識以達到真知。在《復樂園》中,上帝之子之所以能夠堅決抗拒撒旦的誘惑,是因為他對自己和對上帝的認識。而在撒旦所使出的所有伎倆中,最終極的誘惑即為知識的誘惑-擁有全世界知識的誘惑。因此,本篇論文試圖探討彌爾頓在兩部史詩柑品中如何看待知識這個議題,一方面參考彌爾頓的幾篇論辯文章中有關於知識的論述,包括《論出版自由》、《論教育》、《教會制度原則推論》、《論基督教教義》等,另一方面分析兩部史詩中對於知識的思辨及呈現。本論文認為滿足於信仰上的道德智慧(sapientia)與追求世俗的知識(scientia)構成了《失樂園》中最主要的內在張力與衝突。而在《復樂園》中,彌爾頓藉由上帝之子,為人類提供一種信仰道德上邁向真知的路徑。 ; The problem of knowledge was one of the major intellectual concerns at the Age of Scientific Revolution in early modern Europe. With the rise of new sciences, the expansion of learning, and the broadening of world view came the explosion of knowledge, this posed enormous challenges, not only to church authorities, but also to individual thinkers. The question of how the desire for knowledge may be reconciled with faith has been debated in the writings of the time. Citing other critics, Lee A. Jacobus points out that the struggle between reason and faith is one of the major conceptual dualisms of the century (16). Howard Schultz, examining the metaphor of Lady Curiosity in the 17th-century English intellectual history, remarks that "intellectual sin came in for a scolding somewhere in every influential kind of writing" (1). For John Milton-a writer who devoted himself to learning and the path toward true faith throughout his life, the issue of how knowledge may be subsumed into the system of Christian faith, rather than becoming a subverting force, constitutes the core of his thinking. This concern is found most manifest in his major epics about the fall of man and the redemption through the Son-Paradise Lost and Paradise Regained, in which knowledge stands in the center of the loss and the regaining of paradise. The Forbidden Tree (often referred to as "the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil") poses a major challenges to the characters and the readers about the knowledge of God, of the self, and, in sum, about true knowledge. The exchange between Raphael and Adam essentially revolves around the questions of knowing-of what God wants man to know, of what man should or should not know, of the manners in which man understands what is known, and most importantly of how knowledge should be bridled with faith so as to attain true wisdom. On the other hand, in Paradise Regained, the Son's sustained resistance to Satan's temptation is in many respects grounded on his knowledge of himself and of God. Even the last and ultimate temptation that Satan placed in front of the Son-one he easily defied-is the temptation of all knowledge: the possibility of comprehending all things in the world. It is, therefore, the aim of this paper to explore the problem of knowledge as presented in John Milton's Paradise Lost and Paradise Regained by examining the rhetoric of the characters on knowledge with cross-reference to Milton's ideas of knowledge in his prose works such as Areopagitica, Of Education, The Reason of Church Government, De Doctrina Christiana and other tacts. The paper argues that the tension between being satisfied with the knowledge revealed by divine grace and pursuing worldly knowledge is fully played out in Paradise Lost whereas Paradise Regained offers a moral solution to the human dilemma through wisdom and the Son.

OBJETIVOS El principal objetivo de esta tesis es conocer la sociedad del pueblo de Pliego, en el periodo de 1750 a 1921 para ello desarrollaremos una serie de apartados que coinciden con los capítulos de esta investigación. Conoceremos su espacio y los condicionantes en el establecimiento de la comunidad, la dinámica del crecimiento poblacional, la evolución de los hechos demográficos, su actividad económica, el cambio social a través de la administración local, la influencia social y política que existió. La agricultura fue motor de la economía local con la típica trilogía mediterránea (cereales, vid, olivo) representando hasta la primera mitad del siglo XX los tipos de cultivos predominantes, surgiendo una industria artesanal que germinó para transformarlos como fueron molinos, bodegas y almazaras. El estudio de la familia permite conocer la forma de reproducción de todo el sistema político imperante en el municipio. Se estudian los grupos sociales que existían, cómo los propietarios dominaban a los demás vecinos por el hecho de la posesión de la tierra. La dinámica municipal del Ayuntamiento pleguero nos servirá para conocer cuáles eran los problemas que habían en el pueblo, y que se arrastraban desde hacía varios años, y las soluciones de los conservadores en el poder. También conoceremos los exponentes culturales en la localidad a través de su tradición y la prensa del distrito electoral al que pertenecía Pliego. METODOLOGÍA El plan de trabajo se ha iniciado con la consulta de la bibliografía especializada existente para el periodo de 1750 a 1921, proporcionando una base que nos ha servido para establecer el punto de partida de las diferentes vertientes de la investigación. Se puede completar un espacio de la historia de Pliego a través de la información volcada en los padrones municipales del Archivo Histórico del Ayuntamiento, los datos conservados en el Archivo Parroquial de la Iglesia de Santiago, así como la documentación de otros archivos y fuentes, fuera de la localidad. Para hacer el análisis de los padrones municipales se pasó precisamente la información contenida en ellos a soporte informático para su posterior tratamiento, originando un archivo de más de 12.000 registros y en cada registro la información contenida por habitante obtenida de las hojas padronales. CONCLUSIONES Esta investigación sobre la localidad murciana de Pliego muestra que en el periodo de 1750 a 1921, existió un proceso de transición demográfica que duró hasta la consolidación de la moderna economía agraria. Parte de esta evolución coincide con el cambio institucional que liquidaría las estructuras del Antiguo Régimen dando paso al Régimen Liberal. El hecho del inmovilismo del pueblo ha potenciado que conservara su fisonomía durante finales del siglo XIX y principios del XX, sólo una tímida transformación industrial se va a dar a mediados del pasado siglo cuando se comenzaba a sustituir el tradicional cultivo de cereales, olivos y almendros, por un desbordado y exuberante interés hacia las plantaciones de frutales. La dinámica demográfica de Pliego (1750-1921) está condicionada por los avances o retrocesos de la nupcialidad, la natalidad y la mortalidad, aunque otros factores de carácter económico y social también limitaron el crecimiento de la población, en especial, la precariedad de la base económica en el que se sustentaba este crecimiento. OBJETIVES The main objective of this thesis is to know the society of the people of Pliego, in the period from 1750 to 1921. So it will be developed a series of sections that match the chapters of this research. We will know the space and the conditions in the establishment of the community, the dynamics of population growth, changing demographic facts, economic activity, social changes through local administration, and finally the social and political influence that exised in that period. Agriculture as the engine of the local economy with the typical mediterranean trilogy (cereals, vines and olive tree) has represented until the first half of this century the types of crops predominant, highlighting the cottage industry that arose to transform them as they were mills, wine cellar and oil press. Study of the family lets us know the form of reproduction of the entire social system prevailing in a town as Pliego is. The social group that existed, and as owners dominated others by the fact of possession of the land is studying. The municipal dynamics of City Council of Pliego will help us to know what were the problems that existed in the village and that lasted for several years, and the solutions that the conservatives proposed. We also know the cultural exponents of the period in the town through their tradition and medida constituency to which belonged Pliego. METHODOLOGY The working plan has begun with the consultation of the literature for the period 1750-1921, providing ideas that have helped us to establish the starting point of the different aspects of this research. You can complete a space Pliego history through the information disclosed in the municipal registers of the Historical Archives, the data stored in the Parish Archives of the church of Santiago, documentation and other files and sources outside the town. To study the municipal registers changed precisely the information contained in them into an electronic format for further processing, causing an archive of more than 12,000 records and in each record the information per the register sheets obtained. CONCLUSIONS. Focusing on the research of Pliego shows that the period from 1750 to 1921 was a process of demographic transition until the modern agricultural economy was definitely consolidated. Part of this transition coincides with the institutional changes that ended with the structures of the old régime, giving way to the Liberal regime. The fact of the immobility of the people has enhanced that it retains its appearance during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, only a timid industrial transformation is going to give the mid-twentieth century when it began to replace the traditional cultivation of cereals, olives and almonds, by an overflowing interest in the lush orchards. Population dynamics of Pliego is conditioned by the progress and setbacks of marriage, birth and fertility. Other factors limited economic and social growth of the population, especially the precarious economic base on which this growth was sustained. People of Pliego lived most of agriculture, and to a lesser extent livestock, first with low yields, very backward from the technological point of view and whose expansion could be based only on the extension of crops.

