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[eng] When the naturalness of territory has disappeared, a minority language can only strive to exist in the poem. This dissertation examines how historical factors can modify the relationship of the poet with language identity and how poetry can be employed as a political tool to preserve minority languages in a world undergoing globalization. Multilingual poets in exile, concerned with constructing a new self via language, whether that is a language of the country of former residence or the language of the new country, are faced with the dilemma of language 'choice': they can either (re)connect with their heritage or give in to assimilation. The 'choice' of language assumes a new meaning. For many of the poets choosing Yiddish, a language considered a minority language or even a 'dying' language by some, implied an act of resistance. The avant-garde poetic movement Inzikh, founded in New York during the interwar period, presents a unique case, as for the Inzikh poets behind the movement, their campaign to transform the Yiddish language went beyond the need to turn old connotations into new, modern ones. For them, the modernization of Yiddish was the only possible way for the language to persist in exile and take its rightful place in the American literary world. Via their avant- garde poetry and by the transformation of the language a new Yiddish emerged, Yiddish went from being considered a mameloshn (mother language) to a liderloshn (poetic language). After the destruction of the Jewish towns in Europe after WWII, the Yiddish language, considered as the language of diaspora par excellence, was forced to move from existing in a national diasporic space to a poetic space. Finally, this study will demonstrate how the 'choice' of Yiddish for the Inzikh poets was transformed from an aesthetic determination to a political urgency when they realized how the future of Yiddish would only be possible in the utopian Yiddishland of the poetic text. The Yiddish poets, aware of how "when a language dies, a possible world dies with it" (Steiner, 1998: xiv) restored the poem as a redemptive act—the poem being understood as the only possible home for the Yiddish language in exile. ; [spa] Cuando la naturalidad del territorio ha desaparecido, solo en el poema puede una lengua minoritaria luchar por subsistir. Esta tesis examina cómo los factores históricos pueden modificar la relación con la identidad lingüística y cómo la poesía puede emplearse como herramienta política para preservar las lenguas minoritarias en un mundo globalizado. Los poetas multilingües en el exilio, preocupados por construir un nuevo yo a través del lenguaje, se encuentran con el dilema de la elección de la lengua, en el que pueden reconectarse con su herencia o ceder a la asimilación. La elección de una lengua implica un nuevo significado, y para muchos poetas elegir el yiddish, una lengua considerada minoritaria y para algunos, incluso una lengua muerta, implicaba un acto de resistencia. El movimiento poético de vanguardia Inzikh, fundado en Nueva York durante el período de entreguerras, representa un caso único ya que es más que un movimiento poético. Su transformación de la lengua yiddish fue más allá de la necesidad de convertir una connotación añeja en una nueva y moderna. La modernización de la lengua yiddish era la única forma posible -estos poetas creían- para que esta lengua persistiera en el exilio y ocupara su lugar en el mundo literario estadounidense. La poesía yiddish ya no se dirigiría solo a los lectores de yiddish, sino a los lectores de todo el mundo, ya que los poetas Inzikh entendían su obra en las líneas de la literatura universal. A través de su poesía de vanguardia y a través de la transformación del lenguaje poético, se avecinaba un nuevo yiddish: el yiddish pasó de ser mameloshn (lengua materna) a liderloshn (lengua poética). La lengua yiddish, que en sus inicios fue una lengua vernácula para los judíos en Europa del Este, pronto comenzó a perder su funcionalidad debido a los trágicos eventos de la Segunda Guerra Mundial que presagiaron su desaparición. Desde principios del siglo veinte, el exilio también marcó una nueva tragedia para el yiddish, ya que la asimilación a otras lenguas, como el inglés, perjudicó su uso/difusión. La lengua yiddish, considerada como la lengua de la diáspora por excelencia, pasaría de existir en un espacio diaspórico nacional a un espacio poético. En este estudio se muestran las diferentes vías que los poetas Inzikh utilizaron para salvaguardar la lengua yiddish a través de varios actos de resistencia relacionados con la traducción. Primero, el acto de traducir obras universales al yiddish no solo se empleó como una recreación literaria, sino principalmente como un medio de resistencia para preservar la lengua yiddish. Este tipo de práctica de traducción a una lengua minoritaria reforzó no solo la elección de escribir en yiddish, sino que también transformó e innovó la lengua yiddish misma. Otro tipo de resistencia lingüística fue la resistencia a ser traducidos. A través de juegos estilísticos y de la invención de nuevas palabras, emulando a su vez a otros escritores modernistas como James Joyce, estos poetas consiguieron que traducir su obra fuera prácticamente imposible. Por otro lado, y como decía la poeta yiddish Rosenfarb, la traducción era una forma de "arrebatar de las fauces del olvido lo que está en peligro de desaparecer" (2019, 189). Entre la contradicción y la responsabilidad de estas traducciones radicó entonces en lo que se tradujo de la literatura yiddish. Este nuevo tour de force desafiaría la elección de los poetas Inzikh de escribir en yiddish como único acto de resistencia, siendo las traducciones, entonces, una de las principales tareas para preservar la cultura yiddish. Para finalizar, este estudio demostrará cómo la elección del yiddish como lengua literaria por parte de los poetas Inzikh pasó de ser una determinación estética a ser una urgencia política cuando se dieron cuenta de que el futuro del yiddish solo sería posible en el utópico yiddishland del texto poético, debido a la desaparición, no solo de sus lugares de origen, sino también de muchos de sus lectores después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial. Los poetas yiddish, conscientes de cómo "cuando una lengua muere, un mundo posible muere con ella" (Steiner, 1998: xiv) restauraron el poema como un acto redentor, entendiendo el poema como el único hogar posible para la lengua yiddish en el exilio.

