Suchergebnisse

Abstract - The genus Bursaphelenchus comprises almost 100 species mainly from the northern hemisphere, with conifers as the most important hosts. Among the various nematode species, the pine wood nematode (PWN), Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, is the casual agent of pine wilt disease (PWD), and the most important forest pest for pines worldwide, classified as an A1 quarantine organism within the European Union. In 1999 this nematode was detected for the first time in Portugal and Europa associated with maritime pine, Pinus pinaster. Following detection, a national program denominated "Programa Nacional de Luta contra o Nemátodo da Madeira do Pinheiro" (PROLUNP) was created to, among other objectives, determine the distribution of the PWN and its associated vector(s) and host(s), and therefore intensive surveys covering the entire country were conducted with thousands of wood samples and suspected insects being analyzed. This thesis presents the listing, distribution, frequency and the insects associated with Bursaphelenchus species found associated with maritime pine in Portugal, identifying and characterizing the various species by morphological, biometrical and molecular biology (ITS-RFLP and rDNA sequencing analysis) techniques. To achieve the objectives, a total of 4813 maritime pine wood samples and 3294 insects from 22 species and six families were individually analyzed. A total of nine Bursaphelenchus species were found, namely: B. antoniae, B. hellenicus, B. leoni, B. mucronatus, B. pinasteri, B. sexdentati, B. teratospicularis, B. tusciae and B. xylophilus, all of them (with the exception of B. xylophilus) being new records for Portugal. Some of the species appear to have a widespread distribution, such as B. leoni, B. teratospicularis and B. tusciae while others were very rarely found and apparently have a localized distribution range within the country, namely B. antoniae and B. mucronatus. The majority of the species is characteristic of the Mediterranean region and can also be found in countries such as Spain, Italy and Greece, reflecting the affinity of our fauna with those locations. The association of B. hellenicus and B. tusciae with maritime pine is here reported for the first time. Six of the Bursaphelenchus species were also found associated with insects, mainly from the family Scolytidae (Coleoptera). Some of these interactions were described for the first time, namely: B. hellenicus with both Ips sexdentatus and Hylurgus ligniperda, B. sexdentati with both H. ligniperda and Orthotomicus erosus and B. tusciae with H. ligniperda. The exclusive association of B. xylophilus with the cerambycid Monochamus galloprovincialis was also confirmed. The nematode's dauer juveniles were usually found in low numbers in the insect vectors (ca 10-100 per insect), although for B. xylophilus a few thousand specimens per insect were sometimes found. The location of the dauer juveniles differed according to the species, although they were more common under the elytra and wings of the adult insects. A species new to science was detected and formally described as B. antoniae, associated with Hylobius sp. (Coleoptera; Curculionidae) beetles. Morphologically, this new species is very similar to B. hylobianum, although it's distinct ITS-RFLP molecular pattern (with only the enzyme Haelll producing comparable restriction bands) and the failure of hybridization supported the two species as distinct entities. Additional phylogenetic analysis of the 18S rDNA sequence further supported the taxonomical proximity of B. antoniae with B. hylobianum. Concerning the PWN, detailed studies on the development and morphology of B. xylophilus were conducted, and comparative measurements of field-collected and laboratory-maintained populations demonstrated that nematodes from the second group displayed larger size in all morphometric parameters, which could derive from more adequate conditions of nourishment and/or temperature. Taxonomical studies on the development stages of B. xylophilus confirmed the existence of four propagative juvenile stages (J1,J2,J3 and J4), an adult stage with both sexes and two dispersal stages (jIII e jIV), with the measurements of the gonad length allowing the separation of the propagative stages. It is hoped that the acquired knowledge will be useful on future surveys of nematodes of the Bursaphelenchus genus collected from either wood material or insect vectors, and facilitate the correct distinction and identification of the various species which are now known to occur. ### Resumo - 0 género Bursaphelenchus compreende quase 100 espécies, distribuídas sobretudo nos países do hemisfério norte do globo terrestre. Embora algumas espécies já tenham sido detectadas em plantas herbáceas, os hospedeiros vegetais mais comuns deste género são as coníferas, particularmente pinheiros. 0 nemátode da madeira do pinheiro (NMP), Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, é considerado a espécie mais importante deste género uma vez que é o agente causal da doença da murchidão dos pinheiros ("pine wilt disease"). Originário dos Estados Unidos, onde não causa grande impacte, o NMP foi introduzido em alguns países da Ásia (China, Japão, Coreia e Taiwan) e mais recentemente na Europa (Portugal). Nestas regiões é responsável pela destruição de milhares de hectares de coníferas, assumindo uma elevada importância económica. Em Portugal, depois da sua detecção em 1999, associado a Pinus pinaster, foi implementado um programa nacional "Programa Nacional de Luta contra o Nemátodo da Madeira do Pinheiro" (PROLUNP) que permitiu determinar a área afectada pela praga (a sul do rio Tejo, península de Setúbal) bem como definir e implementar estratégias de controlo e prevenção da disseminação do NMP a outras zonas de Portugal. Recentemente, em Junho de 2008, foi confirmada a presença de B. xylophilus em outras regiões de Portugal levando as autoridades oficiais a definir todo o território continental como zona afectada e de restrição. As prospecções intensivas realizadas nos últimos anos incluíram a recolha e análise de milhares de amostras de madeira de pinheiro bem como de insectos associados ao pinheiro bravo conduzindo à identificação de várias espécies de Bursaphelenchus. Assim, os estudos conduzidos neste trabalho tiveram como objectivos efectuar uma caracterização morfológica, biométrica e molecular das espécies associadas a P. pinaster em Portugal bem como a sua distribuição geográfica e abundância. Os estudos biométricos foram realizados com populações extraídas directamente do meio natural. Foi ainda realizada uma pesquisa que permitiu identificar os insectos a que estão associadas essas espécies, os seus possíveis vectores. Foram analisadas no total 4813 amostras de P. pinaster e 3294 insectos (22 espécies pertencentes a seis famílias diferentes). Foram identificadas um total de nove espécies: B. antoniae n. sp., B. hellenicus, B. leoni, B. mucronatus, B. pinasteri, B. sexdentati, B. teratospicularis, B. tusciae e B. xylophilus. Foram realizados estudos morfológicos e biométricos de todas as espécies com excepção de B. mucronatus; o reduzido número de exemplares encontrados em apenas uma amostra foram utilizados para efectuar o diagnóstico molecular desta espécie (ITS-RFLP). Apesar de ter havido, sempre que possível, a confirmação molecular, na maioria dos casos a caracterização morfológica e biométrica permitiu a correcta identificação das espécies. Contudo, foi imprescindível a análise molecular em algumas amostras, nomeadamente para a identificação de B. xylophilus e B. sexdentati; dada a grande semelhança entre B. xylophilus e B. mucronatus e tendo sido encontradas algumas populações de B. xylophilus que possuíam fêmeas com cauda mucronada, foi necessária a realização da confirmação molecular. Com excepção de B. xylophilus, todas as outras espécies foram reportadas pela primeira vez em Portugal. Juntamente com B. xylophilus, B. pinasteri foi a espécie encontrada nas amostras de madeira de pinheiro com maior frequência. Algumas destas espécies como B. leoni, B. teratospicularis e B. tusciae foram reportadas em diferentes localidades do norte, centro e sul de Portugal, apresentando uma vasta distribuição geográfica; este resultado está em consonância com a forte associação destas espécies a climas mediterrânicos tal como acontece em Espanha, França, Itália e Grécia. Em oposição, espécies como B. antoniae e B. mucronatus foram encontradas apenas numa ocasião na região centro (Leiria) e norte (Figueira da Foz) do país, respectivamente. Bursaphelenchus mucronatus é igualmente pouco frequente em Espanha onde ocorre sobretudo na região norte, na Galiza. Esta espécie preferirá climas mais frios, ocorrendo com uma maior frequência nas regiões de latitude norte; esta análise é corroborada pela presença constante em países como Alemanha, Finlândia, França, Noruega, Rússia e Suécia. A nível mundial são descritas neste trabalho pela primeira vez as associações das espécies B. hellenicus e B. tusciae ao hospedeiro vegetal P. pinaster.

Denna studie fäster intresset vid de senaste årens ökade uppmärksamhet runt femomenet hedersrelaterat våld. En uppmärksamhet som tagit sig uttryck i exempelvis statliga satsningar och offentlig debatt. Det övergripande syftet med denna licentiatavhandling är att studera det samtal som förts i den medierade offentligheten, för att däri finna uttryck för idéer och ståndpunkter om hur staten skall reagera på hedersrelaterat våld. För att kunna uppnå det övergripande syftet var det nödvändigt att med hjälp av tidigare teori konstruera ett analysinstrument, detta är studiens andra syfte. Analysverktyget som användes i undersökningen bestod av fyra olika socialpolitiska åtgärder för att komma till rätta med hedersvåld: reglering typ 1, reglering typ 2, exit (ingenting alls) och dialog. De socialpolitiska åtgärderna i analysverktyget betraktas som operationaliserade visioner om det multikulturella samhället. Det multikulturella samhällsidealet assimilationism, där det ivras för gemensamma värderingar och där gruppens betydelse tonas ner, ligger bakom den socialpolitiska åtgärden reglering typ 1. Kosmopolitism är det multikulturella ideal vilket åtgärdsformen reglering typ 2 är en yttring av. Här betonas tolerans för skillnader och mänskliga rättigheter, men ovilja inför omständigheter då individer ställs inför gruppers tvång till anpassning och underkastelse. Den multikulturella formen som benämns fragmentiserad pluralism och där gruppgemenskap, respekt för grupprättigheter och gruppers särart är viktiga ståndpunkter, reflekteras i interventionsformen exit (ingenting alls). I den sista varianten av multikulturalism, interaktiv pluralism, påtalas betydelsen av samspel mellan grupper och ömsesidig förståelse av olikheter, interventionsformen som speglar denna form av multikulturalism är dialog. Ett ytterligare mindre syfte med licentiatavhandlingen består i att belysa hur socialtjänstens arbete med hedersrelaterat våld lyfts fram i medierna. Licentiatavhandlingen är vetenskapsteoretiskt grundad i kritisk realism och teoretiskt är studien förankrad i tankegångar om multikulturalism. Speciellt betydelsefulla är de teoretiska diskussioner där man fokuserar på konflikten mellan jämställdhetsideal och frihetsideal i multikulturella västerländska stater. Följande frågor söker jag svar på: I vilken omfattning återspeglas olika multikulturella idéer, i form av åtgärder eller socialpolitiska interventioner mot dem som utför hedersrelaterat våld, i den medierade offentligheten? Vilken betydelse har faktorer som tidningsartikelkaraktär, tidningens utgivningsområde och publiceringstidpunkt på vilka socialpolitiska interventioner som lyfts fram? Hur ser skillnaden mellan olika aktörer ut vad gäller vilken socialpolitisk åtgärd som lyfts fram och finns det skillnad mellan aktörer i vilken omfattning som de förekommer i tidningsartiklarna? I vilken mån har dikotomin multikulturalism/assimilationism någon bäring och relevans i den svenska debatten om hedersvåld? I vilken grad och på vilket sätt skildras socialtjänsten i debatten om hedersrelaterat våld? Empirin består i grunden av 1755 artiklar ur fem av Sveriges största dagstidningar (i några av analyserna har endast vissa delar av detta material används). Tidningsartiklarna har behandlats utifrån den textanalysiska metoden innehållsanalys. Som hjälp har använts ett speciellt datorprogram (QDA Miner) som utvecklats bl.a. för detta ändamål. Vissa delar av analysen har utförts genom manuell kodning medan andra delar har datorn genom instruktioner automatiskt sökt och hämtat specifika ord. Viss enklare deskriptiv statistisk beräkning har skett. Resultaten redovisas i frekvenstabeller och i vissa fall även med exemplifierande citat hämtade från tidningsartiklarna. Resultaten i studien visar att: (1) intresset för hedersvåld har ökat de senaste åren och att detta tycks ha sammanfallit med de två hedersmorden på Fadime Sahindal och Pela Atroshi; (2) det går att påvisa fyra olika former av socialpolitiska åtgärder i artikelmaterialet samt att en av dessa, reglering typ 2 (dvs. den kosmopolitiska visionen) tycks ha en särställning genom att vara den mest förekommande, även då man testar mot variabler som tidningsartikelkaraktär, tidningens utgivningsområde och publiceringstidpunkt; (3) dikotomin multikulturalism/ assimilationism stämmer dåligt i de sammanhang där hedersrelaterat våld diskuteras; (4) de socialpolitiska åtgärderna förefaller oftast vara reaktiva; (5) politiker och debattörer utgör aktörer som man oftast finner bakom uttalanden om socialpolitiska åtgärder; och slutligen (6) socialtjänsten nämns i ringa grad i förhållande till andra myndigheter samt framställs i tämligen negativ dager. En central implikation av studiens resultat är att resta krav på statliga ingripanden mot dem som utövar hedersvåld inte nödvändigtvis innebär en assimilationistisk ståndpunkt. Den springande punkten är hur "kraven på ingripanden" motiveras. Ur en assimilationistisk ståndpunkt ämnas statliga åtgärder mynna ut i en delad "livsstil", medan det utifrån en kosmopolitisk ståndpunkt snarare handlar om att åtgärderna skall säkerställa efterlevnad av lagar och mänskliga rättigheter. Det gäller således att inte förväxla dessa två på ytan lika men ändå i grunden olika ställningstaganden. ; This study focuses its interest on recent years' increased attention, in Sweden, to the phenomenon of honour violence. The attention has taken the shape of, for example, government actions and public debate. The overall purpose of this dissertation is to study the discourses that have been held in the public sphere and therein find expressions of ideas and positions regarding how the state should react to honour violence. To achieve the overall objective, it was necessary to use previous theories to construct an analytical tool. The analytical tool consists of four different sociopolitical measures used to handle honour violence: regulation type 1, regulation type 2, exit (nothing) and dialogue. In the analysis tool, the various types of intervention are regarded as operational visions of the multicultural society. The multicultural ideal assimilation, which eagerly supports common values and where the group's importance is toned down, is behind the sociopolitical action regulation type 1. Cosmopolitanism is the multicultural ideal of which regulation type 2 is a manifestation. It stresses tolerance for differences and human rights, but is reluctant to accept circumstances in which individuals are forced to submit to group pressure. For fragmented pluralism, group solidarity and respect for the rights of the group are important and this view is reflected in the intervention exit (nothing). The final version of multiculturalism, interactive pluralism, calls attention to the importance of interaction between groups and mutual understanding of differences. The intervention which mirrors this form of multiculturalism is a dialogue. A further objective of this study is to highlight how social work with honour violence is presented in the media. The dissertation has its epistemological basis in the critical realism and theoretically the study is rooted in ideas about multiculturalism. Especially important have been the theoretical discussions focused on the conflict between equality and liberty in multicultural western states. Among other things I have searched for answers to the following questions: To what extent are the different multicultural ideas reflected as action or social policy interventions against perpetrators of honour violence, in the mediated public sphere? Does the dichotomy multiculturalism/assimilation have any bearing and relevance in the Swedish debate on honour violence or are there second positions behind the binary split? To what extent and by what means are the social services described in the debate on honour violence? The empirical material basically consists of 1755 articles taken from five of Sweden's largest daily newspapers (in some of the analyses, only certain parts of this material are used). The news articles have been treated on the basis of a content analytical method. To help, a special computer program (QDA Miner), developed among other things for this purpose, has been used. Some parts of the analysis have been carried out by manual coding while other parts are made by computer automated searching and downloading of specific words. Some simple descriptive statistical calculations have been made. The results are reported in frequency tables and, in some cases, with illustrative quotations from the newspaper articles. The results of the study show that: (1) there has been an increasing interest in honour violence the last few years and this seems to coincide with the two honour killings of Fadime Sahindal and Pela Atroshi, (2) it is possible to detect four different forms of social action, and one of them, regulation type 2 (that is the cosmopolitan vision), seems to have a special status in that it is most common, (3) dichotomy multiculturalism/assimilation hardly corresponds to the context in which the honour violence is discussed (4) the social policy measures most often seem to be reactive, (5) agents behind the statements on social policy are most often politicians and commentators, and finally, (6) social services, in relation to other authorities, are mentioned rarely and presented in a fairly negative way. A key implication of the study results is that when people called for government action against those who practice honour violence, this does not necessarily mean they have an assimilationistic view. The key question is how "demand for intervention" is justified. From an assimilationistic standpoint, governmental actions should lead to a single "lifestyle," while they from a cosmopolitan viewpoint should rather ensure compliance with laws and human rights. It is therefore important not to confuse these two perspectives.

