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Мета. Показати роль Інтернету в колективній дії суспільних рухів із точки зору соціальної філософії.Методика. Звернення до цієї теми дозволило використати методи діалектики. Саме завдяки її методам можна показати, що всі речі, процеси, а також поняття, які їх відоб¬ражають, взаємопов'язані зовнішньо і внутрішньо. Оскільки світ, при всій його різноманітності, є єдиним цілим, а тому колективну дію соціальних груп і рухів «нового» типу ми намагалися розглянути з урахуванням різних суперечностей, змін, внутрішніх і зовнішніх зв'язків.Результати. На підставі дослідження, що проводилось встановлено, що політика як соціальне явище є одним із видів людського буття і людської діяльності. Незалежно від того, чи людина як соціальний суб'єкт входить до складу влади, чи ні, вона в силу своїх можливостей намагається вплинути на перебіг політичних процесів із метою захисту власних інтересів. Для цього вона використовує різні засоби. Одним із таких засобів в інформаційному суспільстві є Інтернет. Використовуючи мережеву систему Інтернету, людина, як той павук, снує своє павутиння, що має вигляд соціальних рухів, колективна дія яких зростає і може забезпечити підтримку в досягненні мети. Це є важливим фактором, оскільки можливості соціальних мереж швидко мобілізують людей, колективну дію їхніх соціальних утворень, що сьогодні більшістю дослідників класифікуються терміном «нові» в різних куточках не лише регіону, держави, а й світу в цілому. Наукова новизна. Уперше розглянуто вплив Інтернету, соціальних мереж на колективну дію соціальних груп і рухів. Встановлено, що людина інформаційного суспільства, завдяки новим засобам комунікації, утворює соціальні групи «нового» типу, тобто «плете» віртуальну павутину соціальних утворень, які здійснюють вплив на її соціально-політичне буття; показано особистість як феномен, що само породжує себе через форми комунікації інформаційного суспільства. Практична значущість. Результати, що отримали, спрямовані на виявлення колективної дії соціальних груп і рухів «нового» типу, що утворилися завдяки засобам комунікації ХХІ ст., які можуть бути використані в політиці, соціальному бутті людини. Також результати наукового дослідження можуть бути використані під час викладання таких дисциплін, як філософія, політологія, соціологія, педагогіка, психологія. ; Objective. To show the role of the Internet in collective activity of social movements from the point of view of social philosophy.Methods. Consideration of the problem allows the researchers to use methods of dialectic. Due to its methods it is possible to show that all things, processes as well as concepts reflecting them are internally or externally interdependent. Since the world with its diversity is a single entity, we try to consider collective activity of social groups and the «new» type movements with the account of different contradictions, changes, external and internal connections.Results. On the basis of the carried out research politics as a social phenomenon is stated to be one of the types of human being and human activity. Irrespective of the fact whether a person as a social subject is a part of authority or not, depending on his/her ability, he/she tries to influence political processes to protect his/her own interests. He/she uses different means for this. One of such means in the information society is the Internet. Using the network system of the Internet, a person like a spider, spins his/her web which is similar to social movements, the collective activity of which increases, providing support in achieving the aim. It is an important factor, because possibilities of social networks quickly mobilize people and collective activity of their social formations, which majority of researchers today classify by the term «new» in different parts of the world as well. Scientific novelty. The influence of the Internet and social networks on the collective activity of social groups and movements has been considered for the first time. It is determined that due to the new means of communication a person of information society creates social groups of the «new» type, so to say he «spins» virtual spider's web of social formations which influence his social and political existence. A personality is introduced as a phenomenon that gives birth to itself through forms of communication of information society.Practical value. The received results are directed at detection of collective activity of social groups and movements of the «new» type, which were created owing to the means of communication of the XXIth century and can be used in politics and social being of a person. The results of the scientific research can also be applied in teaching such disciplines as philosophy, politology, sociology, pedagogy, psychology. ; Цель. Показать роль Интернета в коллективном действии общественных движений с точки зрения социальной философии.Методика. Обращение к данной теме позволило использовать методы диалектики. Именно благодаря этим методам можно показать, что все вещи, процессы, а также понятия, которые их отображают, взаимосвязаны внешне и внутренние. Так как мир, при всем его разнообразии, является единым целым, поэтому коллективное действие социальных групп и движений «нового» типа мы старались рассмотреть с учетом разных противоречий, изменений, внутренних и внешних связей.Результаты. На основании проведенного исследования установлено, что политика как социальное явление является одним из видов человеческого бытия и человеческой деятельности. Независимо от того, входит ли человек как социальный субъект в состав власти или нет, он в силу своих возможностей пытается повлиять на ход политических процессов с целью защиты собственных интересов. Для этого он использует разные средства. Одним из таких средств в информационном обществе является Интернет. Используя сетевую систему Интернета, человек, как паук, снует свою паутину, что имеет вид социальных движений, коллективное действие которого растет и может обеспечить поддержку в достижении цели. Это важный фактор, так как возможности социальных сетей быстро мобилизируют людей, коллективное действие их социальных образований, которые сегодня большинством исследователей классифицируются термином «новые» в разных уголках не только региона, государства, но и мира в целом.Научная новизна. Впервые рассмотрено влияние Интернета, социальных сетей на коллективное действие социальных групп и движений. Установлено, что человек информационного общества, благодаря новым средствам коммуникации, создает социальные группы «нового» типа, т.е. «плетет» виртуальную паутину социальных образований, которые осуществляют влияние на ее социально-политическое бытие; показано личность как феномен, что само порождает себя через формы коммуникации информационного общества.Практическая значимость. Полученные результаты направлены на выявление коллективного действия социальных групп и движений «нового» типа, которые образовались благодаря средствам коммуникации ХХІ века, которые могут быть использованы в политике, социальном бытии человека. Также результаты научного исследования могут быть использованы в процессе преподавания таких дисциплин, как философия, политология, социология, педагогика, психология.

In dieser Dissertation wird die These vertreten, dass in zentralen Werken des Dichters Paul Celan (1920-1970) aus den Jahren 1945 bis 1960 Medialität de-figuriert wird. Mit anderen Worten: Die rhetorische Konstituierung von Mediendispositiven, also von diskursiven und nicht-diskursiven Praktiken, die der Vermittlung des Menschen mit sich selbst, mit anderen Menschen und mit der Umwelt dienen, wird in den Texten in Frage gestellt, ja zerstört. Die Nachzeichnung dieser De-figuration stützt sich dabei auf einen der poetologischen Kernsätze des Meridian, wonach das Gedicht der "Ort wäre, wo alle Tropen und Metaphern ad absurdum geführt werden". Nämlich die Metaphern, Tropen und überhaupt die rhetorischen Figuren der Medialität, die in der Prosopopoiia als dem Verleihen von Gesicht und Stimme ihrer Akteure, Fabrikationen und Funktionen ihre Quelle haben. Mediendispositive wie Printmedien, Tonträger, der Film, aber auch der politische und der ästhetische Diskurs stehen bei Celan im Verdacht, technische, nämlich auf Codierbarkeit beruhende Verlängerungen einer metaphysisch fundierten, aber irrational gewordenen instrumentellen Vernunft zu sein. Diese ist spätestens seit der Shoah und den anderen großen Verbrechen des 20. Jahrhunderts diskreditiert und wird für die Produktion gesellschaftlicher und individueller Entfremdung verantwortlich gemacht. Die Rhetorik von Medialität – die in eine unbewusste und unreflektierte Rhetorizität überzugehen neigt – zu de-figurieren, heißt, Medialität an ihrer Wurzel anzugreifen, nämlich an ihrer Schöpfung durch sprachliche Prozesse. Mit der De-figuration von Medialität in Celans Texten werden technische Mediendispositive mit den Mitteln der Poesie als Produkte von Rhetorik entlarvt und in ihre signifikanten Bestandteile zersetzt. Zumindest in der Sprache als dem Hort von Utopie werden technische Mediendispositive oder ihre Elemente zu spezifisch anthropomorphen Mediendispositiven refiguriert. Entstehen sollen Vermittlungszusammenhänge, die die Beteiligten in eine Beziehung zur Endlicheit setzen. Angestrebt wird damit das "Offene" einer multisensoriellen medialen Kommunikation, die nicht der Übertragung eines intelligiblen Sinns dient, sondern das Mitsprechen der Zeit des Anderen erlauben kann. Dies gilt in einem sehr umfassenden Maße: Das Mitsprechen der Zeit des Anderen soll einerseits einziehen in die Kommunikation unter den Lebenden, nämlich als Öffnung auf das Unbewusste hin, und andererseits in die Kommunikation zwischen den Lebenden und den Ermordeten der Shoah, damit sie im Gedenken fortleben. Die De-figuration von Medialität in Celans Büchnerpreisrede Der Meridian zielt – wie in der ausführlichen Erörterung des Meridian in Abschnitt III (nach der Einleitung(I), und der Vorstellung des theoretischen Hintergrunds(II) dargelegt wird) – auf Verlebendigung´. Der Meridian versucht nichts weniger als den Menschen selbst wiederzubeleben. Dies gilt besonders für die Überlebenden der nationalsozialistischen Konzentrationslager, deren Erfahrungen vom 'Raub' ihres Todes geprägt sind. Sie verharren in einem Zustand des imaginären Todes, der einem zwangsneurotischen Verzicht auf das Leben zu Lebzeiten entspricht. Dieser Zustand hat aber auch ein zeittypisches Pendant in der Auffassung vom Menschen. In dem Maße, in dem im Meridian das instabile Verhältnis zwischen Instrumentalität und Selbstreferentialität der Sprache in der Moderne herausgestellt wird, erscheint der Mensch als technisches Medium, das auf Codierbarkeit des Sprechens und Wahrnehmens beruht. Aus diesem Zustand solldie De-figuration durch sprachliche Verwandlung zur 'Person' herausführen. Demgegenüber zielt die De-figuration in den Gedichten – wie in Abschnitt IV der Arbeit dargelegt wird – auf Vernichtung´. Was ist damit gemeint? Was wird durch die De-figuration 'vernichtet'? Die Gedichte Todesfuge, Stimmen und Engführung gehen mit teilweiser Ausnahme des mittleren nicht über die Auflösung von Medienrhetorik hinaus. Das letzte von ihnen speist sich selbst sogar in diesen Prozess ein. Dadurch kommt es zu einer Art dialektischem Umschlag in der Relation zur Shoah. Die Etappen sind folgende: Die De-figuration von Medialität in der Todesfuge spiegelt die Shoah als kulturelle Auslöschung wieder. Die De-figuration von Medialität in Stimmen dient dazu, die Ermordeten der Shoah vernehmbar zu machen, aber um den Preis des Verstummens in der alltäglichen Sprache. Die De-figuration von Medialität in der Engführung schließlich ist der Versuch, Bedingungen der Möglichkeit einer Erwiderung auf die Stimmen der Ermordeten zu sch/affen, ein Versuch, der darin mündet, dass diese Erwiderung sich selbst auflösen bzw. vernichten muss, weil keine andere Kontaktaufnahme in Frage zu kommen scheint als die, dass sich der Sprecher, so weit Sprache dies erlaubt, unter die spurenhaften Überreste der Ermordeten mischt. ; In this doctoral thesis, it is argued that in central works of poet Paul Celan (1920-1970) from the years 1945 to 1960 mediality is de-figured. In other words, in these texts the rhetorical constitution of media dispositives, so of discursive and non-discursive practices that serve the communication of man with himself, with others and with the environment, is put into question, even destroyed. The tracing of this de-figuration relies on one of the poetological core sets of Der Meridian, after which the poem "would be place where all the tropes and metaphors are reduced to absurdity." In Celan basically all media dispositives of his era become objects of de-figuration. Media dispositives such as print, audio recordings, the film, but also the political and the aesthetic discourse are suspected to be technical, that is codability-based, extensions of a metaphysically grounded instrumental reason which has become irrational. Since the Shoah and the other great crimes of the 20th Century this form of reason is discredited and blamed for the production of social and individual alienation. To de-figure the rhetoric of mediality - which tends to move into an unconscious and unreflected rhetoricity – means to attack mediality at its root, namely its creation by linguistic processes. By the de-figuration of mediality in Celan's texts thanks to the resources of poetry, technical media dispositives are to be exposed as products of rhetoric and decomposed into their significant components. At least in the realm of language as the hoard of utopia technical media dispositive or their elements are refigured into specific anthropomorphic media dispositives. To emerge are contexts of mediation that put the participants in a relation to finity. The aim is to establish the "Open" of multi-sensory media communications that are not used for the transmission of intelligible meaning, but can allow the have a say of the time of the other. This is true in very broad dimensions: the have a say of the time of the other should on the one hand move into the communication among the living, namely as an opening on the unconscious, and on the other hand into the communication between the living and the victims of the Shoah, so that they continue to live in memory. The de-figuration of mediality in Celan´s Büchner Prize speech Der Meridian aims - as specified in the detailed discussion of the Meridian in Section III (after the introduction (I) and the presentation of the theoretical background (II)) - at 'enlivening'. The Meridian attempts nothing less than the people themselves to revive. This is especially true for the survivors of the Nazi concentration camp whose experiences are shaped by robbery 'of death.They remain in a state of imaginary death, which corresponds to a neurotic renunciation of life during lifetime. However, this state also has a time-typical counterpart in the conception of man. To the extent in which the unstable relationship between instrumentality and self-referentiality of language is emphasized in the modern era in Meridian, man appears as a technical medium, based on codability of speech and perception. De-figuration shallad out of this state of mind by linguistic transformation into a 'person' . In contrast, in the poems de-figuation aims - as set out in section IV of the work - at destruction'. What does that mean? What is destroyed by de-figuration? The poems Death Fugue, Voices and Stretto do not proceed - with the partial exception of the second one - beyond the resolution of media rhetoric. The last of them even feeds itself into this process. This leads to a kind of dialectical reversal in relation to the Shoah. The stages are as follows: The de- figuration of mediality in the Death Fugue reflects the Shoah as cultural extinction. The de-figuration of mediality in Voices serves to make the victims of the Shoah vocal, but at the price of silence in everyday language. The de-figuration of mediality in Stretto finally is the attempt to create conditions for the possibility of a response to the voices of the victims, an attempt which ends in the fact that this response must dissolve or destroy itself, because no other form of contact seems to come into question than that of a speaker, as far as language permits, who is mixed in with the vestigial remains of the murdered.

