GIES PRIZE ESSAY NUMBER. YOL. XII NO. 5 OCTOBER, 1903 The ' Gettysburg CQercury GETTYSBURG COLLEGE i GETTYSBURG, PA. BARBfMINN ft LITTLE, LTD., aKTTYBBUftO O'SUR® e,; w M PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. Publishers ot THE GETTYSBURG NEWS 142 Carlisle St., Gettysburg, Pa. BARBEHENH«LITTLE, LTD. AMOS ECKERT Latest Styles in HATS, SHOES AND GENT'S FURNISHING .Our specialty. WALK-OVER SHOE AMOS ECKERT Prices always right The Lutheran puMigfjing jlouge. No. 1424 Arch Street PHILADELPHIA, PA. Acknowledged Headquarters for anything and everything in the way of Books for Churches, Col-leges, Families and Schools, and literature for Sunday Schools. PLEASE REMEMBER That by sending your orders to us you help build up and devel-op one of the church institutions with pecuniary advantage to yourself. Address H. S. BONER, Supt. WE RECOMMEND THESE FIRMS. The Pleased Customer is not a stranger in our estab-lishment— lie's right at home, you'll see him when you call. We have the materials to please fastidious men. J. D. LIPPY, Merehant Tailor, 29 Chambersburg Street, GETTYSBURG, PA. CITY HOTEL, Main Street, - Gettysburg, Pa. Free 'Bus to an from all trains. Thirty seconds' walk from either depot. Dinner with drive over field with four or more, $1.35. Rates, $1.50 to $2.00 per Day. Livery connected. Rubber-tire buggies a specialty. John E. Hughes, Prop. T1PT0H 1 Now in 1 THE .PHOTOGRAPHER. new Studio 20 and 22 Chambersburg Street, Gettysburg, Pa. One of the finest modern lights in the country. Ml l BARBEHEHH, THE EACLE HOTEL Corner Main aud Washington Sts. Drag Stot*e, 36 Baltimore St. HOT AND COLD SODA AND CAMERA SUPPLIES ■ PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTIZERS. FURNITURE Mattresses, Bed Springs, Iron Beds, Picture Frames, Repair Work done promptly. Under-taking a specialty. * Telephone No. 97. ZE3I. IB. ZE3erLd-er ■73 Baltimore St., : : : : : : Gettysburg, Pa. THE STEWART & STEEN CO. College Engravers and, (Printers 1024 Arch. St., Philadelphia, Pa. MAKERS AND PUBLISHERS OF Commencement, Class Day Invitations and Programs, Class Pins and Buttons in Gold and Other Metals, Wedding Invitations and Announcements, At Home Cards, Reception Cards and Visiting Cards, Visiting Cards—Plate and 50 cards, 75 cents. Special Discount to Students. N. A. YEANY, Gettysburg College Representative. • 4. §. $palding & §ros., * * OFFICIAL * * FOOT BALL SUPPLIES Are Made in Accordance With Official Stiles. Spalding's handsomely illustrated cata-logue of Fall and Winter Sports contain-ing all the new things in foot ball will be sent free to any address. Spalding's Official Foot Ball Guide, containing the new rules. Per copy, IO cents. How to Play Foot Ball. By Walter Camp. New edition. Per copy, 10 cents. A. G. Spalding &: Bros. New York. ('hicago Philadelphia San Francisco Uoston Baltimore Buffalo Kansas City St. Louis London, Minneapolis England. Denver Montreal,Can PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTIZERS. AxTe always Ha^e the sea-sons novelties, besides a complete line of staples at prices to tearxipt you. SPECIAL CARE TAKEN TO MAKE WORK STYLISH AND EXACTLY TO YOUR ORDER. (Hill fll. Seligman, Taiio*. 7 ChambcPsbafg St., Gettysburg, Pa. R. A. WONDERS Corner Cigar Parlors. A full line of Cigars, Tobacco, Pipes, etc. Scott's Corner, opp. Eagle Hotel GETTYSBURG, PA. Pool Parlors in Connection. D. J. Swartz Country Produce in Groceries Cigars and Tobacco GETTYSBURG. Established 1867 by Allen Walton. Allen K. Walton, Pre9. and Treas. Root. J. Walton, Superintendent. Hummelstown FO wi) Stone jjompanjj, QTT.A.:R,:e,-E-2!v£:E:LT and Manufacturers of BUILDING STONE, SAWED FLAGGING, and TILE, WALTOPILLE DAUPHIN COUNTY, PENNA. Contractors for all kinds of cut stone work. Telegraph and Express Address, BROWNSTONE, PA. Parties visiting Quarries will leave cars at Brownstone Station, on the P. & R. R.R. THE GETTYSBURG JIERGIIRY The Literary Journal of Gettysburg College Voi,. XII. GETTYSBURG, PA., OCTOBER, 1903 No. 5 CONTENTS SUNRISE . . • 144 LYMAN A. GUSS, '04. ARE THE OXFORD SCHOLARSHIPS OF CECIL RHODES LIKELY TO BENEFIT AMERICA? . . . ,. 148 ABDEI, R. WENTZ, '04. * WHY SHOULD THE AMERICAN COLLEGE GRADUATE ENTER THE TEACHING PROFESSION ? . . . 153 WIWAM W. BARKXEY, '04. HOW SHALL WE PREVENT PENNSYLVANIA COAL STRIKES? 157 FRANK LAYMAN, '04. SHALL WE REPEAL THE FIFTEENTH AMENDMENT ? . 163 C. EDWIN BUTI,ER, '05. VITAL FORCE IN LITERATURE . . . . 166 EDITORIALS 169 EXCHANGES 172 144 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. SUNRISE. (First Gies Prize Essay.) LYMAN A. GUSS, '04. IT is dark. The stars are shining. Yonder is the dipper and above its bowl is the ever-constant north star. The con-stellations are in their various places. There towards the east is Venus now reigning as star of the morning. The other planets discernible move slowly on in their alloted places in the silent majesty of their governing law. Even now they are seemingly somewhat darkened by the dazzling brilliancy of their sister planet. The whole firmament is resplendent with the grandeur of ten thousand suns studded in the canopy of heaven. The treasures of creation seem to have been sown broadcast in the limitless area of the sky. The beauty of the scene is consummate ; its apprehension is sublime ; its begin-ning and end is God. How irregular and yet how perfect the arrangement! How unreal and yet how systematic the con-trolling force ! How infinite the wisdom of the creator in the perfect harmony of the vast plan of the universe ! " One sun by day, by night ten thousand shine, And light us deep into the Deity ; How boundless in magnificence and might! O what a confluence of the real fires, From urns unnumbered down the steep of heaven, Streams to a point, and centres in my sight!" Even as.we surmise the very air seems pregnant with the over- > flowing beauty of the skies. Everything is silent. A touch of the supernatural seems to have fallen over the land. In the ether above is the silent twinkle, twinkle of the star; in the valley beneath is the sleeping village. The rolling undulations of the land and its rising hills, as dimly seen in the starlight, portend the shadowy forms of reclining giants. The whole valley lies before us as a visionary dreamland. The dormant powers and energies of man have not yet been awakened. It is a time when all things seems to conspire in the formation of a singular and strange existence. Everything seems saturated THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 145 with this all pervading influence, even the night itself unex-cepted, for "it is darkest before dawn." But while the grandeur of a perfect night is upon us it fades. The stars are going to sleep. Behold that streak of gray in the east! Surely it betokens not some disastrous fire ! It in-creases slowly. Now its import turns to significance. It is the herald of the king of day signalizing his advent. Aurora has hastened in her ever faithful office as precursor of her brother, Phoebus, who with his fiery steads and brazen chariot follows closely in her wake, and she now foretells his coming by her own inspiring presence. Slowly the streak of gray lengthens, widens, aye, it changes. The "flaky darkness" breaks within the east. The black of night is melting. Enveloped in its shroud the frowning night yields slowly to the smiling day. " Look, the gentle day, Before the wheels of Phoebus round about Dapples the drowsy east with spots of gray." The streaks of gray have now become a sheet of pale yellow. The change and increase is slow, but constant and sure. Every moment signifies an addition to the growing brilliancy. Again the light has strengthened so as to contrast the whiteness of the horizon with the azure blue of the zenith. While the con-trast is marked, the blending is harmonious and unbroken. Straggling clouds in the western sky further enhance the glory of the occasion. The dark blue of their irregular arrangment suggests a variety to the natural splendor, ever modifying as each moment flits by. The silent music of the universe is sounding fourth its note on the interminable waves of the ether, and to the beat of each minute dawn progresses. But now behold the base line of earth and sky and the pre-tentious masses piled thereon in one unbroken stretch. The illusion is complete. Imagination is confused, but acts. Has some hostile foe invaded the land under the cover of darkness and is that long extent of apparent earthwork a mountain or the embattlement of an enemy ? Has nature sought to alter the form of the earth as wrought by the ages ? The deception is apparent. Reason conquers and prevails. The banks of clouds present their rugged outlines sharply defined against 146 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. the growing light of the eastern sky. The dim dividing line is quite obscure. " Rosy fingered Dawn " has already painted her delicate hue on the portals of the east, and the whole canopy of the sky seems tinted with the reflection. The vast field of red is mottled here and there with small patches of cloud which float silently in their gradual dissolution. The lower mass of accumulated clouds begin to fade and are checkered by the piercing shafts of morning light. The golden glow is already on this mass of bold relief. The diffusing light of the sun even ■ presages his coming by now slowly dissolving these barriers, which as agents of night, seem to obstruct his appearance. But now the village. Slowly it is awakening from the repose of night. White smoke from numerous chimneys is already curling into the still atmosphere above. Yonder to the right arises a steady column of blacker hue suggestive of the princi-pal industry. The attendant noises of the morning declare that activity has begun. To the left and farther up the valley the shrill shriek of a locomotive rends the peaceful air of morn-ing. The consoling note of the bird on the near-by tree sounds pure and clear as if in echoing response. Here and there goes the habitant to his toil, indicative of that irrevocable decree upon man, "Thou shalt work." The sharp spires of the two churches stand as silhouettes against the bright glow in the east. Every dwelling seems to demand a place in the picture below. The whole town lies huddled at the base of the eminence in the rear. Over the rolling landscape as it were, may be seen the farmer's house serving as a pleasing relief to the otherwise somewhat monoto-nous scene. Gradually creeping by the town and widening away through the land is the solitary river like unto a silver cord in the distance, until it is finally obscured in the recesses of the distant ridges. It seems to reflect the strengthening light of morning and even so appears as a molten stream of silver with its white metallic lustre. Directly below its clear ripple seems to designate the fact of its Alteration from every impurity by the darkness of night. All is idealistic in the spec-tacle before us. Nature seems united in one supreme effort to please in her elevating influence. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 147 Sunrise is an ever-changing sight. At no two minutes is the scene the same. Already with what seems accelerated speed the day-star has almost completed his preliminary course and his appearance is at hand. The sky before us is one sheet of burning gold. Everything is radiant with the effulgent light. The fragmentary clouds now skirting the horizon gleam as they absorb the light and beauty of the morning. Long shafts of light, fan-like, present the ultimate variation and the orb of day is manifest. One long ray of shimmering light shot across the intervening country is the signal gun of his appearance, They increase, multiply and remultiply and the whole earth is drowned in the flood of vital light. Night has abdicated and day has mounted the throne. "Night candles are burnt out" and sunrise is complete. " 'Tis mom. Behold the Kingly Day now leaps The eastern wall of earth with sword in hand, Clad in a flowing robe of mellow light, Like to a king that has regained his throne, He warms his drooping subjects into joy, That rise rejoiced to do him fealty, And rules with pomp the universal world." I48 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. ARE THE OXFORD SCHOLARSHIPS OF CECIL RHODES LIKELY TO BENEFIT AMERICA? {Second Cies Prise Essay.) ABDEI. R. WENTZ, '04. AFTER the death of Cecil Rhodes, the South African multi-millionaire and the Empire Builder, which occur-' red on March 26th last, it was announced to the world that his will provided for a $ro,ooo,ooo bequest to Oxford University, England. And this is nothing very remarkable. It is but natural that a man who in his life had such a wide outlook upon the world's affairs should donate a portion at least of his immense fortune to the furtherance of education. And that this donation should be made to Oxford University is exactly what might be expected in view of the fact that the donor was graduated at that institution. But the point of special interest and the one which most concerns us as Americans is the nature of the conditions which the bequeather attaches to his bequest. The famous will which has aroused so much comment, both favorable and unfavorable, provides that the $10,000,000 shall be applied to scholarships apportioned as follows: two to each of the self-governing colonies of the British Empire, five to Germany, and two to each state or territory of United States. The scholarships are each to amount to $1500 per year for a term of three years. The method of choosing the students is provided for in the will and it is quite a novel one. In the examination of the competitors, reference must be had to the following four points :(i) his literary and scholastic ability; (2) his love of outdoor sports ; (3) his manliness ; (4) his moral character and his qualification for leadership. Marks for the several qualifications are to be awarded in the proportion of four-tenths for the first, one-tenth for the second, three-tenths for the third, and two-tenths for the fourth. Mr. Rhodes' pur-pose in making such a donation was to bring about Anglo- Saxon amity by having the leading men in the three countries educated together at the same institution and thus to secure the "peace of the world." THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 149 It is not our purpose in this paper to examine whether the "peace of the world" will likely be secured by these scholar-ships, nor yet whether Cecil Rhodes' motive in establishing them was a good one. The question that we do propose to attempt to answer is whether America is likely to be benefitted by the scholarships or not. Of course, the future alone will positively and absolutely reveal the answer to this question, but by considering the present-day conditions and the most probable effects we can with at least some degree of certitude arrive at a conclusion upon the subject. While it must be ad-mitted that there are some arguments which would seem to favor an affirmative decision upon the question, nevertheless there are various' and weighty considerations which force us into the belief that the Oxford scholarships will probably not benefit America. In the first place, we can not but feel that for young men of the United States to leave their country and go across the sea to England, there to receive their education, will bring undesirable results for our country. The men who would take advantage of the scholarships would in the vast majority of cases be the brightest and manliest young men of their respective states. And for these men to be drained out of our own institutions and out of our country to be sent to England to patronize and bring honor to Oxford University would be deplorable, to say the least. Moreover the scholarships will be procurable by the average Sophomore of our colleges. This is the most forma-tive period in a man's life and that the best young men of our country, and those who are expected sometime to become im-portant factors in our national affairs, should leave their native land and spend their formative under-graduate period in a foreign country would be anything but desirable. There they will be brought entirely under English influences; they will be instilled with English principles and English ideas, in many cases so very different from American principles and ideas; they will be virtually denationalized. If the course at Oxford could be pursued as a post-graduate course by those who hold degrees from American institutions the result might not be so ISO THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. bad ; but if those who are to become leaders in our govern-mental affairs are to have their ideas fashioned according to British moulds, it must be dangerous to the principles of this American republic. The plan seems to be one-sided in this respect: that England is to do all the moulding of character and ideas, while Germany and the United States are to do none. For while we feel sure that our fellow-citizens who shall go to Oxford will be "up and doing" and will be fair representatives of our dear country, yet it seems equally certain that the hundred students who shall go from the United States, despite their American "hustle," will exert absolutely no influence over the 13,000 undergrad-uates with whom they associate. That these scholarships were established with a view to benefitting England rather than the United States or Germany seems almost certain from a remark made by Mr. Rhodes while he was forming his plans for estab-lishing them. The suggestion having been made by a friend that the recipients of the scholarships be permitted if they choose to study at Harvard or any other American institution, Mr. Rhodes is said to have replied thus: "The Americans can, if they like, endow scholarships for their own universities; my scholars must all come to my old university." It might be said on the other side of the question that America will be benefitted by the scholarships because they are to secure the "peace of the world." But would she? Even if we should go so far as to grant that this little educational scheme of one man will secure world-wide peace, can we assert that America would be benefitted by it? It seems quite cer-tain that with our twentieth-century civilization there will be no more really great wars, no wars between the great powers of the world. In the arbitration of international difficulties the United States is never forced to make any very important con-cessions. Great Britain and Germany would reap far more benefit from the proposed world wide peace than the United States would. And even if war should come, is not the United States government, backed by her patriotic and liberty-loving sons, able to hold her own against any other nation in the 1 Rupp B-u.ild.ing* YORK, PENN'A. Watch for his Representative when he visits the Collleeggee | PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTIZERS. Geo. E. Sparkler, PIANOS, ORGANS, MUSICAL MERCHANDISE Music Rooms, - York St. Telephone 181 GETTYSBIJEG C. B. KITZMILLER, DEALER IN Hats, Caps, Roots, and ^ ■ifcn -Douglas Shoes GETTYSBURG, FJPL. k M. AIAEMAN, Manufacturer's Agent and Jobber of Hardware, Oils, faints and Quensware Gettysburg, Pa. THE ONLY JOBBING HOUSE IN ADAMS COUNTY W. F. Codori, ^DEALER IN*^ —SPECIAL RATES TO CLUBS. York Street, Gettysburg, Pa. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. EGKENRODE & BEGKEK CHAMBEESBURG ST., Dealers in Beef, Veal, Lamb, Pork, Sausage, Pudding, Bologna, Hams, Sides, Shoulders, Lard, Prime Corned Beef. The Medico-Chirurgical College of Philadelphia. DEPARTMENT OF MEDICINE Offers exceptional facilities to graduates of Gettysburg College, especially to those who have taken a medical preparatory or biological course. The instruction is thoroughly practical, particular attention being given to laboratory work and bed-side and ward-class teaching. Ward-classes are limited in size. A modified seminar method is a special feature of the Course. Free quizzing in all branches by the Professors and a special staff of Tutors. The College has also a Department of Dentistry and a Department of Pharmacy. All Gettysburg College students are cordially invited to inspect the College and Clinical Amphitheatre at any time. For announcements or information apply to SENECA EGBERT, Dean of the Department of Medicine, 17th & Cherry Streets, PHILADELPHIA, PA. Wright, %[ \ Co. 140-144 Woodward Avenue, DETROIT, MICH. Send for Catalogue and Price List. Special Designs on Application. Manufacturers of high grade Fraternity Emblems Fraternity Jewelry Fraternity Novelties Fraternity Stationery Fraternity Invitations Fraternity Announcements Fraternity Programs HELP THOSE WHO HELP US. The Intercollegiate Bureau of Academic Costume. Chartered igo2. Ootre:ll In an up-to-datest tailor-made gown,U-pi-de-i-da 1 fr ff The boys are wild, and prex is, too, You never saw such a hulla-ba-loo. CHORUS. — U-pi-dee-i-dee-i-da 1 etc. Her voice is clear as a soaring lark's, And her wit is like those trolley-car sparks I When 'cross a muddy street she flits, The boys all have conniption fits I The turn of her head turns all ours, too. There's always a strife to sit in her pew; 'Tis enough to make a parson drunk, To hear her sing old co-ca-che-lunk 1 The above, and three other NEW verses to U-PI-DEE, m and NEW WORDS, catchy, up-to-date, to many fibf! others of the popular OLD FAMILIAR TUNES; be- IT ff ifhjf sides OLD FAVORITES ; and also many NEW SONGS. JAW> JJJ SONGS OF ALL THE COLLEGES. fTtf jtWl Copyright, Price, $1.30, postpaid, MOD. Wpr' ijuu HINDS & NOBLE, Publishers, New York City. |L> ft TT Schoolbooks ofall publishers at one store, fptf Bsa-C^ -C* _C^ -d -Ci _£i _C^ -Ci _Cs _fci _£s Ban m m mmmm m. Mi mmmm m. \ 50 YEARS' EXPERIENCE TRADE MARKS DESIGNS COPYRIGHTS &C. 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Issue 32.2 of the Review for Religious, 1973. ; Review ]or Religious is edited by faculty members of the School of Divinity of St. Louis University, the editorial offices being located at 612 Humboldt Building; 539 North Grand Boulevard; St. Louis, Missouri 63103. It is owned by the Missouri Province Educational Institute; St. Louis, Missouri. Published bimonthly and copy-right (~) 1973 by Review ]or Religious. Composed, printed, and manufactured in U.S.A. Second class postage paid at St. Louis, Missouri. Single copies: $1.25. Sub-scription U.S.A. and Canada: $6.00 a year; $11.00 for two years; other countries, $7.00 a year, $13.00 for two years. Orders should indicate whether they are for new or renewal subscriptions and should" be accompanied by check or money order payable to Review ]or Religious in U.S.A. currency only. Pay no money to persons claiming to represent Review ]or Religious. Change of address requests should include former address. R. F. Smith, S.J. Everett A. Diederich, S.J. Joseph F. Gallen, S.J. Editor Associate Editor Questions and Answers Editor March 1973 Volume 32 Number 2 Renewals, new subscriptions, and changes of address should be sent to Review for Religious; P.O. Box 6070; Duluth, Minnesota 55802. Correspondence with the editor and the associate editor together with manuscripts, books for review, and materials for "Subject Bibliography for Religious" should be sent to Review for Religious; 612 Humboldt Building; 539 North Grand Boulevard; St. Louis, Missouri 63103. Questions for answering should be sent to Joseph F. Gallen, S.J.; St. Joseph's Church; 321 Willings Alley; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19106. Religious and Social. Security William Quinn, F.S. . Brother William Quinn,F.S.C., is the Assistant to the President of the Conference of Major Superiors of Men of the USA; Suite 114; 1330 New Hampshire Avenue, N.W.; Washington, D.C. 20036. For some years the Internal Re~)enue Service of the U.S. Government has recognized that religious with the vow of poverty require a specific treatment under the law. In virtue of their vow of poverty, religious have no income in the sense in which this word is used by Internal Revenue Service. What-ever salary they might earn is in reality earned as an agent of their order, not for themselves personally. Because of this, religious have been exempt from the federal income tax; when the Social Security System was begun in 1936, .religious were excluded for the same reason: They had no income upon which to base the Social Security tax and which would serve to determine the level of benefits upon retirement or disability. In 1967 the House of Representatives of the U.S. Congress passed legislation extending Social Security coverage to members of religious orders under a vow of poverty. However, when the matter was considered in the Senate, representatives of religious orders requested time for further study of the effects of coverage. The provision was not included in the Senate: passed bill which went to conference, and th~ conference agreed to post-pone the matter pending study of the orders. The status of religious under Social Security was not changed in the Social Security Amendments of 1967. The 1972 Provisions The provision for extending coverage to members of religious orders that is contained in the 1972 Amendments to the Social Security Act is based upon recommendations submitted to the Congress by a joint Social Security study committee, established by the two conferences of religious superiors in the U.S., LCWR and CMSM. 210 / Review for Religious, Volume 32, 1973/2 On October 30, 1972, President Nixon signed into law the Bill, H.R. 1, entitled Social Security Amendments of 1972; this Bill is now known as P.L. 92.603. The Bill provided many modifications in the existing Social Security legislation, but Section 123 is of particular interest to religious since its heading is: Coverage for Vow-of-poverty Members of Religious Orders. Religious orders are given the option of electing coverage under Social Security for their members under a series of rather well-defined conditions. The option is open-ended, that is, there is no time limit for when this option must be exercised, but it is irrevocable once it has been made. It will then be binding upon all present and all future members of the order. This new legislation recognizes the special situation of religious with the vow of poverty by creating for the purpose of Social Security coverage a unique definition of "wages": "The term 'wages' shall include the fair market value of any board, lodging, clothing, and other perquisites furnished to such member." Two things might be remarked about this definition: First, it is in no way related to the salary a particular religious might be receiving, and second, every religious in the order has an assignable "wage." The services performed by the religious might actually be carried out in an institution such as a school or hospital, but for the purposes of this Bill these services are deemed to be performed by the religious as an employee of the religious order. The obligation of paying the Social Security taxes members of the order falls upon the order, and not the particular institution for which the religious might be working. The effect of this legislation is to allow religious orders (or an autono-mous subdivision, such as a province or an independent monastery) the option of entering the Social Security system. The rates of taxation, the conditions for claiming disability, and the requirements for old-age benefits are the same for religious as all other participants in the Social Security pro-gram. A retroactive feature is built into the legislation, to allow the order to make the effective date of coverage any time'up to five years previous to the date of election of coverage. The order must pay the accumulated back taxes for all of its members, starting with the chosen effective date, but in so doing a number of older religious Will qualify immediately for old-age and Medicare benefits. The answers to specific questions about eligibility, tax rates, and bene-fits must be found in publicatigns of the Social Security Administration, or by consulting local offices of the Administration. These questions and answers are part of the daily routine of these offices and should not present any great difficulty. Special Questions Some questions, however, do pertain directly to religious, and some of these present rather difficult technical considerations. Examples of these Religious and Social Security might be: What is an autonomous subdivision of an order; are alien mem-bers of the order living in the United States covered; what about U.S.A. citizens, living and working in a foreign country; when is a religious retired? It is relatively easy to know when a lay worker in a business enterprise is retired. The case of one who stops working and who is no longer paid a salary is rather obvious, but even with the layman there may be some diffi-culty in establishing the fact of retirement. This would occur, for example, in the case of a self-employed person who would substantially reduce the time devoted to employment. In the case of a religious, where the "wage" is calculated on the basis of room and board and other perquisites furnished to him by the order, the question as to when the religious is to be considered as retired becomes more difficult. Retirement, for a religious under Social Security, is defined in the new legislation as the situation in which the religious no longer performs the duties usually required (and to the extent usually required) of an active member of the order. In spelling out the interpretation of this definition for the benefit of the religious superiors who will have to make the certification of retirement, the Social Security Administration calls attention to two con-siderations: a comparison of the nature of the work being performed before retirement with that performed after, and the amount of time devoted to this service. Should a sister, for example, be assigned to the motherhouse after fifty years of teaching and there devote herself to monitoring the phone, it is clear that she has retired. The case is more difficult, say, for a con-templative sister who gradually grows more feeble with age and who is not able to keep up the pace of former years. She is considered to be retired, for Social Security purposes, when the religious superior certifies that she is no longer able to perform the services required of active members. A Typical Illustration The operation of the new Social Security legislation could perhaps best be appreciated by considering a particular case as a typical illustration of how the law would work out in practice. Suppose, for example, that Brother John Doe, born in 1917, has taken a vow of poverty as a member of a re-ligious order. Suppose further thai the prov.ince of his order elects to partici-pate in Social Security by filing the appropriate Certificate of Election, with an effective date of January 1, 1973. The tables of eligibility for retirement benefits and for hospital insurance (Medicare) indicate that 31 quarters of coverage are needed in order to be fully insured; this means that Brother John Doe must have paid Social Security taxes on his "wages" for 31 quarters, at least, in order to be fully insured. An important parameter in the discussion is the amount of "wages" on which Brother John Doe pays the tax. This is an amount arrived at by the religious superior of his province as a result of considering the fair market 212 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 32, 1973/2 value of the board, lodging, clothing, and other perquisites furnished mem-bers of the province. Suppose for the sake of our illustration that this figure is $2,500 per year. The province, beginning in 1973, must pay a Social Se-curity tax for Brother John Doe at a rate of 11.7%, or $292.50 per year. The tax rate will remain at 11.7% until 1978, when it will increase to 12.1%. This rate will continue through 1980; from 1981-85 it will be 12.3%; 1986-1997 it will be 12.5%. This tax must be paid until Brother John Doe becomes disabled or until he retires. Brother John Doe will reach the age of 65 in 1982. At this time he may apply for old-age benefits. By 1982 he will have earned 36 quarters of coverage, and he will therefore be qualified for both retirement and Medi-care benefits. The amount of Brother's retirement benefits are calculated on the basis of his average "wage" over a period of 26 years (this number is given in a Social Security table, depending on date of birth and whether the person is a man or woman). In Brother John Doe's case his total earnings are 9 × $2,500 or $22,500; this divided by 26 gives his average yearly earn-ings as $865, or $72 a month. The Social Security Administration table of benefits indicates that Brother John Doe qualifies for the minimum benefit of $84.50 per month, or $1,014 per year. American Experience of Mortality Tables show that, on the average, men who reach age 65 will live another 15 years. Applying this figure to Brother John Doe gives his total old-age benefits as $15,210. Medicare Provisions After reaching 65, Brother John Doe automatically qualifies for Medi-care, Part A, the hospital insurance part of the health insurance program. This provides payment for services received as a bed patient in a hospital, or in an extended care facility, or at home as a patient up to 90 "hospital days" or 100 "extended care days" or 100 "homeohealth visits." The details of these benefits are spelled out in Your Medicare Handbook published by the Social Security Administration. After reaching age 65, Brother John Doe may elect to participate in Part B of Medicare which is a medical insurance program that helps pay for doctors' services, medical services and supplies, and other health care services. The cost of this insurance is reevaluated by the Government an-nually, but was $5.60 per month for the period July 1971-July 1972. Again, the details of this insurance program are contained in the same Handbook referred to above. Brother John Doe may continue to work after reaching age 65; should he do so, he will continue to pay Social Security on his wages. Further, the first $2,100 of his wages do not influence the old-age retirement benefits he receives, but the $400 beyond $2,100 (recall that our example set Brother John Doe's wages at $2,500) reduces his benefits by a proportion of one dollar for each two dollars earned over $2,100, or, in our example, by Religious and Social Security $200. Upon retirement, Brother John Doe would receive the full amount of his retirement benefit and would no longer pay the Social Security tax. Upon his death, a cash benefit of $251 is paid the beneficiary of Brother John Doe. However, for Social Security purposes Brother John Doe has no dependent survivors; after the deathbenefit is paid, no further benefits are paid on Brother John Doe's account. The Question Facing Each Religious Order Each religious order is now faced with a rather complex question-- what would be the economic consequence of exercising the option of joining the Social Security system. The order becomes liable to the Social Security tax on all its present members add all future members; it also gradually qualifies its members through quar.ters of coverage for the benefits of the Social Security program, chiefly disability, retirement, and Medicare. The order must make a careful evaluation of its age profile, its wage level, and its health and mortality experience.', to arrive at a prudent judgment as to lhe advisability of joining the Social Security program. The retroactive feature of P.IS. 92.605, Section 123, requires special consideration. This will allow religious who have recently retired, or those who will retire in the next several years, to qualify for full coverage, but the price that must be paid is the back Social Security tax for all members of the order who were active at the effective retroactive date. This date may be any number of quarters up to '~a maximum of 20 prior to the date of election of coverage. The effect of not choosing the retroactive feature is that some of the present older religious will not qualify for Social Security benefits, nor will they be eligible for Part A of Medicare after reaching age 65. Detailed information on Social Security matters is contained in the .publications listed below. Also, more specific reference to Social Security as it affects religious with a vow of poverty is given in the series of questions and answers that follow. Critical Social Security Questions Question 1. For purposes of the law relating to the Social Security coverage of religious (P.L. 92.603), what are considered wages? Answer. Wages for the purpose of this law shall include the fair market value of any board, lodging, clothing, and other perquisites furnished to a member by the order or autonomous subdivision thereof or by any other person or organization pursuant to an agreement with the order or subdivi-vision. Question 2. Does the law provide for a minimum or maximum amount for evaluated maintenance? Answer. The legislation specifically provides that the evaluated mainte-nance shall not be less than $100 per month. The maximum of course 214 / Review [or Religious, Volume 32, 1973/2 would be $10,800 under the 1972 amendments. The committee reports emphasize that the evaluation shall be on a reasonable basis. There is no indication that cost accounting principles must be applied. The committee reports also emphasize the understanding that there will be one established or evaluated wage for all of the members of the order regardless of the position which they occupy. Question 3. Are religious subject to both Social Security and income taxes? Answer. This law does not affect the vow of poverty but rather confirms it. Therefore, there would be no income tax liability on evaluated board and lodging. The Social Security taxes imposed on wages are limited by the law to orders which waive their tax exempt status for the limited purpose of Social Security coverage. Question 4. Will the religious be required to file any income tax forms? Answer. No, this law is not based on the self-employment concept as in ~the case of ministers. The only form filed is that which is required of tile employer; that is, the order or a subdivision thereof. Question 5. Who determines the level of income for a particular religious order or autonomous subdivision thereof? Answer. This is determined by the religious super:,or, based on a study of the actual situation existing with the members of the order or subdivi-sion thereof. Question 6. The order or subdivision thereof decides whether or not to come into the Social Security System; how is this decision made? Answer. The law does not specify how the decision is to be made. The provincial may get to~ether with the council and make the decision. Alterna-tively, the entire membership might be polled on the question. Question 7. If the order elects to come under Social Security, is this election irrevocable? Answer. Yes. Question 8. How many quarters of coverage are necessary in order to be fully insured under Social Security? Answer. Ultimately, the answer depends on the date of birth of the person being considered. It is necessary to go to a table supplied by the Social Security Administration to find the answer to this question. It should be observed here that, depending on the age of the individual, it may not be necessary to have as many quarters of coverage to secure Medicare coverage. This too depends on Social Security Administration tables. Question 9. Is it economically advantageous for a religious order to participate in Social Security? Answer. It is difficult to give a generalized answer to this question. It must be determined for each individual order. Three of the most signifi-cant factors are: the level of wages of the members of the order, the age distribution of the members of th+ order, and the benefits which would be Religious and Social Security / :215 receivable, that is, old age and survivors benefits, Medicare coverage and disability insurance and death benefits. Question 10. What retirement benefits are paid to a retired religious who has been fully insured under Social Security? Answer. This depends on the level of "income" on which the religious paid Social Security taxes during the years he was acquiring the necessary number of quarters of coverage; however, there is a minimum benefit paid to everyone who has the requisite number of quarters. At present this minimum is $84.50 per month or $1,014 per annum. Question 11. What is the situation with respect to a religious who pays Social Security taxes for ten years and then leaves the order? Answer. The credits a religious earns toward Social Security coverage belong to him/her as an individual; should the religious leave the order he takes the earned eligibility with him into secular life. Question 12. A religious man with sufficient quarters of coverage to be fully insured reaches age 65 but continues to work; that is, he is not retired in the technical sense of the term. What is his status under Social Security? Answer. Upon reaching the age of 65 the religious who has earned the required quarters of coverage may apply for Social Security benefits and he would be entitled to the same. If he continues to work, that is, he is not retired, the order must pay the Social Security taxes on his wages even though he is receiving old age benefits. If his wages are $2,100 or less, there would be no reduction of his old age benefits. If, on the other hand, they are in excess of $2,100 there would be a reduction of one dollar for every two dollars in excess of $2,100. The above answer would apply to a member of a religious order of women with the exception that she would be eligible for Social Security at the age of 62. Her benefits, however, would be somewhat reduced. Under the 1972 amendment a man may likewise be retired at 62 but his benefits would be reduced. Question 13. Is there any significant difference in the Social Security law as it applies to men or to women? Answer. The age at which women may receive benefits, and is the nor-mal retirement age for women, is 62, whereas it is 65 for men; however, men may retire at 62 and receive i'educed benefits. The required quarters of coverage to be fully insured differs for men and for women. The exact details should be checked with table~ supplied by the Social Security Administration. Question 14. Is there any time limit in which to elect coverage? Answer. No, an election may be made at. any time the order so desires. Question 15. Is there any time limit for electing retroactive coverage? Answer. No; however, if. the order defers the election of retroactive coverage for a significant amount of time it will be more costly when the order does elect to come in on a retroactive basis. The rate for the retro-active purchase of coverage is determined by, existing tax rates during the :216 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 32, 1973/2 five year period. For example, if an order elected five years retroactive cov-erage in December the tax rate for 1967 and 1968 would be 8.80%; for 1969 and 1970 it would be 9.60 and for 1971 and 1972 it would be 10.40. In 1973 the rate will be 11.70 and by 1978 it will rise to 12.10. In addi-tion to the increased costs it is possible that some religious will not be covered if the retroactive buy-in is deferred for a substantial period of time. Some members, for example, may retire and, consequently, will not be cov-ered in the retroactive purchase. Question 16. Must one elect for a retroactive period of five years or may one elect for a lesser number of years? Answer. The order may elect to "buy in" for any number of years it wishes, the maximum being five. Question 17. If a religious is active during the retroactive period and alive at the time of election but no longer a member of the order should he be counted in determining retroactive coverage? Answer. Yes. Question 18. When must the order pay for the retroactive coverage? Answer. By the end of the quarter in which the election is made. This payment must be made in a lump sum; there is no provision for an install-ment buy-in. Question 19. May an order elect coverage before the forms and regula-tions are finalized? Answer. Yes; notification of election of coverage may be sent to your district Social Security office. Question 20. When should a religious secure a Social Security number? Answer. As soon as possible. It is not necessary to have Social Security coverage in order to acquire a number. Acquisition of a number might speed receipt of benefits when an election is finally made. Question 21. If a religious subject to a vow of poverty performs ser-vices not required by the order but merely with the approval of his or her superior may he or she receive the benefit of this law? Answer. No, the services performed must be at the requirement of the religious order or subdivision thereof. Question 22. If a religious receives board and lodging from another organization (parish) how shall the wages be determined for Social Se-curity purposes? Answer. The tlat rate which is adopted for all religious shall prevail. Question 23. How much would it cost to buy in retroactively for a five year period at an evaluated wage of $100 per month? Answer. It would cost $612 per member who was active during the five year period and alive at the time of election. Some Available Literature 1. Social Security Handbook (SSI 135). This is available from the Religious and Social Security / 217 Superintendent of Documents and provides o]~erall ~nformatlon but nothing more recently than 1969. It will be 3 to 6 rrionths, before anything like its counterpart will be brought out. The volume c~sts $2.25. 