Suchergebnisse

RESUMEN: El emprendimiento social híbrido constituye una fórmula innovadora que mezcla elementos estructurales y organizativos del emprendimiento tradicional/comercial y del social sin fines de lucro. A pesar del interés reciente, existen huecos importantes en la literatura con relación al perfil del emprendedor social híbrido y a las fases del proceso de este tipo de emprendimiento. Para cubrir estos huecos, la presente Tesis Doctoral se marca cuatro objetivos de investigación: 1) analizar, a título tanto individual como comparativo, el perfil del emprendedor social híbrido; 2) identificar el rol de los factores individuales e institucionales/contextuales en el proceso de emprendimiento social híbrido; 3) examinar la naturaleza de los factores individuales e institucionales/contextuales intervinientes en la fase de explotación de oportunidades en el emprendimiento social híbrido; y 4) estudiar el grado de influencia de los factores individuales e institucionales/contextuales en la consecución de los objetivos sociales y económicos de una empresa social híbrida. Los objetivos se dan respuesta con una investigación empírica en dos fases. En primer lugar se desarrolla el método Delphi, con un panel de expertos conformado por 25 expertos de España y América Latina, pertenecientes al ámbito académico o a alguna asociación/fundación que apoya el emprendimiento social, y en segundo lugar un estudio de cuatro casos de emprendimiento social híbrido. Como principales resultados, destacar sobre el perfil del emprendedor social híbrido que este tipo de emprendedor presenta: a) respecto al tradicional, una mayor orientación a los valores personales y una menor necesidad de poder/estatus y de relaciones interpersonales; b) respecto al social sin fines de lucro, mayores niveles de tolerancia a la incertidumbre, propensión al riesgo y capacidad cognitiva; y c) un interés real en oportunidades que generen valor económico pero sobre todo valor social. Sobre el papel de los factores individuales y los institucionales/contextuales en el proceso de emprendimiento social híbrido, se logra identificar que el emprendedor social híbrido a) está guiado en mayor medida en la fase de identificación de oportunidades por factores con elevado componente social, b) en la fase de evaluación de oportunidades concede una importancia muy similar a los factores de índole social y económica, y c) en la etapa de explotación de la oportunidad, otorga preferencia a los objetivos sociales sobre los económicos. Sobre el papel de los factores individuales y los institucionales/contextuales en la consecución de los objetivos de la empresa social híbrida se destaca que los más influyentes son: a) dentro de los factores individuales innovación y pro actividad resultan determinantes para alcanzar los objetivos económicos, mientras que la necesidad de logro es el factor que más se asocia con el logro de los objetivos sociales; b) en relación a los factores institucionales/contextuales se destaca que los factores relacionados con la estructura del sector y del mercado influyen en mayor medida en el logro de los objetivos económicos, mientras que los factores relativos al entorno económico, político-gubernamental y socio-cultural inciden en el logro de los objetivos sociales. ; ABSTRACT: The hybrid social entrepreneurship is an innovative formula that combines structural and organizational elements of the traditional / commercial entrepreneurship and from the not for profit social entrepreneurship. Despite the recent interest, there are important gaps in the literature regarding the hybrid social entrepreneur profile and the stages of this type of entrepreneurship process. To fill these gaps, this doctoral thesis establishes four research objectives: 1) analyze, both individually and comparative, the profile of the hybrid social entrepreneur; 2) identify the role of individual and institutional / contextual factors in the process of social hybrid entrepreneurship; 3) examine the nature of individual and institutional / contextual factors involved in the process of exploiting opportunities in the hybrid social enterprise; and 4) to study the degree of influence of individual and institutional / contextual factors in achieving social and economic goals of a hybrid social business. The objectives are given response thru an empirical research divided into two phases. First, the Delphi method is developed, with a panel of experts made up of 25 experts from Spain and Latin America, belonging to the academic field or an association / foundation supporting social entrepreneurship, and secondly a case study of four social hybrid enterprises. As the main results, it is important to highlight on the profile of hybrid social entrepreneur that this type of entrepreneur: a) in comparison with the traditional entrepreneur, a greater focus on personal values and less need for power / status and interpersonal relationships; b) regarding the social non-profit entrepreneur, higher levels of tolerance for uncertainty, risk appetite and cognitive ability; c) a real interest in opportunities that generate economic value but above all social value. On the role of the individual and institutional / contextual factors in the process of hybrid social entrepreneurship, it is achieved to identify that the hybrid social entrepreneur a) is guided more in the phase of identifying opportunities for factors with high social component, b ) at the stage of evaluating opportunities it attaches very similar to the factors of social and economic, and c) at the phase of opportunity exploitation, gives preference to the social objectives over the economic ones. On the role of individual and institutional factors / in achieving the objectives of social enterprise hybrid it stresses that the most influential are: a) in relation to individual factors, innovation and pro-activity are critical to achieving economic objectives, while the need for achievement is the factor most associated with the achievement of social objectives; b) in relation to the institutional / contextual factors it is noticed that factors related to industry structure and market influence to a greater extent in achieving the economic objectives, while factors related to political and economic environment and socio government -cultural have the greater impact in achieving social objectives.

Problem setting. Since the creation of the United Nations, it has been 73 years since, the world has changed dramatically, and accordingly, the Organization must change, rebuild under new realities. Due to the increase in the number of international conflicts, global problems of our time, the intensification of world globalization, informatization and computerization of all spheres of society, old methods and ways of getting out of crisis situations either cease to work or become ineffective. Therefore, the way in which the United Nations is transformed will determine the state of affairs in the international arena, world peace and security.Recent research and publications analysis. In the sociology of international relations and related academic disciplines, the issue of UN activity and development was studied by such scholars as B.M. Ashavsky, M.P.O. Baccarini, M.O. Baimuratov, Z. Bauman, S. Browne, M.V. Buromensky, R. Butler, S. Chesterman, K. Engelbrekt, Y.P. Godovnik, R.V. Guban, J.M. Hanhimaki, D. Howell, I. Johnstone, D. Malone, P. Nadin, O.V. Serdyuk, B.I. Tarasyuk, N. Turchin, Yu.O. Voloshin, T.J. Weiss, I.V. Yakovuk, Y.M. Zhukovsky, A.M. Zlenko et al. The situation on the international scene is changing, and today the United Nations is faced with new challenges and challenges that have not been studied by the authors or have been studied fragmentarily, so the appeal to comprehend the possible models of reforming the UN in today's conditions is quite expedient.Paper objective ‑ identification of problems in the activities of the United Nations and its ability to perform the tasks set before the organization, as well as proposals to overcome the problems identified to ensure the effectiveness of the UN work.Paper main body. The UN structure is rather complex and includes a large number of different organizational units of committees, commissions, departments, etc. Main structural units the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), the International Court of Justice, Trusteeship Council (suspended on 1 November 1994), the Secretariat. From the point of view of the level of authority, the General Assembly and the UN Security Council are the most important.The beginning of the active reform process of the United Nations is linked to the election of Secretary-General Kofi Annan in 1997. During the 52nd session of the UN General Assembly, the main directions for updating the UN were proposed, including structural changes in the Secretariat, coordination of organizations of the UN system at the country level, and improving interaction with civil society. This topic was developed at the Millennium Summit in 2000 immediately after the 55th session of the UN General Assembly, which took place in September of the same year.Summing up the achievements of the United Nations during its existence, it is worth pointing out the process of its transformation from the organization, which was focused mainly on conference services, to a truly global provider of services, which operates in virtually every corner of the world, thereby helping to improve the lives of people in need of assistance. The following statistical information confirms the progress achieved: more than 70% of the annual budget is allocated to peacekeeping and other field operations, which is almost 20% more than in the mid-1990s; the number of humanitarian missions increased from 12 to 43; the number of human rights defenders of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights in the states has increased by almost four times. However, there remain problems that have not yet been overcome, the most important of them is the reform of the Security Council. Discussions about reforming the UN Security Council have been taking place since the first years of its existence. The need for the reform of the UN Security Council is due to significant changes in the world that took place after the Second World War: economic, military-political, demographic, etc. The current composition of the UN Security Council does not proportionally represent the geographical zones of the conflict. Among the 15 members of the UN Security Council, 5 seats were assigned to the Western Europe and other Western European countries (including three permanent members), 2 to Eastern Europe (including Russia), 3 to the Asia-Pacific region (APR, including China), 3 to Africa and 2 ‑ Latin America and the Caribbean. These regional quotas show that one-third of the seats in the UN Security Council are in the «golden billion», while Eastern Europe, in which there are many unsettled conflicts, is represented only by Russia and one non-permanent member, and the Middle East is the source of the most severe conflicts, has only one representative from the APR group. In addition, the Asian quota can not always take into account the positions of States whose interests affect a number of territorial conflicts in the South China and East China Seas through which the main sea routes of the world pass.Conclusions of the research. There is a need for further UN reform. It is necessary to consistently carry out the reform of the UN Security Council, forming within its framework the agreed conceptual framework and practical measures to preserve and strengthen it as the central UN body, but the transformation is necessary: the world has changed, the structure that protects it must be changed. At the initial stage it is necessary to increase the number of members of the Council, the number of permanent members should reflect the regional picture of the world, new permanent members do not have veto power for 15-20 years. ; В статье исследуется деятельность ООН, ее институты и структура. Доказывается, что ООН нуждается в реформировании, прежде всего, ее главных структур: Генеральной Ассамблеи и Совета Безопасности, превращение их в эффективно работающие структуры. Кроме того требуют своего реформирования и совершенствования деятельность по поддержанию мира и разоружению, создание эффективной системы обеспечения прав человека, укрепление судебной системы, координация деятельности специализированных учреждений и специальных комиссий и фондов ООН, укрепление кадрового потенциала. ; У статті досліджується діяльність ООН, її інститути і структура. Доводиться, що ООН потребує реформування, насамперед, її головних структур: Генеральної Асамблеї і Ради Безпеки, перетворення їх в ефективно працюючу структуру. Крім того вимагають свого реформування та вдосконалення діяльність з підтримки миру і роззброєння, створення ефективної системи забезпечення прав людини, зміцнення судової системи, координація діяльності спеціалізованих установ та спеціальних комісій і фондів ООН, зміцнення кадрового потенціалу.

