Suchergebnisse

According to the Urban Renewal Authority (URA) preservation project launched in 2009, the vibrant Flower Market in Mong Kok, a long-time industry production, wholesale and retail hub, is going to be remade into a heritage consumption area. The economic network of an entire industry is drastically re-commodified into consumable heritage space, with disregard to the socio-economic necessity of the Flower Market as a place for quotidian culture and economy, and flower cultivation as a significant part of agriculture in Hong Kong. Although the preservation project launched by the URA is still in land acquisition process by the time this dissertation is completed, gentrification around the Flower Market has already started. Business environment in the market is increasingly difficult because of this kind of urban renewal in the name of cultural preservation, without real regard for quotidian tradition, culture and way of life. Government policy and previous scholarship have paid little attention to the needs and contributions of producers and sellers in the flower industry in understanding the Mong Kok Flower Market heritage preservation project, which this research aims to rectify. This dissertation studies the history, operation and transformation of the Mong Kok Flower Market and flower cultivation in Hong Kong. Through investigating the power dynamics between ordinary people, local elites and the government in the process, this research discovers a kind of subjugated knowledge, purposely neglected, but is in fact of great importance to the understanding of how coloniality (colonial mentality) is embedded in the daily operations of power in colonial and postcolonial Hong Kong. This implies that the official end of colonialism does not automatically allow for the end of coloniality, which this research discovers to be still evidently embedded in Hong Kong's "governmentality." In fact, coloniality can be glimpsed through discovering its embedded operations in the daily operations and transformations of the Mong Kok Flower Market and flower cultivation in Hong Kong. My thesis engages in a process of decolonisation, which aims to explore embedded coloniality as a method of disclosing unarticulated and unconscious values and mentalities hidden in institutional practices that have been used to govern Hong Kong. The government has implanted this mentality in a process in which social injustice becomes institutionalised into well-accepted values in daily practice, and in this way, coloniality becomes normalised and legitimised. The government had deployed unjust social relations into executive protocols, bureaucratic procedures and laws governing the government and semi-governmental bodies affecting everyday life. The theoretical framework of this study is principally drawn from Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak and Ranajit Guha's subaltern studies theories, which articulate the nature of subaltern people and their power dynamics vis-?-vis the elite. This study is structured through an examination of three aspects related to the flower industry: the first emphasises the dissipation of flower cultivation in the New Territories in relation to the collaboration between the government and the rural elites; the second highlights law enforcement patrols in the flower market wherein the government uses street management tactics rather than responding to the industry's requests for a permanent wholesale market; and the third examines the heritage preservation of several buildings in the market and a revitalisation project in the vicinity as a way of beautifying the area, yet in these projects the government failed to engage the people in the industry in a democratic process of decision-making to determine the future of the market. My research explores three key issues relating to subaltern studies: (1) how coloniality is negotiated, articulated, forced and infused into the flower industry; (2) the impact of coloniality imposed on the flower industry through analysing its historic and cultural context; and (3) to what extent does the government use public policies (i.e. land policy, hawker control policy, heritage preservation policy) to facilitate the economic progress of the city. This study adopts a qualitative approach, using multiple methods such as textual analysis, ethnography including participant observation in the flower market, and semi-structured in-depth interviews with workers in the flower industry, including farmers, wholesalers, retailers and floral designers, etc. I performed participant observation through working as an assistant in a retail flower shop before Valentine's Day which allowed me to gain first-hand information about flower shop operation and the customers' perception of flowers. Through these approaches and methods my thesis explores the flower culture of Hong Kong and the power dynamics between the government, elites and ordinary people. The findings of the thesis reveal that the government often adopted negotiation as a means of governance. For instance, the government used various methods to incorporate local resistance as a way to facilitate development, but at the same time, ignored the needs of the flower industry, such as the need (1) to relax land administration rules which would have allowed larger pieces of land for flower cultivation, (2) to offer an appropriate site for a permanent flower market, and (3) to widen the pavement to solve the problem of street obstruction. Instead, the government managed people's request for a permanent flower market. Law enforcement officers were employed to control the street and limit illegitimate use. I found that a hegemonic decision-making process prevailed, and the government tended to value professional advice but refused to seriously consider the voice of the people. These findings reveal the unwritten power dynamics between the government, elites and ordinary people and add variations to subaltern studies which merely focus on the agency of subalterns. This research is one of the first few local attempts to study the flower industry through its historical and cultural formation. By exploring the point of view of subaltern people vis-?-vis the power dynamics between the government and local elites in executive protocols, bureaucratic practices and laws, this research aims to adopt subaltern studies in understanding quotidian culture, and to make a significant contribution to postcolonial studies and urban studies. ; published_or_final_version ; Comparative Literature ; Master ; Master of Philosophy

Wage inequality decreased significantly in the Russian Federation over the 2000s. The economic expansion experienced throughout the decade led to an improvement in social indicators, with a large reduction in poverty rates and an increase in higher education. In this context, wage inequality showed a sharp decline, with the Gini index on labor income decreasing by 18 percent between 2002 and 2012. Using data from the Russian Longitudinal Monitoring Survey, this paper documents the reduction in wage inequality and explores potential factors behind the trend. The analysis uses a decomposition technique proposed by Fortin, Lemieux, and Firpo (2011) to disentangle the main drivers behind changes in the wage distribution. The results suggest that wage structure effects are more important than composition effects for explaining changes in wage inequality. Institutional factors, such as minimum wage policies and changes in the returns to employment in different sectors and types of firms as well as the reduction of the skill premium, emerge as the most relevant factors for explaining changes in the wage structure.