As doenças de origem alimentar continuam a ser um problema comum em todo o mundo. Ainda que possam ser provocadas por diversos agentes, são as bactérias, os vírus ou os parasitas a principal causa das infeções alimentares. O consumo ou processamento de alimentos contaminados têm sido descritos como as principais vias de transmissão para os humanos. Campylobacter jejuni e Campylobacter coli têm sido descritos como a principal causa de gastroenterite bacteriana em seres humanos em todo o mundo e em 2013, na União Europeia, a campilobacteriose, infeção causada por Campylobacter, foi a zoonose mais relatada. Nos seres humanos, as espécies de Campylobacter têm sido associadas a uma variedade de condições gastrointestinais, tais como gastroenterite, doenças inflamatórias do intestino, cancro colon-rectal, síndrome do intestino irritável, entre outras e também podem provocar manifestações extra-gastrointestinais, como bacteremia, infeções pulmonares e abcessos. As complicações pós-infeção por este microrganismo incluem a artrite reativa e podem conduzir a doenças auto-imunes, tais como a síndrome de Guillain-Barré. A maioria das infeções por Campylobacter não necessita de intervenção terapêutica sendo apenas necessária reidratação. No entanto, em pacientes imunodeprimidos, pacientes cujos sintomas são severos ou persistentes e aqueles com infeções extra-intestinais é utilizado tratamento antimicrobiano, sendo os antibióticos mais utilizados a eritromicina e a ciprofloxacina. No entanto, em todo o Mundo tem-se verificado que as estirpes de Campylobacter são cada vez mais resistentes a antibióticos, incluindo os usados em humanos. Para além disso também têm sido descritas estirpes de Campylobacter resistentes a desinfetantes, o que se deve, principalmente, à sua capacidade de formar biofilmes. Estes biofilmes são um problema emergente na indústria alimentar, aumentando a possibilidade de contaminações ao longo da cadeia alimentar. Assim, e como os estudos relativos a Campylobacter são escassos, é da maior relevância estudar a epidemiologia de espécies de Campylobacter isoladas em Portugal, a sua resistência a antibióticos e procurar alternativas, aos antimicrobianos convencionais, para o seu controlo. Devido à escassez de estudos relativos à epidemiologia de Campylobacter em Portugal procedeu-se neste trabalho ao estudo da distribuição epidemiológica de isolados de Campylobacter de seres humanos, entre 2009 e 2012, em Portugal. Para isso, foram analisadas 837 estirpes obtidas através do Instituto Nacional de Saúde Dr. Ricardo Jorge. Destas 837 estirpes, 84,5% foram identificados como C. jejuni, 14,8% como C. coli, 0,2% como C. upsaliensis, 0,1% como C. concisus e 0,2% das amostras foram identificadas como Arcobacter butzleri. Em relação à sua distribuição por faixas etárias, observou-se que 61,5% das estirpes pertenciam ao grupo com idades entre 1 e 15 anos. Após este estudo preliminar, a partir deste grupo de isolados humanos, escolheram-se aleatoriamente 125 estirpes de Campylobacter (C. jejuni e C. coli) isoladas de seres humanos. A este grupo de estirpes, adicionaram-se 39 isolados de retalho alimentar e 32 de animais. As 196 amostras foram então caracterizadas através da tipagem por sequenciamento multilocus e da tipagem do gene flaA. Através destes métodos de tipagem, observou-se que as estirpes de C. coli eram geneticamente mais conservadas do que C. jejuni e que dentro de cada espécie, existiam isolados geneticamente relacionados provenientes de fontes diferentes. Em seguida, o fenótipo de resistência ao ácido nalidíxico, amoxicilina, ciprofloxacina, eritromicina, gentamicina e tetraciclina foi avaliado pelo método de diluição em agar. Observaram-se elevadas taxas de resistência para todos os antibióticos com exceção à gentamicina, incluindo para os antibióticos utilizados no tratamento de campilobacteriose grave em humanos. Além disso, observou-se um fenótipo de resistência a múltiplos antibióticos (resistência a 3 ou mais classes de antibióticos) em 86% dos isolados. Perante os elevados níveis de resistência observados, estudaram-se os mecanismos moleculares subjacentes a essas resistências. Verificou-se que todos os isolados resistentes à ciprofloxacina possuíam a mutação Thr-Ile-86 na região que determina resistências às quinolonas no gene gyrA. Para a resistência à eritromicina apenas foi detetada a mutação A2075G no gene 23S rRNA. Em relação à resistência à gentamicina, observou-se que as três estirpes resistentes à gentamicina possuíam o marcador de resistência aos aminoglicosídeos aphA-3, sendo que uma das estirpes tinha uma mutação neste marcador. Foi ainda evidenciado neste estudo, que as bombas de efluxo cmeABC também podem desempenhar um papel na resistência a múltiplas drogas e no fenótipo da resistência a gentamicina. Assim, neste estudo foi possível obter uma visão geral da epidemiologia de Campylobacter em Portugal e descrever pela primeira vez a elevada taxa de multirresistência a antibióticos, assim como realçar o surgimento de estirpes de Campylobacter resistentes aos antibióticos de uso humano. Com base nos resultados deste estudo foram selecionadas estirpes com diferentes perfis genéticos e de resistência a antibióticos para serem utilizadas no decurso deste trabalho. Como o género Campylobacter é a principal causa de gastroenterite bacteriana e a via alimentar é a principal via de contaminação, a elevada percentagem de estirpes resistentes a antibióticos aumenta o potencial zoonótico da infeção com estirpes multirresistentes. Logo, torna-se necessário controlar o crescimento de Campylobacter nas vias mais comuns de contaminação, que são os alimentos. Assim, o objetivo seguinte deste trabalho foi avaliar o potencial do resveratrol para controlar as estirpes de Campylobacter previamente caracterizadas. Apesar do resveratrol possuir várias propriedades biológicas, incluindo antimicrobianas, a sua baixa solubilidade em água e alta instabilidade comprometem a sua aplicação. Assim, para ultrapassar estes problemas, estudou-se o encapsulamento do resveratrol com metil-β-ciclodextrina. Verificou-se que a complexação do resveratrol com esta ciclodextrina provocou um aumento de 400 vezes na sua solubilidade. Em seguida o complexo de inclusão foi caracterizado através de Espectroscopia de Infravermelho por Transformada de Fourier (FTIR), Calorimetria Exploratória Diferencial (DSC), Difração de Raios-X (XRD) e Microscopia Eletrónica de Varrimentos (SEM), confirmando-se efetivamente a sua formação. Seguidamente foram avaliadas algumas propriedades biológicas do resveratrol e do seu complexo de inclusão com metil-β-ciclodextrina, tendo-se verificado que ambos os compostos tinham atividade antioxidante muito forte, baixa toxicidade e ainda capacidade de reduzir a viabilidade das células Caco-2 (linha celular constituída por células epiteliais de adenocarcinoma colorectal heterogéneo). Além disso, também foi demonstrada a sua atividade antibacteriana contra estirpes de Campylobacter previamente selecionadas: duas estirpes de referência (C. jejuni ATCC 33560 e C. coli ATCC 33559), duas estirpes isoladas de fezes de pacientes com gastroenterite aguda (C. coli 53 e C. coli 873) e duas estirpes isoladas de carne de aves fresca (C. jejuni 225421 e C. coli 219872). Estes resultados sugerem que o resveratrol e o seu complexo de inclusão podem ser usados para controlar Campylobacter e que o resveratrol encapsulado em metil-β-ciclodextrina mantem as suas propriedades antioxidantes e antibacterianas. Uma vez que os resultados com o resveratrol e o complexo de inclusão foram bastante promissores, estudou-se ainda outro complexo de inclusão (resveratrol-hidroxipropil-γ-ciclodextrina), previamente formado e caraterizado pelo grupo de investigação, que revelou ainda ter um potencial antimicrobiano mais elevado contra Campylobacter e A. butzleri, um patogéneo de origem alimentar relacionado a Campylobacter. Dado isto, inicialmente avaliou-se a atividade antibacteriana em células planctónicas e mostrou-se que tanto o resveratrol como o complexo de inclusão têm um efeito bactericida contra as estirpes multirresistentes C. coli 873 e C. jejuni 225421. Com o objetivo de esclarecer o potencial mecanismo de ação do complexo de inclusão do resveratrol em hidroxipropil-γ-ciclodextrina sobre