1. Areas de actividad y contextos en el Noreste Mexicano: caracterización de sitios de recolectores - cazadores mediante el uso de la Tipología Espacial / Gustavo A. Ramirez Castilla -- 2. Ubicación espacial de sitios arqueológicos en el municipio de Dr. Gonzalez Nuevo Leon / Efrain Flores Lopez -- 3. Sedentarismo en las adaptaciones de los cazadores y recolectores del bajo Rio Bravo / Martin Salinas -- 4. Permanencia de grupos cazadores - recolectores en respuesta a condiciones topográficas y naturales / Iran Roxana Dominguez Rodriguez -- 5. Un campamento-taller a la orilla del río Salado / Victor Hugo Valdovinos Perez y Iran Roxana Dominguez Rodriguez -- 6. Consideraciones sobre la arqueología de Reynosa, Tamaulipas / Carlos Vanueth Perez Silva -- 7. Tatuajes en las rocas: El lenguaje rupestre Chiquihuitillos en la region de Burgos, Tamaulipas / Diana Radillo Rolon -- 8. "Líneas de horizonte" un locatipo del arte rupestre de Nuevo Leon / Manuel Graniel Tellez. Segunda parte - Poblamiento y resistencia = Parte II - People and resistance: 9. Indian responses to New Santander colonizing process / Gerardo Lara Cisneros and Fernando Olvera Charles -- 10. La redencion de cautivos en el septentrión novohispano en la postrimería del siglo XVIII / Limonar Soto Salazar -- 11. Pames y otras etnias en Rioverde, Santiago de los Valles y Nuevo Santander, siglos XVII - XVIII / Jose Alfredo Rangel Silva -- 12. El poblamiento de la frontera de la Nueva Galicia: Mazapil, siglo XVI / Juana Elizabeth Salas Hernandez -- 13. El poblamiento entre Texas y Louisiana, durante las Reformas Borbonicas / Luis Arnal Simon -- 14. Uso y función de los bienes materiales de las misiones franciscanas: San Juan Bautista y San Bernardo en la segunda mitad del siglo XVIII / Diana Ramiro Esteban -- 15. El rio Bravo y la conformación de la frontera entre Texas y el noreste mexicano entre 1824 y 1848 / Antonio Guerrero Aguilar -- 16. Los trabajos científicos de la Comision de Limites en Tamaulipas y Texas, febrero - mayo 1828 / Erika Adan Morales -- 17. La propiedad rural en el sur de Saltillo, siglos XVI al XX. Las haciendas de Buenavista, El Nogal y Santa Elena de la Punta / Juana Gabriela Roman Jaquez -- 18. "Diles quien eres." Honrando a las familias pioneras del Rio Bravo del Norte / Antonio Noe Zavaleta Reid y Câesar A. Munoz Garcâia -- 19. Las redes sociales en la migraciâon indígena al Noreste de Mexico / Carlos Lemus y Ana Maria Châavez. Tercera parte - Conflicto y adaptaciâon = Parte III - Adaptation and conflict: 20. Spanish plans for the reconquest of Mexico and the invasion of Tampico (1829) / Catherine Andrews y Leticia Dunay Garcâia Martâinez -- 21. Repercusiones del asentamiento colonial en el valle de la Mota evidencia material de trapiches / Araceli Rivera Estrada y Tehua Osnaya Rodriguez -- 22. Freedom's eagle loudly calls: the misinterpretation of the Battle of Resaca de la Palma / D. Clark Wernecke -- 23. La transformación del espacio y arqueología de la Batalla de la Angostura / Carlos Recio Davila -- 24. Revealing the ephemeral: finding traces of 18 critical minutes and their aftermath at San Jacinto / Roger Moore -- 25. Batalla de Monterrey en el Fortin de la Teneria (1846): hallazgos arqueológicos de las fuerzas en combate / Araceli Rivera Estrada -- 26. Con un pie en cada lado: ethnicities and the archaeology of Nuevo Santander rancho communities in South Texas and Northeastern Mexico / Mary Jo Galindo -- 27. Washington, La Habana y Matamoros: los vertices del triangulo transitorio de pertrechos para los constitucionalistas, 1913-1914 / Indra Labardini Fragoso. Cuarta parte - Sociedad e ideas = Parte IV - Ideas and society: 28. La presencia liberal en el periódico El Tulteco / Thelma Camacho Morfin -- 29. El taumaturgo de Espinazo. Breve historia de Jose Fidencio de Jesus Constantino Sintora, mejor conocido como el Nino Fidencio, 1898-1938 / Jose Oscar Avila Juarez -- 30. Gendering the making of a borderlands: women's work in the garment industry / Sonia Hernandez -- 31. From conflict to consensus: Fort Brown becomes the University of Texas at Brownsville and Texas Southmost College / John B. Hawthorne. Fuentes de information = Sources of information: A. Siglas, abreviaturas, acrónimos y signos -- B. Repositorios documentales consultados -- C. Fuentes documentales -- D. Fuentes primarias publicadas -- E. Reportes arqueologicos de campo -- F. Fuentes bibliográficas secundarias -- G. Fuentes hemerográficas -- H. Fuentes electrónicas. TRANSLATIONS: 1. Activity areas and contexts in the Mexican Northeast: characterization of gatherer-hunter sites using the Space Typology / Gustavo A. Ramirez Castilla - 2. Spatial location of archaeological sites in the municipality of Dr. Gonzalez Nuevo Leon / Efrain Flores Lopez - 3. Sedentarism in the adaptations of hunters and gatherers of the lower Rio Bravo / Martin Salinas - 4. Permanence of hunter-gatherer groups in response to topographic and natural conditions / Iran Roxana Dominguez Rodriguez - 5. A camp-workshop on the banks of the Salado river / Victor Hugo Valdovinos Perez and Iran Roxana Dominguez Rodriguez - 6. Considerations on the archeology of Reynosa, Tamaulipas / Carlos Vanueth Perez Silva - 7. Tattoos on the rocks: The rock language Chiguihuitillos in the Burgos region, Tamaulipas / Diana Radillo Rolon - 8. "Lineas de horizonte" a locale of rock art from Nuevo Leon / Manuel Graniel Tellez. Second part - Population and resistance = Part II - People and resistance: 9. Indian responses to New Santander colonizing process / Gerardo Lara Cisneros and Fernando Olvera Charles - 10. The redemption of captives in the northern part of New Spain in the late eighteenth century / Limonar Soto Salazar - 11. Pames and other ethnic groups in Rioverde, Santiago de los Valles and Nuevo Santander, XVII - XVIII centuries / Jose Alfredo Rangel Silva -- 12. The settlement of the border of Nueva Galicia: Mazapil, sixteenth century / Juana Elizabeth Salas Hernandez - 13. The settlement between Texas and Louisiana, during the Bourbon Reforms / Luis Arnal Simon - 14. Use and function of the material assets of the Franciscan missions: San Juan Bautista and San Bernardo in the second half of the 18th century / Diana Ramiro Esteban - 15. The Rio Grande and the formation of the border between Texas and Northeast Mexico between 1824 and 1848 / Antonio Guerrero Aguilar -- 16. The scientific work of the Boundary Commission in Tamaulipas and Texas, February - May 1828 / Erika Adan Morales - 17. Rural property in southern Saltillo, 16th to 20th centuries. The estates of Buenavista, El Nogal and Santa Elena de la Punta / Juana Gabriela Roman Jaquez - 18. "Tell them who you are." Honoring the pioneering families of the Rio Bravo del Norte / Antonio Noe Zavaleta Reid and Câesar A. Munoz Garcia - 19. Social networks in indigenous migration to Northeast Mexico / Carlos Lemus and Ana Marâia Chavez. Third part - Conflict and adaptation = Part III - Adaptation and conflict: 20. Spanish plans for the reconquest of Mexico and the invasion of Tampico (1829) / Catherine Andrews and Leticia Dunay Garcâia Martâinez - 21. Impact of the colonial settlement on the valley de la Mota material evidence of sugar mills / Araceli Rivera Estrada and Tehua Osnaya Rodriguez - 22. Freedom's eagle loudly calls: the misinterpretation of the Battle of Resaca de la Palma / D. Clark Wernecke - 23. The transformation of space and archeology of the Battle of Angostura / Carlos Recio Davila - 24. Revealing the ephemeral: finding traces of 18 critical minutes and their aftermath at San Jacinto / Roger Moore - 25. Battle of Monterrey in Fortin de la Teneria (1846): findings Archaeologists of the forces in combat / Araceli Rivera Estrada -- 26. With one foot on each side: ethnicities and the archeology of Nuevo Santander rancho communities in South Texas and Northeastern Mexico / Mary Jo Galindo - 27. Washington, Havana and Matamoros: the vertices of the transitory triangle of supplies for constitutionalists, 1913-1914 / Indra Labardini Fragoso. Fourth part - Society and ideas = Part IV - Ideas and society: 28. The liberal presence in the newspaper El Tulteco / Thelma Camacho Morfin - 29. The thaumaturge of Espinazo. Brief history of Jose Fidencio de Jesus Constantino Sintora, better known as El Nino Fidencio, 1898-1938 / Jose Oscar Avila Juarez - 30. Gendering the making of a borderlands: women's work in the garment industry / Sonia Hernandez - 31. From conflict to consensus: Fort Brown becomes the University of Texas at Brownsville and Texas Southmost College / John B. Hawthorne. Sources of information = Sources of information: A. Acronyms, abbreviations, acronyms and signs - B. Consulted documentary repositories - C. Documentary sources - D. Primary published sources - E. Field archaeological reports - F. Sources secondary bibliographic - G. Hemerographic sources - H. Electronic sources. ; https://scholarworks.utrgv.edu/digitalbooks/1001/thumbnail.jpg

The global tobacco control movement is more than three decades old, but its impact is inconsistent. For every city or nation that takes strong action to reduce tobacco use, there is another where little if anything has been done to help people stop smoking or to establish tobacco control policies opposed by powerful tobacco industries. Tobacco continues to kill and cause debilitating illnesses, severely retarding progress in improving local, national, and global health and economic conditions. Recent data indicate that smoking is the leading cause of deaths from cardiovascular diseases (1.69 million deaths annually), cancer (1.4 million deaths), and chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (970,000 deaths). About 1.25 billion people smoke cigarettes, representing more than one-sixth of the Earth's population. According to reports from the World Cancer Congress and the 13th World Conference on Tobacco OR Health, held in Washington, D.C., in July 2006, if current trends hold, tobacco will kill a billion people in the 21st century, 10 times the toll it took in the 20th century. These sobering statistics are counterbalanced by some good news. In numerous countries, public health officials, civil society organizations, and various other advocacy groups have joined forces to initiate policies and programs designed to reduce tobacco use. Most comprehensive efforts have included a mixture of awareness raising; restrictions on the sale, promotion, and place of use of tobacco products; and taxes and laws that affect the price and availability of these products. A major milestone was achieved when the landmark Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC), a global treaty initiated by the World Health Organization (WHO), entered into force on February 27, 2005. As of the end of March 2007, a total of 168 countries had signed the treaty, and 146 of those had ratified it. Parties to the FCTC are expected to create national action plans to meet the treaty's minimum requirements in areas such as tobacco advertising, access to smoking cessation programs, the size of warnings on cigarette packs, and the creation and enforcement of smoke-free public spaces. Wealthier countries have more potential resources at their disposal to implement tobacco control policies, yet there are plenty of examples—some of which are examined in this report's case studies—of innovative and increasingly successful tobacco control efforts in resource-limited places. Central and Eastern Europe and Central Asia, however, remain in dire need of more extensive tobacco control. According to the World Health Organization, tobacco related diseases kill more than 700,000 people a year in the region and nearly 40 percent of middle-aged men die prematurely as a result of tobacco use. In some Eastern European countries, lung cancer mortality rates in men are the highest ever recorded anywhere in the world. The WHO has concluded that tobacco use is the major preventable cause of poor health in the region—and that comprehensive tobacco control is the best investment in health reform. Policymakers have been listening. By 2006, all Central and Eastern European countries and a majority of those in the former Soviet Union had enacted some tobacco control legislative and policy measures. However, many legislative regulations and national tobacco control programs, especially in the less developed countries farther east, are not effectively enforced and still have serious loopholes that prevent them from meeting WHO standards. One common thread has been the leadership of civil society groups in devising, implementing, and demanding the enforcement of tobacco control policies and regulations. Local nongovernmental organizations often have been among the first entities of any kind to advocate for tobacco control in their countries, including accession to the FCTC. Many of these civil society groups have received support from the Open Society Institute (OSI), which first provided grants for tobacco control in 2002. Among OSI's most successful grantees is Poland's Health Promotion Foundation (HPF), which since 1991 has played a leading role in lowering the burden of smoking-related diseases through tobacco control in its home country. Recently, HPF began planning the development of a regional center for tobacco control to enable the sharing of information and expertise on tobacco control throughout the region. Based in Warsaw, the Regional Tobacco Control Network and Center (RTCNC) is expected to be fully operational by the end of 2007. The case studies in this report document the advocacy efforts of NGOs in four countries expected to participate significantly in such regional engagement. The nations—Kazakhstan, Moldova, Romania, and Ukraine—are at different stages in tobacco control. The activities of these civil society groups represent a range of strategies reflecting the opportunities, obstacles, and expectations unique to their own nations and circumstances. Taken together, though, the case studies offer important lessons for future tobacco control efforts anywhere in the world. No matter where they live, committed activists generally are able to utilize even a small amount of funding to initiate a process of change; the success of their efforts is multiplied many times over with each increase in resources and capacity. Local leadership of this sort is essential to reversing the current trends in tobacco use, illness, and death that place millions of people at risk. Among the notable lessons are the following: Civil society is crucial to successful tobacco control efforts. The Polish experience in the early 1990s is instructive. After restrictions were lifted on civil society, groups pushed for greater openness about all political, economic, and social issues—including health. Tobacco control efforts gained momentum and policy reforms soon followed, including tobacco control legislation and improved public- and private-sector services designed to raise awareness and promote healthy lifestyles. Experience elsewhere reinforces the strong correlation between comprehensive tobacco control and engaged, fully independent civil societies. Effective tobacco control efforts require comprehensive, multipronged approaches and strategies. Given the power and influence of the tobacco industry in most countries, tobacco control advocates must continually seek to broaden the ways in which they raise awareness of tobacco's negative medical, social, and financial consequences. Important strategies include extensive media campaigns; expanding coalitions within civil society and with government partners; directly challenging policymakers to publicly justify their opposition to tobacco control or reluctance to make it a priority; and collecting and disseminating solid health data, such as the number of deaths and hospitalizations due to tobacco-related illnesses. Economic research is an important, yet often neglected, component of effective advocacy. Policymakers and the general public are often unaware of the massive financial costs to society of tobacco use. Tobacco-related sickness and premature death reduce economic productivity in ways that can be quantified through rigorous data collection. Disabling tobacco-related conditions also force a redirection of individual and public resources from investment and savings—needed to help grow economies and raise living standards—to health care. Tax policies can be used to raise revenues for health promotion activities that lead to a reduction in tobacco-related health care costs. For example, several European countries and U.S. states have raised cigarette taxes and earmarked a portion of the higher revenues specifically for tobacco control activities, such as education and media campaigns. Enshrining health promotion earmarks in laws or government policies improves the likelihood of withstanding tobacco industry pressure to counter comprehensive tobacco control efforts. Media can be a powerful tool for and ally of tobacco control advocates. Tobacco control advocates in Kazakhstan invited members of the media on several tours of Almaty, pointing out violations of the national antitobacco law. The resulting newspaper articles and television coverage helped prompt local officials to introduce the "Smoke-free Almaty" initiative. Such effective use of media is relatively rare in the region. Civil society groups need to train in media advocacy and to share successful strategies and experiences more consistently. Tobacco control regulations and affordable "quit smoking" services are equally important in reducing tobacco use. Restrictions are far more effective in reducing tobacco use when accompanied by health promotion campaigns and accessible, affordable services to help people quit smoking. Incentives for changing behavior must be based on recognition of the medical and psychological elements of tobacco addiction. On their own, punitive measures rarely make an impact on complex behaviors that require extensive treatment and support. Expanded regional learning and cooperation offer clear benefits to local tobacco control efforts. Strategies used successfully in one country or context can have similarly positive impacts elsewhere. Expertise should be tapped more effectively through greater sharing of information and resources across the region, down to the grassroots level. Regional cooperation will also help sustain and expand civil society advocacy that has already shown great promise for improving health. The creation of the Regional Tobacco Control Network and Center should help facilitate such efforts.