There is consensus in the international community that water and sanitation are basic human rights, prerequisites for the enjoyment of the remaining rights. For this reason, international human rights law imposes on States obligations of protection, promotion and guarantee, also applicable to the defense of human rights to water and sanitation. However, the current reality is worrying, while in the Americas, high rates of disease have been documented, along with the incorporation of mining projects in protected reserve ecosystems, which transform habitat and negatively affect resources hydric. This, without delving into the people who die due to the absence of drinking water and sanitation. At the same time, the panorama is more complex when the study is carried out from an ethnic perspective, since Afro-descendant, indigenous and tribal people suffer afflictions of this type in the region in a marked way and they are especially vulnerable due to the different way in which inhabit and appropriate their territory. In general, their ancestral rituals, among other cultural values, have been affected extractive economy that is woven throughout the region. This aspects have a notable influence on the eradication of the poverty and of certain diseases, especially when Afro-descendant, indigenous and tribal people occupy an important and representative place, among people living in poverty and extreme poverty. This is an approximate panorama, it being necessary to contextualize this reference in relation to the American continent, to finally understand the pending challenges. To explain the above, a socio-legal study will be presented, based on the documentary method, but with an ethnic focus. This will be supported, among other things, in reports emanating from the universal and inter-American system for the protection of human rights, in order to understand the needs and requirements in this matter, resorting to the special rapporteurs at the United Nations Organization - UN, among them, the Special Rapporteur on the Human Rights to Safe Drinking Water and Sanitation; Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples; and the Office of the Rapporteur for the Rights of People of African Descent and against Racial Discrimination, this within the framework of the Organization of American States - OAS. Reports that are essential for the study, while reaffirming, on the one hand, the importance of safe and universal access to water for all, and on the other, the implications of affirmative actions, based on the principle of equality and non-discrimination, in parallel, in vulnerable populations. In this regard, this document studies the commitments related to human rights in the international field, in light of the standards within the framework of the universal and regional human rights system, using the international corpus iuris issued by the UN and OAS, on the right to water and sanitation. The main objective of the article is not only to make visible the challenges in the Americas for ethnic groups from the international standards of protection of human rights, in relation to water and sanitation as basic rights, but also, from an ethnic/ancestral differential approach to claim the particularities demanded by indigenous, Afro-descendant and tribal populations, as traditionally excluded and stigmatized groups. The ethnic focus is important since ethnicity as a category of analysis allows identifying distinctive features referring not only to African heritage, but also to a culture of its own with particular needs, such as the recognition of ethnic/ancestral territories and their linguistic-cultural identity. Specifically, the text studies the various conceptual and legal responses related to the problem of water and sanitation in the American continent, including international and social approaches, from different points of view, that is, the guidelines of organs, organizations, and agencies international, together with the perspective of social movements. Regarding the human right to water, the article proposes that it should be treated as a social and cultural good, and not fundamentally as an economic good. As an essential element, the human right to water is approached from four perspectives as follows: (1) availability, (2) quality, and (3) accessibility, all of them aligned to (4) the principle of equality and non-discrimination, which for the study, will be addressed independently, but interconnected to the previous ones. Regarding the human right to sanitation, it is approached from the understanding that services must be available and innocuous, acceptable, accessible and affordable. In this regard, having potable water and sanitation under equitable conditions as an essential component of the enjoyment of all human rights clearly constitutes a responsibility for all States in the region. However, in a continent like the American, characterized by having considerably large cities and very large population, with expansion and development projects that do not limit extractive industries, the situation worsens for the inhabitants of rural areas, who are usually among the poorest. Based on the above, the article is developed in five parts as follows: in the first, a contextualization of the population under study is developed. On the other hand, in a second moment the problem under study is explained, assuming as a central thesis the precariousness of the right to water and sanitation from an ethnic perspective, that is, in indigenous, Afro-descendant and tribal populations, in the panorama of Latin America and the Caribbean, despite its international recognition as a human right. In the third part, a conceptually comprehensive study is made on the human right to water and sanitation, concluding that, although they are related rights, they are independent and with their own foundations. Regarding the fourth part, it explains the international standards to understand the responsibility of the States in the Americas. Finally, the fifth part describes the findings and pending challenges in the region. In detail, the close relationship between extractivism, Afro-descendant, Indigenous and Tribal Populations in the region stands out as a conclusion placing some peoples, even in danger of extinction. This a situation that is concentrated, to a greater extent, in the rural context, rather than the urban. This makes it possible to identify, at the same time, a population nucleus more than others, where the right to drinking water and sanitation obviously does not enjoy universality. Another important and significant finding is the lack of free, prior and informed consent to the indigenous and tribal peoples in the respective governments in the region, prior to the beginning extractive projects on their ancestral land or using resources within the Afro-descendant, indigenous or tribal population's territory. On the other hand, although the situation of the States in the Americas is very heterogeneous, it is necessary that government policies at the regional level also dialogue with civil society, since these are crucial to reduce environmental degradation and pollution. ; Existe consenso en la comunidad internacional en relación a que el agua y el saneamiento son derechos humanos esenciales, prerrequisitos para el goce de los restantes derechos. Por ello, el derecho internacional de los derechos humanos impone a los estados obligaciones de protección, promoción, respeto y garantía, aplicables también a la defensa de los derechos humanos al agua y el saneamiento. Sin embargo, la realidad actual es preocupante, en tanto que, en las Américas, se han documentado índices elevados de enfermedades, junto con la incorporación de proyectos de extracción minera en ecosistemas de reserva protegida, que transforman el hábitat e inciden negativamente en los recursos hídricos. Esto, sin profundizar en las personas que fallecen por la ausencia de agua potable y saneamiento. A la par, el panorama es más complejo cuando el estudio se hace desde una perspectiva étnica, en tanto que, personas afrodescendientes, indígenas y tribales, padecen de manera acentuada afectaciones de este tipo en la región. Son personas especialmente vulnerables por la forma diferente en la que habitan y se apropian del territorio. En general, sus rituales ancestrales, entre otros valores culturales, se han visto afectados por la economía del extractivismo que se teje en toda la región. Este es un panorama aproximado, siendo necesario contextualizar este referente en lo relativo al continente americano, para entender, finalmente, los retos pendientes. Para explicar lo anterior, se presentará un estudio socio-jurídico, basado en el método documental, pero con un enfoque étnico. Este se concentra en poblaciones afrodescendientes, indígenas y tribales y está soportado, entre otras cosas, en reportes e informes emanados del sistema universal e interamericano de protección de los derechos humanos, para comprender las necesidades y exigencias en esta materia, pues preocupa que estos colectivos ocupan un lugar representativo entre las personas que viven en la pobreza y pobreza extrema. El objetivo central del artículo no solo es visibilizar los desafíos en las Américas para colectivos étnicos desde los estándares internacionales de protección de los derechos humanos, en lo relativo al agua y saneamiento como derechos básicos, sino también, desde un enfoque diferencial étnico/ancestral, reivindicar las particularidades que demandan las poblaciones indígenas, afrodescendientes y tribales, como grupos tradicionalmente excluidos y estigmatizados. El enfoque étnico es importante, en tanto que, la etnicidad como categoría de análisis permite identificar rasgos distintivos referentes no solo a la herencia africana, sino una cultura propia con necesidades particulares, como el reconocimiento de territorios étnico/ancestrales y su identidad lingüísticocultural. Puntualmente, el artículo estudia las diversas respuestas conceptuales y jurídicas, relativas a la problemática del agua y el saneamiento en el continente americano, incluidos los enfoques internacionales y sociales, desde diferentes puntos de vista, esto es, las directrices de órganos, organizaciones y organismos internacionales, junto con la perspectiva de los movimientos sociales. A partir de lo anterior, el artículo se desarrolla en cinco partes así: en la primera, se desarrolla una contextualización de la población objeto de estudio; seguidamente, se explica el planteamiento del problema, asumiendo como tesis central la precariedad del derecho al agua y saneamiento desde una perspectiva étnica. En la tercera parte, se hace un estudio conceptual del derecho humano al agua y saneamiento. En lo que respecta, a la cuarta parte, explica los estándares internacionales de protección de los derechos humanos en esta materia, para entender la responsabilidad de los estados en las Américas y, finalmente, la quinta parte describe los hallazgos y retos pendientes en la región.