as estirpes de Campylobacter, começou por se avaliar a despolarização das membranas celulares e a atividade metabólica por citometria de fluxo. Através desta técnica, observou-se que complexo de inclusão pode atuar induzindo a despolarização da membrana e afetando a atividade metabólica das células. Dado que os biofilmes bacterianos são um problema emergente na indústria alimentar, também foi avaliado o potencial destes dois compostos para inibir a formação de biofilmes e eliminar biofilmes estabelecidos. Tanto o resveratrol como o complexo de inclusão foram capazes de inibir a formação de biofilmes e diminuir biofilmes previamente estabelecidos, mesmo em concentrações sub-inibitórias. O sistema quorum sensing (QS) tem sido associado à resistência antimicrobiana e formação de biofilmes, portanto, o potencial anti-QS destes dois compostos também foi estudado através da utilização de uma estirpe biossensor (Chromobacterium violaceum ATCC 12472). Verificou-se que ambos, o resveratrol e o complexo de inclusão, foram capazes de inibir o sistema QS, o que pode explicar o efeito anti-biofilme destes compostos. Assim, nestes estudos foram demonstradas as propriedades antimicrobianas e anti-biofilme do resveratrol e complexo de inclusão em estirpes de Campylobacter. Este aspeto associado ao facto de o resveratrol ser um composto de origem natural, e de também apresentar forte atividade antioxidante, encorajam futuros estudos com vista à sua aplicação como potencial conservante alimentar. Finalmente, uma vez que tem havido um interesse crescente na utilização de compostos naturais para aplicação em produtos alimentares, também foi avaliado o potencial do óleo essencial de coentros (Coriandrum sativum L.) e do seu principal composto, o linalool, para controlar Campylobacter. Ambos os compostos exibiram um efeito bactericida contra as quatro estirpes testadas (C. jejuni ATCC 33560, C. coli ATCC 33559, C. jejuni 225421 e C. coli 873) com valores de concentração mínima inibitória entre 0,5 e 1 μL/mL e observou-se que os compostos voláteis do óleo essencial de coentros também inibiram o crescimento de Campylobacter. Observou-se ainda que ambos os compostos inibiram a formação de biofilmes e promoveram a dispersão de biofilmes de Campylobacter. Como descrito anteriormente, também foi estudado o efeito destes compostos sobre o sistema QS. Foi demonstrada a atividade anti-QS do óleo essencial de coentros e do linalool através da inibição da produção de violaceína pela estirpe biossensor C. violaceum. Assim, mais uma vez, esta atividade anti-QS pode estar associada com a atividade anti-biofilme dos compostos, uma vez que o QS tem um papel importante na regulação da formação e desenvolvimento de biofilmes. Para além do potencial anti-bacteriano e anti-biofilme do óleo essencial e do linalool, também se avaliou a sua atividade antioxidante, uma vez que o processo de oxidação está relacionado com a perda da qualidade dos alimentos. Assim, observou-se que ambos os compostos têm uma elevada capacidade para inibir a peroxidação de lípidos. Em suma, os resultados demonstraram que estes compostos naturais podem ser utilizado para controlar Campylobacter e também como agentes antioxidantes para melhorar a qualidade dos alimentos. Em conclusão, neste trabalho, foram apresentados, dados recentes referentes à epidemiologia de Campylobacter em Portugal, bem como a sua diversidade genética e respetivos perfis de resistência a antibióticos. Diante disto, são necessários novos agentes antimicrobianos para controlar este patogéneo emergente de origem alimentar. Neste trabalho mostrou-se que o resveratrol e o óleo essencial de coentros, ambos compostos naturais, têm a capacidade de reduzir células planctónicas e biofilmes de Campylobacter, possuindo também várias atividades biológicas, incluindo propriedades antioxidantes. Este trabalho permitiu alargar o conhecimento sobre a epidemiologia e taxas resistência de estirpes de Campylobacter isoladas em Portugal e desenvolver novas estratégias de controlo deste microrganismo baseadas na utilização de compostos de origem natural. ; Foodborne diseases remain common around the world and can be caused by a variety of agents, being bacteria, viruses or parasites the main causes of such infections. Moreover, the major cause of foodborne diseases is consumption or handling of contaminated food. Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli are the major cause of bacterial gastroenteritis in humans worldwide and are increasingly resistant to antimicrobial agents mainly due to its ability to form biofilms. Furthermore, campylobacteriosis was the most commonly reported zoonosis in the European Union in 2013. So, the main objective of this work was to study the epidemiology of Campylobacter species in Portugal and to explore the potential of natural compounds as new antibacterials to control this foodborne pathogen and to increase the shelf life of food products. We started this work with an epidemiological study of Campylobacter in Portugal. Firstly we studied the epidemiological distribution of Campylobacter isolates from humans, between 2009 and 2012, in Portugal. For this, 837 strains from the National Institute of Health Dr Ricardo Jorge were analyzed, of which 84.5% were identified as C. jejuni, 14.8% as C. coli, 0.2% as C. upsaliensis, 0.1% as C. concisus and 0.2% of the samples were identified as Arcobacter butzleri. Concerning the distribution per age groups, we observed that 61.5% of the strains belonged to the group aged between 1 and 15 years. Afterward, from the group of 837 strains, we randomly choose 125 Campylobacter isolates from humans. In addition to these isolates, we added strains isolated from different sources: 39 from retail food and 32 from animals. All the 196 strains were then characterized by multilocus sequence typing (MLST) and flaA typing. We found that the C. coli isolates were genetically more conserved than C. jejuni, and within each species, genetically related isolates were recovered from different sources. Then, the resistance phenotype to six antibiotics was evaluated by the agar dilution method. We observed high resistance rates to several antibiotics, including the ones used in the treatment of severe campylobacteriosis. We also identified a multidrug resistance phenotype in 86% of the isolates. Once this high resistance to antibiotics was confirmed, we decided to study the underlying molecular mechanisms. In all the ciprofloxacin resistant isolates we found the Thr-86-Ile mutation in the quinolone-resistance-determining regions (QRDR) in the DNA gyrase gene (gyrA). For the erythromycin resistance only the mutation A2075G was detected. Regarding gentamicin resistance, we found the three gentamicin-resistant isolates harboured the aphA-3 aminoglycoside resistance marker, with one strain having a point mutation. In addition, we showed that cmeABC efflux pumps may also play a role in the multidrug resistance phenotype and in the gentamicin resistance. In sum, the results obtained in this first part of the study gave an overview of the Campylobacter epidemiology in Portugal and worrying antibiotic multi-resistance rate. This part also highlighted the emergence of Campylobacter strains resistant to antibiotics commonly used in humans. Then, we select a group of strains with different genetic and antibiotic profiles to be used in the subsequent steps of our work. Since the main source of Campylobacter infection is through contaminated food, it is necessary to find new strategies to control the growth of Campylobacter in the most common way of contamination, which are foods. So, in the next step we assessed the potential of resveratrol to control the strains of Campylobacter that were characterized previously. However, despite resveratrol having several biological properties, its low aqueous solubility and high instability compromise its application. So, to overcome these limitations, we studied the encapsulation of resveratrol with a methyl-β-cyclodextrin. We found that resveratrol complexation caused a 400 fold improvement in its solubility. The inclusion complex was characterized by several techniques. After the formation of the inclusion complex, we compared the biological properties of resveratrol and its inclusion complex. We