Problem setting. Since the creation of the United Nations, it has been 73 years since, the world has changed dramatically, and accordingly, the Organization must change, rebuild under new realities. Due to the increase in the number of international conflicts, global problems of our time, the intensification of world globalization, informatization and computerization of all spheres of society, old methods and ways of getting out of crisis situations either cease to work or become ineffective. Therefore, the way in which the United Nations is transformed will determine the state of affairs in the international arena, world peace and security.Recent research and publications analysis. In the sociology of international relations and related academic disciplines, the issue of UN activity and development was studied by such scholars as B.M. Ashavsky, M.P.O. Baccarini, M.O. Baimuratov, Z. Bauman, S. Browne, M.V. Buromensky, R. Butler, S. Chesterman, K. Engelbrekt, Y.P. Godovnik, R.V. Guban, J.M. Hanhimaki, D. Howell, I. Johnstone, D. Malone, P. Nadin, O.V. Serdyuk, B.I. Tarasyuk, N. Turchin, Yu.O. Voloshin, T.J. Weiss, I.V. Yakovuk, Y.M. Zhukovsky, A.M. Zlenko et al. The situation on the international scene is changing, and today the United Nations is faced with new challenges and challenges that have not been studied by the authors or have been studied fragmentarily, so the appeal to comprehend the possible models of reforming the UN in today's conditions is quite expedient.Paper objective ‑ identification of problems in the activities of the United Nations and its ability to perform the tasks set before the organization, as well as proposals to overcome the problems identified to ensure the effectiveness of the UN work.Paper main body. The UN structure is rather complex and includes a large number of different organizational units of committees, commissions, departments, etc. Main structural units the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), the International Court of Justice, Trusteeship Council (suspended on 1 November 1994), the Secretariat. From the point of view of the level of authority, the General Assembly and the UN Security Council are the most important.The beginning of the active reform process of the United Nations is linked to the election of Secretary-General Kofi Annan in 1997. During the 52nd session of the UN General Assembly, the main directions for updating the UN were proposed, including structural changes in the Secretariat, coordination of organizations of the UN system at the country level, and improving interaction with civil society. This topic was developed at the Millennium Summit in 2000 immediately after the 55th session of the UN General Assembly, which took place in September of the same year.Summing up the achievements of the United Nations during its existence, it is worth pointing out the process of its transformation from the organization, which was focused mainly on conference services, to a truly global provider of services, which operates in virtually every corner of the world, thereby helping to improve the lives of people in need of assistance. The following statistical information confirms the progress achieved: more than 70% of the annual budget is allocated to peacekeeping and other field operations, which is almost 20% more than in the mid-1990s; the number of humanitarian missions increased from 12 to 43; the number of human rights defenders of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights in the states has increased by almost four times. However, there remain problems that have not yet been overcome, the most important of them is the reform of the Security Council. Discussions about reforming the UN Security Council have been taking place since the first years of its existence. The need for the reform of the UN Security Council is due to significant changes in the world that took place after the Second World War: economic, military-political, demographic, etc. The current composition of the UN Security Council does not proportionally represent the geographical zones of the conflict. Among the 15 members of the UN Security Council, 5 seats were assigned to the Western Europe and other Western European countries (including three permanent members), 2 to Eastern Europe (including Russia), 3 to the Asia-Pacific region (APR, including China), 3 to Africa and 2 ‑ Latin America and the Caribbean. These regional quotas show that one-third of the seats in the UN Security Council are in the «golden billion», while Eastern Europe, in which there are many unsettled conflicts, is represented only by Russia and one non-permanent member, and the Middle East is the source of the most severe conflicts, has only one representative from the APR group. In addition, the Asian quota can not always take into account the positions of States whose interests affect a number of territorial conflicts in the South China and East China Seas through which the main sea routes of the world pass.Conclusions of the research. There is a need for further UN reform. It is necessary to consistently carry out the reform of the UN Security Council, forming within its framework the agreed conceptual framework and practical measures to preserve and strengthen it as the central UN body, but the transformation is necessary: the world has changed, the structure that protects it must be changed. At the initial stage it is necessary to increase the number of members of the Council, the number of permanent members should reflect the regional picture of the world, new permanent members do not have veto power for 15-20 years. ; В статье исследуется деятельность ООН, ее институты и структура. Доказывается, что ООН нуждается в реформировании, прежде всего, ее главных структур: Генеральной Ассамблеи и Совета Безопасности, превращение их в эффективно работающие структуры. Кроме того требуют своего реформирования и совершенствования деятельность по поддержанию мира и разоружению, создание эффективной системы обеспечения прав человека, укрепление судебной системы, координация деятельности специализированных учреждений и специальных комиссий и фондов ООН, укрепление кадрового потенциала. ; У статті досліджується діяльність ООН, її інститути і структура. Доводиться, що ООН потребує реформування, насамперед, її головних структур: Генеральної Асамблеї і Ради Безпеки, перетворення їх в ефективно працюючу структуру. Крім того вимагають свого реформування та вдосконалення діяльність з підтримки миру і роззброєння, створення ефективної системи забезпечення прав людини, зміцнення судової системи, координація діяльності спеціалізованих установ та спеціальних комісій і фондів ООН, зміцнення кадрового потенціалу.

A caballo entre el siglo V y el VI, en el occidente de Britania que las poblaciones nativas retenían frente al impulso invasor de los anglosajones, el clérigo Gildas exhortó a los poderes seculares y laicos de su tiempo a despertar de su letargo, unirse y trabajar por la perfección espiritual y militar que les habría de permitir sobreponerse a sus enemigos. En su alocución, Gildas invocó un enigmático augurio sobre el final de la presencia anglosajona en Britania, el cual, pese a su significación política, no parece haber dejado huella en autores posteriores, que no vuelven a aludir a la cuestión. Esto ha hecho pensar a algunos historiadores que el augurio no formaba parte del texto original de Gildas, sino que es una interpolación posterior. Por su parte, Beda el Venerable, trabajando dos siglos después y desde el flanco opuesto (el de los anglosajones ya convertidos al cristianismo), fue el primero en hacer uso intensivo de la obra de Gildas, pero tampoco hizo referencia explícita al pronóstico sobre el fin de los anglosajones. Sin embargo, el propósito de este trabajo es sugerir que Beda no solo conocía el augurio y era consciente de su significado e importancia, sino que, siendo un especialista en cronología y computística, se esforzó por insertarlo tácitamente en su visión de la historia post-romana de Britania, poniéndolo en paralelo con el proceso de cristianización de los anglosajones. ; The demise of Roman rule in Britain seems to have been followed by a quick collapse of large-scale political articulation and the outburst of a number of native politities, of which very little is known. Between the mid and late fifth century, the Anglo-Saxons took over the east of southern Britain, absorbing the native population into a new ethnic, religious and political identity. BY the early sixth-century, though, such and expansion had come to a halt, and the Celtic-speaking, Christian inhabitants of southwestern Britain remained beyond Anglo-Saxon control, although that did not make their political organization less fragmented. Sometime between the very late fifth century and the mid-sixth century, a British cleric named Gildas wrote down a text (De excidio Britanniae) in which he exhorted the religious and secular rulers of the British polities to take action. Gildas's argument was that, for all the peace and calm the present generation enjoyed, the troubles of the past were not gone for ever. The enemy was still there and hardship would return. The kings and priests who –like a new Israel– had given up to leisure and forgot about God's precepts were castigated by Gildas and prompted to return to put down their sinful ways and prepare to face the fights to come with God on their side.In order to reinforce this argument, Gildas inserted in his narration of the Saxon invasion of Britain a quick reference to an omen which predicted that the new settlers would inhabit the island for three hundred years, and for half of this period (i.e.: one hundred and fifty years) they would repeatedly devastate it. This is a most enigmatic passage which has raised all sorts of opinions among historians, from those who consider it mere fabrication or interpolation to those who judge it as a colourful, exotic touch, whether due to Gildas's imagination and scriptural learning or to his knowledge of a real tradition about a real omen of Saxon provenance. However, given the political relevance of a forecast about the ending of the Saxons in Britain, it is striking that it has left nearly no trace of its existence. Later texts which sometimes replicate Gildas's passage about the Saxon invasion, systematically wrote out the Saxon omen, which has provided grounds for the views that it was an interpolation which did not originally feature in De excidio. ; This paper suggests that the reason why Gildas's Saxon omen was ruled out by later authors was due to two reasons: a) that most preserved texts belong to a period after the three-hundred years deadline has passed, thus rendering the omen pointless; b) that the Venerable Bede, whose Historia ecclesiastica gentis anglorum strongly influenced all history written in Britain thereafter, also disregarded the men in his largely Gildas-based account of the Saxon invasion. However, Bede did write before the end of the three-hundred year period. A detailed analysis of he dealt with the chronology of fifth-century events, and the paramount authority he ascribed to Gildas in so doing, reveals that Bede was well aware of the omen, according to which the ending of Saxons rule should occur within the next generation. Bede tried to relate the first term of the omen to the arrival of the Roman missionaries that started the Christianization of the Anglo-Saxons. His metaphorical interpretation of the one hundred years of plundering as the Anglo-Saxons' heathen period was probably intended to provide some clue with which to reinterpret the meaning of the omen's second term. However, Bede's computations never allowed him to provide a tight chronological frame for the omen. He struggled to precise the chronology of the missionaries' arrival and the varied steps of the Christianization, but failed to date the arrival of the Saxons with precision. To overcome this limitation, Bede introduced in his reckoning a certain measure of uncertainty —expressed with the Latin word circiter— which is demonstrably related to his estimations of the either the adventus Saxonum or the missionaries arrival. Eventually, he opted for omitting all reference to the omen, although both the layout of his chronology and the passages in which he expressed his concern about the immediate future bear witness to his worries.The realization of Bede's awareness of the Saxon omen and the ways in which he dealt with it provides new insights about how he constructed the complex rhetoric and discourse of his all-influential narrative of early medieval British history, as well as a more hidden image of the real weight he attached to political and cultural traditions coming from the island's Celtic-speaking side which features in his texts as the very "axis of evil" in the process of the Christianization of the Anglo-Saxons. ; Trabajo iniciado con apoyo de una beca post-doctoral del Ministerio de Educación y Cultura en el University College London y terminado en el marco del proyecto del Plan Nacional de I+D (ref. HUM/01812/HIST) «Los fundamentos del espacio europeo: comunidad, territorio y sistema político en la Europa altomedieval», desarrollado en el Instituto de Historia-CSIC. ; Peer reviewed

Despite a meticulous process in place to ensure aid worker safety in Gaza, the leading cause of death in the humanitarian sector over the last 11 months has been Israeli airstrikes.