RIJEČ UREDNIŠTVANa svojoj sjednici 17. srpnja 2003. godine Vlada Republike Hrvatske donijela je Nacionalnu šumarsku politiku i strategiju. S obzirom na sve očitije klimatske promjene koje traže novi odnos prema prirodi i okolišu, na manjkavosti važeće Nacinalne šumarske politike i strategije šumarstva, ali i po našoj ocjeni na neadekvatno uključivanje šumarstva u narodno gospodarstvo, je li i vrijeme za promjene u važećoj Nacionalnoj šumarskoj politici i strategiji? Imamo li uzore? Gledajući šumarske politike u relevantnim zemljama u kojima je šumarstvo značajna grana gospodarstva, razvidno je da se one ne mogu doslovno kopirati. U brošuri Šumarska politika Sabadi (1992) nakon analize Šumarske politike u Njemačkoj i Švicarskoj, navodi kako je očito "da svaka zemlja ima svoj oblik šumarske politike koji joj odgovara s obzirom na gospodarski i politički poredak, filozofiju te utjecaj pojedinaca i grupa na državnu vlast". No, nesporno je da je svaka šumarska politika integralni dio narodnog gospodarstva. Najvažnija faza u stvaranju nacionalne šumarske politike je njezino uključivanje i integracija s ostalim narodnim gospodarstvom u jednu inerakcijsku cjelinu. Isti autor kaže kako kod utvrđivanja Šumarske politike "treba prvo utvrditi ciljeve, a potom sredstva i mjere za postizanje postavljenih ciljeva. Posebnu pozornost treba posvetiti malom seljačkom šumoposjedu (oko 25 % šumske površine)" što je kod nas posebice teško, jer su šumoposjedi mali, a šumovlasnici se teško odlučuju na udruživanja putem kojih se jedino može polučiti uspjeh. Otežavajuća je okolnost da je svako ulaganje u šumu dugoročno i za ulagače premalo profitabilno, ponajprije jer šumarstvo ne sagledavaju kao integralni i vrlo utjecajni čimbenik narodnog gospodarstva. Uglavnom šuma se gleda samo kao izvor sirovine za preradu, dok se zaboravlja općekorisna uloga šuma koja traži širu podršku narodnog gospodarstva. No, ako njenu pravu vrijednost ne mogu sagledati privatni šumovlasnici i općenito poduzetnici, kojima je na prvome mjestu trenutna sirovinska vrijednost, to mora Država, posebice kada je ona, kao u našem slučaju većinski vlasnik. Opći interes treba biti ispred svih drugih interesa, a Država mora kontrolirati i privatne šumovlasnike da se ponašaju sukladno Zakonu o šumama, instrumentu Nacionalne šumarske politike i strategije, koji mora biti obvezan za sve šumovlasnike.Analizirajući da li primjenjujemo ono što je propisano u važećoj Nacionalnoj šumarskoj politici i strategiji i što bi još trebalo propisati, možemo postavljati pitanja i sami na njih odgovarati, jer bi tuđe odgovore smatrali kritikom, najčešće neopravdanom. Ponajprije: da li drvne sortimente prodajemo po tržišnim načelima; da li stvarno vjerujemo da ugovorima o isporuci sirovine pomažemo razvoju finalne prerade drva i povećanju zaposlenosti, posebice inženjera i VKV radnika, ili pak punimo privatne džepove izvoznika proizvoda primarne prerade; ako isporuku drvne sirovine ne usmjeravamo na optimalnu finalnu proizvodnju, nije li to rasipanje nacionalnog bogatstva u kojega je uložen prosječno stogodišnji trud; u isto vrijeme projekt Roswood Centra kompetencija za istočnu Europu, čitamo, daje primjere dobre prakse i inovacija koje se mogu implementirati za pametno i održivo korištenje vrijedne šumske sirovine; da li stvarno ili samo deklarativno kontroliramo sječu na privatnom šumoposjedu, posebice u šumama koje su vraćene bivšim šumovlasnicima; kojim instrumentima i koliko uspješno to radimo; osiguravamo li koristi koje bi od šumarstva trebala imati lokalna zajednica i stanovništvo ruralnih područja, što je jedno od glavnih načela Šumarske politike i strategije EU, koju načelno podržavamo; potičemo li i koliko uspješno suvremenu energetsku uporabu drvne sirovine; da li razmišljamo kako riješiti pitanje sukcesije – ruralna područja ostaju bez stanovništva, i šuma se širi čak do vrtova – nestaju pašnjaci pa i livadske površine unutar šume koje su donedavno košene za pašu i prehranu divljači; da li je istina da nam drvoprerađivači ne želeći osigurati zalihu drvne sirovine, a kada njima to pogoduje "diktiraju" izvlačenje drvnih sortimenata i kada to vremenske prilike ograničavaju (mokar teren) pa nastaju velike štete na šumskom tlu; zašto smo za sitan novac prepustili koncesionarima radnička odmarališta, posebice na moru, koja su izgrađena doprinosom radnika, kojega nisu pretočili u plaće, nego upravo u te objekte; da li smo u odnosu na druge zemlje prevelike površine uključili u Natura 2000; da li smo obavili restrukturiranje Hrvatskih šuma d.o.o. ? Sabadi kaže: "Racionalan put glede organizacije je da se svi poslovi obavljaju u šumariji, a na višoj razini samo oni poslovi koje nije moguće riješiti na šumariji ili njihovo rješenje nije racionalno. U Ministarstvu organizirati službe vrhovnog šumarskog nadzora i one za pomoć malim šumoposjednicima". Da li smo postavili sva pitanja – ne, ali čitatelje potičemo da ih i oni postave i daju odgovor na njih. Ponajprije treba odgovoriti na postavljeno pitanje u naslovu.Nadajući se da nam ova razmišljanja neće pokvariti nadolazeće blagdane, svim članovima Hrvatskoga šumarskoga društva i čitateljima Šumarskoga lista, želimo sretan Božić i uspješnu 2020. godinu.Uredništvo ; EDITORIALAt its session on July 17, 2003, the Government of the Republic of Croatia passed the National Forestry Policy and Strategy. In view of the increasingly pronounced climate change, which requires a new approach to nature and the environment, of the deficiencies of the current National Forestry Policy and Forestry Strategy, as well as, in our opinion, of the inadequate