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This book assesses the politics and programs of the U.S. Export-Import Bank and their relevance to U.S. trade policy. Focusing on the direct loan program for large credits with maturities of more than five years, the authors evaluate the broad criteria employed by the Bank in its decision-making process and the resulting allocation of Bank resources. They also examine the distribution of Bank loans and subsidies across industries and relate this to key industry characteristics such as comparative advantage and export dependence. The problems faced by the Eximbank in recent years--high borrowing costs, intensified export credit competition, limited resources, increased risks, conflicting mandates to be competitive yet self-sustaining ---have given tremendous importance to the careful articulation of policy and administration of programs. The authors find Bank policies to be broadly supportive of the U.S. trade policy goals, but also identify several areas of inconsistency and lack of definition and offer alternative means of specifying criteria to overcome these problems.

The purpose of the Export-Import Bank of the United States (Eximbank) is to "assist in financing and to facilitate export sales of U.S. equipment and services" (Letter of July 18, 1977). Eximbank does not allocate its resources by geographic area; rather it responds to requests for support of American export sales on a case-by-case basis. Eximbank extends its credit in a number of ways. In conjuction with the Foreign Credit Insurance Association, Eximbank "insures short-term (up to 180 days) and medium-term (181 days to 5 years) export credit provided by the private sector." Second, Eximbank "guarantees the repayment of medium-term export credit extended by U.S. banks to foreign buyers, without recourse to U.S. exporters." Third, it "facilitates exports of major capital equipment, requiring repayment terms over 5 years through direct loans to foreign buyers for a portion of the required financing."

The purpose of the Export-Import Bank of the United States (Eximbank) is to "assist in financing and to facilitate export sales of U.S. equipment and services" (Letter of July 18, 1977). Eximbank does not allocate its resources by geographic area; rather it responds to requests for support of American export sales on a case-by-case basis. Eximbank extends its credit in a number of ways. In conjuction with the Foreign Credit Insurance Association, Eximbank "insures short-term (up to 180 days) and medium-term (181 days to 5 years) export credit provided by the private sector." Second, Eximbank "guarantees the repayment of medium-term export credit extended by U.S. banks to foreign buyers, without recourse to U.S. exporters." Third, it "facilitates exports of major capital equipment, requiring repayment terms over 5 years through direct loans to foreign buyers for a portion of the required financing."

The paper was set to examine the relationship between different aspects of service trade and non oil export in Nigeria as well as assess the impact of capacity development on value of service trade and the implications for improving value of non oil export in Nigeria. Secondary data 1980 to 2010 were used. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, correlation analysis and regression analysis. Results show that total service trade value in Nigeria has increased from $1126.59 million in 1980 to $3076.19 million in 2010. Significant correlations existed between the total value of service trade and all the types of service trade except with other service trade value. Road network, government (domestic) capital expenditure on services, agricultural credit and domestic service GDP positively determine exportable services. Recommendations include improvement of service GDP and agricultural credit/loan facilities.

The paper was set to examine the relationship between different aspects of service trade and non oil export in Nigeria as well as assess the impact of capacity development on value of service trade and the implications for improving value of non oil export in Nigeria, which includes agricultural products. Secondary data 1980 to 2010 were used. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, correlation analysis and regression analysis. Results show that total service trade value in Nigeria has increased from $1126.59 million in 1980 to $3076.19 million in 2010. Significant correlations existed between the total value of service trade and all the types of service trade except with other service trade value. Road network, government (domestic) capital expenditure on services, agricultural credit and domestic service output (service Gross Domestic Products GDP) positively determine exportable services. Recommendations include improvement of service GDP and agricultural credit/loan facilities.

Great Britain was the preeminent capital exporter between 1865 and 1914 not only in the volume of investment but also in the industrial and geographical diversity of its capital outflows. This study furnishes comprehensive annual data on the magnitude, destination and composition of British capital exports. Individual country data as well as global, regional and Empire aggregates are provided. Supplemental analyses examine the security composition of the capital exports, the changing ranking of recipients, the use of government interest guarantees on loans and the distribution of interest rates on debentures by industry.