SOCIAL JUSTICE, HEALTH AND POVERTY IN UGANDA John Barugahare Injustice in Uganda manifests in many ways. One most serious, yet least discussed social injustice, is inequity in Health. Although there are two equally important aims of health systems – efficiency and equity, in Uganda too much focus has been on ensuring efficiency and as a consequence concerns of equity have been relegated. Ultimately, health policy in Uganda has disproportionately negatively affected the poor's livelihoods in general and the trend seems to be worsening by day. Even though it is possible to borrow a leaf from the Western literature on how to design a good health policy, low income countries like Uganda have special features that render the extrapolation of the Western input good but not enough. In particular, these special features are the level of resource constraints, poverty and the financing mechanism of health care services. These three have very serious implications for equity in health. In general, there is a lot of injustice in the Uganda health care and this has been mainly due to poverty levels and the financing mechanism which the system relies on. Hence, there is an urgent need to concentrate on a discussion of injustice in health because health enhances people's functionings and is a mandatory condition for people's enjoyment of other life opportunities to the extent that if a section of a society is made to suffer injustice in health, this will translate into injustice in all the dimensions of their lives. This is something that fair‐minded people cannot afford to live with for long. Therefore, it is important in this work to illustrate how the above three special features play to cause and sustain inequity in Uganda health care system and to suggest the starting point to overcoming this injustice, not only in Uganda but as a general trend in health policy analysis. THE POLITICS OF RESTORING ETHICS AND THE CHALLENGE OF PATRIOTISM IN SERVICE DELIVERY IN UGANDA'S PUBLIC SERVICE Dickson Kanakulya Reports indicate that there is an erosion of professionalism and ethics across most of the East African public service systems and this is limiting the efficient service delivery and negatively impacts on social justice. Because of this challenge many approaches are being applied to mitigate it, such as the institutional, legal, cultural and the political. This paper discusses the political approach and particularly problematizes the political push for patriotism in Uganda. Most of the critique and analysis was done while carrying out research and consultancy with Makerere Centre for Applied Ethics (MACAE) in selected districts in Uganda under the project "Pro‐poor Integrity" (PPI) funded by Tiri and DFID. The paper argues that the government's policy of patriotism is more of politicking than real improvement of service delivery to the people. Political interference in public service has engendered a culture of impunity and increased unethical conduct among 'politically‐connected' civil servants right from the grass root service to the top administration, The paper argues that if ethics in Uganda's public administration is to improve politicians ought to be divorce party‐biased ideology from the patriotism discourse such that it can appeal to a wider spectrum of Ugandans. PERSISTENT COLONIAL COERCION IN CONTEMPORARY UGANDA: FOUNDATION OF SOCIAL INJUSTICES IN THE COUNTRY Gervase Tusabe Since 1962, all Uganda's major centres of power i.e., political, economic and military have always been dominated by a chosen few, and the attendant wealth that goes with such powers has always been disproportionately enjoyed in favour of these chosen few when a considerable large number of people in the country are living under the weight of abject poverty. The major argument advanced in this paper is that the fundamental cause of this experience of injustice in Uganda is the persistent domestic colonial mode of political administration that is managed by a particular closed group of individuals who more or less conspired to work together to promote their self‐centred interests at the cost of deliberately ignoring the legitimate interests of the Ugandans who are outside their group. STRUCTURAL INJUSTICES AND THE ETHICS OF ENGENDERING POVERTY ERADICATION POLICIES IN UGANDA Michael George Kizito Since time immemorial, poverty reduction interventions in Sub‐Saharan Africa like everywhere in the South, have focused on the individual as the basic ingredient of a moral society (ethical individualism). According to this perspective, in order to lift human persons out of poverty, it is imperative to integrate poor persons into poverty eradication interventions irrespective of sex, social status and gender. Scholars and institutions that subscribed to this conception of poverty thought that individuals were poor because of personal weaknesses (case poverty).This perspective has been greatly challenged due to the upsurge of gender and human rights scholarship in the 20th century. Gender scholars have painstakingly argued that in order to understand poverty, we need to look at society (ethical collectivism). They have rejected the Women in Development(WID) discourse that aims at integrating women into the development process in favour of the Gender and Development(GAD) approach to development and poverty reduction that aims at confronting power relations between men and women (empowerment).This GAD perspective looks at poverty in terms of the powerlessness speared head by prevailing structures in society (structural poverty) and hence the need to empower vulnerable persons such as women to challenge structures and strictures of oppression. The International Monetary fund (IMF) and World Bank as vehement promoters of economism in Sub‐Saharan Africa for decades have urged governments to include the perspectives of the poor in poverty polices through what they call participatory poverty assessments (PPAs). Despite its deceptive appearance, this PPAs stance of the IMF and World Bank tacitly looks at poverty as a case and not structural issue and that is why Uganda's ambitious poverty reduction policy though greatly informed by Participatory Poverty Assessments greatly ignores structures and strictures that render women vulnerable to poverty. This paper critically assesses the obliviousness of Uganda's Agricultural poverty policy to structures and how this has militated on the gender poverty production in Uganda. The paper contends that in order to realise engendered poverty eradication in Uganda, it is pertinent for the agricultural policy to ultimately make paradigm shift from focusing on the individual as the basic ingredient of a moral society (ethical individualism) to confronting structures and strictures that disempower and vulnerablelise individual moral agents (ethical collectivism). ; Contrubution authors to the chapters are John Barugahare, Dickson Kanakulya, Michael George Kizito and Gervase Tusabe.

Il dibattito sulla questione ambientale, sorto tra gli anni '60 e '70 del secolo scorso, con la formazione delle prime associazioni ambientaliste, ebbe come nodo centrale il rapporto tra economia e ambiente, nella sempre più evidente necessità di preservare la qualità del patrimonio naturale e nella consapevolezza che, essendo le risorse del pianeta tendenzialmente esauribili, dovessero essere rivisti ed equilibrati i modelli di sviluppo. Gli oggetti, secondo la lezione di Bruno Latour, simboleggiano stili di vita che comprendono al loro interno processi comunicativi e riguardano in ogni caso la sfera dell'informazione, dell'interazione, del ricordo e anche del desiderio. L'omologazione del pianeta sul modello occidentale, l'azzeramento delle differenze culturali, l'abuso delle risorse, gli impatti inquinanti sull'ecosistema costituiscono gli effetti negativi della globalizzazione. Spesso la localizzazione viene ignorata per colpa della troppa importanza data alla globalizzazione e in molti casi, le forze locali si sforzano costantemente per attenuare l'impatto dei processi globali. Bauman ha introdotto il termine "glocalizzazione", (Barman, 2005) senza volervi trovare un senso politico di opposizione alla globalizzazione (come ad esempio fanno i no-global). Il concetto di glocalizzazione ritiene che il fondamento della società in ogni epoca è stata ed è la comunità locale, l'interazione degli individui, organizzati in gruppi sempre più allargati e presenti su un territorio. Esso pone al centro della sua "filosofia": l'individuo, la persona umana, il patrimonio locale materiale e simbolico della persona e del gruppo di appartenenza. Ogni luogo ha, infatti, una sua vocazione e una propria identità, costituite dal paesaggio naturale ininterrotto con quello artificiale fatto dall'uomo e dal grado di coesione sociale. Cioé quella identità territoriale, che oggi assume sempre più la valenza di attributo strategico e di input immateriale dello sviluppo socio-economico locale, che poi diventa una straordinaria risorsa spendibile ai fini della valorizzazione dello stesso territorio. Oggi, è evidente come la mescolanza, l'ibridazione siano la regola generale dominante, ma è altrettanto incontestabile che la natura dei luoghi influenza in modo decisivo l'aspetto dei prodotti. Le particolari capacità creative proprie di un luogo entrano a far parte della natura stessa dei prodotti. Il progetto segue strade misteriose in cui la forma è il risultato di innumerevoli fattori fra i quali anche il contesto sociale.La crescente convinzione dell'importanza e dell'urgenza di saper organizzare forme di sviluppo sostenibile, nel rispetto delle limitate risorse ambientali e della salute umana, ha orientato la ricerca verso l'utilizzo delle fibre vegetali. Le fibre vegetali possono fornire prestazioni tecniche e formali a volte superiore a quelle fornite dai materiali e dagli oggetti prodotti con alte tecnologie e costituire contemporaneamente un'ingente risorsa economica in un territorio, come quello siciliano, in cui si voglia promuovere una cultura d'impresa basata su innovazioni eco-compatibili. In generale la coltivazione, la produzione, la trasformazione e l'uso di queste fibre possono fornire delle risposte concrete ad una serie di problematiche connesse al risparmio energetico, alla sostenibilità ambientale e all'inquinamento. Inoltre la rivalutazione in campo artistico e progettuale delle tradizionali tecniche di lavorazione rappresenta non soltanto un grande potenziale di rinnovamento e di riconversione anche sotto l'aspetto estetico, ma sempre più garantisce il controllo della qualità di diverse tipologie di oggetti. ; The debate on the environmental issue, which arose between the 60s and 70s of last century, with the formation of the first environmental groups, had as its central point the relationship between economy and environment, the increasingly obvious need to preserve the quality of the natural heritage and in the knowledge that as the planet's resources tend exhaustible should be reviewed and balanced development models. The objects, according to the lesson of Bruno Latour, symbolizing lifestyles that include their internal communication processes and concern in every case the sphere of information, interaction, and even the memory of desire. The approval of the planet on the Western model, the elimination of cultural differences, abuse of resources, the impact of pollution on the ecosystem are the negative effects of globalization. Often the location is ignored because of too much emphasis on globalization and in many cases, local forces constantly strive to mitigate the impact of global processes. Bauman introduced the term "glocalization" (Berman, 2005), without wishing to find a sense of political opposition to globalization (such as do-globalization). The concept of glocalization believes that the foundation of society in every age has been and is the local community, the interaction of individuals, organized groups increasingly enlarged and placed on a territory. It stands at the center of his "philosophy": the individual, the human person, the local heritage material and symbolic of the person and the group. Every place has, in fact, his vocation and identity, constituted by the natural uninterrupted with artificial man-made and the degree of social cohesion. Ie the territorial identity, which today is becoming more strategic and value attribute of input intangible local socio-economic development, which then becomes a powerful resource to be spent in valuing the same territory. Today, it is evident as a mixture, the hybridization is the general rule dominant, but it is equally undeniable that the nature of places influence in a decisive way the appearance of the products. The particular capabilities of their creative a place become part of the very nature of the products. The project follows mysterious ways in which the shape is the result of many factors, including also the context sociale.La growing conviction of the importance and urgency of knowing how to organize forms of sustainable development, in accordance with the limited resources and environmental health human, has directed research towards the use of plant fibers. Vegetable fibers can provide performance techniques and formal at times greater than that provided by materials and articles produced with high technology and simultaneously create huge economic resource in an area, like the Sicilian, in which you want to promote a culture of enterprise based on eco-friendly innovations. In general, the cultivation, production, processing and use of these fibers can provide specific answers to a series of problems related to energy conservation, environmental sustainability and pollution. Moreover, the appreciation in art and design of traditional techniques is not only a great potential for renovation and conversion also in aesthetic terms, but increasingly ensures quality control of different types of objects.