2. Your Medicare Handbook (DHEW ,Publication; SSA 72-10050). This is available from the Superintendent of Documents at 35 cents in bulk rate, free for a few copies. The Handbook is available to anyone entitled to Medicare. 3. Your Social Security (DHEW SSA 72-10035). This provides gen-eral information and is available free from the Superintendent of Documents. 4. If You Become Disabled (SSA 73-10029). Available free even in bulk. 5. Your Social Security Earnings Recordi (DHEW 73-10044). Avail-able from the Superintendent of Documents. 6. How Medicare Helps You When You Go to the Hospital (DHEW 72-10039). This may be free in bulk. 7. Estimating Your Social Security Retirement Check (SSI 47). Avail-able free. Theological Reflections on the Ordination of Women Committee on Pastoral Research and Practices The Committee on Pastoral Research and Practices is a committee of the' National Conference of Catholic Bishops. Foreword This report prepared by the Committee on Pastoral Research and Practices has been approved for publication by the Administrative Committee of the National Conference of Catholic Bishops. The report is not definitive. It deals only with the question of ordination to diaconate and priesthood, leaving aside the question of installation of women in ministries of lector and acolyte. It is a contribution to the con-tinuing dialogue on a subject of great importance. Its purpose is to encour-age further study and discussion while making honest efforts to identify the major questions which must be examined in depth before conclusive answers can be given. We are conscious of the deep love for the Church which underlies the growing interest of many women in the possibility of ordination. Our own appreciation of their indispensable contribution to the life of the Church underlies this effort at honest dialogue. Other churches are also engaged in a study of this question. While their reflections have been helpful to us, we hope ours may be helpful to them. Theological Reflections on the Ordination ot Women The question of ordaining women is an old one in the Church, but it has not yet been thoroughly researched for Catholic theology. There is no explicit authoritative teaching concerning the ordination of women that settles the question. The topic should be given exhaustive study. The theological reasons for and against the ordination of women need to be developed in careful and 218 The Ordination of Women / 219 objective fashion. A thorough study is required not because of sociological trends, but because of developments in the Church within the past decade. The encyclical Pacem in terris (no. 41) in 1963 listed the emancipation of women as a positive development of modern times. The Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World (nos. 9, 29) in 1965 rejected any discrimination based on sex. The admission of women as auditors to the last two sessions of Vatican II (1964-65), the proclamation of St. Theresa of Avila as Doctor of the Church (1970), the discussions on this subject in the Third Synod of Bishops (1971)--these trace a considerable recent development concerning woman's role in the Church. The revelation given in Galatians 3:28 shows the equality before God of every Christian: "There does not exist among you Jew or Greek, slave or freeman, male or female. All are one in Christ Jesus." In the Church then there is no distinction of persons: Discriminatory lines have been erased by Christ. In the Church there can be no discrimination. The basic text and basic teaching, however, do not mean that there are not different ministries in the Church, or that one ministry is to be pre-ferred over another--as the same St. Paul taught in 1 Cor 12:4-14: 1. In spite of this doctrine of the equality of all in Christ, no woman has ever been pope, bishop, or priest. At the present time it cannot be proven or disproven that women were ever ordained deacons. It is Church law (Canon 968) that women are not eligible for orders. Several scriptural and theological justifications have been proposed to explain why women are not eligible for ordination. They are here listed-- in a general order of increasing importance--with some brief comments. 1. In the Old Testament, authentic priesthood was limited to males. The Aaronic priesthood and the levitical service (a service somewhat analogous to the diaconate) were similarly limited to males (cf. Exodus 28, Leviticus 8). This was in keeping with the strongly patriarchal Hebrew society. Be-cause we accept the law as invested with divine authority, we accept this limitation of Old Testament priesthood to men of one family within one tribe of Israel as expressing God's will-for the Old Testament. The exclusion of most males and of all females was then also God's will. This entire presen-tation, however, seemingly has no direct bearing on the issue at hand. We of the New Testament are studying the will of God concerning the New Testa-ment priesthood of Jesus Christ. 2. In the New Testament there is mention of a woman who was called "deaconess" (Rom 16:1) and of other women serving as deacons (1 Tim 3:11). Similarly in the early centuries of the Church, and especially in the East, there were deaconesses. Unfortunately no clear conclusions can be drawn from this information. There is no way at present to determine whether these women were called by this title in a formal or an informal way, whether the women in scripture were wives of deacons .who aided their deacon hus-bands, whether they were ordained, whether any ordination they received 220 / Review for Religious, Volume 32, 1973/2 was sacramental, etc. The uncertainty of Scripture scholars concerning an "order" of deaconess is illustrated in the Jerome Biblical Commentary, 53: 136; 57: 21. A similar uncertainty seemingly exists concerning the deaconess in the early Oriental Church. This deaconess tradition is helpful in approach-ing the present question. However, we must beware of constructing a case for or against the sacramental ordination of women on such fragmentary and indefinite information. 3. Saint Paul repeatedly directed that women hold to a subordinate posi-tion in the Church, keep silence in the Church, keep their heads covered, tend the home and family, etc. (cf. 1 Cor 11:2-16; 14:33-36; Eph 5:22-24; Col 3: 18; Titus 2:5; cf. 1 Pet 3: 1-7). There seems to be little question but these texts are of Pauline authority alone. The developments of the past decade in the Church listed in this letter, and the authorized functioning of women as lectors and commentators, further demonstrate that these Pauline texts should not be cited as arguing against the ordination of women. 4. The New Testament doctrine on "headship" as reflected in the order of creation is given to justify the leadership of men and the subordination of women in the Church (cf. 1 Cor 11:3-12; 1 Tim 2:8-15). This same reasoning is advanced to explain the ordination to the priesthood of men but not of women. This doctrine of the dependence of woman on man is seem-ingly the teaching of Genesis (cf. JCB 2:18) as well as of Saint Paul (cf. supra). However, much further study is needed before conclusions can be drawn. 5. The incarnation is given as a reason for the ordination of men only. The word of God took on flesh and was made man--as a male. This then was the divine plan. It is stated that this divine plan is expressed in the person of Christ (cf. Decree on the Ministry and Li]e o[ Priests, no. 2). It is argued that a male priest is required to act in the person of the male Christ. 6. The selectivity of Christ and of the early Church presents another ap-proach. It is known that Jesus did not hesitate to contravene the law and sociological customs of his time. Yet Jesus selected only men as his apostles and disciples. Further, the replacement for Judas was to be specifically one of male sex (Acts, 1:21 in the Greek), even though women who fulfilled the other conditions were present and available. Similarly the seven assistants to the apostles (Acts 6:3) were all men, even though the work was to be that of serving widows. This limitation to men, it is argued, goes beyond socio-logical conditions of that day and points to a divine choice. 7. Revelation is made known to us from tradition as well as from Sacred Scripture (cf. Constitution on Divine Revelation, nos. 8-10). It is then necessary for theology in this question to look to the life and practice of the Spirit-guided Church. The constant practice and tradition of the Catholic Church has excluded women from the episcopal and priestly office. The-ologians and canonists have been unanimous until modern times in con- The Ordination of Women / 221 sidering this exclusion as absolute and of divine origin. Until recent times no theologian or canonist seemingly has judged this to be only of ecclesiasti-cal law. It would be pointless to list the many authorities and the theological note that each assigns to this teaching. However, the constant tradition and practice of the Catholic Church against the ordination of women, interpreted (whenever interpreted) as of divine law, is of such a nature as to constitute a clear teaching of the ordinary magisterium of the Church. Though not formally defined, this is Catholic doctrine. These seven approaches have been used to document the exclusion from ordination of women. From them we attempt to draw six somewhat tentative conclusions: 1. Reasons no. 5 and no. 6 call for considerable further study in order to measure their validity. 2. Reason no. 7 is of ponderous theological import. Its force will not be appreciated by those who look for revelation and theology in Scripture alone, and who do not appreciate tradition as a source of theology. Because of rea-son no. 7 a negative answer to the possible ordination of women is indicated. The well-founded present discipline will continue to have and to hold the entire field unless and until a contrary theological development takes place, leading ultimately to a clarifying statement from the magisterium. 3. This question is extraordinarily complex. It is influenced by the indi-vidual's point of departure, viewpoint, and choice of terminology. Even in this study some helpful distinctions have not been spelled out for the sake of brevity. It would seem that neither Scriptural exegesis nor theology alone can give a clear answer to this question. The ultimate answer must come from the magisterium, and the current question is whether the magisterium (as reason no. 7 explains) has already given a definite and final answer. And at this level of doubt, only the magisterium itself can give" ultimate clarification. 4. It is possible to draw distinctions between the diaconate and the epis-copal- priestly order, and within the diaconate itself. Assuming that the diaconate is of ecclesial and not divine, institution, and that it can be sep-arated from the sacrament of orders, it would seem possible that special study be given to the possibility of a diaconate of service, non-sacramental and non-liturgical, which would be conferred on women. It has been noted that Pseudo-Denys in the 5th century made such a distinction within the diaconate. 5. Some contemporary writings on this subject approach priestly ordina-tion as "power" rather than service, and speak of a "right to ordination." Such views appear to overlook the clear doctrine that priestly ministry is service to the People of God, that no Christian has any right to ordination, and that it involves the mystery of God's free election. One who is not an ordained priest is not thereby, a lesser Christian, a lesser minister, or a victim of discrimination. In the Church there are many ministries, but all Christians do not have all charisms, and the hearts of all should be set on the greater 222 / Review ]or Religious, l/olume 32, 1973/2 gifts of God's love (1 Cor 12:4-13:3). Further, all Christians share in the common priesthood of the faithful (cf. Constitution on the Church, no. 10); from among these some are chosen by God to minister to the others by priestly service. In such a context should this question be presented. 6. Beyond the question of theological possibility is the further considera-tion o~ what is pastorally prudent. For the present, however, we can see from theology only a continuation of the established discipline. Considering the strength of that discipline and the numerous uncertainties detailed in this paper, the needed study on this question is now just beginning. As is evident, every one of the points listed in this report calls for a major study. The German theologian Ida Friederike Gorres reminds us that it is God's will and plan that must be determinant in this question: The Catholic priesthood is a unique phenomenon, springing solely from the faith, the doctrine, the history, the growing self-consciousness of the Church: not from the religious needs of the Catholic people, certainly not from any principles or theories concerning the rights of men and women, nor yet from the necessity of particular functions which could be assigned at will to various persons. The one and only exemplar of the Catholic priest is the living person of Jesus Christ, in his relationship to the Church: in the mystery of the one, perfect, indissoluble life he leads, with her (Catholic Transcript, Dec. 17, 1965). Pluralism in the Works of Karl Rahner with Applications to Religious Life Philip S. Keane, S.S. Philip S. Keane, S.S., is the Vice Rector of St. Patrick's Seminary; 320 Middlefield Road; Menlo Park, California 94025. As a working theologian moves from place to place, he finds himself being asked questions on a wide variety of subjects and his interests tend naturally to move towards those questions which he is asked over and over again. In the past twelve to eighteen months there is no question which I have been asked about more frequently than the theological meaning of pluralism. The question has come from virtually all segments of the Christian community, but it has been asked with special urgency by the members of religious communities, with at least one religious community having enough concern about the issue that it has called for a serious study of pluralism in its newly adopted constitutions.1 Pluralism a Perennial P~oblem In a certain sense I have found the repeated questions about pluralism amusing. My amusement has come from the fact that my questioners (sisters in particular) so often seem to be presupposing that pluralism is a brand new issue, perhaps even a .brand new toy, which theologians have just lately discovered. Some of the questioners seem very excited about this new issue as if it will solve all their community living problems while others are quite frightened by it, but they all seem to have the idea that pluralism is a totally new problem. This I find amusing inasmuch as pluralism is a perennial problem which theologians have .wrestled with for centuries; it is hardly a new issue. Many of today's older theologians such as Karl Rahner aConstitutions o] the Sisters o] St. Joseph o] Carondelet, a Congregation o] Pontifical Right, St. Louis, 1972, p. 29. 223 224 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 32, 1973/2 have been working with pluralism for 30 or 40 years, that is, since before a number of my excited questioners were born. Thus perhaps the first point to be made to those who are either nervously or excitedly asking about theologi-cal pluralism today is that it is anything but a totally new theological concept. Nonetheless, theological plurfilism is a most important issue for the whole Church today and for religious communities in particular. Also, it is an issue which is not well understood especially from the theological view- . point. Hence, the goal of this article will be to aid our understanding of pluralism as a theological reality by presenting the concept of pluralism found in the works of Karl Rahner and by applying this concept to the situation of the religious community today. In the past 10 or 15 years Rahner has written very extensively and incisively on pluralism'-' and his work on the theme should surely be a help to us in forming a workable theological concept of pluralism. Divisions and Presuppositions Our reflections on the theology of pluralism will be divided into five parts: first, pluralism as a basic theological reality; second, the unique character of pluralism today; third, some consequences of today's pluralism for the Church as a whole; fourth, pluralism and the oneness of our faith; and finally the implications of pluralism for religious community life. The first four parts will gather and coherently organize Rahner's ideas on plural-ism. The final section will move beyond what Rahner says explicitly, but it will seek to be faithful to his views on pluralism. An important note before beginning the explanation of Rahner's writings on pluralism is that, as with any Rahnerian topic, the vastness and.depth of Rahner's total theological synthesis are such as to render the treatment of a particular Rahnerian theme such as pluralism somewhat difficult without at least some grasp of the whole of Rahner. In our particular case, for example, Rahner's metaphysics of human knowing as bipolar (explicit and implicit), his concept of God as indescribable mystery, his explanation of Christianity as an openness to all that is genuinely human, and his concept of man as ~Rahner's major articles on pluralism include "The Theological Concept of Con-cupiscentia," Theological Investigations (hereinafter T1) [8 volumes 1961-71; vs. 1-6, Baltimore: Helicon; vs. 7-8, New York: Herder and Herder], v. 1, pp. 347-82; "The Man of Today and Religion," TI 6, pp. 3-20; "A Small Question Regarding the Contemporary Pluralism in the Intellectual Situation of Catholics and the Church," ibid., pp. 21-30; "Reflections on Dialogue within a Pluralistic Society," ibid., pp. 31-42; "Philosophy and Philosophizing in Theology," Theology Digest, Sesquicentennial issue, 1968, pp. 17-29; "Philosophy and Theology," Sacramentum Mundi (New York: Herder and Herder, 1968-70), v. 5, pp. 20-4; "Theological Reflections on the Prob-lem of Secularization," Theology o] Renewal (New York: Herder and Herder, 1968), v. 1, pp. 167-92; "Pluralism in Theology and the Oneness of the Church's Profession of Faith," Concilium, v. 46 (1969), pp. 103-23; and "Glaube des Christen und Lehre der Kirche," Stimmen der Zeit, July 1972, pp. 3-19. Pluralism in Rahner / 225 a future-oriented being whose most fundamental virtue is hope are all themes which form a substratum for his theology of pluralism? These themes will be given brief explanations as needed and the reader less familiar with Rahner is advised to consider them carefully when they occur. Pluralism as a Basic Theological Reality First of all then, what is the basic theological meaning of pluralism? Rahner began to develop his thinking on this matter in his well known 1941 article on concupiscence.4 Therein while discussing Heidegger's distinction between human person and human nature, Rahner makes the point that the human person, the source of human freedom and human longing for God, can never fully dispose of himself in a single action. Instead, man's person finds himself limited by man's nature as a material or incarnate spirit. Man cannot make a total act of movement towards God, an act which is uni-formly effective in all the aspects of human nature. For man's person which freely seeks God lives in an insuperable tension with his nature which limits his ability to move towards God. Some years later (1959) Rahner explained this kind of thinking further in another context when writing about the mystery of God) Here the point is that the mystery of God so totally tran-scends human knowledge that no concrete human experience or human expression can ever fully encapsulate the mystery of God. This mystery which is at the very root of man's being constantly eludes man's efforts to grasp or formulate it. At the level of concrete human knowing man does not have a total understanding of God. Rather man in his materiality and there-fore in his limitation has only partial knowledge of the mystery of God. The more he learns about God the more there is to learn, for God will always be the mystery who exceeds the depths of our understanding.~ Our life then is a day by day effort to see, follow, and love God more clearly, nearly, and dearly as the popular song from Godspell puts it. All this of course is no new insight. St. Paul said the same thing centuries ago: "Oh, :~Good background reading on these themes includes "Dogmatic Reflections on the Knowledge and Self-Consciousness of Christ," TI 5, pp. 199-201; "The Concept of Mystery in Catholic Theology," TI 4, pp. 36-73; "Anonymous Christians," TI 6, pp. 390-8; "On the Theology of the Incarnation," T) 4, pp. 105-20; and "The Theology of Hope," Theology Digest, Sesquicentennial issue, 1968, pp. 78-87. ¯ ~"The Theologi~:al Concept of Concupiscentia," TI 1, pp. 347-82. For what follows see especially pp. 368-9. In recent articles Rahner has explicitly shown how his present thinking on pluralism is rooted in his early writings on concupiscence; for example, "Theological Reflections on the Problem of Secularization," Theology o] Renewal, v. 1, pp. 187-8. 5"The Concept of Mystery in Catholic Theology," TI 4, pp. 36-73, especially pp. 46-8. 6Rahner pushes this position about God as absolute mystery to its ultimate radicality when he argues that God will still be m. ystery for us in heaven (ibid., pp. 53-60), and that in God all the mysteries of our faith are ultimately one (ibid., pp. 61-73). 226 / Review ]or Religious, Vohtme 32, 1973/2 the depths and the richness of the wisdom of God; how incomprehensible his judgments are, how unsearchable his ways" (Rom 11:33). Unavoidable Pluralism Putting these ideas together, we can see that both man's unlimited desire to choose God in freedom and his ceaseless yearning to know God with his intellect are limited in such a way that in actual fact man only chooses and knows God through a series of particular or partial acts of choice or knowledge. His choice of God comes through a multiplicity of human choices, his knowledge of God comes through a multiplicity of human acts of knowing.; All this leads Rahner to a basic dictum of his religious or theological anthropology, namely, that the inherently limited and seriated character of all human choice and knowledge of God means that all human experi-ence of God has about it a necessary and unavoidable element of multiplicity or pluralism. Since man cannot fully embrace the mystery of God in single actions, he must experience God through many actions. Pluralism thus be-comes a basic or fundamental element of man's relationship to God. Rahner states this in many ways in his works. He states that man is ever subjected to the agony of pluralism,s and even more strongly he calls pluralism a radical or irreducible fact of human existence.'~ Because God made man as a material or embodied spirit, man cannot escape from pluralism, from the fact that he must learn about God, and indeed about all of life bit by bit, part by part. There just is no other way for the human spirit. Any form of mysticism which tries to escape from man's bodiliness and multiplicity is a pseudo-mysticism in the opinion of Rahner?° It is particularly important to note that since Rahner's concept of plural-ism is founded upon man's way of knowing and choosing God, it is a radi-cally theological concept, that is, a concept asserting a basic aspe.ct of man's relationship to God. This is significant today because very often pluralism is bandied about as a sociological or political concept, whereas Rahner's idea of it is much deeper. The trouble with those who limit their concept of pluralism to sociology or political science is that, whether they like pluralism or not, they can very easily look upon it as a fad which will pass away. In :Rahner uses both Scotist approaches (the limitations of our freedom) and Thomist approaches (the limitations of our knowledge) in explaining pluralism theologically. In later years he tends mostly towards knowledge oriented or Thomist examples, perhaps most celebratedly with his concept of "gnoseological concupiscence" ("The-ological Reflections on the Problem of Secularization," Theology o] Renewal, v. 1, p. 187). But both ways are possible for him. Slbid., pp. 190-1. :"'Philosophy and Philosophizing in Theology," Theology Digest, Sesquicentennial issue, 1968, p. 22. 1°Hearers o] the Word (New York: Herder and Herder, 1969), pp. 77-9. Pluralism in Rahner / 227 particular those threatened by pluralism will wait for it to pass if they view it as a fad. But pluralism is not a passing fad. Its basic point is that no two of us ever experience and formulate our approach to God in exactly the same way. We are truly moving towards the "many mansions in our father's house." Ultimately then we must see pluralism as a theological issue. Problems of Pluralism Rahner's language in describing the fundamental phenomenon of pluralism raises some interesting questions. Why does he describe man as "subjected" to pluralism? Why does he call pluralism agonizing? Why did he begin to develop his treatment of it in the context of a theology of con-cupiscence? The answer to all these questions is that in Rahner's view it is man's irreducible pluralism which makes it possible for man to sin. It is precisely man's ability to explicitly grasp only partial goods or values which enables him to sin, to sin by absolutizing one or some of these partial values and thus shutting himself up in the finite,~1 closing himself to the unfathom-able mystery of God. The agony for man is that he experiences or perceives value only in partial and thus plural realizations. His very way o~ being drives him towards the multiple or plural values. The temptation to ab-solutize such values is the temptation to sin. Rahner's whole theology of hope, of man as a being who must be open to the future, a being who must refuse to absolutize the partial values of the present, is, of course, echoed here.l~ These thoughts bring up another problem. Do pluralism's close connec-tions with concupiscence, and hence its status as the occasion which renders sin possible make pluralism a bad or evil thing? Definitely not! This rejection of a condemnation of pluralism is one of the most emphatic rejections in Rahner's entire theological system. His whole reason for beginning to write about man's concupiscent movement after multiple and partial values was to insist that such movement cannot be called fundamentally evil?:' Rahner holds that it was the all good God who made us .as material and pluralistic beings and that, therefore, we must accept ourselves as we are in faith, in hope, and in love. Rahner is determined to teach that we should love the nature God gave us and this means that we must openly embrace our radi-cal, God-given pluralistic state. We simply cannot flee from it, agonizing though it may be. Are we ready to accept Rahner's challenge on this point? The Unique Character of Pluralism Today Our reflections so far have shown us that pluralism is a basic constituent of man's experience of God affecting all men at all times. But another vital 11,,Thoughts on the Possibility of Belief Today," 7~1 5, p. 10. V-'For a position similar to Rahner's on this point see Wolfhart Pannenberg, What is Matt? (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1970), pp. 68-73. ~:t"'The Theological Concept of Concupiscentia," TI 1, pp. 369-71. 228 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 32, 1973/2 point needs to be made. Why is it that pluralism, always a part of man's situation before God, has become such a particularly pressing concern in our times? Why are so many in religious communities suddenly talking about it? Why has a man like Rahner written so much on pluralism in recent years? To put all these questions more precisely we should ask the following: Is there something specifically unique about pluralism in the 20th century? Are there new factors today which further complicate man's fundamentally pluralistic situation? In answer, the first assertion to be made is that Rahner very definitely feels that 20th century pluralism is a specifically unique phenomenon in the history of the human race. He explains the uniqueness of 20th century pluralism by referring to the tremendous, historically unparalleled explosion in human knowledge which is taking place in our century.TM Man has prob-ably learned more (and therefore appropriated more multiple or plural values) since the beginning of our century than he learned in all the previous centuries combined. Thus, specialization has become the byword of our age. Each individual human being is learning more and more about less and less. Human communication is becoming harder and harder. In the 19th century those who went to college or graduate school could be rela-tively certain that their studies would include a good deal of the "liberal arts" and that they would arrive at basically similar value systems. Even in the early 20th century this was still so. Today, however, people are sent away to school to study various disciplines (art, sociology, psychology, literature, mathematics, and so forth) and they come home with such varied value systems that for all practical purposes they are speaking in different languages. Many segments of society experience this problem in-cluding religious communities. The situation is especially burdensome for persons in authority insofar as persons in authority are never again going to be able to learn enough to understand all the varied value systems and languages of the people under them. A Qualitatively New Situation Rahner gives his position on the uniqueness of 20th century pluralism a deeply radical meaning when he refuses to explain today's pluralism on a merely quantitative basis, that is, on the basis of the increased number of plural values which different men are learning about today. Rather he holds that the numerical increase in man's knowledge of pluralistic values has placed mankind in a qualitatively new situation,x'' The qualitative l~"Reflections on the Contemporary Intellectual Formation of Future Priests," T! 6, pp. 114-20; "Reflections on Dialogue in a Pluralistic Society," ibid., pp. 39-40; and repeatedly elsewhere in Rahner's works on pluralism. ~z"Pluralism in Theology and the Oneness of the Church's Profession of Faith," Concilium 46 (1969), p. 104. Pluralism in Rahner / 229 difference is this: In the past the number of insights and values known to man was limited enough that it was at least possible in principle for one person or one group of persons to gather together the known human insights and values in such a way as to formulate one coherent worldview or philosophy of life which could be accepted and embraced by all men at least in a given part of the world. Further, in the past, the world's great civiliza-tions (Western, Oriental, African, American) were so insulated from one another by "cultural no-man's lands" that the fact of one civilization's philosophy of life not including the values known to other civilizations made no difference in practice,a'~ Today, however, the whole world is different; the barriers between the great civilizations are collapsing, and the number of pluralistic insights and values has so increased that it is simply impossible for any person or group to embrace all known values and thus establish a worldview which can attain anything approaching a universal acceptance by a civilization or civilizations.1~ This is why Rahner says that 20th century pluralism has put man in a qualitatively new situation: man can no longer thematize universally acceptable worldviews. 20th century pluralism is therefore radi-cally new. The adjectives which Rahner uses to describe it become stronger and stronger as the years pass. He describes today's pluralism as irreduc-ible, indomitable, unconquerable, unsurpassable, and so forth,as Another way of describing the qualitative difference between today's pluralism and that of the past might be to say that in former times the plural values perceived by man could be conquered by inclusion within one philosophical worldview so that they were reduced to diverse aspects of that worldview, to diversities within one philosophical system. But the differing values of today cannot be conquered or reduced to one system; thus we no longer have diversities within a system but instead we have something much more radical, we have a pluralism which is in Rahner's words unconquerable and irreducible. Rahner never precisely uses the words diversity and pluralism to characterize the old and new aspects of human multiplicity, but such a terminology certainly seems to fit in with his description of the qualitative difference between today's pluralism and that of former centuries. In any case the point is that pluralism, while ~"Philosophy and Philosophizing in Theology," Theology Digest, Sesquicentennial issue, 1968, p. 22. ~r"A Small Question Regarding the Contemporary Pluralism in the Intellectual Situa-tion of Catholics and the Church," TI 6, p. 22, and in a number of other places in Rahner's works. ~SAmong many examples of Rahnerian language of this type are: "Theological Reflec-tions on the Problem of Secularization," Theology o] Renewal, v. 1, pp. 188-90; "Reflections on the Contemporary Intellectual Formation of Future Priests," TI 6, p. 117; "The Man of Today and Religion," ibid., p. 20; "Pluralism in Theology and the Oneness of the Church's Profession of Faith," Concilium 46 (1969), p. 107. Review ]or Religious, Volume 32, 1973/2 always a fact for man before God, presents us with a new series of problems in our times. Consequences of Today's Pluralism for the Church What should be the attitude or response of Christianity towards the qualitatively new phenomenon of 20th century pluralism? Six different aspects of Christianity's response to today's pluralism can be distinguished. The first of these aspects is a general picture of Christianity's response to pluralism; the remaining five are specific consequences of the new pluralism for the Church. First then and in a general way, it can be said that throughout his writings Rahner comes across very strongly as a man who is deeply con-vinced that one of Christianity's most vital and essential tasks for our times is to accept and embrace the pluralistic situation which God has given us today just as all men in ages past have had to accept the experience of pluralism which God gave them. This open thinking is found in Rahner's works on non-Christian religions,19 on the secularity and godlessness of today's world (which Rahner says we must bravely and courageously accept because it has a positive meaning and challenge for us),-°° and on the pluralistic sciences which he espouses and encourages.21 Even the shrinking of the Church in today's pluralistic world must be accepted ~vithout fear and loved by the Christian as part of God's plan for us, part of salvation history?-° Definitely, theret~ore, Rahner sounds a clarion call to the 20th cen-tury Church to face without fear or escapism the task which God has given us of coping with the new pluralism. I have little doubt but that in future centuries, Rahner's brilliant and insightful challenge to the Church on this matter will be one of the things for which he will be most remembered. In so many ways it can be said that for Rahner the name of the game for the Christian today is to be open. The whole thrust of Rahner's thinking on anonymous Christianity suggests this. Specific Consequences Secondly and more specifically, Rahner holds that in the light of modem pluralism Christianity must give up the idea that its entire message and value system can be embraced in any one philosophical system and in par: ticular it must give up the idea that the Thomistic philosophical system can continue to be the one decisive dialogue partner in which all Christian in-ag" Christianity and the non-Christian Religions," TI 5, pp. 115-34. =°"The Man of Today and Religion," TI 6, pp. 1 I-2. '-'1"Philosophy and Philosophizing in Theology," Theology Digest, Sesquicentennial issue, 1968, p. 27. "-'~"The Present Situation of Christians: A Theological Interpretation of the Position of Christians in the Modem World," The Christian Commitment (New York: Sheed and Ward, 1963), pp. 3-37. Pluralism in Rahner / 231 sights can be expressed to the world. Rather in the future Christianity will simply have to accept a who~le host of diaiogue partners (the arts, the be-havioral, social, and pure sciences, Oriental philosophies, and so forth) in expressing the Gospel messa'ge to the world. Rahner says this explicitly at least twice~3 and gives many other hints of it as well. For instance, he says that we must study all the great philosophies of the world because in an anonymous way they may be,' as much or more Christian than our explicitly Christian philosophy. In other words we are moving into an age of Christian philosophies and worldview!, instead of an age of a univocal Christian philosophy and worldview. Note carefully that Rahner who is a Thomist never says that Thomism sl~ould be abandoned as a philosophy. What he does say is that Thomism can no longer be given the absolute, monolithic status ascribed to it in the 15ast by the Church. Instead it must constantly criticize itself, realizing that it can never express the fullness of the truth of God. It must relentlessly op.en itself to the lns~ghts of other philosophies, which must in their turn be~ open to it. No longer will there be any one philosophy of life (in the sense values) upon which the Chu~rch or communities within it can operate.~' Thirdly as a consequence of pluralism for the Church Rahner holds that since theology depends on philosophical thinking for its mode of ex-pression, the fact that there can no longer be only one exclusively Christian philosophy suggests directly that there can no longer be one theology in the Church. Instead there Will be many theologies, a fact that the Church I ¯ " must bravely accept as Rahner puts it. no way denies our oneness of faith (Rahner calls it credal oneness) but it does demand that in the future our expressions of the one faith will be plural, in accord with the plu~iformtty of human experience. Next, and closely related to the idea of many theologies, Rahner argues I . that the magisterium or teac, hmg office of the Church finds itself cast into a whole new situation by tod.ay's pluralism.-oG Rahner points out that on rare occasions the teaching office[of the Church will have to continue to operate in the traditional mode, that [is, by rejecting this or that theological formula-tion as inconsistent with the faith,z7 Much more often, however, Rahner holds that in today's plurahst~c world the magisterium will have to take on z~"Philosophy and Philosophizing in Theology," Theology Digest, Sesquicentennial ~ssue, 1968, p. 18; 'Phdosophy ~nd Theology" Sacramentum Mundt, v. 5, p. 23. ~4This position does not deny the underlying unity of our faith, a matter we shall consider later. '-'SIbid., pp. 23-6. Rahner does speak herein of a sense in which there is still one theology, but this will emerge in our forthcoming consideration of our one faith. "-'Glbid., p. 26; "Pluralism in Theology and the Oneness of the Church's Profession of Faith," Concilium 46 (1969), pp. 112-3. ~7"Pluralism in. Theology and the Oneness of the Church's Profession of Faith," Concilium 46 (1969), p. 113. 