showed that both compounds had very strong antioxidant activity and low toxicity, together with the ability to reduce the viability of Caco-2 cells (heterogeneous human epithelial colorectal adenocarcinoma cell line). In addition, we also demonstrated their antibacterial activity against the previously selected Campylobacter strains. These results suggest that resveratrol and its inclusion complex can be used to control Campylobacter, since the biological properties are maintained. Due to the very good results obtained with resveratrol and this inclusion complex, we decided to study another inclusion complex (resveratrol-hydroxypropyl-γ-cyclodextrin) and its potential to control Campylobacter and A. butzleri, a closely related foodborne pathogen. Firstly we evaluated the antibacterial activity against planktonic cells, demonstrating that both resveratrol and inclusion complex have a bactericidal effect against the two microorganisms. The inclusion complex may act by inducing membrane depolarization and by affecting the metabolic activity of the cells. Since bacterial biofilms are an emerging problem in the food industry, we also evaluated the potential of these two compounds against biofilms. We showed that resveratrol and the inclusion complex inhibit biofilm formation and diminish established biofilms, even at sub-inhibitory concentrations. Since the quorum sensing (QS) system has been associated with the antimicrobial resistance and biofilm formation, we also evaluated the potential anti-QS effect of these two compounds by using a biosensor strain. We found that both resveratrol and inclusion complex were able to inhibit the QS system, which could explain their anti-biofilm effect. The results showed that resveratrol could be used as antibacterial and anti-biofilm agent in the food industry, allowing an improve shelf life and an increase in food safety. Finally, since there has been a growing interest in the use of natural compounds for application in food products, we also evaluated the potential of coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) essential oil and its major compound linalool to control Campylobacter. Both compounds showed a bactericidal effect against all the tested strains and we observed that the volatile compounds of the coriander essential oil also inhibited the growth of Campylobacter. Then, since biofilms are a growing problem in the food industry, we also evaluated the anti-biofilm activity of these compounds. Both coriander oil and linalool inhibited biofilm formation and promoted biofilm dispersion of Campylobacter biofilms. As previously described, we also studied the effect of these compounds on the QS system and we observed an anti-QS activity by inhibiting the violacein production. So, once more, this anti-QS activity could be associated with the anti-biofilm activity, since QS has been described to regulate the biofilm formation and development. Moreover, in addition to the antibacterial and anti-biofilm potential, we evaluated the antioxidant activity of coriander oil and linalool, since the oxidation process is also associated with the loss of food quality. We observed that both compounds showed an exceptional ability to inhibit lipid peroxidation. Those results demonstrate that these natural compounds could be used to control Campylobacter and as antioxidant to enhance food quality. In sum, in this thesis, we described the recent epidemiology of Campylobacter in Portugal, as well as its genetic diversity and worrying antibiotic resistance rates. In addition, we also demonstrated that resveratrol and coriander essential oil, which are both natural compounds, have the ability to reduce planktonic cells and biofilms of Campylobacter, including the multiresistant strains characterized in the first part of the work. Clearly, the results obtained in this work encourage the future use of these natural compounds to control Campylobacter.

Parker County proposes to build the eastern segment of a loop north of the City of Weatherford, in Parker County, Texas). This portion of the loop, designated East Loop, is approximately 6.65 miles long. It begins at the intersection of the eastern terminus of the Ric Williamson Memorial Highway (or West Loop) at State Highway 51 north of the city. The proposed route continues eastward for approximately 4 miles, crosses Farm-to-Market 730 before turning south for approximately 2 miles, crosses US Highway 180 at Center Point Road, and follows Center Point Road to terminate at Interstate Highway 20. The East Loop project is owned and funded by Parker County. As a political subdivision of the State of Texas, Parker County is required to comply with the Antiquities Code of Texas (9 Texas Natural Resources Code 191). A permit from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) is also required for the proposed project. Therefore, the USACE, as a federal agency, has the responsibility for complying with Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA), as amended (Section 106). Section 106 requires consideration of the effects of the proposed project on properties listed in, or determined eligible for, the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP), and ultimately designation as a State Antiquities Landmark (SAL). Freese and Nichols, Inc., the design and environmental consultant to Parker County, contracted with Cox|McLain Environmental Consulting, Inc. (CMEC), to conduct the intensive archeological and reconnaissance historic resources surveys necessary for compliance with the Antiquities Code and Section 106. Melissa M. Green (Principal Investigator) and Brett Lang carried out the archeological survey for Parker County under Texas Antiquities Permit 8127, and Emily Reed and Izabella Dennis conducted the historic resources survey; all are staff of CMEC. Fieldwork was conducted in September 2017. Widths of the proposed roadway vary between 120 and 390 feet, but the average width is 200 feet. The archeological area of potential effects (APE) consists of the entire 195.39-acre footprint of new location roadway and a 600-foot long, 30-foot wide drainage ditch easement added to the project for a total 196.62-acre APE. The historic resources APE consists of a 300-foot-wide buffer area around the proposed project corridor. The APE is located primarily on uplands but crosses Willow Creek, Holder Branch, Underwood Branch, and a number of small intermittent channels. The land is mostly undeveloped with some residential/commercial areas, particularly near each terminus, that will be impacted. Ground surfaces within the APE were mostly covered in grasses, allowing for some limited visibility ranging from 0 to 30 percent, though ground visibility in forested areas and eroded pastures allowed for higher ground visibility at 70 to 100 percent. Existing impacts to the project corridor include residential and commercial development, buried utilities and other infrastructures associated with the developments, oil and gas production and storage, stock tank construction, livestock grazing or training, and erosion resulting from all of the above. A total of 48 shovel test units were excavated judgmentally across the area of potential effects; 36 were sterile for cultural materials and 12 were associated with sites. Initially, right-of-entry was not allowed on several individual parcels representing approximately 2.14 miles (48.29 acres) of the proposed corridor during the original survey in September 2017, but were investigated in June and July of 2018 once right-of-entry was granted. Potential for prehistoric archeological deposits in the area of potential effects is considered low, and the potential for historic deposits is considered moderate. The proposed roadway corridor partially impacts previously recorded sites 41PR163/41PR164, 41PR165, and 41PR166, as well as the NRHP-listed Byron Farmstead Historic District. The district comprises 85.5 acres with three recorded archeological sites (41PR163, 41PR164, now combined, and 41PR166), or contributing elements, within its boundary. All of these sites were revisited during the survey. Although located outside of the project corridor, site 41PR163, the original log cabin of the Byron Farmstead, and site 41PR164, the later bungalow on the farmstead were