Of the 378 aid workers killed worldwide since October 7, more than 75 percent have been killed in Gaza or the West Bank, according to the Aid Worker Security Database. The number of humanitarians killed in Palestinian territory in the last three months of 2023 was more than the deadliest full year ever recorded for aid workers. This includes an Israeli airstrike Wednesday Sept. 11 on a school being used as a shelter in Nuseirat in Central Gaza. According to reports, 18 were killed, including children and six UNRWA aid workers, the deadliest single event for that organization since the start of the war.

Israeli attacks on aid organizations have become routine, despite systems in place to avoid humanitarian deaths. Through a process called deconfliction, aid groups coordinate with warring parties to avoid being attacked. Popular deconfliction mechanisms used by aid groups in Gaza include clearly marking their assets, arranging their movements with Israeli authorities, and sharing their location with the Israeli military.
However, a disturbing pattern has emerged: Aid groups share their coordinates with Israeli authorities and then are attacked by the IDF at those same coordinates.

Christopher Lockyear, Secretary General of Médecins Sans Frontières/Doctors Without Borders (MSF), told the United Nations Security Council in February that "this pattern of attacks is either intentional or indicative of reckless incompetence." Forty-eight hours earlier, a 120mm Israeli tank shell exploded in a MSF facility in Khan Younis, killing two people and severely injuring six others. It was the second time a MSF facility had been attacked by Israeli forces.

The White House is aware of this trend. In May, a Biden administration report to Congress noted the following:

"One specific area of concern is the impact of Israel's military operations on humanitarian actors. Despite regular engagement from humanitarian actors and repeated USG interventions with Israeli officials on deconfliction/coordination procedures, the IDF has struck humanitarian workers and facilities. While Israel repeatedly committed to improve deconfliction and implemented some additional measures, those changes did not fully prevent subsequent strikes involving humanitarian workers and facilities."

"Concern" might be too strong a word to express the White House's interest in preventing humanitarian deaths. The same day successive Israeli precision drone strikes killed seven aid workers, including one American citizen, from World Central Kitchen — a humanitarian group founded by Chef José Andrés — Biden approved the transfer of over 2,000 bombs to Israel.

Humanitarian organizations can be based in a Western country (including one upon which Israel relies for weapons), have a direct line to the IDF, follow all deconfliction procedures to a T, and still be attacked by the IDF. And when they have been, the Biden administration has done nothing but issue words of concern from the briefing podium. This lesson is not lost on aid workers: After a nurse from Project Hope was killed by an Israeli airstrike in March, the organization's director of emergency response and preparedness asked his staff if they wanted to start sleeping in a zone deconflicted with Israeli authorities. All of the staff members said no.

What follows is a non-exhaustive list of 14 Israeli attacks on known aid worker locations compiled from media reports, organizational statements, and independent investigations. Reporting by the New York Times and Human Rights Watch was especially valuable. In each case, the aid groups had notified Israeli authorities of their location and movements, their vehicles or facilities were clearly marked as humanitarians, and were often operating in Israeli-designated "safe zones," but they were attacked anyway by Israeli forces.

The Biden administration held Israel to account for zero of these 14 incidents.Fourteen times aid groups were attacked after giving the IDF their locationNovember 18, 2023: Israeli forces attacked a convoy of five clearly-marked MSF vehicles, killing two MSF staff members. MSF had coordinated the convoy's movement with Israeli authorities and followed the route prescribed by the Israeli military. MSF staff members saw no military targets in the area when they were attacked. MSF requested an explanation from the IDF but received no response.December 8, 2023: The Israeli Navy fired at facilities affiliated with the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestinian Refugees (UNRWA) in Rafah with 20mm cannon rounds, damaging the west side of the two buildings. UNRWA officials had repeatedly shared the coordinates of the buildings with Israeli officials, including on the same day of the attack. Agency staff told Human Rights Watch that they were unaware of any military targets in the area. Afterwards, the Israeli military said the attack was carried out by mistake.December 16, 2023: An IDF tank fired several rounds at the Convent of the Sisters of Mother Teresa (Missionaries of Charity), part of the Holy Family Catholic Parish compound in Gaza. The attack displaced the 54 disabled people sheltering there, leaving some without the respirators "that some of them need to survive," the Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem said in a statement.An aid worker was reportedly injured in the attack. Later that day, an Israeli sniper killed two women sheltering at the church, shooting one woman as she tried to carry the other to safety. When others in the church ran toward the women, Israeli snipers shot them too, wounding several, including two children. Pope Francis condemned the attack, calling it "terrorism."Emails between Catholic Relief Services and U.S. Senate staff obtained by Politico show that Catholic Relief Services (one of the largest Christian aid organizations operating in Gaza) had provided the coordinates of the two buildings to Senate staffers, who then relayed that information to the IDF. The IDF confirmed the location of the buildings that Catholic Relief Services requested for protection. The aid group also provided aerial photos of the facilities directly to Israeli authorities. The Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem Church said they shared their GPS coordinates with the IDF several times before the attack.December 28, 2023: A convoy of U.N. aid vehicles were shot at by Israeli forces in central Gaza as it was returning from delivering aid in the north. The vehicles were clearly-marked with U.N. insignia, traveling along a route designated by the Israeli military and had coordinated its plans with Israeli authorities beforehand.January 8, 2024: An Israeli tank fired at a clearly-marked MSF shelter in Khan Younis housing more than 100 staff and their family members, killing a five-year-old girl. MSF had previously notified the IDF of the shelter's location. Israeli forces denied that they fired a round at the shelter, but remnants of an Israeli-made tank shell were discovered right outside the building.January 18, 2024: An Israeli airstrike struck a residential compound housing staff from the International Rescue Committee (IRC) and Medical Aid for Palestinians (MAP) in Al-Mawasi, an Israeli-designated safe zone. The blast injured several workers and severely damaged the building. As a result, six emergency medical workers had to leave their posts, and IRC and MAP surgeons suspended their work at Nasser hospital. Forensic evidence suggests the munition used in the attack was a U.S.-made 1,000-pound MK-83 bomb, reportedly dropped by a U.S.-made F-16 aircraft. British officials had used high-level diplomatic channels to ensure the compound was deconflicted with the IDF. A month before the strike, the Israeli military explicitly reassured aid staff through text messages that they were safe. "We're aware of the location" of the compound, a message from an IDF official read. The MAP employee then clarified whether the building is still safe. "Yes," replied the IDF official.Israel provided six different — and often conflicting — explanations for the attack. It said it wasn't operating in the area; it said it was attempting to hit a target next to the MAP-IRC compound; it said it wasn't actually a bomb but a piece of the aircraft fuselage. The IDF told The New York Times that they didn't strike the location at all.January 31, 2024: Israeli forces bombed the offices of the Belgian development agency, Enabel, completely destroying the building. Handicap International, an NGO, had offices in the same structure. Belgian Foreign Minister Hadja Lahbib said that Israeli authorities "knew very well that Enabel's offices were located in this building." Earlier that day, the Belgian government announced it would not suspend funding for UNRWA, after the Israeli government claimed without evidence that UNRWA staff had participated in the October 7 massacre.In mid-February, Israeli forces claimed it had not bombed the Enabel building, but that it was destroyed when they blew up the building next door for an unspecified military reason.February 5, 2024: Israeli ships shelled a clearly-marked UNRWA convoy, damaging one of the aid trucks. The convoy was stopped at an Israeli-designated holding point when it was shelled. UNRWA had coordinated the convoy's movement with Israeli authorities. As a result of the attack, UNRWA had to pause its operations in northern Gaza for nearly three weeks, affecting 200,000 people. Israeli authorities later acknowledged the attack and said it had put in place "prevention measures" to prevent another incident. The next month, the Israeli government blocked UNRWA from providing any food assistance to northern Gaza.February 20, 2024: Two family members of MSF staff were killed when an Israeli tank fired a shell at a MSF shelter. Seven others, mostly women and children, were injured. A large MSF flag was clearly visible on the side of the building. Israeli forces provided MSF with no warning before the attack and no explanation afterwards.March 9, 2024: An Anera employee was killed in his home along with his six-year-old son and several neighbors in an Israeli airstrike. The building was registered with the Israeli military as a "sensitive site." Email records show that Anera had repeatedly shared coordinates and photos of the staff shelter with the IDF, including days before the strike. A precision-guided munition was likely used in the attack.April 1, 2024: Multiple precision Israeli drone strikes on a World Central Kitchen (WCK) convoy killed seven aid workers, including an American citizen. The Washington, DC-based group had coordinated its route with the IDF beforehand. The vehicles were struck in a deconfliction zone controlled by the Israeli military. WCK founder José Andrés said Israeli forces targeted his colleagues "systematically, car by car." Forensic evidence backs up Andrés's claim. "This was not just a bad luck situation where 'oops' we dropped the bomb in the wrong place," Andrés said, pointing to the fact that it was clearly-marked humanitarian convoy with colorful WCK logos on the vehicle roofs, and the 1.8 kilometer distance between the first and the third car in the convoy, each. It was "very clear who we are and what we do," he added.IDF Spokesman Danial Hagari said WCK had "coordinated everything correctly with the IDF in advance" and blamed "internal failures." President Joe Biden said he was "outraged and heartbroken" by the deaths, and called on Israel to investigate itself. But for WCK's founder, "The IDF cannot credibly investigate its own failure," Andrés said.April 9, 2024: A clearly-marked UNICEF aid truck was reportedly hit by Israeli gunfire south of the Salah Al-Din checkpoint. The vehicle was at a holding point when it was struck by several bullets coming from the direction of the Israeli checkpoint. The IDF had approved the convoy beforehand. The Israeli military denied that its troops had fired the shots.August 27, 2024: A U.N. World Food Programme (WFP) convoy came under fire near an Israeli checkpoint at the Wadi Gaza bridge. As the vehicles approached the checkpoint after receiving multiple clearances to proceed, Israeli troops opened fire, hitting one WFP vehicle at least ten times. Several bullets struck the vehicle's windows, just above the clearly-visible U.N. insignia and WFP logo emblazoned on the side doors. Israeli officials blamed a "communication error" for the attack.August 29, 2024: An Israeli airstrike on an Anera aid convoy killed four Palestinians as it was en route to the Emirati Red Crescent Hospital. The route was coordinated and approved by Israeli authorities. Israeli officials claim the lead car the IDF struck was carrying many weapons, but there was no indication that weapons were present. The IDF provided Anera no warning before carrying out the attack.