232 / Review for Religious, Volume 32, 1973/2 a new function, a function which can be well described as a challenge func-tion rather than a judgment function. The idea of this challenge function of the magisterium is that no longer can the teaching Church understand all the formulations of all the theologians as it did in the past. Thus the Church will often not be in a position to judge the works of an individual theologian. But she can challenge him. She can urge him to be certain that his formula-tions are faithful to the Christian tradition. By so doing the teaching Church can render real service to the individual theologian and to the Christian community as a whole. Obviously a magisterium which challenges more than it judges will have to be more trusting of its theologians, trusting that they are faithful to our traditions even when the magisterium is not totally clear on how the new formulas of theology relate to the faith. Rahner states that this new challenge aspect of the Church's teaching office is already occur-ring. 2s The whole situation also suggests to Rahner that today's magisterium will generally refrain from proclaiming new dogmas, as it refrained at Vatican II. A fifth consequence of pluralism for the Church today is a fact which we previously alluded to, namely, that persons bearing authority in the Church (including bishops, pastors, religious superiors, and so forth) are placed in an extremely difficult but still very important position by con-temporary pluralism. All of us, therefore, should be deeply sensitive to the burdens of those who hold ecclesial office. Rahner points out that at times such authorities may have to exercise authority traditionally, saying no to this or that.-09 In most cases, however, office bearers in today's Church will follow the style of the new magisterium by challenging their subjects rather than judging them. In this context a particularly important task for Church authority figures will be to maintain openness, that is, to keep any of their subjects or groups of subjects from so locking themselves to a partial set of values (whether liberal values or conservative values) that they fail to be genuinely open to the mystery of God and thus commit the ultimate human sin of absolutizing finite values. Need for Constant Dialogue The last and perhaps most important implication of contemporary plural-ism is that in our times Christianity must engage in a constant and genuine dialogue with itself and with the world around it. Since today's man realizes that his philosophy of life can never be a total or absolute system, he must constantly seek to correct and expand his own viewpoint by dialoguing with other men. Rahner points out that genuine Christian dialogue is truly possible in a pluralistic society because for the man of faith all true values in 2s"Philosophy and Philosophizing in Theology," Theology Digest, Sesquicentennial issue, 1968, p. 27. 29"The Future of Religious Orders in the World and Church of Today," Sister Forma-tion Bulletin, Winter, 1972, p. 7. Pluralism in Rahner / 233 various philosophical and theological systems are seen to be rooted in the one mystery of God. Values not rooted in the mystery of God are not true values and will be shown as such in the dialogue. Hence as we journey through history together, there is hope that men can come to understand how their partial expressions of value are integrated in the absolute mystery or absolute future of man which is God. Those of course who lack faith will not see human differences as resolvable even in our future in God. But for those of us who do believe, there is hope that full unity will be attained in the eschaton. And in this hope we can keep on talking with each other despite repeated misunderstandings. Our age is peculiarly an age of going to meetings, and no doubt many of us get tired of meeting after meeting. But, if we are to be Christians in these pluralistic times, it seems we must keep on having meetings no matter how boring they, become. As Rahner sees it, dialogue is the only possible mode of coexistence for mod-ern Christian persons."~° In ending this section an observation which ought to be made is that none of these consequences of pluralism we have just reviewed really solve the problem of how the Christian is to live and form community today. For in all honesty we have to face the fact that pluralism as it now exists is a new problem which the generations who have preceded us did not face in the way we face it. Thus nobody today really knows how to cope with our pluralism and our inability to form worldviews which large scale segments of society can accept. Rahner makes some suggestions on the matter for the Church as a whole, but even he admits that he is far more asking the question about pluralism than answering it.~1 This lack of answers to the challenge of pluralism may not make us feel comfortable, but we must realize that that is where we are. Pluralism and the Oneness of Our Faith An especially nagging question seems to underlie much that we have said. Is pluralism something like the dualisms of former centuries with their many gods? Does pluralism have some effect on our faith in one God? In the Rahnerian thought world the answer is quite simple. Theological plural-ism positively does not weaken the oneness of our faith; if anything it strengthens that oneness by focusing us on the true source of our faith instead 'of on the more superficial sources of unity upon which we too often relied in the past. To understand Our oneness in faith in Rahner's system, we must advert to a basic theme of Rahner's theological anthropology or vision of man, namely that there are two poles or levels to human exis- :~°"Reflections on Dialogue within a Pluralistic Society," TI 6, p. 35. The whole article is valuable on dialogue. :~lThis point is made clear by the title and substance of Rahner's article, "A Small Question Regarding the Contemporary Pluralism in the Intellectual Situation of Catholics and the Church," TI 6, pp. 21-30. 234 / Review lor Religious, Volume 32, 1973/2 tence.3~ One of these poles, in fact the more obvious of them, is the pole of concrete human activity and experience. This is the pole of human expres-sion, of human speech, of explicit consciousness and choice. On this pole or level the effects of man's materiality and limitation are clear, and thus man operates from this pole in a radically pluralistic fashion. He has many con-crete acts of learning and many forms of speech. He makes many choices. There is, however, another, a deeper and ultimately more significant level to human existence, a level which precedes the level of the concrete and multiple. This is the level of man's preconscious existence, of his deepest self-awareness before his God. Those who speak of man's funda-mental option are referring to this level of man's life. On this level rather than multiplicity and a myriad variety of human acts of knowledge and choice, man, if he is a believer, has a basic and simple openness to his God. On this level man in his radical openness no longer experiences a pluralism of values. Instead he knows one Lord and one faith. He and his neighbor may not be able to describe their faith in the same way, but as believers they are surely experiencing the one ineffable God. This level of transcen-dent human openness to God makes Christian faith community real. Our faith, therefore, is not hindered by pluralism. In fact, pluralism only serves to buttress our faith, because it forces us to realize that our faith can only be genuine faith if it is based on the unfathgmable mystery of God. No other source but this mystery can stand as an adequate ground for us as believers. Surely with this ground we can cry out in the words of Malachy: "Have we not all one father? Has not the one God created us?" (Mal 2:10). The Foundation in Tradition Rahner's position on human openness to the ineffability of God as the source of our faith and upon (he inevitable pluralism which begins to ensue as soon as we start expressing that faith finds much support both in the tradition of the Church and in modern authors. Traditionally, for instance, Christian authors have emphasized that the ways of knowing God by specific affirmation (via allirmativa) or negation (via negativa) had a validity .but still a clear limitation. Thus traditional authors appealed to a third way of knowing God, to the way of eminence or transcendence (via eminentiae), that is, to a primal recognition by man of the mystery of God. As Henri de Lubac has pointed out this third way is really the first and most fundamental way. a3 Among modern authors Bernard Lonergan in his new book, Method in Theology,34 gives particularly noteworthy support to Rahner's idea that we 3'-'"Dogmatic Reflections on the Knowledge and Self-Consciousness of Christ," TI 5, pp. 199-201. a:~Henri de Lubac, The Discovery o! God (New York: Kenedy, 1960), pp. 122-3. 34New York: Herder and Herder, 1972. In our context see especially pp. 265, 323, 326-30. Pluralism in Rahner / :235 all share one ineffable faith despite our various perceptions of that faith. Lonergan's insistence that true objectivity in man is not an "out there now real" set of facts, but rather man's honest habit of mind as he keeps him-self attentive, intelligent, reasonable, and responsible would seem to place faith on the deepest level of human openness while realizing that faith will be expressed in various formulations. Even more explicitly, Lonergan's carefully reasoned argument that what is permanent in our dogmas is their meaning, not their formula supports Rahner's effort to place faith at the core of the human person while being open to pluralism on other levels of human perception or choice. Perhaps the title of Rahner's article "Pluralism in Theology and the Oneness of the Church's Profession of Faith" sum-marizes all this very nicely?5 We may have to use many words but we still have the Word of God. Pluralism thus creates no fundamental faith problem. It helps us to see that our faith must be based on the mystery of God. Our openness to this mystery is the primary source of our existence as a faith community. It is true, of course, that Christians need other levels of communal togetherness and organization besides this primary mystery of faith level. Some of these other or "second level" approaches to community will be considered in what follows about religious communities. First, however, we must realize that none of these other levels will have any meaning unless we begin by seeing ourselves as united on the primal level of faith in God. Implications of Pluralism for Religious Community Life~ With less specific guidance from Rahner, but in the spirit of all that we have seen, what can be said about the implications of contemporary plural-ism for religious communities in the Church? First, if we accept the idea that a religious community is called to be a genuine sign of hope to the whole Church and if contenlporary theological pluralism is one of the most critical and fundamental challenges facing the Church today, the task of opening itself to and coping with man's radically pluralistic situation is one of the most formidable and vital tasks facing the religious community today. It seems to be the kind of issue concerfiing which the religious community must live up to its eschatological nature as a sign of transcendent hope for the whole Church, a sign that real Christianity is possible in the modern pluralistic world, a sign to the Church of where she is going. It is an historical fact that over the centuries, religious com-munities have been leadership organizations in the Church in times of crisis. :~SA section of Lonergan's new book has almost exactly the same title (pp. 326-30). a6White the title of this section speaks of religious communities, surely the remarks herein can be taken as referring to the various n6ncanonical religious groups in the Church today as well as to the canonically approved religious communities. Indeed, the noncanonical groups may have an especially important task in showing religious communities their possibilities in our pluralistic world. 236 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 32, 1973/2 In our times pluralism is the crisis and millions of persons throughout the world are seeking to overcome the alienation which can exist in our plural-istic world. New experiments in communal living abound. In the crisis of pluralism can the religious community live up to its historic role of leader-ship for the future? Second, if religious communities do face up to this challenge of assuming a leadership function in showing the Church its role in a pluralistic society, probably the most realistic forecast which can be made is that the days ahead are going to be days of agony and suffering for religious communi-ties, agony because of the very nature of pluralism, and because no one right now knows precisely what to do about pluralism. This does not mean at all that religious communities should give up hope or lose faith, but it does mean that the years ahead and the paths to adapting to pluralism are going to be most difficult. Just one example of this difficulty will be that almost in-evitably more religious will have crises of faith and perhaps leave com-munities, even later in life?7 For an honest facing of pluralism will create more options for the religious and these options will create more crises. Third, it would seem that the option being taken by a few communities of refusing virtually all change and forward movement simply is not a viable option in the light of the theology of pluralism. With the greatest respect for the good faith of the leaders and members of these communities, there is an honest question about how such nondialoguing communities can continue to exist in our pluralistic .world. It is true that these communities are doing rather well as far as incoming candidates are concerned. But are these candidates accepting the vocational task of building community amidst the pluralism which God has given us all? Or are they fleeing from that task and seeking after a security which refuses to admit that pluralism exists? The Option of Fragmentation Fourth, and of special importance, the option of "fragmentation," the option of a larger religious community dividing itself into two or more smaller groups with each group representing a particular viewpoint would also seem to be foreign, at least in principle, to Rahner's theology of plural-ism. Many religious are heard to call for this option today when there is so much clamor about the bigness of organizations and the value of small, intimate communities. While I can see real value in religious communities working out living arrangements based on small, relatively homogeneous groups, I would argue that the large community structure with its varying viewpoints should be retained in our pluralistic world. My reasons for saying this is that there would seem to be a great possibility that smaller groups of religious in cutting off dialogue with other thinking about religious ::rKarl Rahner, "The Future of Religious Commonities in the World and Church of Today," Sister Formation Bulletin, Winter, 1972, p. 4. Pluralism in Rahner / life would become ineffectual, would fail to grow in maturity, and would stand in a real danger of closing in on themselves in such a way as to become unresponsive to the demands of a pluralistic society. Incidentally, the danger of a select group becoming closed would be just as great for a progressive group as for a conservative group. The Pharisees are the classical example of a progressive group who closed in on themselves and subsequently became of little value to society. Further, the fragmentation option for religious seems to ignore another of Rahner's noteworthy themes, namely that the power inherent in a larger organization can be a genuinely redemptive value in a pluralistic society.3s The foregoing remarks against the fragmentation of religious com-munities should not be taken as an absolute stand against such fragmenta-tion. Rather these remarks are a general or "in principle" statement. Rahner himself points out that in some hopefully exceptional cases in life there is so little possibility of creating understanding that a particular dialogue must be broken off so that a group can keep dialoguing at all."~ In these cases other forms of dialogue must replace the broken ones, since genuine dialogue is essential for human coexistence in a pluralistic society. There have been a few cases in recent years of religious communities dividing; and who are we to say that these particular terminations of dialogue were not genuine in-spirations of the Holy Spirit, genuine efforts to establish other forms of dia-logue when one form had become impossible? In general, however, dialogue between differing viewpoints is so essential in a pluralistic society that the option of fragmentation should not be taken except under extreme and oppressive circumstances. Experimentation and Incarnationalism Fifth, if the religious community accepts its leadership mission for the world, and if it refuses the anti-change and fragmentation options, it be-comes clear that the most helpful (and also most difficult) option for a religious community today is to let its structures become open to genuine dialogue and pluralism in such a way that the community becomes truly re-flective of the actual condition of the whole Church today. This will mean as Rahner sees it that the religious community will be engaged in a constant process of. experimentation as it seeks to face up to new perceptions of value in our pluralistic world?" Such experimentation will stem from all levels in a community: individuals, groups, and organized authority. Only through such experimentation will a religious community achieve the true openness and dialogue needed in a pluralistic ~ociety. ~S"Theology of Power," TI 4, pp. 391-409. :~:~"Reflections on Dialogue within a Pluralistic Society," Ti 6, pp. 40ol. ¯ "~"The Future of Religious Communities in the World and Church of Today," Sister Formation Bulletin, Winter 1972, pp. 6-7. 238 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 32, 1973/2 Lastly, a religious community living amidst pluralism must advert to what Rahner calls the "incarnational principle" of Christianity.'1 This principle means that the ineffable faith unity which we share in the depth of our being must somehow become incarnate, must somehow be incorpo-rated into tangible structures. Otherwise we could never experience our faith unity. More particularly, a religious community as a small unit in the Church can never embrace all the possible incarnations or concrete ex-pressions of faith value. A religious community is thus only one form of faith expression. It is only one "social institutionalization''42 of Christianity. All this implies that in addition to its underlying faith unity, a religious community will necessarily have to embrace certain second level values (the first level is always our faith), certain particular incarnations of the mystery of God. Such second level values are genuinely worthwhile in a pluralistic society for they do lead us to the one God, though in a limited way. Traditionally, the second level values around which religious com-munities have been organized have included the confession of the members of a community (Roman Catholic), their apostolate, their sex, their vowed life, their prayer, their communal living, and so forth. Openness and Second Level Unifiers Now what, in our pluralistic society, can be said about religious com-munities' second level sources of unity? Two main points must be made. First, important though these second level unifiers are, they are not ab-solute expressions of the mystery of God. Thus the place, meaning, and even the continued existence of such second level unifiers of a religious community are subjects which cannot be exempted from dialogue if a re-ligious community is going to be genuinely open to the pluralism of today's world, to our inability to form a total worldview as we did in the past. A religious community which seeks to be open to the absolute mystery of God is not absolutely open to that mystery if it absolutizes any other points besides the one mystery. And when a religious community says that values such as the vows do not call for further dialogue and understanding, it is precisely absolutizing something other than the mystery of God; it is sub-mitting to the ultimate temptation created by our pluralistic situation, the temptation of seeking particular goods instead of the good. It would be most paradoxical if today's religious community were to submit to this temptation. The whole history of religious communities has been one of protest (by vows) against the absolutization of partial human goods such as marriage, wealth, and power. And even though this protest has had tremendous impact in the history of salvation, can a religious corn- 41"Membership of the Church according to the Teaching of Pius XII's Encyclical 'Mystici Corporis Christi,'" TI 2, p. 34. a~Karl Rahner, "Reflections on Dialogue within a Pluralistic Society," TI 6, p. 31. Pluralism in Rahner / 239 munity absolutize its means (and its understanding of this means) of dialoguing with the world, of showing the world where it must move in the spirit of Christian hope? Many examples of how a religious community must be open to dialogue about second level values could be cited. Apostolates obviously need to be reconsidered today. The vow of poverty is in great need of reassessment inasmuch as the mere fact that one cannot dispose of his or her own funds does not make one poor if he or she belongs to a rich community.4'~ To take another example which has probably been thought of a good deal less, who are we to say that religious communities are always going to remain ex-clusively Roman Catholic? Granted that Vatican II has already described the other Churches as true ecclesial realities, granted that Eucharistic Inter-communion is probably not too far off, granted that many young people in the other Christian confessions (especiall.y young women) find an idealism, way of life and apostolic zeal in Catholic-religious communities for which there is no parallel in their own confessions, and finally granted that more and more the real need is for a united Christianity to show its value to a secular (and sometimes atheistic) world rather than for Catholicism to show its value to Protestantism or vice versa, might it not ultimately be-come a genuine call of the Spirit for the Catholic religious communities to accept members from other confessions? While not offering an absolute answer, I hope the example at least helps make the point that dialogue on the values which I have called second level in the religious life seems to be an inescapable consequence of the theology of pluralism. Necessity of Second Level Unifiers Our second major observation on religious communities and second level values or unity sources is a strong reminder that, granted that these values are a constant subject of dialogue, growth, and change, a religious community movement simply cannot exist without some sort of second level value commitment and organization. The religious community must operate through a concrete value-unity structure in order to be open to ultimate value. It must have a concrete vocation if it is going to have a vocation at all. It cannot have its absolute, transcendental goal (the mystery of God) without expressing this goal in concrete goals. A religious community's concrete vocation and concrete goals are so necessary sociologically that, in the midst of all the open dialogue about them, they should be seen as a requirement for membership in the community. Those who do not agree with a religious community's particular goals may be perfectly good Christians, but a community will only retain its societal identity insofar as its members agree upon a particular sociological format for moving towards the mystery of God. This is why Rahner argues that authority in a religious community 43On this point see Karl Rahner, "The Theology of. Poverty," TI 8, especially p. 172. 240 / Review jor Religious, Volume 321 1973/2 may sometimes have to operate in the traditional yes or no method. Surely the yeses or noes of a religious community's authority can never be more than provisional since the community's self understanding and consequent second level values will grow and change in dialogue. But the fact remains that the growth process of permanent religious commitment (and this is what permanent commitment is, a growth process) can only function at a particular point in space and time through the acceptance of second level goals.44 Religious communities which have forgotten this point in recent years have had their troubles as a result. Conclusion By way of a concluding thought, especially for those who are fearful of what will happen to religious communities as they face their future with all its pluralism, I would like to make the very joyful and hopeful point that there are already some indications that an honest, pluralistic dialogue on religious life's second level values will probably do a great deal more to reinforce rather than to downgrade the traditional wisdom of the Church on religious life even though this wisdom may not be asserted as absolutisti-cally as it was in the past. For instance, I have noted and been truly inspired by the fact that Christian virginity has been emerging as a very deep seated value in the lives of some members of the noncanonical religious com-munities in which it is required neither by Church law nor by any public vow. In an era when so many priests, brothers, and sisters are questioning celibacy and virginity, this is most refreshing; it suggests that our pluralistic, open-ended society (which is, after all, God's gift to us) is not so much a thing to be feared as it is a genuine opportunity for spiritual growth. Per-haps it will teach us some things we have been trying to learn all along. ¯ ~4The insistence of second level goals does not of course imply anything like the detailed agreement which existed when religious communities operated from a homogeneous worldview. But some admittedly evolutionary sociological coherence on the second level is a necessity. Pluralism and Polarization among Religious George M. Regan, C.M. Father George Regan is associate professor of theology at St. John's University; Grand Central and Utopia Parkways; Jamaica, New York 11432. The recently published sociological and psychological studies of priests in the United States have no counterpart as yet in special studies about religious men and women. Tempting hypotheses could be constructed on the basis of personal experience and impressions about the levels of maturity and self-actualization among religious, about their attitudes toward authority, and about their opinions on specific issues such as birth control, celibacy, divorce, and liturgical practices. The surveys of priests indicated that widespread disagreement exists among various segments of the Catholic clergy on such issues and that deeply polarized attitudes seem rooted in profound ideologi-cal differences. In the absence of hard data leading to actual percentages of religious who hold certain views, one can nevertheless reflect on the divergence experienced firsthand in contacts with religious communities these days. Pluralism of approach, outlook, and conviction characterize religious at all levels of the same community at times, and comparison of one community with others easily substantiates this impression of diversity, which has re-placed the former uniformity. Pluralism reaches into all levels of community life, encompassing not only particular questions such as order of day, con-crete regulations on government, poverty, and style of dress, but also more fundamental aspects of the institute's l!fe, such as its purpose and nature in the larger Church, its basic ideals and values, and its charismatic qualities for today's world. Members thus find themselves split deeply at official chapters and in less formal gatherings on the most fundamental meanings of their religious life and on many more superficial issues. Coupled with this pluralism has arisen a sense of alienation, an outright bitterness about 241 242 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 32, 1973/2 the frustrating experience of division, or an aimless confusion. Polarization of groups may be discerned not infrequently. The vitality of individual religious and of entire communities has suffered immeasurably as a conse-quence. This extensive pluralism and the resulting polarization constitute a rich and inviting ground for thorough exploration by specialists in various fields. At times in recent years, some religious have tended to look upon their problems as mainly theological in nature, but further reflection casts grave doubt on the accuracy of this claim. In particular, the psychological and social factors of given attitudinal differences and divisions often feed into the situation more than do the theological and philosophical viewpoints espoused. This may be seen clearly in many contemporary divisions which have emerged between young and old, or between liberals and conservatives. Such divergences often manifest features closely resembling matters dis-cussed in development psychology or sociology in general. This article will concentrate principally on the more theoretical and intellectual roots of today's pluralism which underlie the theological, psychological, and sociological differences. In a sense, it will address the issue of the basic framework within which various groups of religious operate. It will not offer a litany of the specific differences which separate religious, nor will it provide a "medicine chest" of remedies. Our more limited purpose is simply to reflect on the different levels and .origins of pluralism in the ways of thinking and acting among relig!pus and to inquire into some possible means of coping with its sometimes unhappy results. The Death of Old Theory In an address to a committee of American bishops in which he inter-preted the results of the sociological survey of priests, Andrew Greeley claimed that "we have not yet discovered that our fundamental problem is the collapse of old theory combined with the non-appearance of new theory." In his usage, theory means those goals, values, models, and basic assumptions that allow the given human grouping to interpret and order phenomena, to justify its own existence, to explain its purposes to outsiders and new members, to underwrite its standard procedures and methodologies, and to motivate its members toward its goals. Though Greeley's comments regarding such theory concern priests alone, his approach has direct bear-ing on the question of the emergence of pluralism in all areas of American Church life, including religious communities. According to Greeley, the old theoretical structure began to crumble in the United States about ten years ago, and it has now disappeared, never to be restored. This rigid and unconscious theory emerged as a mixture of post-Tridentine garrison Catholicism and American immigrant Catholicism. It laid stress on loyalty to the Church, certainty and immutability of an-swers, strict discipline and unquestioning obedience, a comprehensive Pluralism and Polarization Catholic community, suspicion of the world beyond the Church, avoidance of re-examination of fundamental principles, and clearly defined models of behavior. The reasons substantiating .this theory were largely extrinsic and suasive, not decisive, for they were justified by one's loyalty to the teachings and structures of the Church and not by their intrinsic rationality. When various elements of this theoretical structure were thrown into doubt, the entire theoretical structure collapsed without warning. Since all rules, however minor, were viewed as immutable and unquestioned, change in even a few rules such as "meat on Friday" exposed the shaky foundations of the whole structure. The very suddenness of the change had excluded any opportunity to rethink the grounds of past assumptions and when these assumptions fell into disrepute, confusion resulted. Greeley believes that there exists virtually no theoretical perspective to replace the old theory, for the fads and fashions, clich6s and slogans of recent years lack sound and solid scholarship. His remedies for this situation center on the indis-pensability of scholarship in all areas of Church life. Scholars must get to work on building a new theory; and all levels of the Christian community must manifest openness, respect, and understanding for the results of their scholarship. One might justifiably criticize various elements of Greeley's presenta-tion, which sometimes verges more on polemical journalism than on ob-jective analysis. Sweeping generalizations about the old theory's "avoidance of re-examination of fundamental principles," and about the former lack of rational foundations do not ring completely accurate. One may well disagree with the actual cogency of the intrinsic reasons advanced for many past approaches, but it strikes one as gross exaggeration to deny their very existence, as Greeley seems to do. Consequences ot the Loss o~ the "Old Theory" His overall analysis seems true enough, however, and its application to the current situation which exists in many religious communities also seems clear. In a peculiar fashion and perhaps more strongly than in the priesthood, many religious institutes had embodied the chief marks of the "old theory" which Greeley describes. Disappearance of these characteristics or questionings about their presentday relevance have split many a com-munity or left it adrift aimlessly. The basic goals, values, and assumptions of past approaches to religious life constitute the kind of "old theory" which has undergone increasing challenge. Debates about such funda-mentals have obviously far more import than does disagreement about more superficial features in religious communities. How often does one not hear religious, usually older in age, wondering about the seeming decrease in loyalty to the community and its traditions among some members, the ever-changing views of the young, the lack of discipline and compliance with authority which has grown, the intrusion ~/44 / Review for Religious, Volume 32, 1973/2 of what seems a worldly spirit, the lessening in time devoted to formal prayer, an overstress on personal fulfillment, an endless questioning of basic goals, values, and principles, and the advancement of vague and im-precise models of religious conduct? It takes little effort to draw the sharp contrast between these tendencies and the "old theory" formerly in effect. Another group of members, on the other hand, may criticize the present situation and urge change from precisely an opposite vantage point: Why has the community not updated more its apostolate, life style, government, and spirituality? Why do institutional requirements outweigh personal needs? Such conflicting comments and complaints signal at the least that the members of the religious community have failed to agree on some essential aspects of their life together. Onguing Crisis If one were to accept Greeley's views, then a religious community which lacks agreement on a theory in this deep sense of goals, values, and basic assumptions must of necessity expect ongoing crisis, for it lacks the founda-tions needed by any human organization. Without such organizational ele-ments agreed to substantially by the members, the religious community will lack the tools to provide a rationale for its existence, thereby undercutting its ability to attract new candidates and to motivate its present members. The conflicting expectations of its members, furthermore, would in all likeli-hood lead to frustration and anger, which may become repressed and then manifested only in hidden agendas. The real issues which separate may appear rarely in open discussion; a superficial facade of friendly toleration may mask underlying divisions. Instead of religious' testing one another's assumptions in healthy confrontation and seeking to incorporate whatever seems of value, defensive listening may begin whereby one person listens caret~ully in order to gather information, or better ammunition, to contra-dict. In extreme cases, open hostility or full withdrawal into silence may eventuate. Such problems parallel closely communications difficulties de-scribed extensively in marriage counseling literature. In such an atmosphere, not only deterioration of the human relationships involved, but also de-terioration of the persons themselves must set in eventually. Need for Substantial Agreement This sobering prospect lends a special urgency to the continuing task of striving to clarify and reach substantial agreement on the fundamentals of each religious community. If the members differ broadly on the very purpose and values of the community, how can they realistically expect one another to pursue vigorously and in unison some common goals? The various issues which polarize groups may, in fact, be symptoms of the deeper pathology in the religious community: a lack of common goals, values, and assump-tions essential to the life of the organism. For example, when large numbers Pluralism and Polarization / 245 of religious in a teaching community favor direct social work for the poor, the issue of the apostolic purpose of the institute should be addressed courageously. Similarly, communities which experience sharp and immense diversity among the members on their inner identity as contemplatives or apostolically oriented religious should discuss the matter openly, rather than avoiding the problem or simply drifting indecisively into a new identity through the sheer force of circumstances. When religious of the same community differ enormously on such a basic point of their common life as that of the character of the institute, they have little reason to hope for harmonious concord on lesser ideals and values. The more that significant pluralism enters these foundational areas of goals, values,, and basic assumptions regarding the community itself, the more the members should expect a sense of aimlessness, disunity, and confusion, it would seem. Unless some shared meanings emerge at these deep levels of their life together, religious must prepare for the inevitable results which flow from vague and overly general goals and values. Un-fortunately, dialogue may at times neglect these basic levels of religious life and concentrate on the more superficial, day-to-day aspects or happenings. Such failure may even carry over into official discussions at chapter and the like where extreme defensiveness or closed-mindedness can prevent needed exchange of opinions among the members. In a positive way, therefore, it seems incumbent on religious, especially those in higher authority, to raise these issues when disagreement exists below the surface and to foster free airing of views in the hope of clarifying goals and values. This seems a healthier solution than pretending outwardly that the members amicably share the same opinions. Some meeting of minds may follow more readily in this unhampered atmosphere, despite the anxieties created by confronta-tion. The Roots of Change Greeley's analysis of the contemporary situation in the Church and in the American priesthood is professedly that of a sociologist. When he speaks of the disappearance or collapse of the old theory, therefore, he refers hardly at all to the philosophical and theological underpinnings of the old theory, which he discusses more in empirical terms. Appreciation of these more theoretical dimensions may assist us in gaining additional insight into the roots of pluralism and in evaluating proposed means of coping with it. We shall direct our attention to two matters in particular: the emergence of pluralism in ecclesiology today, and the shift from a classicist to an his-torically conscious worldview. Pluralism in Ecdesiology Though Greeley mentions the death of post-Tridentine garrison Cathol-icism, he does not explore the highly juridical theology of the Church which 246 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 32, 1973/2 had justified these tightly knit patterns of behavior. This ecclesiology often found direct application to the models of authority and the corresponding structures employed in religious communities. The overcentralization, lack of sufficient subsidiarity, and overly juridical conception of authority found in the Church at large and in diocesan structures existed in religious com~ munities as well and rested its common roots in this understanding of the Church. This former approach to a theology of the Church had the added implication of overstressing the divine element of the holy Church, in too great contrast at times with the so-called profane world. In failing to give enough weight to positive elements outside the Church and to see God present there among men, "this understanding lent a basis to a spirituality tinged with suspicion of the world, "merely natural" or human values, and human institutions. God's self-communication seems relegated more readily to the more narrowly institutional context of the Church and open dialogue with the world appears foreign or dangerous in this conception. Religious communities which operated within this conceptual framework more natur-ally took on reservations about contacts with the world and the need to separate oneself from its perverting influences gained favor. By way of contrast, many contemporary writings which view the Church as servant and healer of the total human society understand her as essentially related to the world; and they take a far more accepting view of human values and institutions: the Church "goes forward together with humanity and experiences the same earthly lot which the world does. She serves as a leaven and as a kind of soul for human society as it is to be renewed in Christ and transformed into God's family" (The Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World, no. 40). The more that individual religious communities as a whole have taken on this more openly secular approach, which views the world and human values more favorably, the more they customarily take a somewhat negative view of factors which are viewed as separating the religious from the world or from human customs. Resulting Disagreements Inevitable disagreements must exist in religious communities and throughout the entire Church so long as disagreement exists on such funda-mental approaches to a theology of the Church. Pluralism among religious in this basic theological area sometimes underlies the members' differing convictions on contact with or separation from other people, openness or closedness to human standards and patterns of conduct, and general in-volvement with