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In December 2019, the European Commission unveiled an ambitious project, the European Green Deal, which aims to lead the European Union to climate neutrality by 2050. This is a significant challenge for all EU countries, and especially for Poland. The role of hydrogen in the processes of decarbonization of the economy and transport is being discussed in many countries around the world to find rational solutions to this difficult and complex problem. There is an ongoing discussion about the hydrogen economy, which covers the production of hydrogen, its storage, transport, and conversion to the desired forms of energy, primarily electricity, mechanical energy, and new fuels. The development of the hydrogen economy can significantly support the achievement of climate neutrality. The belief that hydrogen plays an important role in the transformation of the energy sector is widespread. There are many technical and economic challenges, as well as legal and logistical barriers to deal with in the transition process. The development of hydrogen technologies and a global sustainable energy system that uses hydrogen offers a real opportunity to solve the challenges facing the global energy industry: meeting the need for clean fuels, increasing the efficiency of fuel and energy production, and significantly reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The paper provides an in-depth analysis of the Polish Hydrogen Strategy, a document that sets out the directions for the development of hydrogen use (competences and technologies) in the energy, transport, and industrial sectors. This analysis is presented against the background of the European Commission's document 'A Hydrogen Strategy for a Climate-Neutral Europe'. The draft project presented is a good basis for further discussion on the directions of development of the Polish economy. The Polish Hydrogen Strategy, although it was created later than the EU document, does not fully follow its guidelines. The directions for further work on the hydrogen strategy are indicated so that its final version can become a driving force for the development of the country's economy.

Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) currently have the challenge of high CAPEX mainly associated to the fuel cell. This study investigates strategies to promote FCEV deployment and overcome this initial high cost by combining a detailed simulation model of the passenger transport sector with an energy system model. The focus is on an energy system with 95% CO 2 reduction by 2050. Soft-linking by taking the powertrain shares by country from the simulation model is preferred because it considers aspects such as car performance, reliability and safety while keeping the cost optimization to evaluate the impact on the rest of the system. This caused a 14% increase in total cost of car ownership compared to the cost before soft-linking. Gas reforming combined with CO 2 storage can provide a low-cost hydrogen source for FCEV in the first years of deployment. Once a lower CAPEX for FCEV is achieved, a higher hydrogen cost from electrolysis can be afforded. The policy with the largest impact on FCEV was a purchase subsidy of 5 k€ per vehicle in the 2030–2034 period resulting in 24.3 million FCEV (on top of 67 million without policy) sold up to 2050 with total subsidies of 84 bln€. 5 bln€ of R&D incentives in the 2020–2024 period increased the cumulative sales up to 2050 by 10.5 million FCEV. Combining these two policies with infrastructure and fuel subsidies for 2030–2034 can result in 76 million FCEV on the road by 2050 representing more than 25% of the total car stock. Country specific incentives, split of demand by distance or shift across modes of transport were not included in this study.