L'analisi delle tappe attraverso cui, tra Rivoluzione e Unità, si sostanzia l'istruzione scolastica, consente di aprire ampie finestre sui progetti di trasformazione delle istituzioni educative e sulla valenza degli itinerari formativi attuati nella Sicilia del Sette-Ottocento. Contro la significativa preponderanza della scuola superiore e l'insegnamento gesuitico, portatore di una cultura umanistico - retorica, l'esigenza di razionalizzare l'insegnamento articolandolo in un sistema di ordini e gradi è proprio delle meditazioni della pedagogia illuministica. Il prototipo prussiano e austriaco, che tende alla creazione di un modello educativo organico, centralizzato e laico, determina in Italia la nascita di veri e propri epicentri di trasformazione politica e culturale. La cacciata dei Gesuiti segna il termine a quo del riformismo agrario meridionale nonché la fine del monopolio religioso sull'assistenza e sull'istruzione. In Sicilia De Cosmi si fa interprete di una riforma regalista, giurisdizionalista e popolare, invitando ad operare una riflessione propositiva sulla fine della cultura gesuitica e sui progetti di riutilizzo, in senso lato, del patrimonio dell'ordine. Tra riformismo e rivoluzione il dibattito relativo all'introduzione delle scuole decosmiane e al rapporto tra queste e le secondarie rivela significative consonanze con altri aspetti della politica borbonica nella sua fase tanucciana e caraccioliana. L'introduzione del metodo lancasteriano porrà l'accento sulla "necessità " di un'istruzione aperta ad una utenza più larga. Le istanze giurisdizionalistiche e i revisionismi successi incideranno in maniera trasversale sul sistema educativo e sull'opportunità o meno di affidarne il controllo al clero. I modi e i tempi di applicazione della normativa al caso Catania sottolineano lo stridente contrasto che caratterizzò l'ipotesi di una società, in bilico tra passato e presente, accarezzata da una monarchia borbonica che dopo le istanze riformistiche si scontrava con la realtà della Restaurazione. Se la ricostruzione della normativa può costituire una prima griglia inter-pretativa , l'esame - attraverso l'uso incrociato di fonti bibliografiche e documentazione d'archivio - delle strutture scolastiche diventa indispensabile chiave di lettura per penetrare nel meccanismo della risposta istituzionale alla volontà centrale. A fronte dell'intelaiatura di base relativa all'istruzione primaria e secondaria, pubblica e privata, così come si strutturava a Catania tra Sette e Ottocento, particolare significato riveste la peculiarità di alcune istituzioni finalizzate all'educazione di specifiche categorie sociali: il Collegio Cutelli dedicato all'istruzione dei nobili, e l'Ospizio di beneficenza, destinato ai diseredati, alla "bassa gente", alla prole dei mendichi, ai "figli di nessuno". Il duro sistema di vita dell'Ospizio, con il suo progetto pedagogico finalizzato all'istruzione "professionale - militare", ci dà la misura della abissale distanza dalla raffinata atmosfera, permeata di studi classici e di "arti liberali", del Collegio Cutelli. La scuola per la formazione dei futuri artigiani e la palestra atta a plasmare il giovane gentiluomo rappresentano le due facce di una medesima medaglia. Il modello proposto dal Collegio a confronto con quello suggerito dall'Ospizio costituiscono in sostanza un emblematico punto d'arrivo di quei mutamenti politico - istituzionali e socio - culturali che contemporaneamente caratterizzavano la formazione dello stato moderno nel Meridione. The analysis of the stages through which, between Revolution and Unity of Italy, the education system takes shape, open ample windows on the transformation plans for educational institutions and on the importance of the formative itineraries effected in eighteenth and nineteenth century Sicily. Against the sígnificant predominance of the high school and the teaching of the Jesuits, holders of a humanistic-rhetoric culture, the need to rationalise teaching, articulating it into a system of orders and degrees is the fruit of the meditatíons of Enlightenment pedagogy. The Prussian and Austrian prototype, that favours the creation of an organic, centralized and secular educational model, determines the birth of authentic centres of political and cultural transformation in Italy. The expulsion of the Jesuits marks the end a quo of agrarian reformism in the south and the end of the religious monopoly on the welfare institutes and education. In Sicily De Cosmi is the interpreter of a regalist, jurisdictional and popular reform, inviting constructive reflection on the end of the Jesuitical culture and on the plans to reutilize, in a broad sense, the patrimony of the Order. Between reformism and revolution the debate on the introduction of Decosmian schools, and the relationship between these and secondary schools reveal meaningful consonances with other aspects of Bourbon policy in its Tanuccian and Caracciolian phases. The introduction of the Lancasterian method will put the accent on the «necessity» of education available to larger numbers. The jurisdíctional demands and the revisionisms of the moment are to have a transversal effect on the educational system and on the opportunity or not of entrusting it to the control to the clergy. The method and the time necessary for the application of the regulations regarding the Catania case underline the sharp contrast that characterízed the hypothesis of a society, in unstable balance between past and present, caressed by a Bourbon monarchy that after the reformistic pressures, encountered the reality of the Restoration. If the reconstruction of the regulations could constitute a first interpretative scheme, the examination (through the cross use of bibliographical sources and filed records) of the scholastic structures becomes the essential reading key in order to penetrate the mechanism of the institutional answer to the central will. With reference to the basic framework regarding primary and secondary, public and private education, as it was structured in Catania between the eightéenth and nineteenth centuries, the distinctive characteristics of certain institutions whose purpose was the education of specific social categories: the Collegio Cutelli, dedicated to the education of the nobles, and the Ospizio di beneficenza, educating the disinherited, 'low people', 'beggars' children and waifs and strays, took on particular meaning. The hard way of life in the Ospizio, with its pedagogical plan aiming at 'professionalmilitary' instruction illustrates the extent of the abysmal distance from the refined atmosphere, impregnated with classica) studies and 'liberai arts', of the Collegio Cutelli. The school for the formation of future artisans and the school where young gentleman were shaped represent the two faces of the same medal. The model proposed by the Collegio and the one suggested by the Ospizio constitute, in essence, an emblematical point of arrivai of those political changes, institutional and social-cultural, that together characterized the formation of the modern state in the south.

Lima, la capital del Perú, se asentó en un valle en medio del desierto costero frente al Océano pacífico convirtiéndose inicialmente en una villa agrícola y posteriormente en una gran metrópolis. A partir de entonces, su desarrollo estuvo sujeto al devenir del pensamiento occidental y, por lo tanto, de espaldas a su historia y a su cultura. La nueva configuración se impuso sobre la espacialidad indígena ya marcada anteriormente en el territorio, con caminos y construcciones incas y pre-incas, monumentos emblemáticos de nuestro acervo cultural. Este hecho implicó en el alma indígena una disociación con su territorio y su cultura original. Durante el inicio de la segunda década del siglo XX, resurgió la necesidad de mirar nuevamente las raíces culturales como un medio para recuperar y crear una identidad. Este intento se vio oportunamente respaldado cuando Leguía llegó al poder (1919-1930) e instauró la "Patria Nueva", con el propósito de darle a su gobierno un nuevo giro de nacionalismo. Esta época coincidió, además, con dos eventos celebratorios en el país: el centenario de la Independencia del Perú (1821-1921) y el centenario de la Batalla de Ayacucho (1824-1924). Ambos eventos propiciaron proyectos significativos de renovación urbana y de emplazamientos de monumentos, generando el mayor programa de arte público que se haya dado en la capital del Perú. De los ocho monumentos situados dentro del perímetro y en los márgenes de la Lima colonial, la cantidad de monumentos emplazados en la capital aumentó considerablemente. Se sumaron aproximadamente unos veintitrés nuevos monumentos y nuevos espacios públicos en los que se pudo identificar algunos que sobresalieron del conjunto por la utilización de algunos elementos de la iconografía prehispánica, dando fe visiblemente de una intención indigenista dentro de los artistas de la época. Sin embargo, aunque los elementos constitutivos de los monumentos no expresaron en su mayoría una concepción formal y estética que remarcara valores de identidad nacional, constituyeron un conjunto monumental de gran valor artístico en relación con el entorno urbano. Por lo tanto, conservar la memoria de la historia urbanística de esta época de Lima y de su patrimonio monumental es ponerlos en valor frente a la caótica transformación del entorno urbano actual. ; Lima, the capital city of Perú, settled in a dessert valley in the Pacific Ocean coast was born as an agricultural town which developed into a metropolis in the last century. This change was leaded by western city planning, neglecting its own historical and cultural ways of doing so. This new urban configuration was imposed over its local sense of spaciousness, sweeping out Inca and pre-Inca landmarks such as roads, constructions and temples, emblematic monuments of local culture whose loss, with time leaded to an estrangement of the indigenous soul with its own territory and culture.With President Leguía's government (1919-1930), arose the need to search again for a native culture as a means to restore or create local identity, giving birth to a nationalist and cultural movement, the "Patria Nueva" (New Motherland). This coincided with the commemoration of the Peruvian Independence Centenary (1821-1921) and the Ayacucho Battle Centenary (1824-1924), events that propitiated important urban renewal projects, including many monuments that with time turn to be the most important public art program in the city's history.Besides the eight monuments that already existed inside the city's perimeters, this public art program added about twenty three new monuments and public spaces, between which stood out those made by the artists of the Indigenists Movement, who intentionally used pre-Hispanic iconographical elements. Although the great artistic value of this monuments, the iconographic motives incorporated didn't really imply a profound change in the formal and aesthetic design and conception towards a much wished rescue of national identity values.Therefore, keeping this monumental patrimony as part of Lima's memory and history is a way of restoring its value as opposed to the chaotic transformations of the current urban environment. ; Lima, la capital del Perú, se asentó en un valle en medio del desierto costero frente al Océano Pacífico convirtiéndose inicialmente en una villa agrícola y posteriormente en una gran metrópolis. A partir de entonces, su desarrollo estuvo sujeto al devenir del pensamiento occidental y, por lo tanto, de espaldas a su historia y a su cultura. La nueva configuración se impuso sobre la espacialidad indígena ya marcada anteriormente en el territorio, con caminos y construcciones incas y pre-incas, monumentos emblemáticos de nuestro acervo cultural. Este hecho implicó en el alma indígena una disociación con su territorio y su cultura original. Durante el inicio de la segunda década del siglo XX, resurgió la necesidad de mirar nuevamente las raíces culturales como un medio para recuperar y crear una identidad. Este intento se vio oportunamente respaldado cuando Leguía llegó al poder (1919-1930) e instauró la "Patria Nueva", con el propósito de darle a su gobierno un nuevo giro de nacionalismo. Esta época coincidió, además, con dos eventos celebratorios en el país: el centenario de la Independencia del Perú (1821-1921) y el centenario de la Batalla de Ayacucho (1824-1924). Ambos eventos propiciaron proyectos significativos de renovación urbana y de emplazamientos de monumentos, generando el mayor programa de arte público que se haya dado en la capital del Perú. De los ocho monumentos situados dentro del perímetro y en los márgenes de la Lima colonial, la cantidad de monumentos emplazados en la capital aumentó considerablemente. Se sumaron aproximadamente unos veintitrés nuevos monumentos y nuevos espacios públicos en los que se pudo identificar algunos que sobresalieron del conjunto por la utilización de algunos elementos de la iconografía prehispánica, dando fe visiblemente de una intención indigenista dentro de los artistas de la época. Sin embargo, aunque los elementos constitutivos de los monumentos no expresaron en su mayoría una concepción formal y estética que remarcara valores de identidad nacional, constituyeron un conjunto monumental de gran valor artístico en relación con el entorno urbano. Por lo tanto, conservar la memoria de la historia urbanística de esta época de Lima y de su patrimonio monumental es ponerlos en valor frente a la caótica transformación del entorno urbano actual.