__Nederlandse Samenvatting__ De markt is bij uitstek de plek waar het individu vrij kan zijn. Dat is ook het standaardbeeld van het gedachtegoed van de Oostenrijkse School van de Economie. In zijn dissertatie 'The Viennese students of Civilization: Humility, Culture and Economics in Interwar Vienna and Beyond' betoogt Erwin Dekker dat die school, bekend van onder andere Friedrich Hayek, Joseph Schumpeter en Carl Menger, vrijheid niet ziet als het ontbreken van beperkingen, maar als een culturele verworvenheid. Individuen kunnen alleen vrij zijn, zo betogen de Oostenrijkers, doordat er gedeelde normen en instituties zijn die de vrijheid mogelijk maken. De verzameling van normen en instituties is voor hen de beschaving. Die beschaving en haar instituties zoals markten kunnen alleen floreren als ze worden ondersteund door een bredere cultuur. Die steun brokkelt echter snel af gedurende het interbellum. De Weense studenten van de beschaving analyseren die 'revolte' tegen de beschaving, gevoed door het socialisme en het fascisme. Socialisten zijn er ten onrechte van overtuigd dat de economie te plannen, en de maatschappij maakbaar is. Aan de rechterzijde wordt er juist betoogd dat het juk van de beschaving te groot is en het individu beperkt. Daartegen ontwikkelen de Oostenrijkers hun visie van vrijheid en markten als culturele verworvenheden. Die verworvenheden zijn niet natuurlijk, noch te plannen, ze zijn de min of meer onbewuste uitkomst van menselijke interactie. Die visie ontstaat binnen de rijke Weense cultuur van het interbellum, die vooral plaatsheeft in de intellectuele kringen. In die levendige gesprekscultuur worden de Weense economen uitgedaagd om een betrokken en brede analyse te ontwikkelen. Wat dat betreft staan ze ver af van de moderne economen gericht op theoretische marktmodellen die vooral in gesprek zijn met andere academici. Zo bezien kan de Weense traditie ons nog veel leren, zeker in een tijd waarin de acceptatie van veel van onze culturele instituties verre van vanzelfsprekend is. ; In this dissertation it is argued that the scholars who are usually known under the banner Austrian Economists are better understood as the Viennese students of Civilization. By understanding the group of scholars, consisting of Carl Menger, Friedrich von Wieser, Joseph Schumpeter, Ludwig von Mises, Friedrich Hayek among others, as Viennese students of Civilization we are better able to understand their unique contribution. Contrary to many economists - both then and now - the Viennese students of civilization consider the economy not as a self-regulating natural order, or a system which can be planned, but as cultural process. Just like language and law, markets emerge and develop from human interaction. When the Viennese conceive of the market as a cultural process it means for them that the market has important cultural effects and is sustained by what we could call a market culture. In this dissertation the cultural effects of the market are explored especially as they relate to restraint; the central element of civilization for the Viennese scholars. It is argued that restraint is considered the central feature of civilization by a wider group of Central European scholars including Freud, Malinowski and Elias. The Viennese students of civilization, especially Wieser, Mises and Hayek argue that they live in a particularly unrestrained age. This has fueled opposition to market and other cultural processes which are not rationally constructed. The acceptance and cultivation of the market comes at a cost they argue; this cost they call the 'strain of civilization'. That cost is primarily the restraint of our innate instincts. Civilization requires the acceptance of certain norms, of individual responsibility, the acceptance of differences and inequality. This price to be paid is termed 'the strain of civilization'. This price however is no longer accepted by social scientists who preach unrestrained rationalism. And it is no longer accepted by mass political movements such as socialism and fascism which promise they can relieve the people of this strain. Particularly during the interwar period the Viennese students of civilization feel that their civilization is in acute danger. They analyze this revolt, and their own role in this process. Initially their response is largely passive and accepting. This attitude is characteristic of a Viennese cultural trait known as 'therapeutic nihilism'. The social scientist, or rather student, can study the large cultural processes, but they are outside his or her control. Stronger yet, the Viennese students believe that many of their contemporaries are under the illusion that they could predict the course of society, and ultimately of history. This outsider-perspective, however, is seriously challenged during the Interwar period, especially during the rise of fascism. The Viennese intellectuals increasingly realize that they bear a responsibility toward their culture, and they might even possibly have some influence on its fate. This puts them in an awkward position. Their work is becoming more political and idealistic, features which they had criticized in the work of others. Especially Hayek's 'The Road to Serfdom' and Popper's 'The Open Society and its Enemies' are examples of this tension; the tension between the realization of the limited power of the scholar, and the desire to defend a civilization under pressure. In their work they apologize to their colleagues for the political nature of their work, but they feel obliged to write this work, which they consider 'their war effort'. Ultimately, although reluctantly, they engage in an attempt to draw up ideals and plans for the future. They regain some hope, in part because they no longer write for a Continental but for an Anglo-Saxon audience. It is also in this sense that Hayek and Popper are engaged in a new kind of liberalism, one that is resistant to mass political movements and the desire to throw off cultural restraints. This dissertation draws heavily on the cultural histories of fin-de-siècle and interwar Vienna. It shows similarities in the problems faced by artists, novelists, scientists and politicians in Vienna. Such similarities sometimes were sometimes incidental, but they also arose out of the interactions in the Viennese circles. In the partly overlapping circles broad intellectual conversations were stimulated and this greatly contributed to the creativity of the contributions emerging out of Vienna, especially during the interwar period. It is argued that the prominence of these circles partly accounts for the fact that the Viennese students of civilization crossed many interdisciplinary boundaries, and that their intellectual concerns were as much driven by social and political issues as it was by scientific concerns.