visited due to their close proximity to the project and to help assess the indirect impacts to these sites and contributing elements of the historic district. Based on the field visit, the boundaries of sites 41PR163 and 41PR164 have been adjusted and combined and now include a previously unrecorded dairy location, but contributing element to the district, within the new combined site limit (41PR163/41PR164). Since site 41PR163/41PR164 is already a contributing element of the Byron Farmstead Historic District, it is recommended for designation as a SAL. Site 41PR166 is the dairy operation owned by a separate family member and not originally a contributing element to the district. The site is mostly intact and retains most of its integrity. It has now been recommended as a contributing element to the historic district, and ultimately for SAL designation, demonstrating the long-time use of the larger property for and family commitment to cattle and dairying. Site 41PR166 will be partially impacted by the proposed road corridor. In addition to the archeological sites located on the Byron Farmstead Historic District, there are three contributing buildings, two contributing structures, one contributing site, and one noncontributing site. For unknown reasons, an additional 13 resources located within the historic district's boundary were not documented in the NRHP nomination form or assigned contributing/non-contributing status. As a result of this survey, eight of the previously undocumented resources are recommended as contributing and five are recommended as non-contributing to the Byron Farmstead Historic District. Due to the construction of the proposed roadway through the Byron Farmstead Historic District, there would be an adverse effect on the district by diminishing the integrity of feeling, setting, and association. Although previously recorded site 41PR165, remnants of a small farmstead, would be partially impacted by the proposed roadway corridor, the site as a whole was not investigated during this survey so it is unknown if any of the remaining components would add any additional information concerning cattle ranching in the area. Therefore, its NRHP eligibility or designation as an SAL is recommended as unknown. One additional historic site, 41PR185, was recorded during the survey. This site is a mid- to late twentieth century farmstead on a hilltop west of Holder Branch measuring 35 meters east/west by 55 meters north/south. The site is composed of a collapsed rock root cellar, rock and mortar pile, six fence posts, and large sections of sheet metal siding. The site will be entirely impacted by the proposed construction and is recommended as not eligible for listing in the NRHP or for SAL designation. All materials (notes, photographs, administrative documents, and other project data) generated from this work will be housed at the Center for Archaeological Studies at Texas State University in San Marcos, where they will be made permanently available to future researchers per 13 Texas Administrative Code 26.16-17. CMEC submitted the previous version of this report to the Texas Historical Commission (THC) on March 1, 2018, for review. In the response letter dated March 30, 2018, THC concurred with the eligibility recommendations for the historic resources and requested additional information regarding recorded archeological sites. THC also requested further review of the applicability of Section 106 in relationship to the USACE areas of jurisdiction (Appendix B). Since that time, USACE has indicated Section 106 is applicable to the Byron Farmstead Historic District, and CMEC has been granted access to previously inaccessible parcels to complete the archeological survey. This version of the report has been updated to provide additional information from the archeological survey and to reflect the applicability of Section 106, including an assessment of effects to historic properties and archeological sites. Continued coordination between the USACE, Parker County, the City of Weatherford, and the THC is anticipated in order to satisfy all Section 106 requirements associated with this project but is not detailed in this report. If any unanticipated cultural materials or deposits are found at any stage of clearing, preparation, or construction, the work should cease and THC personnel should be notified immediately. The THC concurred with the results and recommendations of this report on December 12, 2018.

En la actualidad, la producción de miel de abeja en el país no supera los niveles productivos de la década de los 70, época en la cual la productividad triplicaba los valores obtenidos en la primera década del 2000; al pasar de los años, este mercado fue decayendo, donde Colombia denotó un descenso abrupto en la producción y exportación por la falta de tecnología y control de calidad. Actualmente, el reporte de producción de miel de abejas en el país llega a 3 mil toneladas año, dejando a Colombia en el último lugar de los países productores a nivel mundial. Hoy día, los esfuerzos sumados entre los apicultores y el Gobierno Nacional, buscan minimizar las falsificaciones y fomentar la aplicación de reglamentaciones para mejorar la producción, con la selección de especies productoras y mejoramiento de zonas de producción. La miel de abejas Apis mellifera, ha sido considerada una alternativa en el gremio agroalimentario, gracias a sus aportes nutricionales, al ser un producto natural azucarado, y el cual no sufre ninguna transformación para el consumo humano. La miel principalmente está conformada por glucosa y fructosa entre 85 y 95%, las cuales provienen del néctar que las abejas colectan, por lo que es considerada una gran fuente calórica, un poderoso endulzante, alimento rico en vitaminas y excelente bacteriostático. El néctar de las flores y/o extraflorales, colectado por las abejas para la producción de miel, es conocida como miel de flores o néctar, cuando la miel proviene de secreciones de algunas plantas o de algunos insectos, se le denomina miel de mielato. Los parámetros de calidad que se tienen en cuenta para la comercialización de la miel son la humedad, las cenizas, los azúcares reductores, la conductividad eléctrica, el hidroximetilfurfural y el índice de diastasa; a nivel investigativo se han considerado otros parámetros que dan valor agregado a la miel, tales como el contenido de fenoles, flavonoides, proteínas solubles, capacidad antioxidante, rotación óptica, entre otros. En el desarrollo de este trabajo se colectaron 10 muestras de dos regiones del departamento de Antioquia (Oriente y Suroeste), se realizaron los análisis fisicoquímicos contemplados por la normatividad colombiana, además de parámetros que contribuyen a la calidad de la miel. Las mieles analizadas del Oriente y Suroeste, respectivamente, presentaron los siguientes valores promedio: a) parámetros incluidos en la norma, humedad 18,6 y 17,4 %; cenizas 0,27 y 0,35 %; conductividad eléctrica 0,48 y 0,55 mS/cm; acidez libre 29,04 y 50,10 meq/Kg; acidez lactónica 2,06 y 3,90 meq/Kg; acidez total 31,10 y 53,99 Meq/Kg; índice de diastasa 12,5 y 11,4 (en escala Shade); HMF 30,4 y 46,0 mg/Kg; azúcares reductores 85,53 y 82,75 %; DL glucosa 26,03 y 27,44 %; fructosa 29,88 y 30,46 % y sacarosa 8,70 y 7,27 %, b) otros parámetros de calidad: aw 0,59 y 0,58; color 89,4 y 143,7 mm Pfund; color C* (croma) 26,49 y 16,02 en escala CIE L*a*b*; color L* (luminosidad) 41,59 y 33,85 en escala CIE L*a*b*; pH 3,73 y 3,65; rotación óptica -9,40 y - 7,14; viscosidad 6,01 y 10,49 mPa.s; aminoácidos libres 17,07 y 28,25 mg/100g; capacidad antioxidante 0,197 y 0,198 mg/100g; fenoles totales 281, 08 y 449, 32 mg/100g; flavonoides 6,62 y 9,48 mg/100g y proteínas solubles 52,74 y 51,89 mg/100g,. Se realizaron correlaciones entre algunos parámetros fisicoquímicos de la miel, es así como las correlaciones entre la humedad, la actividad de agua y la viscosidad, indicaron una relación directa de la humedad con la actividad de agua, y a su vez, correlación inversa entre la humedad y la viscosidad. Otra de las correlaciones que denotó una dependencia entre componentes se dio entre las cenizas, la conductividad eléctrica y el potencial eléctrico. Por último, la correlación que reportó mayor influencia entre los parámetros se observó