La investigación se inició a partir de la formulación de las siguientes hipótesis de trabajo: 1. El Chacho, último caudillo de la montonera de los Llanos de Domingo F. Sarmiento [1868] interactúa polémicamente con Rasgos biográficos del General D. Angel V. Peñaloza de José Hernández [1863], aunque su autor no haya avalado con su firma ningún testimonio acerca de lecturas de la obra periodística ni literaria de quien escribiría el Martín Fierro. 2. Esa interacción textual se enmarca en 'la gran polémica nacional': la que inició Sarmiento con la publicación de Campaña en el Ejército Grande [1852], provocó la respuesta de Juan Bautista Alberdi en sus Cartas sobre la prensa y la política militante en la República Argentina [1853] y no concluyó con la publicación de Las ciento y una de su adversario ni con los otros intercambios polémicos textuales entre ambos autores en ese mismo año 1853. 3. La antinomia irreductible 'civilización versus barbarie', como modelo de identidad nacional y como base para el diseño de una programática para la organización estable del país, es el eje de esa interacción polémica [un bando pretende afianzarla y sus oponentes resquebrajarla]. 4. Vida del Chacho [la reescritura de su primera biografía de Peñaloza emprendida por Hernández en 1875] se reinscribe en 'la gran polémica nacional' en otra coyuntura política. Con el fin de validar estas hipótesis, se profundizó el conocimiento del contexto histórico [1852-1875] y se reunió toda la documentación que fue posible rastrear [en particular, material inédito que en algunos casos no había sido estudiado antes o había sido considerado desde otros enfoques] para reconstruir los avatares y el intertexto de esa prolongada interacción polémica. Durante ese recorrido, se hicieron hallazgos documentales y se descubrieron problemáticas no entrevistas en el punto de partida. Finalmente, un último hallazgo permitió cerrar la secuencia de interacción polémica acotada con el análisis de un enfrentamiento público iniciado por un redactor anónimo que en 1875, desde La Tribuna de Buenos Aires, analiza la génesis de Vida del Chacho y por ese medio ataca a su autor. Hernández reconoce en el redactor anónimo 'la voz de Sarmiento' y dirigiéndose a él responde con una serie de cartas abiertas. La persistencia de la polémica entre Sarmiento y Alberdi en la política nacional no sólo enmarca las primeras biografías del Chacho, que se analizan en el primer apartado ['La gran polémica nacional del siglo XIX como intertexto de las biografías del Chacho'], sino también los temas de los restantes: 'El alineamiento de los adversarios de Sarmiento' [apartado 2], la biografía del Chacho del propio Sarmiento ['Sarmiento contraataca con su biografía del Chacho', apartado 3], la reformulación de la primera versión de la suya que emprenderá Hernández en 1875 -mientras que reescribe el sociolecto de El gaucho Martín Fierro al prepar la 9ª edición- ['Vida del Chacho y El gaucho Martín Fierro: reescrituras de Hernández en 1875', apartado 4] y la última manifestación de la polémica que estos dos autores entablaron a través de su práctica del género biográfico ['El último eslabón de una polémica: Sarmiento vs. Hernández', apartado 5] ; This research begins by formulating the following hypothesis: 1.El Chacho, último caudillo de la montonera de los llanos by Domingo F. Sarmiento [1868] interacts controversially with Rasgos biográficos del General D. Angel V. Peñaloza by José Hernández [1863], though its author has not endorsed with his sign any testimony about the readings of the journalistic nor literature production of whom would write the Martín Fierro. 2. This interaction of texts takes place in the context of 'the great national controversy': initiated by Sarmiento with the publishing of Campaña en el Ejército Grande [1852], provoked the answer of Juan Bautista Alberdi in his Cartas sobre la prensa y la política militante en la República Argentina [1853] and it did not ended with the publishing of Las ciento y una of his antagonist nor with the other polemical interchanges between both authors that same year of 1853. 3. The irreducible antinomy 'civilization versus barbarism', as model of national identity and a as base for the design of a country organization, is the axis of that polemical interchanges [one side intends to strength it and the others to break it]. 4. Vida del Chacho [the rewrite of the first Peñaloza's biography undertaken by Hernández in 1875] takes place in 'the great national controversy' but in other political situation. In order to validate these hypothesis, was thoroughly studied the historical context (1852-1875) and gathered all the documentation that was possible to track [particularly, unpublished material that in same cases has not been studied before or considered from different approaches] to rebuilt the intertext of that long polemical interchanges. During these research, some documental discovering were made and new topics of discussion that were not considered in the beginning, appeared. Finally, one last discovering allowed closing the sequence of the polemical interchange with the analysis of a public confrontation started by an anonymous journalist in 1875, from La Tribuna de Buenos Aires, that studies the genesis of Vida del Chacho and through that journal attacks the author. Hernández recognizes in that anonymous journalist 'the voice of Sarmiento' and answers him with a series of open letters. The persistence of the controversy between Sarmiento and Alberdi in the national politics not only gives a background for the first biographies of the Chacho, studied in the first chapter ['The great national controversy of XIX century as an intertext of Chacho's biographies'], but also for the remaining subjects: 'The alignment of the opponents of Sarmiento' [chapter 2], the biography of the Chacho by Sarmiento ['Sarmiento counterattacks with his biography of Chacho', chapter 3], the reformulating of 1875 of the first version by Hernández ['Vida del Chacho and El gaucho Martín Fierro: re writings by Hernández in 1875', chapter 4]1 and the last manifestation of the controversy that these two authors established through de biographical genre ['The last link of a controversy: Sarmiento vs. Hernández', chapter 5] ; Fil: Ortale, María Celina. Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación; Argentina.

La investigación se inició a partir de la formulación de las siguientes hipótesis de trabajo: 1. El Chacho, último caudillo de la montonera de los Llanos de Domingo F. Sarmiento [1868] interactúa polémicamente con Rasgos biográficos del General D. Angel V. Peñaloza de José Hernández [1863], aunque su autor no haya avalado con su firma ningún testimonio acerca de lecturas de la obra periodística ni literaria de quien escribiría el Martín Fierro. 2. Esa interacción textual se enmarca en 'la gran polémica nacional': la que inició Sarmiento con la publicación de Campaña en el Ejército Grande [1852], provocó la respuesta de Juan Bautista Alberdi en sus Cartas sobre la prensa y la política militante en la República Argentina [1853] y no concluyó con la publicación de Las ciento y una de su adversario ni con los otros intercambios polémicos textuales entre ambos autores en ese mismo año 1853. 3. La antinomia irreductible 'civilización versus barbarie', como modelo de identidad nacional y como base para el diseño de una programática para la organización estable del país, es el eje de esa interacción polémica [un bando pretende afianzarla y sus oponentes resquebrajarla]. 4. Vida del Chacho [la reescritura de su primera biografía de Peñaloza emprendida por Hernández en 1875] se reinscribe en 'la gran polémica nacional' en otra coyuntura política. Con el fin de validar estas hipótesis, se profundizó el conocimiento del contexto histórico [1852-1875] y se reunió toda la documentación que fue posible rastrear [en particular, material inédito que en algunos casos no había sido estudiado antes o había sido considerado desde otros enfoques] para reconstruir los avatares y el intertexto de esa prolongada interacción polémica. Durante ese recorrido, se hicieron hallazgos documentales y se descubrieron problemáticas no entrevistas en el punto de partida. Finalmente, un último hallazgo permitió cerrar la secuencia de interacción polémica acotada con el análisis de un enfrentamiento público iniciado por un redactor anónimo que en 1875, desde La Tribuna de Buenos Aires, analiza la génesis de Vida del Chacho y por ese medio ataca a su autor. Hernández reconoce en el redactor anónimo 'la voz de Sarmiento' y dirigiéndose a él responde con una serie de cartas abiertas. La persistencia de la polémica entre Sarmiento y Alberdi en la política nacional no sólo enmarca las primeras biografías del Chacho, que se analizan en el primer apartado ['La gran polémica nacional del siglo XIX como intertexto de las biografías del Chacho'], sino también los temas de los restantes: 'El alineamiento de los adversarios de Sarmiento' [apartado 2], la biografía del Chacho del propio Sarmiento ['Sarmiento contraataca con su biografía del Chacho', apartado 3], la reformulación de la primera versión de la suya que emprenderá Hernández en 1875 -mientras que reescribe el sociolecto de El gaucho Martín Fierro al prepar la 9ª edición- ['Vida del Chacho y El gaucho Martín Fierro: reescrituras de Hernández en 1875', apartado 4] y la última manifestación de la polémica que estos dos autores entablaron a través de su práctica del género biográfico ['El último eslabón de una polémica: Sarmiento vs. Hernández', apartado 5] ; This research begins by formulating the following hypothesis: 1.El Chacho, último caudillo de la montonera de los llanos by Domingo F. Sarmiento [1868] interacts controversially with Rasgos biográficos del General D. Angel V. Peñaloza by José Hernández [1863], though its author has not endorsed with his sign any testimony about the readings of the journalistic nor literature production of whom would write the Martín Fierro. 2. This interaction of texts takes place in the context of 'the great national controversy': initiated by Sarmiento with the publishing of Campaña en el Ejército Grande [1852], provoked the answer of Juan Bautista Alberdi in his Cartas sobre la prensa y la política militante en la República Argentina [1853] and it did not ended with the publishing of Las ciento y una of his antagonist nor with the other polemical interchanges between both authors that same year of 1853. 3. The irreducible antinomy 'civilization versus barbarism', as model of national identity and a as base for the design of a country organization, is the axis of that polemical interchanges [one side intends to strength it and the others to break it]. 4. Vida del Chacho [the rewrite of the first Peñaloza's biography undertaken by Hernández in 1875] takes place in 'the great national controversy' but in other political situation. In order to validate these hypothesis, was thoroughly studied the historical context (1852-1875) and gathered all the documentation that was possible to track [particularly, unpublished material that in same cases has not been studied before or considered from different approaches] to rebuilt the intertext of that long polemical interchanges. During these research, some documental discovering were made and new topics of discussion that were not considered in the beginning, appeared. Finally, one last discovering allowed closing the sequence of the polemical interchange with the analysis of a public confrontation started by an anonymous journalist in 1875, from La Tribuna de Buenos Aires, that studies the genesis of Vida del Chacho and through that journal attacks the author. Hernández recognizes in that anonymous journalist 'the voice of Sarmiento' and answers him with a series of open letters. The persistence of the controversy between Sarmiento and Alberdi in the national politics not only gives a background for the first biographies of the Chacho, studied in the first chapter ['The great national controversy of XIX century as an intertext of Chacho's biographies'], but also for the remaining subjects: 'The alignment of the opponents of Sarmiento' [chapter 2], the biography of the Chacho by Sarmiento ['Sarmiento counterattacks with his biography of Chacho', chapter 3], the reformulating of 1875 of the first version by Hernández ['Vida del Chacho and El gaucho Martín Fierro: re writings by Hernández in 1875', chapter 4]1 and the last manifestation of the controversy that these two authors established through de biographical genre ['The last link of a controversy: Sarmiento vs. Hernández', chapter 5] ; Fil: Ortale, María Celina. Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación; Argentina.