Recently, a rising interest in political and economic integration/disintegration issues has been developed in the political economy field. This growing strand of literature partly draws on traditional issues of fiscal federalism and optimum public good provision and focuses on a trade-off between the benefits of centralization, arising from economies of scale or externalities, and the costs of harmonizing policies as a consequence of the increased heterogeneity of individual preferences in an international union or in a country composed of at least two regions. This thesis stems from this strand of literature and aims to shed some light on two highly relevant aspects of the political economy of European integration. The first concerns the role of public opinion in the integration process; more precisely, how economic benefits and costs of integration shape citizens' support for European Union (EU) membership. The second is the allocation of policy competences among different levels of government: European, national and regional. Chapter 1 introduces the topics developed in this thesis by reviewing the main recent theoretical developments in the political economy analysis of integration processes. It is structured as follows. First, it briefly surveys a few relevant articles on economic theories of integration and disintegration processes (Alesina and Spolaore 1997, Bolton and Roland 1997, Alesina et al. 2000, Casella and Feinstein 2002) and discusses their relevance for the study of the impact of economic benefits and costs on public opinion attitude towards the EU. Subsequently, it explores the links existing between such political economy literature and theories of fiscal federalism, especially with regard to normative considerations concerning the optimal allocation of competences in a union. Chapter 2 firstly proposes a model of citizens' support for membership of international unions, with explicit reference to the EU; subsequently it tests the model on a panel of EU countries. What are the factors that influence public opinion support for the European Union (EU)? In international relations theory, the idea that citizens' support for the EU depends on material benefits deriving from integration, i.e. whether European integration makes individuals economically better off (utilitarian support), has been common since the 1970s, but has never been the subject of a formal treatment (Hix 2005). A small number of studies in the 1990s have investigated econometrically the link between national economic performance and mass support for European integration (Eichenberg and Dalton 1993; Anderson and Kalthenthaler 1996), but only making informal assumptions. The main aim of Chapter 2 is thus to propose and test our model with a view to providing a more complete and theoretically grounded picture of public support for the EU. Following theories of utilitarian support, we assume that citizens are in favour of membership if they receive economic benefits from it. To develop this idea, we propose a simple political economic model drawing on the recent economic literature on integration and disintegration processes. The basic element is the existence of a trade-off between the benefits of centralisation and the costs of harmonising policies in presence of heterogeneous preferences among countries. The approach we follow is that of the recent literature on the political economy of international unions and the unification or break-up of nations (Bolton and Roland 1997, Alesina and Wacziarg 1999, Alesina et al. 2001, 2005a, to mention only the relevant). The general perspective is that unification provides returns to scale in the provision of public goods, but reduces each member state's ability to determine its most favoured bundle of public goods. In the simple model presented in Chapter 2, support for membership of the union is increasing in the union's average income and in the loss of efficiency stemming from being outside the union, and decreasing in a country's average income, while increasing heterogeneity of preferences among countries points to a reduced scope of the union. Afterwards we empirically test the model with data on the EU; more precisely, we perform an econometric analysis employing a panel of member countries over time. The second part of Chapter 2 thus tries to answer the following question: does public opinion support for the EU really depend on economic factors? The findings are broadly consistent with our theoretical expectations: the conditions of the national economy, differences in income among member states and heterogeneity of preferences shape citizens' attitude towards their country's membership of the EU. Consequently, this analysis offers some interesting policy implications for the present debate about ratification of the European Constitution and, more generally, about how the EU could act in order to gain more support from the European public. Citizens in many member states are called to express their opinion in national referenda, which may well end up in rejection of the Constitution, as recently happened in France and the Netherlands, triggering a European-wide political crisis. These events show that nowadays understanding public attitude towards the EU is not only of academic interest, but has a strong relevance for policy-making too. Chapter 3 empirically investigates the link between European integration and regional autonomy in Italy. Over the last few decades, the double tendency towards supranationalism and regional autonomy, which has characterised some European States, has taken a very interesting form in this country, because Italy, besides being one of the founding members of the EU, also implemented a process of decentralisation during the 1970s, further strengthened by a constitutional reform in 2001. Moreover, the issue of the allocation of competences among the EU, the Member States and the regions is now especially topical. The process leading to the drafting of European Constitution (even if then it has not come into force) has attracted much attention from a constitutional political economy perspective both on a normative and positive point of view (Breuss and Eller 2004, Mueller 2005). The Italian parliament has recently passed a new thorough constitutional reform, still to be approved by citizens in a referendum, which includes, among other things, the so called "devolution", i.e. granting the regions exclusive competence in public health care, education and local police. Following and extending the methodology proposed in a recent influential article by Alesina et al. (2005b), which only concentrated on the EU activity (treaties, legislation, and European Court of Justice's rulings), we develop a set of quantitative indicators measuring the intensity of the legislative activity of the Italian State, the EU and the Italian regions from 1973 to 2005 in a large number of policy categories. By doing so, we seek to answer the following broad questions. Are European and regional legislations substitutes for state laws? To what extent are the competences attributed by the European treaties or the Italian Constitution actually exerted in the various policy areas? Is their exertion consistent with the normative recommendations from the economic literature about their optimum allocation among different levels of government? The main results show that, first, there seems to be a certain substitutability between EU and national legislations (even if not a very strong one), but not between regional and national ones. Second, the EU concentrates its legislative activity mainly in international trade and agriculture, whilst social policy is where the regions and the State (which is also the main actor in foreign policy) are more active. Third, at least two levels of government (in some cases all of them) are significantly involved in the legislative activity in many sectors, even where the rationale for that is, at best, very questionable, indicating that they actually share a larger number of policy tasks than that suggested by the economic theory. It appears therefore that an excessive number of competences are actually shared among different levels of government. From an economic perspective, it may well be recommended that some competences be shared, but only when the balance between scale or spillover effects and heterogeneity of preferences suggests so. When, on the contrary, too many levels of government are involved in a certain policy area, the distinction between their different responsibilities easily becomes unnecessarily blurred. This may not only leads to a slower and inefficient policy-making process, but also risks to make it too complicate to understand for citizens, who, on the contrary, should be able to know who is really responsible for a certain policy when they vote in national,local or European elections or in referenda on national or European constitutional issues.

Die unternehmensinterne Kommunikation (IK) ist ein brisantes Thema, das bereits aus vielen Perspektiven heraus beleuchtet wurde. Trotz zahlreicher wissenschaftlicher Bemühungen sich dem Thema anzunehmen, ist bei vielen Mitarbeitern von Unternehmen bis heute eine Unzufriedenheit mit der nach innen gerichteten Kommunikationspolitik der Arbeitgeber zu beobachten. Diese lässt eine mangelnde gegenseitige Bezugnahme von Theorie und Praxis vermuten. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird zunächst untersucht, was genau sich hinter dem "Modewort" Kommunikation verbirgt. Dabei werden verschiedene Kommunikationsmodelle vorgestellt, die Hinweise darauf liefern, welche Aspekte beim Entwurf einer zeitgemäßen Kommunikationsauslegung zu berücksichtigen sind. Basierend auf den so gewonnenen Erkenntnissen wird ein eigenes Begriffsverständnis abgeleitet, das darum bemüht ist, der hohen Komplexität des Phänomens gerecht zu werden. Hervorzuheben ist dabei, dass Kommunikation immer gleichzeitig einen äußerlichen und einen innerlichen Prozess beschreibt, der es schwierig macht, diesen zu planen bzw. dessen Wirkung vorauszusagen. Wie gleich zu Beginn der Abhandlung erkennbar wird, weisen eine Reihe von Entwicklungen innerhalb von Unternehmen sowie in deren Umfeld auf die Notwendigkeit hin, dass es auch im internen Kommunikationsbereich zu Veränderungen kommt, die den sich wandelnden Rahmenbedingungen der Informationsprozessierung Rechnung tragen. Hervorzuheben sind in diesem Zusammenhang insbesondere "neue" Organisationsstrukturen, veränderte Ansprüche von Mitarbeitern an die IK und die Durchdringung dieser mit immer neuen Medien. Diese drei grundsätzlichen Tendenzen stehen in direkter Verbindung zueinander und stellen Unternehmen -genau wie ihre Mitarbeiter- vor neue Herausforderungen. Zunächst wird der Medienbegriff näher untersucht, um ein für den Kommunikationskontext sinnvolles Medienverständnis zu formulieren. Medien werden hier als Hilfsinstanz im Kommunikationsprozess verstanden, die es erlaubt, Informationen auch über räumliche und/oder zeitliche Distanzen hinweg zu verbreiten. Eben diese Errungenschaften der Medien bergen gleichzeitig eine Reihe von Risiken, die nicht zuletzt auch den Erfolg von Kommunikation betreffen, der im internen Unternehmensbezug vor allem darin zu sehen ist, dass beim Empfänger von Informationen eine intendierte Reaktion erfolgt. Diese kann sich in einem bestimmten Verhalten, aber auch veränderten Ansichten und Einstellungen des Rezipienten niederschlagen. Da der Medieneinsatz im Rahmen der IK zunehmend an Bedeutung gewinnt, muss diesem Aspekt besondere Aufmerksamkeit zukommen. Wie unter Rückgriff auf verschiedene Kommunikationsmodelle deutlich gemacht wird, kommt es durch die medienbedingte strukturelle Veränderung der Kommunikation zu einer Reihe von Effekten, die meist mit Restriktionen verbunden sind. Sowohl Informations- als auch Kanalvielfalt werden häufig eingeschränkt und führen zu einer veränderten Kommunikationssituation. Für die Akteure bedeutet dies, dass sie mit einem reduzierten Kommunikationsdesign konfrontiert sind, da besonders nonverbale Informationen nicht selten herausgefiltert werden und/oder die Möglichkeit zur direkten Interaktion eingeschränkt wird. Gerade diese für persönliche Kontakte typischen Merkmale sind jedoch von großer Bedeutung für den Kommunikationserfolg. Das Ziel dieser Arbeit ist folglich, zielführende Mittel und Wege auszuloten, die eben beschriebene Defizite medialer Kontakte ausgleichen können und ihre Potentiale voll nutzbar machen. Eine wichtige Rolle spielen in diesem Zusammenhang die verschiedenen Koordinationsweisen von Unternehmen, die weitgehend auch für Kommunikationsprozesse Gültigkeit besitzen. Durch eine Untersuchung und Gegenüberstellung der einzelnen Koordinationsmechanismen wird deutlich, dass besonders solche bei der Abstimmung zwischenmenschlicher Informationsprozesse viel versprechend sind, die auf Beziehungen gestützt sind, also auf freiwilliger Basis ent- und fortbestehen. Kultur und Vertrauen als Repräsentanten dieser Kategorie werden besonders in jüngerer Zeit immer häufiger von der Organisationswissenschaft aufgegriffen. Sie haben im Vergleich zur zweiten identifizierten Gruppe der autoritätsbasierten Koordinationsweisen (z.B. Anweisungen, Regeln) den Vorteil, einen hohen Grad an Allgemeingültigkeit aufzuweisen, auch wenn dazu eine gewisse Vorlaufzeit zur Sammlung gemeinsamer Erfahrungen nötig ist. Eine ausgeprägte Allgemeingültigkeit ist in der Kommunikation deshalb unentbehrlich, weil eine Vielfalt situationsabhängiger Kontextvariablen das Geschehen bestimmt, von der im konkreten Fall nicht alle einzelnen berücksichtigt werden können, ohne hohen Zeit- und Kostenaufwand zu verursachen. So stellt sich heraus, dass nur der kombinierte Einsatz verschiedener Koordinationsformen wirksam sein kann, wobei Kultur und Vertrauen als beziehungsgeleitete Varianten besondere Betonung finden sollten. Kernpunkt der Dissertation ist deshalb eine Analyse einzelner Komponenten dieser Mechanismen, die unerlässlich ist, um ihre Wirkung im Rahmen der Kommunikationsprozessierung detailliert untersuchen zu können. Hier wird deutlich, dass medienbedingte Informationsdefizite und eingeschränkte Rückkopplungsmöglichkeiten erfolgreich durch eine günstige Ausprägung der verschiedenen Kulturbereiche sowie ein hohes Maß an Vertrauen auf verschiedenen Ebenen ausgeglichen werden können. Auf dem Weg zu einem umfassenden Optimierungskonzept der unternehmensinternen (Medien-)Kommunikation wird als abschließender Schritt ausführlich erläutert, wie sich auf Vertrauen und Kultur als Wegbereiter einer effektiven und effizienten zwischenmenschlichen Kommunikation einwirken lässt. Die diesbezüglich herausgearbeiteten Einflussfaktoren lassen sich zunächst grob in zwei Gruppen unterteilen, von denen die eine als personenbezogene und die andere als zwischenmenschliche Erfolgsdeterminante bezeichnet wird. Es geht hier einerseits um die kommunikationsrelevanten Kompetenzen einzelner Mitarbeiter, die sich auf deren Umgang mit Informationen, Medien sowie anderen Personen beziehen und maßgeblichen Einfluss auf die unternehmensinterne Lage von Vertrauen und Kultur in seinen unterschiedlichen Dimensionen üben. Andererseits sind es die im Rahmen der verschiedenen unternehmensinternen Informationsflussrichtungen erkennbaren Kommunikationsbereiche, die ihrerseits einen wichtigen Beitrag zur gezielten Förderung eines ertragreichen Miteinanders leisten. An dieser Stelle kristallisieren sich vielseitige Wirkungszusammenhänge heraus, die in der Arbeit ausführlich dargelegt werden. Zusammenfassend ist festzuhalten, dass Kommunikation im aufgegriffenen Themenkontext gleichzeitig als wichtiger Erfolgsfaktor und anvisierte Zielgröße in Erscheinung tritt, woran deutlich wird, dass Informationsprozesse in gewisser Weise sowohl das Mittel als auch den Zweck der herausgearbeiteten Optimierungsstrategie darstellen. Festzuhalten ist, dass Kommunikationsprozesse unter besonderer Berücksichtigung des verstärkten medialen Einflusses nur auf der Basis gesunder Beziehungen im Unternehmen gleichzeitig rational als auch effektiv sein können. Interne Beziehungen hängen ihrerseits von den Kompetenzen einzelner Mitarbeiter und dem reibungslosen Informationsfluss sowohl in vertikaler als auch horizontaler Richtung ab. Der Fokus bei der Organisation der IK muss folglich auf der Ausgestaltung günstiger Rahmenbedingungen bzw. Voraussetzungen als Grundlage für erfolgreiche Informationsprozesse liegen, während konkrete Einzelfallregelungen und Anweisungen auf diesem Gebiet eine eher untergeordnete Rolle spielen, da diese Mechanismen die hier auftretenden Problemstellungen nur unzureichend aufgreifen. ; Internal communication is more than ever an important topic that has a great influence on the success of companies. Despite the many scientific attempts to find promising solutions for communication problems, many employees obviously are still dissatisfied about the way how employers handle internal communication politics. It is first of all important to point out that communication is a very complex process. This remark gives an idea of how difficult it is to predict the reaction of others when they receive information. Communication is an activity, which itself consists of different processes, taking place outside and inside the involved people. Several developments show how dynamic and important the internal communication (here defined as an interpersonal information process) is today: Changes in organizational structures, new roles and demands of employees, and the use of several communication technologies shape new challenges for companies and their employees. A medium can be defined as a carrier for information, allowing to transfer communication content from one person to another, even if people do not interact directly from face to face. This medium given opportunity expands communication action in a temporal and local dimension on the one hand. On the other hand, the use of information technology causes some specific risks. While media applications allow cost and time savings and thereby lead to a more efficient communication, the effectiveness of the process is endangered at the same time. By filtering out non-verbal information, most types of media make it less likely that communication will lead to the desired results. The typical reduction of information and channel variety makes it more difficult for people to achieve their aims, here determined as a modification of the beliefs and (or) the behavior of the recipient(s). The media caused communication impacts are especially important in business, because there are more and more different types of communication technologies present at most working places. Therefore, information processes show a modified structure people need to cope with. Promising methods and instruments must be identified and discussed, showing how the significant changes can be handled. The coordination factors, which are discussed in organizational theories, can also be applied on communication in particular, because the terms behavior and interpersonal communication are used synonymously in several scientific discourses. Culture and trust are cost saving and highly effective coordination instruments in the communication process. Even though rules, instructions, and established standards are also valuable coordination mechanisms under certain circumstances, culture and trust show their strength when there is a need for general effectiveness. In communication, several situational factors shape an individual process context. These specific settings make it impossible to take them up with rules or instructions, because their implementation would cause high costs and a tremendous time effort. Culture and trust are described as relation based coordination mechanisms: They cannot be obtained by force, because they arise from experience. In contrast, rules and instructions are authority based mechanisms of communication coordination: They can be applied very quickly, because even if they are not found reasonable, there is the opportunity to make employees comply through sanctions. Only the combined use of all different types of coordination (culture, trust, instructions, rules etc.) will show the best results in regulating in-house communication, but especially in the long term perspective it is important to put emphasis on the relation based factors: Trust allows to predict the behavior of others in a reliable way, even if information is exchanged through a medium; cultural values give an idea of how limited communication content needs to be understood in the right, intended way. In consequence, people can give up control and get "co-orientation", what eases acting together with a common purpose in mind, even if face-to-face contacts are not possible. Furthermore, culture and trust do not need to be adjusted over and over again to fit an always changing communication context. After the different components of trust and culture are introduced, the two relation based coordination mechanisms are applied on the communication process. It is discussed how these principles can be influenced in a positive, effective way. Two factors should be considered to reach this aim: One is characterized by the different information flows within organizations, summing up for the communication structure. The structure itself consists of one informal/not organized part and another one that is formally organized. Management and employee participation are representatives of the internal, formal communication of organizations. This section, in combination with not organized information processes, form the interpersonal factor of coordination success. To achieve best results, a second determinant of success needs to be discussed: The personal competencies of employees. This aspect refers to the way of how communication relevant abilities can be established, improved, and enduringly maintained. Communication is the means and the end at the same time, because good interpersonal relationships, which can be established by communication, are crucial for the success of media communication in particular. As worked out here, cultural values and trust are promising measures to overcome the typical insecurities and problems of indirect information processing. The organization itself with its unique interpersonal relationships AND its employees with their individual competencies need to be brought into the right condition to support internal cultural values and trust. This is decisive to ensure that communication content will pass through a medium from one person to another in an efficient AND effective way, making the internal communication of companies succeed.