Driven by unrelenting technological and market forces, telecommunications is today one of the world's dynamic economic sector. Until not long ago a relatively obscure territory of interest mainly to engineers, telecommunications today seem to be everybody's proper playing field. Large and small businesses, user groups, investment banks, policy makers, development organizations, legislators, economists, political scientists, consumers, students and lawyers, among others, are now also actively and visibly involved in telecommunications. Traditionally, telecommunications was regarded as a relatively straightforward public utility. Economies of scale, political and military sensitivities, and large externalities made telecommunications a typical public service believed to be a natural monopoly. In this environment, telecommunications development focused mainly on extending standard service, building basic networks, and improving the performance of the operating entities. The main issues were technological, and management of telecommunications enterprises was largely oriented toward engineering.Research in the 1960s and 1970s documented the importance of telecommunications as infrastructure for economic and social development. It was shown that telecommunication services are used in connection with a wide range of economic production and distribution activities, delivery of social services and government administration.They also contribute to the quality of life and social, political and security objectives. Where available, telecommunications benefit a broad cross-section of the urban and rural population by income, education and occupation. These features result in high social and private returns from telecommunications investment, as well as in a considerable financial resource mobilization capacity.Information is regarded today as a fundamental factor of production, alongside capital and labor. The information economy accounted one-third to one half of gross domestic product (GDP) and of employment in Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries in the 1980s and is expected to reach 60 % for the European Union (EU) in the year 2000. Information also accounts for substantial proportion of GDP in the newly industrialized economies and the modern sectors of developing countries.This increasing information intensity of economic activity, coupled with the globalization of capital flows, trade, manufacturing and other activities, resulted in strong demand for better, more varied, and less costly communication and information services. Demand growth has been challenged with rapid changes in telecommunications technology fueled by advances in microelectronics, software and optics. These changes have greatly reduced the cost of information transmission and processing. It changed the cost structures of telecommunications and many other industries, made possible new ways of meeting a wider range of communication needs at lower cost, reduced user dependence on established operating entities and increasingly integrated information and telecommunications technologies and services. Obviously these interrelated market and technological processes show no signs of decreasing or abating.In this context, telecommunications is now widely considered a strategic investment to maintain and to develop competitive advantage at all levels including national, regional and firm. Telecommunications constitute the core of, and provide the infrastructure for the information economy as a whole. Telecommunications facilitates market entry, improve customer service, and reduce costs, and increase productivity. They are an integral part of financial services, commodities markets, media, transportation, and the travel industry, and provide vital links among manufacturers, wholesalers, and retailers.Moreover, industrial and commercial competitive advantage is now not only influenced by availability of telecommunications facilities, but also by choice of network alternatives and control to reconfigure and manage networks in line with corporate objectives. Countries and firms that lack access to modern telecommunication and information systems cannot effectively participate in the global economy and politics. This applies to the least developed countries of Africa and Asia as much as to middle income countries, such as those in Latin America, East Asia, and Central and Eastern Europe that aspire to become industrial countries in the next decade. In that respect, this study is going to focus on the world's one of the most leading entity, European Union (EU)'s telecommunications status, Information Society and its vast project TEN (Trans European Networks) regarding its impacts on the interdependence between the European states in a broad sense, from politics, economics to social living.While doing it, after the introduction, the general developments of telecommunications in Europe will be mentioned by overlooking the regulatory progress in EU in part 2. With the beginning of part 3, the fundamental framework called Information Society (IS) is going to be explained by stressing on the aims and principles of this new era. However, beside its tremendous effects, living and working in IS brings up major questions. Basically, the two opposite ideas are in the minds of the people; on the one hand some says the new technologies and IS creates new fields of job and will bring profound dynamism to the every field of the life and on the other hand some says the new technologies and IS destroy more jobs than it creates, also it will create big gap between rich and poor regions, including people. However, the aim of this work is not to decide which is true or not, but to indicate two sides of the coin as clear as possible which will be done in part 4. In part 5, the way of Europe through IS will be stressed on the necessary suggestions of Commission. With the beginning of part 6 the very important IS project of EU, Trans European Networks (TENs) which is a very extended project, another words it is an advanced infrastructure which will pull Europe together to create a strong economy and better quality of life will be defined in part 6. Part 6 also highlights the main framework of TENs as "TENs for Telecommunications" and "TEN related IS Projects" of EU.After a general idea given by part 6 about TENs, part 7 will be dealt with "Community Support Program for Trans European Telecommunication Networks". The idea here is to comprehend the telecommunication related services and necessary applications in order to see their effect on IS through its expansion in Europe. Even though this work does not have a comparative character, lastly, in part 8 the situation of Turkey, regarding telecommunications and IS will be described. As it is mentioned the idea here is not to compare Turkey's situation with the EU countries', but it is important to give a general opinion where Turkey is. The new era is on its way. One way or another information and telecommunication is expanding into people's life if we like it or not. So that it is substantial to understand the situation of telecommunications and the Information Society in order to see our future more clearly. From now on the economical power is not sufficient if you do not have the power of information. The countries or in other words, societies which can combine economic and information power together with highly widespread telecommunication infrastructures, will be successful in the changing world. Here in this work the ultimate aim is not to discuss the technical or judicial side of telecommunications and information society, but to emphasize the importance of this new trend for countries' future.

At the origins of the research presented here lie a dramatic dilemma and a striking paradox. The dilemma concerns teh apparent contradiction between the use of resources to foster economic growth and the necessity to provide public expenses to cover elementary human needs. In most of the developing world, the housing situation has continued to deteriorate in the largest metropolitan areas. This has been true even when the areas were experiencing periods of sustained economic growth, as was the case for most of Asia, and for Latin America until the 1980s. The growing proportion of squatters among urban dwellers all over the world is evidence of this dilemma. thus, housing appears to be a burden for development and a need almost impossible to satisfy for the majority of the population until much later stages of development, which may never be reached by a given country. The paradox is that Singapore and Hong Kong, the two countries with the highest rate of economic growth of the last 25 years, are also the countries that have built the two largest public housing systems in the world during that period. Their public housing systems are the largest in terms of the proportion of the population housed by the government (in 1987, 46 percent for Hong Kong, 86 percent for Singapore). It may be argued that it is precisely their economic growth that has made it affordable for the government to spend so much for public goods. However, the public housing programs actually preceded the process of economic growth and went hand-in-hand with it throughout the period when the growth occurred. It can be reasonably proposed that there is a meaningful relationship -- and not just a historical coincidence -- between these two processes: namely, a high rate of economic growth and the building of a comprehensive public housing program. At least, such is the thesis that we put forward and that we will try to prove and to document in this monograph. To be sure, both countries are very specific. Both are city states and tiny in their physical dimension, but other developing countries have similar or smaller populations. For example, Hong Kong is more populated than all Central American countries with the exception of Guatemala. While size is an important factor, it does not determine the extent or even the form of a housing program: all the public housing estates of Singapore (which house 86 percent of the 2.6 million population) still occupy only less than 5 percent of the island's surface. However, we will not argue against the obvious specificity of the urban situations studied here. What we are concerned with are the economic, social, and political mechanisms that made possible these public housing programs and their positive interaction with the process of economic development. These mechanisms are what could be considered as potential elements for the formulation of housing policies in other contexts, not the actual forms and institutions of the public housing progress in the two city-states. By way of contrast, we have studied the connection between housing policy and industrial development in Shenzhen, which lies across teh border from Hong Kong and is the most important of the Chinese Special Economic Zones. These economic zones have been set up by a socialist state, China, as a deliberate counterpoint to the successful Asian newly industrialized countries (three of them of primarily Chinese ethnic composition). In these zones, China is trying to reproduce the mechanism of participation in the international economy as the key for economic success. Interestingly enough, housing policy is the one element that the Chinese government has NOT replicated in Shenzhen. Instead, it has actually used housing as a profit-making mechanism whose benefits go to real estate companies, public or private, and through them, to the government revenues. Thus, in an approximate manner, we can shift the terms of our paradox (the connection between capitalist industrialization and nonprofit housing in Hong Kong and Singapore): Shenzhen provides us with the opportunity too analyze the effects of profit-making housing on socialist industrialization. For our analysis, we conducted research over a period of four years, from 1983 to 1987, although with varying intensity during this time span. Manuel Castells conducted a pilot study in Hong Kong in 1983, supported by the Center of Urban Studies of the University of Hong Kong. Reginald Kwok started a study in 1985 of economic and spatial development in Shenzhen. Lee Goh combined professional work and reflection upon it as an architect at the Singapore Housing Development Board in 1979-82 and 1984-86. In 1986, the University of California's Pacific Rim Research Program, the Institute of International Studies, and the Institute of Urban and Regional Development at Berkeley provided their full financial and institutional support to the project. At this time the study became a full-fledged research program that engaged most of the time and the effort of the three researchers from the Fall of 1986 to the end of 1987. Manuel Castells in Hong Kong, with the cooperation of Reginald Kwok and the research assistance of To Lap-kee; renewed field work research by Reginald Kwok and To Lap-kee in Shenzhen; and field work in Singapore by Manuel Castells and Lee Goh. Data analysis and elaboration of the research proceeded throughout the whole period in Hong Kong, Singapore, and Berkeley, with the researchers moving around the Pacific in a truly international cooperative venture. The work relied on data collected by three different procedures: (1) Personal observation and acquaintance with the subject; (2) a systematic search of secondary sources, in terms of monographs, statistics, and documents (the theses materials produced and deposited in the Universities of Hong Kong and Singapore proved precious in that sense); (3) in-depth interviews of key actors of economic development, housing policy, and policy-making in general. The interviews provided the main materials for the analysis. We conducted interviews in Hong Kong, Singapore, and Shenzhen, and even in London, where Reginald Kwok had to go to meet Hong Kong's retired governor, Sir Murray MacLehose. In total, nearly 100 focused interviews were conducted, with written notes taken in all cases. Interviews lasted between 45 minutes and two hours, with an average time of one and one-quarter hours. In addition to the interviews, about 40 planned visits to housing estates, neighborhoods, offices, and factories were also performed. A list of interviews for each city is presented in appendices to the corresponding chapters. The result of this data-gathering enterprise is an extraordinary documentation that could have easily overwhelmed the analytical purpose of our research. We have made an effort to be succinct and focused in our analysis, but the courageous reader may find it useful to skip through the pages of this monograph and focus on those themes and propositions that are really at the core of our endeavour: that economic growth and the quality of urban life not only are compatible aspects of the development process but that they can be synergistic in their contribution to such process.