La investigación se inició a partir de la formulación de las siguientes hipótesis de trabajo: 1. El Chacho, último caudillo de la montonera de los Llanos de Domingo F. Sarmiento [1868] interactúa polémicamente con Rasgos biográficos del General D. Angel V. Peñaloza de José Hernández [1863], aunque su autor no haya avalado con su firma ningún testimonio acerca de lecturas de la obra periodística ni literaria de quien escribiría el Martín Fierro. 2. Esa interacción textual se enmarca en 'la gran polémica nacional': la que inició Sarmiento con la publicación de Campaña en el Ejército Grande [1852], provocó la respuesta de Juan Bautista Alberdi en sus Cartas sobre la prensa y la política militante en la República Argentina [1853] y no concluyó con la publicación de Las ciento y una de su adversario ni con los otros intercambios polémicos textuales entre ambos autores en ese mismo año 1853. 3. La antinomia irreductible 'civilización versus barbarie', como modelo de identidad nacional y como base para el diseño de una programática para la organización estable del país, es el eje de esa interacción polémica [un bando pretende afianzarla y sus oponentes resquebrajarla]. 4. Vida del Chacho [la reescritura de su primera biografía de Peñaloza emprendida por Hernández en 1875] se reinscribe en 'la gran polémica nacional' en otra coyuntura política. Con el fin de validar estas hipótesis, se profundizó el conocimiento del contexto histórico [1852-1875] y se reunió toda la documentación que fue posible rastrear [en particular, material inédito que en algunos casos no había sido estudiado antes o había sido considerado desde otros enfoques] para reconstruir los avatares y el intertexto de esa prolongada interacción polémica. Durante ese recorrido, se hicieron hallazgos documentales y se descubrieron problemáticas no entrevistas en el punto de partida. Finalmente, un último hallazgo permitió cerrar la secuencia de interacción polémica acotada con el análisis de un enfrentamiento público iniciado por un redactor anónimo que en 1875, desde La Tribuna de Buenos Aires, analiza la génesis de Vida del Chacho y por ese medio ataca a su autor. Hernández reconoce en el redactor anónimo 'la voz de Sarmiento' y dirigiéndose a él responde con una serie de cartas abiertas. La persistencia de la polémica entre Sarmiento y Alberdi en la política nacional no sólo enmarca las primeras biografías del Chacho, que se analizan en el primer apartado ['La gran polémica nacional del siglo XIX como intertexto de las biografías del Chacho'], sino también los temas de los restantes: 'El alineamiento de los adversarios de Sarmiento' [apartado 2], la biografía del Chacho del propio Sarmiento ['Sarmiento contraataca con su biografía del Chacho', apartado 3], la reformulación de la primera versión de la suya que emprenderá Hernández en 1875 -mientras que reescribe el sociolecto de El gaucho Martín Fierro al prepar la 9ª edición- ['Vida del Chacho y El gaucho Martín Fierro: reescrituras de Hernández en 1875', apartado 4] y la última manifestación de la polémica que estos dos autores entablaron a través de su práctica del género biográfico ['El último eslabón de una polémica: Sarmiento vs. Hernández', apartado 5] ; This research begins by formulating the following hypothesis: 1.El Chacho, último caudillo de la montonera de los llanos by Domingo F. Sarmiento [1868] interacts controversially with Rasgos biográficos del General D. Angel V. Peñaloza by José Hernández [1863], though its author has not endorsed with his sign any testimony about the readings of the journalistic nor literature production of whom would write the Martín Fierro. 2. This interaction of texts takes place in the context of 'the great national controversy': initiated by Sarmiento with the publishing of Campaña en el Ejército Grande [1852], provoked the answer of Juan Bautista Alberdi in his Cartas sobre la prensa y la política militante en la República Argentina [1853] and it did not ended with the publishing of Las ciento y una of his antagonist nor with the other polemical interchanges between both authors that same year of 1853. 3. The irreducible antinomy 'civilization versus barbarism', as model of national identity and a as base for the design of a country organization, is the axis of that polemical interchanges [one side intends to strength it and the others to break it]. 4. Vida del Chacho [the rewrite of the first Peñaloza's biography undertaken by Hernández in 1875] takes place in 'the great national controversy' but in other political situation. In order to validate these hypothesis, was thoroughly studied the historical context (1852-1875) and gathered all the documentation that was possible to track [particularly, unpublished material that in same cases has not been studied before or considered from different approaches] to rebuilt the intertext of that long polemical interchanges. During these research, some documental discovering were made and new topics of discussion that were not considered in the beginning, appeared. Finally, one last discovering allowed closing the sequence of the polemical interchange with the analysis of a public confrontation started by an anonymous journalist in 1875, from La Tribuna de Buenos Aires, that studies the genesis of Vida del Chacho and through that journal attacks the author. Hernández recognizes in that anonymous journalist 'the voice of Sarmiento' and answers him with a series of open letters. The persistence of the controversy between Sarmiento and Alberdi in the national politics not only gives a background for the first biographies of the Chacho, studied in the first chapter ['The great national controversy of XIX century as an intertext of Chacho's biographies'], but also for the remaining subjects: 'The alignment of the opponents of Sarmiento' [chapter 2], the biography of the Chacho by Sarmiento ['Sarmiento counterattacks with his biography of Chacho', chapter 3], the reformulating of 1875 of the first version by Hernández ['Vida del Chacho and El gaucho Martín Fierro: re writings by Hernández in 1875', chapter 4]1 and the last manifestation of the controversy that these two authors established through de biographical genre ['The last link of a controversy: Sarmiento vs. Hernández', chapter 5] ; Fil: Ortale, María Celina. Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación; Argentina.

En esta tesis se describe y explica el proceso de deforestación del área ocupada por los bosques de algarrobo en el oeste de La Rioja y Catamarca, entre 1850 y la actualidad. Este proceso está asociado al desmonte y a los cambios de uso del suelo originados por diferentes y sucesivos procesos socio-económicos, que tuvieron como actividades emergentes la minería, el ferrocarril y la demanda de productos forestales generada por acciones productivas desarrolladas en otras provincias. A partir de fuentes históricas, entrevistas y el análisis de imágenes satelitales, se trabajó en un sector de la Región Biogeográfica del Monte, concretamente, en los valles y bolsones del oeste riojano y catamarqueño, caracterizado por una fuerte presencia de especies del género Prosopis y Bulnesia Retama, donde se produjo una importante explotación forestal de bosques nativos desde mediados de siglo XIX. En este contexto fueron calculadas las cantidades y distribución espacial de bosque afectado por las actividades descriptas a partir de la línea base establecida hacia 1850, cuando se profundiza el aprovechamiento del bosque bajo pautas extractivas más acentuadas. Se estudiaron además las modalidades de aprovechamiento social del recurso forestal y algunas características del mundo del trabajo asociado a estas actividades, así como también, el rol gubernamental en la política forestal, especialmente después de 1930. De este modo, se buscó aportar nueva información e interpretación a las discusiones sobre el desarrollo histórico regional. Entre los principales resultados adquieren fuerza las ideas de que la explotación forestal, muy intensa desde 1850, nunca mermó de forma considerable, más allá del sistema productivo en auge en cada momento histórico. En ese sentido, las miles de hectáreas desmontadas y la cantidad de forestales talados representaron un importante impacto ambiental especial –y primeramente- en Pipanaco y Chilecito, pero décadas después éste también se traslada a otros valles. Si bien, a lo largo del siglo XX, la extracción de forestales no parece haber disminuido demasiado, a pesar de los diferentes pulsos y ritmos de explotación que se detallan en el trabajo, sí es posible observar en las últimas décadas de esa centuria cierta desaceleración de la extracción. La comparación entre el bosque en distintos momentos históricos, incluyendo la situación actual, demuestra, entre otras cosas, la existencia de áreas de regeneración de bosque, sin las cuales no se podría haber continuado extrayendo las cantidades descriptas. El comercio forestal se orientó, en primer lugar, hacia demandas de otras regiones, aunque combinada con altos niveles de consumo local (en términos relativos), debido a que hasta el día de hoy algunos sectores sociales no cuentan con muchas alternativas energéticas y laborales. En el caso de los procesos asociados a la explotación minera, que comienzan a mostrar relevancia en la segunda mitad del siglo XIX, se consideró que los intensos niveles de explotación del bosque y las desfavorables características del mundo del trabajo minero y forestal (y posiblemente las escasas alternativas favorables de la ocupación agropecuaria), colaboraron fuertemente para que no se consolidara un sistema productivo hegemónico en esta región. Las pronunciadas tasas de emigración hacia otras regiones, como Mendoza y Tucumán, advertirían las contradicciones que representaban estos sistemas productivos en los imaginarios de los sectores populares catamarqueños y riojanos. La intensa extracción forestal no pareció redundar en mejores condiciones de vida para los campesinos y hacheros que se dedicaban a esta actividad en el más bajo eslabón económico, ni contribuir al ansiado desarrollo regional. La agricultura, en cambio, fue representada en el imaginario de muchos actores sociales como una actividad altamente favorecedora del desarrollo mencionado, por ello, ha captado mayor atención gubernamental después del declive minero, a partir de 1930. Sin embargo, el auge vitivinícola–olivícola en las últimas décadas representa un riesgo para la conservación del remanente de bosque que no fue impactado hasta ese momento, y que en algunos casos muestra capacidad de regeneración. Ello se debe a que la actividad agrícola compite por el mismo territorio en el que se desarrolla el bosque, pues existe acceso al agua subterránea, bordes de ríos y arroyos, y algún tipo de suelo favorable para la vegetación -esto último, especialmente en el fondo de valles y bolsones. Si bien cuando se finalizaba esta tesis comenzó a realizarse en las provincias estudiadas inventarios de bosques nativos y a proponerse proyectos de manejo sostenible en el marco de la Ley Nacional que estipula la protección de estos ecosistemas, no se observaron, por el momento, cambios importantes en la forma en que se explotan dichas unidades forestales, ni procesos que impliquen un mejoramiento de las condiciones de vida de campesinos, pequeños productores rurales y hacheros, grupos que no han sido alcanzados por las mejoras que supuestamente acompañarían a la modernización agrícola y productiva. ; The processes of deforestation of the carob forests in La Rioja and Catamarca since 1850, together with the land clearing and changes in land usage due to various socio-economic processes, such as mining, the railway and the demand for forest products generated by activities carried out in these provinces, are described and explained in this thesis. Through the use of historical documentation, interviews and analysis of satellite images, the study focuses on a sector of the Monte Biogeographical Province, specifically, in the valleys and basins in the west of La Rioja and Catamarca, where there has been significant exploitation of native forests, with a strong presence of species in the Prosopis and Bulnesia Retama genera, since the mid-nineteenth century. In this context, estimations have been made of quantities and spatial distributions of woodland affected by the activities described since the baseline established circa 1850 with the significant increase in the use of the forest according to extractivist criteria which were more intense than anything beforehand. In relation to this exploitation the forms of social use of forest resources and some characteristics of the world of the work associated to these activities were also studied, as well as the role of the government in forest policy, especially after 1930, thus seeking to contribute new information and interpretations to the discussions on the historic development of the region. ; Fil: Rojas, Juan Facundo. Universidad Nacional de Cuyo. Facultad de Filosofía y Letras.