entre el croma C* y la luminosidad L* y el DPPH y los flavonoides, además de las correlaciones inversas entre flavonoides y fenoles totales con C* y L*. De todas las mieles analizadas, se concluyó que cumplían con los parámetros normativos para su comercialización; además, sólo en algunas de las variables se identificó diferencias significativas. ; Abstract: At present, the production of honey in the country does not exceed the production levels of the 70s, a time in which productivity tripled the values obtained in the first decade of 2000. Over the years, this market was declining and Colombia denoted a sharp fall in production and export due to the lack of technology and quality control. Currently, the report of honey production in the country reaches 3 thousand tons a year, leaving Colombia in the last place of the producing countries at world-wide level. Today, the combined efforts of beekeepers and the National Government seek to minimize faking and promote the application of regulations to improve production, with the selection of production species and improvement of production areas. The honey Apis mellifera has been considered an alternative in the agrifood industry, thanks to its nutritional contributions because it is a natural sweetened, and which does not undergo any transformation for human consumption. Honey is mainly composed of glucose and fructose between 85 and 95%, which come from the nectar collected by the bees; therefore, it is considered a great caloric source, a powerful sweetener, a food rich in vitamins and an excellent bacteriostatic. The nectar of the flowers and/or extraflorals collected by bees for the production of honey is known as honey of flowers or nectar; when the honey comes from secretions of some plants or some insects, it is called honey of mielato. The parameters of quality taken into account for honey commercialization are the humidity, the ashes, the reducing sugars, the electrical conductivity, the hydroxymethylfurfural and the diastase index. At the research level, other parameters that add value to honey have been considered, such as the content of phenols, flavonoids, soluble proteins, antioxidant capacity and optical rotation, among others. In the development of this project, 10 samples from two regions of the department of Antioquia (East and Southwest) were selected, physicochemical analyzes contemplated by the national regulations were carried out, as well as parameters that contribute to honey quality. It was found that the analyzed honey had the following average, for the East and Southwest, respectively: a) Parameters within the norm, moisture 18.6 and 17.4 %; ashes 0.27 and 0.35 %; electrical conductivity 0.48 and 0.55 mS/cm; free acidity 29,04 and 50,10 meq/Kg; lactonic acidity 2,06 and 3,90 meq/Kg; total acidity 31,10 and 53,99 Meq/Kg; diastase index 12.5 and 11.4 (on Shade scale); HMF 30.4 and 46.0 mg/kg; reducing sugars 85.53 and 82.75 %; DL glucose 26.03 and 27.44 %; Fructose 29.88 and 30.46 % and sucrose 8.70 and 7.27 %. b) Other quality parameters: aw 0.59 and 0.58; color 89.4 and 143.7 mm Pfund; color C* (chroma) 26.49 and 16.02 on CIE scale L* a* b*; color L* (brightness) 41.59 and 33.85 in CIE scale L* a* b*; pH 3.73 and 3.65; optical rotation -9.40 and -7.14; viscosity 6.01 and 10.49 mPa.s; free aminoacids 17.07 and 28.25 mg/100g; antioxidant capacity 0.197 and 0.198 mg/100g; ; antioxidant capacity 0.197 and 0.198 mg/100g; total phenols 281, 08 and 449, 32 mg/100g; flavonoids 6.62 and 9.48 mg/100g; soluble proteins 52.74 and 51.89 mg/100g. Correlations between some physicochemical parameters of the honey were made, which showed that the correlations between moisture, water activity and viscosity indicated a direct relation of moisture with water activity, in turn, inverse correlation between moisture and viscosity. Another correlation that denoted a dependence between components occurred between the ashes, the electrical conductivity and the electrical potential. Finally, the correlation that showed the greatest influence among the parameters was between C * chroma and L * luminosity and DPPH and flavonoids, as well as the inverse correlations between flavonoids and total phenols with C * and L *. From all the analyzed honeys, it was concluded that they fulfilled the normative parameters for its commercialization, in addition, that only in some of them significant differences were identified with ; Maestría

"Izrada hrvatske poljoprivredne strategije jedan mi je od prioriteta, a ona neće zanemariti ni aspekte ruralnog razvoja, okoliš, proizvode zaštićenog podrijetla, ruralni turizam, obnovljive izvore energije." Ovo je izjava novoga resornog ministra poljoprivrede iz opširnog intervjua kojega je dao Večernjem listu 10. ožujka 2016. god. U nastavku navodi kako je za izradu strategije poljoprivrede i prehrambene industrije, šumarstva i prerade drva rok do kraja 2016. god. Također navodi kako je trenutno u tijeku redefiniranje Programa ruralnog razvoja. O nedostatku strategija Države za gotovo sve resore gospodarstva, kao i očekivanjima da se iste konačno naprave, što se odnosi i na šumarstvo i preradu drva, pisali smo u br. 5-6 Šumarskoga lista 2011. god. Bilo je to vrijeme uoči novih parlamentarnih izbora, pa su se strategije očekivale od nove Vlade. Kao što vidimo, protekao je cijeli mandat sada već stare Vlade i ništa nije učinjeno, pa se stihijski radilo. Bez strategije i uz slabu kontrolu resornog ministarstva, koje bi trebalo biti odgovorno za šumarsku politiku i strategiju, posebice prepuštanje Hrvatskim šumama d.o.o. i nekompetentnom rukovodstvu da provodi svoju šumarsku politiku uz svoju strategiju, iako su uvjetno rečeno samo "koncesionari", evidentno je da su nastale velike štete za šume i šumarstvo. Nestručno vođenje firme i robovanje "profitu" pod svaku cijenu, zahtijeva od nas da postavimo pitanja i na njih tražimo odgovore. Na temelju činjeničnog stanja će se uz ostalo temeljiti, nadamo se, napokon zacrtana konzistentna šumarska politika i strategija. Naravno da ne možemo ovdje postaviti sva sporna pitanja, pa stoga dopunu prepuštamo čitateljstvu. Neka od tih pitanja su: treba li preskočiti jedan etat jer smo dirnuli u glavnicu; da li je narušen omjer smjese sječom vrjednijih vrsta drveća; da li je narušena debljinska struktura sastojina; da li se, gdje i koliko kasnilo s uzgojnim radovima njege i čišćenja koji određuju buduću sastojinu; koje sastojine trebaju ići u prijevremenu obnovu jer su nestručnim gospodarenjem dovedene u stanje da ne koriste optimalno potencijale šumskoga staništa; što je s prirodnom obnovom sastojina; zašto i koliko ostaje drvne sirovine u šumi; što je sa šumskim redom; koliko i zašto imamo toliko oštećenih stabala prouzročenih vučom sortimenata; zašto imamo previše Ad stabala; kako obrađujemo sortimente da ne oštećujemo šumsko tlo; da li su nam i zašto šumske vlake postale vododerine; da li je istina da od ubranih prihoda za korištenje šumskih cesta samo manji dio vraćamo za njihovo održavanje, pa su stoga u vrlo lošem stanju; da li privatnicima plaćamo vuču i dalje tako malo da vozni park obnavljaju kupnjom naših isluženih traktora koji zagađuju okoliš; zašto je nekim pilanskim klasama trupaca cijena niža od ogrjevnog drva; što je s pošumljavanjem opožarenih površina koje su potencijalna opasnost za eroziju tla; kome i zašto je prepušteno gospodarenje (osim sirovinskog) s ostalim gospodarskim potencijalima šume i naposljetku pitanje koliko će šuma i šumarstvo platiti robovanje isključivo novčanom profitu utopljenom u nezajažljivost birokracije? Kada neslužbeno razgovaramo s našim kolegama, pa i s nekima koji su trenutno u vladajućoj strukturi Hrvatskih šuma d.o.o., svi negoduju, pa i čude se nekim naredbama neutemeljenim na načelima šumarske struke i znanjima koje su na Fakultetu polučili. Višekratna eksperimentiranja iz strogo centralizirano ustrojene uprave, a zapravo jednog čovjeka, dovela su šumarstvo gotovo do ruba obstojnosti struke. U ovoj smo rubrici uz ostalo pisali o odstupanju jednog od načela iz 10 sentenci o šumi, uvaženog akademika Dušana Klepca, a ono se odnosi upravo na organizacijski oblik šumarstva od centralističkoga do proklamirano decentralističkoga, koji kao najpovoljniji "omogućuje na istom prostoru i istoj organizacijskoj jedinici korištenje