Países de Latinoamérica como; Brasil, Chile, Perú Paraguay entre otros, tuvieron en sus fuerzas militares la aeronave T37. En la actualidad en la Fuerza Aérea Colombiana se encuentran en servicio 68 aeronaves FAC T37B de las 1269 fabricadas entre 1955 y 1975, estás operan desde los años 70 con fines de entrenamiento militar con capacidad para dos tripulantes (estudiante e instructor). Dichos aviones están equipados con dos motores J69 T 25A marca Continental, que proporciona un empuje de 4.57 kN por cada uno, alcanzando velocidades de 507 km/h. El rotor de compresión del motor J69 T 25A es un componente crítico debido a las condiciones de trabajo, presentando fallas de corrosión y desgaste, según datos suministrado por la Fuerza Aérea Colombiana cada 10000 horas de trabajo aproximadamente es necesario el cambio de la pieza, la cual tiene un costo de 15000 dólares. Una de las alternativas planteadas por la FAC es realizar un tratamiento superficial de anodizado que supla y homologue el recubrimiento original disminuyendo costos en el mantenimiento del motor. En este proyecto se busca caracterizar el material del rotor y analizar el estado superficial para realizar el proceso de anodizado a la pieza en cuestión, para dar una mejor funcionalidad en los distintos ambientes donde se desempeña, brindando, por ejemplo, mayor resistencia al desgaste o mayor dureza, sin afectar sus propiedades mecánicas como la resistencia a la fatiga. Una vez obtenidos las películas de anodizado se caracterizarán para medir el tipo de recubrimiento que se desea y su variación con respecto a parámetros como densidad de corriente, temperatura y concentración de electrolito. ; Latin American countries like; Brazil, Chile, Peru, Paraguay, among others, had the T37 aircraft in their military forces. Currently in the Colombian Air Force 68 FAC T37B aircraft of 1269 manufactured between 1955 and 1975 are in service, since the 1970s they have been operating for military training purposes with capacity for two crew (student and instructor). These aircraft are equipped with two J69 T 25A Continental brand engines, which provide a thrust of 4.57 kN for each one, reaching speeds of 507 km/h. The compression rotor of the J69 T 25A engine is a critical component due to the working conditions, presenting corrosion and wear failures, according to data supplied by the Colombian Air Force every 10000 hours of work approximately it is necessary to change the part, the which has a cost of 15000 USD. One of the alternatives proposed by the FAC is to carry out an anodizing surface treatment that replaces and homologates the original coating, reducing engine maintenance costs. This project seeks to characterize the rotor material and analyze the surface state to perform the anodizing process to the part in question, to give better functionality in the different environments where it performs, providing, for example, greater resistance to wear or greater hardness, without affecting its mechanical properties such as resistance to fatigue. Once the anodizing films have been obtained, they will be characterized to measure the type of coating that is desired and its variation with respect to parameters such as current density, temperature and electrolyte concentration ; Introducción 1, 1. Marco Teórico 3, 1.1 Motor Turborreactor Modelo J69-T-25A 3, 1.1.1 Descripción general 4, 1.1.2 Componentes y Sistemas del Turborreactor J29 T 25A 9, 1.1.3 El conjunto de la unidad de compresión 14, 1.2 Aleaciones de Aluminio 16, 1.3 Aleaciones de Aluminio para el sector Aeronáutico 23, 1.4 Anodizado de Aluminio 25, 1.4.1 Breve Historia del Anodizado 28, 1.4.2 Tipos de Anodizado 29, 1.4.3 Proceso de Anodizado 31, 1.4.4 Procedimiento de Anodizado 32, 1.4.5 El Anodizado como un proceso industrial 33, 1.5 Mecanismo de formación de la película de Al2O3 35, 1.5.1 Morfología de la película de Al2O3 36, 1.5.2 Fundamentos teóricos de la estructura y formación de la capa de óxido anodizado 37, 1.6 Factores que afectan las propiedades y naturaleza del anodizado 40, 1.6.1 Tipo del metal base 40, 1.6.2 Tipo del electrolito 41, 1.6.3 Influencia de las condiciones de trabajo del anodizado 42, 1.7 Técnicas de caracterización 42, 1.7.1 Microscopia Electrónica de Barrido (SEM) 43, 1.7.2 Espectroscopía dispersa de energía de rayos X (EDS) 50, 1.7.3 Microabrasión 51, 1.7.4 Microdureza Vickers (HV) 58, 2. Metodología 61, 2.1 Evaluación inicial del rotor en estado de recepción 62, 2.2 Diseño experimental para anodizado 63, 2.3 Preparación de las muestras 64, 2.3.1 Corte de las muestras de material del rotor de compresión 64, 2.3.2 Preparación superficial de las muestras 64, 2.4 Diseño y construcción de celda de anodizado 65, 2.5 Proceso de anodizado de las muestras 68, 2.6 Caracterización de las películas de Al2O3 71, 2.6.1 Determinación del espesor de las películas de Al2O3 72, 2.6.2 Prueba de Microabrasión de las películas de Al2O3 73, 2.6.3 Prueba de Microdureza Vickers a las películas de Al2O3 75, 3. Resultados y Discusión 79, 3.1 Evaluación inicial del rotor en estado de recepción 79, 3.1.1 Modelado 3D del Rotor de Compresión 85, 3.2 Proceso de anodizado de las muestras 90, 3.3 Caracterización de las películas de Al2O3 92, 3.3.1 Determinación del espesor de las películas de Al2O3 101, 3.3.2 Prueba de microabrasión de las películas de Al2O3 110, 3.3.3 Prueba de microdureza Vickers de las películas de Al2O3 120, 4. Conclusiones y recomendaciones 129, 4.1 Conclusiones 129, 4.2 Recomendaciones 131, A. Anexo: Composición Química y Designación Internacional para las Aleaciones de Aluminio 135, B. Anexo: Detalle de construcción del Turborreactor Turbomeca Marbore II 153, C. Anexo: Informe de ensayo de Microdureza realizado por la empresa Ferrotérmicos S.A.S 157, D. Anexo: Informe de prueba de EDS realizado por el Centro de manufactura en textil y cuero SENA ,159 F. Anexo: Participación en eventos de divulgación tecnológica 165, Bibliografía 173, ; Maestría ; Magíster en Ingeniero ; Maestría en Ingeniería

The article analyzes and highlights the origins and preconditions of the Lviv University, emphasizes the longevity of educational and scientific academic traditions at the university, shows what were the obstacles for the Ukrainian people of the Middle Ages in the conditions of statelessness to create a national higher education institution, particularly in Lviv. The preconditions and the time of the Faculty of Law foundation are studied, as well as its place and role at the Lviv University are determined. Much attention is focused on the characteristics of two traditions on determining the date of foundation of the Lviv University: the Eastern European tradition, which is based on the royal privilege of 1661; it has a formal character, based on documentary sources; as well as the Western European tradition, which is based on the establishment of the first school of the Western European standard in Lviv, also based on the source documents and international experience. It is substantiated that the formation and development of the first educational institutions in the Western Ukrainian lands, particularly in Lviv, date back to the times of the Galicia-Volyn state, which was the heir and successor of the Kyiv-Rus' state. One of the first links in the emergence of the elements of university education in Lviv can be considered a parish school founded on November 11, 1372, and later a monastic school, which in 1451 became a cathedral school. The next link in the formation of university education in Lviv in accordance with the Western European tradition was the Lviv Stauropean Fraternal School (1586). Thereafter follow the Lviv Jesuit College (1608), the Academy (1661) as well as the University (1784). Due to the lack of historical sources, we do not have proper historical data about the parish (monastery) school in Lviv in 1372, in particular about its teachers and disciplines read by certain professors, famous graduates, as well as about their own statutes etc. However, we do possess the necessary historical data based on primary sources about the Lviv Fraternal School of 1586, from which, it seems, we can trace the origins of the Ivan Franko National University of Lviv.It is emphasized that since 1661, the Faculty of Law of «both laws» was envisaged among the four faculties («facultatis») of the Lviv University. In the first period of the Lviv University's existence, the faculties mentioned in the royal privilege began to operate in its structure, including the faculty of «both laws», which trained specialists in canon and Roman law. At that time, the faculties in their modern sense as organizational and educational-scientific units of the university, providing for the creation of departments, did not exist, as the training was conducted according to the program of Jesuit schools, developed in the late XVI century.It is also noted that in the first period of the Lviv University (1661–1773) the following legal studies (courses) were taught at the «both laws» Faculty of Law: basics of Roman law, public law, history of state system, political geography, «natural law», civil law (based on comments to the Justinian Code), the administrative system of European countries. In the process of teaching canon law and the so-called «incidents» - moral theology, certain aspects of criminal law were studied. From 1739, they began to teach the history of law. Teaching was in Latin. Within the framework of educational reforms from the beginning of the XVIII century, at the University of Lviv, a separate professor of canon law was appointed, and later – a professor of Roman law. The teaching system changed under the influence of new socio-economic and political conditions in the Commonwealth and Western Europe.After the annexation of Galicia to the Austrian Empire, a system of state bodies was formed, which required a significant number of qualified civil servants. There were few people willing to go to Lviv or other cities in Galicia and Bukovyna from Vienna or Prague. Based on the urgent need for training for the newly created province of Galicia and Lodomeria personnel of various specialties (government officials, judges, medical teachers, priests, etc.), the Austrian Emperor Joseph II on October 21, 1784 issued a diploma, which formally established and actually restored Lviv University consisting of four faculties (philosophical, law, medical and theological), as well as an academic gymnasium with the same rights for all universities of the state. The created gymnasium served as a base for staffing university students. The training of lawyers, who made up the vast majority of civil servants, as well as judges, prosecutors, lawyers, and notaries in Galicia, was entrusted to the Faculty of Law of the Lviv University. Since then, the Faculty of Law at the Lviv University had been functioning as an organizational and educational-scientific structural unit of the Lviv University, where a certain cycle of related scientific disciplines was taught and the specialists in law were trained, as well as the creation of departments and administration was provided for etc.Unlike other faculties of the Lviv University, the Faculty of Law did not cease its activities, due to the liquidation of the Faculty of Philosophy in 1924 and the Faculty of Theology in 1939, the Faculty of Law is also the oldest faculty of the Ivan Franko University of Lviv. ; У статті проаналізовано та висвітлено витоки і передумови утворення Львівського університету, наголошено на тяглості освітніх та наукових академічних традицій в Університеті, показано, які були перешкоди в українського народу періоду Середньовіччя в умовах бездержавності створити національний вищий навчальний заклад, зокрема у м. Львові, розкрито передумови і час створення юридичного факультету, визначено його місце та роль у Львівському університеті. Значна увага зосереджена на характеристиці двох традицій визначення дати заснування Львівського університету: східно-європейської традиції, яка спирається на королівський привілей 1661 р.; вона має формальний характер, опертий на документальні джерела і західноєвропейської традиції, яка спирається на час створення першої школи західноєвропейського зразка у м. Львові, також спирається на джерельні документи та на міжнародний досвід.