inclusion of forestry in the national economy, has the time come to introduce some changes in the valid National Forestry Policy and Strategy? Do we have any models? A review of forestry policies in relevant countries in which forestry is an important branch of economy clearly shows that they cannot be literally copied. In his brochure "Forestry Policy" Sabadi (1992) analyzed forestry policies in Germany and Switzerland and concluded that "every country has its own form of forestry policy which is in line with its economic and political system, philosophy and the influence of individuals and groups on the state government". It is, however, indisputable that every forestry policy is an integral part of the national economy. The most important stage in the creation of a national forestry policy is its inclusion into and integration with other national economies into one interactive unit. The same author goes on to say that in order to develop forestry policy, "its goals should first be determined, followed by means and measures of achieving the set goals. Particular attention should be paid to small private forest estates (about 25 % of the forested area)". This is very difficult in our country because privately owned forests are small and private forest owners are not willing to merge their estates, which is the only way in which success can be achieved. An aggravating circumstance lies in the fact that investments in forests are of long-term nature and are not sufficiently profitable for investors, chiefly because they do not perceive forestry as an integral and highly influential factor in the national economy. Forests are mainly viewed as a source of raw material for processing, while the non-market forest role, which requires a broader support by the national economy, is overlooked. If the real value of forests is not understood by private forest owners and entrepreneurs in general, whose primary goal is the current value of raw material, then it is the State which should understand it, especially when the State is the major owner as in Croatia. Collective interest should be above all other interests. The State should also make sure that private forest owners adhere to the regulations of the Forest Act, the instrument of the National Forestry Policy and Strategy which is binding for all forest owners.In our analysis of whether we apply the regulations set down in the valid National Forestry Policy and Strategy and what additional items should be incorporated, we should ask questions and answer them ourselves, since we would consider answers by other parties as mostly unjustified criticism. These questions involve the following: do we sell wood assortments according to market principles; do we really believe that with contracts on the delivery of raw material we contribute to the development of final wood processing and increased employment of engineers and qualified workers in the first place, or do we fill the pockets of private exporters of primary processing products; if raw wood material is not directed towards optimal final production, does not this mean that we squander the national wealth in which a hundred-year-long effort has been invested; at the same time we find that the Rosewood Competence Centre for Eastern Europe provides examples of good practice and innovations to be implemented into wise and sustainable use of valuable wood material; do we control felling in private forest estates in practice or only declaratively, particularly in forests which have been returned to their original owners; which instruments do we use and how successfully to accomplish this; do we ensure benefits which forestry should provide for the local community and the population of rural areas, which is one of the main principles of the EU Forestry Policy and Strategy, which we support in principle; do we stimulate and to what extent modern energy use of wood material; do we think about how to solve the question of succession - rural areas are increasingly being abandoned and forests are spreading as far as the people's gardens - pastures and grassland areas within forest, which were until recently mowed or grazed by wildlife, are disappearing; is it true that wood processors do not want to ensure stocks of wood material, and when it suits them "dictate" the extraction of wood assortments even when weather conditions are unfavourable (wet terrain), thus inflicting vast damage on forest soil; why did we allow workers' resort centres, especially those at the seaside, to be taken over by concessionaires for petty cash (these resorts were built with the money which workers allocated from their salaries for exactly this purpose); in relation to other countries, did we allocate too large areas to Natura 2000; did we restructure the company "Croatian Forests Ltd"? Sabadi says: " Rational organisation presupposes that all jobs are accomplished in a forest office, and only those jobs which cannot be performed in a forest office or their solution is not rational should be performed at a higher level. Forest monitoring services and services aimed at assisting small forest owners should be set up in the Ministry". Have we covered all the relevant questions? No, we have not, but we urge the readers to ask questions and give the answers themselves. The first question to be answered is the one mentioned in the headline.Hoping that these thoughts will not spoil the upcoming holidays, we wish Merry Christmas and a Very Successful New Year 2020 to all members of the Croatian Forestry Association and readers of the Forestry Journal.Editorial Board