Hydrogen is quickly gaining attention as a "clean" fuel that can support a transition to a decarbonized energy system. Given the urgency to decarbonize global energy systems, governments and industry are moving ahead with efforts to increase hydrogen technologies, infrastructure, and applications at an unprecedented pace, including billions in national incentives and direct investments. While zero- and low-carbon hydrogen hold great promise to help solve some of the world's most pressing energy challenges, hydrogen is also a short-lived indirect greenhouse gas whose warming impact is not well-characterized. There are multiple areas of uncertainty. To date, hydrogen's warming effects have been primarily characterized using the GWP-100 metric—which is misleading for short-lived gases, such as hydrogen, as it obscures impacts on shorter timescales. Furthermore, hydrogen is a small molecule known to easily leak into the atmosphere; however, the total amount of leakage in current hydrogen systems remains unknown, with the analytical capacity to accurately measure leakage in situ largely unavailable. Therefore, the net climate benefit of a future hydrogen economy is unknown over the near to medium term. This paper explores the climate implications of hydrogen leakage over all timescales by assessing the change in cumulative radiative forcing from replacing fossil fuel systems with hydrogen applications and estimating temperature responses to leakage using a plausible range of hydrogen leak rates and the latest estimate of hydrogen's radiative efficiency. We also consider the climate impacts from methane leakage when the hydrogen is produced via natural gas with CCUS ('blue' hydrogen) as opposed to renewables and water ('green' hydrogen); both are considered "clean". We find that the climate consequences of hydrogen applications relative to their fossil fuel counterparts strongly depend on time horizon and leakage rate, with vastly different climate outcomes in the near- vs. long-term and for best- vs. worst-case leak rates. For example, worst-case hydrogen leak rates could yield a near-doubling in radiative forcing relative to fossil fuel counterparts in the first five years following the technology switch, but an 80 % decrease in radiative forcing over the following 100 years after deployment. On the other hand, best-case hydrogen leak rates could yield an 80 % decrease in radiative forcing in the first five years. Simple estimates of temperature responses to a 10 % hydrogen leakage rate (a high but plausible level) suggest a theoretical maximum contribution of around a quarter of a degree (C) in 2050 if hydrogen replaces the entire fossil fuel energy system, and at least a tenth of a degree (C) in 2050 if hydrogen accounts for more than half of final energy demand. Thus, a greater understanding of hydrogen's warming impacts at different possible leakage rates is critical to inform where and how to deploy hydrogen effectively in the emerging decarbonized global economy.

"17 May 1945." ; "Enclosure." ; Evaluation Report 48. 2 June 1945-- page 2. ; Target: Elektrochemische Werke (Dr. Hermann). ; File number 60003. ; "Note: the Publication Board, in approving and disseminating this report, hopes that it will be of direct benefit to U.S. science and industry. Interested parties should realize that some products and processes described may also be the subject of U.S. patents. Accordingly, it is recommended that the usual patent study be made before pursuing practical applications." ; "This report has been declassified and released to the Office of Publication Board by the War and Navy Departments." ; "Combined Intelligence Objectives Sub-Committee"--P. 1. ; At head of title: Office of the Publication Board, Department of Commerce. ; Reproduced from typewritten copy. ; Cover title. ; Mode of access: Internet.

The European Union expects that hydrogen will play a vital role in future energy systems. Fuel cell electric vehicles currently present a key development path for electrification of the transport sector, which requires infrastructure investments of hydrogen refueling stations, preferably powered by renewables such as solar and wind energy. The economic feasibility of refueling stations depends on geographical locations. This study introduces a model to identify the key cost components of renewable hydrogen for refueling stations, and simulates the performance using solar radiation, wind speed, and electricity price data in a selection of Swedish cities. The study demonstrates the importance of integrating the electricity grid in green hydrogen production. Wind speed is crucial in reducing the cost, whereas solar radiation has less influence. In addition, a combination of solar and wind brings better performance in an off-grid scenario. The most encouraging finding is the cost of 35-72 SEK/kg (3.5-7.2 V/kg), which is competitive with reported costs in other EUcountries, especially since this cost excludes any government support scheme. The study provides a reference for investors and policy makers foreseeing the industrial landscape for hydrogen energy development. (c) 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). ; Funding Agencies|Familjen Kamprads Stiftelse [20200103]

Nowadays, hydrogen is increasingly being promoted as an alternative energy carrier for mobility and stationary fuel cell system applications. Yet, the challenge of developing a future commercial hydrogen economy still remains through the deployment of a viable hydrogen supply chain (HSC) and an increasing fuel cell vehicle market share, which allow to narrow the existing cost difference regarding the conventional fossil fuel vehicle market. In this work, the hydrogen fuel cell vehicle (FCV) market penetration from 2020 to 2050, as a substitute for internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) in the French region of Midi-Pyrénées, is evaluated from a social and governmental perspective. To do so, two cost-benefit analyses (CBAs), each one regarding each point of view, have been conducted to determine whether the hydrogen mobility deployment increases enough the social welfare to compensate its costs and, therefore, should be implemented. The results found are sustained by a HSC deployment, performed previously through an optimization process, that adapts to the region and to the hydrogen needs estimated. These results show that in 2050 the costs are not fully compensated. Nevertheless, the fact of incorporating the externalities helps to finance an important proportion of these costs from 2020 to 2050, even being able to fully compensate them before 2070.