La sostenibilidad es actualmente uno de los conceptos más importantes en investigación científica y programas gubernamentales de diferentes países (Nabavi et al., 2017). Esto aplica a todos los sectores productivos que están en expansión en las economías locales y globales. Uno de los sectores más significativos para la implementación y evaluación de la sostenibilidad es el sector de los biocombustibles por su constante crecimiento y dudas sobre impactos socio ambientales. Colombia, es el décimo país productor de bioetanol en el mundo y el tercero en América Latina, sin embargo, las implicaciones futuras de los aspectos sociales y ambientales de su producción aún no se encuentran demostradas y son ampliamente discutidas desde diferentes aristas. En este documento de tesis doctoral, se logró establecer un modelo que representa la cadena de suministro de bioetanol en Colombia, con la vinculación de indicadores, que permitan la evaluación prospectiva de la sostenibilidad. Para ello, se partió de la caracterización y modelado de la cadena de suministro de bioetanol de caña de azúcar en Colombia, posteriormente se identificaron seis indicadores de sostenibilidad a evaluar, consumo de agua, calidad de agua, empleos, tenencia de tierra, productividad y flexibilidad, estos relacionados con toda la cadena de suministro, los indicadores utilizados fueron propuestos por la Asociación Mundial de Bioenergía-GBEP. La simulación del modelo se realizó con la información de la producción de bioetanol de caña de azúcar en Colombia del año 2006 al 2015, con una capacidad instalada de 450 millones de litros para el año 2016. Para la evaluación de sostenibilidad realizada se propuso una síntesis metodológica en la que parte con el modelado de la cadena de suministro de bioetanol, utilizando Dinámica de Sistemas, y luego se conectaron y modelaron los indicadores de sostenibilidad definidos; posteriormente para saber si los indicadores evolucionan a través de regiones deseadas, que corresponderían a los objetivos del sector y los objetivos de sostenibilidad, se utilizó el concepto de restricciones, desarrollado en la Teoría de Viabilidad, aquí, regiones deseadas del estado de los indicadores se definieron, tales como: Región deseada, Región de alerta y Región no deseada. Estas regiones fueron definidas teniendo en cuenta normativa colombiana y panorama internacional de producción de bioetanol. Los indicadores evaluados con esta metodología fueron: consumo de agua, calidad de agua (expresado en Demanda Biológica de Oxigeno) y empleos generados en la producción de bioetanol. Los resultados muestran importantes hallazgos para el modelado, monitoreo y evaluación de la sostenibilidad en los biocombustibles, utilizando indicadores, proporcionando así, un método el cual se debe utilizar partiendo de la representación de una cadena de suministro de determinado biocombustible y visualizando la afectación al estado de los indicadores para evaluar las mejores estrategias o políticas que permitan alcanzar unas regiones objetivo definidas. En este sentido, se discute la necesidad de diseñar e implementar políticas claras de sostenibilidad para la planificación e incremento de capacidad instalada de producción de bioetanol. Este trabajo aporta las bases para construir herramientas que permitan a los responsables de formular políticas en diferentes contextos del sector, la inclusión de los aspectos de desarrollo sostenible ; Abstract: Sustainability is currently one of the most important concepts in scientific research and government programs in different countries (Nabavi et al., 2017). This applies to all productive sectors that are expanding in local and global economies. One of the most significant sectors for the implementation and evaluation of sustainability is the biofuels sector due to its constant growth and doubts about socio-environmental impacts. Colombia, the tenth largest producer of bioethanol in the world and third in Latin America, however, the future implications of the social and environmental companies of its production have not yet been demonstrated and are widely discussed from different angles. In this doctoral thesis document, it was possible to establish a model that represents the supply chain of bioethanol in Colombia, with the linkage of indicators, that allow the prospective evaluation of sustainability. To do this, the characteristics and model of the supply chain of sugarcane bioethanol in Colombia were identified. Six indicators of sustainability were identified: value, water consumption, water quality, jobs, land tenure, productivity and flexibility, these indicators were used for the Global Bioenergy Partnership (GBEP). The simulation of the model was carried out with information on bioethanol production of sugarcane in Colombia from 2006 to 2015, with an installed capacity of 450 million liters by 2016. For the sustainability assessment, a methodological synthesis was made in the part with the model of the bioethanol supply chain, using Dynamics of Systems, and then the defined sustainability indicators were connected and modeled; subsequently to know if the indicators evolve through desired regions, corresponding to sector objectives and sustainability objectives, we use the concept of constraints, developed in the Viability Theory, here, the desired regions of the state of the indicators stories were defined as: Desired Region, Alert Region and Undesired Region. These regions were defined taking into account Colombian regulations and an international bioethanol production scenario. The indicators evaluated with this methodology were: water consumption, water quality (expressed in Biological Demand of Oxygen) and jobs generated in the production of bioethanol. The results are important for the model, monitoring and evaluation of sustainability in biofuels, indicators of use, thus providing a method which should be used to partition the representation of a supply chain of a given biofuel and visualizing the indicators to assess the best strategies to achieve the defined target regions. In this sense, the need to design and implement clear sustainability policies for planning and increasing the installed capacity of bioethanol production is discussed. This work provides the basis for the construction of tools that allow policymakers in different contexts of the sector to include sustainable development projects ; Doctorado

[ita]A Roma come nel resto dell'Impero, le case dell'élite, sedi delle relazioni affettive e politiche dei proprietari, costituivano un potente strumento di auto-rappresentazione. Per questo, spazi pubblici come atria, tablina, triclinia, generici "ambienti di rappresentanza", portici, percorsi quotidianamente non solo da abitanti ma anche da clientes e amici, dovevano essere particolarmente "eloquenti". Una lussuosa decorazione comunicava il prestigio sociale, economico e culturale del signore a tutti coloro che entravano nella sua domus o villa, luoghi di un sereno otium. Consideriamo in particolare i pavimenti decorati: al pari di un affresco, un mosaico figurato era chiamato a comunicare sensazioni e significati agli abitanti della dimora e ai suoi ospiti. In particolare, la dimensione intellettuale poteva essere affidata a immagini-simbolo quali Muse, poeti, filosofi, attori teatrali oppure a immagini mitologiche, sia sotto forma di ritratti sia di rappresentazioni di vicende con più personaggi coinvolti. Tra queste storie alcune si distinguono per la loro relazione con una o più opere letterarie di carattere epico o teatrale. Nella parte occidentale dell'Impero romano, Africa Proconsularis e Hispania si distinguono per la quantità e la qualità dei tessellati di questo tipo, datati su base stratigrafica o stilistica fra il I sec. a. C. e il V sec. d. C. Nella maggior parte dei casi vi sono rappresentati episodi mitici anticamente molto noti che coinvolgono alcuni personaggi del ciclo troiano: il giudizio di Paride e il rapimento di Elena, lo svelamento di Achille a Sciro, il sacrificio di Ifigenia, la supplica di Crise ad Agamennone, la lite fra Achille e Agamennone (?), l'addio di Achille a Briseide, il confronto tra Glauco e Diomede, l'incontro tra Filottete e l'ambasceria greca, l'offerta della coppa di vino di Ulisse a Polifemo, l'incontro fra Ulisse e le Sirene. Ritroviamo inoltre storie raccontate in opere teatrali come la follia di Ercole, il tormento di Medea, la storia di Fedra e Ippolito. Si tratta di miti di origine greca facenti parte del patrimonio culturale romano fin dall'epoca arcaica della storia di Roma e caratterizzati da una lunga continuità di vita. I principali canali di conoscenza di queste storie erano la scuola e il teatro, importanti strumenti di romanizzazione attraverso cui la cultura greco-romana veniva diffusa nei territori conquistati. Nelle case delle élites provinciali, che guardavano a Roma come a un modello prestigioso, i tessellati con contenuto letterario erano chiamati a comunicare la cultura del proprietario. Immaginiamo che questi, sulla base delle proprie conoscenze più o meno profonde, scegliesse consapevolmente il tema per il mosaico, e poi stabilisse, d'accordo con gli artigiani, i criteri per un'elaborazione originale del soggetto a partire da un modello già esistente, generalmente di origine ellenistico. A partire dal confronto fra le immagini e i testi letterari di riferimento conservati in cui si racconta l'episodio rappresentato nel mosaico abbiamo provato a raccogliere possibili informazioni sulla cultura letteraria dei committenti. La corrispondenza basica fra alcuni "elementi chiave" (personaggi ed eventi peculiari), presenti nella versione scritta della storia e nei tessellati, garantiva la comprensione della vicenda da parte di un pubblico colto. Al di là di questa necessaria coerenza, nella maggior parte dei casi, rispetto ai testi di riferimento gli episodi sono rappresentati in forma semplificata e a volte anche compendiaria (con più sequenze riunite). La volontà di comunicare con successo dei significati, e dunque di ottenere, seguendo la teoria di R. Jakobson, un corretto feedback da parte del pubblico, poteva determinare un distacco dal modello e dal testo. Inoltre, l'epigrafia, soprattutto in Hispania, interveniva nei casi in cui l'immagine poteva essere ambigua, dando sempre una sicura veste colta all'immagine. Lo studio dei mosaici africani e ispanici con contenuto letterario permette dunque di esprimere alcune considerazioni sulla cultura dell'élite presente nei territori, purtroppo anonima e molto probabilmente ancora pagana, in epoca tardoantica. ; [eng]As places for the political relationships of the owners, the houses of the élite, in Rome, like in the rest of the Empire, were a powerful tool for self-representation. For this reason, public spaces like atria, tablina, triclinia or porches, which were crossed daily not only by its inhabitants but also by clientes and amici, had to be particularly significant. A luxurious decoration communicated the social, economic and cultural prestige of the owner to all those who entered his domus or villa. We consider in particular the decorated floors: like a fresco, images in mosaics had to communicate feelings and meanings to the inhabitants of the house and to his guests. Particularly, the intellectual dimension could be entrusted to symbolic images such as Muses, poets, philosophers, actors, or mythological themes — both portraits and representations of episodes with some characters involved. Among these stories, some pictures are distinguished by their relationship to a specific literary work, epic or theatrical. Due to the number and the quality of this kind of mosaics, in the western part of the Roman Empire Africa Proconsularis and Hispania represent two interesting cases that are worth studying. In African and Hispanic mosaics especially (dated from the 1st century B. C. to the 5th A. D.), we can recognize stories that involve Homeric characters: the judgment of Paris, the kidnapping of Helen, the unveiling of Achilles in Skyros, the sacrifice of Iphigenia, Crises' plea to Agamemnon, the farewell of Achilles and Briseis, the encounter between Glaucus and Diomedes, the quarrel between Achilles and Agamemnon (?), the encounter between Philoctetes and the Greek embassy, the offer of the wine cup of Odysseus to Polyphemus, the encounter between Ulysses and the Sirens. We also find other stories, such as those represented in Greek and Latin plays: the madness of Hercules, the torment of Medea, the story of Phaedra and Hippolytus. The knowledge of these legends and myths, very popular in the Greco-Roman culture at all times, depended on the school and the theatre. Considering the choice of the themes and the way they're treated in each mosaic, this study is aimed to search for some information about the literary culture of the mosaics' owners who, unfortunately, remain anonymous but were most probably members of the provincial élites.

