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Payments for Environmental Services (PES) are praised as innovative policy instruments and they influence the governance of forest restoration efforts in two major ways. The first is the establishment of multi-stakeholder agencies as intermediary bodies between funders and planters to manage the funds and to distribute incentives to planters. The second implication is that specific contracts assign objectives to land users in the form of conditions for payments that are believed to increase the chances for sustained impacts on the ground. These implications are important in the assessment of the potential of PES to operate as new and effective funding schemes for forest restoration. They are analyzed by looking at two prominent payments for watershed service programs in Indonesia—Cidanau (Banten province in Java) and West Lombok (Eastern Indonesia)—with combined economic and political science approaches. We derive lessons for the governance of funding efforts (e.g., multi-stakeholder agencies are not a guarantee of success ; mixed results are obtained from a reliance on mandatory funding with ad hoc regulations, as opposed to voluntary contributions by the service beneficiary) and for the governance of financial expenditure (e.g., absolute need for evaluation procedures for the internal governance of farmer groups). Furthermore, we observe that these governance features provide no guarantee that restoration plots with the highest relevance for ecosystem services are targeted by the PES.

Payments for Environmental Services (PES) are praised as innovative policy instruments and they influence the governance of forest restoration efforts in two major ways. The first is the establishment of multi-stakeholder agencies as intermediary bodies between funders and planters to manage the funds and to distribute incentives to planters. The second implication is that specific contracts assign objectives to land users in the form of conditions for payments that are believed to increase the chances for sustained impacts on the ground. These implications are important in the assessment of the potential of PES to operate as new and effective funding schemes for forest restoration. They are analyzed by looking at two prominent payments for watershed service programs in Indonesia-Cidanau (Banten province in Java) and West Lombok (Eastern Indonesia)-with combined economic and political science approaches. We derive lessons for the governance of funding efforts (e.g., multi-stakeholder agencies are not a guarantee of success; mixed results are obtained from a reliance on mandatory funding with ad hoc regulations, as opposed to voluntary contributions by the service beneficiary) and for the governance of financial expenditure (e.g., absolute need for evaluation procedures for the internal governance of farmer groups). Furthermore, we observe that these governance features provide no guarantee that restoration plots with the highest relevance for ecosystem services are targeted by the PES

The economic, military, constitutional, organizational, and institutional "infrastructure" that provides the bases and limits of state activities and presidential power deservedly gets detailed and sophisticated research attention from presidency scholars. In this paper I argue that there is also an ideological and cultural infrastructure that undergirds the American state and presidency and that purportedly contributes to the smooth functioning of democratic capitalism. In the 1970s and 1980s there were many social analysts and politicians who argued that this ideological and cultural infrastructure was in disrepair and that its rundown condition was contributing to a crisis of governability that adversely affected the presidency. Among proposals to alleviate this "crisis" were those that advocated political efforts to restore the traditional values of "privatism" (i.e., hard work, moral discipline, self‐reliance, thriftiness, meritocracy, possessive individualism, and political passivity).In this paper I assess those restoration efforts and argue that they are not likely to provide an adequate basis for easing various problems of the state or the presidency.

Over the last 25 years, somewhere in the range of a billion dollars has been spent under Superfund remediation and restoration efforts related to the environmental health and natural resource damage resulting from the historic copper mining and smelting activities of the former Anaconda Copper Mining Company (ACM). Most of those resources came from major oil companies Atlantic Richfield (ARCO) and British Petroleum (BP), which acquired ARCO. These dollars are a result of the requirements of the federal (and state) laws. What is the history behind the acquisitions of ACM's Montana mining/smelting activities by BP/ARCO? How did they handle those responsibilities before the Superfund? How did the Superfund come to exist? How did Montana's Natural Resource Damage program evolve under Superfund? This history and issues surrounding it are discussed by Evan Barrett, who has been active as both a Butte economic development leader and as a state and federal governmental official dealing with these important programs from a policy level.