Inspired by the Bologna Process and other globalising influences from modern higher education, and driven by policy reform for national development after the ravages of the 1994 conflict and genocide, Rwanda's tertiary education has embarked on a number of policy reform for national development after the ravages of the 1994 conflict and genocide, Rwanda's tertiary education has embarked on a number of policy reforms that have ushered in expectations, requirements and demands that call for both reinvigorated and new academic literacies in undergraduate study since 2007. With its aim of producing a highly skilled human resource as a panacea for Rwanda's social and economic development deficits, the tertiary education curriculum is more than never before focused on outcomes that are linked to further education and the labour market. However, one of the problems to contend with is academic and professional under- preparedness of students entering and exiting undergraduate study, respectively. Theoretically these developments involve distancing oneself from a previous pedagogy whereby the teacher imparts knowledge to the student but instead places greater responsibility on the student to search for knowledge either individually or in a group, as well as critically examine and be able to argue a point of view in writing and through other modes of communication. Therefore, this study has been informed especially by the New Literacy Studies and the Academic Literacies Approach to understanding the development of tertiary academic literacies. The study has also been inspired by the concept of educational scaffolding. It is against this backdrop that my study set out to investigate the academic literacies requested in undergraduate study, and to explore approaches adopted by tertiary learning institutions in the country to embed academic literacies acquisition into the mainstream curriculum over the last decade. Furthermore, the study sought to explore how technology is integrated at different levels to support the acquisition of academic literacies, including technological and information literacies. In order to achieve the aforementioned, the study embarked on a qualitative blend of cross-sectional and longitudinal research designs. Principal data were gathered from official documents obtained from the government and tertiary learning institutions. Drawing on the synergies of qualitative content analysis and intertextual analysis, the documentary data were analysed and then qualitatively interpreted. The data were supplemented by a couple of questionnaire mini-surveys which were also subjected to qualitative analysis. The findings indicate that a new and expanded definition of literacy in the 21st century implies students' development of a set of interrelated and transferable academic competences which are elaborated in the thesis. Curriculum discourses show that there is a shift of curricular and pedagogical emphasis from general linguistic competence as a vehicle for developing academic literacies to a more integrated embedment of a number of literacies including English for Specific Purposes (ESP), study skills, as well as information, communication and technological literacies. Regarding the use of ICT as a scaffolding tool for learning, findings show that the use of technologies has the potential to support students' processes of academic literacies development from a highly dependent level to a more autonomous level, given that the ICT integration policies and strategies could fully materialise. ; Inspirerad av Bologna Processen och andra globala strömningar inom modern högskolepedagogik har man i Rwanda inlett en mängd policy reformer inom högre utbildning för att skapa nationell utveckling efter den förödande konflikten och folkmordet 1994. Sedan 2007 ställs nya förväntningar och krav på studenter inom den grundläggande högskoleutbildningen som skapar behov av att förstärka det som i forskningen benämns som 'new literacies'. Teoretiskt tar denna strömning avstånd från en tidigare pedagogik där läraren ger studenten kunskap och lägger i stället ett allt större ansvar på studenten att enskilt eller i grupp kunna söka kunskap, kritiskt granska och kunna argumentera för en ståndpunkt i skrift. Utbildning, och särskilt högre utbildning, ses som ett universalmedel för att råda bot för Rwandas sociala och ekonomiska underutveckling. Nya krav ställs också på att utbildningen både ska ha ett relevant akademiskt ämnesinnehåll som kan leda till fortsatt utbildning och vara anpassad till en kommande yrkespraktik. Detta ställer i sin tur krav på att blivande studenter är väl förberedda när de går in i utbildningen och att de vid genomförda studier har både akademisk kunskap och är förberedda för en yrkesprofession. Mot denna bakgrund är syftet med denna studie att undersöka vilka krav på 'academic literacy' som har ställts på studenter i Rwanda över tid. Det sätt på vilket stöd för sådana kunskapskrav integreras i den allmänna kursplanen under det senaste årtiondet och hur kunskap i och om IKT kan integreras för att ge stöd i att uppnå kursplanens mål har också undersökts. Data består huvudsakligen av insamlade officiella dokument från regeringen samt ett tvärsnitt av institutioner för högre utbildning. Med hjälp av en kvalitativ innehållsanalys och intertextuell analys har dokumenten tolkats för att se vilka centrala förändringar vad gäller 'academic literacy' som skett över tid. Datainsamlingen kompletterades med mindre enkätstudier som också analyserats kvalitativt. Studien visar att en ny och utvidgad definition av 'academic literacy' vuxit fram under 2000-talet som innebär att studenter behöver utveckla ny akademisk kompetens som är relaterad till och kan överföras mellan olika områden. Diskursen i de dokument som studerats visar att det skett en förändring som innebär att allmän språklig kompetens inte räcker som medel för att utveckla 'academic literacies' utan den har utvidgats till att även integrera ämnesspecifik språkkunskap, olika former av studieteknik och IKT. När det gäller IKT som stödjande redskap för lärande visar studien att givet att politiska beslut och strategier för IKT-användning kan genomföras, förväntas användningen av dessa redskap ha en potential att stödja studenterna i den process som det innebär att gå från att vara helt beroende av lärarens undervisning till att mera självständigt söka och utveckla kunskap. Sammanfattningsvis understryks i studien att den kritik som framförts om högskolestudenters bristande förberedelse både för akademiska studier och för arbetslivet är utanför deras kontroll. Kritiken ska snarare ses som ett imperativ för institutioner inom högre utbildning att skapa lämpliga kurser och pedagogiska miljöer för att ge studenterna förutsättningar att kunna utveckla en 'academic literacy' som alla studenter har rätt att tillägna sig.

Le celebrazioni per i 150 anni dell'Unità d'Italia offrono anche l'occasione per interrogarsi sulla storia e lo sviluppo di questo Paese, in particolare in riferimento alla cultura del mare e al sistema dei trasporti via acqua. In un paese peninsulare come l'Italia, con i suoi 7.500 chilometri di fronte d'acqua, la presenza dei porti è sempre stata elemento determinante per la crescita economica e per la sua affermazione sui mercati internazionali. Ma, dalla seconda metà del Novecento, le città e i loro porti sono andati progressivamente separandosi, determinando situazioni di forti contrasti e di continue tensioni. Solo più recentemente – a seguito della legge n. 84 del 1994 – nuove forme di 'dialogo' hanno consentito, in talune occasioni, di riavviare politiche di concertazione sui piani di sviluppo delle aree portuali e sul miglioramento della situazione delle zone urbane prossime ai porti. Per tutti questi motivi, l'occasione del 150esimo anniversario dell'Unità d'Italia può rappresentare un momento significativo per riprendere la riflessione sul ruolo dei porti italiani nella storia del nostro paese, ed, eventualmente, sul potenziale rafforzamento che essi possono subire, alla luce dei dati positivi ed incoraggianti dell'intero cluster marittimo in questi ultimi anni, almeno fino alla crisi congiunturale del 2008.Al tempo stesso, si può analizzare la complessa relazione porto-città, in un'ottica di mutuo riconoscimento delle rispettive esigenze e della volontà di sviluppare le proprie attività in un quadro di concreto ed efficace spirito di collaborazione, che richiede sia una maggiore conoscenza reciproca, così come una più efficace definizione degli obiettivi per il raggiungimento di una qualità urbana sostenibile e duratura.La progressiva globalizzazione dell'economia e la liberalizzazione del mercato hanno determinato una generale crescita degli scambi commerciali a livello mondiale e in particolare il bacino del Mediterraneo è diventato un centro di flussi di traffico Est-Ovest e Nord-Sud. L'Italia, posta al centro del bacino del Mediterraneo, è tornata ad essere oggi il crocevia delle più importanti direttrici di collegamento mondiale di merci e passeggeri, vivendo una stagione di intensa crescita nei traffici marittimi. Ad eccezione per quei porti caratterizzati da una forte presenza del segmento crocieristico che ha registrato livelli di crescita interessanti, la crisi congiunturale e globale del 2008 ha avuto effetti molto pesanti anche in questo settore (traffico merci su mezzi pesanti e traffico container). Si pagano alcune lacune storiche della portualità del Mediterraneo, e di quella adriatica in particolare, quali la mancanza di collegamenti terrestri via ferrovia da e per i porti, anche se le Autorità Portuali stanno cercando di colmare il ritardo sia dal punto di vista infrastrutturale che di sostenibilità ambientale, attraverso politiche di condivisione e convivenza tra il porto e il territorio circostante e in una rinnovata e diffusa 'cultura del mare' e del ruolo attivo e 'creativo' dei porti. Solo attraverso un approccio culturale e una reciproca educazione potrà emergere una nuova percezione del porto in città e della città nel porto. In realtà, esistono già segnali incoraggianti di una recente appropriazione – o ri-appropriazione – del porto in chiave positiva e di un recupero della cultura del mare in alcune città portuali italiane. Attraverso un processo lento e complesso, articolato in eventi diversi, sta maturando un nuovo 'sentire' nei confronti dei porti, visti in chiave di risorsa e di parte integrante di una città, purché essi rispettino alcune regole necessarie per una vita urbana sostenibile. ; The celebrations for the 150th anniversary of the Unification of Italy also offer the opportunity to question the history and development of this country, particularly in reference to the maritime culture and the system of water transport. In a peninsular country like Italy, with its 7,500 km of waterfront, the presence of ports has always been crucial to economic growth and its success in international markets. But the second half of the twentieth century, cities and their ports have been gradually separated, resulting in situation of conflict and ongoing tensions. Only recently – following the Law 84, 1994 - new forms of 'dialogue' have allowed, on certain occasions, to restart political consultation on the development plans of the port areas and on improving the situation of urban areas close to ports. For all these reasons, the occasion of the 150th anniversary of the Unification of Italy can be a significant moment to resume the debate on the role of Italian ports in the history of our country, and possibly increase the potential that they may have, according to the positive and encouraging data of the entire maritime cluster in recent years, at least until the economic crisis of 2008. At the same time, the complex relationship port-city can be analyzed, with a view to mutual recognition of their needs and to the development of their activities in a framework of practical and effective, cooperative spirit, which requires both a greater mutual understanding as well as a more effective targeting to achieve a lasting and sustainable urban quality. The gradual economic globalization and market liberalization have led to a general increase in trade globally and in particular the Mediterranean has become a centre of traffic flows East-West and North-South. Italy, located in the middle of the Mediterranean basin, is now once again become the crossroads of the most important lines of goods and passengers connected world, experiencing a period of intense growth in maritime trade. Except for those ports with a strong presence of the cruise segment, which recorded growth rates of interest, the global economic crisis of 2008 has had very heavy in this sector (freight traffic to trucks and containers). This is also due to some historical gaps of the Mediterranean ports, such as the lack of rail connections to and from the ports, although Port Authorities are trying to bridge the gap both in terms of infrastructural interventions and environmental sustainability, through policies of sharing and coexistence between the port and the surrounding area and through a renewed and widespread 'culture of the sea'. Since only through a cultural approach and mutual education will emerge a new perception of the port in the city and the city in the port. In fact, there are already encouraging signs of a recent appropriation of the port in a positive light and of a recovery of marine culture in several Italian port cities. Through a slow and complex process, articulated through different events, is gaining a new 'feeling' in relation to ports, seen in the key of a resource and as an integral part of a city, provided they respect certain rules necessary for sustainable urban living.

