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Presentation of the study. Analysed issues. Relevance of the topic. The Legal regulation of gambling differs across Europe and the world. Some jurisdictions have liberal gambling regulation where operators are free to engage in the betting and gaming business, other jurisdictions enjoy a gambling monopoly. Those countries which have state gambling monopolies participate in gambling through state-owned enterprises or through private concession-based operators. The Scandinavian countries also have long standing gambling monopolies and all gambling revenues are returned back into society to finance state budgets or public projects. Having followed the consequent Nordic tradition during the interwar period, after the restoration of independence Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia (with certain exceptions) chose a completely different gaming regulatory approach. These jurisdictions chose a fairly liberal and also unique gambling regulation. The Lithuanian, Latvian and Estonian gambling regulators acknowledge that these countries can not be classified within any gambling legal regulatory system. Certain conceptual problems that are endemic in gaming legal regulation in Lithuania and Baltics were observed by the author while working as a legal practitioner. Since then, through becoming more and more involved in gambling legal regulation and through the observation of foreign law, the author began to think about what might constitute ideal gambling regulation guidelines, and began encouraging the students of Mykolas Romeris University to carry out investigations into ideal gambling legal regulation in their Master theses. In this way, the problem of the selection of the gambling regulatory regime most advantageous to the public came to be crystallised, later forming the axis of this thesis. Is there an ideal legal regulation for gambling at all and what form should this legal regulation take? These reasons led to a comparative legal study – in which the gambling regulatory features in Scandinavia and the Baltic states were compared. As the Scandinavian and Baltic states represent two major approaches to the regulation of the gaming market – a market monopoly (in Scandinavia) and a liberal, competition-based regulation (in Baltic states), the separate issue under investigation were the pros and cons of each of these regulatory approaches. It has to be noted that a gambling monopoly is not just a legal concept enabling the exclusive entity to organize and provide gambling services. The monopoly is also a socio-economic category, whose consequences to the market and the public can be measured. For this reason, the analysis in the thesis touched not only on the legal but also the socio-economic peculiarities of gambling regulation. State and society benefits were also under evaluation, as legally they have to offset an indisputably negative attribute of gambling – it's addictiveness. Thus, this dissertation assesses whether there is a legal basis to assert that the monopoly, based on Nordic gambling regulation traditions, is more proactive (or defective) than the free market based gambling regulations followed in the Baltic States, in terms of the legal, social and economic aspects of these two alternative gaming market regulation methods. The relevance of the study, in particular, is founded on the existing conceptual problems faced by the current Lithuanian legal regulation regarding games of chance. During the nine years of its gambling regulation practice, the Republic of Lithuania has been unable to develop an effective gambling regulatory model that could effectively combine public (society's and state's) and private (gambling operators') interests. The current situation is evidence of the fact that public interest in the gaming sector is not legally covered and protected. The current legislation neither foresees public protection against the harmful effects of gambling, nor regulates public self protection. There are no legal measures of protection in Lithuania that would allow for personal self exclusion from casinos and other gambling venues. The public interest of the government is not protected from the economic point of view. Gambling tax collection and distribution in Lithuania is not effective. Data from 2008 showed that Lithuania had the lowest aggregate gambling tax collection in the region. In contrast, the study showed that the gambling turnover in Lithuania was the largest among the Baltic countries. This shows that the gambling business does not face any real restrictions with regards to its operations. Lithuania lacks legal mechanisms to either regulate the working hours of gaming establishments, or their places of establishment. The dissertation tackles this problem by offering a concrete option - the establishment of a state gambling and lottery monopoly. Monopolistic state participation in the gambling business (the Scandinavian model) guarantees not only the state revenue collected in the form of taxes, it also makes it possible to claim for full gambling generated income (profit). The raising of state revenue is of perpetual relevance to every jurisdiction, especially in the presence of a global financial crisis. The financial difficulties currently met by the Baltic States add additional relevance to this dissertation. The relevance of the thesis is not only contingent on the solution offered to conceptual problems in the field of gambling and the increasing of public revenue. The thesis also evaluates the legitimacy of the monopoly. If sovereign jurisdictions are free to choose a gambling regulatory method, legal problems have occasion to arise when the particular method chosen does not correspond with international legal obligations. For example, article 43 of the Treaty on European Community regulates the freedom of establishment within the EC. Article 49 prohibits restrictions on the provision of services to another Member state of the Community. The infringement of the aforementioned articles is often addressed to states in which legal regulation of gambling is based on a state monopoly. The dissertation provides response to the question of whether gambling monopolies are legal. Due to the international nature of the topic of the dissertation, it is relevant not only in Lithuania, but also Latvia, Estonia and those other Scandinavian countries which are currently concerned with the dilemma of maintaining a monopoly or opening it. The last, but most important, elements which determine the permanent topicality of this paper are the legal aspects of gambling addiction prevention that are researched in the dissertation. In all Baltic States, the prevention of gambling addiction is not given adequate legal consideration. Scandinavian countries apply a number of different gambling addiction prevention measures. Public safety and public order are universal legal values towards which special attention must be paid during the process of forming gaming legal regulation. The paper reveals what legal stand is occupied by the Baltic States in comparison to those Scandinavian countries with monopoly based gambling regulation. The paper reveals how the legal basis of all three Baltic jurisdictions can be improved in the context of gambling addiction prevention. In this respect, the paper is also relevant. The objective and tasks of the study The dissertation is comprised of a comparative legal study, whose purpose is to compare monopolistic legal regulation and the liberal legal regulation of gambling in a specific context - Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, Finnish, as well as Estonian, Latvian and Lithuanian jurisdictions. This specific context – the Scandinavian and Baltic countries, has been chosen due to the fact that Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia share a similar history, geopolitical situation, legal system and legal regulation of gambling, even if they are not identical. Latvia and Estonia have monopolized their lottery market, but the rest of the gaming market is liberal. The Scandinavian countries, which are all representatives of state owned gambling monopoly countries, have been chosen as they are close Lithuanian, Latvian and Estonian neighbours, whilst their social protection system and social policy are perhaps the best in Europe. These are social welfare countries whose social welfare indices, according to the classification of the Nobel Prize winning economist Amarta Sen, are among the highest in the world. Therefore, the aim of the study was to reveal the effectiveness and appropriateness of gambling legal regulation in Lithuania and other Baltic states, by first comparing these countries to each other and then to Scandinavian countries which are famous for their social well-being. In order to meet the study objective the following tasks have been set: 1. To disclose the concept, nature, evolution and characteristics of the legal regulation of gambling. To disclose social costs management in the Nordic and Baltic countries. 2. To compare gaming regulatory features, including the practice of gaming regulatory institutions, liability against infringement of gambling legal regulation and gambling taxation in Nordic and Baltic countries. 3. To compare gaming safety measures applied in Nordic and Baltic countries The novelty of the study. The scientific value of the dissertation. This is the very first legal dissertation in Lithuania on gambling. The countries under investigation (Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia) are also lacking any single comparative legal study on gaming regulatory issues. This is the first scientific work to analyze the pro et contra of market competition and monopoly-based gambling regulation. Only one study, which was performed by the Comparative Law Institute of Lausanne (Switzerland) under assignment of the European Commission: \"Study of Gambling Services in the Internal Market of the European Union. Final report.\" can be held as inter-related to the cur

From Point to Pixel:A Genealogy of Digital AestheticsbyMeredith Anne HoyDoctor of Philosophy in RhetoricUniversity of California, BerkeleyProfessor Whitney Davis, Co-chairProfessor Jeffrey Skoller, Co-chairWhen we say, in response to a still or moving picture, that it has a digital "look" about it, what exactly do we mean? How can the slick, color-saturated photographs of Jeff Wall and Andreas Gursky signal digitality, while the flattened, pixelated lanscapes of video games such as Super Mario Brothers convey ostensibly the same characteristic of "being digital," but in a completely different manner? In my dissertation, From Point to Pixel: A Genealogy of Digital Aesthetics, I argue for a definition of a "digital method" that can be articulated without reference to the technicalities of contemporary hardware and software. I allow, however, the possibility that this digital method can acquire new characteristics when it is performed by computational technology. I therefore treat the artworks covered in my dissertation as sensuous artifacts that are subject to change based on the constraints and affordances of the tools used in their making. But insofar as it describes a series of technological operations, the word digital often references the tool used to make the art but does not help a viewer/user relate to the art as a sensorially apprehensible artifact. Consequently, I gather together artworks that disclose visible evidence of their digital construction in order to identify the perceptible characteristics of digitally processed artifacts. I foreground not the hidden operations of computers--the intricacies of binary code and programming languages--but rather the surface qualities of digital graphics. While acknowledging that internal processes govern the aesthetic properties of these surfaces, I investigate the extent to which it is possible to encounter digitality at the level of the interface. Taking into account that the sensuous object will be informed by an underlying conceptual and technological framework or genotype, I set out to discover whether certain phenotypic aspects of digitality will be inherently accessible at a phenomenological level. Much of the best scholarship in media studies has offered cogent analyses of the political, social, and economic formations that emerge alongside digital technologies. These readings of "networked culture" focus on the systems of power/knowledge that arise from the Web 2.0 and a globalized world economy. Although this research proves invaluable to the understanding of a culture shaped by ubiquitous computing, a well-developed methodology for interpreting the role of digital technology in art practice must also situate digital artifacts in a specifically art historical and theoretical context. When do digital artifacts overcome their dubious status as mere demonstrations of technical novelty, and become artworks worthy of serious consideration? What is the importance of digital technology as an artistic medium, and how do affordances and constraints and technical parameters of digital processing influence the sensible configurations of computationally generated artifacts?Despite its foundation in immaterial electronic pulses, digital technology produces material effects on culture and communication. The assessment of digital images is often based on their "reality quotient"--the degree to which they accurately reproduce the optical and haptic conditions of external world. The fascination in digital cultural studies with virtual reality, second life, and other such practices supports this view, and also leans dangerously towards the notion that progress in art is achieved by producing ever more sophisticated techniques for rendering illusions of spatial depth. This concentration on the immersive capacities of digital graphics runs the risk of assuming a teleological progression in art towards "accurate" spatialization and virtualization. But this is not a tenable model for art historical investigation, given that the evaluation of art objects based on culturally determined signifiers of naturalism is exclusionary of alternate visual models and historical traditions. It is therefore imperative to consider depictions that exhibit visible evidence of digital construction--digital aesthetic characteristics--independently of the virtualizing capability of computational technology. My dissertation examines a subset of digital image-making practices that suppress virtualization in order to examine the structural principles undergirding digital graphics. In parsing these often abstract, highly formalized pictorial strategies, I conclude that they convey a different aesthetic and architectonic sensibility than analog depictions. Over the course of five chapters, my argument moves between theoretical analysis and case studies of artworks produced both with and without the aid of computers. Chapter One outlines the theoretical models used to differentiate digital and analog properties, and illustrates how and why art historical discourse has accorded value to artworks based on analog principles, such as fineness of color, texture, and line. It argues that discrete, particulate digital artifacts are constructed according to different principles than analog artifacts, which are relatively smooth and continuous with no absolute division between parts. My review of the formal characteristics of digital systems sets the stage for my argument that an observable model of digital facture--a digital method--preexists electronic, binary computers and that this digital process results in a digital aesthetic. Understanding this aesthetic is useful for theorizing the genealogy of contemporary computational graphics. Additionally, it provides for alternate theorizations of artifacts that have not traditionally found a secure place in the artistic canon, and it affords a new interpretive schema with which to examine artists and artworks whose position in the art historical demands renegotiation. In my second chapter, I support the claims of the preceding chapter by evaluating the extent to which the work of several modernist painters, including Paul Cezanne, Georges Seurat, and Paul Klee, exhibits constitutive features of a digital system. I use my findings to argue that understanding these artists' roles as experimenters with a digital method adds a new dimension to the theoretical, aesthetic, and historical significance of their work. The following two chapters provide comparisons between artists who apply a digital method without electronic computation and artists whose digital aesthetic is computationally driven. Chapter 3 attempts to recuperate the value and relevance of Op-Artist Victor Vasarely. Through an inspection of his writings and his algorithmic painting practices, I trace Vasarely's lifelong goal to develop a programmable visual language, and demonstrate how, without ever touching a computer, he was attempting in his practice to adopt a visual model of a digital system. In the second half of the chapter, I introduce the example of Marius Watz's computationally-generated homage to Vasarely's work in order to ascertain whether the use of a computer alters the visible qualities of Vasarely's plastic language. In Chapter 4, I examine Casey Reas's fraught and often contradictory response to the legacy of conceptual art in programming-based practices. Through a comparison between Reas and Sol LeWitt, I maintain that Reas occupies an oscillatory position with respect to the values traditionally attached to analog aesthetics, such as immediacy and uniqueness/irreproducibility. By mobilizing algorithmically encoded instructions to automate artistic production, Reas reinforces the turn away from the cult of the artist achieved in conceptual art. But at the same time, Reas's fascination with handmadeness and organicism preserves a link to analog aesthetic principles. Finally, my conclusion shifts away from direct comparison between computationally and non-computationally digital art, and instead assays the discursive resonances between Jason Salavon's software-based computational "paintings" and the increasingly widespread use of information visualization as primary mode of mapping the vast amounts of data produced by the mechanisms of the "culture industry".The works under consideration in my dissertation cohere around questions and problems related to painting. Part of the difficulty in defining "digital art" as a singular medium or genre is that the range of artifacts potentially contained under the rubric of digital art is massive and therefore resistant to canonization. A concentration on painting initially allowed me to refine my analytic method. However, the broader rationale behind this constraint grows out of the fact that the screen-based computational pictorialization analogizes painting. I contend that painting, despite, or perhaps due to its status as a two-dimensional mode of depiction, is deeply concerned with spatial and material architectonics. Painting is invested not only in the problem of how to graphically render volume and depth, but also the dynamic spatial relationship between bodies and concrete objects. Similarly, digital rendering must cope with the question of how to present the relationship between objects and spaces in two, three, or multiple dimensions. My goal is to discover whether the technical parameters of computation affect the way pictures are constructed, the kinds of subjects for which computers have the greatest representational facility, and by extension, the way digital pictures--the graphical index of digital technesis--will ultimately look. Overall, my dissertation offers a methodology for speaking about and contextualizing digital practices within the history of art and visual culture. While programming literacy is important for many scholars, producers, and users of digital hardware and software, if artifacts made using computational technology remain inaccessible to all viewers except those with a background in programming or engineering, we are faced with an art practice that is technically dexterous but phenomenologically bankrupt. Unless the possibility of translation between two languages is realized, a communicative gap will continue to yawn between art history and "media studies," which makes more urgent than ever the need to grant digital artifacts and processes the possibility of making a significant intervention into and contribution to the artistic canon.

The adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and p70 ribosomal S6 kinase-1 pathway may serve as a key signaling flow that regulates energy metabolism; thus, this pathway becomes an attractive target for the treatment of liver diseases that result from metabolic derangements. In addition, AMPK emerges as a kinase that controls the redox-state and mitochondrial function, whose activity may be modulated by antioxidants. A close link exists between fuel metabolism and mitochondrial biogenesis. The relationship between fuel metabolism and cell survival strongly implies the existence of a shared signaling network, by which hepatocytes respond to challenges of external stimuli. The AMPK pathway may belong to this network. A series of drugs and therapeutic candidates enable hepatocytes to protect mitochondria from radical stress and increase cell viability, which may be associated with the activation of AMPK, liver kinase B1, and other molecules or components. Consequently, the components downstream of AMPK may contribute to stabilizing mitochondrial membrane potential for hepatocyte survival. In this review, we discuss the role of the AMPK pathway in hepatic energy metabolism and hepatocyte viability. This information may help identify ways to prevent and/or treat hepatic diseases caused by the metabolic syndrome. Moreover, clinical drugs and experimental therapeutic candidates that directly or indirectly modulate the AMPK pathway in distinct manners are discussed here with particular emphasis on their effects on fuel metabolism and mitochondrial function. (C) 2010 Baishideng. 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Wie die meisten lateinamerikanischen Großstädte zeichnet sich die Peripherie von Porto Alegre durch ein dynamisches und ungeregeltes Siedlungswachstum in Form von Landbesetzungen und illegalen Parzellierungen aus. Mit Hilfe von Methoden der qualitativen Sozial¬forschung werden anhand einer Fallstudie insbesondere die damit verbundenen städtischen Umweltkonflikte analysiert und deren Einbeziehung in kooperative Planungsverfahren untersucht. Die Prozesse des ungeregelten Siedlungswachstums am Stadtrand von Porto Alegre sind vor allem durch Wanderungsprozesse innerhalb der Stadt, die ausgrenzende Wirkung des städtischen Immobilienmarktes sowie durch fehlgeschlagene städtische Siedlungspolitik bedingt. Die Zersiedung am Standrand führt in Porto Alegre aus umweltplanerischer Sicht zu einem Raumnutzungskonflikt mit Belangen des Naturschutzes. Das hängt vor allem damit zusammen, dass sich die informellen Siedlungen auf den aus Umweltgesichtspunkten empfindlichen Bereichen konzentrieren, die für den Immobilienmarkt keinem Wert haben. Davon ist besonders die Hügelkette am unmittelbaren Stadtrand betroffen, die sich durch ein sehr artenreiches Wald-Grasland-Mosaik auszeichnet. Trotz fortschrittlicher Entwicklungen in der Stadtpolitik versagen die politischen Instrumente bisher weitgehend, diesem Landnutzungskonflikt entgegen zu wirken. Besonders die Widersprüche zwischen umwelt- und siedlungspolitischer Maßnahmen führen zu unwirksamen Verwaltungshandeln. In einem Kontext, in dem Sanktionen und restriktive Maßnahmen nicht greifen, werden kooperative Instrumente als Alternative gesehen, um in diesem komplexen Konfliktfeld staatliches Handeln zu ermöglichen. Der Schwerpunkt der dieser Arbeit liegt in der Auseinandersetzung mit den Möglichkeiten und Grenzen eines derartigen partizipativen Planungsansatzes, raumbezogene Umweltkonflikte verhandelbar zu machen. Die Bewertungen basieren auf einer umfassenden Fallstudie zu einem vom Stadtplanungsamt in Porto Alegre initiierten Verfahrens der Bürgerbeteiligung. In dem in der Fallstudie untersuchten Projekt geht es darum, in einem kooperativen Planungsprozess gemeinsam mit den Bewohnern den Stadtentwicklungsplan für ein informelles Siedlungsgebiet in der Peripherie zu aktualisieren. Es soll definiert werden, welche Bereiche für die zukünftige Besiedlung geeigneten sind und in welchen Bereichen der Schutz der natürlichen Vegetation Vorrang hat. Insgesamt kann der partizipative Ansatz als wesentlicher Fortschritt zu den in der brasilianischen Stadtplanung nach wie vor gängigen technokratischen Planungspraxis gesehen werden. Durch das Verfahren konnte bei den teilnehmenden Bewohnern und den beteiligten Behördenvertretern ein gemeinsames Problemverständnis erreicht werden. Letztere entwickelten durch die direkte Auseinandersetzung mit der Lebensrealität in den informellen Siedlungen eine realistische Problemsicht. Doch die Fallstudie zeigte auch zahlreiche Hindernisse eines derartigen kooperativen Planungsprozesses auf. Als besonders negativ stellte sich die fehlende Einbindung der Ergebnisse des Beteiligungsprozesses in die formalen Stadtplanungsprozesse und die ad¬ministrativen Routinen heraus. Es besteht weiterhin eine Kluft zwischen dem Beteiligungsverfahren und den Entscheidungsprozessen der einzelnen Fachbehörden. Die fehlende institutionelle Integration des Partizipationsprojektes in die gesamte Verwaltungsstruktur stellt ein zentrales Hindernis dar. Ein grundsätzliches Dilemma derartiger Planungsprozesse in einem so hochdynamischen Kontext wie informelle Siedlungen besteht außerdem darin, nicht auf die eigentlichen Ursachen der Siedlungsexpansion einwirken zu können. Der Handlungsdruck von zuziehenden Neusiedlern kann nicht entschärft werden. Kooperative Ansätze reichen nicht aus, um staatliche Handlungsdefizite zu kompensieren. Vielmehr bedarf es gleichzeitig zur Demokratisierung der Entscheidungsprozesse einer Stärkung der staatlichen Institutionen, um so die Umsetzung präventiver Maßnahmen des Siedlungsbaus zu ermöglichen. Dennoch lässt sich mit den Interviewdaten belegen, dass es durch Beteiligungsprozesse zu einer Eigendynamik kommen kann. Das gestärkte Selbstbewusstsein der Bürgervertreter als politische Akteure gibt Grund zur Hoffung, dass langfristig über den Weg des Empowerment der am stärksten von städtischer Umweltdegradierung betroffenen Bevölkerungsgruppen eine Verbesserung der städtischen Umweltqualität erreicht werden kann. ; Like most Latin American cities the outskirts of Porto Alegre are facing a fast growing uncontrolled urban expansion, characterized by fragmentary settlement structure, squatter settlements and unauthorized land divisions. On the basis of empirical social research using qualitative methods this study analyses the related urban environmental conflicts as well as their incorporation in a participatory planning process. The sprawl of informal urbanization in the periphery of Porto Alegre is mainly due to intra-urban migration processes, segregative effects of the local real estate market and ineffective urban policy. As the informal settlements concentrate in vulnerable areas, like steep slopes and river banks that have no value on the real estate market, the urban fragmentation in the periphery causes environmental conflicts with concerns of nature conservation. The hills adjacent to the urban area, which are characterized by a species-rich mosaic of forests and grassland are especially affected by this urban encroachment. Besides progressive changes in local governance, so far public policy widely fails in counteracting these land use conflicts. Especially contradictions between environmental and urban policies lead to ineffective regulatory action. In a context where restrictive measures are not feasible, collaborative instruments are seen as an alternative in order to influence settlement development. This study analyses the opportunities and limitations of such participatory approaches as far as environmental conflicts related to urban encroachment are concerned. These evaluations are built on an extensive case study on a pilot project of the department for urban planning in Porto Alegre. In a participatory process the local planning authority aims at the collective development of directives for further urban development in cooperation with the local population. This action plan contains a detailed zoning in areas appropriate for settlement and areas to be preserved as natural areas inappropriate for housing. Generally speaking the studied participatory planning project has to be considered a substantial progress in making urban planning in the periphery of Brazilian cities more responsive to the real problems in these areas. Particularly bearing in mind that technocratic planning attitudes are still common in Brazilian planning institutions, this pilot project means an important step forward in creating a new relationship between public agencies and the residents of the illegal settlements. It helps to develop a common understanding of the problems and a shared vision for future settlement development. According to the case study a participatory approach implies a vast potential for institutional learning and capacity building for the individual public servant. As the participating public sector officials directly are confronted with the demands of marginalized social groups in the informal settlements they obtain a more realistic perception of the most urgent problems in these areas. However, the case study identified many limitations of such a collaborative planning approach. A key problem consists in the missing integration of the participation project's results into administrative routines and formal planning processes. The institutional gap between the participatory process and the decisions of the technical authorities prevented the political efficiency of the project and can be considered as the central constraint. Furthermore a fundamental dilemma of the collaborative planning process within the highly dynamic context of informal settlements lies in its inadequacy to influence underlying driving forces for settlement expansion. For instance, the participatory approach is not able to incorporate to integrate potential future squatters, the main actors of further informal urban expansion, as participants. All in all it became clear that collaborative approaches alone are not sufficient to compensate the shortcomings in governmental action. The democratization of the decision-making process has to go along with consolidation of the institutional framework, in order to enable preventive measures of settlement development. Nevertheless the interview data proves that participatory process can instigate the local stakeholders to demand more accountability of the technical authorities regarding their needs. In the long run the strengthened self-esteem of the dwellers of informal settlements as political actors raises hope for improvement of urban environmental quality by empowering the stakeholders most affected by urban environmental degradation.Como a maioria das metrópoles latino-americanas a periferia de Porto Alegre se caracteriza por uma urbanização descontrolada e uma estrutura urbana fragmentada, composta por ocupações e loteamentos irregulares. Através de métodos de pesquisa social qualitativa, investigaram-se especificamente os conflitos ambientais urbanos relacionados bem como a integração destes em processos cooperativos de planejamento. A urbanização descontrolada na periferia de Porto Alegre resulta sobretudo de processos de migração intra-urbana, da segregação sócio-espacial devido à estrutura do mercado imobiliário, assim como de políticas urbanas fracassadas. Do ponto de vista do planejamento ambiental, a fragmentação urbana periférica leva a conflitos ambientais, pois as ocupações informais se concentram nas áreas ecologicamente mais sensíveis, que não têm valor no mercado imobiliário. Isto se reflete principalmente no processo acelerado de ocupação na cadeia dos morros que circunda o espaço urbanizado e que se caracteriza por mosaico de floresta subtropical e campos ricos em espécies endêmicas. Apesar de uma tendência progressiva na política urbana de Porto Alegre os instrumentos políticos falham ao não conseguir interferir nestes conflitos relacionados ao uso da terra. Analisando-se como as políticas urbanas e ambientais da administração local respondem à cidade informal da periferia, vêem-se claramente as contradições na atuação das instituições governamentais. Num contexto onde medidas restritivas não funcionam, instrumentos cooperativos são apontados como alternativas para viabilizar gestão urbana na cidade informal O enfoque deste trabalho é a avaliação das limitações e possibilidades de instrumentos participativos para gerenciar conflitos sócio-ambientais relacionados ao espaço urbano. Isto foi examinado através de um estudo de caso extenso sobre um projeto de planejamento urbano participativo iniciado pela secretaria de planejamento municipal de Porto Alegre (SPM). Este projeto se focaliza na atualização do plano diretor num bairro periférico em cooperação com a população atingida. O objetivo é definir as áreas que são aptas para ocupação urbana e onde para a proteção da vegetação natural é prioridade. A abordagem participativa representa um avanço significativo, uma vez que se consegue construir um entendimento comum dos problemas locais entre os moradores e os funcionários públicos. Estes últimos, sobretudo, ganharam com isso uma visão realista dos problemas das ocupações informais através da confrontação direta e contínua com os moradores. Por outro lado, a falta de integração dos resultados do processo participativo na atuação das diferentes secretarias na região restringe significativamente a eficácia do projeto. Existe um abismo entre o processo participativo e os processos decisórios das secretarias setoriais, sendo esta falta de integração institucional uma das principais limitações identificadas neste estudo de caso. Além disso, um dilema fundamental de tais processos de planejamento num contexto de urbanização acelerado é o fato de não se poder interferir nas causas desta expansão urbana informal. Não se consegue modificar a pressão dos novos ocupantes que se mudam para esta região. Processos cooperativos não conseguem compensar os déficits institucionais. Além da democratização do planejamento urbano, é necessário um fortalecimento das instituições locais, possibilitando a implementação de medidas preventivas de política urbana. Apesar disso, os dados das entrevistas sustentam que um processo participativo pode levar a uma dinâmica própria. O fortalecimento da auto-estima dos participantes como atores políticos pode, em longo prazo, levar a uma melhoria da qualidade ambiental urbana, pois desta maneira os grupos mais atingidos pela degradação ambiental conseguem reivindicar o atendimento das suas demandas pelo poder público.

Inhaltsangabe: Zusammenfassung: Die vorliegende Arbeit leistet einen Beitrag zur psychologischen Entscheidungsforschung, indem das Ausmaß der Verwendung der Anciennitätsheuristik (AH), die auch Seniority-Heuristic (SH) genannt wird, abhängig vom Alter empirisch untersucht wird. Die Vorstellung eines rational handelnden Individuum sowie das ökonomische Modell des Homo Oeconomicus werden von KritikerInnen als unzureichend angesehen, um menschliches Entscheidungsverhalten zu beschreiben. Der Mensch führt keine komplizierten Rechenaufgaben in der Suche nach einer Entscheidung durch, noch stehen ihm unbegrenzte Ressourcen von Zeit, Wissen und Verarbeitungskapazität zur Verfügung. Es sind vielmehr die einfachen und schnellen Heuristiken, die den menschlichen Entscheidungsprozess in unsicheren Umwelten treffend zu beschreiben scheinen und den Optimierungsmodellen den Kampf ansagen. Heuristiken basieren auf dem Postulat der begrenzten Rationalität sowie der Satisficingregel von Simon. Vitouch ist der Begründer der AH, die ebenfalls auf dem Konzept von Simon aufbaut. Die AH ist eine Entscheidungsregel, die die Präferenz für das Ältere beinhaltet (z. B. das Gründungsjahr einer Institution) und in Situationen der Unsicherheit Anwendung findet. Vitouch postuliert, dass die AH besonders häufig verwendet wird, wenn mit Informationen über das Alter (Gründungsjahr) von unbekannten Optionen der Eindruck des Sich-Bewährt-Habens verbunden ist (Standing the Test of Time). In der vorliegenden Studie wird untersucht, ob ältere Menschen (45–60 Jahre) eher dazu tendieren Informationen über die Anciennität einer Institution im Entscheidungsprozess zu verwenden, als jüngere Menschen (20–35 Jahre). Die vorgeschlagene Prominenz von Altershinweisen wird erörtert, indem die entsprechende Verwendungshäufigkeit des Gründungsjahres (Seniority-Cue) mit der von weiteren, rivalisierenden und validen Cues verglichen wird. In einem intuitiven Wissensspiel werden den TeilnehmerInnen (N = 160) 136 Entscheidungsaufgaben aus vier Wissensdomänen vorgelegt. Die Verwendung bestimmter Cues wird mit Hilfe des Mouselab (ML), einer prozessorientierten Methode, erfasst. Die Aufgabe besteht darin zu schätzen, welche von zwei Domänen den höheren Wert auf einem Kriterium hat. Die Namen der Domänen sind in kyrillischer Schrift dargeboten, um Effekte der Wiedererkennung (Rekognitionsheuristik) auszuschließen. Nach dem intuitiven Wissensspiel folgt ein Online-Fragebogen (OFB), der zusätzlich Rückschlüsse darüber geben soll, welche Hinweise bei der Entscheidungsfindung als besonders hilfreich bzw. nicht hilfreich empfunden wurden. Die Ergebnisse bestätigen die Hypothese, dass ältere Personen das Gründungsjahr zur Entscheidungsfindung effektiv häufiger verwenden als jüngere Personen. Zudem stellt sich das Gründungsjahr als domänenunabhängiger Hinweis dar. Somit wird der Seniority-Cue von Vitouch zurecht als Universal-Cue bezeichnet. Im Vergleich mit den anderen Hinweisen wird der Seniority-Cue weniger oft zur Entscheidungshilfe herangezogen. Vergleicht man die Häufigkeit wie oft ein Hinweis im ML gewählt wurde mit seiner anschließenden Bewertung im OFB, zeigen sich keine ausgeprägten Zusammenhänge. Abstract The present work offers a contribution to human decision-making with the use of Seniority Heuristic (SH), also called Anciennitätsheuristik (AH), on the basis of a process oriented investigation method. The conception of rational decision making models and the economic model of the homo oeconimicus are being criticized for their inability to explain human decision making in the real world. The idea that people are making decisions in an uncertain environment on having all information available, having endless time and cognition ressources, and having a more sophisticated algorithm becomes less important. However, there is a currently change in research of decision making. Fast and frugal heuristics are the more effective and realistic concepts as the optimizing models to analyse and understand human decision behavior. Heuristics are decision rules based on the concept of satisficing strategies and on the postulate of bounded rationality, designed by the economist Simon. Vitouch is the originator of the SH, which is also based on the model of bounded rationality. This decision-rule describes the idea of priority of age (seniority) in a decision process. A person favours the older option in making a decision under uncertainty, because the older one is the better. Vitouch postulates that the SH works effectively if the founding year (seniority-cue) of an unknown option gives the impression that the option or the organisation is the better one, because of its older founding year (standing the test of time). This study analyses the hypothesis whether older people (age 45–60) tend to use information of the founding year in a decision-process more often than younger ones (age 20–35). The use of the founding year will be compared to the use of different valid and competing cues. In an intuitive knowledge game 136 decision problems were presented to the probands (N = 160). These passes includes four domains. The application of certain cues has been recorded with the mouselab design (ML). This method is often used in decision theory, because it makes it possible to record precisly the decision process. The probands´ task was to assume, which of two options has the higher value on a criterium. The titels of the domains were presented in cyrillic lettering. This was necessary to eliminate recognition effects (recognition heuristic). After the intuitive knowledge game the probands have to complete an online questionnaire (OFB). This OFB provides results about the importance of the chosen cues in the game. The results support the hypotheses that older people are using the seniority-cue more often in the decision process than younger ones. A further insight shows that the seniority-cue is independent of domains. Therefore Vitouch´s assumption that the seniority-cue is an universal-cue insofar as it allows a person to make a fast and efficient choice and inferences is evidenced. In contrast to the other cues, the founding year is used fewer times. A comparison between evaluation of the cues in the game and in the OFB shows no pronounced coherence.Inhaltsverzeichnis:Inhaltsverzeichnis: 1.Persönlicher Zugang1 2.Zusammenfassung / Abstract2 2.1Zusammenfassung2 2.2Abstract3 3.Einleitung5 3.1Herleitung des Themas5 3.2Überblick über die vorliegende Diplomarbeit8 THEORETISCHER TEIL12 4.Grundlegende Konzepte der Entscheidungsforschung12 4.1Definition des Begriffs Entscheidung12 4.2Module einer Entscheidungssituation13 4.2.1Handlungsoptionen und ihre Charakterisierung14 4.2.2Ziele und Präferenzen15 4.2.3Umwelteinflüsse und Konsequenzen17 4.3Theorien zur Entscheidungsforschung21 5.Entstehungsgeschichte der Entscheidungsforschung23 5.1Beiträge aus der Philosophie und der Mathematik23 5.2Rationalitätskonzepte31 5.2.1Homo Oeconomicus31 5.2.2Bounded Rationality34 6.Entscheidungsregeln und Suchmuster39 6.1Kompensatorische Entscheidungsregeln40 6.2Nicht-kompensatorische Entscheidungsregeln42 7.Heuristiken45 7.1Schnelle und einfache Heuristiken47 7.1.1Rekognitionsheuristik52 7.1.1.1Weniger-ist-mehr-Effekt57 7.1.1.2Studien zur Rekognitionsheuristik59 7.2Heuristiken aus dem adaptiven Werkzeugkasten im Überblick61 7.3Anciennitätsheuristik bzw. Seniority Heuristic66 7.3.1Alltagsnahe