28 pages ; An accelerated pace and scale of forest restoration on Oregon's eastside national forests will rely heavily on the ability of contractors to both implement forest treatments and contribute to environmental planning activities. Private businesses commonly are contracted to implement already-planned restoration work on Forest Service land. . . . Recently, within Oregon, private businesses, state agencies, and non-governmental partners have also begun playing a role in pre-implementation restoration activities. . . . For this report, we used past Forest Service restoration contracting data, records of grants and agreements to Forest Service partners for activities related to restoration, and contractor interviews to better understand how the Forest Service works with local businesses and partners in all aspects of forest restoration efforts. We also used these data to understand the capacity of the local restoration contractor workforce to carryout accelerated restoration work. ; The work was funded via a contract with the Oregon Department of Forestry.

Owing to high rates of land and forest degradation, there is consensus that forest landscape restoration is a global priority with the Bonn Challenge and the New York Declaration on Forests committing to restore about 350 Million hectares by 2030, globally. However, there is a need for incentives that motivate these restoration efforts and disincentives aimed at restricting activities that result in further land degradation. We provide insights and understanding of the incentives and disincentives measures applied within the forest restoration systems through a case study in the Shinyanga region of Tanzania. Incentives that have promoted forest landscape restoration in Shinyanga include; conservation benefits, education and information, Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD+), well-defined property rights & increasing land prices and awards while disincentives include; penalties, quotas and permits. Intrinsic incentives that are derived from self-desire within an individual such as conservation benefits and education & information were more preferred within Shinyanga region compared to extrinsic incentives which relied more on external factors such as REDD+ and awards. Nonetheless, a combination of both incentives and disincentives has led to the success of restoration in Shinyanga; positive incentives worked better for privately owned lands while regulatory disincentives worked better for communally owned restoration lands. High levels of social equity and trust have enabled the functioning of these incentives while a robust governance structure at the local level has been instrumental in enforcing the disincentives. There is need for government and all stakeholders to maintain and enhance the gains from restoration, especially empowering communities further, for these incentives to work.

Indonesia has the second-largest biodiversity of any country in the world. Deforestation and forest degradation have caused a range of environmental issues, including habitat degradation and loss of biodiversity, deterioration of water quality and quantity, air pollution, and increased greenhouse gas emissions that contribute to climate change. Forest restoration at the landscape level has been conducted to balance ecological integrity and human well-being. Forest restoration efforts are also aimed at reducing CO2 emissions and are closely related to Indonesia's Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) from the forestry sector. The purpose of this paper is to examine the regulatory, institutional, and policy aspects of forest restoration in Indonesia, as well as the implementation of forest restoration activities in the country. The article was written using a synoptic review approach to Forest Landscape Restoration (FLR)-related articles and national experiences. Failures, success stories, and criteria and indicators for forest restoration success are all discussed. We also discuss the latest silvicultural techniques for the success of the forest restoration program. Restoration governance in Indonesia has focused on the wetland ecosystem such as peatlands and mangroves, but due to the severely degraded condition of many forests, the government has by necessity opted for active restoration involving the planting and establishment of livelihood options. The government has adapted its restoration approach from the early focus on ecological restoration to more forest landscape restoration, which recognizes that involving the local community in restoration activities is critical for the success of forest restoration.