svih izravnih i neizravnih beneficija koje šuma pruža". Rekli smo tada da je to danas strogo centralistički oblik, u kojemu za svaku sitnicu treba tražiti odobrenje centra, gdje upravitelji uprava nemaju nikakvih ingerencija, čime im je ograničena inventivnost i primjena stečenih šumarskih znanja i iskustava te narušen ugled pred zaposlenicima i lokalnom zajednicom, gdje revirnici i ostali inženjeri sve više postaju kancelarijski službenici, a beneficije šume su svedene na isključivo sirovinsku bazu. Time se zapravo želi poništiti i omalovažiti multifunkcionalnu ulogu šume, a šumarske stručnjake svesti na razinu neinventivnih nadničara. Začuđujuće je da su osim središnjice HŠD-a, koja je posebice u ovoj rubrici Šumarskoga lista upozoravala na činjenično stanje, mnogi smatrali da će se nešto samo po sebi riješiti, i što je još gore, ne osjećaju se odgovornima. O svemu tome, pa i po pitanju prerade drva i energetske strategije također smo više puta pisali u ovoj rubrici i još u nekim tekstovima – samo treba "prolistati" Šumarski list i početi aktivno štiti struku, jer inače nemamo pravo prigovarati. Uredništvo ; "Formulating the Croatian agricultural strategy is one of my priorities, which will on no account neglect the aspects of rural development, environment, products of protected designation of origin, rural tourism and renewable energy sources." This is what the new Minister of Agriculture stressed in an extensive interview given to Večernji List (Evening Paper) on 16 March 2016. The Minister went on to say that the deadline for drawing up the strategy of agriculture and food industry, forestry and wood processing was the end of 2016. He pointed out that the Rural Development Programme was currently being redefined. In the Forestry Journal No. 5-6 we already wrote about the non-existence of state strategies for almost all economic sectors, including forestry and wood processing, and about general expectations that they would finally be formulated. Since this was at the time of new parliamentary elections, the strategies were expected to be drawn up by the new Government. As we can see, the entire mandate of the old Government had elapsed without anything being done in this respect, which in a way legitimized disorganized work. Lack of strategies and poor control in the competent ministry responsible for the forestry policy and strategy, and particularly the fact that the company Hrvatske Šume Ltd and its incompetent management were allowed to implement their own forestry policy and their own strategy, despite being, conditionally said, "concessionnaires", resulted in evident and great damage for forests and forestry. In view of how incompetently the company is managed and how its primary goal is "profit" at any cost, we must demand the answers to some questions that will reveal the factual state. These answers will, we hope, finally lay the foundations for a consistent forestry policy and strategy. It is not possible to raise all controversial issues here, so we leave additional issues to the readers. Here are several of these questions: should one annual cut be skipped because we have nipped into the growing stock; has the mixture ratio been disturbed by cutting more valuable tree species; has the stand diameter structure been disturbed; have the silvicultural operations of tending and cleaning, which determine the future stand, been delayed and by how much; which stands should be regenerated prematurely owing to inexpert management which brought them into a state in which they cannot make optimal use of forest site potentials; what about natural stand regeneration; how much raw wood material remains in the forest and why; what about the forest order; what quantity of damaged trees is caused by skidding the assortments and why; why are there too many accidentally cut trees; how do we process assortments so as to avoid damage to forest soil; have forest skidding lines turned into gullies and why; is it true that only a small portion of the money collected from forest road use is spent on their maintenance, leading to their extremely poor condition; do we continue to pay very low amounts for skidding to private entrepreneurs, so that they restock their vehicle fleet by purchasing old tractors that pollute the environment; why is the price of some sawlog classes lower than the price of fuelwood; what about afforesting burnt areas, which are a potential hazard for soil erosion; who has been entrusted with the management (in addition to raw material) of other economic forest potentials and why: and finally, how much will forests and forestry suffer because of blind servitude to monetary profit only, dictated by greedy bureaucracy? In unofficial conversations, our colleagues, including some colleagues who are currently in the managing structure of the company Hrvatske Šume Ltd, express disapproval and wonder at some directives that are not based on the principles of the forestry profession and on the expertise acquired at the Faculty of Forestry. Multiple experiments conducted by the strictly centralized management, or better said, by one man, have led forestry almost to the very brink of survival. Among other things, we already wrote about abandoning one of the principles contained in the 10 sentences on forests by distinguished Academician Dušan Klepac. This principle relates precisely to the organisational form of forestry, from centralist to decentralist, which "allows the use of all direct and indirect benefits of a forest in the same space and in the same organisational unit". We have already pointed out that at present this form is strictly centralist, according to which approval of the centre must be obtained for any little thing, and in which forest administration managers have no jurisdiction over anything. Naturally, this hampers their inventiveness and limits the application of forestry knowledge and experience, as well as undermines them before other employees and the local community. Moreover, forest rangers and engineers are increasingly turning into office clerks, while the benefits of a forest are exclusively limited to the raw material base. In fact, all this is aimed at nullifying and undermining the multifunctional role of a forest and downgrading forestry experts to the level of uninventive labourers. It is surprising that, with the exception of the management of the Croatian Forestry Association, which has repeatedly warned of the factual state in this column, many believe that things will work out by themselves, or even worse, do not feel responsible for any of the above. We have tackled these issues, as well as issues of wood processing and energy strategies, on several occasions in this column and in some other texts - all we need to do is browse through Forestry Journal and start protecting the profession more actively; otherwise, we have no right to complain. Editorial Board

Systems forest of shelter belts are the efficient, durable and effective tools of stabilizing agricultural landscapes, which are predominant in the structure of the land fund of Ukraine. They create ecological agricultural landscapes frame, but their number, state, forestry and haphazard placement do not meet current requirements. To improve the situation, the order of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine from September 18, 2013 p. № 725-p adopted the Concept of agroforestry in Ukraine. The Concept is identifying areas of institutional change and improvement of legislation, which will provide special optimization of protective forest plantations of linear type on zonal basis, effective management and they will become a prerequisite for ecological by sustainable development of agricultural landscapes. Among the many causes of deterioration in the effectiveness of protection of arable land protective forest plantations linear type are: low efficiency targeted system of government measures to protective forest plantations linear type, and the lack of legal norms, which provides for liability for inefficient land use, and low level of financial security measures to protect soil from erosion. The purpose of this article is to propose the changes in legislative documents regulating forest management in protective forest plantations of linear type. During the years of