Las vías terciarias juegan un papel muy importante para Colombia, ya que mediante estas vías se puede llegar a las zonas más alejadas y marginales del país, estas conexiones permiten la integración nacional, regional y local, las cuales repercuten directamente en la economía de los municipios, y aun más de los hogares rurales, ya que mediante estas vías se permite el movimiento de personas, alimentos y mercancías que ayudan al desarrollo del país. Actualmente está malla vial se encuentra bajo la gestión de INVIAS, departamentos y los municipios, donde el Gobierno a lo largo de la historia ha intentado impulsar diferentes proyectos para realizar mejoras sobre esta infraestructura; actualmente estas vías son uno de los grandes focos nacionales, teniendo en cuenta que, de los 140.000 km de vías terciarias, solo el 6% se encuentra en buen estado. Teniendo en cuenta que estas vías se encuentran en lugares de difícil acceso, y Colombia cuenta con diversos tipos de climas, pasando por bajas temperaturas hasta llegar a climas húmedos con temperaturas altas, es necesario plantear alternativas de pavimentación, donde se pueda utilizar los materiales de cada región, que sean poco sensibles al clima y que se pueda implementar equipos simples, herramientas de fácil consecución y usos de mano de obra con baja capacitación; es por esto, que dentro de esta monografía se propone implementar pavimentos de concreto denominado como losas optimizadas, los cuales en primer lugar, son menos sensibles a la capacidad de soporte del suelo teniendo en cuenta que los esfuerzos se distribuyen en áreas más grandes por lo tanto las solicitaciones que llegan al suelo son bajas. Y en segundo lugar al tener pavimentos de concreto las deformaciones de las losas son bajas, lo que permite la circulación de cargas pesadas sin que el pavimento se deforme. Las losas optimizadas, es una tecnología desarrollada por El Ingeniero Chileno, Juan Pablo Covarrubias, donde propone reemplazar las metodologías de pavimento de concreto tradicional como AASHTO y PCA, por un sistema de losas con geometría optimizada que permiten una distribución más eficiente de la carga para evitar los problemas de agrietamiento, donde el principio fundamental del método consiste en diseñar el tamaño de la losa para que no más de un set de ruedas del vehículo se encuentre en una determinada losa, minimizando así la tensión de tracción crítica; las dimensiones propuestas son de 1,80 m x 1,80m. En el siguiente trabajo se realizaron 180 modelaciones, donde se tienen 3 cartas de diseño basadas cada una en un clima diferente (8°C a15°C, 15°C a 25°C y 25°C a 32°C), dentro de cada carta se utilizaron los mismos parámetros para la estructura de pavimento como se presenta a continuación: • Subrasante: Se escogieron 5 tipos de subrasante, pasando de suelos blandos con módulos bajos a suelos de buena calidad con módulos altos (30, 40, 50, 60 y 80 MPa). • Subbase granular: Se estableció un espesor único de 15 cm, donde con los módulos de subrasante se calculó mediante la fórmula de Shell; el módulo que generaba el material de subbase (60, 80, 100, 120 y 160 MPa respectivamente). • Transito: Se adoptaron 5 diferentes tránsitos en ejes equivalentes (50.000, 100.000, 300.000, 500.000 y 700.000 EE). • Losa de concreto: Se establecieron 3 módulos de rotura del concreto (3.8, 4.1 y 4.3 MPa), y se dejaba iterando el espesor de la losa. Mediante estas modelaciones se encontraron espesores entre 10 cm y 18 cm, siendo el factor del clima el que menos afecta al cálculo del espesor, teniendo en cuenta que al tener losas de menores dimensiones el alabeo es mucho menor, lo que genera una vida útil mayor a las losas convencionales (3.5 a 4 m), por otra parte, uno de los fatores que más importancia tiene dentro del diseño, es la rigidez de la subbase y subrasante, ya que al tener espesores más delgados el material granular ayuda con las tensiones de punzonamiento, de acuerdo a la afirmación anterior, al realizar la comparación de los resultados de las modelaciones entre un material granular blando (subrasante: 30 MPa y Subbase: 60 MPa) vs un material granular de buenas características (subrasante: 80 MPa y Subbase: 160 MPa) se obtienen diferencias de aproximadamente 3 cm, lo que equivale a un 20% de diferencia. Finalmente, al realizar la comparación en presupuesto entre una losa optimizada de dimensiones de 1.8 m x 1.8 para una vía de 3.6 m de ancho, de espesor variable entre 10, 15 y 18 cm vs una placa huella, con el espesor tipo de 15 cm, utilizando los mismos costos y características, se observa un ahorro de aproximadamente $197.553.390/km, $94.383.894/km y $32.482.196/km respectivamente, siendo siempre inferior al presupuesto de una placa huella, generando que esta alternativa de pavimento se viable para la construcción de las vías de BVT. Aun cuando en el presente estudio se realizaron modelaciones con diferentes parámetros de clima, material granular, concreto y tránsito, se recomienda realizar ensayos