https://doi.org/10.15447/sfews.2017v15iss3art3 Current legislation and plans for the Sacramento–San Joaquin Delta (Delta) call for large-scale restoration of aquatic and terrestrial habitats, which will require significant changes in waterways, land uses, and cultural patterns. These re-made landscapes will be subject to a variety of new human uses, which Delta planning and adaptive management literature has yet to adequately consider. Failing to account for human uses and evolving place values can lead to diminished performance and public support for Delta restoration efforts. Our empirical study examined restored and naturalized Delta landscapes using an integrative landscape approach that seeks to reconcile multiple goals and land-use agendas that span ecological, social, economic, and political domains. The research design consisted of six overlapping methods that included a planning, policy, and law review specific to the Delta; surveys and interviews with approximately 100 land managers, scientists, land-owners, law-enforcement personnel, agency representatives, and Delta residents; nine case studies of restored and naturalized delta landscapes; GIS mapping; and extensive field work. Findings derived from the synthesis of these methods show that human uses of the Delta's re-wilded landscapes are diverse and pervasive. Given the infrastructural and urbanized context of the region, these environments are subject to multiple and sometimes conflicting uses, perceptions, and place values. Though these myriad uses cannot be fully predicted or controlled (nor should they be), findings showed that more proactive and inclusive planning for human uses can encourage or discourage particular uses while also building constituency, support, and active engagement in ecological restoration efforts. We conclude that reconciling human uses with ecological recovery in the Delta will require a more localized, multi-functional, and creative approach to designing and adaptively managing these emergent landscapes. We recommend that more resources and experimental prototyping be dedicated to such work.

This study was undertaken in the Gudoberet- and Jawe landscapes located in Amhara and SNNP regions of Ethiopia, respectively. Experience Capitalization (EC) process approach was used to capture a wide range of experiences related to landscape restoration project in Gudoberet- and Jawe landscapes. Although there has been several studies regarding landscape restoration in Ethiopia, the use of EC process in landscape restoration is the first attempt in the country. The approach involves various procedures such as selecting the intervention, setting the boundaries of intervention, gathering information, describing interventions and analysis (filtering lessons). SWC on cultivated lands, gully rehabilitation, exclosure and water harvesting were the major interventions implemented for landscape restoration. Focus group discussion, key informant interview and transect walks were used to gather primary information. The result shows that participants considered economic, environmental, social and gender criteria to assess landscape restoration interventions. Based on the EC process, the following major lessons are identified: • Since landscape restoration requires multiple interventions, strengthening collaboration and integration of institutions including CGIAR centers is crucial to improve the success of landscape restoration program in the country. • Although livestock management is considered as an important part of the landscape restoration process in both sites, free grazing affected the adoption of biological SWC measures. The experience shows that there is a long way to achieve complete cut-and-carry system of livestock production mainly due to insufficient biomass production that can be used as cut-and carry system. Unless a complete cut-and-carry system is practiced, investment in landscape restoration mainly soil and water conservation practices will continue indefinitely. Strategies are being explored to reduce the number of livestock and enhance biomass to enhance the adoption of cut-and-carry livestock production system. • Sectoral integration (crop, livestock, forest, water, etc.) will be crucial for the successful achievement of landscape restoration efforts. • Creating awareness using various approaches, government focus on landscape management, collaboration among institutions, commitment of project staff and the community contributed for the success of landscape restoration process. • There is a clear need to integrate income generating options and youth employment schemes into the landscape restoration efforts to sustain the land and water management practices and their benefits. • Proper linkages between 'research' and development organizations is crucial to bring in win-win solutions focusing on their areas of mandate for the success of landscape restoration efforts. • Use of cross-site visits, evidence generation, multi-stakeholder integration, community mobilization, linked technologies and use of physical and biological SWC are the major lessons learned for successful restoration. However, this study focused only on two small landscapes with minimum investment in landscape restoration. It is clear that the country has invested heavily in landscape restoration activities through various projects such as SLMP, MERET and PSNP. However, the outcomes in terms of EC are yet to be fully understood under these projects. Hence, a comprehensive EC on needs to be explored for the adoption of successful approaches in landscape restoration process in the country and beyond.