It is pointed out that theoretical ideas about the relationship between man and the field of biomedical research inevitably affect the coverage of aspects that are not reduced to the subjects of constitutional and legal regulation. Accordingly, it was methodologically unjustified to limit the idea of realization of somatic rights of citizens only to the analysis of the norms of constitutions. The essence of the implementation of somatic rights of citizens in the process of biomedical research as effective elements in the development of society and in accordance with one category of constitutional law determines the need to review them from the standpoint of ontology, epistemology and axiology of rights. Thus, studies of these complex relationships do not take into account that they determine approaches to their knowledge, explore the order and principles of their implementation and protection, socio-legal "existence", analyze the value of political and legal image. Certainly, in order to create a reliable modern scientific foundation for understanding the essence of somatic human rights in the process of biomedical research, it is advisable to influence historical excursions in the specialty that studies a particular legal issue, constitutional and legal foundations of individual somatic rights, , on the basis of and formulated previously existing and current legislation. This will exclude certain trends in the development of both legal doctrine and rule-making activities, the results of which are a thorough improvement of current legislation of Ukraine, including codified content, solve certain problems while opening ways to solve them in different historical periods to avoid in the future. negative and borrow positive experiences. The authors argue, based on the analysis of theorists of state and rights, constitutionalists, natives who are involved in the study of somatic human rights, religious scholars who can achieve the result that the historiography of somatic human rights in biomedical research in the broad scientific field of knowledge development of constitutional and legal science and its regularities; in the narrow sense, it is a set of works on various problems of the history of modern constitutionalism, human rights, the influence of religion on human rights and the mechanism of their implementation and protection in a certain historical period. At the same time, the aim of the work is to study the constitutional and legal principles and the influence of various factors on the mechanism of realization of somatic rights in the process of biomedical research. The methodological basis of the study was the worldview dialectical, general scientific and specific scientific methods of cognition of the phenomena of state and legal reality. Thus, in particular, formal-logical methods of analysis and synthesis allowed to reveal the content of the concepts that make up the subject of research, to classify them, as well as to formulate intermediate and general conclusions. The systematic method allowed to study the role and significance of somatic human rights among other human and civil rights and freedoms. Using the historical method, the doctrinal basis of the study was analyzed, and the main stages of the formation of biomedical research with human participation were identified. The structural-functional method allowed to clarify the internal structure of the mechanism of constitutional and legal support of somatic rights and freedoms of man and citizen in the process of biomedical research, as well as to determine the functional purpose of each element of this mechanism. The content of legal regulations governing social relations, within which the organization and functioning of the mechanism of protection of somatic human rights in the process of biomedical research, was revealed using a special legal method of cognition. The comparative method made it possible to identify similar features and differences in the constitutional and legal regulation of the mechanism of protection of somatic human rights in the process of conducting biomedical research. ; Вказується, теоретичні уявлення про відносини людини та сфери біомедичних досліджень неминуче будуть охоплювати аспекти, які не зводяться до предмета конституційно-правового регулювання. Відповідно методологічно невиправданим було б обмежувати уявлення про реалізацію соматичних прав громадян лише аналізом норм конституції. Сутність реалізації соматичних прав громадян у процесі біомедичних досліджень як важливого елемента в розвитку кожного суспільства та відповідно однієї з категорій конституційного права визначає необхідність розгляду їх з позицій онтології, гносеології та аксіології права. Таким чином, дослідження цих досить складних відносин неминуче передбачає визначення підходів до їхнього пізнання, дослідження порядку та принципів їх реалізації та захисту, соціально-правового «буття», аналіз тих цінностей, які набувають політико-правове вираження. Визначено, задля створення надійного сучасного наукового фундаменту розуміння сутності соматичних прав людини у процесі біомедичних досліджень доцільним вбачається історичний екскурс у специфіку дослідження того чи іншого правового питання конституційно-правових засад закріплення окремих соматичних права, виділення певних пріоритетів дослідження, формулювання доктринальних положень, на підставі яких і формувалося раніше діюче та чинне законодавство. Це дозволить виділити певні тенденції розвитку як правової доктрини, так і нормотворчої діяльності, результатом якої є докорінне вдосконалення чинного законодавства України, у тому числі й кодифікованого змісту, окреслити певні проблемні питання із одночасним з'ясуванням шляхів їх вирішення у різні історичні періоди із тим, щоб уникнути в майбутньому негативного та запозичити позитивний досвід. Автори стверджують, на основі аналізу праць теоретиків держави та права, конституціоналістів, вчених, що безпосереднто займаються вивченням соматичних прав людини, вчених-релігійних діячів можна зробити висновок про те, що історіографія соматичних прав людини в процесі біомедичних досліджень в широкому розумінні – це сфера наукових знань, яка вивчає розвиток конституційно-правової науки та її закономірності; у вузькому – це сукупність напрацювань із різних проблем історії сучасного конституціоналізму, прав людини, впливу релігії на права людини та механізм їх реалізації та захисту у певний історичний період. У міру ускладнення суспільних взаємовідносин, питання біомедичних досліджень нерідко стали розглядатися як складова частина медичного права –нової галузі, що поетапно формується в сучасній Україні. У зв'язку з цим автором були вивчені питання побудови системи права, а також проблеми комплексного правового регулювання проведення біомедичних досліджень, які отримали висвітлення в працях А. Билиці, С. Болдіжар, С. Булеци, П. Вітте, Н. Кашканової, О. Кашинцевої, С. Козодаєва, А. Концовенко, А. Куліша, Ю. Кундієва, М. Менджул, С. Пустовіт, І. Сенюти, Ю. Турянського, Е. Труханової та ін. При цьому, метою роботи є вивчення конституційно-правових засад та впливу різних факторів на механізм реалізації соматичних прав в процесі біомедичних досліджень. Методологічну основу дослідження склали світоглядний діалектичний, загальнонаукові та конкретно-наукові методи пізнання явищ державно-правової дійсності. Так, зокрема, формально-логічні методи аналізу та синтезу дозволили розкрити зміст понять, які складають предмет дослідження, провести їх класифікацію, а також сформулювати проміжні та загальні висновки. Системний метод дозволив дослідити роль та значення соматичних прав людини серед інших прав і свобод людини і громадянина. За допомогою історичного методу було проаналізовано доктринальну базу дослідження, а також визначено основні етапи формування біомедичнх досліджень за участю людини. Структурно-функціональний метод дозволив з'ясувати внутрішню будову механізму конституційно-правового забезпечення соматичних прав і свобод людини і громадянина в процесі проведення біомедичних досліджень, а також визначити функціональне призначення кожного з елементів цього механізму. Зміст нормативно-правових приписів, що регулюють суспільні відносини, в межах яких здійснюється організація та функціонування механізму захисту соматичних прав людини в процесі проведення біомедичних досліджень, був розкритий за допомогою спеціально-юридичного методу пізнання. Компаративістський метод дозволив визначити схожі риси та відмінності у конституційно-правовому регулюванні механізму захисту соматичних прав людини в процесі проведення біомедичних досліджень.