de laboratorio para caracterizar los materiales de subrasante, analizar los materiales de la cantera de donde se obtendrá el material granular de subbase y analizar el transito atraído que puede generar la construcción de la vía. ; The tertiary roads play a very important role for Colombia, since through these roads you can reach the most remote and marginal areas of the country, these connections allow national, regional and local integration, which directly affect the economy of the municipalities , and even more of rural households, since through these routes the movement of people, food and goods that help the development of the country is allowed. Currently this road network is under the management of INVIAS, departments and municipalities, where the Government throughout history has tried to promote different projects to make improvements on this infrastructure; these roads are currently one of the great national centers, taking into account that, of the 140,000 km of tertiary roads, only 6% are in good condition. Taking into account that these roads are in places of difficult access, and Colombia has several types of climates, going through low temperatures to reach humid climates with high temperatures, it is necessary to propose paving alternatives, where you can use the materials each region, that are not very sensitive to the climate and that simple equipment, tools of easy attainment and uses of workforce with low training can be implemented; This is why, within this monograph, it is proposed to implement concrete pavements called optimized slabs, which in the first place are less sensitive to the capacity of soil support, taking into account that the efforts are distributed in larger areas so both the requests that reach the ground are low. And secondly, having concrete pavements the deformations of the slabs are low, which allows the circulation of heavy loads without the pavement deforming. The optimized slabs, is a technology developed by the Chilean Engineer, Juan Pablo Covarrubias, where he proposes to replace the traditional concrete pavement methodologies such as AASHTO and PCA, with a slab system with optimized geometry that They allow a more efficient distribution of the load to avoid cracking problems, where the fundamental principle of the method is to design the size of the slab so that no more than one set of wheels of the vehicle is in a certain slab, thus minimizing the critical tensile tension; The proposed dimensions are 1.80 m x 1.80m. In the following work 180 modeling was carried out, where 3 design cards are based each in a different climate (8 ° C to 15 ° C, 15 ° C to 25 ° C and 25 ° C to 32 ° C), within Each letter used the same parameters for the pavement structure as presented below: • Subgrade: 5 types of subgrade were chosen, moving from soft floors with low modules to good quality floors with high modules (30, 40, 50, 60 and 80 MPa). • Granular subbase: A single thickness of 15 cm was established, where with the subgrade modules it was calculated using the Shell formula; the module that generated the subbase material (60, 80, 100, 120 and 160 MPa respectively). • Transit: 5 different transits were adopted on equivalent axes (50,000, 100,000, 300,000, 500,000 and 700,000 EE). • Concrete slab: 3 concrete break modules (3.8, 4.1 and 4.3 MPa) were established, and the thickness of the slab was left iterating. Through these modeling, thicknesses between 10 cm and 18 cm were found, with the climate factor being the one that least affects the thickness calculation, taking into account that having smaller slabs the warping is much smaller, which generates a longer useful life Conventional slabs (3.5 to 4 m), on the other hand, one of the most important fators in the design, is the stiffness of the subbase and subgrade, since having thinner thicknesses the granular material helps with stresses of punching, according to the previous statement, when comparing the results of the modeling between a soft granular material (subgrade: 30 MPa and Subbase: 60 MPa) vs a granular material of good characteristics (subgrade: 80 MPa and Subbase : 160 MPa) differences of approximately 3 cm are obtained, which is equivalent to a 20% difference. Finally, when making the comparison in budget between an optimized slab of dimensions of 1.8 mx 1.8 for a track of 3.6 m wide, of varying thickness between 10, 15 and 18 cm vs a footprint plate, with the type thickness of 15 cm, using the same costs and characteristics, a saving of approximately $ 197,553,390 / km, $ 94,383,894 / km and $ 32,482,196 / km respectively is observed, always being lower than the budget of a footprint plate, generating that this alternative of pavement is viable for the construction of the BVT tracks. Although in the present study modeling with different parameters of climate, granular material, concrete and transit were performed, it is recommended to perform ; Maestría ; Magíster en Ingeniería Civil con Énfasis en Geotecnia