The objective of this thesis is to contribute as well on the theoretical level as empirical to the research on the links between the macro-economic policies and the social indicators and that in a context of the post-conflict country, the case of Rwanda.The main issue raised here to know what is really the economic policies which can be set up in a country post-conflict in order to reduce poverty within the households? Our thesis is based on two assumptions: First, the economic reforms should converge towards the economic growth and the reduction of poverty in the only condition which this growth is equitably distributed. In addition, we consider the political good-will and the stable macroeconomic environment.It is clear that it is difficult for a poor country as Rwanda which underwent during four years of the ethnic conflicts leading to a genocide waits at intervals of fast growth of its GDP per capita without setting up a parallel program of family planning in order to reduce the growth rate of its population estimated currently at 2,9%. It s required also a solid program of the social sectors through the education and the health.To try to answer this question, we used the Model developed by the World Bank called Poverty Analysis Macroeconomic Model . PAMS is a model which link the households survey to the macro-economic framework. It s evaluate the impact of macro-economic policies - in particular those associated the strategies of reduction of poverty - on employment with the centre of the various socio-economic groups, the households s income, the incidence of poverty and the distribution of income.This thesis is articulated on four chapters; the first one which tried to the poverty under all its dimensions, it weaves the difference between the thresholds of poverty according to various authors; it analyzes then and measures the indicators relating to poverty. This first part of the thesis also makes the overall picture of the empirical literature in context of poverty, etc; finally, it defined and analyzes the Millenium Development Goals, and set out the level that Rwanda reached and the challenges to reach the vision 2020.The second chapter try to set out the links between economic growth and monetary and non monetary dimensions of poverty; it examine the inequalities resulting from this growth . It presents and analyzes briefly the evolution of the certain macroeconomic aggregates and principal measurements of economic policies in post-conflict context. The third chapter analyzes the decade 1990-2000, it makes initially the diagnosis of the year 1990, it analyzes different macro-economic incoherencies on which Rwanda Government was faced too during the period, the impact of the international community, the principal products of exports of Rwanda (coffee and tea), it makes then an outline on the political tendencies and the origin of the genocide of 1994 in Rwanda and the effects of this one on the socio-economic situation; this chapter releases the role of the international community in the genocide and finally compares the results of the economic reforms in end period 1990- 1995-2000. The fourth chapter finally brings additional information on the links between the growth and the poverty reduction using PAMS. This chapter makes simulations on the economic policies and judges the effect on poverty against different external shocks, the goal being not to reduce the poverty of half in a 2020, poverty located at 60% in 2003 but a scenario much more realistic to reduce poverty to 45, 6% in 2020.From the reference scenario, other simulations of economic policy were made by analyzing their effects on poverty and inequalities among different quintiles. We selected five of them:(I) modification of the volume of exports; (II) increase in the agricultural production; (III) the rise of the civil servant salaries and; (iv) modification of the composition of GDP growth and finally, to take an economic socio group like target of economic policy. In conclusion, this analytical work formulated some simulations and recommendations within the macroeconomic framework. ; L objectif de cette thèse c est de contribuer tant sur le plan théorique qu empirique à la recherche des liens qui existent entre les politiques macroéconomiques et les indicateurs sociaux et cela dans un contexte des pays sortant des guerres.La question principale qui attire notre attention est la suivante : quelles sont les politiques économiques à mettre en place dans un pays post-conflit afin de réduire sensiblement la pauvreté au sein des ménages ?Notre thèse s appuie sur deux hypothèses : D une part, nous pouvons souligné que toutes les réformes économiques devraient converger vers la croissance économique et la réduction de la pauvreté à la seule condition que cette croissance soit équitablement répartie. D autre part, nous considérons la volonté politique et l environnement macroéconomique stable.Il est clair que c est difficile pour qu un pays pauvre comme le Rwanda qui a subi pendant quatre ans des conflits ethniques aboutissant à un génocide s attende à un rythme de croissance rapide de son PIB par tête sans mettre en place un programme parallèle de discipline du planning familial afin de réduire le taux de croissance de sa population estimé actuellement à 2,9% et un programme solide des secteurs sociaux à travers l éducation et la santé de sa population.Pour tenter de répondre à cette question, nous utilisons le Modèle développé par la Banque mondiale appelé Simulateur Macroéconomique pour l Analyse de la Pauvreté . PAMS est un modèle qui lie les enquêtes sur les conditions de vies des ménages à des cadres macro-économiques. Il permet d'évaluer l'impact de politiques macro-économiques - en particulier celles associées aux stratégies de réduction de la pauvreté - sur l'emploi au sein des différents groupes socio-économiques, les revenus des ménages, l'incidence de la pauvreté et la distribution du revenu.Cette thèse s articule sur quatre chapitres ; le premier chapitre qui s'inscrit dans le débat actuel de la définition de la pauvreté sous toutes ses dimensions, il tisse la différence entre les seuils de la pauvreté selon différents auteurs ; il analyse ensuite et mesure les indicateurs relatifs à la pauvreté. Cette première partie de la thèse fait également le tour de la littérature en rapport avec le concept de la pauvreté, etc ; enfin, il défini et s interroge sur les Objectifs du Développement du Millénaire, en analysant le niveau que le Rwanda a atteint et le défis qu il doit lever afin d atteindre l horizon 2015.Le second chapitre essaye de tisser des liens entre la croissance et les dimensions monétaires et non monétaires de la pauvreté ; il examine les inégalités issues de cette croissance une fois réalisée dans un sens global.Il présente et analyse brièvement l évolution des certains agrégats 2 macroéconomiques et les principales mesures de politiques économiques qui ont été mises en place pendant la période post-conflit.Le troisième chapitre en revanche fait le bilan de la décennie 1990-2000, il fait d abord le diagnostic de l année 1990, il analyse les différents déséquilibres macro-économiques dont souffrait l économie Rwandaise pendant cette période, l impact des cours internationaux sur les principaux produits d exportations du Rwanda (café et thé), il fait ensuite un aperçu sur les tendances politiques et l origine du génocide de 1994 au Rwanda et les effets de celui-ci sur la situation socio-économique ; ce chapitre dégage le rôle de la communauté internationale dans le génocide et enfin compare les résultats des réformes économiques en fin période 1990- 1995-2000.Le quatrième chapitre finalement apporte des informations supplémentaires sur les liens entre la croissance et la réduction de la pauvreté au moyen du SMAP. Ce chapitre fait des simulations des politiques économiques permettant de juger l effet sur la pauvreté de différentes voies de croissance et des chocs exogènes, le but étant non pas de réduire la pauvreté de moitié en 2020, une pauvreté situé à 60% en 2003 mais un scénario beaucoup plus réaliste de réduire la pauvreté à 45,6% en 2020.A partir du scénario de référence, d autres simulations de politique économique ont été faites en analysant leurs effets sur la pauvreté et les inégalités. Nous en avons sélectionné cinq :(i) la modification du volume des exportations ; (ii) l augmentation de la production agricole ; (iii) la hausse des traitements des fonctionnaires et ; (iv) la modification de la composition de la croissance du PIB et enfin, prendre un groupe socio économique comme cible de politique économique. Pour conclure ce travail, sur base des simulations faites, les recommandations ont été formulées dans le cadre de la politique économique.