The oxygen evolution reaction during the photosynthesis process performed in plants, algae and cyanobacteria is possibly one of the most important reactions on the planet that sustain most life on our planet. Understanding the structure and function of the "engine of life", the oxygen-evolving complex (OEC) in the active site of Photosystem II (PSII), has been one of the great and persistent challenges of modern science. Over the past decades, immense progress has been achieved in understanding the structure and mechanism of photosynthetic reactions. This progress is in large part due to the refinement of preparative protocols, X-Ray Diffractometry (XRD), site-directed mutagenesis, Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR) spectroscopy, the coming of age of X-ray Free Electron Laser (XFEL) diffractometry and computational approaches in the investigation of PS II. Nevertheless, key mechanistic and electronic details of water oxidation still remain highly contentious. Elucidation of these details is complicated by the fact that the active site of PSII exists in four natural metastable oxidation states, as well as putative unnatural forms that are plausibly induced during experimental investigation. The leading motivation of the scientific community studying PSII is ultimately the development of new catalysts and even bio-inspired solar cells, that will produce clean and sustainable energy for the world. Over the last hundred years, approximately 80% of worldwide energy consumption has been based on fossil fuels, including coal, oil, and natural gas. However, humankind now has to face the consequences arising from this dependence on fossil fuels. Worldwide energy consumption is expected to increase by over 50% by the mid-2000s (see Fig. 0.1). Because fossil fuels are finite and regional around the world, it is greatly challenging to ensure that this demand can be met, in the face of possible political tensions and other potential problems with energy supplies. Due to the usage of fossil fuels, large quantities of emissions, e.g., CO2, SO2, and oxide particles, are the predominant reasons for global warming and severe pollution. Recent reports from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change emphasized the necessity of decreasing CO2 emissions on a global scale to the zero level before the next century. These arguments make the development of sustainable and carbon-neutral energy technologies one of the most urgent challenges facing humankind all over the world. Wind, ocean currents, tides, and waves are all potential sources of energy, but by far the most abundant renewable energy source on the planet is solar energy: solar illumination on Earth every hour is greater than the worldwide energy consumption for a whole year [35]. Therefore, the conversion and utilization of solar energy is a promising solution for energy problems. An intriguing potential solution to the expected shortfall in energy supplies is artificial photosynthesis [108], whereby light energy can be stored in chemical bonds and, hence, be made available as fuels [18, 200, 19, 364]. Synthetic molecular and heterogeneous manganese analogues still struggle to mimic the function and performance of the OEC. This is partly because these distinctive features are not intrinsic to the Mn4CaO5 core of the OEC but depend on its environment and result from elaborate gating and regulation mechanisms for coordinating the coupling of proton-electron transfer and the access, delivery, binding, positioning, activation, and coupling of substrate waters to form dioxygen. The high level of geometric and electronic control, both spatial and temporal, extends along the whole catalytic cycle and involves simultaneously the Mn4CaO5 cluster, its first coordination sphere, and the protein matrix that controls the flow of electrons, protons, substrates, and products. From the side of theoretical methods great progresses have been made in recent years. Due to the success of the density functional theory (DFT), not only in the field of solid state physics, but also on liquids and molecular compounds, it is possible to obtain the electronic structure of few hundreds atoms with an acceptable computational effort. Using the information provided by the experiments as starting point, it is possible to employ DFT to refine the geometries in relationship with the electron ground-state or different electronic states, to calculate the electron and spin density for a given system and to estimate spectroscopic properties. The coupling of DFT with molecular dynamics also allows us to perform ab-initio molecular dynamics of large systems at finite temperature to fully consider entropic contributions and low-energy conformational changes. Computational techniques can also provide considerable support in the analysis and interpretation of the complex IR spectra of such biological systems. In this thesis, the molecular and electronic structures of the multinuclear manganese containing bioinorganic system together with oxygen-evolving complex of PS II are investigated using DFT-based methods for the theoretical modeling of vibrational spectra in the gas phase by normal mode analysis and molecular dynamics simulations. Research on biological water oxidation traverses scientific fields and concentrates the efforts of a multitude of experimental and theoretical approaches. Different methods of investigation naturally lead to distinct views on the OEC. These are often complementary but at times are contradictory, and it is not always obvious whether the contradictions already exist in the data or arise from their suggested interpretations. Nevertheless, the overarching goals are common to all experimental and theoretical studies. These are not limited to the geometric and electronic structure of the cluster in each state of the cycle but encompass the role of the protein matrix, the channels, and secondary components of the second sphere of the cluster, such as the chloride ions. Chapter I of the thesis considers in detail the progress that have been done so far in structural and spectroscopic studies of OEC and its synthetic mimics given together with the general introduction on photosynthetic reactions occurring in the leaf. Theoretical background of the computational methods used in present work is given in detail in Chapter II. In this thesis, we explored the potentialities and the reliability of different state-of-the-art computational techniques for the investigation of the structural and vibrational properties of complex macromolecular materials of biochemical importance. The use of FTIR spectroscopy to probe the structure and function of the OEC complex in PS II has a long history. The synthesis of a very close structural mimic of the catalytic center has opened up the opportunity to perform a comprehensive and parallel study of both the natural and artificial compounds and of their vibrational modes. Chapter III is dedicated to the detailed assignment of the bands in the midand low-frequencies region by static and dynamic vibrational spectra calculations of the unique biomimetic complex. The detailed parallel analysis between the Natural and Synthetic complexes also provided a comprehensive characterization of the vibrational fingerprints in such class of cubane-like Mn-based compounds and is reported in Chapter IV. In Chapter V of the thesis we discussed the electronic and structural properties of the novel Mn4O4 synthetic compound mimicking the EPR spectroscopic nature of OEC in S2 state.