or disassociation from ordinary human events. Disputes about religious garb, about freedom to come and go, about visiting with laity or entering into friendship with them, and about attendance at or participa-tion in recreational or sports activities sometimes stem from more profound differences about the way in .which religious are conceived of in their rela-tionship to "the world." An implicit ecclesiology often seems at work in the Pluralism and Polarization / 247 way people think about such concrete matters. Similarly, disagreements in ecclesiology are bound to influence one's notions of Church authority. These disagreements become manifest frequently in the comments or criticisms by religious that they find their community's authority too centralized in the person of the provincial authorities or the local superior; or that col-legial bodies such as consultations of the local house are given mere lip service by the local superior; or that decisions which can be reached by themselves individually or at the local level are reserved to higher authority. Once again, these issues seem symptomatic of the more profound ideological differences in ecclesiology which separate Catholics today. Though such disagreements seem inevitable in today's climate of plural-ism, the destructive manner of coping with them found so often need not exist. More comments will be made on this topic later in this article, but some reflections seem pertinent even at this stage. Disagreement can at times be a constructive and enriching force in human relationships, within toler-able limits and depending on how people react. Deep differences should be faced squarely in a climate of open communication, if some valid hope remains of fostering closer harmony and unity in community. To bury di-vergences o~r to treat only the symptoms or external manifestations of pluralism and the resulting polarization insures an eventual destruction of interpersonal sharings promotive of personal growth. It would be more worthwhile to plunge tactfully into the more basic levels of disagreements, which in this case touch on the very nature of the Church and of ecclesiasti-cal authority. One's assumptions, spoken and outspoken, should be brought to light in mutual respect and openness. A willingness to temper one's views, to grant honesty and good will to the other party, and to speak about issues, not personalities, seems a minimum condition in such dialogue. In this deeper context where lie the roots of more shallow differences, mere pragmatic techniques for bettering the current situation will prove in-sufficient. Though the American passion for such practical programs may obscure one's vision, religious communities must accept the need of dealing with these more profound, theoretical dimensions of these issues. If reli-gious communities are to adopt even more moderate thrusts of contemporary theologies of the Church and of ecclesiastical authority, for example, they should at least acquaint all members with a more positive view of the world beyond the Church. Leaders in each community must also embody the con-viction that authority means service, not naked power disguised under new forms; that collegial functioning flows from Christian coresponsibility as members of the community; that love, trust, and friendship must be present in any effective Church leader and perhaps even more in a leader within a religious community. This kind of new theory, if it be that in contrast to some past distorted notions, surpasses mechanical techniques of improving government and the community's stance vis-?a-vis the rest of mankind. To expect that religious superiors familiar with another approach to authority 248 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 32, 1973/2 can automatically learn and adopt this new theory and behavior seems rather unrealistic. Practice based on such theory would go a long way in alleviating some tensions which exist among those who doggedly hold to outmoded con-ceptions of the Church and of authority, and those who stridently favor newness uncritically, perhaps urging the abandonment of most structures and of practically any interpretation of authority. Once more, unless some attempt is made to deal with issues below their surface and to strive for some limited agreement in fundamentals, religious communities cannot rightfully expect polarization to lessen, let alone disappear. A Changed Worldview Beyond Greeley's empirical analysis and the implications of the ecclesi-ological factors described above, we can explore still further to the deeper roots of today's pluralism in religious communities. Catholic authors in recent years have noted a significant shift in the basic worldview whereby we do philosophy and theology these days, and whereby we approach prac-tical solutions to questions in Church life. By worldview, these authors mean the fundamental framework whereby one interprets and orders reality and thus arrives at more detailed convictions. Bernard Lonergan in dogmatic theology, Charles Curran in moral theology, John Courtney Murray in matters pertaining to religious freedom, and Avery Dulles in ecclesiology have all referred to a contemporary change from a classicist worldview to an historically conscious worldview, which they all see as having immense ramifications in their areas of concern. Greek philosophy and Christian thought represented by thinkers ranging from Augustine to Thomas Aquinas to nearly all Catholic theologians until quite recently employed an approach which emphasized man's ability to grasp the essence of reality through his reasoning faculty. This so-called "classicist worldview" left little room for change, variation, or uncertitude. Since reason can easily enough penetrate to the essence of reality, im-mutability, certitude, timelessness, and absoluteness characterized such varied matters as moral principles, images of the Church, Church laws, and inherited patterns of conduct. In moral issues, for example, this thought pattern leaves little room for variability and relativity because of cultural diversity, historical development, or concrete circumstances. A variety of universal, negative norms, "Thou shalt nots," became part and parcel of the moral theology built on this worldview. In ecclesiology, this approach favored descriptive notes which emphasized similar qualities of unchange-ableness, universality, absoluteness, and certainty. The canon law elaborated in former times also mirrored this conception of reality. Modern influences of personalism, phenomenology, and existentialism and the scientific spirit of modern times bore in on Catholic philosophers and theologians in recent decades and turned the tide against this classicist Pluralism and Polarization / 249 worldview for many an author and, seemingly, for our entire Western cul-ture. The historically conscious worldview embodied in many Catholic writ-ings today views man and his world as evolving and historical, rather than as static and unchanging. Progress, development, and growth are seen as marking man and his world, and these qualities should carry into all philosophical, theological, and practical understandings of Christian life. A stress on the human person in his subjectivity and concreteness, on this man or men, rather than simply on "man," characterizes the contemporary in-quiry. The individual's feelings and non-rational states understandably receive more attention in this approach. Since concreteness, change, and diversity are such prominent features, tentativeness and openness to excep-tion replace the past tendency to formulate a host of absolute understand-ings. Pluralism and Worldviews Results of this shift in worldviews can be seen clearly in recent debates in the field of Christian moral theology. The uniqueness and unrepeatability of the individual person and his myriad moral situations have eroded for some authors the very possibility of articulating general moral norms with an absolute force, the "Thou shalt nots" so familiar in past presentations of Catholic morality. Rather than centering their treatment of a question like divorce, contraception, or pre-marital relations on the essence of marriage and human sexuality, for instance, authors writing in this vein will tend to discuss the empirical consequences and concrete circumstances of divorce, contraception, and pre-marital relations in order to arrive at their moral reflections on the proposed conduct. Nearly all authors show some reliance these days on this historically conscious view of man, though most have combined this with some continuing reliance on man's essential structures. This eclecticism does, however, lead inevitably to a spectrum of theological opinions, instead of the one "Catholic opinion" found in moral writings in use even into the past decade. A main result of this shift in worldviews and the accompanying eclecti-cism, consequently, has been the emergence of pluralism in many areas of Catholic thinking and living. One answer no longer exists for many issues in theology, philosophy, and Church life. Catholics' opinions run the spectrum from the essentialism inherited from past approaches through all shades of combinations to the other pole, new approaches heavily conditioned by existentialism, process thought, and consequ.entialism. Many common em-phases can, of course, be discerned in contemporary writings: a stress on the human person in his freedom, dignity, and personal fulfillment; the possibility of more room for change in previously accepted theological opinions, in social customs and law, and in Church structures; a thrust toward service in the world, rather than an emphasis on the dangers of con-tamination from the world; and an understanding of the Church more in 250 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 32, 1973/2 terms of the persons involved than in terms of institutions. These common emphases do not, however, lead to one new theory; they lead instead to new theories, new theologies, new understandings of the Church and ecclesiastical laws, customs, and structures. In a real sense, a new theory has developed which permits and even fosters a plurality of theories, of theologies, and of understandings. Pluralism constitutes a key-note of such "new theory." Disappointment may well await those who urge and expect some new univocal theory in the sense of an all-comprehensive and wholly coherent system of goals, values, and models of appropriate behavior and assumptions for the Church at large. Such a theory seems un-likely to appear on the horizon in the foreseeable future, if at all. What seems far more plausible and realistic to expect is an acceptance of pluralism in theology, philosophy, Church structures, and social customs and laws. Worldviews and Polarization This contrast between the classicist and historically conscious worldviews has influenced greatly the polarization so evident in religious communities today. At the roots of the various groupings whose labels have become pop-ularized-- liberal vs. conservative, old vs. young, secular-minded vs. cultic --often lies this more fundamental difference in the very approach to reality which religious and other Catholics now have. Inevitably, religious working within the historically conscious worldview will be more prone to accept or even to foster change in structures, in theological understandings, in the manner of doing Christian service to the world, in the proper exercise of authority in their community, and in traditional laws and customs. Since their entire outlook on reality promotes change and development in the name of human and Christian progress, and diversity and tentativeness in all formulations, which must of necessity be time-conditioned, they will urge these qualities in all aspects of religious life. Bedause their worldview con-centrates more on the human person in his concreteness and uniqueness, they will react strongly against whatever structures, institutions, and under-standings hinder the individual's fulfillment. A deeper interpersonal sharing at a different level of friendship than found in traditional approaches to religious life will leave these religious unsatisfied with forms of life which they find impersonal, institutionalized, and shallow. De~ires for small group-living frequently result from their reaction to such weaknesses, which they discern in large religious houses. Such issues as those of optional celibacy for secular priests, the ordination to priestly ministry of women, freedom of life style for priests and religious in such matters as dress, residence, and occupation, remarriage or readmis-sion to the sacraments of the divorced, and collegial living without a local authority in the person of a superior flow more naturally from a person whose fundamental outlook remains open to newness and progress in the sense described and whose value system places great emphasis on the indi- Pluralism and Polarization / :251 vidual person's development. Often enough, the individual religious will not have clearly articulated the theoretical foundations of his basic worldview or framework for thinking and judging; he simply finds himself doing it rather consistently without much reflection. No more than for many a person operating within the classicist worldview, his basic presuppositions and unarticulated theory rarely enter formally into discussion. Unless other members of religious communities come to appreciate this basic contrast in worldviews, they will find it most difficult to understand the rationale for many present-day movements and for viewpoints like those described previously. They will greet each new issue in the community with dismay, wondering why large numbers of their own community fail to see things their way. "Where have they gone wrong?" may be their continuing puzzled query. They will not grasp that an entirely different framework, the historically conscious worldview, has its own inner logic, as compelling for its adherents as their own classicist approach. One need not, of course, actually agree with the historically conscious worldview in its main lines or certainly in its applications. Unless one has some minimal understanding ot~ its overall thrust, however, one seems doomed to confusion, so far-reaching has been its influence and acceptance. Rancor and anger leading to hardened opposition of polarized camps may eventually set in. This seems already to have occurred in numerous instances in religious communities and rela-tions have become strained or, in some cases, non-existent. The Danger of Worsening The pluralism of opinions has threatened and disturbed many religious precisely because it has unsettled the foundations of their entire worldview and the conclusions which flow from it. The wonder, at times is that more polarization fails to exist, given the chasms in viewpoints. A hankering after the former uniformity in outlook and the accompanying security may under-standably have crept into one's (onsciousness in this charged atmosphere. Condemnation of unexamined new approaches as untenable or foofish may prove the only sustainable defense for the threatened and vulnerable person trained in another way in a different era. Conversely, religious who operate within the historically conscious Worldview may retreat into an unsubstan-tiated dogmatism in reaction to this rejection which they sense in their fellow religious. The wounded feelings they experience may lead some into frustrated withdrawal, whose sequel will be loneliness and depression. In overreaction, others may lash out negatively against traditional values and customs, denying in the process the continuity with the past which will insure the future. This unhealthy and mutally destructive atmosphere will breed a polarization far removed from the ideals of Christian community. Unless some steps toward amelioration of this situation can be under-taken, the current crisis in some religious communities seems likely to con-tinue and to deepen. An already bad situation may worsen. In particular, 252 / Review ]or Religious, l/olume 32, 1973/2 the strong, balanced, and idealistic candidates needed so badly in religious communities will not be attracted to a divided and polarized group who seem unable to live the unity their very notion implies. A deep and urgent crisis exists; yet the tone of given communities sometimes manifests business as usual in an atmosphere of unrealistic hope for a better future. Doomsday prophets are usually proved wrong and their message hardly accords with Christian hope. Yet Christian hope has always avoided the twin shoals of despair and presumption. Both undue pessimism and unwarranted optimism remain excluded. Coping With Pluralism and Polarization What suggestions can be offered for coping with pluralism and its fre-quent companion, polarization? At the outset, it would be profitable to recall that any such discussion should proceed within the prayerful recol-lection of Jesus' prayer "that they may all be one, even as you Father in me and I in you; that they may all be one in us." Religious communities' unity must fit within this larger context of the unity among men and the unity of the Church, as prayed for by Jesus. Constant prayer for faithfulness to the gospel ideal of loving union with all one's neighbors should mark every Christian. I-Iow much more so in those situations when religious experience disunity, discord, and polarization? Prayer for one another, reflection on those features which the religious share in common, and a positive desire for loving union should receive more emphasis than often seems the case. Besides these most fundamental suggestions, several more come to mind. First, it would seem helpful as a starting point to realize and expect that pluralism will be unavoidable in the years ahead in most areas of Church life and theology. Pluralism will not simply go away overnight, if at all. The fundamental differences in outlooks among Catholic moral theologians, for example, in such basic matters as the existence of absolute norms, the epistemology of theological ethics, the use of Sacred Scripture, the binding force of the Church's teachings on moral matters, the importance of esti-mating consequences and employing empirical data, all point to long-reaching splintering into various camps of moral theologians for the fore-seeable future. Logically, authors who disagree on such basic items must disagree also in matters pertaining to medical ethics, sexual ethics, social issues, or any other concrete moral question. Similarly, the different worldviews employed by religious who live under the same roof or in the same province dictate perforce some degree of continued divergence on matters pertaining to their religious lives. Keeping these facts in mind, expectation of pluralism in a realistic way may cut away some of the unnecessary emotional defenses which hinder rational analysis of the new premises and conclusions. In this unhampered atmosphere, de-fensiveness will diminish, hopefully, and reasoned consideration and genuine dialogue, in the sense of a candid exchange of views, may follow the more Pluralism and Polarization / 25
Issue 15.6 of the Review for Religious, 1956. ; Review for Religious ~OVEMBER 15, 1956 Cloister of Congregations . Joseph F. Gallen Zeal for Souls ¯ " c.A. Herbst Sisters' RefreafsIVI . Thomas Dubay The Religious Life . Roman Congregations Book Reviews New Business Address index for 1956 VOLUME XV " No. (5 Ri::VI.I::W FOR RI::::LIGIOUS VOLUME XV NOVEMBER, 19 5 6 NUMBER 6 CONTENTS NEW BUSINESS ADDRESS . 281 CLOISTER OF CONGREGATIONS-~Joseph F. Gallen, 'S.,J 2.8.2. ZEAL FOR SOULS--C. A. Herbst, S.J . 295 SISTERS' RETREATS---VI --- Thomas Dubay, S.M: .3.0.1. GUIDANCE FOR RELIGIOUS . 308 ROMAN CONGREGATIONS AND THE RELIGIOUS LIFE"0 ". 3.09 B(~OK REVIEWS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS-- Editor: Bernard A. Hausmann, S.3. West Baden College West Baden Springs, Indiana . 3~8 INDEX FOR VOLUME XV . 334 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, November, 1956. Vol. XV, No. 6. Published bi-monthly: ,January, March, May, ,July, September, and November, at the College Press, 606 Harrison Street, Topeka, Kansas, by St. Mary's College St. Marys, Kansas, with ecclesiastical approbation. Entered as second class matter, ,January 15, 1942, at the Post Office, Topeka, Kansas, under ~he act of March 3, 1879. Editorial Board: Augustine G. Ellard, S.'j., Gerald Kelly, S.J., Henry Willmering, S.J. Literary Editor: Edwin F. Falteisek, S.J. Publishing rights reserved by REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS. Permission is hereby granted for quotations of reasonable length, provided due credit be given this review and the author. Subscription price: 3 dollars a year; 50 cents a copy. Printed it. U. S. A. Please send all renewals and new subscriptions to: Review For Religious, 3115 South Grand Boulevard, St. Louis 18, Missouri Our New Business , clress When we were preparing to publish the REVIEW, we arranged to have the College Press, in Topeka, do the printing and distribut-ing. For fifteen years the editors and the College Press have worked together in the closest harmony. We have literally shared both heart-aches and joys. The heartaches were mostly brought about by the difficulties of the war years: for example, as we published each num-be~ we wondered how we would get enough paper for printing the next. The joys consisted, among other things, in getting the REVIEW out regularly and on time, despite the difficulties, and in the realiza-tion that this new apostolate for religious seemed to be appreciated. Please send all renewals and new subscriptions to REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 3115 South Grand Boulevard St. Louis 18, Missouri This is our new business address During all these fifteen years, Mr. J. W. Orr, owner of the Col-lege Press, and his assistants, have given the REVIEW the best they had; and that was very good, indeed. But the time has come when we must make new publishing arrangements. The reason for this is purely an "act of God," as far as both the editors and the College Press are concerned. There has been no break in the harmony that has always characterized our collaboration. Fortunately for us, the publishing department of the Queen's Work has agreed to take over the publication of the REVIEW. Be-ginning with the next volume, the RE~rIEW will be printed and dis-tributed by the Queen's Work. Obviously, the new publishers can-~ not wait till the last deadline to begin making addresses and keeping records. For this reason, please note the announcement in the center of this page and follow it exactly. The editors are deeply grateful to the College Press for past col-laboration and to the Queen's Work for taking over the burden. 281 Cloist:er ot: Congrega!:ions ,Joseph F. Gallen, S.J. I. Introduction. All the canons on common cloister apply to all congregations, i. e., institutes of simple vows, whether of men or women, clerical or lay, pontifical or'' diocesan, with the exception of c. 607, which treats of religious women going out of the convent alone. To lessen the complications in this highly detailed matter and to avoid the constant repetition of awkward phrases such as, "those of the opposite sex," the article explains and applies common cloister with reference to congregations of religious women. II. r~tpes of cloister. Papal cloister exists in all orders of men and women. Formerly it existed in the case of women only in mon-asteries of nuns that actually had solemn vows, but this was changed by the apostolic constitution Sponsa Christi.1 Cloister of this type is called papal because it is prescribed by papal ,(canon) law and its violation is punished by papal penalties, i. e., penalties enacted in the Code of Canon Law. Common or episcopal cloister is that imposed by canon law on all religious congregations (institutes of simple vows) of men and women. The name common is due to the fact that this cloister is less strict than papal, especially the papal cloister of nuns. This type of cloister was termed episcopal before .the Code of Canon Law. The same expression is still used, aIthough less frequently, because in the law of the code the local ordinary ex-ercises supervision over the exact observance of common cloister and may enforce its observance with canonical penalties (c. 604, § 3). Statutor~t or disciplinary is cloister insofar as it is prescribed by ¯ the particular Rule and constitutions; active, insofar as it forbids leaving the house; passive, insofar as it forbids the entrance of ex-terns into the cloistered parts; material, the cloistered parts of the house; formal, the laws of the code by which the going out of the religious or the entrance of externs is forbidden and regulated. III. Definition, purpose, obligation. The meaning, of common cloister is that the religious do not leave the house without the per~ mission of the superior according to the constitutions nor regularly receive any person of the other sex in the part of the house reserved for the community. The primary purpose of cloister is the preser-vation of the virtue of chastity. Under this aspect cloister frees the 1. Bouscaren, Canon Law Digest, III, 221-52. 282 CLOISTER OF CONGREGATIONS' religious from many temptations, protects the good name of the institute and of the religious state, and prevents scandals, suspicion, and harmful gossip even among the inquisitorial and hostile. Cloister is also an element of the external or canonical contemplative life. Its purpose under this heading is to develop and intensify a truly prayerful, interior, and spiritual 1ire'by withdrawing the religious from an atmosphere of worldliness and distraction and surround-ing her with one of tranquillity, peace and recollection. Cloister is likewise a habitual exercise of mortification and penance, an aid to the preservation of religious discipline in general, and of conspicuous practical utility for persevering study and labor. The mere statement of these aims reveals the value of a cloister that is intelligently en-acted and faithfully observed both in external action and interior purpose. It must be admitted, however, that the modern apostolate demands that at least very many sisters go out of the cloister more frequently and remain out of it for much longer periods daily than in the past. This age, therefore, requires a rigorously cloistered heart rather than a mere cloistered convent, a soul immutably turned to God in love rather than a mere veiled face, sincere detachment rather than mere walls and locked doors, a true interior life rather than mere external protection, and the double barrier of habitual prayer and mortification rather than the double grille. It is an aged canonical maxim that as the fish is lifeless without water so the monk with-out his monastery. I am of the opinion that we must modernize this venerable figure and demand of the religious an amphibious spiritual life. Common cloister is obligatory from c. 604, § 1, on all congre-gations. The constitutions of some institutes of simple vows give the impression either of error or inaccuracy in stating that cloister is not of obligation. It is true that papal cloister is not of obligation for congregations and that it is stricter than common cloister, but the latter is obligatory on all congregations. Both papal and com-mon cloister exist only in canonically erected formal and non-formal religious houses.2 Cloister does not demand that the institute be the proprietor of the house. Neither papal nor common cloister exists in canonically filial houses, summer villas and vacation houses, houses that are not completely erected materially, a house in which the community is not yet residing, nor in a temporary residence, e. g., a house rented and used while the religious house is being renovated. 2. Cf. cc. 597, § 1; 604, § 1; Berutti, De Religiosis, 268; Vromant, De Personis, n. 429. 283 JOSEPH F. ~ALLEN Review for Religious Cloister begins as soon as the community has taken up residence in a canonically erected house, but the precise moment is determined by the higher superior when such residence is begun, gradually. From custom or the enactments of the general chapter or higher superiors, the regulations of common cloister will and should be observed also in filial houses, temporary residences, and even more strictly in vaca-tion houses. IV. Cloistered parts of the house. The parts of the house des-tined for the exclusive use of the religious are those that are to be placed within common cloister. In constitutions approved by the Holy See, these ordinarily are the cells or dormitories, the infirmary, and the refectory. The community room, kitchen, and pantry are sometimes placed within cloister. The cloistered parts of the house are usually determined in the constitutions of sisters. Added deter-minations, the settlement of doubtful cases, the determination of the parts to be cloistered when these are not designated in the con-stitutions, from analogy with c. 597, § 3, appertain to. higher su-periors and the general chapter. The same authorities have the right of changing the boundaries of cloister permanently, except those determined in the constitutions, and may change also these tempor-arily. A proportionate reason is required for either change. V. Doors and locks of cloister. The constitutions of some con-gregations of sisters contain the enactment that the convent doors are to be locked at night and the keys given to the superior. This en-actment undoubtedly has its origin in the norm for the papal cloister of nuns: "The keys of the cloister shall be in the hands of the su-perioress night and day; and she shall give them to certain desig-nated nuns when there is need.''3 Frequently enough the constitu-tions of nuns add to this norm by prescribing that the cloister doors are to have two distinct locks, and these may also be supplemented by bolts and bars. Some orders also command that at night the keys of the two distinct locks are to be put into a box, which it-self is secured by two distinct locks. The keys of the" latter are to be given to two nuns, so that the presence of both is required to open the box. The minimum requisite of such enactments is exit doors that can be opened from the inside only by a key. I believe that a com-petent and conscientious American fire inspector would be apt to object to such exit doors. Building and fire prevention codes and practices in the United States appertain especially to local civil or- 3. Bouscaren, Canon Law Digest, I, 319. 284 November, 1956 CLOISTER OF CONGREGATIONS dinance and authority, and it would be prudent to consult these in the present question. The National Fire Protection Ass6ciation states that its standards ". are widely used by law enforcing authOrities in addition to their general use as gu!des to fire safety.TM In its pamphl~t, Building Exits Code, this association states: "All doors used in connection with exits shall be so arranged as to be always readily opened from the side from which egress is made. Locks, if provided, shall not require a key to operate from the inside~ Latches or other releasing device~ to 6pen doors shall .be of simple types, the method of operation of which is obvious even in darkness.''6 This standard is not specifically hplSlied to such residences as convents or religious houses in general, but it is extended to very similar resi-dences, e. g., apartment houses, which are defined as ". residence buildings providin~ sleeping accommodations for 20 or more per-sons, such as cbnventiorial apartments, tenement houses, lodging houses, dormitories, multi-family, houses, etc.''6 VI. Admission only of the male sex forbidden (c. 604, § 1). By the code, only the entrance of those of the'opposite sex into the cloistered parts is forbidden. Insofar as the entrance of the same sex-is prohibited in any congregation, the obligation is merely of the constitutions. Both the purpose of cloister and ordinary charity demand that even the same sex should not be admitted in a way that would unreasonably disturb the work, recollection, and. espe-cially the privacy of the religious. VII. Exemptions from the prohibition of entrance (cc. 604, § 1; 600; 598, § 2). Can. 604, § 1, extends to common cloister the exemptions given for papal cloister in cc. 600 and 598, § 2, Since these exemptions were enacted for papal cloister, they are not. inl~er~ preted entirely in the same sense when applied to common cloister. Those exempted by cc. 600 and 598, § 2 are: 1. The local ordinary or his delegate for the canonical oisitation. It is sufficient for his examination of the cloister that he be accom-panied by sisters, either two or one, preferably the superior. 2. Priests to administer the sacraments or to assist the dying. For a just and reasonable cause, any man or.boy may be admitted into common.~ loister. The administration of any sacrament and the assistance of .the .dying are evidently just causes, and therefore any priest, may be. admitted into common .cloister for these reasons. "4. Building Exits ~6~ (Boston: National Fire'Protection Association, 12th ed., 1952, reprinted 1955), back of front cover. ." "- ¯ ~ 5. Ibid., n~ 50'3 .r.," ~.:", " : . . ; ~'~ ~, ~ '~ , 6. Ibid., nn. 2800, 2812. 28.5 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Religious 3. Those who hold the supreme power in the state, with their wines and retinue, and cardinalL with their retinue. This exemption isnot too prattical, and. for that reas6n is omitted in many constitu-tionsi While actually in power, even if not Catholics, kings, em-perors, presidents.of republics, the governors of our states with their wives and retinue, and cardinals with their retinu~ may enter the cloister in ahy country, even outside their own country or state. This exerription does not apply to those Who have been elected to but have not a~ yet entered on the office of supreme power, nor to persons who held supreme power in the past but do not hold it now, nor to cabinet members, senators, and congressmen. The dignity of all of these, however, would be a sufficient reason for their admission into" Common"cloister. A wife in the sense of this canon is one who is commonly held as such,' even though the marriage is invalid, e. g., because of a previous marriage. She and her. retinue may be ad-mi_ tted into the common cloister of men (c. 598, § 2). The same is true of a woman who holds,the supreme power in the state, with her .retinue. The code does .not forbid the entrance of a woman into the common cloister of religious women. 4. The superior may, with proper precautions, admit doctors, surgeons,, and others whose services are neCessar~j. There is evidently a just and teasonable cause fbr the admission of all of these. 5. Others mdy be admitted for a just and reasonable cause in the judgment of the superior, the proper'l~recautions always being ob-served (c. 604, § 1). This legislation is directly on common cloister and gives the general norm for the admission of men and boys iiato the common cloister of women. It is a sufficient norm in itself; and it is very difficult'to.see the .utility of the code's extension of cc. 600 and" 598, § 2, as enumerated above, to common cloister. There is obviously a just and reasonable cause for the admission of all of those listed above from these two canons. The proper precautions may be determined in ~the constitutions. If not,- it "is sufficient thata sister, preferably the local superior or an official, accompany any man admitted to the cloister. This is also true of a priest hdmitted for the confessions of'the sick. It is sometimes specified that the door of 'the room is to be left open while the confession is being heard. This is not always possible because of the smallness bf the room and of the adjoining corridor. No one of the. opposite sex should be .permitted to remain in the cloister longer than is necessary. Men or boys may be admitted into the common clbister of wo- 286 November, CLOISTER Ol~ CONGRI~GATIbNS the house. sister m. ay Permission ticular, or the code. men for a just and reasonable cause, which is less than a serious or grave cause. Therefore, a father, brother, or close male relative may be permitted to enter the infirmary to see a sister who is ill. Greater rea-sons, such as the.preceding and the administration of the sacraments, should be required for admission into a section devoted to the dor-mitories or cells of the sisters than into other parts of the cloister. Lesser reasons are sufficient for the admission of women and girls into the cloister when their entrance is forbidden by~ the constitutions. Particular constitutions may licitly demand more serious reasons than those required by the code for the admission of men and those commonly demanded for the admission of women. All superiors are competent to permit entrance into the cloister. 6. Male professors. According to the modern practice of the Sacred Congregation of Religious, neither the constitutions nor the custom of the instit.ute is to permit the admission of lay male pro-fessors into the cloister for the instruction of the sisters in letters or arts. When judged really necessary and not opposed b~; the local ordinary, such instructors are to teach in places outside the cloister. The mother general is to determine the precautions .necessary to avoid all danger and suspicion.7 ¯ VIII. Going out of the conoent (c. 606, § 1). Canon law does not forbid sisters to leave the house withotit the permission of su-periors but presupposes that this prohibition is contained in the con-stitutions; and in c. 606, § 1 obliges superiors to take care that the constitutions are exactly, observed with regard to subjects leaving By the law of the constitutions and universal usage, no leave the convent without the permission of the superior. may be explicit, implicit, tacit, reasonably presumed,, par-general. A violation is only of the constitutions, nQt of In the law of common cloister as understood in the code and generally practiced, sisters are permitted to leave the convent for any reasonable cause, e. g., for anything that is necessary, useful, or con-ducive to the special purpose and works of the cgngregation, for medical and dental care, spiritual reasons such as going to con~fession, for shopping, for reasonable recreation such as a walk, for works of charity such as attendance at funerals and the visiting of bereaved families, of sick, sisters, women, and children, and for reasons de-manded .by ordinaiy courtesy and politeness. They should not be permitted to go.out for reasons that are idle, u.nbscomin~,, harmful to the religious spirit, or illicit . 7. Cf. Norraae of 190l, n. 173. JOSEPH F~ GA.iLEN Regigto ttor Religious Law is .a reasonable norm of conduct; and therefore the request to go out, even for such a spiritual purpose as confession, should be reasonable. Furthermore, in granting the right "of approaching an occasional confessor, canon law gives no exemption whatever from religious discipline. It is unreasonable to expect permission to leave ~he convent,, especially if this is frequent or habitual, to go to a con-fessor who lives at a notable distance, when appreciable exigense would be necessary, or when the sister would to any degree have to be ex-cused from her assigned work. ~. There is no doubt that a congregation, may have a stricter com-mon cloister than that demanded by the code and that cloister con-tributes to freedom from temptation, dangers of the world, and'dis-tractions, and tends to foster a real interior life. Cloister, however, should not be obstructive of the special purpose of the institute nor such as to induce an artificial, inconsistent, or formalistic observance. Everything in an institute should be in agreement with and subordin-ated to its purpose. Some congregations were founded in an age that could not conceive a religious woman without papal cloister. Others took papal cloister as a fairly close model for the norms of their own constitutions. In congregations cloister should be capable of:.!unstrained observance within the framework of the purpose, works, and ordinary daily lives of the rellgiou's. The local superior gives permission to leave' the 'conven(, except for the cases that in some institutes are reserved'to higher Superiors by the constitutions or custom. The constitutions frequently forbid Sisters to visit private homes, and especially to eat or drink in them Without special permission. In a few institutes, this permission is r~served to higher superiors. Some constitutions specify that the permission of the local superior is sufficient to visit hoUses of the congregation in the vicinity, but a few demand tpheerm ~ "s s"ton of the fi~'gher superior. Constitutions quite often prescribe that a sister must 15~iVe another sister as companion when going to a do~t0ro~ dentist fo~'treatment.'There is also a frequent piohibition aga.in~t visiting house~ of priests without necessity, permission, and a sister com-p'~ inion~ '-'," ' . ~" It'i~ould be advisable to consider the temper, ing. of" the prohi-l~ itiona~ainst eating and drinking in private homes With"~egard to the occasions when a light lunch or hot or cold dri~{I~ could not b'e ~efused without' appearing discourteous and impolitel There can be 'n(~
Higher education is broadly recognized as one of the most significant components of modern social and economic development. The quality of education at a university depends on factors such as how the university is managed, how effective the management decisions are, and what consequences they have for the advancement of society. While the consequences have numerous hardly equitable aspects, this article hypothesizes that it is possible to build a synthetic model for the assessment of university management, that takes into account a full range of existing quantitative and qualitative effects. The study aims to identify the relationship between the quality of management and the performance variables needed to build the model. The research methodology includes the application of econometric analysis for the formation, ranking, and determination of point values of a balanced scorecard (BSC). Finally, the findings of this research led to the creation of a workable model that allows both direct and reverse translation of a quantitative management assessment into a qualitative (verbal) one. Further, the verification using the available empirical data confirmed the model's validity. We would thus recommend this model for solving a whole range of university management issues, especially in areas with predominant ripple and indirect effects, i.e., in the interaction of higher education entities with regional and local communities.