Urgency of the research. The study of the domestic practice of export credit insurance is due to the need to intensify the export activity of enterprises. Target setting. An important condition for stimulating the activity of export-oriented enterprises is the formation of an effective mechanism for lending export operations and ensuring the insurance protection of property interests of foreign economic entities. Actual scientific researches and issues analysis. Scientific works of such scientists as K. S. Barabash, Ye. O. Boyko, M. V. Karyakina, L. B. Kolinets, M. S. Klapkiv, G. S. Timofieva is devoted to the study of the problems of creating an export credit protection system. Uninvestigated parts of general matters defining. The peculiarities of the formation of the mechanism of insurance of export credits in the conditions of the necessity of growth of domestic exports are insufficiently investigated. The research objective. Identification of the main shortcomings of the organization of insurance protection of export activity in Ukraine and determination of the directions of improvement of the mechanism of state support for insurance of export credits. The statement of basic materials. The article substantiates the necessity of forming a system of insurance protection of export credits with state support. Existing features of the domestic legal and regulatory framework regulating insurance and guarantee of export credits and operation of the Export-Credit Agency are revealed. The author's approach to classification of export credits and types of insurance of export credits is offered. Conclusions. Thus, the practice of developed countries shows that in order to intensify the export activity of domestic commodity producers, it is necessary to form a system of insurance protection of export credits with state support. ; Актуальність теми дослідження. Вивчення вітчизняної практики страхування експортних кредитів обумовлено необхідністю активізації експортної діяльності підприємств. Постановка проблеми. Важливою умовою стимулювання діяльності експортно-орієнтованих підприємств є формування ефективного механізму кредитування експортних операцій та забезпечення страхового захисту майнових інтересів суб'єктів зовнішньоекономічної діяльності. Аналіз останніх досліджень і публікацій. Наукові праці таких вчених як К. С. Барабаш, Є. О. Бойко, М. В. Карякіна, Л. Б. Колинець, М. С. Клапків, Г. С. Тимофієва присвячені дослідженню проблем формування системи захисту експортних кредитів. Виділення недосліджених частин загальної проблеми. Недостатньо досліджені особливості формування механізму страхування експортних кредитів в умовах необхідності зростання вітчизняного експорту. Постановка завдання. Виявлення основних недоліків організації страхового захисту експортної діяльності в Україні та визначення напрямків удосконалення механізму державної підтримки страхування експортних кредитів. Викладення основного матеріалу. У статті обґрунтовується необхідність формування системи страхового захисту експортних кредитів з державною підтримкою. Розкриваються існуючі особливості вітчизняної нормативно-правової бази, яка регулює страхування експортних кредитів і функціонування Експортно-кредитного агентства. Запропоновано авторський підхід до класифікації експортних кредитів і видів страхування експортних кредитів. Висновки. Таким чином, практика розвинених країн світу показує, що для активізації експортної діяльності вітчизняних товаровиробників необхідно сформувати систему страхового захисту експортних кредитів з державною підтримкою.

A letter report issued by the General Accounting Office with an abstract that begins "From 1990 through 2001, the Export-Import Bank (Ex-Im Bank) of the United States provided export financing commitments totaling $31 billion to promote the export of U.S. goods and services for use in the energy sector. The energy sector is divided into fossil fuel, renewable, and nuclear energy. Financing is provided through a range of products, including loans and guarantees, export credit insurance, and working capital guarantees. Of the $28 billion Ex-Im Bank provided in loans and guarantees for energy-related projects from 1990 to 2001, 93 percent was used to finance fossil fuel projects, and 3 percent was for renewable energy projects. Trends in applications for fossil fuel and renewable energy projects largely mirrored trends in the energy projects financed because 90 percent of applications submitted were financed. Since 1990, Ex-Im Bank has not consistently provided information about its renewable energy program to Congress; its 1995 and 1998 annual reports did not address renewable energy. Ex-Im Bank's energy portfolio is affected by broad factors such as worldwide market conditions and to some degree by its policies, promotion efforts, and programs. The relatively small share of renewable energy in worldwide energy consumption, due in part to cost factors, is a key factor. Although Ex-Im Bank has undertaken some efforts to promote renewable energy, it has not focused specifically on this sector."