This pursuit of the merchant debtor is divided into three Parts, the first two Parts deal with the enforcement of debt as a whole, with the emphasis on merchant transactions; the last Part being kept entirely to the development of the bankruptcy laws. Part One is given over to a study of the law as it stood largely prior to 1285. Chapter 1 produces a general survey of the methods of debt enforcement which bad been adopted by earlier alien societies, in order to appreciate more readily the slow manner in which English law applied itself to helping the merchant creditor. Chapter 2 deals with the emergence of the Royal Courts, and shows the pre-occupation in the first two centuries of post Conquest Law with the enforcement of Services due to a Lord,rather than with debts. Chapter 3 pays particular attention to the relationship and transactions between the King and the Jews; together with the gradual development of the Writ of Debt and its acceptance by the Royal Courts. Chapter 4 studies the means for enforcing attendance at court and the excuses which might be offered. Only a defaulting accountant is subject to bodily attachment. Even when the debtor attends, the modes of proof awarded to be performed at another day pay no attention to legal right. Chapter 5, continues, on the day appointed for proof to be made with an account of the last stage of the trial and the methods of execution at the disposal of a creditor. The recording of debts on Court Rolls, the awarding of damages and costs, the place of equity and the punishment of fraud in the early court, and the methods of debt enforcement existing in Fair and Borough Courts are all included here. Part Two records the history of debt enforcement from 1283 to l542. Chapter 6 covers the various enactments which provided special machinery for the enrolment of debts with the ready methods for enforcement of such enrolled debts, and providing imprisonment for the contumacious debtor. The Statutes Merchant, the Statute Staple, the provision for Statutory Recognizances fall within this head. The granting of the Writ of Elegit is also contained here. Chapter 7 sets out the reforms in the law which finally enable the debtor to be imprisoned on means process, providing outlawry for the missing debtor. This form of imprisonment is extended by Common Law to the judgment debtor. To safe-guard the debtor's freedom there are the provisions relating to Bail and the use of the Writs Corpus Cum Causa and Audita Querela. Chapter 8 considers the use of the fraudulent conveyance made to defeat the creditor and the manner of its adoption in relation to the use of Sanctuary. Chapter 9 surveys the many courts and varying jurisdictions of this period. Outside such jurisdictions there are the protection of the King, the Royal prerogative and the use of special privileges to be contended with. Chapter 10 shows how the petition to the King, his Council, or his Chancellor came to be used as a means of combating fraud. Chapter 11 describes the limited way in which the Legislature and the Common Law came to deal with the particular fraudulent actions of forgery, perjury and duress. Chapter 12 investigates the way in which imprisonment of the debtor is regulated. This covers the special position of the sheriff and the allowance of bail. The basic need was for the debtor to be kept safely in prison. If this was not done, then the gaoler or sheriff must pay the creditor. Chapter 13 is devoted to the position of the imprisoned debtor who must by-law live or die of his own sustenance. Gaolers extorted or extracted what they could for services; charity is the only answer to a poor debtor's survival. Chapter 14 brings this period to a close with a review of the widening mercantile horizons, the need for capital bringing with it a rebirth of usury, and the general ineffectualness of the legal machinery to deal with the increasing merchant failures. Part Three relates solely to the development of the Bankruptcy Laws. Chapter 15 shows the difficulties which were found in producing and enforcing the first bankruptcy enactment, 34. 35 Henry VIII, c.4. Chapter 16 is confined to an exposition of the way in which the courts interpreted the term 'trader' for the purposes of the bankruptcy laws. Chapter 17 discusses the various actions which, if accompanied by the intention to delay or hinder creditors, might render a debtor a bankrupt under 13 Elizabeth I, c.7. Chapter 18 completes the list of actions specifically termed 'acts of bankruptcy' up to and including the enactment of 5 George II, c.30. Chapter 19 outlines the position of the Lord Chancellor in the bankruptcy machine and the manner in which a creditor might petition for a commission to issue so that commissioners of bankrupts could be appointed. Chapter 20 follows the process from the adjudicating of the debtor a bankrupt, and takes as its subject the appointment of the assignees and their duties, and the persona who might come in under a commission as creditors in order to prove their debts. Future debts may be proved but contingent debts must stay outside. Fraud will provide a complete bar to a creditor. Chapter 21 demonstrates the wide powers given to the commissioners so that they might obtain the appearance, and make full examination of the bankrupt. Failure to comply might mean death to the bankrupt. Similar powers are given so that witnesses might be adequately exm1ned. Chapter 22 reveals the completeness of the authority given in order to strip the bankrupt of all property held by him at the time of his act of bankruptcy. There are few exceptions to this rule. Chapter 23 ends the analysis of the commission with the granting of the certificate of discharge and the rights of the various creditors to participate in the distribution of the estate after the deduction of certain allowances. The costs of the commission and thechargea of the commissioners might well render any such distribution largely illusory. Also in this chapter are included details concerning the keeping of the records of the commission and the circumstances under which a commission might be superseded. Chapter 24 illustrates the general attitude towards bankruptcy and bankrupts during this period. In a harsh, invigorating age the legislature met reality with reality and inflicted severe punishments. Although the death penalty was available to punish the fraudulent bankrupt, the provision was rarely invoked. nally comes the era of reform and the bankrupt is redeemed, to emerge a quasihonest citizen rather than a quasi-criminal.

This article involves a critical examination of XIXth century military interventions, as the basic cause of the international contagion. Challenges arising and choices made in a critical reading of the International Sanitary Conferences (ISC) proceedings, reveal case histories and early statistical techniques at use with epidemiological purposes. These episodes in the history of the diseases suggest that relevant military information was circulated among health professionals through the ISCs. Although the evolution of the epidemic process during the latter half of the XIXth century made the Conferences fail to cure the diseases that the Western medicine own expansion engendered. By discussing the ways that prophylactic measures and international interventions were used by medical scientists and diplomats alike, from the detailed records of troop mortality to such ubiquitous terms as "contagion" and "quarantine", the article seriously reflect on what happened when action taken by military forces was a mass phenomenon. As evidenced from the study of the proceedings when comparing different populations, in the pathologies associated with the mass-transport era the rationale of interaction outlined the challenges involved in the train transport of troops. Also, the existence of an environmental risk factor can answer the question on the action taken by military forces as a mass phenomenon with huge impacts on hospitals, harbors and prisons. Materials intended for these international epidemics studies and commissions were prepared by experimented military and civil medical doctors who believed that evidence and common sense proved epidemic diseases capable of being prevented, treated, and controlled by a military approach. This essay demonstrates that Army forces' capability to take control over their host governing apparatus, emphasizes the importance of their aim to follow and accompany the control of the disease in the imperialist competition for land. It grows out of its specific historical context, which due to its origin could become uniform and international, but constituted the principal obstacle on the road to an international health office. ; Ця стаття присвячена критичному аналізу військових втручань XIX століття, як основної причини розповсюдження інфекцій на міжнародному рівні. Виникаючі проблеми та рішення, одержані в результаті критичного аналізу матеріалів Міжнародних санітарних конференцій (МСК), розкривають історію розвитку хвороб і методи ранньої статистики, які використовувались в епідеміологічних цілях. Ці епізоди в історії хвороб показують, що відповідна військова інформація поширювалася серед медичних працівників через МСК. Хоча еволюція епідемічного процесу в другій половині XIX століття не дозволила конференціям повністю вилікувати хвороби, але вони стимулювали розвиток західної медицини. Обговорюючи способи використання профілактичних заходів і міжнародних втручань як вченими-медиками, так і дипломатами, починаючи