Domänen der Anciennität71 7.3.1.1Der Senat71 7.3.1.2Erbfolgeordnungen72 7.3.1.3Unternehmen und Hersteller73 7.3.1.4Universitäten77 7.3.2Aktueller Forschungsstand der Anciennitätsheuristik80 7.4Zusammenfassung83 8.Methodologische Zugänge in derEntscheidungsforschung84 8.1Der strukturorientierte Zugang84 8.2Der prozessorientierte Zugang85 8.3Prozessorientierte Untersuchungsmethoden88 8.3.1Die Informationstafel89 8.3.2Das Mouselab91 8.3.3Das verbale Protokoll93 8.3.4Die Methode der Blickaufzeichnungen95 8.3.5Untersuchungen anhand der prozessorientierten Methoden96 8.3.6Informationsbeschaffung und kognitiver Aufwand100 8.4Zusammenfassung104 EMPIRISCHER TEIL106 9.Methodenwahl und empirische Fragestellungen106 9.1Forschungsmethoden106 9.2Explikation der Fragestellung und Hypothesen109 9.2.1Herleitung der Fragestellungen109 9.2.2Hypothesenbildung110 10.Versuchsmaterial und -aufbau117 10.1Inferenzentscheidungen118 10.2Erstellung der Domänen119 10.2.1Domäne russische Universitäten120 10.2.2Domäne russische Aktiengesellschaften120 10.2.3Domäne russische Wodkahersteller121 10.2.4Domäne russische Rechtsanwaltskanzleien122 10.3Auswahl der Cues124 10.4Erstellung der Cue-Werte126 10.5Versuchsplan131 10.6Abhängige und Unabhängige Variablen133 10.7Kontrolle der Störvariablen134 10.8Pilottestung137 10.8.1Durchführung der Pilottestung138 10.8.2Adaptierung138 11.Ergebnisse142 11.1Stichprobe142 11.1.1Rekrutierung142 11.1.2Demographische Stichprobenbeschreibung144 11.2Deskriptiver Datenüberblick145 11.3Unterschiede in der Informationssuche in den einzelnen Domänen148 11.3.1Hypothesenprüfung der aufgedeckten Informationen150 11.3.2Zusammenfassung der Anzahl der aufgedeckten Cues auf der Domänenebene155 11.4Wahl der älteren Option156 11.4.1Inferenzstatistische Prüfung der Hypothesen159 11.4.2Zusammenfassend die Ergebnisse bei der Wahl der älteren Option162 11.5Datenauswertung auf der Cueebene162 11.5.1Inferenzstatistische Prüfung der Hypothesen auf der Cueebene165 11.5.2Zusammenfassung der Ergebnisse auf der Cueebene171 11.6Bewertung der Cues nach ihrer Wichtigkeit172 11.7Wahl des Seniority-Cue bei Wahl der älteren Option178 11.8Analyse und Interpretation184 12.Diskussion und offene Fragen187 V.ResumeeVII VI.LiteraturIX VII.AbbildungsverzeichnisXVIII VIII.AnhangXXTextprobe:Textprobe: Kapitel 4, Methodologische Zugänge in der Entscheidungsforschung: Autoren wie Svenson oder Harte und Koele teilen methodologische Zugänge in der psychologischen Entscheidungsforschung in einen strukturorientierten ('structural modelling' und in einen prozessorientierten ('process tracing') Ansatz ein. Beide Zugänge haben die psychologische Entscheidungsforschung in den letzten 40 Jahren bedeutend geprägt. Der strukturorientierte Zugang: Zuerst hat sich die psychologische Entscheidungsforschung hauptsächlich am Entwurf der subjektiven Wahrscheinlichkeit orientiert. WissenschaftlerInnen erhoben dazu numerische Wahrscheinlichkeitsurteile, die dann anhand der Axiome der Wahrscheinlichkeitstheorie geprüft wurden. Dieser Zugang wird in der psychologischen Entscheidungsforschung auch als struktur-orientierter Zugang definiert, da der Fokus primär auf das Ergebnis einer Entscheidung gelegt wird. Input- und Output-Variablen werden aktiv manipuliert und können mit Hilfe statistischer Modelle menschliches Entscheidungsverhalten prognostizieren. Svenson definiert diesen Zugang folgend: (...) a structural research approach relates choices and ratings to input variables (e.g., the maximum amount that can be gained, the variability across alternatives in gains and/or probabilities). Psychological intervening variables are derived from psychological theory and behavioral patterns in decision tasks. However, no attempts are made in strucutral approaches to assess the psychological process at different stages from problem presentation to final decision. Hier sind die normativen und präskriptiven Entscheidungstheorien sowie die SEU-Theorie und der Homo Oeconomicus einzureihen. Modelle, die im strukturorientierten Zugang verwendet werden, sind die algebraischen Modelle 'additive or nonadditive' (additive oder nicht-additive) und 'linear or nonlinear' (lineare und nicht-lineare Modell). Svenson führt an, dass im strukturorientierten Ansatz der Prozess einer Entscheidung noch weitgehend ignoriert wird. Seiner Meinung nach erfordert eine Entscheidung mehr Aufmerksamkeit als nur für den Moment, in dem die Wahl erfolgt, um eine Vorhersage einer bestimmte Präferenz zu ermöglichen. Im nächsten Kapitel werden AutorInnen angeführt, die nicht nur das Ergebnis, sondern den Entscheidungsprozess, wie es zu einer Entscheidung kommt, untersuchen. Der prozessorientierte Zugang: Für Svenson kann eine Entscheidung nicht mit der Beschreibung des finalen Ergebnisses abgeschlossen sein, weil eine Entscheidung von Emotionen, Wahrnehmungen und und weitere kognitiven Fähigkeiten beeinflusst wird. Um Einflüsse und das Zustandekommen einer Entscheidung besser zur verstehen, wird die Entscheidung als Prozess verstanden und in verschiedene Phasen eingeteilt. Nach Adam beinhaltet der Entscheidungsprozess eine (i) Anregungsphase, (ii) Suchphase, (iii) Entscheidungsfindungsphase und eine (iv) Durchsetzungsphase. Die Abgrenzungen der einzelnen Phasen erklärt Heinen wie folgt: (i) In der ersten Phase analysiert und bewertet der/die EntscheiderIn die Situation. (ii) Die Suchphase beinhaltet das Suchen von adäquaten Informationen und ihren Konsequenzen sowie das Suchen nach Optionen oder Handlungen. Es werden dazu Informationen aus der Umwelt aufgenommen oder auf Erfahrung zurückgegriffen. In weiterer Folge werden Bewertungen vorgenommen. (iii) In der nächsten Phase versucht der/die EntscheiderIn zwischen den Problemen und Variablen Zusammenhänge zu finden und eine optimale Entscheidung zu planen. Die Entscheidung wird vorbereitet. (iv) Die letzte Phase ist der Vollzug der Entscheidung. Ab hier kann die Entscheidung nicht mehr rückgängig gemacht werden. Nach der Entscheidung beginnt die Phase, in welcher der/die EntscheiderIn Erfahrungen für die nächste Entscheidung gesammelt und/oder gelernt hat, wie er/sie sich in der nächsten ähnlichen Situation verhalten wird. Nach Mag laufen die Phasen nicht unbedingt linear ab, sondern sie können öfters durchlaufen werden. Der Entscheidungsprozess kann von vorne beginnen, wenn die Person z.B. einen Sachverhalt falsch interpretiert hat oder neue Informationen zur Verfügung stehen. Payne und Svenson sehen einen Entscheidungsprozess differenzierter, da mit der Wahl einer Option der Prozess nicht abgeschlossen ist. Die Autoren kontrastieren den Entscheidungsprozess in einen Pre- und Post-Decision Process oder Phase (Vor- und Danach-Phase). In der Phase vor der Entscheidung sind für die Forschung Fragen wie 'werden Handlungsoptionen generiert, wie wird das Problem kognitiv strukturiert, welches Wissen wird herangezogen?' relevant. Die der Phase nach der Entscheidung analysieren WissenschaftlerInnen, wie gut der/die EntscheiderIn die Entscheidung erinnert, wie er/sie die Informationen aufgenommen hat, oder wie die Entscheidung im Nachhinein bewertet wird. Nach Svenson sind nicht nur die verfügbaren Informationen, die vor einer Wahl gesammelt werden, für die Entscheidungsforschung essentiell. Der Prozess nach einer Wahl ist ebenfalls von Bedeutung. Die Post-Phase bei einer Entscheidung gibt nach Svenson und Benthorn über die Qualität der bereits gemachten Entscheidung Aufschluss und zeigt, welche Erfahrungen der/die EntscheiderIn aus dieser Wahl für zukünftige Entscheidungen ableiten kann. Svenson schlägt die 'Differentiation and Consolidation Theory' vor,welche die Phasen nicht nur getrennt untersucht, sondern deren Ergebnisse in Zusammenhang bringt: Differentiation and Consolidation Theory explicitly links pre- and post-decision processes and considers pre-decision processes as a preparation for the post-decision future. Svenson und Benthorn zeigen, wie sich die Attraktivität eines Produktes für den/die EntscheiderIn während des Prozesses und nach einer Entscheidung ändern kann. Sie gaben TeilnehmerInnen eine Option mit jeweils vier Attributen vor, welche die TeilnehmerInnen während des Prozesses und anschließend (nach fünf Minuten oder nach einer Woche) anhand einer Ratingskala bewerten mussten. Fünf Minuten nach einer Entscheidung wurden keine signifikanten Veränderungen in der Bewertung wahrgenommen. Eine Woche später zeigten sich Unterschiede, indem gute und schlechte Attribute verstärkt bewertet wurden: die guten Attribute fielen in der Bewertung nach einer Woche noch besser aus als bei der Entscheidung und die schlechten noch schlechter. Dieses Ergebnis entspricht der Dissonanze-Theorie von Festinger und zeigt ein konträres Bild zur Self-Perception Theory von Bem. Nach dieser Theorie sind sich Menschen nicht über ihre Grundeinstellungen und Bewertungen bewusst, und der Mensch erinnert sich eher an zweideutige oder labile Merkmale. Die Studie beweist, wie bedeutend die Post-Phase in der Entscheidungsforschung ist, da sich die Wichtigkeit eines Attributes während und nach einer Entscheidung ändern kann. Anhand der Phasen hat sich der Fokus erweitert, indem eine Entscheidung betrachtet wird. Im Kontrast zum strukturorientierten Ansatz stehen hier der kognitive Prozess sowie die Informationssuche während des Entscheidungsprozesses im Mittelpunkt. Für AutorInnen dieses Zuganges ist der Mensch ein 'information processor with limited capabilities which, in turn, could explain the deviations form theoretical expectations' und basiert auf den Annahmen der begrenzten Rationalität von Simon. In den Jahren um 1980 beklagten die Autoren Slovic, Fischhoff und Lichtenstein noch den Mangel an Studien, in denen der Entscheidungsprozess untersucht wird. Mittlerweile gibt es viele Methoden, mit deren Hilfe die kognitiven Prozesse in einer Entscheidung analysiert werden können. Im nächsten Kapitel werden die prozessorientierten Methoden näher beleuchtet.

Zusammenfassung gemäß § 11 der Promotionsordnung der Fakultät II (Fassung 01.10.05) und den "Allgemeinen Richtlinien des Senats über die Veröffentlichung von Dissertationen und die Ablieferung von Pflichtexemplaren" (Senatsbeschluss vom 14.7.1999) zu meiner Dissertation mit dem Titel: "Modeling the New Economic Geography – R&D, Vertical Linkages, Policy Implications" The present work introduces four theoretical papers, which primarily focus on R&D, interindustrial linkages, and their policy implications. All in all, three issues basically motivated conception and realization: At first, previous NEG models do not incorporate endogenous R&D activities of firms. Existing models include R&D only in a growth context, which increases the formal complexity and departs from the simple core-periphery formulation. Second, vertical linkages are extensively considered in the class of international models. In face of its formal simplicity, the majority of publications refer to the standard model of Krugman and Venables (1995) utilizing intra-industry trade in which the manufacturing sector produces its own intermediates. However, the results are similar to the core-periphery model, but the implications of vertical linkages, especially in terms of specialization, cannot be reproduced. In contrast, the more challenging version of Venables (1996), which considers an inter-industry framework of an explicit upstream and downstream sector, is often cited (143 citations according to IDEAS/RePEc), but only few papers were directly built on it: Puga and Venables (1996), Amiti (2005), Alonso-Villar (2005). The third issue concerns the calibration of real economies. Although, hundreds of numerical simulations have been done in order to display the modeling outcomes, an application to particular industries in terms of their spatial formation and evolution is still a neglected field of research. Against this background, the present work aims to make a contribution to these topics. For a summary, all four papers are briefly to be summarized at this point. The first paper, entitled 'Too Much R&D? – Vertical Differentiation and Monopolistic Competition,' discusses whether product R&D in developed economies tends to be too high compared with the socially desired level. In this context, a model of vertical and horizontal product differentiation within the Dixit-Stiglitz (1977) framework of monopolistic competition is set up where firms compete in horizontal attributes of their products, and also in quality that can be controlled by R&D investments. The paper reveals that in monopolistic-competitive industries, R&D intensity is positively correlated with market concentration. Furthermore, welfare and policy analysis demonstrate an overinvestment in R&D with the result that vertical differentiation is too high and horizontal differentiation is too low. The only effective policy instrument in order to contain welfare losses turns out to be a price control of R&D services. The main contribution of this closed economy model in the course of the present work is a modeling framework, which can easily be adapted to the New Economic Geography. This has been approached in the second paper: 'R&D and the Agglomeration of Industries' in which the seminal core-periphery model of Krugman (1991) is extended by endogenous research activities. Beyond the common 'anonymous' consideration of R&D expenditures within fixed costs, this model introduces vertical product differentiation, which requires services provided by an additional R&D sector. In the context of international factor mobility, the destabilizing effects of a mobile scientific workforce are analyzed. In combination with a welfare analysis and a consideration of R&D promoting policy instruments and their spatial implications, this paper also makes a contribution to the brain-drain debate. In contrast to this migration based approach, the third paper 'Agglomeration, Vertical Specialization, and the Strength of Industrial Linkages' focuses on vertical linkages in their capacity as an additional agglomeration force. The paper picks up the seminal model of Venables (1996) and provides a quantifying concept for the sectoral coherence in vertical-linkage models of the New Economic Geography. Based upon an alternative approach to solve the model and to determine critical trade cost values, this paper focuses on the interdependencies between agglomeration, specialization and the strength of vertical linkages. A central concern is the idea of an 'industrial base,' which is attracting linked industries but is persistent to relocation. As a main finding, the intermediate cost share and substitution elasticity basically determine the strength of linkages. Thus, these parameters affect how strong the industrial base responds to changes in trade costs, relative wages and market size. The fourth paper 'The Spatial Dynamics of the European Biotech Industry' presents a simulation study of the R&D intensive biotech industry using the standard Venables model. Thus, it connects all three preceding papers and puts them into the real economic context of the European integration. The paper reviews the potential development of the European biotech industry with respect to its spatial structure. On the first stage, the present industrial situation as object of investigation is described and evaluated with respect to a further model implementation. In this context, the article introduces the findings of an online survey concerning international trade, conducted with German biotech firms in 2006. On the second stage, the results are completed by the outcomes of a numerical simulation within the New Economic Geography (NEG), considering vertical linkages between the biotech and pharmaceutical industries as an agglomerative force. The analysis reveals only a slight relocation tendency to the European periphery, constrained by market size, infrastructure and factor supply. In the final conclusions, central results of all four papers are summarized with respect to economic policy. Against the background of general legitimization and the impact of political intervention, Chapter 6 draws the main conclusions for location and innovation policies. In this regard, the industrial-base concept as well as the mobility of R&D play a central role during this discussion. ; Zusammenfassung gemäß § 11 der Promotionsordnung der Fakultät II (Fassung 01.10.05) und den "Allgemeinen Richtlinien des Senats über die Veröffentlichung von Dissertationen und die Ablieferung von Pflichtexemplaren" (Senatsbeschluss vom 14.7.1999) zu meiner Dissertation mit dem Titel: "Modeling the New Economic Geography – R&D, Vertical Linkages, Policy Implications" Die vorliegende Arbeit beinhaltet vier formal-theoretische Papiere der New Economic Geography (NEG) mit dem Fokus auf Forschung und Entwicklung (FuE), inter-industriellen Handel und deren Politikimplikationen. Insgesamt motivieren drei Aspekte die Umsetzung der Arbeiten: 1) Bisherige NEG-Modelle berücksichtigen keine endogenen FuE-Aktivitäten von Firmen, vielmehr diskutieren diese Forschung lediglich in einem Wachstumskontext, was die formale Komplexität der Modelle erhöht und von der einfachen Kern-Peripherie Modellierung abweicht. 2) Vertikale Verknüpfungen wurden umfangreich in der Klasse der sogenannten "International Trade" Modelle untersucht. Angesichts der formal-einfachen Struktur bezieht sich die Mehrzahl der Publikationen auf das Standardmodell von Krugman und Venables (1995) mit intra-industriellem Handel, bei dem der produzierende Sektor ein Teil seines Outputs wiederum als Input verwendet. Die Ergebnisse sind ähnlich zum Prototyp des Kern-Peripherie-Modells von Krugman (1991), jedoch können wesentliche Implikationen vertikaler Verknüpfungen besonders in Hinblick auf Spezialisierung nicht reproduziert werden. Demgegenüber analysiert das anspruchsvollere Modell von Venables (1996) inter-industriellen Handel mit expliziten Upstream und Downstream-Sektoren. Diese Arbeit wurde oft zitiert (143 Zitationen gemäß IDEAS/RePEc), jedoch greifen nur wenige Papiere den Ansatz auf: Puga und Venables (1996), Amiti (2005), Alonso-Villar (2005). 3) Schließlich betrifft der letzte Aspekt die Kalibrierung realer Volkswirtschaften. Obwohl zahllose numerische Simulationen durchgeführt wurden, um die Modellergebnisse zu veranschaulichen, ist die Anwendung auf bestimmte Industrien und deren räumlichen Konstellationen bislang ein vernachlässigtes Forschungsfeld. Vor diesem Hintergrund zielt die vorliegende Arbeit darauf ab, einen Beitrag zu diesem Punkten zu liefern. Im Folgenden sollen an dieser Stelle alle vier Papiere kurz zusammengefasst werden. Das erste Papier mit dem Titel "'Too Much R&D? – Vertical Differentiation and Monopolistic Competition" diskutiert, ob Produkt-FuE in entwickelten Volkswirtschaften zu hoch im Vergleich zum sozialen Optimum ausfällt. In diesem Zusammenhang wird ein Standardmodell monopolistischer Konkurrenz (Dixit und Stiglitz (1977)) um vertikale Differenzierung erweitert, so dass Firmen nicht nur durch horizontale Produkteigenschaften konkurrieren, sondern auch über die Qualität ihrer Produkte, die durch FuE-Investitionen erhöht werden kann. Das Papier zeigt, dass die FuE-Intensität in monopolistisch-kompetitiven Industrien positiv mit der Marktkonzentration korreliert. Zudem führt eine Wohlfahrts- und Politikanalyse zu dem Ergebnis, dass Überinvestitionen in FuE in einer zu hohen vertikalen und zu niedrigen horizontalen Produktdifferenzierung resultieren. Es stellt sich heraus, dass lediglich eine Preiskontrolle für FuE-Dienstleistungen das einzige wirksame Politikinstrument zur Begrenzung der Wohlfahrtsverluste ist. Der wesentliche Beitrag dieses Modells im Gesamtzusammenhang der Dissertation liefert ein Modellierungsrahmen der ohne Weiteres in die NEG integriert werden kann. Dies ist Gegenstand des zweiten Papiers: "R&D and the Agglomeration of Industries", in dem das grundlegende Kern-Peripherie-Modell von Krugman (1991) um endogene Forschungsaktivitäten erweitert wird. In der bestehenden Literatur werden FuE-Aufwendungen lediglich "anonym" unter Fixkosten subsumiert. Die vorliegende Arbeit erweitert das Modell um vertikale Produktdifferenzierung, die wiederum Dienstleistungen eines zusätzlichen FuE-Sektors impliziert. Im Kontext internationaler Faktormobilität werden die destabilisierenden Effekte eines mobilen wissenschaftlichen Arbeitskräftepotentials analysiert. In Kombination mit einer Wohlfahrtsanalyse und einer Betrachtung von Forschungsförderungsinstrumenten sowie ihrer räumlichen Implikationen leistet das Papier einen Beitrag zur sogenannten "Brain-Drain"-Debatte. Im Gegensatz zu diesem migrationsbasierten Ansatz konzentriert sich das dritte Papier "Agglomeration, Vertical Specialization, and the Strength of Industrial Linkages" auf vertikale Verknüpfungen in ihrer Eigenschaft als zusätzliche Agglomerationskraft. Das Papier greift das Standardmodell von Venables (1996) auf und entwickelt auf dieser Basis ein Messkonzept zur Quantifizierung des sektoralen Zusammenhalts in NEG-Modellen. Auf Grundlage eines alternativen Lösungsansatzes, der zur Bestimmung kritischer Schwellenwerte gewählt wurde, fokussiert sich das Papier auf die Zusammenhänge zwischen Agglomeration, räumlicher Spezialisierung und der Stärke vertikaler Verknüpfungen. Ein zentraler Anknüpfungspunkt ist die Idee der sogenannten "Industrial Base", welche verknüpfte Industrien an einen bestimmten Standort attrahiert, jedoch weitgehend unabhängig von Verlagerungstendenzen ist. Hierbei wird gezeigt, dass der Kostenanteil der Downstream-Industrie für Vorprodukte als auch die entsprechende technische Substitutionselastizität wesentliche Determinanten für die Stärke vertikaler Verknüpfungen sind. Damit beeinflussen diese Parameter, wie stark die "Industrial Base" auf Änderungen in Handelskosten, relativen Löhnen und lokaler Marktgröße reagiert. Das vierte Papier "The Spatial Dynamics of the European Biotech Industry" nutzt das Venables-Modell für eine Simulationsstudie der FuE-intensiven Biotechnologie-Industrie. Damit verknüpft es alle drei vorhergegangenen Papiere und stellt sie in den realökonomischen Kontext der Europäischen Integration. Die Arbeit beurteilt das Entwicklungspotential der Europäischen Biotech-Industries in Hinblick auf ihre räumlichen Strukturen. Im ersten Schritt wird die gegenwärtige Situation als Forschungsgegenstand beschrieben und hinsichtlich einer weiteren Modellimplementierung bewertet. In diesem Kontext stellt der Artikel die Ergebnisse einer Online-Befragung vor, bei der in 2006 deutsche Biotechnologie-Unternehmen zu Außenhandelsaktivitäten befragt wurden. Im zweiten Schritt werden die Ergebnisse mit einer numerischen Simulationsstudie im Rahmen der NEG ergänzt, in der die Wirkungen vertikaler Verknüpfungen zwischen Biotech- und Pharmazeutischer Industrie als zentrale Agglomerationskraft untersucht werden. Die Analyse zeigt eine leichte Verlagerungstendenz zugunsten der Europäischen Peripherie, die jedoch durch die dominante Marktgröße, besserer Infrastruktur und größerem Faktorangebot des Kerns begrenzt wird. In einem abschließenden Fazit werden die zentralen Ergebnisse aller vier Papiere hinsichtlich ihrer Politikimplikationen zusammengefasst und bewertet. Vor dem Hintergrund allgemeiner Legitimation und den Auswirkungen wirtschaftspolitischer Eingriffe, zieht das Kapitel 6 wesentliche Schlussfolgerungen für die Standort- und Forschungspolitik. In dieser Diskussion spielen das "Industrial Base"-Konzept zum einen und die internationale Mobilität von Forschungskapazitäten zum anderen eine zentrale Rolle.