It is certainly the most important reform among the many that in recent months have taken place within the sector of cultural heritage. Amidst the great controversy that accompanied its birth, it certainly represents an important evolution in the discipline of the sector. Under some aspects at least, it also certainly marks another missed chance for the world of libraries.We are talking about the fundamental law for the sector of cultural heritage, that law of protection that was emanated last 22 January 2004 (D.L. n.42), with regard to which, before dealing more extensively with libraries, we must at least mention some particularly important elements of a more general nature.Thus, for example, it seems to be particularly important that art.1 identifies the fundamental principles which have inspired the Code, or the solution adopted to finally include in one series all cultural heritage, no matter what the category to which they belong, or again to recognize the nature of cultural heritage of a whole series of realities ignored by previous legislation. Lastly, great merit should be attributed to the attempt, even if not always successful, to provide a detailed and organic juridical definition of the many activities connected with cultural heritage, or of the institutes and places of culture prefixed to them.By contrast, we cannot but mention the many perplexities excited by article 12 on the control of cultural interest and the even serious consequences which, according to some, could have involved the very survival of our cultural heritage. The article has in fact appeared to many commentators all the more serious considering that the entire control procedure must be terminated within 120 days from its beginning and that, should there be no response within this time, the control must be understood as concluded with a negative result.If however as a whole the new Code can be judged fundamentally positive, the question changes considerably where the specific area of libraries is involved. Once again, in fact, many of the problems of the sector were not so much as mentioned by the Code, while for many others the answer provided was at the least either partial or unsatisfactory. Just consider, for example, the complex and many-sided theme of the fruition of library property, liquidated in just one paragraph, or the absence of any reference whatsoever to the national library services and institute of legal deposit, or the disappointing and reductive definition of a library provided by the letter b) of paragraph 2 of article 101, the first definition of a library, please note, ever formulated in an Italian legislative text and precisely for this reason certainly worthy of greater attention and awareness. Similarly confused and contradictory is the solution adopted with regard to the area of competence between State and Region with respect to the safeguarding of library property, a subject, as is known, radically altered by the decree of 1972 which transferred to the Regions the state administrative functions regarding libraries of local bodies. On the basis of this decree, the only case in the sphere of cultural heritage, the offices of the supervision of library property were transferred to the Regions and their tasks were in part transferred and in part delegated to the Regions themselves. Well, the rather unclear wording of paragraphs 2 and 3 of article 5, far from rectifying an historical controversy introduced in regard by the Decree of the President of the Republic no. 3/1972, seems rather destined to increase the uncertainty for the future.Inattention, lack of consideration for the sector of libraries, simple superficiality? Certainly partly this, but the real problem actually is more likely another, perhaps more fundamental also, only partially linked to the specific question of the Code and directly connected rather with the very nature of our institutions and, therefore, of our specific profession. If, as Angela Vinay wrote in 1967, our libraries have the task of preserving the books possessed, but also that of spreading and producing culture, providing readers not just with what they possess, but above all with what they need, it is in fact clear that the Code cannot, even if only partially, respond to our requirements and specificities. ; Certamente costituisce la riforma di gran lunga più importante fra le molte che in questi ultimi mesi hanno interessato il settore dei beni culturali. Certamente, pur fra le mille polemiche che ne hanno accompagnato la nascita, costituisce un'importante evoluzione nella disciplina del settore. Certamente, almeno per alcuni aspetti, costituisce un'altra occasione mancata per il mondo delle biblioteche.Si tratta della legge fondamentale per il settore dei beni culturali, quella legge di tutela che ha visto la luce lo scorso 22 gennaio 2004 (D. lo n.42), a proposito della quale, prima di soffermarsi più estesamente sulle biblioteche, non si può non dedicare almeno un cenno ad alcuni elementi di carattere generale di particolare spicco.Così appare, ad esempio, di particolare rilievo la individuazione, nell'articolo 1, dei principi fondamentali ai quali il Codice si ispira, oppure la soluzione adottata di ricomprendere finalmente in un'unica serie tutti i beni culturali, a qualunque categoria appartengano, o di riconoscere la natura di bene culturale a tutta una serie di realtà ignorate dalla precedente normativa. Meritevole infine il tentativo, anche se non sempre del tutto riuscito, di fornire una puntuale ed organica definizione giuridica delle molteplici attività connesse al patrimonio culturale, o degli istituti e luoghi della cultura ad essi preposti.Per converso, non si può non accennare alle molte perplessità suscitate dall'articolo 12 sulla verifica dell'interesse culturale ed alle conseguenze anche gravi che, secondo alcuni, avrebbe potuto comportare sulla sopravvivenza stessa del nostro patrimonio culturale. La disposizione è infatti apparsa a molti commentatori tanto più grave, in considerazione del fatto che l'intera procedura di verifica deve concludersi entro 120 giorni dal suo avvio e, in caso di mancata risposta nei termini, la verifica deve intendersi conclusa con esito negativo.Se tuttavia nel complesso il giudizio che si può dare del nuovo Codice è sostanzialmente positivo, il discorso cambia sensibilmente quando ci si ponga nell'ottica specifica delle biblioteche.Ancora una volta, infatti, molti dei problemi del settore non sono stati nemmeno sfiorati dal Codice, mentre per molti altri la risposta fornita è stata quanto meno parziale ed insoddisfacente. Basti pensare, ad esempio, al complesso ed articolato tema della fruizione dei beni librari, liquidato in un solo comma, oppure, all'assenza di ogni riferimento ai servizi bibliografici nazionali ed all'istituto del deposito legale, o alla deludente e riduttiva definizione di biblioteca fornita dalla lettera b) del comma 2 dell'articolo 101, la prima definizione di biblioteca, si noti, mai formulata in un testo normativo italiano ed appunto per questo certamente meritevole di una maggiore attenzione e consapevolezzaUgualmente confusa e contraddittoria appare poi la soluzione adottata in merito al riparto di competenze fra Stato e Regioni in materia di tutela dei beni librari, una materia, come è noto, radicalmente modificata dal decreto di trasferimento alle Regioni delle funzioni amministrative statali in materia di biblioteche degli enti locali del 1972, in base al quale, caso unico nel panorama dei beni culturali, gli uffici delle soprintendenze ai beni librari erano stati trasferiti alle Regioni e le loro competenze parte trasferite e parte delegate alle Regioni stesse. Ebbene, la formulazione assai poco chiara dei commi 2 e 3 dell'art.5, lungi dal sanare una storica discrasia introdotta in materia dal D.P.R. n.3/1972, sembra invece destinata ad accrescere l'incertezza per il futuro.Disattenzione, scarsa considerazione per il settore delle biblioteche, semplice approssimazione? Certamente in parte anche questo, ma in realtà il vero problema è probabilmente un altro, se vogliamo ben più sostanziale, solo parzialmente legato alla specifica questione del Codice e direttamente connesso invece con la natura stessa dei nostri istituti e, quindi, della nostra specifica professione. Se, come scriveva nel 1967 Angela Vinay, le nostre biblioteche hanno il compito di conservare i beni librari posseduti, ma anche quello di diffondere e produrre cultura, fornendo ai lettori non solamente ciò che possiedono, ma sopratutto ciò di cui essi hanno bisogno, è infatti chiaro che il Codice non può, se non solo parzialmente, rispondere alle nostre esigenze e specificità.

La falta de recursos financieros en nuestro país hace que sé empiece a buscar por fuera lo que no hay dentro; es así como surge la necesidad de hacer esta investigación, mediante un proceso de ubicación de los actores y competencias de quienes participan en el manejo de la situación ambiental del departamento del Tolima. El análisis de fuentes de financiación nacional e internacional se enfocó en lo relacionado con la temática: Saneamiento Básico (Residuos sólidos, Contaminación hídrica), Suelo (Erosión, Deforestación) y Biodiversidad (Flora y Fauna). Al estudiar las fuentes de financiación que ayudan en la solución de la problemática ambiental, de las cuales se tomaron las diez que llenan las expectativas que se tienen para el proyecto, se escogieron las siguientes: Agencia colombiana de cooperación Internacional, Embajada Británica, Embajada de Canadá, Embajada Española, Fondo para la Acción Ambiental de Colombia, Alianza Fondo para la Acción Ambiental, Ecofondos, Fundación Interamericana I.A.F., Unión Europea y Fondo para el Medio Ambiente Mundial y se obtuvo como resultado un manual donde se detalla cada una de estas explicando la metodología para conseguir los recursos y la estrategia para aplicarlos. Como la problemática ambiental es de todos, esta investigación se ha desarrollado pensando en ahorrar tiempo y su vez facilitar al usuario la manera de tener acceso de una forma rápida y eficiente a la información existente sobre dichos organismos, y así, las Juntas de acción comunal, alcaldes, personeros, gobernadores, corporaciones, gerentes y ONG's y demás personas interesadas y comprometidas con el medio ambiente, puedan acceder y consultar con rapidez estas fuentes de financiamiento. ; Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey (ITESM) ; INTRODUCCIÓN 12 1. ACTORES AMBIENTALES 14 1.1 INSTITUCIONES 14 1.2 COMUNIDAD 15 1.2.1 Organización Comunal 15 1.2.2 Organización No Gubernamental ONGs 15 1.2.3 Cabildos 17 2 FUENTES DE FINANCIAMIENTO 18 2.1 BASES JURIDICAS DE LA COOPERACIÓN INTERNACIONAL 18 2.2 ORGANISMOS, ENTIDADES O ESTABLECIMIENTOS 19 2.2.1 AGENCIA COLOMBIANA DE COOPERACIÓN INTERNACIONAL "ACCI" 19 2.2.1.1 Descripción 19 2.2.1.2 Objetivos 20 2.2.1.3 Tipos de Proyectos Que apoya 21 2.2.1.4 Formas de Apoyo 22 2.2.1.4.1 Cooperación Técnica 22 2.2.1.4.2 Cooperación Técnica entre Países en Desarrollo 22 2.2.1.4.3 Cooperación Financiera no Reembolsable 23 2.2.1.4.4 Cooperación Financiera Reembolsable 23 2.2.1.4.5 Ayuda de Emergencia y Desastres 23 2.2.1.4.6 Ayuda Alimentaría 23 2.2.1.4.7 Canjes de Deuda 23 2.2.1.4.8 Cooperación Cultural 23 2.2.1.4.9 Donaciones 24 2.2.1.4.10 Becas 24 2.2.1.5 Condiciones de Elegibilidad 24 2.2.1.5.1 Generalidades 24 2.2.1.6 Requisitos y Formatos 25 2.2.1.6.1 Específicos 28 2.2.1.6.1.1 Ciclo de Vida del Proyecto 28 2.2.1.6.1.2 Elementos Constitutivos de la Formulación de un Proyecto. 32 2.2.1.6.1.3 Cronología de Tramitación del Proyecto de Cooperación Oficial 36 2.2.1.7 Mayor Información 44 2.2.2 EMBAJADA BRITANICA 45 2.2.2.1 Descripción 45 2.2.2.2 Objetivos 45 2.2.2.3 Tipos de Proyectos Que apoya 46 2.2.2.4 Formas de Apoyo 47 2.2.2.5 Condiciones de Elegibilidad 47 2.2.2.6 Requisitos y Formatos 48 2.2.2.7 Mayor Información 49 2.2.3 EMBAJADA DE CANADA 49 2.2.3.1 Descripción 49 2.2.3.2 Objetivos 50 2.2.3.3 Tipos de Proyectos Que apoya 50 2.2.3.4 Formas de Apoyo 51 2.2.3.5 Condiciones de Elegibilidad 52 2.2.3.6 Requisitos y Formatos 53 2.2.3.7 Mayor Información 57 2.2.4 EMBAJADA ESPAÑOLA 57 2.2.4.1 Descripción 57 2.2.4.2 Objetivos 58 2.2.4.3 Tipos de Proyectos Que apoya 59 2.2.4.3.1 Cooperación Bilateral Gubernamental 59 2.2.4.3.2 Cooperación Descentralizada 59 2.2.4.3.3 Cooperación Bilateral No Gubernamental 59 2.2.4.3.4 Cooperación Descentralizada No Gubernamental 60 2.2.4.4 Formas de Apoyo 60 2.2.4.5 Condiciones de Elegibilidad 60 2.2.4.6 Requisitos y Formatos 62 2.2.4.7 Mayor Información 87 2.2.5 FONDO PARA LA ACCIÓN AMBIENTAL DE COLOOMBIA 87 2.2.5.1 Descripción 87 2.2.5.2 Objetivos 88 2.2.5.3 Tipos de Proyectos Que apoya 89 2.2.5.4 Formas de Apoyo 93 2.2.5.5 Condiciones de Elegibilidad 93 2.2.5.6 Requisitos y Formatos 94 2.2.5.7 Mayor Información 113 2.2.6 ALIANZA FONDO PARA LA ACCIÓN AMBIENTAL – CORPORACIONES AUTONOMAS REGIONAL 113 2.2.6.1 Descripción 113 2.2.6.2 Objetivos 116 2.2.6.3 Tipos de Proyectos Que apoya 117 2.2.6.4 Formas de Apoyo 117 2.2.6.5 Condiciones de Elegibilidad 117 2.2.6.6 Requisitos y Formatos 118 2.2.6.7 Mayor Información 136 2.2.7 ECOFONDOS 136 2.2.7.1 Descripción 136 2.2.7.2 Objetivos 137 2.2.7.3 Tipos de Proyectos Que apoya 137 2.2.7.3.1 Eje Temático Gestión Ambiental De Áreas Silvestres Y Manejo Sostenible De La Biodiversidad. 138 2.2.7.3.2 Eje Temático Gestión Ambiental En Agroecosistemas. 138 2.2.7.3.3 Eje Temático Gestión Ambiental Urbana. 138 2.2.7.4 Formas de Apoyo 139 2.2.7.5 Condiciones de Elegibilidad 139 2.2.7.5.1 Proyectos Elegibles Dentro Del Eje Temático Gestión Ambiental De Áreas Silvestres Y Manejo Sostenible De La Biodiversidad. 139 2.2.7.5.2 Proyectos Elegibles Dentro Del Eje Temático Gestión Ambiental En Agroecosistemas. 140 2.2.7.5.3 Proyectos Elegibles Dentro Del Eje Temático Gestión Ambiental Urbana. 142 2.2.7.5.4 Características Generales De Los Proyectos Elegibles Para Cofinanciación. 143 2.2.7.5.4.1 En cuanto a enfoques conceptuales y metodológicos: 143 2.2.7.5.4.2 En cuanto a pertinencia y proyección: 143 2.2.7.5.4.3 En cuanto a estrategias de acción: 144 2.2.7.6 Requisitos y Formatos 144 2.2.7.7 Mayor Información 161 2.2.8 FUNDACIÓN INTERAMERICANA IAF 161 2.2.8.1 Descripción 161 2.2.8.2 Objetivos 162 2.2.8.3 Tipos de Proyectos Que apoya 162 2.2.8.4 Formas de Apoyo 162 2.2.8.5 Condiciones de Elegibilidad 163 2.2.8.6 Requisitos y Formatos 164 2.2.8.7 Mayor Información 171 2.2.9 UNIÓN EUROPEA 172 2.2.9.1 Descripción 172 2.2.9.2 Objetivos 174 2.2.9.3 Tipos de Proyectos Que apoya 174 2.2.9.4 Formas de Apoyo 174 2.2.9.4.1 Modalidades de cooperación 174 2.2.9.4.1.1 Cooperación directa, la cual realiza la Comisión Europea -CE- directamente con el Gobierno de Colombia: 175 2.2.9.4.1.2 Cooperación descentralizada 176 2.2.9.4.1.3 Otras Líneas 180 2.2.9.5 Condiciones de Elegibilidad 181 2.2.9.5.1 Criterios de selección de los solicitantes. Quién puede presentar una solicitud de subvención 181 2.2.9.5.2 Asociación y elegibilidad de los socios 183 2.2.9.5.3 Criterios de admisión de las acciones: Actividades para las que se puede presentar una solicitud 184 2.2.9.6 Requisitos y Formatos 186 2.2.9.7 Mayor Información 212 2.2.10 FONDO PARA EL MEDIO AMBIENTE MUNDIAL PROGRAMA DE PEQUEÑAS DONACIONES 212 2.2.10.1 Descripción 212 2.2.10.2 Objetivos 213 2.2.10.3 Tipos de Proyectos Que apoya 214 2.2.10.4 Formas de Apoyo 215 2.2.10.5 Condiciones de Elegibilidad 215 2.2.10.6 Requisitos y Formatos 217 CATEGORIA DE PRESUPUESTO 220 2.2.10.7 Mayor Información 221 2.2.11 RESUMEN FUENTES DE FINANCIACION 221 2.2.12 INFORMACION FINANCIERA PROYECTO DE REFORESTACIÓN EJECUTADO CON RECURSOS DEL FONDO PARA LA ACCION AMBIENTAL – CORPORACIONES AUTONOMA REGIONALES 223 2.2.12.1 Rotulo del proyecto 223 2.2.12.2 Ficha técnica del proyecto 224 2.2.12.3 Resumen descriptivo del proyecto 225 2.2.12.4 Antecedentes 226 2.2.12.5 Justificación 227 2.2.12.6 Caracterización Socioeconómica 228 2.2.12.7 Objetivo General 229 2.2.12.8 Objetivos Específicos 229 2.2.12.9 Metas 229 2.2.12.10 Metodología del proyecto 230 2.2.12.10.1 Concertación con la comunidad. 230 2.2.12.10.2 Especificaciones Técnicas 230 2.2.12.10.2.1 Especies 230 2.2.12.10.2.2 Establecimiento de la Plantación 231 2.2.12.10.2.3 Control Fitosanitario: 232 2.2.12.10.2.4 Fertilización 232 2.2.12.10.2.5 Aislamiento 232 2.2.12.10.2.6 Riego 232 2.2.12.10.2.7 Replante: 232 2.2.12.10.3 Administración Y Operatividad Del Proyecto 232 2.2.12.10.3.1 Mano de Obra 232 2.2.12.10.3.2 Asistencia Técnica 233 2.2.12.10.3.3 3 Labores de Mantenimiento y Desarrollo de la Plantación233 2.2.12.10.4 Utilización de Insumos Orgánicos 233 2.2.12.10.4.1 Biofertilizantes 233 2.2.12.10.4.2 Bioinsecticidas 234 2.2.12.10.4.3 Coberturas Vegetales 234 2.2.12.11 Monitoreo, seguimiento y evaluación 234 2.2.12.12 Sostenibilidad 235 2.2.12.13 Organización Proponente: Corporación Autónoma Regional del Tolima "CORTOLIMA". 235 2.2.12.13.1 Estructura Organizacional de Cortolima 235 2.2.12.14 Equipo Ejecutor 236 2.2.12.15 Información financiera del proyecto 237 3 CONLUSIONES 245 BIBLIOGRAFIA 246 ; Maestría ; The lack of financial resources in our country makes me start looking for what is not inside; This is how the need to carry out this research arises, through a process of locating the actors and competencies of those who participate in the management of the environmental situation of the Department of Tolima. The analysis of national and international sources of financing focused on the subject: Basic Sanitation (Solid Waste, Water Pollution), Soil (Erosion, Deforestation) and Biodiversity (Flora and Fauna). When studying the sources of financing that help in the solution of the environmental problem, of which the ten that meet the expectations that are had for the project were taken, the following were chosen: Colombian Agency for International Cooperation, British Embassy, Embassy of Canada, Spanish Embassy, Fund for Environmental Action of Colombia, Alliance Fund for Environmental Action, Ecofunds, IAF Inter-American Foundation, European Union and Global Environment Fund and as a result a manual was obtained detailing each of these explaining the methodology to obtain the resources and the strategy to apply them. As the environmental problem belongs to everyone, this research has been developed thinking about saving time and in turn facilitating the user the way to quickly and efficiently access the existing information on these organisms, and thus, the Community Action Boards , mayors, representatives, governors, corporations, managers and NGOs and other people interested and committed to the environment, can quickly access and consult these sources of financing.