з докладних звітів про смертність військ і закінчуючи такими повсюдно використовуваними термінами, як «зараження» і «карантин», в статті критично аналізуються результати дій зроблених військовими силами як масове явище. Як свідчить дослідження процесу, при порівнянні різних груп населення, в патологіях, пов'язаних з епохою масових перевезень, обґрунтування взаємодії виявило проблеми, пов'язані з залізничним перевезенням військ. Крім того, наявність фактора ризику для навколишнього середовища може відповісти на питання про дії, що вживаються збройними силами, як про масове явище, яке має великий вплив на лікарні, гавані і в'язниці. Матеріали, призначені для цих міжнародних досліджень і комісій по епідеміям, були підготовлені досвідченими військовими і цивільними лікарями, які вважали, що докази і здоровий глузд виявили епідемічні захворювання, яким можна запобігти, лікувати і контролювати за підходом військових. Це есе демонструє, що армійські сили були здатні контролювати свій керуючий апарат, підкреслює важливість їх прагнення слідувати і супроводжувати боротьбу з хворобою при імперіалістичній конкуренції за землю. Цей підхід випливає зі свого специфічного історичного контексту, який в силу свого походження міг би стати єдиним і міжнародним, але був головною перешкодою на шляху до створення міжнародного бюро охорони здоров'я. ; Эта статья посвящена критическому анализу военных вмешательств XIX века, как основной причины распространения инфекций на международном уровне. Возникающие проблемы и решения, полученны в результате критического анализа материалов Международных санитарных конференций (МСК), и раскрывают истории развития болезней и методы ранней статистики использовавшихся в эпидемиологических целях. Эти эпизоды в истории болезней показывают, что соответствующая военная информация распространялась среди медицинских работников через МСК. Хотя эволюция эпидемического процесса во второй половине XIX века не позволила конференциям полностью излечить болезни, но они стимулировали развитие западной медицины. Обсуждая способы использования профилактических мер и международных вмешательств как учеными-медиками, так и дипломатами, начиная с подробных отчетов о смертности войск и заканчивая такими повсеместно используемыми терминами, как «заражение» и «карантин», в статье критически анализируются результаты действий предпринятых военными силами как массовое явление. Как свидетельствует исследование процесса, при сравнении различных групп населения, в патологиях, связанных с эпохой массовых перевозок, обоснование взаимодействия выявило проблемы, связанные с железнодорожной перевозкой войск. Кроме того, наличие фактора риска для окружающей среды может ответить на вопрос о действиях, предпринимаемых вооруженными силами, как о массовом явлении, которое оказывает огромное влияние на больницы, гавани и тюрьмы. Материалы, предназначенные для этих международных исследований и комиссий по эпидемиям, были подготовлены опытными военными и гражданскими врачами, которые полагали, что доказательства и здравый смысл выявили эпидемические заболевания, которые можно предотвратить, лечить и контролировать с подходом военных. Это эссе демонстрирует, что армейские силы были способны контролировать свой управляющий аппарат, подчеркивает важность их стремления следовать и сопровождать борьбу с болезнью при империалистической конкуренции за землю. Этот подход вытекает из своего специфического исторического контекста, который в силу своего происхождения мог бы стать единым и международным, но являлся главным препятствием на пути к созданию международного бюро здравоохранения.

[ita] L'obiettivo primario di questo lavoro è stato individuare documenti relativi alla Puglia nei registri emessi dalla cancelleria di Alfonso il Magnanimo, conservati presso l'Archivo de la Corona de Aragón. L'esistenza di documenti riguardanti l'Italia in questo archivio è gia da tempo conosciuta, eppure sono stati solo parzialmente utilizzati. D'altro canto tutti gli studiosi hanno segnalato gravi lacune nelle fonti storiche per la Puglia aragonese, in particolare in relazione al periodo di Alfonso il Magnanimo. Inoltre la Puglia era la provincia del regno di Napoli per la quale la cancelleria emise il maggior numero dei documenti dopo quelli per la Terra di Lavoro, in quanto economicamente più attiva e quindi al centro delle attenzioni del re. Tutto ciò giustifica la scelta del criterio territoriale per valorizzare una così preziosa fonte storica. In base ai documenti trovati si è stabilita la struttura della tesi: una prima parte introduce la situazione del Regno di Napoli e le circostanze che portarono alla conquista aragonese, segnalando in particolare il contenuto di documenti che rivela i primi contatti e gli accordi segreti del re aragonese con i feudatari pugliesi, principalmente il principe di Taranto e gli altri membri della famiglia Orsini-del Balzo, che poi presero attivamente parte alla guerra di conquista con alterne vicende. Questa sezione si conclude con il capitolo sui giuramenti di fedeltà e omaggio delle città pugliesi al nuovo re. La seconda parte è suddivisa in base alle diverse e nuove informazioni che si evincono dai documenti: ciascun capitolo inizia con l'introduzione dello specifico argomento e la rispettiva bibliografia fondamentale, per poi presentare il contenuto dei documenti. Si analizzano così aspetti del territorio, la situazione della regione dopo la lunga guerra, le comunicazioni; un nutrito capitolo riguarda le attività economiche, che comprendono la produzione e commercializzazione dei monopoli regi quali il sale e il grano, nonché le attività portuali e commerciali, nelle quali si inseriscono le relazioni con Venezia e Ragusa. Sono toccati anche alcuni aspetti giuridici e la riforma fiscale, ma naturalmente molto di più emerge sui feudatari e la sistemazione dei feudi e sulla famiglia Orsini. Un interessante capitolo riguarda alcuni componenti della società, come le comunità ebraiche, alle quali appartenevano mercanti e medici e che venivano angariate dalla Chiesa, e si è potuto dedurre anche qualcosa sulle donne di diverse condizioni sociali. Infine è dedicato un capitolo a ciascuna delle tre province, per analizzare più da vicino le situazioni specifiche, le città e alcuni personaggi. Si è dedicato ampio spazio alla Dogana della Mena delle pecore, che costituiva la principale fonte di ingressi per la casse regie, chiarendo questioni della sua creazione che si fa normalmente coincidere con la nomina a commissario del catalano Francesc Montlober. Per la Terra d'Otranto si sono analizzati in particolare la peculiare situazione del principato di Taranto e la figura di Giovanni Antonio del Balzo Orsini e due rari documenti di dote di donne dell'alta nobiltà, descritti nel contesto delle usanze dell'epoca. La terza parte contiene la descrizione di registri e serie, anche per facilitare ulteriori ricerche nell'archivio, la descrizione dei caratteri estrinseci e intrinseci, della struttura e delle varie tipologie di documenti. Mi sono soffermata in particolare sulla scrittura, descrivendo le diverse caratteristiche grafiche degli scrivani, e sulle lingue, il latino per le comunicazioni più formali, il catalano per quelle rivolte agli uomini del seguito di Alfonso e il volgare napoletano nelle sue varietà. I documenti trascritti sono stati scelti per rappresentare l'intero territorio della Puglia e le diverse tipologie: privilegi, lettere, istruzioni agli ambasciatori, capitoli di accordi, giuramenti, sentenze. Si sono trascritti sempre gli inserti redatti in Puglia, per lo più documenti notarili, ma anche una sentenza di un capitano e una donazione del principe di Taranto. Nella trascrizione si sono rispettate le norme stabilite dalla Commissione Internazionale di Diplomatica. È incluso un glossario e l'elenco dei documenti reperiti. ; [eng] This research aimed at provide the absence of documentary fonts from the Puglia' history in the period of Alfonso il Magnanimo. This hypothesis emerged from the documents founded at the aragonese' s chancellor's office conserved by the archive of Corona of Aragon from Barcelona (ACA). The analysis of the Aragonese's king take course with the research of Italian and Spanish documents fonts from the reports at that time to the most recently studies to search individual documents and integrate the information. So it was founded a lot of material organized in this thesis structure. The first part, rebuild events e diplomatic links from the aragonese's conquest since the first intervention of Alfonso from Aragona in Italy, carrying out ignored facts about the role of feudatories , cities and economic sources from Puglia. The second part, divided on the base of territorial, politics, economic and social aspects, described the documentaries content, comparing with the knowledge emerged from bibliography, dedicating special chapters to each one of the three provinces in which Puglia was divided. The third part brings out a description of registers and documents, of their extrinsic and intrinsic character with particular attention at the writings and the languages. In the appendix were reported hundred documents , with a transcription based on the international normative for edition and chosen for cover as full as possible different aspects of the whole region, and the totally list of the documents about Puglia founded at ACA. Understanding by this way to bring the scientific community a critical analyzed material and heuristic instruments to trace easily documents and information.