Children with chronic diseases Chronic viral hepatitis Among human hepatitis viruses, hepatitis B (HBV) and C (HCV) viruses are able to persist in the host for years and thereby causing chronic hepatitis. Three hundred and seventy and 130 million people is estimated to be infected with HBV and HCV, respectively, worldwide (1). In endemic areas, HBV infection is often acquired perinatally or early in childhood and becomes chronic in a high proportion of cases. Universal vaccination of newborns has been effective in reducing the spread of infection. However, hepatitis B is still a social and health problem in underdeveloped areas where immunisation policies are unavailable, and even in developed countries, where the reservoir of infection is maintained by immigration and adoption. In some endemic areas children with chronic hepatitis B are also at risk for superinfection with the hepatitis delta virus (HDV), which worsens the prognosis of liver disease. HCV is not a less important problem. The prevalence of circulating anti-HCV antibodies in the pediatric population averaged 0.3% in Italy in the early 1990s (2), but a national observational study suggest that the number of "new" pediatric infections dropped by approximately 40% in 2000-2004 compared with the previous 5 years (3). The lower prevalence of HCV in children reflects the disappearance of transfusion-related hepatitis and the reduced efficiency of mother-to-child (vertical or perinatal) transmission, although the latter form of transmission is currently responsible for most "new" infections in the developed world and contributes to maintaining the reservoir of infection worldwide (4-7). This favourable epidemiologic trend is balanced, however, by the strong tendency of HCV infection acquired early in life (either perinatally or following blood transfusions) to become chronic (8-14). In the absence of a specific vaccination, HCV infection remains a major global health problem and HCV-related end-stage liver disease is still the most frequent indication for liver transplantation in adult patients. Chronic viral hepatitis acquired in childhood is a long-lasting process based on host-virus interaction, which may change over the years. A number of factors related to the virus (genotype, therapy), to the host (hormonal status, immunocompetence, therapy) and to the environment (alcohol, drugs, co-infections) affects the natural history of the disease, especially during adolescence and early adulthood. Strategies to improve the prevention and treatment of HBV and HCV infection, and the related liver disease in children, before the possible development of irreversible complications, should be investigated and implemented. HIV infection Countries most heavily affected, HIV has reduced life expectancy by more than 20 years, hampered economic growth, and deepened household poverty (UNAIDS. Data from: www.unaids.org/en/KnowledgeCentre/HIVData/GlobalReport/2008/2008_Global_report.asp). Mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) is the main source of pediatric HIV-1 infection. MTCT of HIV-1 mainly occurs around the time of delivery, but breastfeeding is an additional route of viral transmission and accounts for about one-third of pediatric infections in resource-poor Countries (15). In the absence of antiretroviral therapy, about 30% of women transmit the virus to their infants. The estimated number of perinatally acquired AIDS cases in the United States peaked at 945 in 1992 and declined rapidly with expanding prenatal testing and implementation of appropriate preventive interventions (16). At the end of 2007, there were 2 million children living with HIV around the world, an estimated 370,000 children became newly infected with HIV in 2007, and, of the 2 millions people who died of AIDS during 2007, more than one in seven were children. Every hour, around 31 children die as a result of AIDS. HIV can affects a child's life through its effects directly on the child, on that child's family, and on the community within the child is growing up: - Many children are themselves infected with HIV - Children live with family members who are infected with HIV - Children act as carers for sick parents who have AIDS - Many children have lost one or both parents to AIDS, and are orphaned - An increasing number of households are headed by children, as AIDS erodes traditional community support systems - Children end up being their family's principal wage earners, as AIDS prevents adults from working, and creates expensive medical bills - As AIDS ravages a community, schools lose teachers and children are unable to access education - Doctors and nurses die, and children find it difficult to gain care for childhood diseases - Children may lose their friends to AIDS - Children who have HIV in their family may be stigmatized and affected by discrimination In the last 10 years, dramatic advances in medical management of HIV infection have followed the results of clinical trials of antiretroviral combination therapies in children. The use of antiretroviral therapy during pregnancy in HIV-infected women has resulted in a dramatic decrease in the transmission rate to infants, which is currently less than 2% in most high-income Countries (17). In parallel, the introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) has changed the natural history of HIV-1 infection and the life expectancy of HIV-1-infected adults (18,19) and children (20-26). Although in developed Countries children living with HIV infection are expected to live a long life, they still need to face major emotional burden, social stigma and global exclusion from the social contest (27). Being a child or an adolescent with HIV implies major problems in terms of management of multiple drugs, adherence to antiretroviral therapy, drug resistance, quality of life, frequency at school and social interactions with peers (28). Immunization in at risk children Vaccinations programs are one of the greatest public health interventions of the last century and have dramatically improved quality of life (29). Benefits of vaccination to the individual include partial or complete protection against infections and symptoms of illness, improved quality of life, and prevention of up to 3 million pediatric deaths per year worldwide (29,30). Benefits of a universal vaccination program to society include creation and maintenance of herd immunity, prevention of disease outbreaks, and reduced health care costs (30). Despite the availability of safe and effective vaccines and substantial progresses in reducing vaccine-preventable diseases, delivery to and acceptance of vaccinations by targeted populations are essential to further reducing and eliminating vaccine-preventable causes of morbidity and mortality (31). Children who are not vaccinated endanger public health representing a risk for other nonimmunized individuals, including subjects who cannot be immunized due to underlying health problems, and the small percentage of individuals in whom vaccination does not confer protection (29). They also contribute to increase health care costs (29). Access to immunizations, prevalence of vaccine-preventable diseases, and vaccination rates varies by geographic area or country. Throughout the United States and European Countries, immunization rates of children and adults are rising, but coverage levels have not reached established goals (32). As a result of low immunization rates, vaccine-preventable diseases still occur as evidenced by the measles epidemic, the large number of annual cases of varicella, pertussis, and hepatitis B, and the more than 50,000 annual deaths in adults from influenza or pneumococcal infections (33-36). In an attempt to eliminate the risk of outbreaks of some diseases, governments and other institutions have instituted policies requiring vaccination for all people (compulsory vaccinations). For example, actual vaccination policies in most developed Counties require that children receive common vaccinations before entering school. In addition to compulsory vaccines, certain populations should receive additional vaccinations. Subjects with chronic medical conditions are at increased risk for severe complications related to vaccine-preventable infections, such as influenza and pneumococcal infections (34,37). In Italy, compulsory vaccines are generally administered in vaccination centers and complementary vaccinations are actively offered to children with chronic conditions and are included in the Essential Levels of Care (38). Despite long-standing recommendations to provide recommended vaccinations to children with chronic medical conditions, immunisation rates in these vulnerable populations remain poor (39). Several conditions hamper implementation of these vaccinations, including problems in identifying at risk children, ineffective organizational strategies and lack of awareness of disease severity or poor confidence by parents in specific recommendations (40,41). Often, the presence of a chronic condition is erroneously considered a contraindication rather than an indication to vaccination. It is important to ensure that patients comply with the vaccination schedule to the extent possible, and to provide education to parents who may have concerns about pediatric vaccinations. Goals of the thesis In this PhD thesis, the organization and management of pediatric infectious diseases, with a perspective of public health, are investigated. Specific chronic diseases, as chronic viral hepatitis and HIV infection, have been selected as models to investigate the main aspects of prevention, management and treatment. The goal is to investigate the efficiency of organization and propose interventions with specific reference to treatment of infectious diseases, their direct and indirect results and how these conditions affect quality of life of at risk children and their families. The final goal of this research is to provide strategies to optimize public health system.

These complète en allemand : Konflikte um Wasser in Marokko: ökologische und soziopolitische Konfliktursachen sowie Möglichkeiten der Konflikttransformation (Résumé long en français de 73 pages) ; Water scarcity increasingly provokes conflicts with often violent tendencies. As water management is determined by socio-political structures, governance plays a key role in the emergence and resolution of these conflicts. Based on a case-study of water conflicts in Morocco, the key objective of the present study is to understand how different political, ecological and socio-economic factors interact in the dynamics of these disputes. The first of the nine chapters introduces the topic by reviewing the possibilities of measuring water scarcity and its impact. This is done by exploring the situation in the MENA-region, and by analysing the security implications at the international level as well as in the context of broader security concepts. The second chapter evaluates the value of three theoretical approaches to the study of water conflicts: common pool resources theories, environmental security approaches, and conflict research. On the basis of this assessment, the third chapter presents a specific analytical and methodological approach by adapting theories of conflict transformation to the study of water conflicts. Four working hypotheses are developed regarding the root causes of water conflicts, the type of farmers most affected and the potential for mediation. Chapters 4 and 5 analyse potential root causes of water conflicts in Morocco. Chapter 4 concludes that the political system with the particular role of the king and his alliances with rural elites is challenged by the lack of legitimacy of democratic institutions, the increasing influence of civil society and religious actors, and the emergence of new economic elites. Chapter 5 analyses water and agricultural policies in Morocco and concludes that water scarcity, the effects of trade liberalisation, and incomplete decentralisation processes contribute to increasing social disparities and may fuel conflict. Chapters 6 and 7 analyse the case of water conflicts in the Souss region in Southern Morocco. The region is highly affected by water scarcity. At the same time, it is of strategic importance to the export-oriented, lucrative citrus fruit production. In this context, the study analyses the increasing marginalisation of small farmers and the problems of public water management, which is challenged by influential private investors and illegal drilling. It also examines the pilot project ElGuerdane for water mobilisation and distribution through a public-private partnership in irrigation. The analysis reviews the project's technical and financial aspects, and its political and environmental implications. Chapter 7 introduces a typology of water conflicts developed on the basis of the author's field research. It then presents the results of the empirical investigations including a large number of expert interviews, the study of six cases of water conflicts, and about 100 standardised interviews with farmers. The chapter concludes that an important marginalisation process of small farmers takes place in the valley, reveals that these farmers are also more often affected by conflicts over irrigation and drinking water, and examines the success of different mediators in this context. Chapter 8 points to the significance of these results for larger socio-political processes in the country and reveals four key trends characterising the changes in the relationships between society, king and government. Furthermore, the perspectives for water conflict transformation and the need for further research are developed. The last chapter presents a practical concept for enhancing conflict sensitivity in the water sector and for preventing violent escalation of tensions. It proposes three overall objectives in this regard: (a) understanding water conflicts as factors of socio-political (de-)stabilisation; (b) identifying conflict potentials and supporting transformation processes; and (c) dealing constructively with water conflicts. Concrete measures are proposed for the implementation of each of these objectives. Finally, the conclusion reviews the main challenges in the study of water conflicts and summarises the key findings. ; La pénurie croissante en eau douce provoque de plus en plus souvent des conflits parfois violents. Compte tenu de la forte influence des structures sociopolitiques locales sur la gestion de l'eau, l'émergence et le traitement des conflits, au delà du contexte environnemental, sont surtout une question de gouvernance. Le travail présent cherche à répondre aux trois questions de recherche centrales suivantes : (1) Quelles sont les causes politiques, écologiques et socio-économiques structurelles de l'émergence et de l'escalade des conflits autour de l'eau ? (2) Quelles sont les possibilités de médiation, de prévention et de transformation de ces conflits que nous pouvons développer sur la base des connaissances acquises à travers l'étude de cas? Et (3) comment une étude de cas locale peut-elle contribuer au développement d'une approche théorique plus générale et quels enseignements pour l'approche méthodologique pouvons-nous en tirer? L'objectif essentiel de ce travail est de comprendre, à l'exemple du Maroc, comment différents facteurs politiques, sociaux, économiques influencent l'émergence et le déroulement des conflits autour de l'eau. L'étude est organisée en neuf chapitres. Dans un premier temps, nous introduisons la thématique et l'état de la recherche. Au delà de l'impact de la pénurie en eau dans la région du Proche et Moyen Orient et de l'Afrique du Nord nous analysons également le rôle politique particulier de l'agriculture irriguée et les implications sécuritaires de la pénurie. Le deuxième chapitre évalue l'état de la recherche dans trois domaines proches de notre problématique : la recherche sur la sécurité environnementale, les théories de la gestion des biens communs, et la recherche sur les conflits. Sur la base de notre constat des forces et des faiblesses des théories existantes, nous développons notre approche d'analyse et méthodologique et présentons nos hypothèses de travail (chapitre 3). Celles-ci assument qu'une combinaison de processus de marginalisation écologique et socio-économique provoque les conflits autour de l'eau. Nous présumons aussi que le succès d'initiatives de médiation dans ces conflits dépend de la légitimité des intervenants, et que les organisations locales jouent un rôle important à cet égard. Les chapitres 4 et 5 sont consacrés à l'analyse des structures politiques et socio-économiques du Maroc dans le but d'identifier de potentielles causes structurelles de conflits. Le système politique et la position particulière du roi ainsi que ses alliances traditionnelles avec les élites rurales se trouvent au centre du quatrième chapitre. Nous concluons que le système socio- politique marocain se trouve aujourd'hui dans un processus de mutation conditionné par la faible légitimité des institutions démocratiques, la popularité croissante des acteurs de la société civile mais aussi de groupements religieux, et l'émergence d'une nouvelle élite. Le cinquième chapitre se concentre sur les changements dans la politique de l'eau et de l'agriculture et des conflits potentiels qui en résultent. Nous identifions la pénurie en eau, la libéralisation économique, une décentralisation inachevée et les grandes disparités entre les zones rurales et urbaines comme problèmes cruciaux et potentiellement conflictuels du développement rural. L'étude de cas dans la zone du Souss au Sud du Maroc se trouve au centre des chapitres 6 et 7. Dans le sixième chapitre, nous analysons la situation paradoxale de la simultanéité d'une forte dégradation des ressources eau et terre dans la région d'une part, et de son importance stratégique pour les cultures agricoles hautement rentables d'autre part. Dans ce contexte, nous étudions également la marginalisation croissante des petites exploitations agricoles ainsi que les problèmes de la gestion de l'eau. Par ailleurs, nous analysons le projet pilote d'un partenariat public-privé pour l'irrigation. Au-delà de l'étude du montage financier et technique de ce projet, nous révélons également ses implications politiques et environnementales. Dans cette étude de cas, nous avons procédé à l'étude de sources bibliographiques mais surtout aussi à de nombreuses enquêtes de terrain. Le septième chapitre introduit d'abord notre typologie des conflits autour de l'eau et présente ensuite les résultats des enquêtes. Nous concluons entre autres qu'un profond décrochement entre petites et grandes exploitations agricoles a eu lieu dans les dix dernières années et qui s'accentue encore aujourd'hui. Par ailleurs, nous révélons la fréquence de l'affectation des petites, moyennes et grandes exploitations par différents types de conflits d'eau et évaluons le succès de différents médiateurs. Finalement, sur la base de ces données et compte tenu de l'impact du projet de partenariat public-privé, nous évaluons le potentiel de conflits présent et à venir dans cette région. Dans les chapitres 8 et 9, nous tirons les conclusions de notre étude de cas. Nous présentons premièrement les enseignements méthodologiques et analysons ensuite les tendances majeures concernant la continuité et le changement des relations entre la société marocaine, le gouvernement et le roi. Nous concluons le huitième chapitre par une analyse des possibilités d'une transformation des conflits autour de l'eau. Le neuvième et dernier chapitre présente un concept pratique pour l'évaluation et la prévention des conflits autour de l'eau. Dans ce but, nous développons trois principes suivis d'une série de mesures pour leur mise en oeuvre: (1) le développement et la réalisation d'une compréhension globale de la politique de l'eau, (2) un meilleur diagnostic des conflits autour de l'eau et de leurs causes structurelles, ainsi que le soutien à leur transformation, et (3) une modification de la manière d'appréhender les conflits, orientée vers leur potentiel innovateur et de coopération. Finalement, nous résumons les résultats principaux de notre travail, signalons les défis essentiels liés aux conflits de l'eau à l'avenir et proposons des pistes de réflexion pour de nouvelles recherches dans ce domaine.