This doctoral dissertation evaluated the use of sustainable biomass sources (agri-food waste and residues, and industry streams) in anaerobic digestion with the goal of replacing maize silage in a large-scale biogas production and investigated alternative pathways of biogas utilisation incorporated in energy systems operating with high share of renewable energy sources. The methods applied in the research included elements of chemical and mechanical engineering in order to create a holistic approach that could be applicable to various biogas plant cases. Experimental investigations showed the biogas yield of residue lignocellulosic biomass of 0.192-0.275 Nm3/kgTS, and bulk food waste of 0.252-0.566 Nm3/kgTS. Meat and bone meal and wastewater sludge were shown to be co-substrates with antagonistic effect in biogas production, however they increased the reaction rate of overall degradation. Pyrolysis of digestate showed lower energy requirements and higher biochar yield (38%) compared to direct pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass (24%). The gate fee business model for receiving biodegradable waste and the implementation of new technologies, namely biogas upgrading, are the most likely options for biogas plants in the future. A robust mathematical model of power-to-gas integration showed that the installation of 18 MWel of wind and 9 MWel of photovoltaics with an additional import of 16 GWhel from the grid could produce 36 GWh of renewable methane which could be economically competitive with natural gas if the feedstock gate fee in the proposed system was -120 €/t. Geospatial availability of an energy potential of biogas production from examined feedstocks, combined with Life Cycle Assessment of the alternative biogas utilisation pathways created the synergistic effects in terms of reduced environmental burdens by 4-36 times compared to the current operation. Based on the applied methods and outcomes of the doctoral thesis, the research hypothesis "Applying holistic approach on biogas plants, both on the production and utilisation side, can increase economic profitability and environmental benefits over current subsidised operation" was tested and confirmed. The economic feasibility of biogas plants after exiting subsidy schemes will include the implementation of the gate fee business model for substrates, new investments in biomass pretreatment lines, increase of on-site biogas storage capacity and additional investments in renewable methane production system, primarily biomethane. Environmental burdens of such actions will be reduced through a contribution of biowaste management on urban and rural level, combined with the utilization of biogas for production of biomethane as a replacement to natural gas. ; Biomasa je obnovljiv izvor energije (OIE) te ima važnu ulogu u diverzifikaciji opskrbe energijom u Europskoj Uniji (EU) [1]. Ona doprinosi ravnoteži ugljikovog dioksida (CO2), stvaranju radnih mjesta, smanjenju emisija stakleničkih plinova (eng. Greenhouse gas, GHG) te osiguravanju dostupnosti resursa i njihovom ekonomičnom gospodarenju [2]. U Republici Hrvatskoj biomasa je definirana prema Zakonu o obnovljivim izvorima energije i visokoučinkovitoj kogeneraciji kao "biorazgradivi dio proizvoda, otpada i ostataka biološkog podrijetla iz poljoprivrede (uključujući tvari biljnoga i životinjskoga podrijetla), šumarstva i srodnih proizvodnih djelatnosti, uključujući ribarstvo i akvakulturu, kao i biorazgradivi dio industrijskoga i komunalnog otpada" [3]. Biomasa se može direktno koristiti kao gorivo za dobivanje energije (npr. drvna biomasa u kotlovima), ili se može biokemijskim, kemijskim, ili termokemijskim postupcima pretvoriti u materijal dodane vrijednosti – biogorivo, čime se postiže njezina šira primjenjivost u energetske svrhe [4]. Biogoriva prve generacije dobivena iz prehrambenih usjeva kao uzgojene biomase [5] naišla su na neodobravanje znanstvene zajednice i šire javnosti, primarno zbog korištenja obradivih površina za njihov uzgoj. Napredna biogoriva (druge i treće generacije [5]) proizvedena su iz biomase koja nije kompetitivna s proizvodnjom hrane, a u nju spada otpadna biomasa iz kućanstva i industrije, poljoprivredni ostatci, neprehrambeni usjevi te alge. Ova doktorska disertacija stavlja fokus na korištenje biomase u procesu anaerobne razgradnje za dobivanje bioplina. Cilj istraživanja je ostvariti sinergijski učinak između ekonomičnog korištenja otpadne biomase i proizvodnje energije u sustavima s velikim udjelom OIE kako bi se postiglo smanjenje utjecaja na okoliš u usporedbi s trenutnom praksom u bioplinskim postrojenjima koja uključuje korištenje kukuruzne silaže i proizvodnju električne energije uz zajamčenu otkupnu cijenu. Mjesto nastanka, tip biomase, te njezine količine bitan su faktor za strateško pozicioniranje novih bioplinskih postrojenja, te za planiranje novih lanaca opskrbe sirovinama u postojećim postrojenjima. Geografski informacijski sustav (eng. Geographic Information System, GIS) [6] prepoznat je kao vrijedan alat za mapiranje potencijala izvora biomase, kao i određivanje transportnih udaljenosti od mjesta nastanka biomase do postrojenja. GIS analiza na razini EU pokazala je ukupni energetski potencijal za proizvodnju bioplina iz poljoprivrednih ostataka i životinjske gnojovke na godišnjoj razini jednak 0.7 EJ (oko 195 TWh) [7], što je dvostruko više nego proizvodnja bioplina iz tih supstrata ostvarena u 2016 godini u EU. Primjenom GIS alata na lokalnoj razini u Grčkoj, Sjedinjenim Američkim Državama i Finskoj pokazano je da ekonomski prihvatljive transportne udaljenosti za supstrate mogu varirati između 10 i 40 km [8–10]. Povećanjem radijusa raspoloživosti biomase povećava se i kapacitet postrojenja čime je moguće ostvariti veću proizvodnju obnovljive energije, no istovremeno stvara se dodatan teret na okoliš, kako je još uvijek većina biomase transportirana teretnim vozilima na fosilna goriva [10]. Ono što također treba uzeti u obzir prilikom procjene korištenja biomase u bioplinskom postrojenju je njezina tržišna vrijednost, odnosno plaća li bioplinsko postrojenje za biomasu, ili dobiva naknadu za njezino gospodarenje (eng. Gate fee, GF). U postojećim okvirima proizvodnje bioplina, cijena kukuruzne silaže je između 15 i 40 € po toni sirovine [11], dok alternativni izvori biomase (npr. miješani komunalni biootpad i otpadna hrana) postižu GF u iznosu od -60 do 0 €/tona [11]. Nakon što biomasa uđe u prostor bioplinskog postrojenja, potrebno ju je adekvatno pripremiti za proces anaerobne razgradnje. U tu svrhu mogu se koristiti metode predobrade koje se služe termičkim, mehaničkim, kemijskim ili biološkim postupcima (ili nekim njihovim kombinacijama) [12]. Metode predobrade služe kako bi potaknule proces razgradnje kompleksnih polimernih molekula prisutnih u organskoj tvari, čime se postiže viša konverzija biomase u bioplin [13]. Uspješnost razgradnje biomase te proizvodnje bioplina, kao i stabilnost u procesu određuju se eksperimentalnim mjerenjima, pri čemu se prate procesne varijable kao što su sadržaj suhe tvari (eng. Dry Matter, DM, ili Total Solids, TS), proizvodnja i sastav bioplina, pH, koncentracija hlapljivih masnih kiselina (eng. Volatile Fatty Acids, VFA), ukupni anorganski ugljik (eng. Total Inorganic Carbon, TIC), prisutnost amonijakalnog dušika (eng. Ammonium-nitrogen, NH4-N), koncentracija soli, teških metala i ostalo [14]. Na temelju vrijednosti navedenih procesnih varijabli operatori bioplinskih postrojenja znaju odvija li se proces unutar dozvoljenih vrijednosti te kako reagirati ukoliko je primijećena nestabilnost u procesu. Eksperimentalni podatci također služe za modeliranje kinetike anaerobne razgradnje [15] pri čemu se ovisnosti o kompleksnosti ulaznih podataka i traženih rezultata mogu primijeniti razni kinetički modeli [16–18]. Složeniji modeli zahtijevaju veći broj ulaznih podataka, ali također daju i detaljniji uvid u mehanizam reakcija i otkrivanju tzv. uskog grla procesa koji određuje ukupnu brzinu nastanka bioplina. Osim bioplina, drugi proizvod anaerobne razgradnje je digestat kojeg čine nerazgrađeni ostatci biomase u tekućoj fazi [19]. Tekuća frakcija digestata je obično bogata makronutrijentima – dušikom (N), fosforom (P) i kalijem (K), što ju čini primjenjivom kao gnojivo za tlo [20]. Čvrsta frakcija digestata također sadrži P, ali i zaostali organski ugljik (C) što ga čini prikladnim za poboljšavanje karakteristika tla, kompostiranje [21] ili za neki od oblika energetske oporabe [22]. Prednost korištenja digestata u opisanim načinima leži u činjenici da je njegova tržišna vrijednost mala, tek 2-4 €/t [23]. Proizvedeni bioplin najčešće se koristi kao gorivo u kombiniranoj proizvodnji električne i toplinske energije, kogeneracija (eng. Combined Heat and Power, CHP). Proteklih desetljeća na razini EU mehanizmi subvencija za bioplinske kogeneracije u vidu feed-in-tariffa i feed-in-premija rezultirale su intenzivnom penetracijom bioplina u elektroenergetski sektor [24]. Razina subvencija je definirana na nacionalnoj razini, ali u svim članicama EU nije niža od 80 €/MWhel, što je gotovo dvostruko veći iznos od prosječne veleprodajne tržišne cijene električne energije u EU [25]. Također, ono što je važno napomenuti jest da su subvencije izdane na određeni period (12-20 godina od statusa stjecanja povlaštenog proizvođača električne energije [26]) nakon čega će bioplinska postrojenja morati razmotriti neke druge načine iskorištavanja (eng. Utilisation) bioplina da bi zadržale ekonomski isplativo poslovanje. Prema podatcima Europske udruge za bioplin (eng. European Biogas Association, EBA) u 2020. godini u Europi je bilo instalirano 18,943 bioplinskih postrojenja, od kojih je 18,214 (96%) radilo u kogeneracijskom načinu, a ostalih 4% kao postrojenja za proizvodnju biometana kroz tehnologiju poboljšavanja bioplina (eng. Biogas upgrading) odnosno uklanjanje svih ne-CH4 komponenti bioplina [27]. Ova doktorska disertacija detaljno razlaže inovativnije načine iskorištavanja bioplina u budućim energetskim sustavima, što će uključivati rad kogeneracijskih postrojenja u tržišnim okvirima [28], pretvorbu bioplina u biometan te proizvodnju e-metana kroz implementaciju power-to-gas (P2G) koncepta [29] u sustavima s visokim udjelom energije iz varijabilnih OIE. Primjena procjene životnog ciklusa (eng. Life Cycle Assessment, LCA) [30] može otkriti utjecaje promjene politika sirovina u proizvodnji bioplina i njegovog iskorištavanja u sprezi s budućim energetskim sustavima u odnosu na okoliš. Usporedba LCA performansi za bioplinsko postrojenje koje koristi životinjsku gnojovku i energetske usjeve pokazala je da bioplin za proizvodnju električne energije stvara uštede od oko 300 kgCO2-eq/MWhel, dok upgrading bioplina u biometan i njegovo ubrizgavanje u plinsku mrežu štedi oko 191 kgCO2-eq za proizvedeni MWh biometana [31]. Za preglednije tumačenje opisanih rezultata potrebno je izraziti emisije istom jedinicom, ali i prezentirati podatke o sastavu miksa električne energije (eng. Electricity mix). Za slučaj Irske, LCA je pokazao da integracija P2G koncepta za upgrading bioplina, uz korištenje električnog miksa od 85% OIE, može rezultirati smanjenjem GHG emisija za 70% u odnosu na fosilna goriva [32]. Na temelju pregleda literature (detaljniji prikaz u poglavlju Introduction), dosad nije zabilježeno istraživanje u području anaerobne razgradnje koje povezuje mapiranje i korištenje ostatne i otpadne biomase za proizvodnju bioplina sa njegovim iskorištavanjem u budućim energetskim sustavima. Ova doktorska disertacija je ocijenila takav cjeloviti pristup i predstavila rezultate istraživanja iz perspektive jednog, odnosno više bioplinskih postrojenja. Interdisciplinarni i cjeloviti pristup prema promatranoj temi koristio je elemente kemijskog i strojarskog inženjerstva za ispunjavanje četiri glavna cilja istraživanja: • • Kvantificirati proizvodnju bioplina koristeći nove supstrate biomase kao što su lignocelulozni ostatci iz poljoprivredne proizvodnje, otpadna hrana i industrijski nusproizvodi koji nisu konkurentni proizvodnji hrane, kao što je to slučaj s kukuruznom silažom u sadašnjoj proizvodnji bioplina. • • Procijeniti kinetičke parametre anaerobne razgradnje novih supstrata kombinirajući matematičko modeliranje i eksperimentalne podatke kako bi utvrdili utjecaj kemijskog sastava supstrata na stabilnost procesa i eventualna ograničenja u procesu. • • Utvrditi ekonomski isplative načine budućeg rada bioplinskih postrojenja na naprednim energetskim tržištima nakon što bioplinska postrojenja ostanu bez financijskih potpora i zajamčene cijene električne energije. • • Procijeniti utjecaje na okoliš različitih načina korištenja bioplina integriranih u buduće energetske sustave s visokim udjelom obnovljivih izvora energije. Ostvareni ciljevi istraživanja te rezultati prezentirani su široj znanstvenoj zajednici kroz sedam objavljenih znanstvenih radova (šest radova u kvartilu Q1 te jedan rad u Q2). Znanstveni članak 1 (ARTICLE 1) [33] prikazuje detaljnu analizu lanaca vrijednosti biomase iz različitih poljoprivrednih ostatka, nusproizvoda i otpada (eng. Agricultural wastes, co-products and by-products, AWCB). Rad opisuje faze u kojima i kako nastaje otpad kroz tri specifična koraka u lancu vrijednosti: proizvodnja/uzgoj, obrada u industriji te potrošnja/konzumacija. Analiza uključuje razdoblje od 7 godina, od 2010. do 2016. u 28 zemalja članica Europske unije (EU28) te uključuje četiri različita sektora sa 26 analiziranih dobara (eng. Commodity) i prikladnim vrstama otpada koji se pojavljuju u tim sektorima. Za izračun tehničkog potencijala AWCB korišteni su javno dostupni podaci iz EUROSTAT i FAOSTAT baze, a metoda proračuna uključivala je upotrebu specifične količine AWCB po analiziranim dobrima i sektoru. Rezultati su pokazali da je u analiziranom periodu u EU28 procijenjena količina AWCB iznosila oko 18,4 milijarde tona, a prema udjelima: animalni sektor ~ 31%, sektor povrća ~ 44%, sektor žitarica ~ 22% te sektor voća ~ 2%. Analizirajući pojedine sektore i količine nastalog AWCB, daljnje istraživanje bilo je usmjereno na evaluaciju korištenja određenih AWCB iz lanca vrijednosti biomase u procesu anaerobne razgradnje s ciljem proizvodnje bioplina. Znanstveni članci 2, 3 i 4 pokazuju rezultate takvog pristupa uz primjenu istraživačkih metoda kemijskog inženjerstva. ARTICLE 2 [34] istražuje upotrebu lignoceluloznih ostataka trave kao zamjene za silažu kukuruza u anaerobnoj razgradnji. Uzorci trave prikupljeni su s područja koja nisu kompetitivna s proizvodnjom hrane: neobrađeno zemljište, obala rijeke Save u gradu Zagrebu te bankina autoceste. U istraživanju je određen svježi i suhi prinos biomase, njezin kemijski sastav, prinos te sastav proizvedenog bioplina, a primjenom Anaerobic Digestion Model No. 1 (ADM1) modela određeni su kinetički parametri razgradnje trave. Ujedno, na kraju je dana usporedba okolišnijih učinaka zamjene kukuruzne silaže ostatnom travom u proizvodnji električne i toplinske energije. Rezultati istraživanja su pokazali da je najveći prinos ostatne trave utvrđen za obalu rijeke, sa prosječnom vrijednošću od 19 t/ha svježe mase i 2.6 t/ha suhe mase. Svi uzorci trave pokazali su zadovoljavajuće parametre za primjenu u anaerobnoj razgradnji − omjer C/N između 16.6: 1 do 22.8: 1. Ostvareni biokemijski potencijal metana u monorazgradnji (monodigestiji) ostataka trave su: 0.275 Nm3/kgTS za travu s neobrađenog zemljišta, 0.192 Nm3/kgTS za travu s obale rijeke i 0.255 Nm3/kgTS za travu s bankine autoceste. Procijenjeni kinetički parametri razgradnje trave razlikuju se od do sada objavljenih rezultata, prvenstveno zato što prijašnje analize uključuju specifične tipove travnate biomase, a ne ostatnu (miješanu) travu. Procijenjeni okolišniji utjecaji zamjene kukuruzne silaže travnatom biomasom u proizvodnji električne i toplinske energije pokazali su prednosti u smislu ostvarenog doprinosa kvaliteti ekosustava (eng. Ecosystem quality) i ljudskog zdravlja (eng. Human health), no također i nešto veće emisije GHG uzrokovane izgaranjem fosilnih goriva u poljoprivrednoj mehanizaciji i povećanim transportom trave zbog nižeg prinosa bioplina u odnosu na silažu. Čvrsta frakcija digestata dobivena u procesu monodigestije trave korištena je u znanstvenom članku 3 (ARTICLE 3) kao ulazni materijal za istraživanje procesa pirolize. Cilj istraživanja u ARTICLE 3 [35] bio je odrediti utjecaj anaerobne razgradnje na sastav lignocelulozne biomase korištenjem termogravimetrijske analize (eng. Thermogravimetric analysis, TGA). Također, procijenjeni su iznosi energije aktivacije i modificiranog predeksponencijalnog faktora za travu i njezine digestate, kao i prinos konačnog ostatka pirolize (eng. Biochar). Rezultati su pokazali da je procijenjena količina razgrađene celuloze i hemiceluloze u istraživanim uzrocima trave oko 44–50%. Nadalje, digestati trave pokazali su veći prinos biochar-a (oko 38%) u odnosu na uzorke trave (oko 24%). Kombinirani proces anaerobne razgradnje trave i pirolize njezinih digestata pokazao je manje vrijednosti procijenjenih kinetičkih parametra što upućuje na niže energetske potrebe takvog procesa u odnosu na direktnu pirolizu trave. ARTICLE 4 [36] bio je izrađen u suradnji sa industrijom biomase i bioplina. U radu je eksperimentalno istražena razgradnja otpadne hrane (eng. Food waste, FW) iz bioplinskog postrojenja zajedno s nusproizvodnima iz kafilerije (eng. Rendering plant): mesno-koštano brašno (eng. Meat and bone meal, MBM) i mulj sa otpadnih voda (eng. Wastewater sludge, WWS). Prvo je provedena termička predobrada uzoraka FW (FW1 i FW2) pri temperaturi od 35 °C i trajanju 5 dana u koju su bili dodani MBM i WWS u udjelima od 5, 10 i 15% TS. Nakon toga slijedila je anaerobna razgradnja pri 40.5 °C u trajanju od 40 dana. Uvjeti termičke predobrade i proizvodnje bioplina u laboratorijskom mjerilu replicirani su iz rada samog bioplinskog postrojenja. Također, za vrijeme procesa u laboratoriju bile su praćene sve procesne varijable kao i u radu digestora na postrojenju. Kao rezultat predobrade kemijska potrošnja kisika (eng. Chemical Oxygen Demand, COD) ispitivanih uzoraka povećala se za 7 – 26%. Dodavanjem MBM u FW1 došlo je do povećanja vrijednosti COD kao i NH4-N, dok se u slučaju dodatka WWS u FW2 postiglo smanjenje, što je i bilo očekivano, budući da je WWS materijal s niskim udjelom organske tvari. Kao rezultat testa anaerobne razgradnje dobiveni su sljedeći prinosi bioplina: za FW1 – 0.566 Nm3/kg TS, za FW1-MBM – 0.499 Nm3/kg TS, za FW2 – 0.252 Nm3/kg TS i 0.195 Nm3/kg TS za FW2-WWS. Tako širok raspon vrijednosti rezultat je heterogenosti FW (FW1 i FW 2 uzete su s vremenskim razmakom od dva mjeseca na istom postrojenju). Prema sastavu proizvedenog bioplina, kao i ostalim procesnim varijablama može se zaključiti da su FW1 i FW2 vrlo slični po sastavu, ali da je istovremeno postojao neki uzročnik inhibicije u proizvodnji bioplina za uzorak FW2, koji se nije mogao procijeniti na temelju dostupne opreme i provedenih mjerenja. Tek su mjerenja električne vodljivosti ukazala na to da uzorak FW2 sadrži nešto veću koncentraciju soli koja bi mogla biti uzročnik smanjenog prinosa bioplina. Nusproizvodi kafilerije dodani u 5%-tnom udjelu uzrocima FW rezultirali su smanjenjem proizvodnje bioplina za 12% u slučaju MBM i 23% u slučaju WWS, ali nisu utjecali na stabilnost proizvodnje. Štoviše, analizom kinetike razgradnje ustanovljeno je da MBM i WWS ubrzavaju proces razgradnje FW što se vidi iz višeg iznosa reakcijske konstante. Također, pokazano je da ispitivani uzorci najbolje koreliraju sa kinetikom prvog reda što je vidljivo iz najniže ostvarene vrijednosti RMSE (eng. Root mean square error) koja je iznosila 0.015 Nm3/kg TS. U znanstvenom članku 5 (ARTICLE 5) [37] provedena je tehno-ekonomska i scenarijska analiza rada bioplinskog postrojenja nakon isteka subvencija za proizvodnju električne energije. Vođenje takvog sustava temeljilo se na iznosu cijena električne energije i biometana (eng. Unit commitment with economic dispatch) koje su određivale koja od jedinica za prihvat bioplina: CHP, upgrading ili spremnik ima najveću ekonomsku isplativost u danom trenutku. Za opis dinamike korišten je program MATLAB/Simulink, a za ekonomsku analizu MS Excel. U prvom scenariju prikazan je utjecaj cijene proizvodnje električne energije u bioplinskom postrojenju (eng. Break-even point of electricity production, BECPel) na broj radnih sati kada ono može ostvariti svojevrstan profit na dan-unaprijed tržištu (eng. Day-ahead market) električne energije. Rezultati su pokazali da kada vrijednost BECPel postane 40 €/MWhel, bioplinsko postrojenje može ostvariti (neki) profit radeći samo 4,000 sati godišnje, kako je ostalo vrijeme cijena električne energije na tržištu niža od cijene proizvodnje. Kada BECPel postane 100 €/MWhel bioplinsko postrojenje ne može ostvariti nikakav profit radeći na dan-unaprijed tržištu. Kao jedno od rješenja koje se nameće za smanjenje vrijednosti BECPel je korištenje supstrata s negativnom cijenom (GF model) koja je detaljnije prikazana u članku 6 (ARTICLE 6). Drugi scenarij uključivao je instaliranje upgrading jedinice i proizvodnju biometana, a proizvodnja električne energije ovisila je o cijenama na tržištu uravnoteženja (eng. Balancing market). Takav pristup je pokazao da bioplinsko postrojenje i uz relativno visoku cijenu biometana od 80 €/MWh, može u određenim trenutcima ostvariti i veći profit ako radi na balancing tržištu. Treći scenarij za bioplinsko postrojenje uključivao je integraciju industrijskog otpada iz proizvodnje šećera za proizvodnju bioplina i njegovo korištenje za proizvodnju procesne topline u vrijeme šećerne kampanje. Takav pristup pokazao se relativno neisplativim za bioplinsko postrojenje kako je cijena prirodnog plina na veleprodajnom tržištu još uvijek dosta niska i bioplin joj ne može u tom smislu biti konkurentan. ARTICLE 6 [38] predstavlja rezultate integracije P2G koncepta u rad bioplinskog postrojenja koje se nalazi u GF poslovnom modelu, odnosno prima naknadu za ulazni supstrat pri proizvodnji bioplina. Cilj istraživanja bio je razviti robustan matematički model na satnoj razini za procjenu optimalnih kapaciteta vjetroelektrane i solarne elektrane, veličine spremnika za bioplin te kapacitete elektrolizera, upgrading jedinice i metanatora (eng. Methanation unit) koristeći linearno programiranje i besplatni (eng. Open source) programski jezik Julia. Kao funkcija cilja korištena je minimizacija ukupnih troškova. Matematički model testiran je na postojećoj bioplinskoj elektrani instalirane snage 1 MWel. Utvrđeno je da P2G koncept zahtijeva integraciju 18 MWel vjetra i 9 MWel solara na lokaciji, uz dodatan uvoz električne energije iz mreže u iznosu 16 GWhel kako bi se na godišnjoj razini proizvelo 36 GWh obnovljivog metana. Analiza je pokazala da GF (u promatranom slučaju za otpadnu hranu) značajno doprinosi ekonomskoj održivosti obnovljivog metana: promjena GF za 100 €/toni rezultira smanjenjem troškova njegove proizvodnje za 20-60%. Ustanovljeno je da za vrijednost GF=-120 €/tona obnovljivi metan iz prikazanog koncepta postaje cjenovno konkurentan prirodnom plinu. Robusna priroda modela pokazala je da nesigurnosti povezane s proizvodnjom električne energije iz vjetra i solara na lokaciji mogu povećati troškove proizvodnje obnovljivog metana za 10-30%. ARTICLE 7 [39] integralno obuhvaća rezultate svih dotad objavljenih radova u sklopu izrade doktorske disertacije i smješta ih u kontekst testiranja hipoteze. U njemu je provedena geoprostorna analiza (eng. Geospatial analysis) bioplinskog sektora korištenjem javno dostupnog programa QGIS te procjena okolišnijih utjecaja pomoću programa SimaPro. Cilj rada bio je mapirati energetski potencijal otpadne trave, industrijskih nusproizvoda i otpada, te komunalnog biootpada (otpadne hrane) za zamjenu kukuruzne silaže u postojećoj proizvodnji bioplina te planiranje proširenja bioplinskog sektora. Kao studija slučaja (eng. Case study) korištena je Sjeverna Hrvatska (eng. Northern Croatia), područje s intenzivnim bioplinskim sektorom te snažnom industrijom, poljoprivredom i velikom gustoćom stanovništva. Rezultati su pokazali da bi navedene sirovine mogle zamijeniti 212 GWh bioplina iz kukuruzne silaže u postojećim bioplinskim postrojenjima te stvoriti dodatnih 191 GWh biometana u novim postrojenjima. Također, geoprostorna analiza je pokazala da su neka bioplinska postrojenja izgrađena u neposrednoj blizini plinske transportne mreže (<2km udaljenosti) i da imaju potencijal za utiskivanje biometana u plinsku mrežu. Cjelokupna analiza utjecaja na okoliš postojećih bioplinskih postrojenja pokazala je da integralni pristup proizvodnji i korištenju bioplina stvara sinergijske učinke u smislu smanjenja opterećenja na okoliš, što izravno dokazuje hipotezu studije. Kompleksnost P2G koncepta i njegovi intenzivni energetski zahtjevi čine ga trenutno nepovoljnijim u usporedbi sa klasičnim upgradingom bioplina, no isti dolazi do izražaja kada se u razmatranje uzmu budući energetski sustavi s visokim udjelom OIE. Znanstveni doprinosi ovog rada ostvareni su kroz provedena istraživanja te prikazani kroz objavljene rezultate u radovima kako slijedi: • Eksperimentalnim istraživanjem anaerobne razgradnje novih supstrata biomase odredit će se potencijalne prepreke u proizvodnji bioplina, poput pojave inhibicije ili utjecaja tipa biomase na stabilnost procesa: ARTICLE 2: Ustanovljeno je da lignocelulozna biomasa u obliku ostatne trave ne sadrži fizikalno-kemijske karakteristike koje bi ograničile njezinu upotrebu za proizvodnju bioplina. Štoviše, pokazalo se da ista uzrokuje poboljšanu kontrolu pH što doprinosi stabilnosti proizvodnje bioplina. Nedostatak njezinog korištenja je taj što je za ostvarivanje većih prinosa potrebno primijeniti neki oblik predobrade. ARTICLE 4: Heterogenost otpadne hrane utječe na vođenje procesa za što je potrebno ustanoviti robusnu kontrolu procesnih varijabli. Pokazalo se da i na razini bioplinskog postrojenja postoje neke varijable koje se ne prate na dnevnoj razini (prisutnost soli i metala), a koje mogu uzurpirati proizvodnju bioplina. Ustanovljeno je da kafilerijski nusprodukti i otpad u manjim količinama mogu doprinijeti povećanju brzine razgradnje otpadne hrane. • Predložiti alternativne mjere za trenutni sektor bioplina uzimajući u obzir tržišne cijene i analizu utjecaja na okoliš koristeći pristup procjene životnog ciklusa. ARTICLE 5: Alternativne mjere za bioplinski sektor u vidu proizvodnje biometana i rada bioplinskih postrojenja na day-ahead i balancing tržištu električnom energijom pokazala se kao najvjerojatnija opcija nakon napuštanja poticajnih sustava za proizvodnju električne energije. U takvim okvirima tranzicija s kukuruzne silaže na supstrate alternativne supstrate postati će prihvatljiva operativna odluka uz dodatne investicije u novu opremu. ARTICLE 6: Integracija varijabilnih OIE u rad bioplinskih postrojenja pokazala je da će se u budućnosti paradigma bioplinskih postrojenja kao takvih promijeniti – više neće biti samo pasivni proizvođači struje, nego će postati aktivni sudionici na tržištima energijom. ARTICLE 2: Pokazano je da otpadana trava više doprinosi kvaliteti ekosustava i ljudskom zdravlju nego kukuruzna silaža, iako uzrokuje veće emisije stakleničkih plinova, prvenstveno zbog intenzivnijih potreba za transportom na fosilna goriva. ARTICLE 7: LCA predloženih mjera za sektor bioplina koje uključuju zamjenu kukuruzne silaže alternativnih oblicima biomase te iskorištavanje bioplina u sustavima s visokim udjelom OIE pokazala je sinergistički efekt u smislu smanjenja cjelokupnog tereta na okoliš. Analiza je također pokazala da je integracija P2G u promatranim okvirima još uvijek neatraktivna zbog kompleksnosti sustava i energetski intenzivnih procesa. • Napredni model geografskog informacijskog sustava mapiranja novih izvora biomase koji će u kombinaciji s različitim načinima korištenja bioplina integriranim u sustave visokih obnovljivih izvora energije u naprednim energetskim tržištima rezultirati robusnim matematičkim modelima primjenjivim na različite slučajeve bioplinskih postrojenja. ARTICLE 6: Razvijeni robusni model integracije P2G koncepta u rad bioplinskog postrojenja pokazao je sinergiju između GF poslovnog modela te integracije obnovljive električne energije i topline koji su objedinjeni u postavljenoj matematičkoj formulaciji nivelirane cijene obnovljivog metana (eng. Levelized cost of renewable methane, LCORM). ARTICLE 7: Razvijeni GIS model obuhvaća analizu postojećih bioplinskih postrojenja i pozicioniranje budućih biometanskih postrojenja na temelju geoprostorne analize dostupnih alternativnih supstrata i položaja plinske mreže. Hipoteza ovog istraživanja je da je primjenom cjelovitog pristupa u radu bioplinskih postrojenja, i na strani proizvodnje i iskorištavanja bioplina, moguće povećati ekonomsku profitabilnost i doprinos zaštiti okoliša u usporedbi s trenutnim subvencioniranim radom. Kroz provedena istraživanja hipoteza je testirana i potvrđena uzevši u obzir sljedeće: • Ekonomska profitabilnost bioplinskih postrojenja nakon napuštanja subvencija i ograničenja u korištenju kukuruzne silaže bit će teže ostvariva. Uključivat će implementaciju GF poslovnog modela za supstrate za što će biti potrebne nove investicije po pitanju linije za predobradu, povećanje kapaciteta za spremanje bioplina na lokaciji kako bi postrojenje bilo fleksibilnije na tržištu električne energije te dodatne investicije u sustav za proizvodnju obnovljivog metana, prvenstveno biometana. • Cjeloviti pristup pokazao je da će doprinos budućeg bioplinskog sektora smanjenju okolišnih tereta ići kroz dvostruki doprinos: iz gospodarenja otpadom za proizvodnju bioplina koji će uključivati prvenstveno komunalni i industrijski biootpad u urbanim bioplinskim postrojenjima, a poljoprivredne ostatke u ruralnim bioplinskim postrojenjima, te iskorištavanja bioplina za proizvodnju obnovljive energije u vidu biometana.