The Structure and Dynamics eJournal offers a conduit for refereed electronic publication, debate, and editorial communication in the domain of anthropology and human sciences. We invite you—as an open access reader at no cost, an author at no cost, or a volunteer, to submit book reviews or commentary—to contribute and to participate in raising the aspirations of the human sciences today. To submit an article, follow the link to "Submission guidelines." To submit a review simply click Submit a "Reader's Comment" at the article site. We comment here on the contents and success of the first two issues. Full-text downloads of the eJournal articles numbered 5,313 in the 11 months since September 23, 2005, now averaging 16-17 a day. This reflects positively on quality of the articles, made possible in turn by the high quality and incisiveness of reviews, the number and diversity of reviewers who have responded, and selection for quality in article acceptance and reviewers (and we thank our reviewers for their efforts at timely review). In just two issues, the eJournal has come a long way in attaining the goals set out for it as a publication in which scholarship and debate can be engaged in contemporary fields of research, one that provides a venue for the study of the complex interplay between dynamics and structure, and gives an outlet for methods and results which speak to the issues of simplicity in complexity and the study of structure and dynamics. It has also facilitated presentations of new forms of analysis and visualization, new forums for debate and new vehicles for the dissemination and absorption of work at the cutting edges of the human sciences. Authors of issue 1#1 have had feedback and good reception. Peter Turchin's findings on historical dynamics have been replicated, for example, using data covering a 700-year period from archaeological research in the Southwest. The replication study is in press in the journal Complexity. Wikipedia, at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_cycle_theory, cites Turchin's article in issue 1#1. Several of the issue 1#1 articles are now reviewed in blogs and on-line commentaries, digests, or reference lists, many with timely google citations. Links to them are starting to appear on educational sites at which students have direct access to download and on-line readership. Issue 1#1 marked our first use of high-quality color imagery and live url links. Krempel and Schnegg's paper explained our journal's dynamic-gif logo in their "About the Image: Diffusion Dynamics in an Historical Network," which also allows the reader to link to the authors' longer 1998 study and its on-line imagery. That article, "Exposure, Networks and Mobilization: The Petition Movement during the 1848/49 Revolution in a German Town," published at http://www.mpi-fg-koeln.mpg.de/~lk/netvis/exposure, provides further background and examples for the innovative use of dynamic graphics. Summing up our current issue, 1#2, and to give readers an idea of the unusual and unique features of electronic publication, we review the advantages and evolution of our permanent, paper-quality, refereed eJournal publications. Along with our use of live url links and imagery on-line, these advantages are facilitated by our UC eScholarship publisher. In 1#2, Sean Downey provides a fascinating study that interrogates ethnographic and historical texts with the aid of simulation. He uses his approach to analyze the ethnographic/historical theory put forward by noted author Paul Willis in Learning to Labor, secondarily to show strengths and weaknesses of contemporary social theories such as those of Tony Giddens (1984) and, finally, also to identify the descriptive lacunae that limit this genre of simulation. As an invaluable gift to students and instructors (he is himself a graduate student), he supplies on-line the code for the simulation and, as a free resource, access to the simulation software package itself. Christiansen and Altaweel's "Understanding Ancient Societies," subtitled "A New Approach Using Agent-Based Holistic Modeling," describes their Argonne National Labs holistic agent-based simulation framework that couples with incredible depth to the real-world information that can be brought into simulation and modeling from the earth sciences, satellite imagery, climate modeling, the agricultural sciences, ethnography, network analysis, and a host of other areas. Focusing on the development of their model for addressing research questions about Mesopotamia, they explain and illustrate the general-purpose simulation framework. Their work offers a productive complementarity to Algaze's lead article in our first issue, where he poses a series of questions, hypotheses, and possible lines of evidence with which to explore the processes that lead to the first cities' takeoff. Wouter de Nooy's study of the networks and the structural dynamics of folktale plots, tested as well against literary interactions through time among Dutch literary critics, uses network analysis software described in his coauthored book with the software authors (de Nooy, Batagelj, and Mrvar 2005). He gives us the first-ever published SVG image produced by Pajek network software with interactivity within the SVG image itself (now available from the Pajek freeware authors at http://vlado.fmf.uni-lj.si/pub/networks/pajek/). The SVG image is not simply static but directly accessible, thanks to live links inside our eScholarship pdfs, as an interactive graphic that the reader can explore for different views of the data. Wilkinson and Tsirel evaluate limit cycles in Indic regional political polarities—how many polities in each ten year interval, coded from a comprehensive database—over two millennia. They begin with the simplest of models of temporal dynamics and historical limit cycles and proceed to evaluate at each step those of increasing complexity. The visual scanability of their multicolor graphical results helps to give the reader an ability to judge visually the contribution of different kinds of statistical analyses to understanding the complexity of the data and, in turn, the plausibility of different historical processes and explanations. Seary, Richards, McKeown-Eyssen, and Baines, in their "Networks of Symptoms and Exposures," provide an innovation that makes possible a better comprehension of statistical interactions in complex phenomena by enabling the reader to recognize linkages within complex data such as those in the field of medicine. The visual imagery of their 3-dimensional interactive "panigram" images, named from the Greek panis ("sail"), provides a generalization of simpler histograms that, by analogy, would be composed by an ordering of the one-dimensional heights of the ship's masts. The 3-D panigrams form an analog of planar sails rotatable about masts that represent the spines of the data structure. Co-authoring with professionals in the medical field, they use these images to look at the interrelations of people, their exposures to disease, and how symptoms are jointly distributed across both. Berkowitz, with his collaborators Woodward and Woodward, draws on his scholarship about the role of family and informal institutions in historical world economies to write of venerable and legal networks of exchange that have operated for millennia and yet that make it impossible to trace financial transactions through the modern computerized credit banking systems. His scholarship, interrupted by untimely death in 2003, is honored in this issue. Palmer, Steadman, and Coe, in "More Kin: An Effect of the Tradition of Marriage," utilize genealogical graphics, a mathematical model of networks and demography, and analysis of the relation between biology and culture to reopen important questions about the role of human kinship systems in human evolution, considered both in terms of networks and cognition. Their results for numbers of kin at various distances in bilateral kinship networks, depending both on demography and issues of social recognition, are cited in the article by Moody. James Moody's "Fighting a Hydra: A Note on the Network Embeddedness of the War on Terror," shares in common with Berkowitz et al.'s article a concern for misunderstandings that prompted and have emerged out of the War on Terror. Moody writes of the effects of misguided policies, such as described in the recent best seller by Thomas Ricks (2006), that fail to take into account the "blowback" consequences of the killing, wounding, and arresting of civilians and the torture of suspected insurgents. He considers as well the effects of the wounding and deaths of soldiers, recruited into such wars, on those in their home communities, families and social networks. His on-line innovation is to provide students and the reader with a calculator for the network scale-up model of Killworth et al. (1998) to estimate the number of people who know somebody in an "event," such as those killed in the war. "Since the values needed to make these estimates are rapidly changing and somewhat subjective, users can test the effect of different assumptions with this calculator," as noted within the calculator itself. In our review, we highlight the general properties of the scale-up model, of which we shall see more in future articles.

Anhand einer empirischen Fallstudie in der indischen Mittelstadt Pondicherry werden Erkenntnisse über die relative Exposition der lokalen Bevölkerung und ihre Risikowahrnehmung hinsichtlich gesundheitsrelevanter Umweltprobleme des häuslichen Umfelds gewonnen. Die Ergebnisse der exploratorischen Studie erlauben die beispielhafte Erörterung des Beziehungsgeflechts zwischen Risikoperzeption und Vulnerabilität und bieten ferner Ansatzpunkte zur Erarbeitung von Bewältigungsstrategien in Anbetracht der zunehmenden Umwelt- und Gesundheitsbelastung. Mittels Analysen der vorhandenen Literatur, Karten und Sekundärdaten sowie Experteninterviews werden als gravierende Umweltprobleme mit (potenziellen) direkten und indirekten Gesundheitsauswirkungen auf der Makroebene Urban Pondicherry Luftverschmutzung, Lärm und Moskitoverbreitung identifiziert. Verursacht werden diese v.a. durch den Straßenverkehr, Industriebetriebe, (stagnierende) offene Abwasserkanäle und unentsorgten (Haushalts-)Müll. Anzunehmende gesundheitliche Folgen reichen von Atemwegsbeschwerden und Bluthochdruck bis hin zu Filariose sowie dem Potenzial der Malariaübertragung. Unter methodischer Anwendung grundlegender GIS-Analysen werden die gesundheitlichen Risikofaktoren auf der Mesoebene von Census Tracts räumlich ausgewertet und insgesamt 31 Risikoregionen festgelegt, welche für die Ursachen der genannten gesundheitsrelevanten Umweltprobleme überdurchschnittliche Werte aufweisen. Die Bewohner dieser Risikoregionen können aufgrund ihrer Exposition als besonders verwundbar eingestuft werden. Um das Risikoverständnis, die Risikobewertung und den Risikoumgang der Bevölkerung besser zu verstehen und somit Ansatzpunkte für eine effiziente Informationspolitik auf der einen sowie konkrete administrative Interventionen auf der anderen Seite zu bestimmen, wurden in drei ausgewählten Risikoregionen sowie einem weniger betroffenen Census Tract insgesamt 360 umfassende standardisierte Interviews geführt. Da bei der Untersuchung die Umwelt- und Gesundheitsbelastung des häuslichen Umfelds im Vordergrund steht, wurden nur Frauen in die Befragung einbezogen. Teilaspekte der Interviews sowie eine parallel durchgeführte Kartierung erfassten zudem die individuellen Wohnverhältnisse, sodass auch auf Haushaltsebene weitere Expositionsaspekte bestimmt werden konnten. Die beiden erhobenen Datenkomplexe (Lebenssituation ? Wahrnehmung) werden hinsichtlich regionaler sowie sozialer, ökonomischer und demographischer Aspekte analysiert. Als Ergebnisse sind u.a. festzuhalten: Es existieren regionale Perzeptionsunterschiede, die nicht nur von sozio-ökonomischen Verhältnissen, sondern auch vom lokalen Expositionskontext beeinflusst sind; dies gilt v.a. für die Wahrnehmung von Lärm. Ubiquitär auftretende gesundheitsrelevante Umweltprobleme werden generell flächendeckend wahrgenommen und teilweise auch als Gesundheitsrisiko perzipiert (z.B. Moskitos). Sinnlich wahrnehmbare und konkrete Umweltprobleme werden von den Befragten stärker akzentuiert. Die Ursachenbenennung empfundener Belastungen entspricht weitestgehend den identifizierten Risikoquellen, jedoch existieren auch Wissensdefizite, z.B. hinsichtlich industrieller Risikofaktoren und Naturgefahren. Im Rahmen individueller Bewältigung wird häufiger von Symptombekämpfungen berichtet; den wahrgenommenen Ursachen widmen sich weniger Befragte. Interindividuelle Vulnerabilitätsdifferenzen basieren auf der unterschiedlichen Exposition, Risikowahrnehmung und -bewältigung, wobei alle drei Faktoren nicht unabhängig von den jeweiligen sozio-ökonomischen Einflüssen gesehen werden können. ; Urban environment and health - Exposure and risk perception of vulnerable population groups in Pondicherry, India The empirical case study of Urban Pondicherry gives consolidated findings of the relative exposure and risk perception of the local population concerning domestic environmental health problems. The results of the exploratory study allow the discussion of the interdependence between risk perception and vulnerability. Furthermore, approaches for coping strategies can be formulated, regarding the deteriorating health relevant environment. Analysis of the existing literature, maps and secondary data as well as interviews with local experts, reveals air pollution, noise, and mosquito spread as most immediate environmental problems with (potential) direct and indirect health effects on the macro level of Urban Pondicherry. These environmental health issues are caused in particular by street traffic, industries, (stagnating) open drains and uncollected (household) waste. Anticipated health outcomes include respiratory irritations and high blood pressure, besides filariasis and the potential of malaria spread. By means of using geographical information systems (GIS), the existing health risk factors are evaluated concerning their spatial importance on the meso level of Census Tracts within Urban Pondicherry. Overall 31 risk regions are identified, where the mentioned causes of environmental health problems show figures above average. People living in these risk areas can be classified as highly vulnerable to environmental health problems, due to their exposure. For gaining knowledge about effective approaches for information policy on the one side and distinct administrative interventions on the other side, it is necessary to further understand the risk perception, risk assessment and risk behavior of the local population. Thus, extensive standardized interviews were conducted in 360 households, most of them in three designated risk areas and the rest in one less affected Census Tract. Since the survey focused on domestic environmental health issues, only women were interviewed. Aspects of this survey, in addition to local mapping, deliver extended information on the individual housing conditions, so that further characteristics of exposure to environmental health risk factors can be identified on this micro level. The two data complexes (living situation ? perception) are analyzed concerning regional as well as social, economic and demographic aspects. Regional disparities of perception do exist, which are not only determined by socio-economic circumstances, but also by the context of local exposure to environmental health factors. This applies especially to noise. Ubiquitous health relevant environmental problems are generally perceived in all areas and are partly also recognized as health risk (e.g. mosquitoes). Environmental problems that are perceivable by the senses and very evident environmental phenomena are named more often by the interviewed women. Although the region is prone to cyclones, natural disasters don't play a role in the local risk perception. When naming causes of perceived stresses, the majority of the interviewed in fact propose the identified sources. Yet, knowledge deficits exist, e.g. about industrial risk factors. Interindividual differences of vulnerability are based on the variant exposure, risk perception and coping, taking into account the different socio-economic backgrounds. ; Environnement urbain et santé - exposition et perception de risques de groupes de population vulnérables à Pondichéry en Inde A l'aide d'une étude de cas empirique dans la ville moyenne de Pondichéry en Inde, l'exposition relative de la population locale et sa perception des risques quant aux problèmes sanitaires dûs à l'environnement du milieu domestique a été évaluée. Les résultats de cette étude de terrain permettent de débattre à titre d'exemple du tissu relationnel entre la perception des risques et la vulnérabilité et offrent de plus des points de départ pour acquérir des stratégies de solution compte tenu des incidences croissantes de l'environnement sur la santé La pollution de l'air, le bruit et la propagation des moustiques sont identifiés comme problèmes environnementaux importants avec des conséquences directes et indirectes (potentielles) sur la santé à l'échelon macro Urban Pondicherry à l'aide d'analyses de la bibliographie existante, de cartes, de données secondaires ainsi que d'interviews d'experts. Ces problèmes sont causés surtout par la circulation, les entreprises industrielles, les égouts (stagnants) à ciel ouvert et les ordures (ménagères) non enlevées. Les conséquences sur la santé devant être admises vont des troubles des voies respiratoires et de l'hypertension à la filariose et au potentiel de transmission de la malaria. En appliquant méthodiquement des analyses SIG fondamentales, les facteurs de risques sanitaires à méso-échelle de Census Tracts sont évalués spatialement et il est déterminé 31 régions à risques en tout qui présentent des valeurs supérieures à la moyenne pour les causes des problèmes sanitaires dûs à l'environnement cités plus haut. Les habitants de ces régions à risques peuvent être classés comme étant particulièrement vulnérables en raison de leur exposition. Pour mieux comprendre comment la population comprend et évalue le risque et se comporte face au risque et donc pour définir des points de départ d'une part pour une politique efficiente d'information ainsi que des interventions concrètes sur le plan administratif d'autre part, dans trois régions à risques sélectionnées ainsi que dans un Census Tract moins concerné, en tout 360 interviews standardisés complets ont été menés. Etant donné que, pour l'examen de l'incidence sur l'environnement et la santé, c'est surtout le milieu domestique qui est au premier plan, les enquêtes n'ont concerné que des femmes. De plus, des aspects partiels des interviews ainsi qu'une cartographie qui a été effectuée parallèlement ont compris les conditions individuelles de logement si bien que d'autres aspects d'exposition ont pu être également définis à l'échelon domestique. Les deux complexes de données relevées (situation de vie - perception) sont analysés quant aux aspects régionaux ainsi que sociaux, économiques et démographiques. Comme résultats, on peut retenir entre autres: il existe des différences régionales de perception qui ne sont pas seulement influencées par des conditions socio-économiques mais encore par le contexte d'exposition locale; ceci est valable surtout pour la perception du bruit. Des problèmes environnementaux importants pour la santé qui interviennent partout sont généralement perçus globalement et sont même partiellement perçus comme risque sanitaire (par exemple les moustiques). Les problèmes environnementaux concrets et pouvant être perçus de manière sensorielle sont davantage accentués par les interviewés. La désignation des causes des sollicitations perçues correspond dans une grande mesure aux sources de risques identifiées; cependant, il existe également des déficits dans le savoir, par exemple pour ce qui est des facteurs de risques industriels. Dans le cadre des réponses individuelle aux problèmes, il est plus fréquemment question des luttes contre les symptômes; un nombre moindre d'interviewés se consacre aux causes perçues. Les différences interindividuelles de vulnérablité se basent sur la différence de l'exposition, de la perception des risques et des solutions apportées, tous les trois facteurs ne pouvant pas être considérés indépendamment des influences socio-économiques respectives.