La presente tesis parte del interés de blanquear pasta de lino (Linum usitatissimum) mediante procesos más respetuosos con el medio ambiente, a partir de secuencias totalmente libre de cloro (TCF) y de la utilización de fibras no madereras para la fabricación de papeles especiales de alta calidad. Asimismo, se ha estudiado la aplicación de enzimas en el blanqueo de pasta de eucalipto (Eucalyptus saligna y Eucalyptus grandis) en la fábrica de Jacareí de Votorantim Celulose e Papel (Brasil) para conseguir una mejora de las propiedades de las pastas y un ahorro de reactivos en la secuencia de blanqueo industrial. Los estudios realizados permiten obtener dos tipos de secuencias para el blanqueo de pasta de lino TCF, ambas con reactivos químicos utilizados individualmente (secuencias químicas) o combinados con tratamientos biotecnológicos (secuencias bioquímicas). Las secuencias químicas incluyen una etapa de ozono y las secuencias bioquímicas incluyen un tratamiento enzimático. Las secuencias bioquímicas constan de etapas que son fácilmente aplicables en la industria, donde la primera de ellas es un sistema lacasa mediador con lacasa comercial de Trametes versicolor y el mediador HBT. En cuanto a los tratamientos biológicos, en primer lugar, se ha estudiado la influencia de la adición de oxígeno y del tiempo de tratamiento en el sistema enzimático y se ha comprobado como influyen ambas variables en las propiedades de la pasta de lino. También se ha estudiado la formación de compuestos cromóforos en la pasta a partir de la determinación de las propiedades ópticas. Posteriormente, se ha realizado un estudio estadístico de las variables de proceso del sistema lacasa mediador y su influencia en las propiedades de las pastas y los efluentes después de cada etapa de blanqueo. La optimización de las variables de tratamiento en el bioblanqueo de lino permite determinar las condiciones de aplicación más adecuadas para conseguir unas determinadas propiedades de la pasta a un menor coste y que resulten fácilmente adaptables a los procesos existentes. Gracias a este estudio, se consigue reducir las dosis de reactivos y el tiempo de tratamiento. El estudio sistemático de cada una de las etapas de blanqueo permite determinar cuál es el efecto sobre la pasta de cada reactivo en cada una de las etapas de las secuencias bioquímicas. Por otro lado, también se ha comprobado como el sistema lacasa mediador es capaz de oxidar ciertos extractivos lipofílicos presentes en la pasta de lino. La optimización de las dosis y el tiempo de tratamiento en el bioblanqueo también se deben tener en cuenta por su influencia en las propiedades de los efluentes, debido a la potencial toxicidad del mediador, como también, a la posible pérdida de actividad enzimática durante el tratamiento. Como novedad, cabe decir, que los valores máximos de toxicidad medidos se encuentran por debajo de los límites que fija la legislación en Cataluña. En este estudio se determina que la pérdida de actividad enzimática en el tratamiento depende básicamente de la dosis de HBT utilizada, por lo que la aplicación de dosis de reactivos superiores a las óptimas, no sólo encarece el proceso de blanqueo, sino que además, una sobredosificación puede dificultar la posible reutilización de estos efluentes de blanqueo. En una segunda parte de la tesis, se estudia la influencia del tratamiento con diversas xilanasas comerciales en las propiedades de la pasta de eucalipto, en las condiciones de blanqueo industriales, a pH y temperatura elevados, en la fábrica de Jacareí de Votorantim Celulose e Papel (Brasil). La aplicación de xilanasas permite una mayor flexibilidad de la secuencia de blanqueo. También, permite ahorrar reactivos químicos, así como incrementar la productividad de aquellas plantas en las que la capacidad de producción de dióxido de cloro es un factor limitante. La aplicación de las xilanasas en la torre de almacenamiento de pasta de la línea de fibras B de la unidad de Jacareí permitiría la mejora de las propiedades de índice kappa y blancura de la pasta en la secuencia de blanqueo industrial. Para ello, no es necesario modificar el proceso existente, lo que es favorable desde el punto de vista industrial, ya que no se requiere una inversión en nuevos equipos. La efectividad del tratamiento enzimático disminuye considerablemente al aumentar la cantidad de licor negro y cuando el pH se encuentra por encima de 10. Por lo que, en el supuesto de que se aplicara un tratamiento enzimático en la torre de almacenamiento, se haría necesario un control, tanto de la cantidad de licor negro presente en la pasta, como del pH antes del punto de aplicación de enzima. ; The aim of this thesis is to bleach flax pulp (Linum usitatissimum) by more friendly environmental processes, using totally chlorine free sequences (TCF) and non-wood fibers for the manufacture of high quality specialty papers. This work is framed by one of the research topics in the Textile and Paper Engineering Department of the Technical University of Catalonia. Part of this research topic is based on bleaching fibers, focused basically on the study of new bleaching agents and biotechnology application. Likewise, enzyme application has been studied in eucalyptus pulp bleaching (Eucalyptus saligna and Eucalyptus grandis) in Jacareí Mill of Votorantim Celulose e Papel (Brazil) in order to obtain an improvement of the pulp properties and reagent savings in the industrial bleaching sequence. Performed studies allow to obtain two kinds of TCF sequences for flax pulp bleaching, both with chemical reagents used individually (chemical sequences) or combined with biotechnological treatments (biochemical sequences). Before beginning the bleaching sequences studies, the ozonation pilot plant has been modified. This plant was designed by the research group CIPAGRAF. A new design has been carried out improving the distribution of the equipments, pipelines and valves, basically to minimize delay times in ozone measurements. Chemical sequences include an ozone stage and biochemical sequences include an enzymatic treatment. The biochemical sequences include stages that are easily applicable in the industry. The first one is a laccase-mediator system with a commercial laccase from Trametes versicolor and mediator HBT. Regarding biological treatments, firstly, the influence of oxygen addition and treatment time has been studied in the enzymatic system. Both variables have been proven to have influence on flax pulp properties. The formation of chromophores compounds in pulp has been also studied from the determination of optical properties. Later, it has been carried out a statistical study of the process variables in laccase-mediator system and their influence in pulp and effluent properties after each bleahing stage. References have not been almost found on pulp properties modeling as a function of the variables in an enzymatic process in this enclosed operation conditions regarding a future industrial application. Process variables optimization in flax pulp biobleaching allows to establish the application conditions most appropriated to obtain certain pulp properties to a lower cost and that turn out to be easily adaptable to existing processes. The results show that a reduction of reagent doses and treatment time can be obtained, and the study allows establishing those conditions which the system is not effective. The systematic study of each one of the bleaching stages allows determining the effect on the pulp of each reagent in each of the stages of the biochemical sequences. On the other hand, it has been proved that laccase-mediator system is capable of oxidize certain lipophilic compounds on flax pulp. Besides, it must be also considered the influence of the process variables in effluent properties, due to the potential toxicity of mediator and possible enzymatic activity loss during the treatment. It is necessary to emphasize that studies on effluent characterization depending on process variables in laccase mediator system have not been found. As a novelty, maximum values of toxicity measured are below the legal limit that determines legislation in Catalonia. It has been also observed, that effluent toxicity in L stage is not only due to the presence of mediator HBT, but by-products of degradation show a major toxicity than the HBT in its initial form. In this study, enzymatic activity loss depends basically on the HBT dose. Therefore, a reagent dose application higher to the optimal doses, not only increases bleaching cost, but in addition, an overdosage can avoid the possible reutilization of bleaching effluents. In the second part of the thesis, the study is based on the influence of an enzymatic treatment with commercial xylanases on eucalyptus pulp properties at the industrial bleaching conditions, high pH and temperature, in Jacareí Mill of Votorantim Celulosa e Papel (Brazil). Xylanase application allows a major flexibility of the bleaching sequence. Moreover, it allows chemical reagents saving, as well an increase of productivity in those mills in which the production capacity of chlorine dioxide is a limiting factor, as it is the case of Jacareí's Mill. Xylanase application in storage tower would allow pulp properties improvement, like kappa number and brightness, in the industrial bleaching sequence. For this, it is not necessary to modify the existing process, which is an advantage from an industrial point of view, since an investment in new equipments is not needed. Enzymatic treatment efficiency decreases considerably when black liquor amount is increased and when the pH is over 10. For this reason, if an enzymatic treatment was applied in the storage tower, a control would become necessary for black liquor amount in pulp and for pH before the enzyme application point. ; Postprint (published version)

La presente tesis parte del interés de blanquear pasta de lino (Linum usitatissimum) mediante procesos más respetuosos con el medio ambiente, a partir de secuencias totalmente libre de cloro (TCF) y de la utilización de fibras no madereras para la fabricación de papeles especiales de alta calidad. Asimismo, se ha estudiado la aplicación de enzimas en el blanqueo de pasta de eucalipto (Eucalyptus saligna y Eucalyptus grandis) en la fábrica de Jacareí de Votorantim Celulose e Papel (Brasil) para conseguir una mejora de las propiedades de las pastas y un ahorro de reactivos en la secuencia de blanqueo industrial. Los estudios realizados permiten obtener dos tipos de secuencias para el blanqueo de pasta de lino TCF, ambas con reactivos químicos utilizados individualmente (secuencias químicas) o combinados con tratamientos biotecnológicos (secuencias bioquímicas). Las secuencias químicas incluyen una etapa de ozono y las secuencias bioquímicas incluyen un tratamiento enzimático. Las secuencias bioquímicas constan de etapas que son fácilmente aplicables en la industria, donde la primera de ellas es un sistema lacasa mediador con lacasa comercial de Trametes versicolor y el mediador HBT. En cuanto a los tratamientos biológicos, en primer lugar, se ha estudiado la influencia de la adición de oxígeno y del tiempo de tratamiento en el sistema enzimático y se ha comprobado como influyen ambas variables en las propiedades de la pasta de lino. También se ha estudiado la formación de compuestos cromóforos en la pasta a partir de la determinación de las propiedades ópticas. Posteriormente, se ha realizado un estudio estadístico de las variables de proceso del sistema lacasa mediador y su influencia en las propiedades de las pastas y los efluentes después de cada etapa de blanqueo. La optimización de las variables de tratamiento en el bioblanqueo de lino permite determinar las condiciones de aplicación más adecuadas para conseguir unas determinadas propiedades de la pasta a un menor coste y que resulten fácilmente adaptables a los procesos existentes. Gracias a este estudio, se consigue reducir las dosis de reactivos y el tiempo de tratamiento. El estudio sistemático de cada una de las etapas de blanqueo permite determinar cuál es el efecto sobre la pasta de cada reactivo en cada una de las etapas de las secuencias bioquímicas. Por otro lado, también se ha comprobado como el sistema lacasa mediador es capaz de oxidar ciertos extractivos lipofílicos presentes en la pasta de lino. La optimización de las dosis y el tiempo de tratamiento en el bioblanqueo también se deben tener en cuenta por su influencia en las propiedades de los efluentes, debido a la potencial toxicidad del mediador, como también, a la posible pérdida de actividad enzimática durante el tratamiento. Como novedad, cabe decir, que los valores máximos de toxicidad medidos se encuentran por debajo de los límites que fija la legislación en Cataluña. En este estudio se determina que la pérdida de actividad enzimática en el tratamiento depende básicamente de la dosis de HBT utilizada, por lo que la aplicación de dosis de reactivos superiores a las óptimas, no sólo encarece el proceso de blanqueo, sino que además, una sobredosificación puede dificultar la posible reutilización de estos efluentes de blanqueo. En una segunda parte de la tesis, se estudia la influencia del tratamiento con diversas xilanasas comerciales en las propiedades de la pasta de eucalipto, en las condiciones de blanqueo industriales, a pH y temperatura elevados, en la fábrica de Jacareí de Votorantim Celulose e Papel (Brasil). La aplicación de xilanasas permite una mayor flexibilidad de la secuencia de blanqueo. También, permite ahorrar reactivos químicos, así como incrementar la productividad de aquellas plantas en las que la capacidad de producción de dióxido de cloro es un factor limitante. La aplicación de las xilanasas en la torre de almacenamiento de pasta de la línea de fibras B de la unidad de Jacareí permitiría la mejora de las propiedades de índice kappa y blancura de la pasta en la secuencia de blanqueo industrial. Para ello, no es necesario modificar el proceso existente, lo que es favorable desde el punto de vista industrial, ya que no se requiere una inversión en nuevos equipos. La efectividad del tratamiento enzimático disminuye considerablemente al aumentar la cantidad de licor negro y cuando el pH se encuentra por encima de 10. Por lo que, en el supuesto de que se aplicara un tratamiento enzimático en la torre de almacenamiento, se haría necesario un control, tanto de la cantidad de licor negro presente en la pasta, como del pH antes del punto de aplicación de enzima. ; The aim of this thesis is to bleach flax pulp (Linum usitatissimum) by more friendly environmental processes, using totally chlorine free sequences (TCF) and non-wood fibers for the manufacture of high quality specialty papers. This work is framed by one of the research topics in the Textile and Paper Engineering Department of the Technical University of Catalonia. Part of this research topic is based on bleaching fibers, focused basically on the study of new bleaching agents and biotechnology application. Likewise, enzyme application has been studied in eucalyptus pulp bleaching (Eucalyptus saligna and Eucalyptus grandis) in Jacareí Mill of Votorantim Celulose e Papel (Brazil) in order to obtain an improvement of the pulp properties and reagent savings in the industrial bleaching sequence. Performed studies allow to obtain two kinds of TCF sequences for flax pulp bleaching, both with chemical reagents used individually (chemical sequences) or combined with biotechnological treatments (biochemical sequences). Before beginning the bleaching sequences studies, the ozonation pilot plant has been modified. This plant was designed by the research group CIPAGRAF. A new design has been carried out improving the distribution of the equipments, pipelines and valves, basically to minimize delay times in ozone measurements. Chemical sequences include an ozone stage and biochemical sequences include an enzymatic treatment. The biochemical sequences include stages that are easily applicable in the industry. The first one is a laccase-mediator system with a commercial laccase from Trametes versicolor and mediator HBT. Regarding biological treatments, firstly, the influence of oxygen addition and treatment time has been studied in the enzymatic system. Both variables have been proven to have influence on flax pulp properties. The formation of chromophores compounds in pulp has been also studied from the determination of optical properties. Later, it has been carried out a statistical study of the process variables in laccase-mediator system and their influence in pulp and effluent properties after each bleahing stage. References have not been almost found on pulp properties modeling as a function of the variables in an enzymatic process in this enclosed operation conditions regarding a future industrial application. Process variables optimization in flax pulp biobleaching allows to establish the application conditions most appropriated to obtain certain pulp properties to a lower cost and that turn out to be easily adaptable to existing processes. The results show that a reduction of reagent doses and treatment time can be obtained, and the study allows establishing those conditions which the system is not effective. The systematic study of each one of the bleaching stages allows determining the effect on the pulp of each reagent in each of the stages of the biochemical sequences. On the other hand, it has been proved that laccase-mediator system is capable of oxidize certain lipophilic compounds on flax pulp. Besides, it must be also considered the influence of the process variables in effluent properties, due to the potential toxicity of mediator and possible enzymatic activity loss during the treatment. It is necessary to emphasize that studies on effluent characterization depending on process variables in laccase mediator system have not been found. As a novelty, maximum values of toxicity measured are below the legal limit that determines legislation in Catalonia. It has been also observed, that effluent toxicity in L stage is not only due to the presence of mediator HBT, but by-products of degradation show a major toxicity than the HBT in its initial form. In this study, enzymatic activity loss depends basically on the HBT dose. Therefore, a reagent dose application higher to the optimal doses, not only increases bleaching cost, but in addition, an overdosage can avoid the possible reutilization of bleaching effluents. In the second part of the thesis, the study is based on the influence of an enzymatic treatment with commercial xylanases on eucalyptus pulp properties at the industrial bleaching conditions, high pH and temperature, in Jacareí Mill of Votorantim Celulosa e Papel (Brazil). Xylanase application allows a major flexibility of the bleaching sequence. Moreover, it allows chemical reagents saving, as well an increase of productivity in those mills in which the production capacity of chlorine dioxide is a limiting factor, as it is the case of Jacareí's Mill. Xylanase application in storage tower would allow pulp properties improvement, like kappa number and brightness, in the industrial bleaching sequence. For this, it is not necessary to modify the existing process, which is an advantage from an industrial point of view, since an investment in new equipments is not needed. Enzymatic treatment efficiency decreases considerably when black liquor amount is increased and when the pH is over 10. For this reason, if an enzymatic treatment was applied in the storage tower, a control would become necessary for black liquor amount in pulp and for pH before the enzyme application point. ; Postprint (published version)