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Navigating challenging and complex civic spaces is nothing new for local organizations working to advance the rights and inclusion of LGBTI communities. Join NDI Senior Program Officer for Citizen Participation for a conversation with three partners from across the globe working to sustain their advocacy for equality and inclusion, while tackling some of the unprecedented challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic. Find us on: SoundCloud | Apple Podcasts | Spotify | RSS | Google Play Whitney Pfeifer: Navigating challenging and complex civic spaces is nothing new for local organizations working to advance the rights and inclusion of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and intersex communities. Regardless of the levels of tolerance and legal protection in a country, these groups know how to quickly adapt and utilize innovative approaches to maintaining their work and advocating for change. Although the COVID-19 pandemic has forced organizations to cancel Pride events, training, and in-person advocacy efforts, LGBTI organizations have been quick to respond and adjust, playing an integral role in meeting the basic needs of LGBTI individuals while utilizing online creativity to stay connected and sustain LGBTI community building. Today, we are joined by three partners from across the globe, each working to sustain their advocacy for equality and inclusion, while tackling some of the unprecedented challenges posed by the pandemic. We'll be speaking to each of these local partners to discover how they have successfully built digital communities that achieved real-life results. Welcome to DemWorks. In Panama, Fundación Iguales is working to shift social attitudes towards greater respect and acceptance of LGBTI communities. Part of this process includes collecting stories of how LGBTI communities are being impacted by COVID-19 and its response, demonstrating that as humans, we are all impacted by the pandemic, regardless of how we identify. We spoke with Ivan to learn more. Ivan, thank you for joining us. Ivan: Thank you. WP: Could you tell us a little bit more about the LGBTI community in Panama and the types of challenges LGBTI individuals face in building and maintaining a community? I: We are a country between Costa Rica, who just last month legalized civil marriage for same sex couples, and Colombia, a country with equal marriage since April 2016. We're a part of that less of the 30% of Latin Americans who live in a territory where marriage equality is prohibited. Moreover, are known for public policies that takes into consideration LGBTI persons. The challenges, there are many. As a gay person, for example, I'm not protected by any non-discrimination law, or the gender identity of the trans community is not part of what is respected by the government. There is unfortunately still a lot of stigma and discrimination for being queer. We're a small country where there's a strong control from conservatives and religious groups, but what are the good news, I guess? The civil society is finally organized, and organizations like Fundación Iguales are doing a marvelous work promoting the respect of our human rights, creating community, helping the LGBTIQ community to be more visible, and therefore more respected by the general public. We start a legal process to have marriage equality in Panama since 2016. We are very optimistic we will conquer in the courts and in the public opinion, by strategic innovative and emphatic messages of equality. WP: You alluded briefly to how Fundación is contributing to building and strengthening the community in Panama. Could you discuss the facts a little bit more about how Fundación is contributing to and strengthening during these uncertain times? I: First of all, with positive messages and with a clear presence in national conversations about the measures during the pandemic, highlighting the reality of LGBTI persons. We have had a very tough situation with restriction based on sex to restrain mobility of people here in Panama, and that had impacted dramatically the trans community and the nonbinary community of Panama, in some cases affecting their access to food and medicines. Yes, to be able to even go to the supermarket and buy bread and milk. We decided to join forces with other organizations, specifically with an organization called Hombres Trans Panamá. It's an organization conformed by trans men to create a solidarity network. The network was created for two main activities. The first one, it is to assist directly trans and non binary people who register for humanitarian assistance. We already covered 120 people who were in need of food and medicines. The second part of that program is an online survey to register discrimination cases for the trans community during the quarantine time. We have already had the report of 26 cases, mostly of trans person who were restricted to enter supermarkets to buy food because their gender identity or expression did not match what the police "expect" from them that day. That report was sent to the government, to regional organizations that monitor human rights, and we hope that impact possibly their lives. For other programs that Fundación Iguales is promoting during this times of pandemic, one that is very important is a series of podcasts called Panademia LGBTIQ+, a program of Fundación Iguales with [foreign language 00:06:20], which is an independent group of journalists to highlight stories of LGBTI persons during these times, telling their stories, especially the trans community. WP: That sounds like a lot of excellent work and strengthening the collaboration between groups has been really effective, I think, in this COVID pandemic situation. I: Indeed. WP: You alluded briefly to these podcasts. Are there other forms of technology that Fundación is using to continue the work that you're doing? I: Yes, and that's very interesting because we have to reinvent our work, basically. Just before COVID, we finished a super nice, unprecedented program going through the different provinces of Panama that we call the human rights tour, with the idea to be more democratic on the contents of human rights, specifically talking about Inter-American Court of Human Rights decision on equal marriage and gender identity, the Advisory Opinion 24. It was such a success and we planned to right away continue around the whole country. With this situation we have, being confined at home with mobility restrictions, we have to change all that, but we were lucky to have a strong presence in social media with a robust content that we were able to share and build from it. Also, our capacity of doing initiatives jointly with other NGOs like I mentioned before and you highlight, were also key to show the work that we were doing on respecting human rights. That coordination and collaborations, like the podcast example, the solidarity network, the level of infographic videos and social media interactions of Fundación Iguales are very solid. Since we dedicate an important part of our work to be present in national and international platforms for political participation, that allowed us to be more visible and not to be forget during these complicated times, WP: It sounds that you've been able to pivot pretty smoothly and quickly, despite I'm sure what have appeared to be challenges that we're all facing during the pandemic. Would you be willing to talk about kind of the role and benefits of partnering with international organizations such as NDI in your work? I: When I started Fundación Iguales, I was very privileged to know that working with international organizations like NDI was essential. I lived almost eight years in Washington, D.C., And before that I studied in New York City, and I worked for almost eight years in multilateral organizations. That experience gave me a different look to understand how, and how specifically a country like Panama, a country with so many challenges, with the lack of the government support and local support, I would say, organizations and enterprises and so on ... so for me, it was very important to know that a key part of my work was to knock some doors abroad because it's essential to boost the work that we do here. Definitely, without the help, assistance, donations and more important, the moral support of embassies and organizations like NDI, our work would have been way more difficult than what actually is. WP: As NDI, we like to partner and collaborate with our partners and recognize you as the experts and provide the technical assistance and guidance as needed. So it's good to hear that this has been beneficial for Fundación. My last question is about what's next for Fundación? I: We're very focused that we want a social change for our country in a social change for good. We want a Panama where all persons will be respected and where they can all be happy. We want Panama to join the club of countries where same sex couples can have the support and protection of the government, and more importantly, where society in general welcomes their families. We're trans persons can fully live and decide about their dreams and lives. And we're going to conquer that by strategic campaigns, with messages, with empathy. WP: Thank you, Ivan, for taking the time to speak with us. We look forward to seeing what Fundación is able to do in creating a safer and more equal space for LGBTI communities in Panama. I: Thank you, it's been a pleasure. WP: For more than 35 years, NDI has been honored to work with thousands of courageous and committed democratic activists around the world to help countries develop the institution's practices and skills necessary for democracy's success. For more information, please visit our website at www.ndi.org. You've heard about how an organization is engaging with communities and collecting stories to plan for future advocacy efforts from Fundación Iguales. But what happens when you are in the middle of a project, when things get disrupted? LGBTI communities in Romania successfully organized to prevent an amendment to the constitution that would ban same sex marriage that was put to a referendum in 2018. In the aftermath of these efforts, there was a need to establish priorities moving forward and create space for dialogue within the community about the next steps for the overall movement. Mosaic organized different segments of the LGBTI community, including transgender communities, LGBTI, Roma, women, and older people to build consensus around an advocacy agenda moving forward. In the midst of these community outreach efforts, COVID-19 happened. Vlad Viski, executive director of MosaiQ is with us. Vlad, thanks for joining us. Vlad Viski: Thank you for having me. WP: Can you tell us a little bit more about your project? VV: Between 2015 and 2018, in Romania, there was a national campaign to change the constitution and ban gay marriages, initiatives which were supported by conservative groups and a large share of the political party. For three years, in Romania, society has been talking, probably for the first time in a very serious manner, about LGBTI rights, about the place for the LGBT community in society. This conservative effort ended with a failure at the polls for the referendum to change the constitution, only 20% of Romanians actually casting the vote for this issue when the minimum threshold of votation, of turnout, was 30%. This was possible with quite a successful campaign coming not from not only from MosaiQ but from other LGBTI organizations in Romania throughout the country. We all kind of went on the boycott strategy, we're actually asking people to boycott the referendum because human rights cannot be subject to a popular vote. Once the referendum in 2018 failed in Romania, there was a question in the community. What should we do next? How should our agenda look like for the next couple of years? We at Mosaic, we really tried to focus and we really thought the issue of intersectionality as being extremely important. This is how the idea of this project started, Engage and Empower was the name of the project. It focused on six groups within the LGBT community: transgender people, LBTQ women, elderly, people living with HIV, Roma LGBT people, and sex workers. WP: Could you talk a little bit more about how the organization is trying to maintain momentum in this community building efforts, despite what's going on with the pandemic? VV: We at MosaiQ, we had to reimagine some of the projects that we were involved in, so that included canceling events or postponing them or rescheduling for the fall. But the problem is also that we don't really know the timeline for this story or when it will end. We've had issues related to personal issues of people in the community. People living with HIV were not getting their treatment due to the fact that hospitals were closed except for the coronavirus. Then we've had issues related to sex workers not being able to work anymore. The issue of poverty has been quite an important issue. A lot of people have been laid off, a lot of people were not able to pay rent, a lot of people were either in unemployment benefits, and so on. At the personal level for us and as an organization, all of a sudden we got a lot more messages from people asking for help. We've tried to help them on a case by case basis. We are not a social health kind of organization, but we've tried to fix as many problems as we were able to. Then throughout this, and actually talking about issue of intersectionality and the issue of the project and the way we work with the Roma LGBT community, what we've witnessed throughout this pandemic and the lockdowns, especially, was an increase in violence, against Roma people from the police. So together with colleagues from civil society, especially Roma groups, we had to monitor hate speech in the media, monitor cases of abuse and violence from the police, and also make statements and letters to official institution, to the president and the prime minister and so on. So for us, it was an issue of also solidarity with other groups affected by the pandemic. WP: I believe that you've had to move some of your activities online, correct? VV: That was another part, which we kind of tried to make the best out of the situation. We felt that there were a lot of young kids, for example, who, because schools were closed, they had to go back and live with their homophobic parents. A lot of organizations, LGBT organizations in Romania were not able to have the Zoom meetings with their volunteers because they were living with homophobic or transphobic parents so they could not reveal what they were doing or who they were talking to. So the issue of depression and psychological pressure that comes on people being locked down, people trying to survive throughout this pandemic, we decided to have a campaign online, which was called MosaiQ Quarantine, and that included parties online in order to support queer artists who were not able to earn any money because there were no gigs. We organized these online parties and we paid them and we supported their work. Then we had the zoom talks with, or like talks online, with all of the organizations and groups in Romania, LGBT groups, to kind of better see the situation on the ground in different cities in Romania. That was for us extremely important because we felt like there was a need to have this dialogue within the community. Then we had the all sorts of posts on social media and different kinds of events. We also talked with organizations from the region, from the US, from Moldova, from Russia, to kind of see what the feeling also over there. So for us, it was quite an exercise to take advantage of the fact that using social media and using online tools, we were able to reach out to people who otherwise would not have been able to participate in our events, being so far away. WP: It sounds like Mosaic has certainly stepped up to the challenges. Could you just briefly talk about what NDI support has meant to Mosaic? VV: I think the project funded by NDI was extremely important, both for the community ... right now, we have an active Roma LGBT group. We have all of these, the issue of intersectionality being put on the agenda. We have the [inaudible 00:19:36] sports, which is a sports club run by women who is also trying to grow based also on the support that Mosaic has offered through NDI. We've had, at the Pride last season, the first Roma LGBT contingent putting the issue on the agenda. So for us, in many regards, this project kind of focused us more on this intersectional approach to activism and the need to include all voices within the community. The trust that they had in us was very important. WP: I'm glad to hear that it's been a fruitful partnership, both for NDI and Mosaic. Vlad, thank you so much for taking the time to speak with us. VV: Oh, that's it. WP: We'll be back after this short message. To hear more from democracy heroes and why inclusion is critical to democracy, listen to our DemWorks podcast, available on iTunes and SoundCloud. Before the break we heard from two partners using digital platforms to create and support communities. But how are groups sustaining their online networks and communities once created? Rainbow Rights trained paralegals in the Philippines on legal issues related to sexual orientation and gender identity and how to support LGBTI communities. Through Google Classroom, these paralegals formed an online network to help communities facing discrimination and violence. Eljay, welcome to our podcast. Could you tell us a little bit more about the paralegal support project? Eljay: Yeah. One of the main components of our community paralegal program is to create a national online platform wherein all of the trained paralegals of our organization will be able to share their experiences, their cases, and they could also refer some of the difficult cases to us. So that's the main idea. It's just that it gained a deeper significance in this COVID-19 pandemic that we're experiencing because a lot of legal organizations hurried to do to do what we had been doing in the past year, which is to create an online platform. Right now, even though there's a lot of problems in the Philippines barring the central autocracy, we have been maintaining the platform. People are still referring cases to us and we are working on those cases. Part of the deeper significance that it has is in the Philippines, human rights violations have increased because of the lockdown. So it became a source of reporting documentation for these human rights violations during the lockdown. We did not expect that it will evolve that way but we're happy that it has, and despite some connectivity issues in the Philippines, it has been reaping as well. WP: So when you're talking about the program, there've been increased human rights reports, is that generally more broad human rights abuses? Or are we talking specifically to the LGBTI community? E: Yeah, we accept every report on numerous violations, but we take on the LGBTI human rights violations specifically. When we receive human rights violations that is not really in our lane, so to speak, we refer them to bigger organizations. We have seen increased numerous violation against the LGBTQI community here. WP: You had mentioned that Rainbow Rights fortunately had organized the training for the paralegals before the pandemic hit and already have a plan in place to use online platforms, which was Google Classroom, to create this network across the country. You've briefly referenced what the current situation is like now, but could you go a little deeper into that? What kind of challenges is Rainbow Rights facing in continuing to engage with the community? E: As I have mentioned, maybe a bigger challenge is the connectivity issues in the Philippines. We don't have good internet here, and that's a challenge. It's also challenged to keep the interest level of our paralegals and keep them engaged. That is also challenged because they have bigger problems now. Because of the pandemic, they're thinking of their health, they're thinking of their livelihoods, and that is a challenge during these times. However, before the pandemic, we also saw that we had to be creative at the level of interest, so that's a challenge. The situation, it's working. Overall situation's working. We have referrals, we continue to share modules in our platform, refreshing their memory on the training. We also try to be light. There are some light moments so that they be so that they keep themselves also, the interest level is high and that they see us and they trust us in maintaining this platform. WP: You alluded to the fact that it's often difficult to maintain interest of your paralegals when engaging online. E: Basically, we had a two-pronged approach on this. One is to find the people who has a genuine interest to serve the community. So in our selection process, we have chosen people who have track records of service in their communities. The other side of the approach is to build on the spirit of camaraderie, friendship, and community solidarity between us. So even before the pandemic, we have been setting up calls and checking on them, even adding them on Facebook and Twitter just to continually engage with them. I think that's a big part of our strategies. We're also looking to ... I think in my personal view, I think a lot of what they do is labor, so I think in the future, we will be able to compensate them for their efforts in their community and we're looking into that as well. WP: That's really interesting. Could you speak a little bit more to the role and benefits of partnering with international organizations such as NDI in your work and as well as helping to sustain this national network? E: Yeah. I think it's invaluable. Foreign support, foreign funding support such as the NDI had been really great for us. We have been envisioning this project for a long time and NDI gave us the opportunity to really implement it. They also gave us a level of freedom in how to execute the program because there's a recognition that we in the ground know how to solve our problems. But there's also a lot of technical support aside from the funding. Like in digital security, NDI has given us a lot of resources, even given us a training for this and how to secure our online platforms. They also provided a lot of coalition building resources. So there, and I think we are also sharing what our experience with NDI to our other funders, because I think with NDI, we had a lot of freedom and we had a lot of support because you guys always check on us, so that's great. WP: Well, I'm glad to hear that NDI is taking care of our partners. Thinking about how June is Pride Month for a lot of communities around the world, and Pride is often equated to the community of LGBTI people around the world how would you say Rainbow Rights efforts have contributed to strengthening the community in the light of the violence and the discrimination that LGBTI people face on a daily basis in the Philippines? E: Since 2005, Rainbow Rights has been doing this approach wherein we come ... a top down approach at the policy level, but we also complement it with from the grassroots, bottom up approach. We make sure that whatever we bring at the policy level, it is informed by our grassroots services. I think that's one of our biggest contribution, is to really complement policy with experience on the ground. Most of the policies that we've pushed for is really coming from what our experiences and what are the real needs of the people that we serve in the communities. I think that's one of our biggest contributions in our approach. We're not just the legal, we don't just bring cases to court. We don't just bring legal expertise, but we also inform it with community level approaches and grassroots approaches. WP: Well, thank you LJ again for taking the time to speak with us and telling us a little bit more about how Rainbow Rights is contributing to a holistic support system to the LGBTI community in the Philippines. E: Thank you so much for this opportunity. WP: Thank you to Ivan, Vlad, and Eljay for sharing their experiences and for the work you're doing to advance LGBTI equality and inclusion, and thank you to our listeners. To learn more about NDI or to listen to other DemWorks podcasts, please visit us at ndi.org
Rainbow Rights Paralegal Training
A Conversation With LGBTI Activists on Community-Building
Democracy (General), Podcast Listen LGBTI Pride National Democratic Institute NDICountries: All Regions
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Shivapur Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 331 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 313 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, about 18 ha by others (Habitation water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 6 soil series and 11 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units. The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. An area about 314 ha (95%) in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture. About 14 per cent soils are moderately deep (75-100), whereas 13 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50 -75 cm), 69 per cent soils are Very shallow and shallow (0.75%) in organic carbon content. An area of 77 percent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 18 percent soils are high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus. An area of about 92 percent is medium (145-337kg/ha) and 3 percent is low (4.5ppm) in entire cultivated area of the microwatershed. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of microwatershed. Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) which covers maximum area of about 88 percent in the microwatershed The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 84(25) Sapota - 42(13) Maize - 84(25) Pomegranate - 42(13) Bajra - 84(25) Musambi - 42(13) Groundnut - 42(13) Lime - 42(13) Sunflower - 42(13) Amla - 84(25) Redgram - 42(13) Cashew - - Bengal gram - 64(19) Jackfruit - 42(13) Cotton - 64(19) Jamun - - Chilli - 84(25) Custard apple 42(13) 42(13) Tomato - 84(25) Tamarind - - Drumstick - 42(13) Mulberry - 42(13) Mango - - Marigold - 84(25) Guava - 42(13) Chrysanthemum - 84(25) Brinjal - 84(25) Bhendi 21(6) 64(19) Onion 21(6) 64(19) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc. Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. The land resource inventory of Shivapur Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 331 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 313 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, about 18 ha by others (Habitation water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 6 soil series and 11 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units. The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. An area about 314 ha (95%) in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture. About 14 per cent soils are moderately deep (75-100), whereas 13 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50 -75 cm), 69 per cent soils are Very shallow and shallow (0.75%) in organic carbon content. An area of 77 percent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 18 percent soils are high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus. An area of about 92 percent is medium (145-337kg/ha) and 3 percent is low (4.5ppm) in entire cultivated area of the microwatershed. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of microwatershed. Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) which covers maximum area of about 88 percent in the microwatershed The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 84(25) Sapota - 42(13) Maize - 84(25) Pomegranate - 42(13) Bajra - 84(25) Musambi - 42(13) Groundnut - 42(13) Lime - 42(13) Sunflower - 42(13) Amla - 84(25) Redgram - 42(13) Cashew - - Bengal gram - 64(19) Jackfruit - 42(13) Cotton - 64(19) Jamun - - Chilli - 84(25) Custard apple 42(13) 42(13) Tomato - 84(25) Tamarind - - Drumstick - 42(13) Mulberry - 42(13) Mango - - Marigold - 84(25) Guava - 42(13) Chrysanthemum - 84(25) Brinjal - 84(25) Bhendi 21(6) 64(19) Onion 21(6) 64(19) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc. Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change.The land resource inventory of Shivapur Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 331 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 313 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, about 18 ha by others (Habitation water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 6 soil series and 11 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units. The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. An area about 314 ha (95%) in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture. About 14 per cent soils are moderately deep (75-100), whereas 13 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50 -75 cm), 69 per cent soils are Very shallow and shallow (0.75%) in organic carbon content. An area of 77 percent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 18 percent soils are high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus. An area of about 92 percent is medium (145-337kg/ha) and 3 percent is low (4.5ppm) in entire cultivated area of the microwatershed. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of microwatershed. Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) which covers maximum area of about 88 percent in the microwatershed The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 84(25) Sapota - 42(13) Maize - 84(25) Pomegranate - 42(13) Bajra - 84(25) Musambi - 42(13) Groundnut - 42(13) Lime - 42(13) Sunflower - 42(13) Amla - 84(25) Redgram - 42(13) Cashew - - Bengal gram - 64(19) Jackfruit - 42(13) Cotton - 64(19) Jamun - - Chilli - 84(25) Custard apple 42(13) 42(13) Tomato - 84(25) Tamarind - - Drumstick - 42(13) Mulberry - 42(13) Mango - - Marigold - 84(25) Guava - 42(13) Chrysanthemum - 84(25) Brinjal - 84(25) Bhendi 21(6) 64(19) Onion 21(6) 64(19) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc. Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change.The land resource inventory of Shivapur Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 331 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 313 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, about 18 ha by others (Habitation water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 6 soil series and 11 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units. The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. An area about 314 ha (95%) in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture. About 14 per cent soils are moderately deep (75-100), whereas 13 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50 -75 cm), 69 per cent soils are Very shallow and shallow (0.75%) in organic carbon content. An area of 77 percent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 18 percent soils are high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus. An area of about 92 percent is medium (145-337kg/ha) and 3 percent is low (4.5ppm) in entire cultivated area of the microwatershed. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of microwatershed. Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) which covers maximum area of about 88 percent in the microwatershed The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 84(25) Sapota - 42(13) Maize - 84(25) Pomegranate - 42(13) Bajra - 84(25) Musambi - 42(13) Groundnut - 42(13) Lime - 42(13) Sunflower - 42(13) Amla - 84(25) Redgram - 42(13) Cashew - - Bengal gram - 64(19) Jackfruit - 42(13) Cotton - 64(19) Jamun - - Chilli - 84(25) Custard apple 42(13) 42(13) Tomato - 84(25) Tamarind - - Drumstick - 42(13) Mulberry - 42(13) Mango - - Marigold - 84(25) Guava - 42(13) Chrysanthemum - 84(25) Brinjal - 84(25) Bhendi 21(6) 64(19) Onion 21(6) 64(19) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc. Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change.FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY The survey was conducted in Shivapur is located at North latitude 160 52' 42.322" and 160 52' 0.419" and East longitude 770 18' 44.615" and 770 16' 46.186" covering an area of about 331.92 ha coming under Gajarakota, Yadhalapura and KamalanagaraVillages of Yadagiri taluk. Socio-economic analysis of Shivapur micro watersheds of Shivapur sub-watershed, Yadagiri taluk, Yadagiri District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 total respondents, 20 were marginal, (57.14 %) were small 7 (20.00%), 2 (5.71 %) were Semi medium and 1 (2.86 %) were medium farmers. The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 103 (51.76%) men and 96 (48.24 %) were women. Majority of the respondents (42.21%) were in the age group of 16-35 years. Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 55.28 per cent illiterates, 5.03 percent pre university education and 2.01 per cent attained graduation. About, 94.29 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 5.71 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers. Agriculture was the major occupation for 16.58 per cent of the household members. In the study area, 85.71 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 8.57 per cent possess pucca house. The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 34.29 per cent possess TV, 2.86 per cent possess mixer grinder, 94.29 per cent possess mobile phones and 22.86 per cent possess motor cycles. Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 60.00 per cent of the households possess plough, 22.86 per cent possess bullock cart and 22.86 per cent possess sprayer. Regarding livestock possession by the households, 40.00 per cent possess local cow and 11.43 per cent possess buffalo. The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own men and women labour availability in the micro watershed was 11.22 each, while the hired labour (men) availability was 1.80. Further, 100.00 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season. Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 70.28 per cent (25.85 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 29.72 per cent area is irrigated land. There were 5.00 live bore wells and 5.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households. 2 The major crops grown by sample farmers are Redgram, Groundnut, Paddy, Sorghum and Green gram and cropping intensity was recorded as 93.85 per cent. Out of the sample households 80.00 percent possessed bank account and 80.00 per cent of them have savings in the account. About 31.43 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources. Among the credit borrowed by households, 10.71 per cent from cooperative/ Grameena bank and 3.75 per cent have borrowed loan from money lender. Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose. Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 100.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations. The per hectare cost of cultivation for Redgram, Groundnut, Paddy, Sorghum and Green gram was Rs.42150.68 , 50063.72, 50295.71, 19528.45 and 35647.53 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.1, 1:1.6, 1:1.1, 1:1.6 , and 1:1.4 respectively. Further, 68.57 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate. The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 105021.71 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 38542.86 comes from agriculture. Sampled households have grown 49 horticulture trees and 58 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards. Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 15142.86 for land development and Rs. 17571.43 for irrigation facility. Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 8.57 per cent depends on own funds and 11.43 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities. Regarding marketing channels, 17.14 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 74.29 per cent have sold in regulated markets. Further, 91.43 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity. Majority of the farmers (88.57 %) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 85.71 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing. Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 85.71 per cent of the households and 14.29 per cent households has LPG connection. Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 74.29 per cent of the households. Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households. In the study area, 77.14 per cent of the households possess toilet facility. Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card. Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (100.00%), pulses (91.43%) and oilseeds (25.71%) are adequate for consumption. 3 Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (88.57%) wild animal menace on farm field (88.57%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (37.14%), inadequacy of irrigation water (17.14%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (22.86%), high rate of interest on credit (8.57%), low price for the agricultural commodities (20.00%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (11.43%), inadequate extension services (8.57%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (22.86%), Less rainfall (31.43%) and Source of Agri-technology information (Newspaper/ TV/Mobile) (48.57%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Hosahalli-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 636 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 100 per cent is covered by soils and 150 cm) soils. An area of about 2 per cent has sandy soils, 17 per cent has loamy soils and 78 per cent has clayey soils at the surface. About 49 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity. About 8 per cent area has nearly level (0-1%) and 89 per cent area has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands in the microwatershed. An area of about 27 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 70 per cent moderately eroded (e2) lands. An area of about 18 per cent are neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 21 per cent are slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8), 11 per cent are moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4), 21 per cent are strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) and 25 per cent are very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in soil reaction. The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils is 0.75%) in 7 per cent area of the soils. Available phosphorus is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium content. Available sulphur is low (1.0 ppm) in 4.5 ppm) in 51 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in about 3 per cent area. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils. The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 10 (2) 360 (57) Sapota 10 (2) 113 (18) Maize - 369 (58) Pomegranate 10 (2) 314 (49) Bajra 70 (11) 340 (54) Musambi 10 (2) 314 (49) Groundnut 70 (11) 193 (30) Lime 10 (2) 314 (49) Sunflower 10 (2) 273 (43) Amla 70 (11) 500 (79) Red gram 10 (2) 264 (41) Cashew 10 (2) 124 (20) Bengalgram - 370 (58) Jackfruit 10 (2) 113 (18) Cotton 10 (2) 360 (57) Jamun 10 (2) 304 (48) Chilli 10 (2) 77 (12) Custard apple 70 (11) 500 (79) Tomato 10 (2) 77 (12) Tamarind 10 (2) 224 (35) Brinjal 71 (11) 453 (71) Mulberry 11 (2) 472 (74) Onion 71(11) 170 (27) Marigold 10 (2) 360 (57) Bhendi 71 (11) 453 (71) Chrysanthemum 10 (2) 360 (57) Drumstick 10 (2) 420 (66) Jasmine 10 (2) 159 (25) Mango 10 (2) 204 (32) Crossandra 10 (2) 87 (14) Guava 10 (2) 113 (18) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc. Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE STUDY The results indicated that 51 farmers were sampled in Hosahalli-1micro watershed among them 20(39.22%) were marginal farmers, 9 (17.65 %) were small farmers, 14(27.45 %) were semi medium farmers, 3 (5.88 %) were medium farmers and 5 (9.80 %) landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey. The data indicated that, there were 150(56.18%) men and 117 (43.82 %) were women. The average family size of landless and marginal farmer was 5, small and medium farmer was 4 and semi medium farmers were 7. On an average the family size was 5. The data indicated that 61 (22.85%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 116 (43.45 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 67 (25.09 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 23(8.61%) were above 61 years of age. The results indicated that the Hosahalli-1had 26.22 per cent illiterates, 25.09 per cent of them had primary school education, 8.99 per cent of them had both middle school, 18.73 per cent them had high school education, 7.12 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.75 per cent them had Diploma education, 2.62 per cent of them had degree education, 0.37 per cent of them had masters education and 8.61 per cent them had others. The results indicated that, 50.98 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 37.25 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labour, 9.80 per cent of the household heads were general labour and 1.96 per cent of the household heads were in private service. The results indicated that agriculture was the major occupation for 32.58 per cent of the household members, 28.84 per cent were agricultural labourers, 5.62 per cent were general labours, 0.37 percent were in government service, 1.87 per cent of them were in private sector, 20.60 per cent of them were students, 5.24 per cent of them were children and 4.12 per cent were housewives. In case of landless households 4 per cent were general labourers, 60 per cent of the household were general labour and 16 per cent were students. In case of marginal farmers 36.17 per cent were agriculturist, 27.66 percent was in agricultural labour, 2.86 per cent of them were in government service and 25.53 per cent were students. In case of small farmers 48.57 per cent of them were agriculturist, 14.29 percent was in agricultural labour and students. In case of semi medium farmers 32 per cent of the family members were agriculturist, 41 per cent of them were general labour and 17 per cent of them were students. In case of medium farmers 30.77 per cent of the family members were agriculturist and agriculture labour respectively and 38.46 per cent of them were students. The results showed that 100 per cent of the farmers have not participated in any local institutions. 2 The results indicated that 35.29 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 17.65 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 19.61 per cent of the households possess Pacca house and 1.96 per cent of them possess Semi Pucca house. The results showed that, 94.12 per cent of the households TV, 78.43 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 9.80 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 41.18 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 96.08 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. The results showed that the average value of television was Rs. 8062, mixer grinder was Rs.1700, bicycle was Rs.2200, motor cycle was Rs.32454 and mobile phone was Rs.2014. The data showed that, 11.76 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 21.57 per cent of them possess plough, 1.96 per cent of the households possess irrigation pump, power tiller, tractor and harvester respectively. 17.65 per cent of the households possess sprayer and 88.24 per cent of the households possess weeder. The results showed that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.17500; the average value of plough was Rs. 1545, the average value of irrigation pump was Rs. 2000, the average value of power tiller was Rs. 25000, the average value of tractor was Rs. 500000, the average value of sprayer was Rs. 4888, the average value of weeder was Rs. 107 and the average value of harvester was Rs. 100. The results indicated that, 13.73 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 21.57 per cent of the households possess local cow, 17.65 per cent of the households possess buffalo and 1.96 per cent of the households possess crossbreed cow, sheep and cow respectively. In case of marginal farmers, 5 per cent of the households possess bullock, 20 per cent of the households possess local cow, 15 per cent of the households possess buffalo and 5 per cent of the households possess goat. In small farmers 11.11 per cent of the households possess bullock and buffalo respectively. In semi medium farmers, 21.43 per cent of the households possess bullock, 50 per cent of the households possess local cow and 35.71 per cent of the households possess buffalo. In case of medium farmers 66.67 per cent of the households possess bullock and 33.33 per cent of the households possess crossbreed cow and sheep respectively. The results indicated that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.98, average own labour (women) available was 1.48, average hired labour (men) available was 8.33 and average hired labour (women) available was 6.07. In case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 1.65, average own labour (women) was also 1.30, average hired labour (men) was 7.05 3 and average hired labour (women) available was 5.15. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 1.44, average own labour (women) was 1.11, average hired labour (men) was 10.56 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.56. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 2.86, average own labour (women) was 2.07, average hired labour (men) was 9.29 and average hired labour (women) available was 6.43. In medium farmers average own labour men available was 1.67, average own labour (women) was 1, average hired labour (men) was 5.67 and average hired labour (women) available was 6. The results indicated that, 88.24 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate and 1.96 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was inadequate. The results indicated that, households of the Hosahalli-1micro watershed possess 29.69 ha (54.32 %) of dry land and 24.97 ha (45.68 %) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 12.20 ha (93.14 %) of dry land and 0.90ha (6.86%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 6.90 ha (73 %) of dry land and 2.55 ha (27%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 10.59 ha (45.55 %) of dry land and 12.66 ha (54.45 %) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 8.86 ha (100%) of irrigated land. The results indicated that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 520,124.03 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 576,373.36. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 717,070.33 for dry land and Rs. 1,780,180.25 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 376,436.11 for dry land Rs. 959,033.27 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 386,969.81 for dry land and Rs. 627,765.34 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 270,684.94 for irrigated land. The results indicated that, there were 8 functioning and 11 defunctioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicated that, bore well was the major irrigation source for 52.94 per cent of the farmers. The results indicated that on an average the depth of the bore well was 39.82 meters. The results indicated that, in case of marginal farmers there was 0.90 ha of irrigated land, in case of small farmers there was 2.46 ha of irrigated land, semi medium farmers were having 12.59 ha of irrigated land and medium farmers were having 4.86 ha of irrigated land. On an average there were 20.81 ha of irrigated land. The results indicated that, farmers have grown bajra (7.73 ha), banana (2.55 ha), Bengal gram (3.20 ha), cotton (2.13 ha), drumstick (0.49 ha), groundnut (4.69 4 ha), maize (25.48 ha), red gram (4.33 ha), sorghum (2.47 ha) and sunflower (0.81 ha) in kharif season. Marginal farmers have grown bajra, groundnut, maize, red gram and sunflower. Small farmers have grown bajra, banana, cotton, groundnut, maize and sorghum. Semi medium farmers had grown bajra, banana, Bengal gram, cotton, drumstick, groundnut, maize, red gram and sorghum. Medium farmers have grown bengal gram, groundnut and maize. The results indicated that, the cropping intensity in Hosahalli-1micro watershed was found to be 76.18 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 90.63 per cent, in small farmers it was 100, in semi medium farmers it was 78.02 and in medium farmers it was 41.30 per cent. The results indicated that, 49.02 per cent of the households have bank account and 19.61 per cent of the household possess savings. Among marginal farmers 55 percent of them possess bank account and 25 percent of the households possess savings. 