The provision of career information and guidance throughout a citizen's life has become an issue of great importance worldwide, as societies prepare themselves to meet the challenges that the transition to knowledge-based economies represents. An unprecedented research effort has in fact been initiated by the OECD, which has distributed a dedicated questionnaire to 14 countries internationally in order to create a baseline of information on the current state of policy development in career guidance. That same survey instrument has been used by CEDEFOP to gather data on the remaining EU countries, and by the ETF in relation to 11 ACCs . The World Bank has initiated a parallel review in a number of middle-income countries, again using the OECD questionnaire. The thematic review by these key partners will lead to the development of the most extensive harmonised international database ever on guidance policy and practice. This synthesis report summarises the state of play in the development of career information and guidance in both the education and labour market sectors in Bulgaria, Cyprus, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia. Experts from each of these countries have written a report, structured around the OECD survey and on the basis of their own knowledge of the field, often following extensive consultation with key partners. The broad purpose of this exercise is, first of all, to provide an account of the most recent and most significant developments, trends, challenges and major issues, as well as the strengths and weaknesses, of national career information and guidance systems and policies, in such a way as to render the data susceptible to comparative analysis. Secondly, the synthesis report aims to facilitate the generation of benchmarks, enabling the countries that participated in the review to gauge how well they are doing in career information and guidance provision in relation to other comparable countries, and to facilitate the sharing of good practice. Thirdly, the report should prove to be a useful tool for the development of policy, particularly as ACCs have acknowledged the centrality of lifelong learning in their strategic response to the challenges of integration in the global economy generally, and in the EU more specifically, and the value of career information and guidance throughout life for citizens within that context. The synthesis report consists of six sections, which closely follow the OECD outline in order to facilitate comparison between the different reports once these become available. In the Annex, experts responsible for writing up the detailed country reports have contributed a summary providing an overview of the key elements of the national arrangements for careers information and guidance, outlining the strengths, weaknesses, issues and challenges for their systems. The first section provides a background to the Commission's involvement in the career information and guidance review. It also outlines briefly the geopolitical, economic and cultural contexts of the 11 countries surveyed, particularly in so far as these impact on career guidance provision. The second section focuses on the policy challenges for career information and guidance in terms of national objectives. The latter include the upgrading of the knowledge and skills base of the population, with a view to addressing unemployment, to meeting the demands of knowledge-based economies, and to ensuring that the labour supply and demand are in harmony. Another set of challenges arises from a social policy context that seeks to ensure equitable distribution of education and employment opportunities, with guidance services having a key role to play as active measures in combating early school leaving, facilitating the integration of at-risk groups in both education and the labour market, and reducing poverty. Governments in ACCs – and to a lesser extent, the private sector – have acknowledged the important contribution that career guidance can make in reaching these educational, employment and social objectives, and indeed have launched several initiatives to underscore their commitment to the cause. Nevertheless, while the discourse around career guidance has intensified, it appears that in some cases that discourse has outstripped practice, and plans tend to suffer from a lack of implementation. The third section constitutes the heart of the report, as it considers several aspects that contribute to the more effective delivery of career guidance. An initial focus is the services provided in the education sector. Here attention is given to the extent to which guidance is a stand-alone activity offered infrequently and at key transition and decision-making points, which seems to be the key modality of provision when compared to other models where guidance issues permeate the curriculum. Attention is also given to the initiatives that help to connect the school with the world of work; to the instruments used in delivering guidance; to the groups that are targeted; and to the education sectors where services are non-existent (namely primary schooling), or where they are most present (secondary level), or where they are on the increase (tertiary level, including universities). A second focus is on the employment sector, and the extent to which adults receive guidance as they negotiate occupational and further education and training trajectories in a lifelong learning society. The synthesis report highlights the fact that most adult guidance is offered in the context of public employment services, and that it tends to be remedial in nature, narrowly targeted at unemployed people, with the immediate goal of finding them employment. Other key trends noted are the lack of cross-sectorial collaboration, and the minor involvement of the private sector in the provision of adult guidance, where at best they function as job-brokerage services. One aspect of guidance that has witnessed a great deal of development in most ACCs is the use of ICT (Information and Communication Technology) to ensure more effective and widespread provision of education- and career-related information to the community. There is also a gradual trend to increased input and involvement by stakeholders, and to a shift in the modality of service whereby clients are provided with the resources to assess their needs and aspirations, and to match these with employment opportunities. A key issue cutting across the whole of this section is the lack of a sound evidence base that would permit the evaluation of the effectiveness of the guidance service in reaching its objectives. Section four considers the human and financial resources dedicated to career guidance. In most ACCs, staff involved in offering guidance services have a higher level of education – often in psychology or the humanities – though not all have had specialised pre-service training in the field. Trends include increased opportunities for in-service training, and the gradual professionalisation of career guidance through the specification of entry and qualification routes, the articulation of clearly defined occupational roles, the drawing up of a formal code of ethics, and the formation of associations and networks that may have a research and training function. Most ACCs report that the profession tends to attract women in the main, and that the qualifications and training routes for staff employed in the education sector tend to be different from those for staff engaged in the employment sector. The information about the financial resources allocated to career guidance is extremely sketchy and inconclusive. Most of the budget for careers information and guidance services comes from the state, with few ACCs reporting any substantial investment in the activity by the private sector. Section five synthesises the observations made by experts from the ACCs in terms of the strategic leadership that is exercised in the field of career guidance, and of how this could be strengthened. Despite the fact that there have been several noteworthy developments, a general conclusion that can be drawn is that there is a need for stronger mechanisms to provide coordination and leadership in articulating strategies for lifelong access to guidance within a national policy framework that is both dynamic and adequately resourced. As things stand at the moment, career guidance still tends to be seen by governments as a marginal activity. There is also much scope for a more vigorous role for the private sector and stakeholders, in a field where, curiously, trade union input seems to be particularly weak. Little evaluation is carried out to monitor quality in service provision, or to measure effectiveness, particularly in relation to specific performance targets and outputs. While examples of good practice exist in a number of the countries surveyed, a more robust evidence base is required if guidance is to be provided in a way that responds to the distinct needs of a differentiated clientele. Section six provides a concluding note identifying the main challenges as well as the way forward for career guidance in the countries surveyed. While none of the ACCs on its own holds the key for addressing the most pressing issues that are identified, collectively they certainly provide a rich thesaurus of good practice from which policy-makers and practitioners can draw inspiration. ; peer-reviewed

Inhaltsangabe:Abstract: The emergence of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) has launched a global debate (digital or technological revolution) about a paradigm shift from an industrialised towards an Information Society. In the front of this debate lies the assertion that the application of ICT is the impelling factor of transformation which will result in far reaching changes within all parts of the economy, the society and the State. The State plays therefore an important role for this transformation. First, the creation of a 'New Economy' which stands for a branch of industry that develops and produces hardware, software and communication equipment and its penetration and application into the whole economy. The emergence of e-buzzwords such as e-commerce or e-business are related to the application of ICT within the economy. Second, after a laissez-faire policy implementation through the State, it has to care for social aspects such as to connect the society to the internet and create a digital literate society. This 'second stage' of the Information Society has its expression in the common used catchword 'digital divide'. Finally, the State itself comes under pressure to apply ICT within government institutions, expressed by the latest catchwords of e-government and e-governance. Their hype (chiefly technologically determined) can be equated with the emergence of the 'New Economy' within the global debate about the Information Society. Emerged from developed countries, e-government and e-governance experience an increasing use in developing countries. Their advocates (i. e. international development organisations) stress the catchwords for the purpose of poverty alleviation, improved living standards and economic growth, in developed and particularly in developing countries. Furthermore, both subjects of the thesis have started up a new tractive force within the debate of public administration reforms. Both can be summarised as ICT-led public administration reform. They are deemed to be an 'impelling factor of organisational change and transformation' of governmental institutions. Moreover, the literature concerning both catchwords, is full of positive expectations (i.e. enhance participation, accountability, transparency and overall democracy) and thus, they are seen as a medium to implement and support their theoretical concepts New Public Management (NPM) and Good Governance. Fairly few observations in developed countries stressed the significance of internal structures within governmental institutions which can influence the introduction of ICT in general and the developing countries. However, they are unrecognised within the debate of e-government and e-governance. Furthermore, the debate of these catchwords contains a lack of concern about and notice of a possible influence of internal structures of public administrations on the implementation of e-government and e-governance regarding developed and especially developing countries. Under this review and in bringing back the e-government/e-governance debate into reality, the central question of this thesis is: which preconditions have to be considered before the implementation of both catchwords in non-Weberian bureaucracies in developing countries? In answering this question, the case of Indonesia is taken as a basis because it is planning to implement an extensive e-government project since the end of 2001. The thesis will reveal that an ICT-led public administration reform through e-government or e-governance will certainly fail, as long as the developed preconditions in the constructed test model are unrecognised. E-government and/or e-governance will reinforce and strengthen existing internal structures within public administrations instead of transform them towards the normative concepts. In approaching the central question, the thesis is compiled as follows: First, chapter one discusses the catchwords' theoretical background under consideration of ICT and their general critiques. Then, the catchwords themselves are defined in the scope of the Information Society and their present critiques. Both sections expose the necessary preconditions for the implementation of e-government and e-governance. The preconditions are: The networking effects (totality of integration), the analysis of internal structures of public administrations (micro-level) and the analysis of related actors' interests (macro-level). From this point of view, chapter two constructs a test model where these more broad preconditions are substantiated and operationalised through the application of several theories. Chapter three applies the test model to the case of Indonesia. On the macro-level the theory of bureaucratic developmental State by Elsenhans is applied with an emphasis on the ICT sector. This section reveals that on the supply side within the ICT sector there are existing tendencies where indigenous and non-indigenous conglomerates regain there position on the economy, namely on the emerging ICT sector and their influence on IBRA (Indonesian Bank Restructuring Agency). Furthermore on the telecommunication sector there exists a duopoly of State-owned companies. Both findings are related to a segmentation of the State Class which favours more indigenous conglomerates instead of non-indigenous as in the pre-Soeharto area. The demand side of ICT is summarised through the analysis of the stage of networking effects. It includes quantitative indicators from 1997 to 2001 and policy indicators. It emphasises that at the present stage of networking the internet is biased towards an educated high-income group within the Indonesian society. The speed of developing a 'connected society' is reduced by weaknesses in policy formulation, implementation and monitoring. On the micro-level the duality of structure by Giddens and applied by Killian/Wind (1997) is used. This analysis concludes that the mesh of formal and informal structures and the old vision of political thinking lead to a concentration of power, authority and control over resources in the hands of top officials who are part of the State Class. With the emergence of ICT a new powerful group within the public administration can evolve which will challenge existing power and authority holders. Thus, in stabilising and guaranteeing their traditional economic and informational resources, the patrons (top officials) have to co-opt the ICT unit (new powerful group) to obtain control over the access, transfer and selection of information. The thesis finishes with a conclusion that emphasises important questions which should borne in mind before implementing e-government and/or e-governance. Table of Contents: Table of Contents AcknowledgementsI Table of ContentsII List of FiguresV List of TablesVI IntroductionVII 1.E-Government and e-Governance Against the Background of Their Theoretical Classification1 A.Theoretical Classification: New Public Management and Governance2 I.New Public Management2 a)Reasons for the Adoption of New Public Management2 b)Objectives of NPM3 c)Raise the Issue of Internal Structures in Developing Countries5 d)ICT as Driving Power for Civil Service Reforms in Developing Countries?8 II.The Concept of Governance10 a)The Basics10 b)The Emergence of Networking within the Concept through ICT12 1.Characteristics of Networking12 2.Tendencies so Far13 3.Critical Issues14 B.Definitions in the Scope of the Information Society16 I.Framework of the Information Society17 a)Technological and Economic Dimensions18 b)Policy Dimension20 II.E-Government22 a)Definition and Orientation in the Scope of e-Buzzwords22 b)Reasons for the Adoption of e-Government Concepts25 c)Objectives of e-Government26 d)Barriers or Challenges: Do Structures Matter?27 III.E-Governance29 a)Definition of e-Governance29 b)Reasons for the Adoption of e-Governance Concepts31 c)Objectives of e-Governance31 d)Barriers or Challenges: Do Structures Matter?33 C.Further Development? A Provisional Result34 2.Preconditions of e-Government/e-Governance for Their Implementation: Constructing a Test Model38 A.The Macro-level: The Bureaucratic Developmental State38 B.The Micro-level: Theory of Structuring40 C.Networking Effects: Summary of Quantitative Indicators and the Policy Environment42 3.Testing the Model: The Case of Indonesia46 A.Why Indonesia?46 B.Polit- and Socio-Economic Conditions in Post Soeharto Era and Networking Effects48 I.Reinforcing Economy: Government-Business Networks and ICT48 a)The Government-Business Networks in Indonesia49 b)The Destruction of Conglomerates by IBRA52 c)The ICT Sector and Telecommunication Market: Conglomerate's Impetus and State-owned Duopoly56 II.Unconnected Society: Multiplicity of Divide59 a)The Development of the Telecommunication Infrastructure59 b)Evaluating Networking Effects63 C.The Public Administration in Indonesia69 I.Civil Service Reform in Post-Soeharto Era70 a)Decentralisation Reform70 b)ICT-led NPM Reform71 II.The Ascendancy of Duality of Structures Within ICT-led Reforms73 a)Following Old Visions: Political Thinking in the Public Administration74 b)Backing the System: Formal Structures76 c)Human Factor: Informal Structures80 D.Summarising the Test Results84 Conclusion86 AppendixVI BibliographyIX Eidesstattliche ErklärungXXIII