These complète en allemand : Konflikte um Wasser in Marokko: ökologische und soziopolitische Konfliktursachen sowie Möglichkeiten der Konflikttransformation (Résumé long en français de 73 pages) ; Water scarcity increasingly provokes conflicts with often violent tendencies. As water management is determined by socio-political structures, governance plays a key role in the emergence and resolution of these conflicts. Based on a case-study of water conflicts in Morocco, the key objective of the present study is to understand how different political, ecological and socio-economic factors interact in the dynamics of these disputes. The first of the nine chapters introduces the topic by reviewing the possibilities of measuring water scarcity and its impact. This is done by exploring the situation in the MENA-region, and by analysing the security implications at the international level as well as in the context of broader security concepts. The second chapter evaluates the value of three theoretical approaches to the study of water conflicts: common pool resources theories, environmental security approaches, and conflict research. On the basis of this assessment, the third chapter presents a specific analytical and methodological approach by adapting theories of conflict transformation to the study of water conflicts. Four working hypotheses are developed regarding the root causes of water conflicts, the type of farmers most affected and the potential for mediation. Chapters 4 and 5 analyse potential root causes of water conflicts in Morocco. Chapter 4 concludes that the political system with the particular role of the king and his alliances with rural elites is challenged by the lack of legitimacy of democratic institutions, the increasing influence of civil society and religious actors, and the emergence of new economic elites. Chapter 5 analyses water and agricultural policies in Morocco and concludes that water scarcity, the effects of trade liberalisation, and incomplete decentralisation processes contribute to increasing social disparities and may fuel conflict. Chapters 6 and 7 analyse the case of water conflicts in the Souss region in Southern Morocco. The region is highly affected by water scarcity. At the same time, it is of strategic importance to the export-oriented, lucrative citrus fruit production. In this context, the study analyses the increasing marginalisation of small farmers and the problems of public water management, which is challenged by influential private investors and illegal drilling. It also examines the pilot project ElGuerdane for water mobilisation and distribution through a public-private partnership in irrigation. The analysis reviews the project's technical and financial aspects, and its political and environmental implications. Chapter 7 introduces a typology of water conflicts developed on the basis of the author's field research. It then presents the results of the empirical investigations including a large number of expert interviews, the study of six cases of water conflicts, and about 100 standardised interviews with farmers. The chapter concludes that an important marginalisation process of small farmers takes place in the valley, reveals that these farmers are also more often affected by conflicts over irrigation and drinking water, and examines the success of different mediators in this context. Chapter 8 points to the significance of these results for larger socio-political processes in the country and reveals four key trends characterising the changes in the relationships between society, king and government. Furthermore, the perspectives for water conflict transformation and the need for further research are developed. The last chapter presents a practical concept for enhancing conflict sensitivity in the water sector and for preventing violent escalation of tensions. It proposes three overall objectives in this regard: (a) understanding water conflicts as factors of socio-political (de-)stabilisation; (b) identifying conflict potentials and supporting transformation processes; and (c) dealing constructively with water conflicts. Concrete measures are proposed for the implementation of each of these objectives. Finally, the conclusion reviews the main challenges in the study of water conflicts and summarises the key findings. ; La pénurie croissante en eau douce provoque de plus en plus souvent des conflits parfois violents. Compte tenu de la forte influence des structures sociopolitiques locales sur la gestion de l'eau, l'émergence et le traitement des conflits, au delà du contexte environnemental, sont surtout une question de gouvernance. Le travail présent cherche à répondre aux trois questions de recherche centrales suivantes : (1) Quelles sont les causes politiques, écologiques et socio-économiques structurelles de l'émergence et de l'escalade des conflits autour de l'eau ? (2) Quelles sont les possibilités de médiation, de prévention et de transformation de ces conflits que nous pouvons développer sur la base des connaissances acquises à travers l'étude de cas? Et (3) comment une étude de cas locale peut-elle contribuer au développement d'une approche théorique plus générale et quels enseignements pour l'approche méthodologique pouvons-nous en tirer? L'objectif essentiel de ce travail est de comprendre, à l'exemple du Maroc, comment différents facteurs politiques, sociaux, économiques influencent l'émergence et le déroulement des conflits autour de l'eau. L'étude est organisée en neuf chapitres. Dans un premier temps, nous introduisons la thématique et l'état de la recherche. Au delà de l'impact de la pénurie en eau dans la région du Proche et Moyen Orient et de l'Afrique du Nord nous analysons également le rôle politique particulier de l'agriculture irriguée et les implications sécuritaires de la pénurie. Le deuxième chapitre évalue l'état de la recherche dans trois domaines proches de notre problématique : la recherche sur la sécurité environnementale, les théories de la gestion des biens communs, et la recherche sur les conflits. Sur la base de notre constat des forces et des faiblesses des théories existantes, nous développons notre approche d'analyse et méthodologique et présentons nos hypothèses de travail (chapitre 3). Celles-ci assument qu'une combinaison de processus de marginalisation écologique et socio-économique provoque les conflits autour de l'eau. Nous présumons aussi que le succès d'initiatives de médiation dans ces conflits dépend de la légitimité des intervenants, et que les organisations locales jouent un rôle important à cet égard. Les chapitres 4 et 5 sont consacrés à l'analyse des structures politiques et socio-économiques du Maroc dans le but d'identifier de potentielles causes structurelles de conflits. Le système politique et la position particulière du roi ainsi que ses alliances traditionnelles avec les élites rurales se trouvent au centre du quatrième chapitre. Nous concluons que le système socio- politique marocain se trouve aujourd'hui dans un processus de mutation conditionné par la faible légitimité des institutions démocratiques, la popularité croissante des acteurs de la société civile mais aussi de groupements religieux, et l'émergence d'une nouvelle élite. Le cinquième chapitre se concentre sur les changements dans la politique de l'eau et de l'agriculture et des conflits potentiels qui en résultent. Nous identifions la pénurie en eau, la libéralisation économique, une décentralisation inachevée et les grandes disparités entre les zones rurales et urbaines comme problèmes cruciaux et potentiellement conflictuels du développement rural. L'étude de cas dans la zone du Souss au Sud du Maroc se trouve au centre des chapitres 6 et 7. Dans le sixième chapitre, nous analysons la situation paradoxale de la simultanéité d'une forte dégradation des ressources eau et terre dans la région d'une part, et de son importance stratégique pour les cultures agricoles hautement rentables d'autre part. Dans ce contexte, nous étudions également la marginalisation croissante des petites exploitations agricoles ainsi que les problèmes de la gestion de l'eau. Par ailleurs, nous analysons le projet pilote d'un partenariat public-privé pour l'irrigation. Au-delà de l'étude du montage financier et technique de ce projet, nous révélons également ses implications politiques et environnementales. Dans cette étude de cas, nous avons procédé à l'étude de sources bibliographiques mais surtout aussi à de nombreuses enquêtes de terrain. Le septième chapitre introduit d'abord notre typologie des conflits autour de l'eau et présente ensuite les résultats des enquêtes. Nous concluons entre autres qu'un profond décrochement entre petites et grandes exploitations agricoles a eu lieu dans les dix dernières années et qui s'accentue encore aujourd'hui. Par ailleurs, nous révélons la fréquence de l'affectation des petites, moyennes et grandes exploitations par différents types de conflits d'eau et évaluons le succès de différents médiateurs. Finalement, sur la base de ces données et compte tenu de l'impact du projet de partenariat public-privé, nous évaluons le potentiel de conflits présent et à venir dans cette région. Dans les chapitres 8 et 9, nous tirons les conclusions de notre étude de cas. Nous présentons premièrement les enseignements méthodologiques et analysons ensuite les tendances majeures concernant la continuité et le changement des relations entre la société marocaine, le gouvernement et le roi. Nous concluons le huitième chapitre par une analyse des possibilités d'une transformation des conflits autour de l'eau. Le neuvième et dernier chapitre présente un concept pratique pour l'évaluation et la prévention des conflits autour de l'eau. Dans ce but, nous développons trois principes suivis d'une série de mesures pour leur mise en oeuvre: (1) le développement et la réalisation d'une compréhension globale de la politique de l'eau, (2) un meilleur diagnostic des conflits autour de l'eau et de leurs causes structurelles, ainsi que le soutien à leur transformation, et (3) une modification de la manière d'appréhender les conflits, orientée vers leur potentiel innovateur et de coopération. Finalement, nous résumons les résultats principaux de notre travail, signalons les défis essentiels liés aux conflits de l'eau à l'avenir et proposons des pistes de réflexion pour de nouvelles recherches dans ce domaine.

Executive summary Introduction CTA works primarily through intermediary organisations and partners (non-governmental organisations, farmers' organisations, regional organisations) to promote agriculture and rural development and to deliver its various information products and capacity building services. By partnering with these organisations, CTA seeks to increase the number of ACP organisations capable of generating and managing information and developing their own information and communication management strategies. In the period 2003 – 2005, CTA undertook a series of needs assessment studies in 21 countries in the ACP Pacific and Caribbean. As a continuation of this process, CTA have now commissioned assessments of the agricultural information needs of 6 countries emerging from prolonged conflict situations in ACP Africa, including Mozambique, which forms the focus of this report. Objectives of the Study The objectives of this study are to develop a strategy for CTA's approach to post-conflict countries, to improve the effectiveness of CTA's support for post-conflict countries and to compile baseline data on the status of ICM and ICTs in agriculture and rural development in Mozambique. Methodology The country profile was produced through a desk study. This study relied heavily on information available on the internet and additional information was obtained from various institutions in Mozambique, internationally and from key informants. Through the desk study we were able to identify a list of nine key institutions. This list was discussed with CTA and informants in Mozambique and face to face interviews were requested with each institution. Of these, seven of the institutions agreed, whilst one indicated that it would be closing its operations within a year and was therefore removed from the list. Expected results This study will provide: 1) an inventory of the status of agricultural information services, institutions and other actors and their needs as their relate to physical infrastructure, information availability and access and human capacity development; 2) an assessment of the current and / or planned interventions of the government and bi- or multilateral agencies in the field of information for agriculture and rural development; 3) an overview of the needs of potential partners for CTA activities and services in terms of building capacity for information and communication management; 4) a short-list of potential partners / beneficiaries for CTA activities and services; 5) baseline data to facilitate subsequent monitoring activities. The study will also provide a framework for CTA to develop a framework for action and fashion a strategy aimed at institutions in countries emerging from conflict situations and provide input into its 2006 – 2010 strategic plan. Findings Following the signing of a peace agreement in 1992 to end 16 years of conflict, Mozambique has achieved impressive economic growth and lowered its prevalence of poverty. Sustained by strong foreign investment, real GDP in Mozambique has been growing at rates in excess of 7 percent for the last 4 consecutive years, and per capita income in US dollars has increased by nearly 50 percent between 2001 and 2004. Mozambique's economic growth, however, implies an important transformation in the composition of its GDP, although services remain the dominant sector. The share of industry in total GDP increased to 27 percent in 2004 from about 16 percent in 1996, whereas the share of agriculture decreased to 23 percent from about 30 percent in the same period. The agricultural sector, however, still supports 80 percent of the economically active population, and agriculture still provides major export earnings from commodities such as prawns and fish, cotton, sugar, timber and cashew nuts. The forestry sector also has an important role in the country, contributing 4 percent of gross domestic product and supplying about 80 percent of the energy used. There is no unified policy or strategy in Mozambique with regard to the management of agricultural information and broad dissemination networks are not well developed. Institutions that fall outside of the state or donor worlds often find it difficult to get hold of information. Information exchange between institutions tends to be informal rather than structured. Agricultural research generally is restricted by the insufficient number of scientists who can formulate and carry out studies relevant to Mozambican needs. Budgets for information management tend to be a low priority. In-house capacity for maintaining and troubleshooting computer networks is a constraint; reliance is made upon private companies specialised in IT. Retention of staff at the centre with IT skills, in the face of competition from the private sector, was cited as a problem by all of the state agencies. Building the capacities of in-house staff was therefore felt to be important. Existing websites, maintained by some of the key institutions vary in their effectiveness as publishing outlets and often tend to be reflections of the institution, its structure and its work programme, rather than being designed specifically to disseminate information, reports, studies, etc. that are produced, or to act as advocacy tools. Use of radio as a means of disseminating information in vernacular languages is still rather limited. Problems in this respect are the costs of translation and payments for the transmissions. Training in how to pass information on to low literacy groups was also indicated by several agencies. This included training in more effective writing skills and training in how to compile radio programmes and audio visual materials. There is a general lack of metadata; documentation on who is doing what and types of available information is generally poor. This has a double negative effect. On one hand, potential data and information users have difficulties finding or getting access to relevant information and on the other hand, information suppliers do not know what they have, which prevents better organisation of information for dissemination. Conclusions Most of the institutions which we interviewed have fairly well-developed links to relevant sources of information; data on the functioning of markets, prices and production levels in the agriculture and fisheries sectors has vastly improved in recent years. Some of these agencies need information on regional and international markets and production levels. Technical data is still harder to source, particularly in Portuguese. There are information needs regarding developments in thinking on food security, forms and means of supporting organisations at community level, participatory approaches to resource management, information on low cost technologies for increasing production and conserving produce, on gender, on HIV/AIDS prevention and mitigation strategies and on general rural development issues. Respondents requested capacity building in information management to increase the effectiveness of their organisations. Government services and NGO staff indicated the importance of training in the analysis of socio-economic data. Training in the use of the internet to obtain information and in the targeting of information by library and documentation services was also a broad need. The design and development of web sites was indicated by many respondents, but it is felt that there is a particular need for support in how to conceptualise these as sources of information rather than just 'publicity'. Training in effective communication to low literacy target audiences, in the development of extension materials and the use of radio and audio-visual materials is also important. Recommendations We recommend that CTA provide support to the development of a national IMC strategy for agricultural information that takes full advantage of the opportunities offered by the new GovNet infrastructure. The ICM strategy should ensure that information is easily available to all stakeholders in rural development. Furthermore, the ICM strategy should prevent a gap from evolving between organisations connected to GovNet and those that are not. Finally, the ICM should provide for communication channels from the rural poor to research organisations and policy makers, to ensure that research and policies are guided by the needs of poor rural households. We recommend that CTA attempts to increase the amount of information disseminated in Portuguese language, particularly in regard to food security, forms and means of supporting organisations at community level, participatory approaches to resource management, information on low cost technologies for increasing production and conserving produce, on gender, on HIV/AIDS prevention and mitigation strategies and on general rural development issues. We recommend that CTA support short term research activities targeted at Mozambican-specific issues in relation to agricultural production and the conservation of produce. Links should be set up to inform IIAM and DNER about the information needs of poor farmers, women and PLWHA. These links can be set up through members organisations such as ORAM and UNAC, through Farmer Field Schools and through NGOs to which DNER has outsourced extension activities. We recommend that CTA investigate ways of supporting exchange of experience between organisations involved in training through associations and support to the development of training packages for associations. These should be provided to increase the effectiveness and efficiency of extension efforts in the field. In the long term, the required technical information can be provided to associations through newly developed training packages. ; The objectives of this study are to develop a strategy for CTA's approach to post-conflict countries, to improve the effectiveness of CTA's support for post-conflict countries and to compile baseline data on the status of ICM and ICTs in agriculture.