A lo largo de la historia, el Ecuador ha experimentado en sus gobiernos, realidades económicas y sociales que de alguna manera han sido provocadas con la intención de regularizar situaciones vinculantes a diferentes grupos de poder, uno de los capítulos económicos más importantes vividos, inicia en el año 1999. Ecuador sorprendió al mundo en enero del 2000. Con la dolarización plena de su economía fue el primer país de América Latina que sacrificó oficialmente su moneda nacional e introdujo una moneda extranjera como de curso legal completo. Con esta decisión este país, cuya economía atravesaba por una depresión sin parangón en su historia republicana, que tenía quebrado su sistema financiero y que se encontraba en situación de moratoria de su deuda externa, se incorporó a la lista de 26 colonias o territorios que utilizaban en el año 2000 una moneda extranjera en todo el mundo. (Acosta, 2006) Con la finalidad de evidenciar otras realidades sociales y culturales, que surgieron durante la crisis económica que afectó al Ecuador en el año 1999, nace el proyecto transmedia, "Efecto 99", como una acción multidisciplinaria para establecer en la memoria nacional, el lado humano de todas las historias de superación, éxito, dolor, etc.; que casi nunca se contaron, o que no se han podido visibilizar en este tipo de formato. El proyecto al ser una narrativa transmedia se sustenta en diversas plataformas y formatos; una página web colaborativa con contenidos creados para enriquecer al proyecto; una serie web ficcionada basada en hechos reales y un cómic como pieza clave en la construcción de esta narrativa, desarrollado para que se adapte a varios formatos, tradicionales (impreso) y no tradicionales (digital, animado), explorando estos últimos formatos en nuevas plataformas y aplicaciones digitales para que su expansión e interacción con los usuarios pueda ser más directa y acorde a la convergencia de medios en la que estamos inmersos hoy en día. A través de un cómic se pueden contar historias que lleguen a ser el reflejo de la vida de una sociedad, que contengan algún concepto simbólico o fenómeno significativo que permee en la realidad social; con una carga estética, de origen popular y que inserte actitudes en los lectores. El desafío del proyecto fue crear un cómic en el que se cuente una historia tan sensible como la del feriado bancario, sin caer en clichés ni dramatismos sobre temas políticos que se han manoseado mucho acerca de la crisis. Es así que se decidió desarrollar una historia de ficción en la cual existe el trasfondo del feriado bancario, que es clave para la construcción y el desarrollo del personaje principal, resaltando la evolución del mismo en el transcurso del cómic, para lograr así que la historia llegue a los potenciales adoptadores iniciales del prototipo; sabiendo que son una subcultura con ciertas características especiales, a las cuales hay que prestar atención para el éxito del proyecto. ; Throughout history, Ecuador has experienced in its governments, economic and social realities that have somehow been provoked with the intention of regularizing binding situations to different groups of power, one of the most important economic chapters lived begins in the year 1999. Ecuador surprised the world in January 2000. With the full dollarization of its economy, it was the first country in Latin America that officially sacrificed its national currency and introduced a foreign currency as a full legal course. With this decision, this country, whose economy was going through a depression unparalleled in its republican history, which had a broken financial system and was in a state of moratorium on its external debt, was incorporated into the list of 26 colonies or territories that used in the year 2000 a foreign currency throughout the world. (Acosta, 2006) With the purpose of showing other social and cultural realities, which arose during the economic crisis that affected Ecuador in 1999, the transmedia project, "Efecto 99", rise as a multidisciplinary action to establish in the national memory, the human side of all the stories of overcoming, success, pain, etc.; that were almost never told, or that have not been visibilize in this type of format. As a transmedia narrative, this "Efecto 99" is based on various platforms and formats; a collaborative web page with content created to enrich the project; a fictional web series based on real events and a comic developed to be adapted into traditional (printed) and non-traditional (digital, animated) formats, exploring this last formats in new platforms and digital applications so that their expansion and interaction with users may be more direct and consistent with the convergence of media in which we are immersed today. Through a comic you can tell stories that become the reflection of the life in a society, that contain some symbolic concept or significant phenomenon wich permeates social reality; with an aesthetic look, a popular origin, that inserts attitudes in the readers. The challenge of the project was to create a comic that tells a story as sensitive as the "Feriado Bancario", without falling into clichés or dramatisms on political issues that have handled a lot about this crisis. So, we decided to develop a fictional story in which there is the background of the "Feriado Bancario", which is key to the construction and development of the main character, highlighting the evolution of it in the course of the comic, to achieve that the story reached the potential early adopters of the prototype; knowing that they are a subculture with certain and special characteristics that we must pay attention for the success of the project ; Guayaquil ; Maestría en Comunicación con Mención en Comunicación Digital

2019 was the year for sciences in Colombia has been a milestone after the official structuring of Science, Technology and Innovation's Ministry (MinCiencias), allowing scaling decisions of research, development and innovation to executive power and whose main challenges will be in the coming years, continue process of building a knowledge-based country, technology, scientific capabilities and improving of academy, industry and government linkage; this challenges requires a collective construction of main science authority and different higher education organizations, groups, research and technological development centers, but especially the participation of researchers in all knowledge areas. In addition to the creation of the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, the work leaded by "Misión de Sabios 2019", have defined the roadmap for scientific development in Colombia since eight thematic axes constituted in: 1. Biotechnology, bioeconomy and environment, 2. Basic and space sciences, 3. Life and health sciences, 4. Social sciences, development and equity, 5. Sustainable energy, 6. Creative and cultural industries, 7. Oceans and hydrobiological resources and 8 Converging technologies, nano, info and cogno industries 4.0; strategic knowledge areas which guide formulations and decisions on different activities that promote high level formation and commitment to scientific research. The journal "Liderazgo Estratégico", attached to School of Business of Universidad Simón Bolívar, reaffirms its work and commitment with research formation and the promotion of science, technology and innovation on new Colombian researchers, positioning itself as a part of knowledge's social appropriation on administrative, economic and accounting sciences, consolidating in its ninth volume with new publications result of the articulated work of professors and students, as well as the critical analysis and argumentation of the main argues on the academic field of the different disciplines which are linked to business and management area. Transcendental challenges for scientific activity are glimpsed at the doors of a 2020 year, not only in Colombia and the Latin American region, too it's consolidating global perspectives that urge researchers on the continuous construction of a knowledge-based society, an intelligent and autonomous industry is strengthened based on the so-called fourth industrial revolution promoting efficiency and productivity, innovation and technology are advancing at rates that promote the transformation of paradigms in society and the first five years of the global declaration of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) are fulfilled. How much progress has been made in the consolidation of global goals that will contribute to the construction of a just, equitable and sustainable society ?; from the School of Business and all its instances, scientific research will continue to be promoted as part of its core activity on the construction of knowledge for its different actors, because according to MinCiencias (2019) "#ElConocimientoNosHaceGrandes". ; 2019 para la ciencia en Colombia ha sido un hito tras la estructuración oficial del Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación (MinCiencias), escalando las decisiones de investigación, desarrollo e innovación en el ejecutivo y cuyo principal reto será en los próximos años continuar en el proceso de construir país desde el conocimiento, la tecnología, las capacidades científicas y la articulación de la academia, el sector productivo y las organizaciones del jefe del estado; desafíos que exigen una construcción colectiva de parte de la autoridad principal y las distintas instituciones, grupos, centros de investigación y desarrollo tecnológico, pero en especial de los investigadores en todos sus ámbitos. Se suma a la creación del Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación, el trabajo liderado por la Misión de Sabios, quienes han definido como hoja de ruta para el desarrollo de la ciencia en Colombia ocho ejes temáticos constituidos en: 1. Biotecnología, bioeconomía y medio ambiente, 2. Ciencias básicas y del espacio, 3. Ciencias de la vida y la salud, 4. Ciencias sociales, desarrollo y equidad, 5. Energía sostenible, 6. Industrias creativas y culturales, 7. Océanos y recursos hidrobiológicos y 8. Tecnologías convergentes, nano, info y cogno industrias 4.0; áreas estratégicas que orientan las formulaciones y decisiones lideradas en diferentes actividades que impulsen la formación y el compromiso con la investigación científica. La revista Liderazgo Estratégico adscrita a la Facultad de Administración y Negocios de la Universidad Simón Bolívar, reafirma su labor con la formación y fomento de la ciencia, tecnología e innovación en los noveles investigadores de Colombia, posicionándose como un órgano de apropiación social de conocimiento de las ciencias administrativas, económicas y contables, consolidando en su noveno volumen nuevas publicaciones como resultado del trabajo articulado de profesores y estudiantes, así como del análisis y argumentación crítica de los principales debates en el ámbito académico de las distintas disciplinas que se vinculan a la facultad. A puertas de un 2020 se vislumbran desafíos trascendentales para la actividad científica no solo en Colombia y la región latinoamericana, sino consolidándose perspectivas globales que instan a los investigadores en la continua construcción de una sociedad basada en el conocimiento, se fortalece una industria inteligente y autónoma basada en la denominada cuarta revolución industrial promotora de eficiencia y productividad, la innovación y la tecnología avanzan a ritmos que promueven la transformación de paradigmas en la sociedad y se cumple el primer quinquenio de la declaración mundial de los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible (ODS) ¿qué tanto se ha avanzado en la consolidación de las metas mundiales que contribuirán a la construcción de una sociedad justa, equitativa y sostenible?; desde la Facultad de Administración y Negocios y todas sus instancias se continuará promoviendo la investigación científica como parte de su actividad misional en la construcción de conocimiento para sus diferentes actores, porque de acuerdo con MinCiencias (2019) "#ElConocimientoNosHaceGrandes".