Le celebrazioni per i 150 anni dell'Unità d'Italia offrono anche l'occasione per interrogarsi sulla storia e lo sviluppo di questo Paese, in particolare in riferimento alla cultura del mare e al sistema dei trasporti via acqua. In un paese peninsulare come l'Italia, con i suoi 7.500 chilometri di fronte d'acqua, la presenza dei porti è sempre stata elemento determinante per la crescita economica e per la sua affermazione sui mercati internazionali. Ma, dalla seconda metà del Novecento, le città e i loro porti sono andati progressivamente separandosi, determinando situazioni di forti contrasti e di continue tensioni. Solo più recentemente – a seguito della legge n. 84 del 1994 – nuove forme di 'dialogo' hanno consentito, in talune occasioni, di riavviare politiche di concertazione sui piani di sviluppo delle aree portuali e sul miglioramento della situazione delle zone urbane prossime ai porti. Per tutti questi motivi, l'occasione del 150esimo anniversario dell'Unità d'Italia può rappresentare un momento significativo per riprendere la riflessione sul ruolo dei porti italiani nella storia del nostro paese, ed, eventualmente, sul potenziale rafforzamento che essi possono subire, alla luce dei dati positivi ed incoraggianti dell'intero cluster marittimo in questi ultimi anni, almeno fino alla crisi congiunturale del 2008.Al tempo stesso, si può analizzare la complessa relazione porto-città, in un'ottica di mutuo riconoscimento delle rispettive esigenze e della volontà di sviluppare le proprie attività in un quadro di concreto ed efficace spirito di collaborazione, che richiede sia una maggiore conoscenza reciproca, così come una più efficace definizione degli obiettivi per il raggiungimento di una qualità urbana sostenibile e duratura.La progressiva globalizzazione dell'economia e la liberalizzazione del mercato hanno determinato una generale crescita degli scambi commerciali a livello mondiale e in particolare il bacino del Mediterraneo è diventato un centro di flussi di traffico Est-Ovest e Nord-Sud. L'Italia, posta al centro del bacino del Mediterraneo, è tornata ad essere oggi il crocevia delle più importanti direttrici di collegamento mondiale di merci e passeggeri, vivendo una stagione di intensa crescita nei traffici marittimi. Ad eccezione per quei porti caratterizzati da una forte presenza del segmento crocieristico che ha registrato livelli di crescita interessanti, la crisi congiunturale e globale del 2008 ha avuto effetti molto pesanti anche in questo settore (traffico merci su mezzi pesanti e traffico container). Si pagano alcune lacune storiche della portualità del Mediterraneo, e di quella adriatica in particolare, quali la mancanza di collegamenti terrestri via ferrovia da e per i porti, anche se le Autorità Portuali stanno cercando di colmare il ritardo sia dal punto di vista infrastrutturale che di sostenibilità ambientale, attraverso politiche di condivisione e convivenza tra il porto e il territorio circostante e in una rinnovata e diffusa 'cultura del mare' e del ruolo attivo e 'creativo' dei porti. Solo attraverso un approccio culturale e una reciproca educazione potrà emergere una nuova percezione del porto in città e della città nel porto. In realtà, esistono già segnali incoraggianti di una recente appropriazione – o ri-appropriazione – del porto in chiave positiva e di un recupero della cultura del mare in alcune città portuali italiane. Attraverso un processo lento e complesso, articolato in eventi diversi, sta maturando un nuovo 'sentire' nei confronti dei porti, visti in chiave di risorsa e di parte integrante di una città, purché essi rispettino alcune regole necessarie per una vita urbana sostenibile. ; The celebrations for the 150th anniversary of the Unification of Italy also offer the opportunity to question the history and development of this country, particularly in reference to the maritime culture and the system of water transport. In a peninsular country like Italy, with its 7,500 km of waterfront, the presence of ports has always been crucial to economic growth and its success in international markets. But the second half of the twentieth century, cities and their ports have been gradually separated, resulting in situation of conflict and ongoing tensions. Only recently – following the Law 84, 1994 - new forms of 'dialogue' have allowed, on certain occasions, to restart political consultation on the development plans of the port areas and on improving the situation of urban areas close to ports. For all these reasons, the occasion of the 150th anniversary of the Unification of Italy can be a significant moment to resume the debate on the role of Italian ports in the history of our country, and possibly increase the potential that they may have, according to the positive and encouraging data of the entire maritime cluster in recent years, at least until the economic crisis of 2008. At the same time, the complex relationship port-city can be analyzed, with a view to mutual recognition of their needs and to the development of their activities in a framework of practical and effective, cooperative spirit, which requires both a greater mutual understanding as well as a more effective targeting to achieve a lasting and sustainable urban quality. The gradual economic globalization and market liberalization have led to a general increase in trade globally and in particular the Mediterranean has become a centre of traffic flows East-West and North-South. Italy, located in the middle of the Mediterranean basin, is now once again become the crossroads of the most important lines of goods and passengers connected world, experiencing a period of intense growth in maritime trade. Except for those ports with a strong presence of the cruise segment, which recorded growth rates of interest, the global economic crisis of 2008 has had very heavy in this sector (freight traffic to trucks and containers). This is also due to some historical gaps of the Mediterranean ports, such as the lack of rail connections to and from the ports, although Port Authorities are trying to bridge the gap both in terms of infrastructural interventions and environmental sustainability, through policies of sharing and coexistence between the port and the surrounding area and through a renewed and widespread 'culture of the sea'. Since only through a cultural approach and mutual education will emerge a new perception of the port in the city and the city in the port. In fact, there are already encouraging signs of a recent appropriation of the port in a positive light and of a recovery of marine culture in several Italian port cities. Through a slow and complex process, articulated through different events, is gaining a new 'feeling' in relation to ports, seen in the key of a resource and as an integral part of a city, provided they respect certain rules necessary for sustainable urban living.

Die Diskussion um die Patientenverfügung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland geht bis in die 1970er Jahre zurück, seit Mitte der 90er Jahre nahm sie an Intensität zu. Meilensteine ihrer Entwicklung waren die Entscheidungen des BGH im Kempten-Fall (1994), im Frankfurter Fall (1998) und im Lübeck-Fall (2003). Nach dem Lübeck-Fall mehrten sich die Stimmen, wonach der Gesetzgeber das Betreuungsrecht ändern und die Patientenverfügung gesetzlich verankern sollte. Ein Entwurf des Bundesjustizministeriums aus dem Jahr 2004 erreichte jedoch nicht den Deutschen Bundestag, er wurde dem Gesetzesentwurf unter der Leitung von Joachim Stünker angegliedert. Erst Anfang des Jahres 2007 erhielt die Diskussion mit einer Orientierungsdebatte Einzug in das Deutsche Parlament. In den Jahren 2007 bis 2008 wurden dann drei Gesetzesentwürfe zum Thema Patientenverfügung in den Bundestag eingebracht. Der erste Entwurf wurde im Mai 2007 unter Federführung von Wolfgang Bosbach (CDU) veröffentlicht. In ihm waren Formvorschriften für die Patientenverfügung verankert. Diese müsse in schriftlicher Form vorliegen sowie eine Unterschrift oder ein notariell beglaubigtes Handzeichen enthalten. Ein Widerruf der Patientenverfügung wäre jederzeit und ohne weiteres sowohl mündlich als auch zum Beispiel durch Gesten möglich gewesen. Der Gesetzesentwurf beinhaltete eine Reichweitenbegrenzung. Eine lebensverlängernde Maßnahme hätte demnach nur abgebrochen beziehungsweise nicht eingeleitet werden dürfen, wenn der Patient ein irreversibel zum Tode führendes Grundleiden gehabt hätte oder mit an Sicherheit grenzender Wahrscheinlichkeit das Bewusstsein nicht wiedererlangen würde. Eine unmittelbare Todesnähe wäre nicht notwendig gewesen. Ende 2008 wurde dieser Entwurf basierend auf einem Änderungsantrag unter Federführung von Katrin Göring-Eckardt (Bündnis90/Die Grünen) modifiziert. Es sollte ein zweistufiges Modell geben. Für eine Patientenverfügung mit Reichweitenbegrenzung sollten die gleichen Formvoraussetzungen wie im bisherigen Entwurf gelten, es sollte jedoch auch eine Patientenverfügung ohne Reichweitenbegrenzung möglich sein, für die schärfere Voraussetzungen gelten sollten, zum Beispiel eine regelmäßige Aktualisierungs- und Beratungspflicht. Ein zweiter Gesetzesentwurf entstand unter Federführung von Wolfgang Zöller (CSU) im Jahre 2007. Dieser Entwurf sah keine Reichweitenbegrenzung vor. Die Patientenverfügung sollte unabhängig von Art und Stadium der Erkrankung gelten. Weiterhin wären nicht nur schriftliche Verfügungen möglich gewesen, auch Tonträger oder Videos wären zu berücksichtigen gewesen, wenn sie eindeutig den Willen des Patienten gespiegelt hätten. Das Vormundschaftsgericht hätte nur bei Dissens zwischen Arzt und Betreuer eingeschaltet werden müssen, allerdings hätte es in diesem Fall das Gutachten eines Sachverständigen einholen müssen. Ein dritter Antrag wurde 2007 unter Federführung von Joachim Stünker (SPD) erarbeitet und im Jahre 2008 veröffentlicht. Auch dieser Gesetzesentwurf sah keine Reichweitenbegrenzung vor, eine Patientenverfügung sollte unabhängig von Art und Stadium der Erkrankung gelten können mit der formalen Voraussetzung der Schriftform. Das Vormundschaftsgericht sollte lediglich bei einem Dissens zwischen Arzt und Betreuer eingeschaltet werden, es müsste jedoch im Gegensatz zum Zöller-Entwurf vor seiner Entscheidung kein Gutachten einholen. In allen drei Entwürfen sollten jeweils §§ 1901 und 1904 BGB geändert werden. Am 29.05.2009 wurde unter der Leitung von Hubert Hüppe (CDU) zusätzlich ein Antrag auf Verzicht auf ein Gesetz eingebracht. Am 18.06.2009 entschied sich die Mehrheit des Bundestages für den Gesetzesentwurf der Gruppe um Joachim Stünker. Die anwesenden Abgeordneten der SPD, der FDP und der Partei Die Linke stimmten zum großen Teil für den Stünker-Entwurf und sicherten so die Mehrheit, die Vertreter der CDU/CSU stimmten mit nur einer Ausnahme gegen diesen Entwurf, fünf Abgeordnete enthielten sich bei dieser Abstimmung. Die Rolle des Betreuers gewann mit der Verabschiedung des Gesetzes an Bedeutung. Das Gesetz sieht vor, dass der Betreuer anhand der Patientenverfügung (bei Nichtvorliegen anhand des mutmaßlichen Willens des Betreuten) prüfen muss, ob " diese Festlegungen auf die aktuelle Lebens- und Behandlungssituation zutreffen"297. Das Vormundschaftsgericht muss nur eingeschaltet werden, wenn zwischen behandelndem Arzt und Betreuer ein Dissens über die Behandlung des Betreuten beziehungsweise den Abbruch einer lebensverlängernden Maßnahme herrscht. ; The discussion about advanced health care directives (Patientenverfügungen) in the Federal Republic of Germany dates back to the seventies of the 20th century. The intensity of the debate began increasing significantly in the mid nineties. Defining milestones were the rulings of the Federal Court of Justice in the "Kempten-case" (1994), the "Frankfurt-case (1998) and the "Lübeckcase" (2003). After the "Lübeck-case" public pressure increased for legislative action to change the law concerning the guardianship of persons of full age (Betreuungsrecht) protecting advanced health care directives by law. A draft by the federal ministry of justice from 2004 did not reach the german parliament. This bill was later integrated in the draft-bill introduced by Joachim Stünker. Only in 2007 was the discussion over advanced health care directives introduced to German Parliament (Deutscher Bundestag) with a first debate. From 2007 to 2008 three proposed bills concerning advance health care directives were presented to the German Parliament. The first bill introduced by Wolfgang Bosbach (CDU) was made public in May 2007. The bill laid out formal requirements for advanced health care directives. It required advanced health care directives to be in written form and should contain a signature or a notarized power of attorney. It may be cancelled at any time and without further ado, for example verbally or by gesture. The bill included a defined scope of limitations. Life prolonging procedures could herein only be terminated or may not be initiated if the patient had an ailment which was irreversibly lethal or it was deemed impossible the patient would regain consciousness. An immediate proximity of death was not required. At the end of 2008 the bill was modified based on an amendment introduced by Katrin Göring-Eckardt (Bündnis90/Die Grünen). It proposed a two-tier model. For advance health care directives with a defined scope of limitations the same formal requirements applied as in the previous bill. In addition it would allow advance health care directives without these limitations. This option would be tightly regulated requiring routine evaluations and counselling. Another bill was introduced by Wolfgang Zöller (CSU) in the year 2007. This bill didn't include a defined scope of limitations. The advance health care directive would be valid independently of the kind and stage of the disease. Furthermore not only written directives but also sound recording mediums or videos would be honoured if they clearly reflected the will of the patient. The guardianship court (Vormundschaftsgericht) should solely intervene if there was dissent between the doctor and the custodian. In this case the guardianship court had to obtain an expert opinion. A third bill was introduced under the direction of Joachim Stünker (SPD) in 2007 and made public in 2008. This bill similarly did not set a scope of limitations. The advanced health care directives would be valid independent of the kind and stage of the disease, but a written form would be required. The guardianship court should also solely intervene if there was a dissent between the doctor and the custodian. In contrast to the proposal by Zöller an expert opinion would not be necessary. All three bills required changing paragraph 1901 and 1904 of the German Civil Code (Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch). On May 29th 2009 an application for the relinquishment of a law under the direction of Hubert Hüppe (CDU) was filed. On June 18th 2009 the majority of the German Parliament decided on the bill proposed by Joachim Stünker. The members of the SPD and Die Linke voted in favor of the bill, assuring the majority of the votes. The members of the CDU/CSU voted with a sole exception against this bill. The new legislature has increased the responsibility held by the custodian. As described in the bill the custodian has to evaluate if the path set in the directive applies to the current situation of treatment and the patient's life. If there is no advanced health care directive the custodian must consider the presumable will of the patient. The guardianship court shall solely intervene if there is a dissent between the doctor and the custodian regarding the treatment of the patient or the termination of a life prolonging procedure.