This study examines the changes in Vietnam's primary and secondary education over the past 20 years as well as key factors that affect such critical educational outcomes as attendance, grade attainment, and student achievement in order to derive implications for public education policy. It is divided into an analytical report and shorter overview/policy report. The study finds significant improvement in attendance, attainment, and achievement across all populations. Nonetheless, vulnerable populations (in particular the poorest and ethnic minorities) continue to fare poorly as a result of persistent, and in some cases, increasing inequalities in educational attainment and poor student achievement. Educational attainment and achievement are also shown to be complementary to a large extent. Despite the methodological limitations, evidence consistently confirms that certain characteristics of schools and teachers are significantly related to both educational outcomes. This opens the door for public policy and provides multiple (potential) policies 'entrance points' for addressing the remaining challenges. Some measures have implications for public funding, its priorities and/or efficiency, and others are more closely related to the management of public institutions. Some of the main policy implications derived from the analytical findings are re-asserting or expanding priorities for public funding through expanding support for the Fundamental School Quality Level (FSQL), and supporting full day schooling and conditional cash transfers for vulnerable groups; improving spending efficiency through better targeted fee exemptions and the strengthened application of teacher standards; and improving the management of public sector schools through higher principals' management capacity, strengthened accountability of schools to their communities and better information.

In Colombia, the beginning of a new century has brought with it a palpable feeling of optimism. Colombians will need new and better skills to apply to new challenges and prospects. The past underperformance of Colombia's education system is both a cause and an effect of a system unable to provide high quality education to all. An "education revolution" has begun and progress is being made. Basic and secondary enrolment, quality and learning outcomes are trending upward. The government's main policy goals at the tertiary level focus on the key challenges: expanding enrolment and improving equity, increasing quality and relevance, and making governance and finance more responsive. To achieve these goals, policy makers and stakeholders must find ways to reach consensus, work together and overcome inertia. Colombia has drifted away from focusing exclusively on the needs of students, the graduates they become, and the society in which they live and work. Restoring the focus on how tertiary education can serve these needs is a good organizing principle for reform. The government developed a proposed reform of Law 30 - the main statute governing tertiary education - and vigorous national debate accompanied its dissemination. Opposition to for-profit education dominated the headlines, but, in the review team's view, other aspects of the proposed reform were and are more important. The dramatic increase in tertiary enrolment witnessed during the last decade has also resulted in a more equitable distribution of access to tertiary education. The goal of enrolling 50% of the age cohort is appropriate and achievable, but it implies new challenges for access and student finance policies. The tertiary system covers the full range of the Colombian economy's needs for skilled manpower, if not necessarily to an equal extent. The government has clear and well-founded plans and aspirations for future tertiary growth and development. The Colombian government and people are well aware that they need not only more, but also better and fairer, tertiary provision - growth in coverage must be accompanied by quality, relevance and equitable access. The Colombian system of propaedeutic cycles is a good step towards allowing students to progress up through the tertiary levels. Colombian tertiary institutions have considerable autonomy, which is valuable in many ways though limiting in others.