Coastal ecosystems are under pressure from a vast array of anthropogenic stressors, including development and climate change, resulting in significant habitat losses globally Conservation policies are often implemented with the intent of reducing habitat loss. However, losses already incurred will require restoration if ecosystem functions and services are to be recovered. The United States has a long history of wetland loss and recognizes that averting loss requires a multi-pronged approach including mitigation for regulated activities and non-mitigation (voluntary herein) restoration. The 1989 "No Net Loss" (NNL) policy stated the Federal government's intent that losses of wetlands would be offset by at least as many gains of wetlands. However, coastal wetlands losses result from both regulated and non-regulated activities. We examined the effectiveness of Federally funded, voluntary restoration efforts in helping avert losses of coastal wetlands by assessing: (1) What are the current and past trends in coastal wetland change in the U.S.?; and (2) How much and where are voluntary restoration efforts occurring? First, we calculated palustrine and estuarine wetland change in U.S. coastal shoreline counties using data from NOAA's Coastal Change Analysis Program, which integrates both types of potential losses and gains. We then synthesized available data on Federally funded, voluntary restoration of coastal wetlands. We found that from 1996 to 2010, the U.S. lost 139,552 acres (~565 km(2)) of estuarine wetlands (2.5% of 1996 area) and 336,922 acres (~1,363 km(2)) of palustrine wetlands (1.4%). From 2006 to 2015, restoration of 145,442 acres (~589 km(2)) of estuarine wetlands and 154,772 acres (~626 km(2)) of palustrine wetlands occurred. Further, wetland losses and restoration were not always geographically aligned, resulting in local and regional "winners" and "losers." While these restoration efforts have been considerable, restoration and mitigation collectively have not been able to keep pace with wetland ...

Abstract
Background
For more than 20 years, restoration measures have been conducted on watercourses in Germany to increase habitat diversity and thus promote biodiversity. However, their ecological efficacy often proved to be limited. While some studies report an increase in species diversity, others show little evidence of improvement even many years after the implementation of restoration measures. In general, ecological efficacy of hydromorphological restoration measures is highest for terrestrial and semiaquatic groups of organisms such as floodplain vegetation and ground beetles. According to the literature, macrophytes responded most strongly to in-stream restoration measures, while fish stocks showed little improvement and macroinvertebrates showed little or no effect in terms of species richness and diversity. These findings raise the question of reasons for the low ecological efficacy of hydromorphological restoration measures, especially for macroinvertebrate communities. The following literature review and a case study for the river Horloff will provide possible indications for failing success of intensive restoration measures.

Results
One reason for the inadequate ecological status of many restored river stretches is the inappropriate scaling of restoration measures. Often, small-scale restoration measures are planned, although the respective water bodies exhibit stressors at the catchment scale that impair the ecological efficacy of restoration measures. In particular, chemical contamination of running waters is often insufficiently addressed in the planning and implementation of restoration measures and hampers efficacy of hydromorphological restoration measures. For a holistic water resource management, the planning and implementation of measures should therefore be more closely coordinated and harmonized between federal states and neighboring countries. For this purpose, the establishment of so-called river basin communities is suitable, as they already exist today on the rivers Rhine, Danube, Meuse, Weser, Elbe, Ems, Eider, Schlei/Trave, Warnow/Peene.

Conclusion
The literature review indicated that for a successful recolonization of restored river stretches by macroinvertebrates and the enhancement of the ecological status, large-scale stressors, i.e., stressors acting at the catchment scale, should be eliminated initially by restoration measures focusing on the chemical contamination and the surrounding land use. Structural restoration measures acting on the reach or local scale should ideally be implemented contemporarily to the removal of large-scale stressors like chemical contamination.

Human impacts to aquatic ecosystems often involve changes in hydrologic connectivity and flow regime. Drawing upon examples in the literature and from our experience, we developed conceptual models and used simple bivariate plots to visualize human impacts and restoration efforts in terms of connectivity and flow dynamics. Human-induced changes in longitudinal, lateral, and vertical connectivity are often accompanied by changes in flow dynamics, but in our experience restoration efforts to date have more often restored connectivity than flow dynamics. Restoration actions have included removing dams to restore fish passage, reconnecting flow through artificially cut-off side channels, setting back or breaching levees, and removing fine sediment deposits that block vertical exchange with the bed, thereby partially restoring hydrologic connectivity, i.e., longitudinal, lateral, or vertical. Restorations have less commonly affected flow dynamics, presumably because of the social and economic importance of water diversions or flood control. Thus, as illustrated in these bivariate plots, the trajectories of ecological restoration are rarely parallel with degradation trajectories because restoration is politically and economically easier along some axes more than others.