Scientific data and results have to be accurate, precise and reliable and are subject to ever increasing scrutiny by regulators in industry, the environment and medicine, in validation and also in research and development. Given our numerous environmental problems, the need for accurate, precise and reliable results can not be overemphasized in environmental pollution control. In the light of this analytical environmentalists believe that there is need for a hierarchical scheme of methods to be used in environmental assessment studies. In this research the state and role of analytical instruments in environmental pollution control in Nigeria were studied with a focus on the state of the Nigerian environmental pollution control laboratories. A theoretical background of this work gives an overview of the state of the art of the environment globally and that of Nigeria. This work has established that, because mankind have put thousands of chemical substances to use in this century, there are many chemicals that have found their way into the natural environment in large quantities. Because of the nature of the environmental problems mankind is facing now, many researchers and manufacturers are dedicated to using and providing quality new and reliable instrumentation methods to ensure a healthy environment in our world. A brief study of Nigeria as the country of research is made to establish the background of possible problems. From the facts gathered in the literature Nigeria has the economic tools that it needs to put a good environmental management scheme in place, which includes good standards, laws, regulations and good analytical laboratories for compliance and monitoring. However the research has established that these economic tools are not effectively used in the management of environmental pollution control, especially monitoring of environmental pollutants. The research was undertaken by visiting four analytical laboratories involved in environmental pollution control in Nigeria, and three organizations that are the main environmental regulatory bodies in Nigeria. The analytical laboratories visited are those of Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) Kaduna, Ashaka cement factory, regional laboratory of the Federal Ministry of Water Resources Gombe, and the National Reference laboratory Lagos. In these laboratories and the organizations, results were collected in the laboratories, interviews were carried out and analytical instruments available were documented. It was discovered that, in these laboratories many standard analytical instruments needed for quality environmental pollution control and monitoring are lacking. Comparison of results generated in these laboratories with some from developed countries, revealed that many parameters measured in laboratories in developed countries are not measured in the research laboratories. The results obtained in these laboratories met Nigeria' maximum limits in some cases, but exceeded it in many cases. It is the position of this work that the gap between the environmental analytical instruments found in literature and developed countries, and that found in Nigeria is very large and calls for concern. The environmental regulatory bodies in Nigeria have many laws, rules, regulations and standards for environmental pollution control. These regulations, standards, laws and rules were compared with what is obtained in other countries of the world, especially developed countries and found to be lacking in many areas. The way and manner the analytical methods are stated in the Nigerian regulations and standards are way below the developed countries standard. This research concludes that the regulations and standards have big influence on the kind of environmental analytical instruments found in the environmental analytical laboratories in Nigeria. The final conclusion this study has reached is that analytical methods, equipments, and standards on ground in Nigeria are not sufficient for the purpose of good environmental pollution control and monitoring. The situations as regards analytical instruments, analytical methods, standards and guidelines used in environmental pollution control in Nigeria do not favourably compare to international situations. It is therefore recommended that the need for validity and reliability in data collection, analysis, guidelines, standards and use of data in environmental pollution control needs to be addressed by the Nigerian Government if monitoring of the Millennium Development Goals and environmental pollution control in general is to be effective. ; Wissenschaftliche Daten und Ergebnisse müssen genau, richtig und zuverlässig sein und unterliegen immer stärkeren Prüfungen durch Kontrollorgane in Industrie, Umwelt und Medizin, bei der Validierung und auch in Forschung und Entwicklung. Aufgrund unserer zahlreichen Umweltprobleme kann die Notwendigkeit von genauen, richtigen und verlässlichen Ergebnissen in der Kontrolle der Umweltverschmutzung nicht überbetont werden. In Anbetracht dessen glauben die mit der chemischen Analyse betrauten Umweltschützer, dass es eines gut aufgebauten Systems von Methoden bedarf, das in Studien zur Umweltbewertung Anwendung finden soll. In dieser Forschungsarbeit wurden der Zustand und die Rolle des Analyse-Instrumentariums zur Kontrolle der Umweltverschmutzung in Nigeria untersucht. Das Hauptziel dieser Arbeit ist die Untersuchung des Zustand der nigerianischen Laboratorien zur Kontrolle der Umweltverschmutzung. In einem theoretischen Teil dieser Arbeit wurde ein Überblick über den Zustand der Umwelt insgesamt und der von Nigeria gegeben. Eine gesicherte Erkenntnis dieser Arbeit ist die Tatsache, dass die Menschheit im vergangenen Jahrhundert Tausende von chemischen Substanzen verwendet hat und dadurch viele Chemikalien in großen Mengen in die natürliche Umwelt gelangt sind. Wegen der Art der Umweltprobleme, vor denen die Menschheit heute steht, sind viele Forscher und Industrielle bemüht, ein qualitativ hochwertiges Instrumentarium und neue Methoden zur Verfügung zu stellen, um eine gesunde Umwelt zu sichern. Eine kurze Studie über Nigeria, dem Land der betreffenden Forschungsarbeit, wird dargelegt. Aus den Fakten in der entsprechenden Literatur ergibt sich, dass Nigeria über die entsprechenden Wirtschaftsmittel verfügt, die es für die Umsetzung von guten Planungen für die Umwelt benötigt. Sie schließen gute Standards, Gesetze und Verordnungen sowie gute Analyselabors für deren Einhaltung und Überwachung ein. Jedoch hat diese Forschungsarbeit nachgewiesen, dass wegen Korruption diese Wirtschaftsinstrumente in der Handhabung der vielen Umweltprobleme nicht effektiv genutzt werden. Ein weiteres Problem als erwiesene Behinderung in der Anwendung der Wirtschaftsinstrumente liegt in der Tatsache begründet, dass, obwohl Nigerias Wirtschaft Wachstum zeigte, dieses Wachstum wegen der raschansteigende Inflation keine Wirkung hat. Im Rahmen diese Forschungsarbeit wurden sowohl vier Analyselabors besucht, die an der Kontrolle der Umweltverschmutzung in Nigeria beteiligt sind, als auch drei Organisationen, die als die hauptsächlichen Umweltbehörden in Nigeria anzusehen sind. Die besuchten Analyselabors sind die Nigerianische Nationale Ölgesellschaft NNPC Kaduna (Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation Kaduna), die Ashaka Zementfabrik (Ashaka Cement factory), das Regionallabor des Bundesministeriums für Wasserwirtschaft Gombe (Regional laboratory of the Federal Ministry of Water Resources Gonbe) und das Nationale Referenzlabor Lagos (National Re-ference laboratory Lagos). Festgestellt wurde, dass in diesen Laboratorien viele Standard-Analyse-Instrumente fehlen, die für eine qualitätsgerechte Kontrolle der Umweltverschmutzung benötigt würden. Ein Vergleich der Messungen aus diesen Labors mit denen aus entwickelten Ländern enthüllte, dass viele Parameter schlicht nicht gemessen wurden. Die Messergebnisse aus diesen Laboratorien erfüllten Nigerias Grenzwerte in einigen Fällen, übertrafen sie aber auch in vielen Fällen. Diese Forschungsarbeit zeigt, dass der Abstand zwischen dem Umwelt-Analyse-Instrumentarium aus Literatur und entwickelten Ländern zu dem in Nigeria vorhandenen sehr groß ist und Anlass zu Besorgnis gibt. Die Umweltbehörden in Nigeria verfügen über viele Gesetze, Regeln, Verordnungen und Standards zur Kontrolle der Umweltverschmutzung. Alle diese wurden mit denen verglichen, die in der internationalen Gemeinschaft, insbesondere in den entwickelten Ländern üblich sind; auch hier mangelt es in Nigeria in vielen Bereichen: Die Art und Weise, wie die Analyse-Methoden in den nigerianischen Verordnungen und Standards festgelegt sind, liegt beträchtlich unter dem Standard in den entwickelten Ländern. Aus dieser Forschungsarbeit ergibt sich also die Schlussfolgerung, dass Verordnungen und Standards einen großen Einfluss auf die instrumentelle Ausstattung der Umwelt-Analyse-Laboratorien Nigerias haben. Die Gesamtstudie kommt zu der Schlussfolgerung, dass Analyse-Methoden, Ausrüstung und Standards in Nigeria zum Zwecke einer guten Kontrolle und Überwachung der Umweltverschmutzung unzureichend sind. Es wird daher das Folgende nachdrücklich empfohlen: die nigerianische Regierung muss es sich zur Aufgabe machen, Gültigkeit und Verlässlichkeit in der Datensammlung, der Analysetechnik, den Richtlinien und Standards und der Auswertung der Daten zu sichern, wenn die Überwachung der Millenniums-Zielsetzung und die Kontrolle der Umweltverschmutzung im Allgemeinen wirkungsvoll werden sollen.