Antecedentes: Actualmente las Instituciones de Educación Superior deben actuar con flexibilidad frente a los constantes cambios en los procesos de formación que a su vez se relacionan con la demanda de dar respuesta a las necesidades y problemáticas de la sociedad. Ante esta situación una perspectiva de gran interés para las Universidades, las empresas y los profesionales es el reconocimiento y posicionamiento del egresado. Como estrategia ante la problemática se identifica entre otras alternativas abordar el recurso humano que interviene en el proceso de formación del futuro egresado. Objetivo: Desde esta perspectiva se investigó la percepción que tienen educandos, educadores y egresados respecto a la denominación del programa Ingeniería Pecuaria antes denominada Ingeniería de Producción Animal de la Universidad Francisco de Paula Santander en San José de Cúcuta (Norte de Santander – Colombia). Metodología: Se construyó una historia oral colectiva, enriquecida por un análisis documental. Resultados: Se identificó que Ingeniería Pecuaria surge como una reestructuración de Ingeniería de Producción Animal. Estos dos programas son avalados por el Ministerio de Educación Nacional y el Consejo Profesional Nacional de Ingeniería. A su vez los participantes lo consideran como un programa innovador que busca posicionarse en el sector agropecuario. Además se estableció que el Ingeniero Pecuario y el Ingeniero de Producción Animal al igual que los Zootecnistas son profesionales enfocados a la producción pecuaria. Finalmente se identificó que ninguno de los dos títulos tiene completa aceptación por las entidades generadoras de empleo. Conclusión: Se requiere evidenciar el factor diferenciador del Ingeniero Pecuario con el Zootecnista. Es necesario fortalecer el reconocimiento del Ingeniero de Producción Animal y el Ingeniero Pecuario, situación que amerita analizar las alternativas de conservar la actual titulación, modificarla a ingeniero zootecnista u ofertar el programa como zootecnia.Palabras clave: Educandos, Educadores, Egresados, Ingeniería de Producción Animal, Ingeniería Pecuaria, Percepción, Zootecnia.AbstractBackground: Currently the institutions of higher education must act with flexibility front to the constants changes in formation processes which in turn are related to the demand of give answer to the needs and problematic of society. In this situation a perspective of great interest to the universities, the companies and professionals is the recognition and positioning of the graduated. As strategy to the problematic is identified among other alternatives address the human resource that intervenes in formation process of the future graduated. Objective: From this perspective was investigated the perception that have students, professors and graduates about the tittle of the Pecuary engineering program was investigated. At the beginning, it was named "Animal Production Engineering" from the Francisco de Paula Santander University in San José de Cucuta City (North of Santander - Colombia). Methods: A collective and oral history, enriched by a documentary analysis was made. Results: Was identified that Pecuary Engineering arises as a restructuration Engineering Animal Production. These two programs are supported by the Ministry of National Education and the Council National Professional of engineering. At the same time the participants considers as an innovative program that seeks position itself in the Agropecuary sector. Also was established that the Pecuary Engineer and the Engineer Animal Production just like the Zootechnicians are professionals focused on the Animal Production. Finally was identified that neither of the two titles have complete acceptance for the generating entities of employment. Conclusions: Is show required the differentiator factor with the Zootechnician. Also is relevant manage strategies aimed to strengthening the recognition of engineer of Animal Production and the Pecuary engineer, situation that merits analyze the alternatives of conserve the titling current, modify it to Zootechnician engineer or finally to bid the program as Zootechny.Keyworks: Learners, Educators, Graduates, Animal Production Engineering, Pecuary Engineering, Perception, Zootechny. Resumo Antecedentes: Atualmente as Instituições de Educação Superior devem atuar com flexibilidade frente às constantes mudanças nos processos de formação, que a sua vez relacionam-se com a demanda de respostas às necessidades e problemáticas da sociedade. Nesta situação uma perspectiva de grande interesse para as Universidades, as empresas e os professionais é o reconhecimento e posicionamento do graduado. Como estratégia nesta problemática se identificam entre outras alternativas, a abordagem do recurso humano que intervém no processo de formação do futuro graduado. Objetivo: Desde esta perspectiva se pesquisou a percepção que tem educandos, educadores e graduados respeito à denominação do programa Engenharia Pecuária antes denominada Engenharia de Produção Animal da Universidad Francisco de Paula Santander em San José de Cúcuta (Norte de Santander – Colômbia). Metodologia: Se construiu uma historia oral coletiva, beneficiada por uma análise documental. Resultados: Se identificou que Engenharia Pecuária surge como uma reestruturação de Engenharia de Produção Animal. Estes dois programas são acreditados pelo Ministério de Educação Nacional e o Conselho Professional Nacional de Engenharia. A sua vez os participantes o consideram como um programa inovador que pretende posicionar-se no sector agropecuário. Além disso, se estabeleceu que o Engenheiro Pecuário e o Engenheiro de Produção Animal ao igual que os Zootecnistas são professionais focalizados à produção pecuária. Finalmente, se identificou que nenhuma das duas titulações tem completa aceitação pelas entidades geradoras de emprego. Conclusão: Se requer evidenciar o fator diferenciador do Engenheiro Pecuário com o Zootecnista. É necessário fortalecer o reconhecimento do Engenheiro de Produção Animal e do Engenheiro Pecuário, situação que deve analisar as alternativas de conservar a atual titulação ou modificá-la para Engenheiro Zootecnista ou ofertar o programa de Zootecnia.Palavras-chave: alunos, educadores, graduados, Engenharia Pecuária, Engenharia de Produção Animal, percepção, Zootecnia.