Despite the high level of political engagement and the wide range of organizations involved in restoration projects from local to global levels, beyond some success stories, restoration is not happening at scale. To address this issue, three CGIAR Research Programs (CRPs) – Forests, Trees and Agroforestry (FTA); Policies, Institutions and Markets (PIM) and Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE) – decided to bring together their expertise in a joint stocktaking of CGIAR work on restoration. This publication illustrates with concrete examples the powerful contribution of forest and landscape restoration to the achievement of most, if not all the 17 sustainable development goals. It can be used to support the design of future restoration activities, programs and projects. We hope that this document will help upscale restoration efforts and deliver enhanced impact from our CGIAR research.

An international overview of the extent and type of ecological restoration can offer new perspectives for understanding, planning, and implementation. The Nordic countries, with a great range of natural conditions but historically similar social and political structures, provide an opportunity to compare restoration approaches and efforts across borders. The aim of this study was to explore variation in ecological restoration using the Nordic countries as an example. We used recent national assessments and expert evaluations of ecological restoration. Restoration efforts differed among countries: forest and peatland restoration was most common in Finland, freshwater restoration was most common in Sweden, restoration of natural heathlands and grasslands was most common in Iceland, restoration of natural and semi-cultural heathlands was most common in Norway, and restoration of cultural ecosystems, mainly abandoned agricultural land, was most common in Denmark. Ecological restoration currently does not occur on the Faroe Islands. Economic incentives influence ecological restoration and depend on laws and policies in each country. Our analyses suggest that habitat types determine the methods of ecological restoration, whereas socio-economic drivers are more important for the decisions concerning the timing and location of restoration. To improve the understanding, planning, and implementation of ecological restoration, we advocate increased cooperation and knowledge sharing across disciplines and among countries, both in the Nordic countries and internationally. An obvious advantage of such cooperation is that a wider range of experiences from different habitats and different socio-economic conditions becomes available and thus provides a more solid basis for developing practical solutions for restoration methods and policies.

Throughout the process of developing the states' case in the Natural Resource Damage Claim, I have felt very confident that the state has assembled a team of scientists who could solve the problems that are identified, if they are solvable. I am encouraged to continue in that belief by the hiring of Carol Fox as coordinator of the program at this time. It will take a strong leader to guide everyone through the maze of complexities involved in allocating settlement funds. Chris Clancy pointed out that state biologists are spread thin and it will take additional manpower to implement projects that are funded. He also discussed some of the work that is being done by the biologists and technicians. It should be noted that there is a tremendous amount of training and on-the-ground-experience among Region 2 fisheries workers in river mechanics, biology and implementing stream rehabilitation projects. This experience should be drawn on in the selection of projects to be funded by the NRD settlement. It will require the kind of experience these people have to be able to judge what is best for the aquatic ecosystem. There are many relatively small projects that are worthy of funding and are very necessary to restore the river to its former condition. I hope there will be a mechanism for getting projects such as these through the screening process without a lot of delay. For example, Chris Brick noted that there is a lot of bank erosion along the mainstem of the river. Some of this is because the river has been straightened. Several of these artificially straight sections could be put back in old channel meanders by simply removing portions of the old Milwaukee Railroad bed. In most cases the old channel is relatively unchanged from when it was cut off by the railroad. Projects such as this will improve fish habitat in the mainstem, possibly get the river away from metals contaminated riverbed and reduce erosive forces. Because the process of selecting projects for funding with NRD settlement dollars is political in nature, the advisory committee needs to make a special effort to inform and encourage the public to be involved in the process. Everyone interested in river restoration should know what the money can and cannot be used for.