ADB Basic 2021 Statistics covering core indicators, land, population, Sustainable Developmental Goals, national accounts, money, debt, reserves and Government Finance.

This first response to the SBP Act 2021 covers three key areas. First, it highlights some fundamental inconsistencies in the present debate around the act. Second, it maintains that the evidence contradicts the argument that in the last 10 years the SBP has already asserted itself well enough, therefore, the SBP Act 2021 is not needed. Third, the paper highlights areas of improvement in the SBP Act 2021 and suggests possible amendments, including but not limited to, i) adopting Integrated Inflation Targeting (IIT) instead of standard model of Inflation Targeting (IT), ii) keeping all appointments to only one term to avoid any moral hazard and iii) ensuring well-defined formal mechanisms of coordination between monetary and fiscal policies. Overall, SBP must be made independent of any political influences with strong transparency, accountability, and foresight mechanisms in place.

This publication assesses India's fiscal federalism framework and presents recommendations to strengthen the country's fiscal framework that include a combination of unconditional, specific purpose and performance-based transfers. A mechanism for allocating performance-based grants to Indian states is proposed based on improvements in governance index. The publication also contributes to a deeper understanding of decentralization reforms across Asian countries. It synthesizes learnings from the experiences of Australia, Indonesia, Japan, the People's Republic of China and the Republic of Korea on the design of intergovernmental fiscal transfer systems and the use of performance-based transfers for promoting subnational governance and outcomes in social sectors such as education and health.

The government budget reflects the government's spending priorities. It is deemed important to assess whether the priorities as outlined in the proposed 2020 President's Budget are consistent with the policy pronouncements of the current administration. In this light, the study examines whether budget allocation is consistent with the priorities that the government identified in its various policy pronouncements. It also evaluates the overall fiscal picture as projected in the proposed budget and its consistency with the macroeconomic assumptions. In addition, it examines the national revenue program, which together with the national expenditure program indicates the overall fiscal health in the 2020. The budget analysis indicates the high spending priority given to social services sector and economic services sector that is consistent with the policy pronouncements of the government. Nevertheless, the budget cut in the health sector needs further inquiry.

Nowadays, global economic growth has been severely affected beyond anything passed in nearly a century. The outbreak of the coronavirus disease has brought its negative impact and destructive outcome on the economies alongside with the sharp fluctuations in global energy and stock markets. There might be observed a subsequent sharp decline in the number of transactions and practical shutdown of many markets due to the large-scale quarantine and self-isolation measures. Taking into consideration the abovementioned factors, it becomes clear that there emerged a need to revise all economic forecasts for 2020-2021. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) predicted a decline of the global economic growth rate in April (-3%), but in accordance with the current circumstances, the figures were revised in June, representing a 4.9% decrease. In spite of a fact that Azerbaijan became one of the first countries among the post-soviet countries, that allocated the largest share of GDP, in order to eliminate the economic problems caused due to the pandemic, the impact of the emerged difficulties made a necessity to revise the budget.

This study uses two methods to calculate the revenue collection gap at the sub-national level. The first methods uses revenue projection available from budget documents as a proxy for revenue potential and the second method estimates the revenue potential for business tax, property tax, and house rental income tax using data from the National Population and Housing Census (2011) and the National Economic Census (2018). To the best of our knowledge this is the first study to estimate revenue potential for the sub-national level governments using these data. The revenue projection available on budget speeches and documents (used in the first method) is based on revenue collection trend of previous years and not on rigorous study of revenue potential. Thus the revenue collection gap calculated from first method does not provide true picture of sub-national revenue mobilization. To address this challenge, the study estimates revenue potential (used in the second method) for business tax, property tax, and house rental income tax and then calculates the revenue collection gap. These taxes are sole rights of local governments. For the first method there is both revenue collection gap and revenue collection surplus. Collection surplus indicates the revenue collection that is meeting the target, however for the second method there is only the revenue collection gap. Also, the revenue collection gap is higher for the second method. This indicates that the revenue projection available in the budget speeches might be lower than the actual revenue potential of tax revenue in respective sub-national governments. Figure E2 and E3 summarizes the revenue collection gap and surplus from two methods for Pokhara Municipality4 and Butwal Sub-metropolitan respectively. The revenue collection gap from house rental income tax from the second method is significant relative to other taxes with gap of NPR 2275 million and 691 million respectively.

The Philippines has been badly affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. In this light, the analysis of the 2021 President's Budget determines how the pandemic shaped the budgetary distribution of government's limited financial resources with focus on the top six departments/recipients for FY 2021. It shows the high spending priority given to social and economic services which is consistent with the policy pronouncements of the government for FY 2021. The government's greatest priority for FY 2021 is to sustain and strengthen government efforts in responding to and recovering from the pandemic. Nevertheless, the emphasis on these spending priorities in the 2021 President's Budget Message creates an expectation that DOH and DSWD will rank much higher in the top 10 departments/recipients for FY 2021. Apparently, the 2021 proposed budget gives higher spending priority on maintenance of peace and order and national defense, which placed DILG and DND in higher spots compared to DOH and DSWD. A close examination of various government documents (e.g., DBM 2020e) indicates that the proposed budget for National Task Force to End Local Communist Armed Conflict (NTF-ELCAC) is part of the government's recovery program to adapt to the post-pandemic life.

The report has eight sections. Following the introductory section, rationale for introducing a UPS in the Bangladesh context is argued in Section 2. A brief overview of international pension models and country experiences is presented in Section 3. Section 4 provides a brief synopsis of the current available pension schemes in Bangladesh. Section 5 puts forward an implementation strategy with tentative timelines based on drawing insights from global experiences and various frameworks in place in different countries. Sections 6, 7 and 8 propose the necessary legal, administrative and financing framework respectively for introducing a UPS in Bangladesh. The report ends with a set of recommendations for addressing the key challenges which are anticipated in view of introducing the proposed UPS in Bangladesh.