55.56 per cent of small farmers possess bank account and 33.33 per cent of the households possess savings. In semi medium farmers, 57.14 per cent of them possess bank account and 7.14 savings per cent of them possess and in medium category of farmers possess 33.33 per cent of bank account and also savings correspondingly. The results indicated that, 25 per cent of marginal, 44.44 per cent of small, 28.57 per cent of the semi medium and 33.33 per cent of medium farmers have borrowed credit from different sources. The results indicated that, 42.86 per cent have availed loan in commercial bank, 50 per cent have availed loan from Grameena bank and 7.14 per cent have availed loan from money lender. The results indicated that, marginal, small, semi medium and medium have availed Rs.36600, Rs. 102500 and Rs. 56250 and Rs.50000 respectively. Overall average credit amount availed by households in the micro watershed was Rs. 62000. The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan for agriculture production. The results indicated that, 100 percent of loan was taken for health care. Results indicated that 100 per cent of the households have unpaid their institutional credit. Results indicated that 100 per cent of the households have repaid their private credit partially. The results indicated that 30.77 per cent of the households were opined that they were helped to perform timely agricultural operations and 69.23 per cent of them opined that higher rate of interest. The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households were opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfill the requirement. 5 The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 32799.55. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 129330.43. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 96530.89, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.94. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 36239.86. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 44053.21. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 7813.34. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.22. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 56153.85. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 113354.28. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 57200.42. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.02. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Sunflower was Rs. 42168.76. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 30875.00. The net income from Sunflower cultivation was Rs-11293.76. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.73. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 37564.88. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 56195.79. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. 18630.91. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.5. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 26051.69. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 41911.68. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 15859.99. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.61. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Cotton was Rs. 38511.39. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 75028.14. The net income from Cotton cultivation was Rs. 46253.24. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.61. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for banana was Rs. 143187.93. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 491750.31. The net income from banana cultivation was Rs. 348562.38. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.43. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Bengal gram was Rs. 42028.60. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 23304.69. The net income from Bengal gram cultivation was Rs. -18723.91. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.55. The results indicated that, 37.25 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder and green fodder were adequate. The results indicated that, in landless farmers, the average income from wage was Rs. 29000. In marginal farmers the average income from service/salary was 6 Rs.12500, wage was Rs. 19350, agriculture was Rs. 51301 and dairy farm was Rs. 1708. In small farmers the average income from service/salary was Rs. 28444.44, wage was Rs. 6666.67, agriculture was Rs. 83044.44 and dairy farm was Rs. 2777.78. In semi medium farmers the average income from wage was Rs. 15714.29, agriculture was Rs. 68200 and dairy farm was Rs.6434.29. In medium farmers the average income from wage was Rs. 11666.67 and agriculture was Rs. 75333.33. The results indicated that, in landless farmers, the average expenditure from wage was Rs. 15000. In marginal farmers the average expenditure from service/salary was Rs. 63333.33, wage was Rs. 14,205.88, agriculture was Rs. 19,636.36 and dairy farm was Rs. 6,250. In case of small farmers the average expenditure from service/salary was Rs. 92,500, wage was Rs. 13,000, agriculture was Rs. 53,888.89 and dairy farm was Rs. 12,000. In case of semi medium farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs. 8,785.71, dairy farm was Rs. 9,600 and agriculture was Rs. 47,142.86. In case of medium farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs.4000 and agriculture was Rs. 56,666.67. The results indicated that, sampled households have grown 9 coconut trees in their field and also planted 1 coconut tree in their back yard. The results indicated that, households have planted 55 neem trees, 8tamarind tress, 3 silver oak trees and 1 banyan trees in their field and also grown 1 Neem tree in the backyard. The results indicate that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 3725.49 for land development, Rs. 980.39 in irrigation facility, Rs.2372.55 for improved crop production and Rs.607.84 for improved livestock management. Marginal households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 3800 for land development, Rs. 450 for irrigation facility, Rs.2350 for improved crop production and Rs.350 for improved livestock management. Small farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 2000 for land development, Rs.1666.67 for improved crop production and Rs.555.56 for improved livestock management. Semi medium farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 6,142.86 for land development, Rs. 2,500 for irrigation facility, Rs. 3,785.71 for improved crop production and Rs. 1,142.86 for improved livestock management. Medium farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 3,333.33 for land development, Rs. 2,000 for irrigation facility, Rs. 2,000 for improved crop production and Rs. 1,000 for improved livestock management. The results indicated that, loan from the bank was the source of funds to, 39.22 per cent of the households for land development, 17.65 per cent of the households for irrigation facility, 41.18 per cent of the households for improved crop production and 19.61 per cent of the households for improved livestock management. 7 The results indicated that, Bajra, banana, bengal gram, cotton, drumstick, groundnut, red gram, sorghum and sunflower crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Only maize was sold to the extent 97.75 per cent respectively. Results also obtained that, the average price of bajra was Rs.1457.14/q, Banana was Rs.657.50/q, Bengal gram was Rs.3750/q, cotton was Rs.4250/q, drumstick was Rs.3500/q, groundnut was Rs.3700/q, maize was Rs.1132.80/q, red gram was Rs.4542.86/q, Sorghum was Rs.3225/q and Sunflower was Rs.2500/q. The results indicated that, 13.73 percent of the households have sold their produce to agent/traders, 25.49 percent of the households have sold their produce to local/village merchant, 23.53 percent of the households sold their produce in regulated markets and 47.06 percent of the households sold their produce to cooperative marketing society. The results indicated that 13.73 per cent of the households have used cart as a mode of transport, 56.86 per cent of them have used tractor and 39.22 per cent have used truck. The results indicated that, 35.29 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems i.e. 45 percent of marginal farmers, 11.11 per cent of small farmers, 50 per cent of semi medium farmers and 33.33 percent of medium farmers. The results indicated that, 58.82 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing. The results indicated that, 92.16 percent used fire wood as a source of fuel and 7.84 percent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel. The results indicated that, piped supply was the source of drinking water for 68.63 per cent and 31.37 per cent of them were using bore well for drinking water. The results indicated that, electricity was the major source of light for 98.04per cent of the households and 1.96 per cent of the households were using kerosene lamp. The results indicated that, 33.33 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 40 per cent of landless, 35 per cent of marginal, 22.22 per cent of small, 35.71 per cent of semi medium and 33.33 per cent of medium had sanitary toilet facility. The results indicated that, 98.04 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 1.96 per cent of the sampled households have not possessed BPL card. The results indicated that, 27.45 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 20 per cent of the landless, 30 percent of the marginal, 33.33 per cent of the small, 14.29 per cent of the semi medium and 66.67 percent of the medium farmers. 8 The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, fruits , milk, egg and meat were adequate for 100 per cent, 84.31 per cent, 23.53 per cent, 35.29 per cent, 1.96 per cent, 96.08 per cent, 84.31 per cent and 45.10 per cent of the households respectively. The results indicated that, pulses, oilseed, vegetables, fruits, milk and meat were inadequate for 15.69 per cent, 78.43 per cent, 68.63 per cent, 66.67 per cent, 3.92 per cent and 39.22 per cent of the households respectively. The results indicated that, Lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 60.78 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (76.47%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (33.33%), inadequacy of irrigation water (21.57%), high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (37.25%), high rate of interest on credit (35.29%), low price for the agricultural commodities (80.39%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (80.39%), inadequate extension services (56.86%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (60.78%), less rainfall (31.37%) and Source of Agri-technology information(Newspaper/TV/Mobile) (13.73 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Die vorliegende Arbeit befasst sich mit der Synthese und Charakterisierung von nanostrukturierten Mikropartikelpulvern mit einstellbarem Zerfalls- und Dispergierungsverhalten und deren Anwendung als verstärkender Füllstoff sowie deren Eignung für Sensoranwendungen. Sie ist in drei Teilbereiche gegliedert: Der erste Teil beschreibt die Synthese der nanostrukturierten Mikropartikelpulvern durch Sprühtrocknung von kolloidalen oxidischen (silicatischen und eisenoxidischen) Nanopartikeln. Es wird ausgeführt, wie durch Variation der Art und Größe der Primärpartikel und deren mengenanteiligen Kombination Mikropartikel unterschiedlichster nanostruktureller Maserung und Ausprägung erhalten wurden. Das Spektrum dieser Partikel reichte von homogen verteilten Strukturen bis hin zu Kern-Satellit-Struktur, von kontrollierter Aggregierung bis hin zur vollständigen Dispergierbarkeit. Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit wurden die Partikel im Hinblick auf ihre Eignung und Verwendung als Füllstoffe für Elastomer-Matrices untersucht. Im Fokus stand die Verstärkungswirkung und die Korrelation mit dem Dispergierverhalten in PDMS. Im dritten Teil der Arbeit wurde das Syntheseprinzip der Herstellung nanostrukturierter Mikropartikel auf Hydroxid-basierte Systeme wie LDHs erweitert. Teil I: Von Silica-NP zu nanostrukturierten Mikropartikeln mit einstellbarem Zerfallsverhalten Um nanostrukturierte Mikropartikel mit einem integrierten Zerfallsverhalten zu erzeugen, wurden zunächst kolloidale Silica-NP mit einer Größe von 20 nm abgestuft mit unterschiedlichen Mengen (0, 1/10, 1/5, 1/3, 1/2, 2/3, 1) eines hydrophobierend wirkenden Silans (Triethoxyoctylsilan, OCTEO) modifiziert. Neben den beiden Extremen der vollständigen und unmodifizierten Varianten (1 und 0) wurden teilweise modifizierte Zwischenstufen erhalten, indem die Silanmenge auf 2/3, 1/2, 1/3, 1/5 und 1/10 im Vergleich zu den vollmodifizierten Silica-NP verringert wurde. Die modifizierten Nanopartikel zeigten beim Dispergieren in verschiedenen Flüssigkeiten (Wasser, Toluol) eindeutige und graduell klar differenzierbare Unterschiede in Abhängigkeit vom Bedeckungsgrad der Partikeloberfläche mit dem Silan. Wie erwartet nahm das hydrophobe Verhalten der Nanopartikel mit zunehmendem Bedeckungs- und damit Modifizierungsgrad zu und die Nanopartikel waren in unpolaren Flüssigkeiten wie Toluol gut dispergierbar, während sie in polaren Flüssigkeiten wie Wasser zur Agglomeration und Sedimentation neigten. In einem nächsten Schritt wurden die zu unterschiedlichen Graden mit OCTEO modifizierten kolloidalen Silica-NP mittels Sprühtrocknung in mikroskalige Pulver überführt. Die nanostrukturierten Mikropartikelpulver wurden mit verschiedenen Analysemethoden wie REM-Aufnahmen, BET-, FTIR- und TG-Messungen untersucht, und die Eigenschaften der gebildeten Partikel charakterisiert. Die nanostrukturierten Mikropartikel zeigten auf den REM-Aufnahmen abhängig vom Modifizierungsgrad der Nanopartikel ein sehr unterschiedliches Aussehen. Während die Mikropartikel aus vollständig modifizierten Nanopartikeln eine eher raue Oberfläche besaßen, hatten die aus unmodifizierten Nanopartiklen gebildeten eine sehr glatte, kompakt erscheinende Oberfläche, was als Hinweis auf eine Kondensation und eine damit verbundene Aggregation der Nanopartikel gewertet wurde. Da sich diese Hypothese anhand der Aufnahmen aber nicht beweisen ließ, wurden in einer nächsten weiterführenden Testreihe Nano-Indenter-Experimente unter dem REM mit den aus voll- und unmodifizierten Nanopartikeln aufgebauten Mikropartikeln durchgeführt. Die Ergebnisse bestätigten den ersten Eindruck der REM-Aufnahmen insofern, als das sich die sehr kompakt wirkenden unmodifizierten Partikel nicht mit einer Wolfram-Spitze eindrücken ließen und damit die Hypothese mechanisch stabiler Aggregate untermauerten. Ganz anders verhielten sich die vollmodifizierten Partikel, die mithilfe der Wolfram-Spitze so eingedrückt werden konnten, dass die Nanopartikel aus dem Mikropartikelverbund herausgelöst wurden und teilweise vereinzelt vorlagen. Hier handelte es sich mit hoher Wahrscheinlichkeit um Agglomerate, die unter der Einwirkung einer Scherkraft wieder vereinzelt werden konnten. Da es mit mikroskopischen Verfahren wie REM nicht möglich war, unmittelbare Aussagen bezüglich der Wechselwirkung der Nanopartikel im Mikropartikel zu treffen, wurden zunächst die Oberflächeneigenschaften mittels BET-, FTIR- und TG-Messungen untersucht. Im Hinblick auf die spätere Anwendung war es sehr wichtig, die Oberflächeneigenschaften der Mikropartikel möglichst umfassend zu charakterisieren, da diese entscheidend zur Dispergierbarkeit der Partikel in einem Matrixsystem beitragen. Mithilfe der FTIR- und TG-Messungen konnte die Anwesenheit und Menge von Silan auf der Partikeloberfläche bestimmt werden. Es zeigte sich ein klarer Trend für die zu verschiedenen Graden mit OCTEO modifizierten Silica-NP. Mit zunehmender Silanmenge nahm sowohl die Intensität der FTIR-Bande für die CH2- und CH3-Streckschwingung als auch der Masseverlust zu. Im Gegensatz zu diesen Messungen zeigte sich bei den BET-Messungen kein klarer Trend in Abhängigkeit vom Bedeckungsgrad der Silica-NP. Die höchsten Werte für die spezifische Oberfläche hatten Mikropartikel, die aus 1/5- und 1/3-modifizierten Silica-NP bestanden. Eine schlüssige Erklärung wird darin gesehen, dass durch die Alkylgruppen auf der Oberfläche ein Kondensieren der Silica-NP weitestgehend verhindert wurde und gleichzeitig noch genügend Mikroporen vorhanden blieben, die mit den Stickstoffmolekülen wechselwirken konnten. Neben den Standard-Analysemethoden wurden Dispergierbarkeitsuntersuchungen durchgeführt sowie die Hansen-Dispergierbarkeitsparameter (HDP) und die ET (30)-Werte mit dem Reichardt-Farbstoff bestimmt. Anhand der Dispergierbarkeitsuntersuchungen konnten erste qualitative Aussagen getroffen werden, ob es sich um hydrophile oder hydrophobe Partikel handelt. Diese ersten Ergebnisse und Trends konnten anschließend mit den HDP und dem RD quantitativ untermauert werden. Die Polarität der Mikropartikel, die aus zu unterschiedlichen Graden mit OCTEO modifizierten Silica-NP aufgebaut waren, nahm mit zunehmender Oberflächenbedeckung ab. Dieser Trend korrelierte mit den aus den FTIR- und TG-Messungen erhaltenen Werten. Da es mit den Silica-basierten Mikropartikeln nicht möglich war, unmittelbare Aussagen zum Agglomerations- bzw. Aggregationsgrad der Nanopartikel im Mikropartikel zu treffen, wurde das Prinzip der Agglomerations/Aggregationssteuerung über Oberflächenmodifikation auf magnetische Nanopartikel übertragen und so ein Modell geschaffen, das die Wechselwirkung auf nanopartikulärer Ebene sichtbar und messbar macht. Diese Informationen zum Agglomerationsgrad der Nanopartikel lieferten wertvolle Hinweise im Hinblick auf die Dispergierbarkeit der Partikel in einer Matrix: Handelte es sich bei den Partikeln um lose Agglomerate, könnten diese zum Beispiel in einem Elastomer wieder auf Primärpartikelgröße dispergiert werden, während Aggregate nur in undefinierte Sekundärstrukturen zerfallen. Gleichzeitig wurde mit dieser Systemübertragung die Frage beantwortet, ob es sich bei den teilmodifizierten Partikeln um eine Mischung aus voll- und unmodifizierten Partikeln handelte oder ob das Silan statistisch über die komplette Oberfläche verteilt war. Wie auch schon beim Silica-System wurden die Nanopartikel zunächst abgestuft mit OCTEO modifiziert (0, 1/10, 1/3, 1/2, 2/3, 1) und anschließend sprühgetrocknet. Aufgrund ihrer magnetischen Eigenschaften konnten die Eisenoxid-Partikel mittels ZFC- und FC-Messungen untersucht werden. Diese spezielle Analysemethode erlaubte es, Aussagen über den Grad der magnetischen Wechselwirkung der Partikel zu treffen und somit indirekt auch über den Grad der Agglomeration/ Aggregation der Nanopartikel im Mikropartikel. Es zeigten sich klare Unterschiede in den Werten für die Blocking-Temperatur (TB) zwischen den voll- und unmodifizierten Partikeln. TB ist die Temperatur, ab welcher die Magnetisierungsrichtung der Partikel aufgrund der thermischen Energie frei fluktuieren kann. Die vollmodifizierten Partikeln hatten einen sehr niedrigen Wert für TB, was auf eine schwache Dipol-Dipol- Wechselwirkung zwischen den einzelnen Eisenoxid-NP schließen ließ, während die unmodifizierten Eisenoxid-Partikel einen hohen TB-Wert hatten, woraus zu schließen war, dass es sich um Aggregate mit einem sehr geringen Partikel-Partikel-Abstand handelte und einer deshalb höheren Wechselwirkung. Die Werte der teilmodifizierten Partikel folgten dem Trend, dass mit zunehmender Silan-Bedeckung der TB-Wert abnahm. Um die Frage der Silan-Verteilung zu beantworten, wurde zusätzlich ein Mischsystem aus voll- und unmodifizierten Eisenoxid-NP versprüht. Sollte es sich bei den teilmodifizierten Partikeln (als Beispiel 1/2) nicht um eine statistische Verteilung der Octylgruppen auf der Oberfläche handeln, müssten die beiden Messungen Übereinstimmungen aufweisen. Dies war allerdings nicht der Fall, was mithilfe der ZFC- und FC-Messungen gezeigt werden konnte. Der TB-Wert des Mischsystems lag zwischen dem der voll- und zu 2/3-modifizierten Partikel, während der Tir-Wert dem der unmodifizierten Partikel entsprach. Die Breite der Aufspaltung zwischen TB undTir konnte als breite Partikelverteilung (Mischung aus Agglomeraten und Aggregaten) interpretiert werden. Im Hinblick auf die Anwendung als Füllstoff wurden die Mikropartikel in eine PDMS-Matrix eingearbeitet und erneut ZFC- und FC-Messungen durchgeführt, wobei die gleichen Trends wie bei den reinen nanostrukturierten Mikropartikeln erhalten wurden. Das bedeutete, dass sich die vollmodifizierten Eisenoxid-NP gut im Elastomer verteilt hatten und somit eine nur sehr geringe Dipol-Dipol-Wechselwirkung vorhanden war. Mit dem entwickelten System der nanostrukturierten Mikropartikel lässt sich der Agglomerations- bzw. Aggregationsgrad der Nanopartikel mehr oder weniger gezielt einstellen, und es können zusätzlich Voraussagen über die Redispergierbarkeit des Partikelpulvers in einer geeigneten Matrix gemacht werden. Basierend auf den gewonnen Erkenntnissen, die zum Verständnis der nanostrukturierten Mikropartikel beitrugen, wurden in einem nächsten Schritt gezielt komplexe Strukturen aufgebaut. Für eine gezielte Strukturierung von Nanopartikeln in Kern-Satellit-Partikel wurde zunächst große 100 nm Silica-NP mit einem PCE funktionalisiert und anschließend mit kleinen und großen unmodifizierten Silica-NP versprüht. Wurden die geeigneten Verhältnisse (70:20:10; 100 nm Mel : 100 nm blank : 20 nm blank) der Partikel zueinander gewählt, konnten Kern-Satellit-Strukturen auf der Mikropartikeloberfläche erzeugt werden. Beim Dispergieren der Mikropartikel in einer Flüssigkeit und in einem Elastomer (PDMS) konnten vereinzelte Kern-Satellit-Strukturen erhalten werden. Um zu bestätigen, dass es sich bei den dispergierten Kern-Satellit-Partikeln nicht um durch Trocknungseffekte entstandene Strukturen handelte, wurden in-situ-Flüssigkeitszellen- TEM-Aufnahmen gemacht. Die Aufnahmen konnten zeigen, dass sich die Kern-Satellit- Partikel in Abhängigkeit zueinander bewegen und nicht jeder Nanopartikel für sich, was auf eine Bindung der Partikel untereinander hindeutete. Neben den Silica-basierten Kern-Satellit-Partikeln konnten auch welche erzeugt werden, deren Satellit-Partikel aus Eisenoxid bestanden. Mit diesem System ist es möglich, multifunktionelle Partikel mit verschiedensten Eigenschaften und Strukturen herzustellen. Teil II: Anwendungspotential nanostrukturierter Mikropartikel Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit wurde zunächst die Anwendung der nanostrukturierten Mikropartikel als Füllstoff in IR und PDMS untersucht. Dafür wurde ein weiteres Silan, Si69TM, zur abgestuften Modifizierung der Silica-NP eingesetzt. Es handelt sich um ein multifunktionelles Silan, welches sowohl an die Partikeloberfläche als auch an das Elastomer binden kann. Bei den mechanischen Untersuchungen der IR-Silica-Komposite zeigte sich, dass das Silan einen entscheidenden Einfluss auf die Verstärkung bei kleinen Deformationen hatte. Während bei dem monofunktionellen Silan (OCTEO) eine direkte Korrelation zwischen Bedeckungsgrad und mechanischer Verstärkung (G') bei gleichbleibendem Füllstoffgehalt beobachtet werden konnte, hatte der Bedeckungsgrad beim multifunktionellen Silan (Si69TM) keinen Einfluss. Anders als bei kleinen Deformationen zeigte sich bei großen Deformationen ein gegenteiliges Bild. Die Verschleißrate der IR-Silica-Komposite nahm bei beiden Silantypen mit zunehmendem Modifizierungsgrad ab, wobei die mit Si69TM modifizierten Partikel-Komposite wesentlich beständiger gegen Verschleiß waren als die mit OCTEO modifizierten Partikel-Komposite, was auf die zusätzliche Matrixanbindung des Si69TM zurückzuführen war. Wurden die IR-Silica- Komposite mit den PDMS-Silica-Kompositen verglichen, konnten keine übereinstimmenden Trends gefunden werden. Im PDMS-System war die mechanische Verstärkung für Mikropartikel aus 2/3 mit OCTEO modifizierten Silica-NP maximal. Diese Unterschiede könnten sowohl auf die unterschiedliche Einarbeitung als auch auf die sehr unterschiedlichen Matrices zurückgeführt werden. Als weitere Anwendung wurden die nanostrukturierten Mikropartikel als Schersensoren für den 3D-Druck untersucht. Hierfür wurden die Silica-NP mit einem PCE modifiziert und anschließend sprühgetrocknet. Um die entstandenen Mikropartikel vollständig in einer Matrix zu dispergieren, waren hohe Scherkräfte und lange Scherzeiten erforderlich, was eine mögliche Anwendung als Schersensor nur schwer realisierbar macht. Teil III: Erweiterung des Ansatzes zur Herstellung nanostrukturierter Mikropartikel auf Hydroxid-basierte Systeme Im dritten Teil dieser Arbeit wurde das System zur Modifizierung von oxidischen Silicaund Eisenoxid-Partikeln auf ein hydroxidisches Systeme übertragen. Hierfür wurden mittels Fällungsprozess LDH-Partikel hergestellt, die anschließend mit OCTEO modifiziert und abschließend sprühgetrocknet wurden. In gleicher Weise wie bei den Mikropartikeln aus Silica-NP nahm der hydrophobe Charakter der LDH-Mikropartikel mit zunehmendem Modifizierungsgrad der Ausgangspartikel zu, was sich anhand von Untersuchungen zur Dispergierbarkeit in Flüssigkeiten unterschiedlicher Polarität zeigte. Zudem ließen sich die aus vollmodifizierten LDHs aufgebauten Mikropartikel in einer PDMS-Matrix wieder in vereinzelte Partikel dispergieren. Die Verstärkung der Komposite war für die teilmodifizierten Partikel (2/3) maximal, da es sich hier, wie auch bei den anderen Partikelsystemen (Silica und Eisenoxid), um eine Mischung aus vereinzelten LDHs und kleineren Aggregate handelte, was aufgrund der starken Füllstoff-Füllstoff-Wechselwirkung zu einer mechanischen Verstärkung bei kleinen Deformationen/Dehnungen führte. Die Eigenschaften der Polymer-Partikel-Komposite ließen sich über den Modifizierungsgrad der Primärpartikel einstellen. Dies konnte für alle drei Partikelsysteme (Silica, Eisenoxid und LDH) beobachtet werden. Ausblick In der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte die Synthese von verschiedenen nanostrukturierten Mikropartikeln und deren einstellbaren Zerfall gezeigt werden. Um den Zerfall der Mikropartikel noch gezielter einstellen zu können, sollte in weiterführenden Arbeiten vor allem die Modifizierung der Nanopartikel noch eingehender untersucht werden. Mithilfe der magnetischen Messungen konnte zwar zwischen einer Mischung aus un- und vollmodifizierten Partikel im Vergleich zu teilmodifizierten Partikel unterschieden werden, es konnten jedoch keine konkreten Aussagen zur Verteilung der Silanmoleküle auf der Partikeloberfläche getroffen werden. Hierfür sollten weitere Charakterisierungsmethoden hinzugezogen werden, die die Modifizierung auf molekularer Ebene analysieren. Zusätzlich sollte die Verteilung/Anordnung der teilmodifizierten Nanopartikel im Mikropartikel untersucht werden. Gerade für Nanopartikel mit einem geringen Modifizierungsgrad (1/10, 1/5 und 1/3) sind verschiedene Anordnungen möglich. Die Nanopartikel können sich während der Sprühtrocknung so anordnen, dass sich die Alkylketten entweder nach außen oder in die Mitte des Mikropartikels orientieren/ausrichten. Die Anordnung der Nanopartikel hat einen großen Einfluss auf die Polarität der entstehenden Mikropartikel- pulver. Darüber hinaus hat sie einen Einfluss auf die Aggregation der Nanopartikel untereinander und somit auf die Bildung von komplexen Unterstrukturen wie zum Beispiel Kern-Satellit-Partikel. Neben der Modifizierung der Nanopartikel sollte die Herstellung der komplexen Strukturen/Suprapartikel weiter optimiert werden. Mit einem detaillierten Verständnis der physikalischen Prozesse während der Sprühtrocknung könnte die Anzahl der Satelliten auf den Kernpartikel kontrollierter eingestellt werden. Grundsätzlich kann das hier entwickelte System der nanostrukturierten Mikropartikel mit einstellbarem Zerfallsverhalten an eine Vielzahl von Anwendungen angepasst werden. Da das System für zahlreiche Partikeltypen (Silica-, Eisenoxid-NP und LDH) geeignet ist, könnten verschiedene Partikel ko-versprüht und so Suprapartikel mit ganz neuen Funktionalitäten und Eigenschaften erzeugt werden. Diese können als verstärkende Füllstoffe in Elastomere oder zur Stabilisierung von Dispersionen eingesetzt werden. Mischpartikel aus Silica- und Eisenoxid-Partikel hätten zum Beispiel den Vorteil, dass sie eine Dispersion stabilisieren und gleichzeitig wieder magnetisch abgetrennt werden können. Diese Mischpartikel könnten auch als Füllstoffe in komplexe Kunststoffbauteile eingearbeitet werden, in denen sie zum einen als mechanisch verstärkender Füllstoff wirken und gleichzeitig durch induktive Erwärmung das Bauteil vernetzt. Beim induktiven Erwärmen handelt es sich um eine schonende Methode Bauteile gezielt zu vernetzen, indem die Wärme im Bauteil selbst, über magnetische Verluste der Magnetpartikel in einem magnetischen Wechselfeld, erzeugt wird und nicht über seine Oberfläche eingebracht werden muss. Eine weitere interessante Anwendung für Mischpartikel ist die als magnetooptisch aktiver Marker oder Tracer in der medizinischen Diagnostik. Aufgrund von Quenching-Effekten (Auslöschungseffekte) ist es schwierig magnetische Nanopartikel mit einer Farbigkeit oder Fluoreszenz auszustatten.[385] Mischt man jedoch die magnetischen Nanopartikel mit einem weiteren Partikelsystem wie zum Beispiel Silica-NP oder LDHs, können magnetooptische Eigenschaften erhalten werden ; The herein presented work deals with the synthesis and characterization of nanostructured microparticle powders with adjustable burst behavior and their application as reinforcing fillers as well as their application as a shear sensors. For this purpose, the work was structured into three parts. The first part was dedicated to the synthesis of nanostructured microparticle powders produced by spray-drying colloidal nanoparticles. Depending on the composition of the particles during the spray-drying process, it was possible to produce nanoparticulate structures such as core-satellites. In the second part of the work, these nanostructured microparticles could be redispersed in a suitable matrix such as polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) and then tested for a potential application as reinforcing fillers. In the third and final part of the work, the synthesis approach was extended to hydroxide-based systems such as layered double hydroxides particles (LDHs). Part I: From silica nanoparticles to nanostructured microparticles with adjustable burst behavior To generate nanostructured microparticles with an integrated burst behavior, colloidal silica nanoparticles with a size of 20 nm were either partially or completely (1/10, 1/5, 1/3, 1/2, 2/3, 1) modified with triethoxyoctylsilane (OCTEO), which makes the nanoparticle surfaces hydrophobic or semi-hydrophobic, or the nanoparticles were left blank (0). To achieve the part-modification" the amount of silane was reduced accordingly to 2/3, 1/2, 1/3, 1/5 and 1/10 compared to the completely modified silica nanoparticles. The modified nanoparticles showed clear differences when dispersed in different liquids (water, toluene) depending on the silanization degree of the particle surface. As expected, the hydrophobic behavior of the nanoparticles increased with increasing silane coverage and the nanoparticles were redispersible in non-polar liquids such as toluene while they tended to agglomerate and sediment in polar liquids such as water. In a next step, the colloidal silica nanoparticles, which were modified to different degrees with OCTEO, were spray-dried to yield a powder. The obtained nanostructured microparticle powders were then characterized by various analysis methods such as scanning electron microscope (SEM), specific surface area measurement by nitrogen adsorption according the Brunauer, Emmett and Teller theory (BET), FTIR measurements and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) to examine the properties of the formed particles in more detail. SEM revealed that the nanostructured microparticles showed a very different appearance depending on the degree of modification of the nanoparticles. The microparticles consisting of completely modified nanoparticles had a rather rough surface, while the ones consisting of non-modified nanoparticles had a very smooth and compact surface, which could be due to possible condensation and associated hard agglomeration of the nanoparticles. Since based on SEM images alone it was not possible to confirm this assumption, in a next series of tests, in situ nano-indenter experiments were carried out in the SEM with microparticles composed of completely and non-modified nanoparticles. These results finally confirmed the first impression gained by SEM, as the very compact non-modified particles could not be indented with a tungsten tip which is possibly a good indication that hard agglomerates prevail in this case. The completely modified particles could be indented with the tungsten tip, thus behaved quite differently. The microparticles showed a ductile/plastic behavior and the nanoparticles could be separated from each other. This suggests that these particles probably consist of soft agglomerates of nanoparticles which can be separated again by force. Since it was not possible to make substantiated statements regarding the interaction of the nanoparticles within the microparticle with microscopy methods such as SEM, the surface properties of the particles were studied using BET, FTIR measurements and TGA. With a view to later applications, it it was important to characterize the surface properties of the microparticles in detail, since these are essential for the dispersibility of the particles in a matrix system. Using FTIR measurements and TGA the presence and amount of silane on the particle surface was determined. There was a clear trend for the silica nanoparticles which were modified to different degrees with OCTEO. As the amount of silane increased, both the intensity of the FTIR band for CH2 and CH3 stretching and mass loss increased. In contrast to these measurements, the BET measurements showed no clear trend depending on the surface coverage of the silica nanoparticles. The highest values for the specific surface area were found for microparticles consisting of 1/5- and 1/3-modified silica nanoparticles. In these cases, the condensation of the silica nanoparticles was largely prevented by the surface alkyl groups, and at the same time, there were still enough micropores that were able to interact with the nitrogen molecules which may explain the higher values. In addition to the standard analytical methods, liquid tests were performed and Hansen dispersibility parameters (HDP) and ET (30) values with Reichardt's dye (RD) were determined. Based on the liquid tests, first qualitative statements, concerning the hydro- philicity or hydrophobicity of the particles, modified to a different extend with silane, were made. These results and trends were then quantitatively substantiated with the HDP and the RD experiments. The polarity of the microparticles which were built up to different degrees with OCTEO modified silica nanoparticles decreased with increasing surface coverage. This tendency correlated with the values obtained from the FTIR and TG measurements. Since it had not been possible so far to determine the degree of soft and hard agglomeration of the silica nanoparticles in the microparticles, the system was transferred to iron oxide nanoparticles. The degree of agglomeration of the nanoparticles was crucial for subsequent dispersion in a matrix: If the particles were loose, soft agglomerates, they could be redispersed into primary nanoparticles in an elastomer, while hard agglomerates would only disintegrate into undefined secondary structures. At the same time, this system transfer was intended to answer the question whether the partially modified particles are a mixture of completely and non-modified particles or whether the silane is statistically distributed over the entire surface of all nanoparticles, i.e. whether all nanoparticles are modified to the same extend with silane. Similar to the silica system, the iron oxid nanoparticles were modified to different degrees with OCTEO (0, 1/10, 1/3, 1/2, 2/3, 1) and then spray-dried. Due to their magnetic properties, the iron oxide particles could be analyzed by Zero-Field-Cooled (ZFC) and Field-Cooled (FC) measurements. This special analysis method made it possible to deduce statements on the degree of the magnetic interaction of the particles and thus indirectly on the degree of soft and hard agglomeration of the nanoparticles in the microparticle. There were significant differences in the blocking temperature (TB) between the completely and the non-modified particles. TB is the temperature at which the magnetization direction of the particles can freely fluctuate due to thermal energy. The completely modified particles had very low TB value, suggesting a weak dipole-dipole interaction between the individual iron oxide nanoparticles. In contrary to this, the non-modified iron oxide particles had a high TB value, suggesting that the nanoparticles form hard agglomerates , coming with a very small particle-particle distance and therefore a higher interaction. The values of the partially modified particles followed the trend that the TB value decreased with increasing silane coverage. In order to answer the question of the silane distribution, a mixed system consisting of completely and non-modified iron oxide nanoparticles was also spray-dried. If the partially modified particles (as example 1/2) were a mixture of non-modified and modified nanoparticles and therefore the silane was not statically distributed on the nanoparticle surface, the TB value should be the same as for the mixed system. This was not the case however, as demonstrated by the ZFC and FC measurements. The TB value of the mixed system was between the one of the completely and 2/3-modified particles, while the irreversible temperature (Tir) value corresponded to that of the non-modified particles. The width of the splitting between TB and Tir could be interpreted as a broad particle distribution (mixture of soft and hard agglomerates). For the use as fillers, the microparticles were incorporated in a PDMS matrix and ZFC and FC measurements were again performed, and the same trends were observed as for the pure nanostructured microparticles. From this it could be concluded that the completely modified iron oxide nanoparticles had been well distributed in the elastomer and thus had very little dipole-dipole interaction. With the developed system of nanostructured microparticles, the degree of soft and hard agglomeration of the nanoparticles can be adjusted more or less specifically, and additional predictions can be made about the redispersibility of the particle powder in a suitable matrix. Based on the insights gained to understand the system, more complex structures were built up. For the adjustable structuring of nanoparticles in core-satellite particles, large 100 nm silica nanoparticles were firstly functionalized with a polycarboxylate ether (PCE) and afterwards spray-dried with small and large non-modified silica nanoparticles. By choosing a suitable ratio (70:20:10, 100 nm Mel : 100 nm blank : 20 nm blank) of the particles composition was chosen, core-satellite structures were generated on the microparticle surface. The dispersion of microparticles in a liquid or in an elastomer (PDMS) resulted in isolated core-satellite structures. In situ liquid cell TEM was carried out to confirm that the dispersed core-satellite particles were not only structures created by drying-effects. It was possible to record core-satellite particles moving/rotating in relation to each other which was an indication that the small particles were bound to the larger ones. In addition to the silica-based core-satellite particles, core-satellite particles were synthesized whose satellite particles consisted of iron oxide. This proved the approach being suitable to produce multifunctional particles with different properties and structures. Part II: Application potential of nanostructured microparticles In the second part of the work, the application of the nanostructured microparticles as reinforcing fillers in isopren rubber (IR) and PDMS, as well as shear sensor in 3D printing was examined. For this purpose, the silica nanoparticles were modified with the silane bis(triethoxysilylpropyl)tetrasulfide (Si69TM) in addition to OCTEO. Si69TM is a multifunctional silane capable of covalently binding to both, the particle surface via the ethoxy groups and the elastomer via the sulphur. The mechanical investigations of the IR-silica composites demonstrated that the silane modification of the silica nanoparticles had a significant influence on the reinforcement at small strain amplitudes. While the monofunctional silane (OCTEO) revelaed a direct correlation between the degree of coverage and mechanical reinforcement (G') at a constant filler content, the degree of coverage of the multifunctional silane (Si69TM) had no effect. In contrast to small strain amplitudes, a completely different behavior was found for large strain amplitudes. The wear rate of the IR-silica composites decreased with increasing modification degree for both silane types. The Si69TM modified particle composites were much more resistant to wear than the OCTEO modified particle composites due to the additional matrix binding of the Si69TM. When comparing the IR-silica composites to the PDMS-silica composites, no consistent trends were found. In the PDMS system, the mechanical reinforcement by the particles was at maximum for particles being modified on their surface to an extend of 2/3 by OCTEO. These differences could be attributed to the different incorporation processes as well as the different matrices. Another potential application for the nanostructured microparticles as shear sensor in 3D printing was tested. For this purpose, the silica nanoparticles were modified with a PCE and then spray-dried. In order to completely disperse the resulting microparticles in a matrix, high shear forces and long shear rates were required, which makes a potential application as shear sensor for the current system rather challenging to be realized in practice. Part III: Extension of the approach for the preparation of nanostructured microparticles to hydroxide-based systems In the third part of this work, the system of silica particle modification was transferred to hydroxide-based particles. For this purpose, LDHs were produced by a precipitation process and then modified with OCTEO and finally spray-dried. LDHs are an interesting material due to the broad application potential like as adsorbers for gases, drug containers, and flame-retardants. Exactly as with the silica particles, the hydrophobic character of the LDH microparticles increased with increasing modification degree of the primary LDHs which could be shown by liquid tests. In addition, the microparticles consisting of completely modified LDHs could be dispersed into isolated particles in a PDMS matrix. Similar to the silica particle systems, the reinforcement of the composites was the highest for the partially modified particles (2/3). The partly modified particles consisted of a mixture of isolated LDH particles and small hard agglomerates, which lead to a mechanical reinforcement at small strain amplitudes due to the strong filler-filler interaction. The properties of the polymer-particle composites could be adjusted by the modification degree of the primary LDHs. Outlook In the present work, the synthesis of different nanostructured microparticles and their adjustable burst was shown. In order to be able to carefully adjust the disintegration of the microparticles, the modification of the nanoparticles in particular should be investigated in more detail in future woks. Although it was possible to differentiate between a mixtures of non-modified and completely modified particles compared to partially modified particles, it was not possible to make any specific statements about the distribution of the silane molecules on the particle surface. For this purpose, further characterization methods should be consulted, which analyze the modification at the molecular level. In addition, the distribution/arrangement of the partially modified nanoparticles in the microparticle should be investigated. Especially for nanoparticles with a low degree of modification (1/10, 1/5 and 1/3) different arrangements are possible. During spraydrying, the nanoparticles can either be arranged in such a way that the silane molecules orient themselves in the direction of the particle surface or in the center of the particle. The arrangement of the nanoparticles has a great influence on the polarity of the resulting microparticle powders. In addition, it has an influence on the hard agglomeration of nanoparticles and thus on the formation of complex substructures, such as core-satellite particles. In addition to the modification of the nanoparticles, the production of complex structures/supraparticles should be further optimized. With a detailed understanding of the physical processes during spray-drying, the number of satellites on the core particles could be more controlled. In principle, the system of nanostructured microparticles with adjustable burst behavior, which has been developed herein, can be adapted to a large number of applications. Since the system is suitable for many types of particles (silica, iron oxide and LDH), different nanoparticle building blocks particles could be spray-dried together to create supraparticles with completely new functionalities and properties. These can be used as reinforcing fillers in elastomers or for the stabilization of dispersions. For example, mixed particles of silica and iron oxide particles would have the advantage to stabilize a dispersion and at the same time may be magnetically recovered again. These mixed particles could also be incorporated as fillers into complex plastic components in which they act as mechanically reinforcing fillers on the one hand and, at the same time, crosslink the components by inductive heating. The inductive heating is a gentle method to selectively crosslink components, since the heat produced by the magnetic particles in the component itself and does not have to be introduced over its surface