The article offers a historiographical consideration of the description of the Khotyn battle 1621with an emphasis on the historical value of M. Kostin's "Chronicle of the Land of Moldova" in the coverage of theevent. The relevance of the study is dictated by the 400th anniversary of the battle. The purpose of the study is to clarify the historical significance of thechronicle in revealing the theme of the Battle of Khotyn in 1621. Methodology describes the work of M. Kostin, its source base, comparison with other historical sources, review of its use. Conclusions. "Chronicle of the Land of Moldova" by Myron Kostin, being the only source for studying the history of Moldova in the early and mid seventeenth century. at the same time it is a true description of the events of the Khotyn War (1620–1621). Although the chronicler is not a contemporary of the events, his account of the Battle of Khotyn is based on serious Polish sources of the relevant era, oral information from contemporaries of the fighting, the traditions of the princely family of Movileshty, and so on. The work is positively characterized by a deep and detailed description of events, impartiality, clear analysis of military operations of a participant in many battles, education of the author and his broad outlook, which allowed him to understand the causal links of actions, actions of the parties, unconditional literary talent M. Kostin. His disregard for the events of the Khotyn War of 1621 by a number of Ukrainian historians shows a reluctance to consider the event comprehensively, using all sources. Moreover, we see a focus on showing only one fragment of this historical event, the participation of the Ukrainian side in it. The language barrier to the use of the Chronicle is no more a problem than a political motive. ; L'article propose une revue historiographique de la description de la guerre de Khotyn de 1621 en mettant l'accent surla valeur historique de la «Chronique de la terre moldave» de M. Kostin à la lumière des événements. Pertinencenla recherche est dictée par le 400e anniversaire de la bataille. Le but de l'étude est de déterminer le poids historique de la chronique pour la divulgation de la bataille de Khotyn de 1621 par ceux-ci.Méthodologie : analyse de l'œuvre de M. Kostin, ses sources, comparaison avec d'autres sources historiques, un aperçu de son utilisation. Conclusion. «Chronique de la terre moldave» de Miron Kostin, étant la seule source pour étudier l'histoire de la Moldavie au début et au milieu du XVIIe siècle. est en même temps une description fiable des événements de la guerre de Khotyn (1620-1621). Bien que le chroniqueur ne soit pas un contemporain des événements, sonl'histoire de la bataille de Khotyn est basée sur des sources polonaises sérieuses de l'époque correspondante, des informations orales de participants à la guerre, les traditions de la famille princière Movila, etc. Caractérise positivement le travail de profondeur et de détail description des événements, objectivité, une analyse claire des opérations militaires d'un participant à de nombreuses batailles, l'éducation de l'auteur et de son large perspective, qui lui permet de comprendre la relation causale des actions des parties, une inconditionnelle littéraire Le talent de M. Kostin. Son ignorance dans la divulgation du thème de la guerre de Khotyn de 1621 par un certain nombre d'historiens ukrainiens montre une réticence à considérer l'événement de manière exhaustive en utilisant toutes les sources. Il y a de fortes chances que nous voyions concentration à ne montrer qu'un fragment de cet événement historique, la participation de la partie ukrainienne à celui-ci. La barrière de la langue à l'utilisation de la Chronique n'est pas un problème plus important que le motif politique. ; В статье предлагается историографический обзор описания Хотинской войны 1621 г. с акцентом на исторической ценности "Летописи Земли Молдовской" М. Костина в ракурсе освещении событий. Актуальность исследования диктуется 400-летним юбилеем битвы. Целью исследования является определение исторического веса летописи для раскрытия теми Хотинской битвы 1621 г. Методология: анализ произведения М. Костина, его источников, сравнение с другими историческими источниками, обзор его использования. Выводы. "Летопись Земли Молдовской" Мирона Костина, будучи единственным источником для изучения истории Молдовы начала и середины ХVII в. одновременно является достоверным описанием событий Хотинской войны (1620–1621 гг.). Хотя летописец не современник событий, однако его рассказ о Хотинской битве основывается на серьезных польских источниках соответствующей эпохи, устной информации от участников войны, традициях княжеской семьи Мовилэ и др. Позитивно характеризует произведение глубокое и детальное описание событий, объективность, четкий анализ военных операций участника многих битв, образованность автора и его широкий кругозор, что позволяет ему понимать причинно-следственную связь поступков сторон, безусловный литературный талант М. Костина. Ее игнорирование в раскрытие темы Хотинской войны 1621 г. целым рядом украинских историков показывает нежелание рассмотреть событие комплексно с использованием всех источников. Скорее всего, мы видим концентрацию на показе только одного фрагмента этого исторического события, участия в нем украинской стороны. Языковый барьер для использования "Летописи" не является большей проблемой, чем политический мотив. ; У статті пропонується історіографічний огляд опису Хотинської війни 1621 року з акцентом на історичні цінності "Літопису Землі Молдовської" М. Костіна в ракурсі висвітленні подій. Актуальність дослідження диктується 400-річним ювілеєм битви. Метою дослідження є визначення історичної ваги літопису для розкриття теми Хотинської битви 1621 р. Методологія: аналіз твору М. Костіна, його джерел, порівняння з іншими історичними джерелами, огляд його використання. Висновки. "Літопис Землі Молдовської" Мирона Костіна, будучи єдиним джерелом для вивчення історії Молдови початку і середини ХVII ст. одночасно є достовірним описом подій Хотинської війни (1620-1621 рр.). Хоча літописець сучасник подій, проте його розповідь про Хотинську битву грунтується на серйозних польських джерелах відповідної епохи, усної інформації від учасників війни, традиціях княжої сім'ї Мовіле і ін. Позитивно характеризує твір глибокий і детальний опис подій, об'єктивність, чіткий аналіз військових операцій учасника багатьох битв, освіченість автора і йогоширокий світогляд, що дозволяє йому розуміти причинно-наслідковий зв'язок вчинків сторін, безумовний літературний талант М. Костіна. Її ігнорування в розкритті теми Хотинської війни 1621 р. цілою низкою українських істориківпоказує небажання розглянути подію комплексно з використанням усіх джерел. Швидше за все, ми бачимо концентрацію на показі тільки одного фрагмента цієї історичної події, участі в ньому української сторони. Мовний бар'єр для використання "Літопису" не є більшою проблемою, ніж політичний мотив.