[spa] Luis Buñuel es uno de los directores más admirados de la historia del cine. Su carrera hacia al éxito fue larga; aunque era conocido en los círculos artísticos gracias a las obras surrealistas que realizó en París a finales de la década de 1920, no se dio a conocer ante el gran público hasta que empezó a dirigir largometrajes en México. Un país que abrió sus puertas a miles de refugiados republicanos. En la industria cinematográfica mexicana, el director aragonés empezó a dirigir películas por encargo para ganarse la vida; fue en 1950 cuando realizó: Los Olvidados, una obra que trata sobre la vida de un grupo de jóvenes marginales en una barriada de Ciudad de México. Era una época en la que el país tenía un gran crecimiento y desarrollo, ya que estaba en pleno proceso de industrialización; a pesar de ello, las fuertes desigualdades sociales persistían. Cada vez, más gente abandonaba el campo en busca de una vida mejor en las grandes urbes del país y muchas veces sus expectativas de prosperidad y de mejorar su nivel de vida no se cumplían. Por mostrar estos problemas, la película no fue bien recibida por el gobierno y por buena parte de los intelectuales y la prensa; acusándola de mostrar una imagen negativa del país. No gustó, que mostrase de una manera tan cruda la miseria y la delincuencia juvenil que había en algunos de los arrabales de la capital. 30 años después del fin de la Revolución, se seguía intentando consolidar definitivamente, los logros por los que se había luchado: justicia social, progreso para todos los mexicanos, modernización del país, etc… Es por eso, que desde diferentes ámbitos de la sociedad, se mostraba un país perfecto, sin apenas problemas. Los Olvidados solo estuvo cuatro días en la cartelera. Pero después de una pequeña gira por Europa, en la que recibió el apoyo de destacados artistas e intelectuales, incluido el diplomático y poeta Octavio Paz, la película llegó a ser seleccionada para concursar en el Festival de Cannes de 1951. Ganó el Premio al Mejor Director y tuvo un segundo estreno en México muy exitoso, estando más de dos meses en cartelera y ganando once Premios Ariel. Es importante resaltar, que Los Olvidados es una de las pocas películas que forman parte del Programa Memoria del Mundo de la UNESCO. Los Olvidados influenció en el Nuevo Cine Latinoamericano, un movimiento renovador cuyos realizadores tenían el objetivo de realizar un cine que reflejase de manera realista y objetiva los problemas que vivían sus países, como: Brasil, Argentina o Cuba. En México, dicha renovación costó mucho más. Esta tesis tiene el objetivo de determinar la influencia de la película de Buñuel en algunas de las obras mexicanas del propio director aragonés y en las de algunos realizadores mexicanos que surgieron en los años 60 y 70, como: Luis Alcoriza, Alberto Isaac, Paul Leduc y Arturo Ripstein. Igual que el director español, estos directores tenían la intención de realizar obras criticas con el sistema político que había en México –durante 72 años fue regido por el Partido Revolucionario Institucional- y no dudaron en mostrar una actitud crítica en sus obras con los problemas que vivía la sociedad en aquellos años. Otro objetivo de la tesis es determinar cómo era México cuando se estrenaron dichas películas. En este trabajo, se dedica un apartado a la biografía de Buñuel antes de su llegada a México, también otro a la realización de Los Olvidados y su posterior recepción. ; [eng] Luis Buñuel is one of the most admirer filmmakers of the cinema history. His career was consolidated in México, the country that opened its doors to thousands of Spanish Republican refugees. Although Buñuel was a well-known person in the artistic environments, he was an unknown person to the big audiences. In the Mexican film industry, the director from Aragon began directing films on request, but in 1950 he directed the movie: Los Olvidados, a work that explained the life of a group of young boys in a very poor district of Mexico City. The film was not well received by the authorities and by some of the press and intellectuals and accused the film of showing a negative image of México. Los Olvidados was only four days in theatres; but after small tour in Europe and with the help of some artists, including a young poet and diplomatic Octavio Paz, the movie competed at the Cannes Film Festival of 1951 and won the prize to Best Director. The movie returned to the Mexican cinemas and it was two months in theatres. Los Olvidados influenced in the New Latin American Cinema, a renovating movement whose objective was to make a cinema closer to the reality and problematic of its country. But in Mexico, the renovation of his cinema arrived more lately. It is important to note that Los Olvidados is part of the UNESCO: Memory of the World Programme. In this PhD, it explains the influence of the movie of Buñuel in some of his most important Mexican movies of Buñuel and in some movies of a group of the most well- known Mexican directors of the 60's and 70's, like: Luis Alcoriza, Alberto Isaac, Paul Leduc and Arturo Ripstein; and how was Mexico when these movies premiered. Like the Spanish director, these filmmakers had the intention to make critical films with the political system that talked about the problems of the society of his time; and also like Buñuel they fought against various obstacles. Also in this PhD, it explains the making off, the release of Los Olvidados, the critical reception and the success in Cannes.

The article deals with activities of the founded in 1725, the first regular French Association of public concerts of the "Concert spiritual".The novelty of this publication is in the study of regularities of formation of the concert repertoire, the influence on him of historical circumstances, the public and the Directorate of virtuosos musicians; the formation of the structure of the concert event-sequence representation of works in concerts the Concert spiritual", which became characteristic for concerts in European countries of XVIII century.Underlines that the opening of these concerts marked the end of the monopoly of courtly secular music – they are not funded by Royal Mint and not imposed by the Royal Academy of music, which has had the privilege to perform musical works. Music started to spread in all levels of the population and gradually allow sprouts idea about open, paid concert.Found that the most important feature of the forming of "concert style" Association "Concert spiritual" was that among its founders and patrons, the owners and managers have been exceptionally prominent French musicians – virtuosos, among which the famous violinists and famous composers, authors of popular operas, symphonies, instrumental concerts, sonatas, etc.The nine periods of the company according to the Guide: 1725-1728 – A.Philidor; 1728-1733 – J.-J.Muret, P.Simard; 1734-1748 – the temporary administration of the Royal Academy of music, F.Rebel and F.Francoeur; 1748-1754 – P.Royer, G.Capperan; 1748-1754 – J.-C. de Mondonville, wife of Royer; 1762-1771 – A.Dauvergne; G.Capperan, N. R. Joliveau; 1771-1773 – A.Dauvergne, M.Berto; 1773-1777 – P.Gavinies, F.J.Gossek, S.Leduc; 1777-1790 – J.Legros, I.Bertom.Notes that the first contract "Concert Spiritual, signed Fìlìdor in 1725, with the Royal Academy of Music City: play only Latin spiritual church music; do not perform works in the French language, and excerpts from the popular French and Italian operas; do not use the musicians of the Royal Academy of music."The Concert spiritual" opened March 18, 1725, in Salle des Suisses Royal Palace Tuileries and 13 April 1784 held a farewell performance in Salle des Suisses in which concerts took place nearly 60 years-was performed the "Farewell" Symphony of Haydn. After this company transferred in the Salle des Machines Tuileries Palace in 1789-1790 – in Theatre Favart and theatre Porte St-Martin, last concert of the Concert spiritual was held on 11 March 1790.It was discovered that with the arrival of new leadership – patent owners or directors changed and the Repertoire of the policy, the number of concerts, place them and even financial status "Concert spiritual".In the period from 1748-1754 becoming popular performances of French virtuosos: Gavinies played the Caprices Locatelli and concert Geminiani, Guion performed with works of Vivaldi, Leclair – own concerts and sonatas Corelli and Vivaldi, Pajen played the works of Tartini, L'Abbaye-son – ensembles playing their own variations for 1-3 violins.Invited foreign musicians sounded: "Stabat Mater" Pergolese performed by Italian singers; the concert of the famous castrato Kaffarelli; was the founder of the "mangejm's school" Stamitz, who performed their own works-Sonata for Viola d'amur, Violin Concerto and Symphony.Under the leadership of the de Mondonville are only his compositions: oratorios and French motets. There are new names: violinists Genin, cellists, brothers Duport, organist Balbastre; harpists to Hochbrucker.Directors of violin Dauvergne,Capperan, Joliveau and Gavinies, Gossek, Leduc to promote a new genre – Symphony.They greatly increased the composition of performers: orchestra – 60 instrumentalists, choir – 47 singers. Violinist-virtuoso and conductor P. Gavinies, promoted the works of authors of different styles – Corelli, Geminiani, Lokatelli, Vivaldi, Tartini, Stamitz, Leclair.In 1777 the conductor Legros, and violinis Bertom create a permanent Orchestra of 65 musicians. Changed artistic direction and repertory concerts: Haydn's Symphony sounded, Mozart, Stamitz, Lahnitz and overtures from operas, instead of motet performed the Italian aria. It was a special period for French artists-virtuosos: violinists, cellists and singers, flutists.Programs of recent years (1789-1790) traditionally consisted of two parts, each of which started Symphony by Haydn or Mozart. In the Centre is a concert Symphony, or instrumental concert. Such works were cellist Duport, pianist, Sejan, violinists Viotti, Djornovik. In final program of sacral music: oratorio Sakkini, motet and TeDeum Gossek, Philidor. You need to make the conclusions that, thanks to the creative initiative of the founding Board of Directors of "spiritual Concert": formed a type of open concerts – two departments of the Symphony and instrumental concert and solo, vocal numbers between them and sacral′ works at the end; for 65 years the Concert spiritual was completed 1253 musical works who wrote 456 composers; sacred music from the Church came in the concert hall; performers-Virtuosi (violinists, cellists, organists, klavesinìsts) approved the growing need of the public in the "virtuosity," which is a characteristic feature for the "concert style"; ended the monopoly of court secular music, the initiative in conducting concerts moved to musicians – professionals virtuosos-instrumentalists, singers and composers; began an active democratization of concert activities-born and had an open practice paid concert. ; В статье раскрывается деятельность первой постоянной французской ассоциации общественных концертов "Духовные концерты" (1725-1790). Подчеркнуто, что благодаря "Духовным концертам" и творческой деятельности их основателей и директоров сформировался тип открытого платного концерта – два отделения с симфонией и инструментальным концертом; завершилась монополия придворной светской музыки – инициатива концертирования перешла к музыкантам-профессионалам. ; У статті розкривається діяльність першої регулярної французької асоціації громадських концертів "Concert spiritual" (1725-1790). Підкреслено, що завдяки "Concert spiritual" та творчій діяльності його засновників та директорів сформувався тип відкритого платного концерту – два відділення з симфонією та інструментальним концертом; завершилась монополія придворної світської музики – ініціатива концертування перейшла до музикантів-професіоналів.