Approaching the Front National electoral conglomerate from a different angle, that of its female component, leads to a more in-depth examination of the results of quantitative surveys published over several decades on the subject. The meeting of 28 women who "voted at least once for the National Front" in the Vaucluse and Bouches du Rhône regions encourages us to go beyond the strictly political definition of this electoral preference. While it is important to take into account the geographic specificity of the survey field (the FN's long and lasting presence in the PACA region), the complementarity between qualitative interviews and ethnographic observations does not make it any less possible to deconstruct the life paths of the individuals we met in order to place the FN's preference at a precise moment in these singular biographical trajectories. By looking for what each respondent can put behind the expression of a FN preference, we have touched on identity problems linked to the redefinition of sexual and social roles in our society. We were able to observe the persistence of systematic discrepancies between expected roles (which could legitimately be expected in view of the elements of the value systems we encountered) and lived roles in terms of work, family and especially marriage. This observation leads us to question the place of politics - or at least of the preferences designated as such by the specialists - within matrimonial exchanges. The analysis of this not very politicized sample, like the FN electorate as a whole, underlines the extent to which the FN preference can only be a mediocre expression of political competence. The majority of our respondents have a low level of politicization and hide behind the apparently political "choice" of the FN modes of relationship to the "Other". Facilitating a rapprochement with the parental unit, the concretization of a new matrimonial relationship, a means of filling an emotional solitude, a bargaining chip in the matrimonial relationship or all of these successively, the female preference in favor of the FN can leave the political field to touch on the complex (re)construction of women's identities. By investing the public sphere after ages of confinement in the private sphere, do women with the least cultural and social capital not reappropriate politics to make private use of it? Don't women instrumentalize the political tools in order to manage at best the sometimes perverse effects of a sexual and social liberation to which not all have access or at least not by the main door? Our reflections concern essentially women exercising professions that are not very valorizing, not chosen and often poorly paid in order to achieve social existence. The FN preference can sometimes allow them to take the offensive in their relations with men (in a context where the latter are also struggling with a redefinition of male identity, shaken up by the redistribution of sexual and social roles). The FN preference can often be associated with a "tinkering with identity" rather than with the expression of politically oriented convictions.This approach, which is not exclusive of other explanatory principles of the FN vote, highlights certain aspects that are often marginalized in the name of a sometimes global vision of the female condition. However, isn't this vision first and foremost the luxury of those who have the means (cultural in particular)? For the others, of which our sample is largely representative, it is above all their own condition that they seek to improve and, for many, within the framework of what is most familiar to them, i.e. the couple and the family, regardless of whether this involves a preference for a party that is retrograde from the point of view of the improvement of women's condition. It is an altruism that they cannot afford and that often concerns them only from afar. Which women are we talking about when we talk about those who do not vote FN? What part of them actually invokes programmatic reasons? Without doubt, many of those who do not vote FN do not do so for the "good" reasons traditionally given, but evolve above all in configurations and family, marital and professional contexts that do not contribute to bringing them closer to this party. This fieldwork gives flesh to variables that are often disembodied, it opens up perspectives on the interweaving of the public and private spheres, and it gives "gender" its rightful place in the approach to an extreme political preference. With a multitude of interview excerpts, this study does not seek to construct a typical portrait of the FN voter, a task made all the more difficult by the fact that this is an electorate in perpetual evolution, but rather to deconstruct the possible mechanisms of rapprochement with this political family. ; L'approche du conglomérat électoral Front national par le biais d'un angle décalé, celui de sa composante féminine, conduit à approfondir les résultats d'enquêtes quantitatives publiées depuis maintenant plusieurs décennies sur le sujet. La rencontre de 28 femmes « ayant voté au moins une fois pour le Front national » dans le Vaucluse et les Bouches du Rhône, encourage à dépasser la définition strictement politique de cette préférence électorale. S'il convient de tenir compte de la spécificité géographique du terrain de l'enquête (implantation ancienne et durable du FN en PACA), la complémentarité entre entretiens qualitatifs et observations ethnographiques ne permet pas moins de déconstruire les parcours de vie des individus rencontrés pour replacer la préférence FN à un instant précis de ces trajectoires biographiques singulières. En cherchant ce que chaque enquêtée peut mettre derrière l'expression d'une préférence FN, nous avons touché à des problèmes d'identité liés à la redéfinition des rôles sexuels et sociaux dans notre société. Nous avons pu observer la permanence de décalages systématiques entre rôles attendus (qui pouvaient légitimement l'être eu égard aux éléments des systèmes de valeurs rencontrés) et rôles vécus tant sur le plan professionnel, familial mais surtout matrimonial. Un tel constat conduit à interroger la place du politique –ou du moins des préférences désignées comme telles par les spécialistes- au sein des échanges matrimoniaux. L'analyse de cet échantillon peu politisé, à l'image de l'électorat FN dans sa globalité, souligne combien la préférence FN ne peut être que médiocrement l'expression d'une compétence politique. Présentant dans leur majorité un indice de politisation faible, nos enquêtées dissimulent derrière le « choix » apparemment politique du FN des modes de relations à « l'Autre ». Facilitant un rapprochement avec la cellule parentale, la concrétisation d'une nouvelle relation matrimoniale, moyen de combler une solitude affective, monnaie d'échange dans la relation matrimoniale ou bien encore tout cela successivement, la préférence féminine en faveur du FN peut quitter le terrain politique pour toucher à la complexe (re)construction d'identités de femmes. En investissant la sphère publique après des lustres de confinement dans la sphère privée, les femmes les moins dotées en capital culturel et social, ne se réapproprient-elle pas le politique pour en faire un usage privé ? Les femmes n'instrumentalisent-elles pas les outils politiques en vue de gérer au mieux, les effets parfois pervers d'une libération sexuelle et sociale à laquelle toutes n'ont pas accès ou du moins pas par la grande porte ? Nos réflexions concernent essentiellement des femmes exerçant des professions peu valorisantes, non choisies et souvent mal rémunérées pour parvenir à exister socialement. La préférence FN peut parfois leur permettre de reprendre l'offensive dans leurs rapports aux hommes (dans un contexte où ces derniers sont également aux prises avec une redéfinition de l'identité masculine, bousculée par la redistribution des rôles sexuels et sociaux). C'est souvent à un « bricolage identitaire » que la préférence FN peut être associée plus qu'à l'expression de convictions politiquement orientées.Cette approche, non exclusive d'autres principes explicatifs du vote FN, en souligne certains aspects souvent marginalisés au nom d'une vision parfois globalisante de la condition féminine. Pourtant cette vision n'est-elle pas d'abord le luxe de celles qui en ont les moyens (culturels notamment) ? Pour les autres, dont notre échantillon est largement représentatif, c'est avant tout leur propre condition qu'elles cherchent à améliorer et, pour beaucoup, dans le cadre de ce qui leur est le plus familier c'est à dire le couple et la famille, peu importe si cela passe par la préférence pour un parti rétrograde du point de vue de l'amélioration de la condition de la femme. C'est un altruisme dont elles n'ont pas les moyens et qui ne les concerne souvent que de loin. De quelles femmes parlent-on quand on évoque celles qui ne votent pas FN ? Quelle est la part de ces dernières qui invoque effectivement des raisons programmatiques ? Sans doute beaucoup de celles qui ne votent pas FN ne le font pas pour les « bonnes » raisons traditionnellement retenues mais évoluent avant tout dans des configurations et des contextes familiaux, matrimoniaux, professionnels qui ne contribuent pas à les rapprocher de ce parti. Travail de terrain, cette enquête donne un peu de chair à des variables souvent désincarnées, elle ouvre des perspectives quant à l'imbrication de la sphère publique et de la sphère privée, elle donne toute sa place au « genre » dans l'approche d'une préférence politique extrême. Riche d'une multitude d'extraits d'entretiens, ce travail d'enquête ne cherche pas à construire un portrait type de l'électeur FN, tâche d'autant plus difficile qu'il s'agit d'un électorat en perpétuelle évolution, mais à déconstruire des mécanismes possibles de rapprochement avec cette famille politique.

Der Hintergrund vorliegender Forschungsarbeit über den Kleinprivatwald leitet sich aus der forstpolitischen Fragestellung ab, zu untersuchen, wie sich veränderte Rahmenbedingungen (Agrarstrukturwandel, Strukturwandel in der Holzbe- und verarbeitung) auf die Einstellungen, Interessen und Verhaltensweisen der Kleinprivatwaldbesitzer auswirken. Holzbe- und verarbeitung als Marktpartner des Kleinprivatwaldes Der Wandel in der Holzbe- und verarbeitung beeinträchtigt/gefährdet zunehmend die wirt-schaftliche Inwertsetzung ( Vermarktung von Holz aus dem Kleinprivatwald ), da die strukturellen Nachteile der Forstbetriebe im Kleinprivatwald ( Kleinflächigkeit, aussetzende Bewirtschaftungsweise, . ) eine nachfragegerechte Orientierung am Markt nicht zulassen. Aufgrund seines Flächenumfanges ( Kleinprivatwald (<200 ha): ca. 47% der Waldfläche in Bayern ) besteht aber die forst- und holzmarktpolitische Notwendigkeit, das Nutzungspotential ( des nachwachsenden, klima-neutralen Rohstoffes Holz ) im Kleinprivatwald auch wirtschaftlich in Wert zu setzen und die Bewirtschaftung von Wald als Quelle von Wertschöpfung und Einkommen in den ländlichen Räumen zu stützen. Aus Wettbewerbsgründen sind rundholzverarbeitende Betriebe zunehmend auf weiterverar-beitungsgerechte Holzlose angewiesen, die ein einzelner Forstbetrieb im Kleinprivatwald nicht mehr gewährleisten kann. Auswirkungen des Agrarstrukturwandels aus Sicht der Revierleiter und Zusammen-schlüsse Der Wandel in den Agrarstrukturen ( v.a. Betriebsaufgaben landwirtschaftlicher Voll- und Nebenerwerbs-betriebe ) führt dazu, dass sich die ehemals überwiegend bäuerlich geprägte Kleinprivatwald-struktur ( Land- und fortwirtschaftliche Mischbetriebe ) zunehmend in eine Struktur aus nicht-bäuerlichen Forstbetrieben umändert. Die Änderungen, die Privatwaldberater und Verantwortliche der Zusammenschlüsse im Zuge des Agrarwandels feststellen, formulieren sich wie folgt: Bäuerliche Waldbesitzer: Der Druck, die Betriebsabläufe im bäuerlichen Betrieb zu rationalisieren, führt zu drei wesentlichen Veränderungen: Das Ertragspotential des Waldes wird verstärkt als Einkommensquelle herangezogen. Der Einsatz von Fremdarbeitskraft wird als Alternative wahrgenommen, das verfügbare Arbeitspotential auf die Landwirtschaft zu konzentrieren und trotzdem Erträge aus dem Wald zu erwirtschaften. Schließlich werden diejenigen Fälle beschrieben, in denen das Waldeigentum aus Kosten- und Zeitgründen wegen fehlender Rentabilität abgestoßen bzw. liquidiert wird. Ehemals bäuerliche Waldbesitzer: Zeitmangel, eine sinkende materielle Bedeutung des Waldes und eine sinkende Ausstattung mit forsttauglichen Geräten haben zwei ein-schneidende Veränderungen zur Folge: Die materielle Bedeutung des Waldes als Einkommensquelle verliert als Nutzungsgrund an Gewicht. Entweder beschränkt sich die Nutzung auf die Gewinnung von Brennholz oder die Notwendigkeit bzw. die Sinnhaftigkeit einer Bewirtschaftung wird bei fehlendem Eigenbedarf an Holz an sich in Frage gestellt. Die Nutzungsintensität und vor allem die Vermarktungsintensität reduziert sich (bei den kleinen Waldbesitzen) erheblich. Die verfügbare Zeit, die maschinelle Ausstattung und damit die Arbeitskapazität verringern sich. Nichtbäuerlicher Waldbesitzer: Die Sichtweisen, wie Waldeigentum wahrgenommen wird, individualisieren sich und werden stark inhomogen. Damit verlieren Teile der Waldbesitzer die Bindung an alte tradierte Normen in der Waldbewirtschaftung: Die Beschäftigung und die Arbeit im Wald als Hobby reduzieren Wald auf einen Gebrauchswert. Daneben führt eine verkürzte Sichtweise des Nutzwertes von Wald auf seinen abstrakten aktuellen materiellen Wert zu einer unterschiedlichen Auffassung von Rentabilität: Es werden nur mehr sich selbst rentierende Eingriffe durchgeführt und Investitionen in Form von Pflegeeingriffen unterbleiben. Ebenfalls werden belastende Elemente beobachtet, die durch die Eigentümerschaft an Wald und damit einhergehenden Verpflichtungen empfunden werden. Die Tendenz, dass sich bestehende Wertvorstellungen und Bewirtschaftungsvorstellungen ändern, kann zu folgenden Ausrichtungen bei Waldbesitzern führen: Freizeit, Hobby, körperlicher Ausgleich, die in der Beschäftigung am und im Wald gesucht werden, treten in den Vordergrund. Zum Hauptbestreben des Waldbesitzers wird es, so wenig Zeit und Aufwand wie möglich mit dem Waldeigentum zu haben. Das Ziel in der Bewirtschaftung reduziert sich auf den reinen statischen Erhalt des Waldes im Ist-Zustand, ohne irgendwelche eigenen Vorstellungen, Ansprüche oder Ziele für die Waldbewirtschaftung zu entwickeln. An materiellen Zielen, die im Grunde nichts mit Holzproduktion, nachhaltiger Bewirtschaftung und Entwicklung des Waldes zu tun haben, sind zu nennen: Wald als "schlafende" Geldanlage oder als Spekulationsobjekt. Aus dem Wald wird ausschließlich der Brennholzbedarf gedeckt. Einzelne Aspekte von Waldeigentum und Forstwirtschaft werden also überhöht und als isolierte Ziele verfolgt. Durch die erhöhte Mobilität in der Gesellschaft nimmt auch der Anteil an ausmärkischen Waldbesitzern zu. Dies stellt vor allem die forstfachlichen Institutionen vor neue Heraus-forderungen: Die Unterschiede zwischen In- und Ausmärkern lassen sich in Kontaktformen, Beratungs-anlässe, -inhalte und -intensitäten, in Unterschieden in den Wertvorstellungen/Wissen und im Verhalten gliedern. Für die staatlichen Berater gestaltet sich die Erreichbarkeit oft umständlich und zeitaufwendig (so z.B. oft nur an Nichtwerktagen). In der Regel sind nur Einzelberatungen möglich bzw. ein Kontakt beschränkt sich auf schriftliche Formen. Über Gruppenberatungen erscheint diese Gruppe i.d.R. kaum erreichbar. Als Beratungsanlässe -inhalte und -intensitäten treten überdurchschnittlich auf: Konkrete An-lässe (akute Problemsituationen), zeitaufwendige Beratungen, die oft erst eine Grundwissens-basis herstellen müssen, und Nachfrage nach "Rundumservice". Aufgrund der Entfernung zum Wald ist eine rasche Reaktion erschwert und auch fehlende Fertigkeiten und mangelnde Ausstattung mit Forsttechnik führen dazu, dass notwendige Arbeiten nicht mehr durchgeführt werden können (z.B. Forstschutz). Ausmärkische Waldbesitzer sind in das traditionelle Informations- und Kommunikations-netzwerk ( Netz aus Waldbesitzern untereinander, WBV, staatliche Forstämter, das vor allem auf persönlichen Kontakten, Versammlungen, Rundbriefen, .beruht ) nicht mehr adäquat eingebunden und damit auch für forstpolitische Instrumente nur mehr schwer zugänglich. Entwicklungen beim Waldbesitz Seit 1960 stieg die Zahl der Betriebsaufgaben in der ostbayerischen Waldbesitzerstichprobe bis zum Jahr 1999 auf knapp 10% der bestehenden landwirtschaftlichen Betriebe pro Dekade an. Der Anteil nichtbäuerlicher Waldbesitzer hat sich innerhalb der letzten 40 Jahre von 10% auf fast 40% annähernd vervierfacht. Insgesamt ( Mittelwerte für alle Waldbesitzer zusammengefasst, inklusive kein Einschlag und keine Vermarktung ) liegt die Einschlagsintensität bei Nichtlandwirten um ca. 20% niedriger als bei Landwirten. Die Vermarktungsintensität sinkt sogar um über 50% ab. Zur Zeit führt also das Ausscheiden von Wald aus einem landwirtschaftlichen Betrieb gerade in den flächenstarken Besitzgrößen 1-20 ha zu einem nicht ignorierbaren Rückgang der Nutzungs- und Vermarktungsintensitäten. Eine weitere Entwicklung, die sich beim Übergang vom bäuerlichen zum nichtbäuerlichen Wald abzeichnet, ist häufig eine individuell sinkende Bewirtschaftungsbefähigung. Ab ca. 20 ha kann aber davon ausgegangen werden, dass Waldbesitzer bei fehlenden eigenen Möglich-keiten selbständig und aktiv nach Fremdleistungen suchen. Bei kleineren Waldflächen entwickelt sich eine passive, reaktive und nutzungsextensive Haltung, wenn sich die Besitzer nicht mehr ausreichend selbst befähigt sehen. Eine geringe Ausstattung mit forsttauglichen Geräten, geringe Erfahrung im Umgang mit Werkzeug und Maschinen und in der Waldbewirtschaftung verstärken sich mit oft geringer Motivation, Nutzungen durchzuführen und führen letztendlich bei kleinen Waldbesitzen zu drei (idealtypischen) Möglichkeiten: Entweder werden immaterielle Werte und eine "Freude" an der Waldarbeit an sich überhöht und wandeln sich vom Mittel zum Zweck. Hier wird zwar eine intensive Eigentumsbindung und eine z.T. hohe Zufriedenheit erreicht (solange keine größeren Katastrophen zu Arbeitsüberlastungen führen), doch vermarkten diese Waldbesitzer, wenn überhaupt, in hohem Maße marktunabhängig. Zudem besteht die Bewirtschaftungs-orientierung "in einem bewahrenden Erhalten des Status Quo". Nichtlandwirtschaftliche Besitzer mittlerer bis größerer Waldflächen (ab 10 ha beginnend, ab 20 ha die Regel) bewirtschaften überdurchschnittlich häufig ausschließlich oder mit Fremdarbeit. es treten belastende Elemente in den Vordergrund. Dies ist nun gehäuft bei Besitzern zu beobachten, die keine Verwertungsmöglichkeiten für genutzte Holzmengen haben oder/ und aus verschiedenen Gründen keine Bewirtschaftung mehr ausführen können und nicht mit Fremdarbeit bewirtschaften. Entwicklung