Nowadays, hydrogen is increasingly being promoted as an alternative energy carrier for mobility and stationary fuel cell system applications. Yet, the challenge of developing a future commercial hydrogen economy still remains through the deployment of a viable hydrogen supply chain (HSC) and an increasing fuel cell vehicle market share, which allow to narrow the existing cost difference regarding the conventional fossil fuel vehicle market. In this work, the hydrogen fuel cell vehicle (FCV) market penetration from 2020 to 2050, as a substitute for internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) in the French region of Midi-Pyrénées, is evaluated from a social and governmental perspective. To do so, two cost-benefit analyses (CBAs), each one regarding each point of view, have been conducted to determine whether the hydrogen mobility deployment increases enough the social welfare to compensate its costs and, therefore, should be implemented. The results found are sustained by a HSC deployment, performed previously through an optimization process, that adapts to the region and to the hydrogen needs estimated. These results show that in 2050 the costs are not fully compensated. Nevertheless, the fact of incorporating the externalities helps to finance an important proportion of these costs from 2020 to 2050, even being able to fully compensate them before 2070.

Hydrogen is seen as a means to decarbonise sectors with greenhouse gas emissions that are hard to reduce, as a medium for energy storage, and as a fallback in case halted fossil-fuel imports lead to energy shortages. Hydrogen is likely to play at least some role in the European Union's achievement by 2050 of a net-zero greenhouse gas emissions target. However, production of hydrogen in the EU is currently emissions intensive. Hydrogen supply could be decarbonised if produced via electrolysis based on electricity from renewable sources, or produced from natural gas with carbon, capture, and storage. The theoretical production potential of low-carbon hydrogen is virtually unlimited and production volumes will thus depend only on demand and supply cost. Estimates of final hydrogen demand in 2050 range from levels similar to today's in a low-demand scenario, to ten times today's level in a high-demand scenario. Hydrogen is used as either a chemical feedstock or an energy source. A base level of 2050 demand can be derived from looking at sectors that already consume hydrogen and others that are likely to adopt hydrogen. The use of hydrogen in many sectors has been demonstrated. Whether use will increase depends on the complex interplay between competing energy supplies, public policy, technological and systems innovation, and consumer preferences. Policymakers must address the need to displace carbon-intensive hydrogen with low-carbon hydrogen, and incentivise the uptake of hydrogen as a means to decarbonise sectors with hard-to-reduce emissions. Certain key principles can be followed without regret: driving down supply costs of low-carbon hydrogen production; accelerating initial deployment with public support to test the economic viability and enable learning; and continued strengthening of climate policies such as the EU emissions trading system to stimulate the growth of hydrogen-based solutions in the areas for which hydrogen is most suitable.

This paper focuses on the visions incorporated by the Hydrogen Road in Norway (HyNor) project. This is a large-scale project that aims to demonstrate real life implementation of hydrogen in the transport sector in Norway. The starting point of the analysis is that visions play an important role in technological projects. Visions carry, communicate and construct valid practices and meanings in technology. Consequently, visions in technological projects should be a matter of analysis. The following paper discusses both the meaning of technological visions and the kinds of visions that have been deployed in the HyNor project. This discussion shows that HyNor's visions are numerous, flexible and dynamic. Furthermore the ambivalence and tension in the project's visions represent a challenge that needs to be dealt with.