The Export-Import Bank of the U.S. (Eximbank) is a Federal government agency engaged in the financing of U.S. exports. It is entrusted with maintaining the competitiveness of U.S. exports in various key sectors of the economy. It is a product of F. D. Roosevelt's administration and recently celebrated its fiftieth birthday. Over the years, Eximbank's missions and activities have changed, both expanding and curtailing its responsibilities. The Bank's reputation in business and government circles has been and continues to be high; however, in recent years, the Bank has been subject to criticism by the Reagan administration which contends that the financial costs of the Bank outweigh its benefits. The Reagan Administration suggested reforms designed to limit the role of the Bank including elimination of the direct loan program. This thesis traces the development of Eximbank. It reviews literature on Eximbank. It sets forth the history of the Bank and discusses internal and external political and economic structures and processes. It explains some of the functional strengths and weaknesses that affect the Bank's behavior. It discusses four themes that have ordered the Bank's outlook, defined the Bank's priorities and influenced the Bank's performance: the organizational life cycle, the process of institutionalization, the public corporate orientation and the corporate characteristics; and the organizational-environmental adaptations. Finally, it reflects upon the Bank's ability to reformulate its activities and change its behavior for the politics and economics of the 1980s. ; Ph. D.

Chinese loan finance is often misunderstood in Africa. This paper provides an overview of a new database on Chinese loans and describes the research methodology for collecting this data. The authors report on the scale of these loans, their African recipients, and the sectors where borrowers are investing this finance. The paper also explains the Chinese system of securing risky loans with escrow accounts filled by exports and off-take arrangements. The data presented in this paper suggests that Chinese financiers have provided US$86.3 billion to African governments and state-owned enterprises between 2000 and 2014. Yet the paper also warns that debt levels are rising, the Chinese are unlikely to cancel these debts, and there are concerns that African governments may not be able to absorb the sharply increased pledges made by Chinese leaders in December 2015.

From modest beginnings in 1960, China has recently become a highly visible actor in Africa's lending landscape. African borrowers have built roads, installed electrical grids, and modernized their airports with Chinese finance. Yet when commodity prices and growth rates began to tumble in 2015, the specter of a new debt crisis arose. These fears expanded sharply with the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. Are the African countries most vulnerable to debt distress those with high Chinese debt? Who are the Chinese lenders in Africa and how do they manage lending in risky environments? Is China a bigger lender than the World Bank? What kind of terms do we see on Chinese loans in Africa? Why have Chinese banks lent so much in risky environments? How often are loans collateralized with natural resource exports? Do Chinese banks require property as collateral for loans to African governments or their state-owned enterprises (SOEs)? 1. New data show that China makes up 22% of public debt stock (2018) and 29% of debt service (2020) in low income Africa. Yet China's role should not be overestimated. In over half of the 22 countries facing debt distress, China is a small lender. Their debt problems are not made in China. 2. In seven of these 22 countries, China accounts for a quarter or more of all public and publicly guaranteed debt: Angola, Djibouti, Cameroon, Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, and Zambia. Four of these countries negotiated debt restructuring with Chinese lenders in 2018 and 2019. 3. Chinese banks' "project-by-project" analysis may have disregarded the overall debt risk in borrower countries. Only a quarter of Chinese lending is secured by natural resource exports. 4. Borrower government should plan their projects better before they borrow. A large portion of Chinese loan commitments are slow to disburse, partly due to borrowers' inability to meet their share of project responsibilities. Delays hurt the bank, the contractor, and the borrower government.

PART I: SUBJECT MATTER, PARTIES AND RISKS 1. Subject Matter and Basic Terms 2. ECAs and Users of the ECA Cover 3. Political and Commercial Risks PART II: TYPES OF ECA COVER 4. Short-Term, Medium- to Long-Term and Partial Cover 5. Supplier Credit Cover 6. Supplier Credit Cover with the Involvement of Banks 7. Supplier Credit Cover in Complex Transactions 8. Buyer Credit Cover 9. Other Types of ECA Cover 10. Foreign Investment Cover 11. ECA Direct Loans PART III: PROCEDURES 12. Application, Offer and Policy 13. Premium 14. Foreign Content 15. Currency 16. Confidentiality 17. Security for Payment of Credits Covered by ECAs 18. Reinsurance 19. Claims and Indemnification 20. Recovery PART IV: LEGAL FRAMEWORK 21. OECD and EU Regulations on Terms of ECA Cover 22. Other OECD Regulations and International Sanctions 23. Selected Standard Terms of ECA Cover