der Bewirtschaftungsvorstellungen: Überträgt man die vorgefundene Verteilung der Sichtweisen auf eine zeitliche Entwicklungsdynamik, so können folgende "Trends" erwartet werden: Waldbesitzer, die keine eindeutigen Schwerpunkte in den Waldbedeutungen erkennen, nehmen zu. Waldbesitzer, die keine klaren Bewirtschaftungsziele entwickeln, nehmen zu. Waldbesitzer, die reaktiv (natürliche Anfälle, Erhalt eines Status Quo) und am Eigenbedarf orientiert nutzen, nehmen zu (< 20 ha). Waldbesitzer, die zum Eigenwert der Waldarbeit ( Freude an der Waldarbeit ) an sich indifferent stehen, einem Zeitmangel ausgesetzt sind und so belastende Element im Waldeigentum empfinden, nehmen (leicht) zu. Waldbesitzer, die auf Fremdhilfe angewiesen sind, nehmen zu. Als Hauptmangel lässt sich damit eine sinkende Befähigung zur eigenständigen Bewirtschaftung identifizieren, die aber kaum mehr durch einzelbetriebliche Maßnahmen verbessert oder aufgehoben werden kann. Zur Vermittlung von Wissen und Schlüssel-fertigkeiten tritt nun das Angebot an Bewirtschaftungsdienstleistungen und Fremdarbeits-leistungen hinzu. Aufgrund der vielfältigen Entwicklungen im Kleinprivatwald und der Vielfalt an Eigentümerinteressen kann die Nutzungsintensität auf absehbare Zeit nur wirksam erhöht werden, wenn zum einen die Einschläge zwischen den Besitzern koordiniert werden (um Kleinmengen in vermarktbaren Mengen zu bündeln und damit verwertbar zu machen) und zum anderen ein flexibles Angebot an Bewirtschaftungsdienstleistungen besteht. Als Träger-organisation, die dieses flexible Angebot leisten kann, prädestinieren sich die forstlichen Zusammenschlüsse nach dem BWaldG, da sie sowohl ökonomische, ökologische und gesellschaftliche Belange vertreten, somit die Vielfalt an Eigentümerinteressen repräsentieren können und ihre Leistungskraft auf drei Standbeine abstellen können: Ziel öffentlicher Finanzmittel, materieller und immaterieller Ressourcen ( Beratungen zur Selbsthilfe, geldwerte Koordinations- und Kommunikationsleistungen ). Die Selbstverpflichtung von Waldeigentümern zum aktiven und engagierten Gestalten von Eigen- und Gesamtinteressen ( Ehrenamt und persönliches Engagement ). Die Erbringung und Realisierung von Wertschöpfung mit Dienstleistungen und Produktionsprozessen. Das Prinzip der organisierten Selbsthilfe erscheint auch im "Zeichen" des Agrarstruktur-wandels die zukunftsfähigste Lösung für die Sicherung der Bewirtschaftung im Klein-privatwald, wenn die Selbsthilfe ein klares Profil als Dienstleister gewinnt. Fazit: Forstliche Zusammenschlüsse und ihr Profil als Dienstleister Waldbesitzerorganisationen bilden mit ihrer Aufgabe, Rundholz aus dem Kleinprivatwald zu vermarkten, einen Teil eines wirtschaftlichen Leistungsprozesses. Ein Orientierungsrahmen leitet sich dementsprechend ab und zwingt Waldbesitzerorganisationen, sich in diesem Leistungsprozess Betätigungsfelder und Entwicklungspotentiale zu schaffen. Die Rolle der Waldbesitzerorganisationen als Träger von Leistungen ( wobei hier sowohl Leistungen in der Rundholzproduktion, aber auch in nachgeordneten rundholzbe- und verarbeitenden Produktionen eingeschlossen sind ) Träger von Kompetenzen Träger von Dienstleistungen steht dabei im Vordergrund und aus diesen Teilbereichen setzt sich schließlich das Profil einer Waldbesitzerorganisation zusammen, das je nach Öffnung und Realisierung von Ent-wicklungspotentialen in den einzelnen Bereichen erweitert und neu akzentuiert werden kann. Die Vermarktungsaufgabe verlangt eine Orientierung im Absatzmarkt. Eine grobe Segmen-tierung besteht in mittelständisch strukturierten Abnehmern und industriellen Abnehmern, zu denen unterschiedliche Marketingziele gebildet werden, zum Beispiel, welche Rolle als Anbieter man für die Abnehmer erfüllen soll. Während bei mittelständischen Betrieben durchaus angestrebt werden kann, möglichst deren gesamte Versorgung zu übernehmen, sollten sich die Waldbesitzerorganisationen bei industriellen Abnehmern als fester Bestandteil in deren Lieferantenmix etablieren. Das Ausmaß der Leistungsfähigkeit als Rundholzanbieter und -lieferant wird von der "inneren" Koordinierungsfähigkeit der Waldbesitzerorganisation bestimmt. Diese bildet damit einen weiteren Orientierungsrahmen. Um sowohl die einzelnen Phasen der Leistungsprozesse, die von der Waldbesitzerorganisation gesteuert bzw. getragen werden, effektiv und effizient zu erfüllen, und die notwendige Zusammenarbeit und das Vertrauen der Waldeigentümer ( als Ressourcenhalter ) in die Waldbesitzerorganisationen zu erreichen, wird der Aufbau von drei funktionellen Kompetenzbereichen als notwendig erachtet. Marktkompetenz schließt alle Fähigkeiten zur Vermarktung von Rundholz ein, die der Waldbesitzerorganisation von innen (Mitglieder der Organisation) als von außen (abnehmende Betriebe) zugesprochen werden. Logistische Kompetenz bedeutet die Fähigkeit zur effizienten und kostenbewussten Koordination, nämlich den Einschlag und die Losbildung in einem (definierten und abgrenzbaren) Raum über Waldbesitzgrenzen hinaus zeitlich zu steuern und zu beeinflussen. Waldkompetenz schließlich besteht in der Fähigkeit, Möglichkeiten, Chancen und Risiken von Waldbewirtschaftungskonzepten glaubwürdig, fundiert und wissensbasiert und mit individuellem Bezug zum einzelnen Waldbesitz und Waldeigentümerhaushalt zu vermitteln. Dieses Konzept, Einschlag, Aushaltung und Losbildung überbetrieblich zu koordinieren, bietet Möglichkeiten zur Erlössteigerung für den Holzanfall auf der Fläche durch erweiterte Sortier- und Losbildungsmöglichkeiten und die Bildung bedarfsgerechter Lose, und zur Kostensenkung, indem mechanisierte Erntesysteme oder/und Schnittstellen übergreifende logistische Lösungen eingesetzt werden können, die in ihrer Wirkung allerdings immer aus Sicht des betroffenen Waldbesitzerhaushaltes zu beurteilen sind. Daneben werden die Zusammenschlüsse auch als Koordinatoren und Dienstleister rund um Wald und Forstwirtschaft sogenannte gesellschaftspolitische "Non-Profit"-Aufgaben übernehmen ( Information, Öffentlichkeitsarbeit, Interessensvertretung, Mitwirkung bei gesellschaftlicher und politischer Entscheidungsfindung, Mitwirkung beim Interessensausgleich zwischen Allgemeinheit und Waldbesitz, . ) und aufgrund ihrer Stellung als regionalwirksame Entwicklungsträger fungieren müssen. Fördermittel für forstliche Zusammenschlüsse und vor allem Fortbildungsangebote für Verantwortliche der Zusammenschlüsse auf allen Ebenen erscheinen aus dieser Blickwarte dann auch, wenn sie derartige Entwicklungen stützen, aus gesamtwirtschaftlicher und gesellschaftspolitischer Sicht als hochwirksame Investitionen in das Kultur- und Naturgut Privatwald. ; This study about small scale private forestry in south east Bavaria addresses one main question: What are the effects of structural changes in the agricultural sector and the wood industry on the behaviour, attitude and interests of small scale private forest owners? Results: Traditionally, small scale forests were run by farmers, who were interested in versatile benefits from their forest land such as fire wood, wood for building and repairing their farms, certain amounts of growing stock as their (independent) bank savings, and last but not least the necessity of an irregular revenue from the timber sale. In order to meet these demands each farmer normally spends a lot of time managing the small scale forest himself. But the felling volume is relatively low compared to the annual increment (approximate 3 to 4 cubic meter per hectare and year compared to an annual increment of 7 or more cubic meter per hectare and year). The change in agricultural structures (on the one hand closure of farms, on the other hand expansion and specialisation of remaining farms) results in an increasing number of non-farmers. The differences between farmers and non-farmers are that non-farmers are lacking experience, technical equipment and time for managing their land. The cuttings of non-farmers are twenty percent below the yield harvested by farmers. The selling of non-farmers are fifty percent less than selling of farmers. At the same time, several changes in attitude take place: The number of forest owners, who have no unambiguous idea of forestry and thus don't actually manage but would like to conserve a certain structure of their forest land, increases. For a rising number of land owners with neither enough time nor technical equipment, forest property, has become a burden. More and more forest owners seem to hand their responsibility over to independent contractors. In conclusion it can be assumed that in future times, the number of forest owners will continuously decline with both the ability and the desire to manage their forest land themselves. The structural changes of the timber industry affects the earning capacities of small scale forestry. The ability of small scale forestry to meet the demands of huge industrial wood processing companies is getting worse and worse. The situation for small scale forestry has become more serious with these developments (structural changes in the agricultural sector and the timber industry). Therefore the economic potential of small scaled forestry is jeopardised. Two efforts might contribute to improving the situation: On the one hand forest management services ought to be available an a larger scale and on the other hand, there lies great potential in forest owner associations which if developing into major service companies face much better options of a more efficient forest management and timber sale.

Over the past four months we have read and heard more about BSE (Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy; Mad Cow Disease) than we may have ever wanted to know. The California Cattlemen's Association and other allied groups, particularly the NCBA have done a wonderful job in terms of getting out the facts about BSE and the message that beef is safe for consumers. The BSE issue is extremely complicated and I will compare some of what has been done in France with our situation in California. What are the critical control points for preventing BSE in U.S. cattle? The first step is to prevent the introduction of cattle into the U.S. that might be "incubating" the disease. This is the basis of our ban on the importation of any cattle from countries that are known or suspected of having BSE. For example, we banned the importation of cattle from Britain after 1986 and banned live cattle importation from Canada in May of 2003. Secondly, because this disease is transmitted by the feeding of contaminated meat and bone meal (MBM), the feed ban on feeding ruminant MBM to cattle was put into effect in 1997 in the U.S. Obviously, it is imperative that this feed ban be strictly enforced and this is the responsibility of the Food & Drug Administration (FDA). The third measure is to have an active surveillance program to be sure the other preventive measures are working correctly. The surveillance program must include potential clinical cases of BSE and must also include "at-risk cattle" (downer cattle are part of this "at-risk" group). Additionally, our veterinary diagnostic laboratories are excellent at detecting various diseases in cattle, especially diseases like BSE or rabies that have public health concerns. The monitoring of clinical cases of BSE has been actively occurring for almost 18 years. Secondly, the surveillance of "at-risk cattle" has also been an active area for a number of years. This is the part of the surveillance program that found the BSE-positive Canadian dairy cow in Washington state last year. In 2003, the USDA tested about 20,000 cattle for BSE. The USDA's surveillance of "at-risk cattle" had focused on downer cattle at slaughter houses. Because downer cattle can no longer be slaughtered for human consumption, the USDA will need to accomplish this part of the surveillance program by other methods. It is still extremely important to monitor this group of animals for BSE. In March, 2004 the USDA announced that BSE testing will be done on 286,000 or more cattle per year for the near future. Also, this testing will be accomplished by using the agency's network of 20 regional laboratories and by the use of the rapid test technology that allows negative results to be reported within 24 hours or less. Additionally, to satisfy our export markets (Japan, South Korea, etc); it may become necessary to test a percentage of healthy cattle over 30 months of age when they are slaughtered. Therefore, surveillance of cattle for BSE will continue to be an important part of our preventive measures. An additional preventive measure in the future will be the development of cost effective tests that can be used on live animals. This would allow us to detect BSE "infected" cattle before slaughter. Sheep also have a transmissible spongiform encephalopathy called Scrapie and there is a test to detect this disease in the live animal. Also, some sheep are resistant to Scrapie and some are more susceptible. Currently, there are genetic tests available to detect this resistance or susceptibility. To prevent BSE it would be extremely helpful to have both live cattle tests and genetic susceptibility tests. Hopefully, these tests can be developed and implemented in the future. What are the critical control points for food safety with regard to BSE? The main food safety procedure is to prevent BSE in U.S. cattle in the first place. If healthy slaughtered cattle over 30 months of age are tested for BSE it is essential to have "test and hold" facilities at the plants. The carcasses will have to be held until the negative test results are reported. This would prevent the possibility of large scale meat recalls due to false positives. A very important procedure is to eliminate the "specified risk materials" (SRMs) from the human food chain. This process has already been initiated. The SRMs include the brain, eyes, skull, tonsils, spinal cord, spleen, small intestines, vertebral column (bones of the neck and back that surround the spinal canal), and thymus. For animals over 30 months of age, the SRMs will be removed from the carcass, segregated, and eliminated from the food supply. How does France compare to California? Both have very large agricultural bases. France is about 1.3 times the size of California. France has a population of 60 million and California has about 36 million people. If we count all the beef cattle, calves, dairy cattle, stockers, and feedlot cattle in California the number is probably less than 6 million, in France there are 20 million cattle. The average herd size in France is about 70 head and the average farm size is 140 acres. France is first in beef exports in the European Union (EU) and California is number one in agricultural exports in the U.S. France diagnosed their first case of BSE in 1991 and has had about 900 confirmed cases since that time. We have not seen a case of BSE in California and the U.S. has only had the one BSE case imported from Canada. What does the BSE prevention program in France look like? Many of the points covered in the first section are included in the French program. Their ban on feeding meat and bone meal started in 1990 and has been expanded several times in subsequent years. Currently, meat and bone meal from any source cannot be fed to any farmed animals (including poultry, swine, or sheep) in France. The ban on meat and bone meal feeding is the most important preventive measure in BSE control programs. The surveillance program in France was also started in 1990 and focused on clinically sick cattle that might have BSE. In the year 2000, they begin to look at all "at risk cattle" and are currently testing over 270,000 cattle in this category per year. Additionally, beginning in 2001 all healthy cattle over 24 months of age at slaughter are tested. The number of cattle in this last category is 3 million per year. Since 1991, there have been just less than 900 cases of BSE diagnosed in France. Twenty-three percent (23%) of these have been in clinical cases, 47% have been in "at risk cattle", and 30% have been in healthy slaughtered cattle. Additionally, the majority of BSE cases diagnosed were born after the 1990 feed ban. This is a very important point we need to remember. What does the BSE prevention program in France cost? During 2003 the French program for BSE prevention and surveillance cost them about 900 million dollars (750 million Euros). This amount was about 57% of the total animal health budget for France. Much of this cost is for the removal and disposal of the SRMs from slaughtered animals. Additionally, the animal identification program needed to track the animals from their farm of origin through slaughter is another cost to be considered. Does BSE occur spontaneously in cattle? The message that BSE occurs spontaneously in cattle has been repeated in the media several times. Where does this idea come from? There is a disease in humans called Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD) which does occur spontaneously. It occurs at a rate of about 1-2 people per million population per year, worldwide. This is the so-called spontaneous CJD. Some have extrapolated this information to the cattle population, saying that BSE occurs spontaneously in cattle just as spontaneous CJD occurs in humans. Therefore, if we have about 100 million cattle in the U.S., we have 100-200 cases of BSE each year. This assumption is the basis for the argument that we should be testing every slaughtered animal for BSE. There is no basis in fact for this assumption, however. To the contrary, there is ample evidence that BSE is not occurring spontaneously. For example, we have been able to detect cattle diseases with public health significance that occurs at a much lower rate than 1 per million and one such disease is rabies. The diagnosis of rabies is dependent on a thorough examination of the brain of the animal. BSE diagnosis is also dependent on the complete examination and testing of the animal's brain. In California, cattle rabies is detected every year or so and almost every case is associated with significant human exposure. If we were unable to detect this central nervous system disease (rabies) one or more fatal cases of rabies in humans would occur. The fact is, we are able to routinely diagnose rabies and the same experts are more than capable of diagnosing BSE. Every veterinary diagnostic laboratory in every state is actively looking for BSE and has been since 1986. We are not missing the diagnosis of BSE in cattle in the U.S. Those who are publicly concerned about spontaneous BSE in cattle and who advocate testing all slaughtered cattle are not at all concerned about beef products imported into the U.S. If BSE does spontaneously occur, it must do so world wide, thus imported beef products would carry the same or greater risk. We must insist on using the science as our guide in making policy regarding BSE.