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kalakeri microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 497 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 99 per cent is covered by soils, 150 cm). About 2 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 65 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 31 per cent clayey soils at the surface. About 80 per cent area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity. About 4 per cent area of the microwatershed has nearly level (0-1% slope) lands and 95 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands. An area of about 53 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded and about 46 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded. An area of about 10 per cent soils are moderately acid to slightly acid (pH 5.5-6.5), 12 per cent soils are neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 68 per cent soil are slightly alkaline to strongly alkaline (pH 7.3-9.0) and 8 per cent soils are very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in soil reaction. The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is dominantly 0.75%) in 59 per cent area. An area of about 52 per cent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 47 per cent is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus. An area of about 34 per cent is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium. Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 24 per cent area of the microwatershed. An area of 66 per cent is low (4.5 ppm) and 58 per cent is deficient (1.0 ppm) in available manganese content. Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is sufficient (>0.2 ppm) in available copper content. An area of about 24 per cent is deficient (0.6 ppm) in available zinc content. The land suitability for 31 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 58(12) 81(16) Sapota 56(11) 112(23) Maize 56(11) 99(20) Pomegranate 56(11) 170(34) Bajra 56(11) 186(37) Guava - 168(34) Groundnut - 380(77) Jackfruit 56(11) 112(23) Sunflower 58(12) 81(16) Jamun 56(11) 154(31) Cotton 58(12) 82(16) Musambi 58(12) 168(34) Red gram 56(11) 77(16) Lime 58(12) 168(34) Bengalgram 2(<1) 137(38) Cashew - 195(39) Chilli 56(11) 25(5) Custard apple 58(12) 417(84) Tomato 56(11) 25(5) Amla 56(11) 419(84) Brinjal 15(3) 389(78) Tamarind 56(11) 76(15) Onion 15(3) 330(66) Marigold 56(11) 84(17) Bhendi 15(3) 389(78) Chrysanthemum 56(11) 84(17) Drumstick 56(11) 294(59) Jasmine 56(11) 25(5) Mulberry 56(11) 419(84) Crossandra 56(11) 56(6) Mango 56(11) 75(13) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 3 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserves soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY Results indicated that, 49 farmers were sampled in Kalakeri micro watershed among them 17 (34.69%) were marginal farmers, 19 (38.78 %) were small farmers, 6(12.24 %) were semi medium farmers, 2 (4.08 %) were medium farmers and 5 (10.20 %) landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey. The data indicated that there were 228 population households were there in the studied micro watershed. Among them 135 (59.21%) men and 93 (40.79 %) were women. The average family size of landless was 3, marginal farmers and medium farmers were 4, small farmer was 5 and semi medium farmer was 7. On an average the family size was 5. The data indicated that 35 (15.35%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 110 (48.25 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 58 (25.44 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 25 (10.96 %) were above 61 years of age. The results indicated that the Kalakeri had 35.53 per cent illiterates, 27.19 per cent of them had primary school education, 2.63 per cent of them had both middle school, 14.91 per cent them had high school education, 8.77 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.44 per cent them had Diploma education, 2.63 per cent of them had degree education, 1.75 per cent of them had masters education and 6.14 per cent them had others. The results indicated that, 89.79 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 2.04 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labour and 8.16 per cent of the household heads were general labour. The results indicated that agriculture was the major occupation for 52.63 per cent of the household members, 12.72 per cent were agricultural labourers, 5.70 per cent were general labours, 0.44 percent were in government service, 4.39 per cent of them were in private sector, 1.32 per cent of them were trade and business, 17.54 per cent of them were students, 4.82 per cent of them were children and 0.44 per cent were housewives. In case of landless households 76.47 per cent were general labourers and 11.76 per cent were students. In case of marginal farmers 59.70 per cent were agriculturist, 8.96 percent was in agricultural labour, 2.99 per cent of both were in private and trade and business and 20.90 per cent were students. In case of small farmers 58.06 per cent of them were agriculturist and 15.05 per cent of them were students. In case of semi medium farmers 48.84 per cent of the family members were agriculturist and 23.26 per cent of them were students. In case of medium farmers 62.50 per cent of the family members were agriculturist and 25 per cent of them were in private service. The results showed that 0.88 per cent of them participated in self help groups and 99.12 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions. Small, semi medium and medium farmers were found to have no participation in any local 2 institutions. Land less and marginal farmers were found to participate in one or the other local institutions. The results indicated that 65.31 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 2.04 per cent of the households possess Pucca house, 30.61 per cent of the households possess Semi Pacca house and 2.04 per cent of them possess Thatched house. 100 percent of the landless and medium farmers possess Katcha house. The results showed that, 2.04 per cent of the households possess radio, 83.67 per cent of the households possess TV, 53.06 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 2.04 per cent of the households possess refrigerator, 32.65 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 30.61 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.04 per cent of the households possess Auto, 89.80 per cent of the households possess mobile phones and 4.08 per cent of the households possess computer/laptop. The results showed that the average value of radio was Rs.800, television was Rs. 5024, mixer grinder was Rs.1892, refrigerator was Rs.15000, bicycle was Rs.7437, motor cycle was Rs.42866, Auto was Rs. 100000, mobile phone was Rs.1723 and computer/laptop was Rs. 2000. Results showed that 12.24 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 20.41 per cent of them possess plough, 6.12 per cent of the households possess seed/fertilizer drill, 10.20 per cent of the households possess irrigation pump, 4.08 per cent of the households possess tractor, 16.33 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 2.04 per cent of the households possess sprinkler, 67.35 per cent of the households possess weeder, 12.24 per cent of the households possess harvester, 4.08 per cent of the households possess chaff cutter and 2.04 per cent of the households possess JCB/Hitachi. The results showed that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.20833; the average value of plough was Rs. 1040, the average value of seed/fertilizer drill was Rs. 1925, the average value of irrigation pump was Rs. 20750, the average value of tractor was Rs. 301500, the average value of sprayer was Rs. 4825, the average value of sprinkler was Rs. 500, the average value of weeder was Rs. 73, the average value of harvester was Rs. 80, the average value of chaff cutter was Rs. 3000 and the average value of JCB/Hitachi was Rs. 300000. The results indicated that, 28.57 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 20.41 per cent of the households possess local cow, 6.12 per cent of the households possess buffalo, 2.04 per cent of the households possess sheep and 4.08 per cent of the households possess poultry birds respectively. In case of marginal farmers, 17.65 per cent of the households possess bullock and local cow respectively and 5.88 per cent of the households possess poultry birds. In case of small farmers, 42.11 per cent of households possess bullock, 21.05 per cent possess local cow, 10.53 per cent of the households possess buffalo and 5.26 per cent possess sheep and poultry birds respectively. In case of semi medium farmers, 50 per 3 cent of the households possess both bullock and local cow correspondingly, 16.67 per cent of the households possess buffalo. The results indicated that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.56, average own labour (women) available was 1.33, average hired labour (men) available was 22.16 and average hired labour (women) available was 21.63. In case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 1.18, average own labour (women) was also 1.18, average hired labour (men) was 11.65 and average hired labour (women) available was 11.18. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 1.72, average own labour (women) was 1.28, average hired labour (men) was 30.28 and average hired labour (women) available was 30.28. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 2, average own labour (women) was 2, average hired labour (men) was 25 and average hired labour (women) available was 21.67. In medium farmers average own labour men available was 2, average own labour (women) was 1, average hired labour (men) was 30 and average hired labour (women) available was 32.50. The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate which includes 94.12 per cent of the marginal farmers, 94.74 per cent of small, 100 per cent of semi medium and medium farmers and 2.04 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was inadequate. The results indicated that, households of the Kalakeri micro watershed possess 28.05 ha (62.87 %) of dry land and 16.57 ha (37.13 %) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 10.26 ha (98.07 %) of dry land and 0.20 ha (1.93%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 15.25 ha (70.99 %) of dry land and 6.23 ha (29.01 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 2.54 ha (29.46 %) of dry land and 6.09 ha (70.54 %) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 4.05 ha (100%) of irrigated land. The results indicated that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 495354.20 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 633488.03. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 682051.27 for dry land and Rs. 1482000 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 419532.91 for dry land Rs. 737792.21 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 196656.04 for dry land and Rs. 706183.51 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 321100 for irrigated land. The results indicated that, there were 7 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicated that, bore well was the major irrigation source for 39.13 per cent of the farmers. The results indicated that on an average the depth of the bore well was 39.76 meters. The results indicated that, in case of marginal farmers there was 0. 20 ha of irrigated land, in case of small farmers there was 9.06 ha of irrigated land, semi medium farmers were having 8.05 ha of irrigated land and medium farmers were having 8.10 ha of irrigated land. On an average there were 25.41 ha of irrigated land. 4 The results indicated that, farmers have grown bajra (12.09 ha), maize (83.02 ha), paddy (1.82 ha) and sesamum (0.81ha) in kharif season. Also grown chilly (1.21 ha), cow pea (2.24 ha), groundnut (3.63 ha), paddy (0.40 ha), sunflower (3.04ha) and tomato (0.08 ha) in Rabi season. Marginal farmers have grown Maize, Bajra, sesamum, cowpea and groundnut. Small farmers have grown bajra, maize, paddy, cowpea, groundnut and tomato. Semi medium farmers have grown Maize, bajra, chilly, cowpea, groundnut and sunflower. Medium farmers have grown bajra, maize and sunflower. The results indicated that, the cropping intensity in Kalakeri micro watershed was found to be 177.17 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 527.38 per cent, in small farmers it was 92.17, in semi medium farmers it was 79.59 and in medium farmers it was 100 per cent. The results indicated that, 41.30 per cent of the households have bank account and savings respectively. Among marginal farmers 58.82 percent of them possess both bank account and savings. 36.84 per cent of small farmers possess both bank account and savings correspondingly. Semi medium farmers possess 16.67 per cent of both bank account and savings respectively and medium category of farmers possess 50 per cent of bank account and also savings correspondingly. The results indicated that, 58.82 per cent of marginal, 31.58 per cent of small and 50 per cent of medium farmers have borrowed credit from different sources. The results indicated that, 11.76 per cent have availed loan in commercial bank and friends/ relatives correspondingly, 52.94 per cent have availed loan from Grameena bank, 23.52 per cent have availed loan from money lender and 29.41 per cent have availed loan from SHGs/CBOs. The results indicated that, marginal, small and medium have availed Rs.37500, Rs. 90166.67 and Rs. 200000 respectively. Overall average credit amount availed by households in the micro watershed is 62000. The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan for agriculture production. The results indicated that, agriculture production, purchase–agricultural implements/ farm machinery, purchase-vehicle, household consumption and social functions like marriage reasons were the purpose for which marginal and small farmers borrowed loan from private credit. About 54.55 percent of loan was taken for agriculture production, 9.09 per cent of the loan was taken for purchase–agricultural implements/ farm machinery, purchase-vehicle, household consumption respectively and 18.18 per cent of the farmers taken loan for social functions like marriage. Results indicated that 9.09 per cent of the households have repaid their institutional credit partially and 90.91 percent of the households have unpaid their loan. 5 Results indicated that 27.27 per cent of the households have repaid their private credit partially, 54.55 percent of the households have unpaid their loan and 18.18 per cent of them fully paid their loan. The results indicated that 9.09 per cent of the households were opined that they were helped to perform timely agricultural operations, higher rate of interest and forced to sell the produce at low price to repay loan in time respectively. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 32955.96. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 29877.63. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. -3078.33, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.91. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 48488.33. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 94802.50. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 46314.17. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.96. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 42321.23. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 60771.15. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 18449.91. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.44. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Sesamum was Rs. 11003.14. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 20748.00. The net income from Sesamum cultivation was Rs. 9744.86. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.89. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Chilly was Rs. 18128.02. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 75746.67. The net income from Chilly cultivation was Rs. 57618.64. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:4.18. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Cowpea was Rs. 32618.68. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 16444.98. The net income from Cowpea cultivation was Rs. -16173.70. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.5. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 75670.65. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 82435.19. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 6764.53. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.09. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Sunflower was Rs. 21608.43. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 19142.50. The net income from Sunflower cultivation was Rs. -2465.93. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.89. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Tomato was Rs. 148312.50. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 493999.99. The net income from Tomato cultivation was Rs. 345687.50. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.33. The results indicated that, 32.65 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.04 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate. 6 Similarly 28.57 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate and 2.04 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was inadequate. The results indicated that the average income from service/salary was Rs. 3,918.37, business Rs. 1,530.61, wage Rs. 38,653.06, agriculture Rs. 61,736.73, dairy farm Rs. 612.24 and goat framing Rs. 1,020.41. The results indicated that the average expenditure from service/salary was Rs. 816.33, business Rs. 979.59, wage Rs. 8,326.53, agriculture Rs. 33,040.82, dairy farm Rs. 204.08 and goat farming Rs. 510.20. The results indicated that, sampled households have grown 105 coconut trees and 21 mango tree in their field. The results indicated that, households have planted 1 Eucalyptus tree, 4 teak trees, 97 neem trees, 16 tamarind tress and 4 banyan trees in their field and also grown 2 Neem tree in the backyard. The results indicated that for 2.04 per cent of the households were dependent on government subsidy for land development, irrigation facility and improved crop production respectively. The results indicated that, Bajra, Chilly, Cowpea, Paddy, Sesamum and Tomato crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Groundnut, maize and sunflower were sold to the extent of 56.32 per cent, 75.89 per cent and 75 per cent respectively. The results indicated that, 75.51 percent of the households have sold their produce to agent/traders, 18.37 percent of the households have sold their produce to local/village merchant and 26.53 percent of the households sold their produce in regulated markets. The results indicated that 24.49 per cent of the households have used head load as a mode of transport, 32.65 per cent of them have used cart and 63.27 per cent have used tractor. The results indicated that, 36.73 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing. The results indicated that, 14.29 per cent of the households have adopted field bunding which includes 23.53 per cent of marginal, 10.53 per cent of small farmers and 16.67 per cent of semi medium farmers. The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households who adopted field bunding opined that full replacement is required for the bunds. The results indicated that 10.20 per cent of soil conservation structure is constructed by the government and 4.08 per cent is constructed by others. The results indicated that, 71.43 percent used fire wood as a source of fuel, 24.49 percent of the households used LPG and 4.08 per cent of the households used dung cake as a source of fuel. The results indicated that, piped supply was the source of drinking water for 51.02 per cent, 36.73 per cent of them were using bore well and 10.20 per cents of the households were using lake/tank for drinking water. 7 The results indicated that, electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, 48.98 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 20 per cent of landless, 47.06 per cent of marginal, 42.11 per cent of small, 100 per cent of semi medium and 50 per cent of medium had sanitary toilet facility. The results indicated that, 95.92 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 4.08 per cent of the sampled households have not possessed BPL card. The results indicated that, 32.65 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 60 per cent of the landless, 17.65 percent of the marginal, 15.79 per cent of the small, 100 per cent of the semi medium and 50 percent of the medium farmers. The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, fruits , milk, egg and meat were adequate for 100 per cent, 83.67 per cent, 57.14 per cent, 69.39 per cent, 20.41 per cent, 91.84 per cent, 81.63 per cent and 63.27 per cent respectively. The results indicated that, vegetables, fruits and meat were inadequate for 26.53 per cent of the households. Pulses, oilseed, milk and egg were inadequate for 16.33 per cent, 42.86 per cent, 6.12 per cent and 10.20 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, Lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 38.78 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (67.35%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (57.14%), inadequacy of irrigation water (30.61%), high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (44.90%), high rate of interest on credit (53.06%), low price for the agricultural commodities (34.69%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (46.94%), inadequate extension services (26.53%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (38.78%), less rain fall (48.98%) and Source of Agri-technology information(Newspaper/TV/Mobile) (18.37 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Security Council 8236th Meeting (Pm) ; 5/24/2018 Humanitarian Response in Syria Must Be Urgently Boosted, Emergency Relief Coordinator Tells Security Council | Meetings Coverage and Press Relea… https://www.un.org/press/en/2018/sc13302.doc.htm 1/5 SC/13302 17 APRIL 2018 MEETINGS COVERAGE SECURITY COUNCIL > 8236TH MEETING (PM) Humanitarian Response in Syria Must Be Urgently Boosted, Emergency Relief Coordinator Tells Security Council Casting a spotlight on the pressing needs of civilians in Raqqa and Rukban, the Security Council met this afternoon to hear a brieng on recent developments and discuss ways forward. While people in those cities comprised 1 per cent of those requiring help, their needs were no less important than the remaining 99 per cent, said Mark Lowcock, Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Aairs and Emergency Relief Coordinator. In Raqqa, where 100,000 people had returned since October when Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL/Da'esh) had been forced out, conditions were not conducive for returns because of high levels of unexploded ordinances and improvised explosive device contamination. In addition, there were scant basic services, a lack of electricity and mobile communications and food insecurity. Describing other concerns, he said in Rukban some 50,000 people were in need of sustained humanitarian assistance. Those remaining in the town of Douma and other areas of eastern Ghouta required urgent assistance after years of deprivation, he said, adding that the humanitarian community had not yet been able to provide help. On 25 March, the United Nations had requested permission from the Government of Syria to deploy an interagency surge team to scale up the United Nations operational capacity, he said, adding that he could not overstate the importance of sustaining and scaling up the international response. Council members underscored the need for sustained aid deliveries, with some calling on all Member States to make substantial commitments at the upcoming Brussels pledging conference and to swiftly disburse pledges. Some delegates said mine clearing should be a priority to ensure safe returns of displaced persons, while many members urged parties to return to negotiations to nd a political solution to end the conict. Echoing a common call, China's representative appealed to all parties in Syria to comply with Security Council resolution 2401 (2018) by ceasing hostilities and coordinating with United Nations humanitarian eorts. Any unilateral action would violate the basic norms of international law while complicating a settlement of the Syrian issue, he said, urging all sides to refrain from moves that would further escalate the situation. The representative of the Russian Federation, noting that Raqqa's destruction had been due to a United States-led coalition ght against ISIL, criticized coalition members for their lack of reconstruction in that area. Civilians were regularly killed by landmines and no assessment of humanitarian needs had occurred until the Russian Federation had insisted on it. In addition, no practical steps had been taken to provide humanitarian assistance to the population of Rukban, which was located near an American airbase. Urging the Council and the humanitarian community to address the situation of those two cities, he said coalition members should outline how they themselves were implementing resolution 2401 (2018). Meanwhile, the United States delegate said that while the 75 members of the Global Coalition against Da'esh had targeted ISIL and liberated civilians, the Syrian Government had bombarded its own people. United Nations humanitarian convoys were welcome at any time in Raqqa and Rukhban, with any delays being the result of the Syrian Government and its failure to allow deliveries. Condemning the Russian Federation for its "cynical, thinly disguised diversions", she said it was clear that it had requested the Council meeting as a distraction from the atrocities committed by the Bashar Al-Assad regime. Providing another perspective, Syria's representative said three Council members continued to search for microscopic dust while ignoring the enormous "elephant in the room", which was the aggression they had launched against his country. Raqqa was a martyr city that had been destroyed by those very States, he said, adding that the coalition had never sought to combat terrorism. Indeed, the point had been to block the Syrian Government and its allies as they attempted to combat ISIL. Turning to the situation in the Rukban camps, he said coalition forces had prevented the Government from delivering aid. Moreover, he asserted that the situation in Syria did not require draft resolutions or semi-daily meetings. Instead, the Council must stand against the occupation of Syria by the United States, Israel and Turkey and aggressions carried out by the United States, France and the United Kingdom. Drawing attention to the eects of the crisis on the Syrian people, Equatorial Guinea's representative said the situation in Raqqa required the international community's urgent attention. Calling for sustained humanitarian access and the intensication of eorts to reach a political solution, he reminded Council members that "the Syrian people have suered enough." 5/24/2018 Humanitarian Response in Syria Must Be Urgently Boosted, Emergency Relief Coordinator Tells Security Council | Meetings Coverage and Press Relea… https://www.un.org/press/en/2018/sc13302.doc.htm 2/5 Also speaking were the representatives of Kuwait, Sweden, France, United Kingdom, Kazakhstan, Poland, Côte d'Ivoire, Netherlands, Bolivia, Ethiopia and Peru. The meeting began at 4:48 p.m. and ended at 6:38 p.m. Brieng MARK LOWCOCK, Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Aairs and Emergency Relief Coordinator, briefed the Council on the situation in Syria, including in Raqqa and Rukban. While people in those cities totalled 1 per cent of those requiring help, their needs were no less important than the remaining 99 per cent. After a United Nations assessment mission on 1 April in Raqqa, where 100,000 people had returned since October when Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL/Da'esh) had been forced out, reports showed that conditions were not conducive for returns because of high levels of unexploded ordinances and improvised explosive device contamination. Every week, 50 casualties had been reported due to the remnants of war. Also, an estimated 70 to 80 per cent of all buildings had been destroyed or damaged. While public services were slowly resuming, the city lacked electricity and mobile communications while water was being pumped at a very limited capacity to the outskirts. Meanwhile, up to 95 per cent of households that had returned to Raqqa were food insecure and health services were lacking. Some schools had reopened, but lacked supplies. United Nations agencies were planning deliveries of humanitarian assistance and programmatic interventions to support the work of humanitarian agencies already active in those areas. In Rukban, some 50,000 people were in need of sustained humanitarian assistance, he continued, noting that there was a pressing need for better service provision and medical help. Humanitarian agencies were working closely with the United States, Russian Federation and the Syrian Arab Red Crescent to facilitate deliveries. At the same time, those remaining in the town of Douma and other areas of eastern Ghouta, under control of the Government of Syria, required urgent assistance after years of deprivation. The humanitarian community had not yet been able to provide that, he said, adding that access to reach the people of eastern Ghouta was critical. Of the 155,000 who had been displaced, he said, approximately 63,000 had moved north to Idlib and Aleppo, resulting in a 25 per cent increase in Idlib's displaced population. That situation placed incredible pressure on host communities and humanitarian actors working to provide assistance and services. Those remaining in Afrin were also in dire need of aid. Despite some positive developments, humanitarian partners were still struggling to gain sustained access to Afrin and freedom of movement for internally displaced persons remained severely limited. On 25 March, the United Nations requested permission from the Government of Syria to deploy an interagency surge team to scale up the United Nations operational capacity. Overall, he could not overstate the importance of sustaining and scaling up the international response. Statements VASSILY A. NEBENZIA (Russian Federation), noting that some delegations were constantly calling on his country to provide updates on its implementation of resolution 2401 (2018), said signicant eorts had been undertaken to improve the situation in eastern Ghouta, where armed groups had long held populations hostage. "A bloodbath was prevented," he said, adding that some 60,000 people had also been helped to return to their homes. Joint work was ongoing between the Russian military police and Syrian law enforcement ocials, including debris clearance, re-establishment of services and food deliveries. However, the international community's attention was also required, he said, calling for additional support from other Member States. In contrast, he said, Raqqa — which had been destroyed by United States-led coalition air strikes — had seen no reconstruction eorts. Civilians were regularly killed by landmines, and no assessment of humanitarian needs had taken place until the Russian Federation had insisted on it. Buildings were in ruins, thousands of corpses remained buried and no school, hospital or basic services remained operational. No practical steps had been taken to provide humanitarian assistance to the population of the similarly damaged city of Rukban, located near an American airbase whose very existence constituted a blatant violation of Syria's sovereignty. Urging the Council and the humanitarian community not to ignore the situation of those two cities, he said members of the coalition should be courageous enough to outline how they themselves were implementing resolution 2401 (2018) in those cases. Events over recent days had revealed the hypocrisy of the "troika" — namely, the United States, United Kingdom and France, he said. By their acts of aggression, those countries and their supporters had taken sides in the Syrian conict. The Russian Federation was instead working with all sides, committing to implementing Council resolutions and supporting the parties in making progress in the Geneva talks, which must resume without preconditions and especially without demands for a regime change. Given current developments, it was hard to imagine that the Government of Syria would want to talk about the situation in its country with any members of the troika, who sought to declare its President a war criminal. Indeed, before any progress could be made, "you rst need to undo the damage that you yourself have created", he said, noting that the opposition must step back from its destructive position while embracing Council resolutions, and their patrons must end their militant rhetoric against the legitimately elected President of Syria. Meanwhile, he said, the establishment of a mechanism to attribute responsibility for the use of chemical weapons in Syria made no sense, as Washington, D.C., and its allies were already acting like self-appointed executioners on that matter. Attempts to push the Russian Federation to change its position using air strikes and the threat of sanctions had never 5/24/2018 Humanitarian Response in Syria Must Be Urgently Boosted, Emergency Relief Coordinator Tells Security Council | Meetings Coverage and Press Relea… https://www.un.org/press/en/2018/sc13302.doc.htm 3/5 worked in the past nor would they work in the future. The United States and its allies must end its threats to use force against Syria, as such actions outed international law and only drove peace farther away. Warning against attempts to maintain foreign occupation in parts of Syria, loot its resources and stoke divisions between its people, he said military groups must also separate themselves from terrorists and Western parties should stop manipulating the humanitarian situation for political purposes. BADER ABDULLAH N. M. ALMUNAYEKH (Kuwait) said resolution 2401 (2018) had addressed the humanitarian situation across Syria, demanding a pause in hostilities for 30 days to ensure the delivery of humanitarian assistance and allow for the evacuation of the sick and wounded. Voicing frustration that it had not yet been implemented, he reiterated the call on parties to the conict to allow the entry of weekly convoys and for an immediate end to all attacks against civilians, civilian infrastructure and medical facilities. Urging the Astana guarantors, in particular, to continue to support talks. Welcoming the Oce for the Coordination of Humanitarian Aairs preparations of plans for providing humanitarian assistance in Raqqa, he underscored the need to maintain sustained aid delivery to internally displaced persons camps in Rukban. OLOF ORRENIUS SKOOG (Sweden) said a greater eort must be made to ensure full and immediate implementation of resolution 2401 (2018) throughout Syria, with the Astana guarantors living up to their commitments. He called on the Syrian authorities to immediately grant facilitation letters for humanitarian convoys to Douma and to facilitate sustained United Nations access to camps housing internally displaced persons. Referring also the situations in Raqqa, Rukban, Idlib and Afrin, he said the humanitarian community was undertaking a Herculean task. However, the acute lack of funding for United Nations humanitarian operations in in Syria was deeply troubling, he said, calling on all Member States to make substantial commitments at the upcoming Brussels conference and to swiftly disburse pledges. KELLEY A. ECKELS-CURRIE (United States) said the 75 members of the Global Coalition against Da'esh that had fought the terrorist group in Iraq had continued its eradication campaign in Syria. While the coalition had targeted ISIL and liberated civilians, the Syrian Government had bombarded its own people. Noting that United Nations humanitarian convoys were welcome at any time in Raqqa and Rukban, the United States stood ready to support deliveries. Any delays stemmed from the Bashar al-Assad regime and its failure to allow convoys to move. The United States had already provided assistance, clearing 3,000 remnants of war and contributing 300,000 pounds of food. Pointing out that the Russian Federation had called the Council meeting as part of a messaging campaign to distract the international community from the atrocities committed by the Assad regime, she reiterated that in addition to a ceasere, the Council had called for unhindered access for humanitarian assistance. Yet, the regime had only allowed six convoys. Such calls by the Council needed to be implemented on the ground, but that required the Syrian Government's cooperation, she said, condemning the Russian Federation for its "cynical, thinly disguised diversions". FRANÇOIS DELATTRE (France) said the humanitarian situation in Syria screamed for attention, including those eeing safe areas, the bureaucracy preventing access to camps and conditions in Raqqa, where 90,000 people had returned. Humanitarian actors needed access to provide much-needed basic services and eorts must continue to remove landmines. For its part, France was helping with landmine clearance and had contributed €10 million for projects easing civilian returns to Raqqa. Concerning Rukban, he reiterated an urgent appeal to guarantee unimpeded humanitarian access. In that context, he supported the draft resolution that his country, United Kingdom and the United States had tabled on 14 April with a view to making progress on the humanitarian front, put a denite end to the Syrian chemical programme and begin conclusive political negotiations. That draft had sought areas of convergence to create conditions of real diplomatic progress in Syria and open the way for true negotiations. KAREN PIERCE (United Kingdom), regretting to note that some members had used the humanitarian situation to score political points, recalled that the United Kingdom had contributed a total of $3.5 billion to date for humanitarian assistance. Her Government continued to provide humanitarian support to Raqqa and surrounding areas and had aided with landmine clearance. Raising several concerns, she drew attention to the plight of displaced persons in Rukban and urged the regime to facilitate access to the United Nations and its partners to deliver aid to Douma and eastern Ghouta. She called on the Council to use recent events to get the political process back on track and was looking forward to the upcoming retreat in Sweden, which the Secretary-General would also attend. KANAT TUMYSH (Kazakhstan), welcoming the Oce for the Coordination of Humanitarian Aairs assessment mission to Raqqa in April, raised concerns that an estimated 100,000 people had returned to their homes in that city despite the wide presence of unexploded ordnances. Highlighting the signicant destruction of Raqqa and the precarious fate of the Rukban and Hadalat refugee camps, he warned the Council of a dangerous tendency for those camps to become havens for foreign mercenaries. Kazakhstan supported the Russian Federation's proposal to establish humanitarian corridors for withdrawing refugees from El Tanf and the Rukban camp, based on the example provided by Russian and Syrian military troops during the assault on Aleppo. Calling on all parties immediately suspend hostilities, implement resolution 2401 (2018) and report periodically on those eorts, he said the questions of boundaries and territories following Syria's prolonged war should be addressed in line with that country's Constitution in order to prevent the re‑emergence of extremist groups. PAWEL RADOMSKI (Poland), raising concerns about new internally displaced persons reaching Idlib, said the military conict in north-west Syria had further complicated the situation on the ground. He called on all parties, especially the Russian Federation and Iran, to take action towards a cessation of hostility and to comply with all their obligations under 5/24/2018 Humanitarian Response in Syria Must Be Urgently Boosted, Emergency Relief Coordinator Tells Security Council | Meetings Coverage and Press Relea… https://www.un.org/press/en/2018/sc13302.doc.htm 4/5 international law. He also urged the Russian Federation, Iran and Turkey to full their responsibility as guarantors of the Astana process. There could be no military solution to the conict, in Syria, he said, underlining that a political agreement remained the only sustainable solution. ANATOLIO NDONG MBA (Equatorial Guinea) said Council members had recognized the very high number of people eeing Syria when they had adopted resolution 2393 (2017). In the former ISIL stronghold of Raqqa, military oensives had led to signicant destruction. Commending World Health Organization (WHO) eorts, he said Raqqa's residents continued to be deprived of aid because there were no nearby oces of humanitarian agencies and local authorities were incapable of providing assistance. The situation required the international community and the Council's urgent attention, he said, calling for the provision of sustained access allowing humanitarian convoys to reach Raqqa. "The Syrian people have suered enough," he said, calling for the intensication of eorts to reach a political solution centred on the needs of the Syrian people and in full respect for Syria's territorial integrity. THÉODORE DAH (Côte d'Ivoire), echoing expressions of regret that resolution 2401 (2018) remained unimplemented, called on all parties to ensure its full implementation across Syria including in Raqqa and Rukban. In the former, signicant destruction, a dearth of basic services and the presence of unexploded ordnance posed serious obstacles for safe returns of civilians. Calling on the international community to address those situations, he said a needs assessment was urgently required to better understand the extremely precarious living conditions in Rukban's internally displaced persons camps. Such work must be part of a global eort to reach a negotiated political solution based on inclusive dialogue and in line with resolution 2254 (2015). LISE GREGOIRE VAN HAAREN (Netherlands) emphasized the urgent need for access to Douma for humanitarian convoys and for the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) fact-nding mission. Calling for a humanitarian surge to address the urgent needs of internally displaced persons, she emphasized the situation of more than 180,000 people displaced by hostilities in Afrin, adding to the strain felt by host communities. Clearing improvised explosive devices was a priority in Raqqa, while in Rukban, both food and medical aid must reach the remaining displaced persons via the fastest and easiest route. Resolution 2401 (2018) must be implemented across Syria and eorts must succeed in ensuring humanitarian access and the protection of civilians, in line with international humanitarian law. MA ZHAOXU (China) appealed to all parties in Syria to comply with resolution 2401 (2018), cease hostilities and coordinate with United Nations humanitarian eorts. Equal attention must be paid to the humanitarian situation and to helping displaced persons to return to their homes. Emphasizing China's adherence to the peaceful settlement of disputes and its rejection of the use of force in international regulations, he said any action taken must comply with the United Nations Charter. Any unilateral action would violate the basic norms of international law while complicating a settlement of the Syrian issue, he said, urging all sides to refrain from moves that would further escalate the situation. PEDRO LUIS INCHAUSTE JORDÁN (Bolivia) underscored the pressing need to pursue mine clearing and to remove improvised explosive devices and remnants of war. Such work was vital for reconstruction and the return of basic services. Expressing regret that violence had continued unfettered in major cities, he said it was even more repugnant that schools, hospitals and residential areas were being targeted. Bolivia called on all stakeholders to spare no eort to implement resolution 2401 (2018) and for all parties to allow for unconditional humanitarian access. He went on to reiterate that the Syrian people should decide their political future through an inclusive process, free from external meddling. DAWIT YIRGA WOLDEGERIMA (Ethiopia) said the destruction of infrastructure and limited public services remained major challenges in Syrian cities. Demining eorts should be strengthened and aid must be delivered to all parts of Syria via safe and unhindered humanitarian access. Underscoring the importance of fully implementing resolution 2401 (2018), he said the Council should restore its unity through genuine and productive dialogue. GUSTAVO MEZA-CUADRA (Peru), Council President for April, speaking in his national capacity, welcomed eorts to clear "deadly booby-traps" laid by Da'esh in Raqqa and other areas. Recommendations from the Oce for the Coordination of Humanitarian Aairs mission to Raqqa would contribute to the safe return of displaced persons. While acknowledging the legitimate right of States to protect their borders, he said there should be unfettered access to Rukban, given the humanitarian situation there. It was vital that needs in Syria be met on a consistent basis, regardless of location, he said, adding that politicizing humanitarian assistance was unacceptable and a contravention of resolution 2401 (2018), which must be applied holistically throughout Syria. BASHAR JA'AFARI (Syria) said three Council members continued to search for microscopic dust while ignoring the enormous "elephant in the room", which was the aggression they had launched against Syria. His counterpart from the United States had declared that her country's forces had rid Raqqa of 3,000 landmines. Yet, the United States had also assisted 4,000 terrorists to safely leave the city without holding them accountable for planting them. While Sweden's representative had called out the Syrian Government many times, he had failed to call for an end to the United States, Turkish and Israeli occupation of Syria and to mention State-sponsored terrorism. Addressing France's delegate, he said Médecins Sans Frontières, like ISIL, had entered Syria without the Syrian Government's approval, behaving instead like "terrorists without borders". 5/24/2018 Humanitarian Response in Syria Must Be Urgently Boosted, Emergency Relief Coordinator Tells Security Council | Meetings Coverage and Press Relea… https://www.un.org/press/en/2018/sc13302.doc.htm 5/5 Providing an update on the OPCW fact-nding mission in Douma, he said the Syrian Government had facilitated the arrival today of a United Nations security team, which had entered the city around 3 p.m. local time. If the team found the situation to be secure, the OPCW fact-nding team would begin its work 18 April. Claims that the mission had been blocked had only intended to distract the international community from reality, he said, expressing regret that countries launched cowardly attacks against Syria still failed to understand the Syrian people's desire to determine their own destiny. "The days of hegemony are gone," he said, adding that no threat of force or support for terrorists would change the fact that the world's people were tired of seeing big Powers continue to disregard international law with impunity. He said Raqqa was a martyr city that had been destroyed by those very States, with the Oce for the Coordination of Humanitarian Aairs declaring the destruction to be "100 per cent complete". Hundreds of thousands of people had ed Raqqa and no basic services or operating hospitals remained, except for Médecins Sans Frontières facilities. The coalition had never sought to combat terrorism, he said, recalling its bloody massacres of civilians in various towns and villages across Syria. Indeed, the point had been to block the Syrian Government and its allies as they attempted to combat ISIL. On 8 February, United States forces had killed dozens of members of a popular force that had been ghting ISIL along the Euphrates River. Meanwhile, terrorists had been spared and even armed so they could wreak further havoc. Turning to the situation in the Rukban camps, he said coalition forces had prevented the Government from delivering aid. The United States was using the area as a place to train terrorist forces, who would then be used to ght other battles in the region. The situation in Syria did not require draft resolutions or semi-daily meetings. Instead, what was needed was for the Council to stand against the occupation of Syria by the United States, Israel and Turkey, aggressions carried out by the United States, France and the United Kingdom and the imposition of coercive measures against the Syrian people. For information media. Not an ocial record.