Cigarette consumption among people 15 years or older peaked in Switzerland in the early 1970's with 3,700 cigarettes per capita and per year, followed by a decline to 2,800 cigarettes per capita and per year in 1994. After a decline of the proportion of smokers from 37% in 1980 to 31% in 1992, this proportion has increased again to 33% in 1997. Women, particularly the young, and children and adolescents, have shown a continued increase in smoking prevalence, despite the focus of tobacco prevention efforts on children and adolescents. Every year, over 10,000 people die from tobacco use in Switzerland, about a sixth of all annual deaths in Switzerland, making smoking the leading preventable cause of death in Switzerland. This number is more than 20 times higher than the number of deaths caused by illegal drugs. The tobacco excise tax in Switzerland is the lowest in Western Europe. The laws governing tobacco products, their marketing and sales, are weak and have little practical effect on the tobacco industry. There is no meaningful protection of nonsmokers from the toxic chemicals in secondhand tobacco smoke, in public places or work places. A ten-country survey on people's experiences and attitudes concerning tobacco and smoking in 1989, commissioned by Philip Morris International, showed that Swiss people were aware of secondhand smoke's adverse effects on health, but only a minority favored government regulations for smoking in restaurants and workplaces. A first comprehensive 5-year tobacco prevention program, 1996 to 1999, issued by the Swiss Federal Office of Public Health lacked adequate financial resources, focus on specific interventions, cooperation between partners for tobacco prevention, and program coordination and management. It ignored the role of the tobacco industry. As a result of recent events in the US and WHO's active engagement of the tobacco industry, the draft five-year plan for tobacco prevention in Switzerland for 2001 to 2005 identifies the tobacco industry as a major obstacle to tobacco prevention. Until the recent merger of British American Tobacco (BAT) with Burrus-Rothmans in 1999, the single most important tobacco company in Switzerland was Philip Morris (PM), with a market share of close to 50% (and close to 25% for Marlboro alone). Since the merger, the tobacco market is dominated by PM and BAT, each with a market share of cigarette sales between 45% and 50%. As was the case in the US, in the early 1960's, the scientists in Swiss tobacco industry research laboratories (in this case, FTR (Fabriques de Tabac Réunies) / Philip Morris) accepted and discussed the dangerous effects of smoking on health in internal company communications. At that time, these scientists earnestly tried to find ways to reduce the carcinogenic effects of cigarettes through elimination of carcinogenic components. Contrary to privately expressed views, tobacco industry's public position in Switzerland was that there was ongoing controversy in the issue whether smoking caused diseases or not. The "controversy" was nurtured through regular media briefings and scientific meetings with carefully chosen scientists who would publicly support the industry's position, but without declaring their liaisons with the tobacco industry. Relationships with these industry "consultants" or "witnesses" were maintained through direct payments and indirectly through funding of their research. By late 1980's the tobacco industry had identified the decline of social acceptability of smoking in Europe as a major threat to its viability. This recognition led to the development of a comprehensive strategy to fight the secondhand smoke issue. "Courtesy and tolerance" and economic arguments were used to divert the public's and policy makers' attention from the health issue. The resulting strategies were often devised in consultation with executives of other Philip Morris subsidiaries and Philip Morris International headquarters in New York. Well aware of its low credibility with the public, journalists were given interviews and told not to mention the tobacco company's name in the newspaper article. Official publications, such as "Smoking and Mortality in Switzerland" by the Federal Office of Public Health, the report on the respiratory effects of secondhand smoke by the US Environmental Protection Agency, as well as original scientific publications, such as an article in the American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, dealing with secondhand smoke and respiratory symptoms in Switzerland (SAPALDIA study) written by a group of Swiss scientists, were massively attacked by the tobacco industry. The tobacco industry employed "consultants" and politicians with industry ties, who used standard industry arguments. One of the most active industry consultants in Switzerland was Peter Atteslander, a Swiss citizen and professor at the University of Augsburg in Germany. He wrote white papers for the tobacco industry and reported from meetings worldwide. Atteslander appeared to be the essence only member of the Switzerland-based "Arbeitsgruppe für Gesundheitsforschung (AGEF) ("Working Group on Health Research"), which published his work without disclosing the ties to the tobacco industry. To fight smoking restrictions in restaurants and hotels, the tobacco industry developed a strong ally in the hospitality association, the International HoReCa. The secretary general of International HoReCa at the time was Dr. Xavier Frei, also president of the SCRA (most likely the Swiss Café and Restaurant Association). The hospitality association made extensive use of tobacco industry resources and repeatedly printed tobacco industry positions in hospitality industry newsletters, without the members of International HoReCa or SCRA being informed about the close ties between their organization and the tobacco industry. The "accommodation program," a well-known tobacco industry strategy to preempt regulatory measures against smoking in restaurants and workplaces first developed in the United States, was used in Switzerland. The fact that even the logo was the same as the one used in the US is another illustration of tobacco industry's recycling of strategies and tactics worldwide. The shift of focus from the problem of secondhand smoke to one of indoor air quality in general was (and remains) a major strategy used by the tobacco industry worldwide to dilute the problem of secondhand smoke with other indoor air pollutants and ventilation of buildings. To this end, an indoor air quality control company with close ties to the tobacco industry, ACVA Atlantic Inc., USA, later renamed Healthy Buildings International, HBI, collected data which was used extensively by the tobacco industry to further their goal of downplaying the role of secondhand smoke as a major component of indoor air pollutant. Employees of HBI were sent to Switzerland to collect data on Swiss office buildings, and the data were used in the newsletters of HoReCa to support the accommodation program and against non-smoking regulations. HBI has been discredited in the US. The tobacco industry tried to influence smoking policy in airplanes through partial funding of IFAA's (International Flight Attendants Association) world congresses. This influence was established through close relationship with the president of the association, a common industry strategy in influencing organizations. When, in the wake of smoke-free flights in the US and other countries, Swissair finally introduced smoke-free flights, it was heavily criticized in newspaper articles by the Swiss "Smokers Club," and later the Swiss "Club of Tobacco Friends," whose president and founder is a former public relations official for the tobacco industry. The Swiss Cigarette Manufacturers Association successfully influenced smoking policy in railway trains through letters to the publishers of newspapers and direct lobbying toward cantonal authorities and the head of the national railways. Two referendums on tobacco and alcohol advertising bans in 1979 and 1993 were rejected by Swiss voters despite pre-referendum polls favoring advertising bans through a strong and lasting alliance of the tobacco industry with the advertising agencies and the print media. The tobacco industry successfully kept itself behind the scenes in order to avoid negative publicity while financing the anti-advertising ban campaigns and supplying the alliance against advertising bans with well-crafted arguments by tobacco industry public relations and law firms through the International Tobacco Information Center, INFOTAB. The tobacco industry and its allies used economic and political arguments, such as purported effects on employment, state tax revenues, and individual and corporate freedom to fight the advertising bans. Close relationships with officials and politicians were emphasized and maintained through regular meetings with the head of the political parties and briefings of the "tobacco caucus" in the parliament. This caucus gave the tobacco industry the means to stay well informed about the political agenda and to easily influence the political process in their favor. While Switzerland has some of the most progressive and innovative public health promotion programs, most public health advocates underestimate the power of, and driving forces behind, a tobacco industry, and only few of them have confronted the industry directly.

Spiro Munayyer's account begins immediately after the United Nations General Assembly partition resolution of 29 November 1947 and culminates in the cataclysmic four days of Lydda's conquest by the Israeli army (10-14 July 1948) during which 49,000 of Lydda's 50,000 inhabitants ("swollen" with refugees) were forcefully expelled, the author himself being one of those few allowed to remain in his hometown. Although the author was not in a position of political or military responsibility, he was actively involved in Lydda's resistance movement both as the organizer of the telephone network linking up the various sectors of Lydda's front lines and as a volunteer paramedic, in which capacity he accompanied the city's defenders in most of the battles in which they took part. The result is one of the very few detailed eye-witness accounts that exists from the point of view of an ordinary Palestinian layman of one of the most important and tragic episodes of the 1948 war. The conquest of Lydda (and of its neighbor, Ramla, some five kilometers to the south) was the immediate objective of Operation Dani-the major offensive launched by the Israeli army at the order of Ben-Gurion during the so-called "Ten Days" of fighting (8-18 July 1948), between the First Truce (11 June-8 July) and the Second Truce (which started on 18 July and lasted, in theory, until the armistice agreements of 1949). The further objective of Operation Dani was to outflank the Transjordanian Arab Legion positions at Latrun (commanding the defile at Bab al-Wad, where the road from the coast starts climbing toward Jerusalem) in order to penetrate central Palestine and capture Rumallah and Nablus. Lydda and Ramla and the surrounding villages fell within the boundaries of the Arab state according to the UNGA partition resolution. Despite their proximity to Tel Aviv and the fall of many Palestinian towns since April (Tiberias, Haifa, Jaffa, Safad, Acre, and Baysan), they had held out until July even though little help had reached them from the Arab armies entering on 15 May. Their strategic importance was enormous because of their location at the intersection of the country's main north-south and west-east road and rail lines. Palestine's largest British army camp at Sarafand was a few kilometers west of Lydda, its main international airport an equal distance to the north, its central railway junction at Lydda itself. Ras al-Ayn, fifteen kilometers north of Lydda, was the main source of Jerusalem's water supply, while one of the largest British depots was at Bayt Nabala, seven kilometers to its northeast. The Israeli forces assembled for Operation Dani were put under the overall command of Yigal Allon, the Palmach commander. They consisted of the two Palmach brigades (Yiftach and Harel, the latter under the command of Yitzhak Rabin), the Eighth Armored Brigade composed of the Second Tank Battalion and the Ninth Commando Battalion (the former under the command of Yitzhak Sadeh, founder of the Palmach, the latter under that of Moshe Dayan), the Second Battalion Kiryati Brigade, the Third Battalion Alexandroni Brigade, and several units of the Kiryati Garrison Troops (Khayl Matzav). The Eighth Armored Brigade had a high proportion of World War II Jewish veterans volunteering from the United States, Britain, France, and South Africa (under the so-called MAHAL program), while its two battalions also included 700 members of the Irgun Zva'i Le'umi (IZL). The total strength of the Israeli attackers was about 8,000 men. The only regular Arab troops defending Lydda (and Ramla) was a minuscule force of 125 men-the Fifth Infantry Company of the Transjordanian Arab Legion. The defenders of Lydda (and Ramla) were volunteer civilian residents, like the author, under the command of a retired sergeant who had served in the Arab Legion. The reason for the virtual absence of Arab regular troops in the Lydda-Ramla sector was that the Arab armies closest to it (the Egyptian in the south, the Arab Legion in the east, and the Iraqi in the north) were already overstretched. The Egyptian northernmost post was at Isdud, thirty-two kilometers north of Gaza and a like distance southeast of Ramla-Lydda as the crow flies. The Iraqi southernmost post was at Ras al-Ayn, where they were weakest. And although the Arab Legion was in strength some fifteen kilometers due east at Latrun, the decision had been taken not to abandon its positions on the hills between Ras al-Ayn and Latrun for fear of being outflanked and cut off by the superior Israeli forces in the plains where Lydda and Ramla were situated. Indeed, as General Glubb, commander of the Arab Legion, informs us, he had told King Abdallah and the Transjordanian prime minister Tawfiq Abu Huda even before the end of the Mandate on 15 May that the Legion did not have the forces to hold and defend Lydda and Ramla against Israeli attacks despite the fact that these towns were in the area assigned to the Arabs by the UNGA partition resolution. This explains the token force of the Arab Legion-the Fifth Infantry Company. Thus, the fate of Lydda (and Ramla) was sealed the moment Operation Dani was launched. The Israeli forces did not attack Lydda from the west (where Lydda's defenses facing Tel Aviv were strongest), as the garrison commander Sergeant Hamza Subh expected. Instead, they split into two main forces, northern and southern, which were to rendezvous at the Jewish colony of Ben Shemen east of Lydda and then advance on Lydda from there. After capturing Lydda from the east they were to advance on Ramla, attacking it from the north while making feints against it from the west. Operation Dani began on the night of 9-10 July. Simultaneously with the advance of the ground troops, Lydda and Ramla were bombed from the air. In spite of the surprise factor, the defenders in the eastern sector of Lydda put up stout resistance throughout the 10th against vastly superior forces attacking from Ben Shemen in the north and the Arab village of Jimzu to the south. In the afternoon, Dayan rode with his Commando Battalion of jeeps and half-tracks through Lydda in a hit-and-run raid lasting under one hour "shooting up the town and creating confusion and a degree of terror among the population," as the Jewish brothers Jon and David Kimche put it. This discombobulated the defenders, some of whom surrendered. But the following morning (11 July) a small force of three Arab Legion armored cars entered Lydda, their mission being to help in the evacuation of the beleaguered Fifth Infantry Company. Their sudden appearance both panicked the Israeli troops and rallied the defenders who had not surrendered. The Israeli army put down what it subsequently described as the city's "uprising" with utmost brutality, leaving in a matter of hours in the city's streets about 250 civilian dead in an orgy of indiscriminate killing. Resistance continued sporadically during the 12th and 13th of July, its focus being Lydda's police station, which was finally overrun. As of 11 July, the Israeli army began the systematic expulsion of the residents of Lydda and Ramla (the latter having fallen on 12 July) toward the Arab Legion lines in the east. Also expelled were the populations of some twenty-five villages conquered during Operation Dani, making a total of some 80,000 expellees-the largest single instance of deliberate mass expulsion during the 1948 war. Most of the expellees were women, children, and elderly men, most of the able-bodied men having been taken prisoner. Memories of the trek of the Lydda and Ramla refugees is branded in the collective consciousness of the Palestinians. The Palestinian historian Aref al-Aref, who interviewed survivors at the time, estimates that 350 died of thirst and exhaustion in the blazing July sun, when the temperature was one hundred degrees in the shade. The reaction of public opinion in Ramallah and East Jerusalem at the sight of the new arrivals was to turn against the Arab Legion for its failure to help Lydda and Ramla. Arab Legion officers and men were stoned, loudly hissed at and cursed, a not unintended outcome by the person who gave the expulsion order, David Ben-Gurion, and the man who carried it out, Yitzhak Rabin, director of operations for Operation Dani.