independence Ukraine has not made clarity as to which governmental authority in current conditions have to deal with protective afforestation, the creation, protection and farming in windbreaks. After the beginning of land privatization in 1992 in the fate of shelterbelts it was a stuck for many years of uncertainty. They are not subject to sharing under the Land Code of Ukraine (Ed. 1992). Therefore, units of land sharing or land reserves the identified and in respect of windbreaks question remained open. In connection with the reorganization in 2000 the collective farms in agricultural market-type formation (private enterprises, farms, limited liability company, etc.) that were subjects of collective ownership of land, windbreaks were divested respective to local councils. One of the most effective solutions to the problem of protective afforestation is amending the regulations on the use of protective forest plantations of linear type. The policy amendments made to the regulations, consideration of national target programs in forestry, environmental protection and the optimization of land area of protective forest plantations of linear type on zonal basis. This will direct the state budget for the protection of the most vulnerable agricultural land - arable lands. The next step was the adoption of the Action Plan to implement the Concept. The primary objective of the Action Plan determined the preparation of proposals for amendments and additions to laws and other legal acts of reproduction, use and maintenance of protective forest plantations of linear type. Addressing protective afforestation problems require coordinated interaction and cooperation between scientists of different fields for a clear definition of the legal regime and preserve these unique plants. To eliminate uncertainty the status of the land occupied by windbreaks, the Land Code of Ukraine need to remove the windbreaks of the list of non-agricultural land for the purpose of classification of these and other agroforestry plantations to the land for forestry purposes. The legislate should developed to empower rural, town and city councils to regulate land relations in monitoring the use and protection of lands of communal property, land and environmental compliance legislation with mandatory environmental certification of land-based assessment of their compliance with the current requirements of soil protection by application of complex agronomic, hydraulic, organizational, economic and agroforestry measures. Corrections in Land Code required that land for windbreaks and other protective plantings may be available for use by land owners and other land users who use adjacent land for commercial agricultural production and have subordinate specialized units for forest management. For effective implementation of key provisions of the Concept of development of agroforestry in Ukraine is proposed amendments to the Laws of Ukraine, which regulate the protective afforestation realization. The necessity of providing windbreaks conservation status, securing them with entities providing economic incentives for the provision of tax and credit benefits to persons who take care of forest protective stands existing and create new plantations. Listed as proposals for state control over land use and protection, exemption from compensation for loss of agricultural and forestry production, drafting land inventory with analysis of agroforestry providing for land protection and to scope the area of protective plantations by category in the near future. ; Системы полезащитных лесных полос – действенный, долговечный и эффективный способ стабилизации агроландшафтов, которые являются преобладающими в структуре земельного фонда Украины. Они создают экологический каркас агроландшафтов, но их количество, состояние и бессистемное размещение не отвечают современным требованиям. Для исправления ситуации распоряжением КМ Украины от 18 сентября 2013 № 725-р одобрена Концепция развития агролесомелиорации в Украине. Целью Концепции является определение направлений институциональных изменений и совершенствования законодательства, что обеспечит оптимизацию площадей защитных лесных насаждений линейного типа по зональному принципу, эффективное хозяйствование в них и станет экологической предпосылкой для устойчивого развития агроландшафтов. Среди многих причин ухудшения эффективности защиты пахотных земель полезащитными насаждениями линейного типа выделяются: низкая эффективность целенаправленных системных государственных мер полезащитных лесных полос, а также отсутствие юридических норм, которыми предусмотрена ответственность за неэффективное землепользование, и низкий уровень финансового обеспечения мероприятий по защите почв от эрозии. Поэтому целью данного исследования является внесение изменений в законодательные документы, регламентирующие ведение хозяйства в защитных лесных насаждениях линейного типа. Одним из действенных путей решения проблемы полезащитного лесоразведения является внесение изменений в нормативно-правовые акты по использованию защитных лесных насаждений линейного типа. Концепцией предусмотрено внесение соответствующих изменений в законодательные акты, участие в государственных целевых программах в сфере лесного хозяйства, охраны и защиты земель вопросы оптимизации площадей защитных лесных насаждений линейного типа по зональному принципу. Это позволит направить средства государственного бюджета на охрану уязвимой части сельскохозяйственных угодий – пахотных земель. Следующим шагом стало утверждение Плана мероприятий по реализации Концепции. Первоочередной задачей Плана мероприятий определено подготовку предложений по внесению изменений и дополнений в законодательные и другие нормативно-правовые акты в части воспроизводства, использования и содержания защитных лесных насаждений линейного типа. Решение проблемы полезащитных лесоразведения требует слаженного взаимодействия и сотрудничества ученых разных отраслей наук для четкого определения правового режима и сохранения этих уникальных насаждений. Для устранения неопределенности статуса земель, занятых под полезащитными лесными полосами, в Земельном кодексе Украины необходимо изъять полезащитные лесные полосы из перечня несельскохозяйственных угодий с целью отнесения этих и других лесомелиоративных насаждений к землям лесного фонда. Законодательно предоставить полномочия сельским, поселковым, городским советам в области земельных отношений для осуществления контроля за использованием и охраной земель коммунальной собственности, соблюдением земельного и экологического законодательства с обязательным экологической сертификацией земельных участков на основе оценки соответствия их современным требованиям по охране почв путем применение комплекса агротехнических, гидротехнических, организационно-хозяйственных и агролесомелиоративных мероприятий. Для эффективной реализации основных положений Концепции развития агролесомелиорации в Украине предложено внесение изменений в Законы Украины, которые регламентируют ведение полезащитных лесоразведения. Обоснована необходимость предоставления полезащитных лесных полос природоохранного статуса, закрепление их за субъектами хозяйствования, обеспечение экономического стимулирования с предоставлением налоговых и кредитных льгот лицам, осуществляющим уход за существующими агролесомелиоративными насаждениями и создают новые. Внесены также предложения по Государственному контролю использования и охраны земель, освобождение от возмещения потерь сельскохозяйственного и лесохозяйственного производства, составление проектов землеустройства по анализу агролесомелиоративного обеспечения охраны земель и объемов необходимых площадей защитных насаждений по категориям на ближайшую перспективу ; Для ефективної реалізації основних положень Концепції розвитку агролісомеліорації в Україні запропоновано внесення змін у Закони України і підзаконні акти, які регламентують ведення полезахисного лісорозведення. Обґрунтовано необхідність надання полезахисним лісовим смугам природоохоронного статусу, закріплення їх за суб'єктами господарювання, забезпечення економічного стимулювання з наданням податкових та кредитних пільг особам, які здійснюють догляд за існуючими агролісомеліоративними насадженнями та створюють нові. Внесено також пропозиції щодо Державного контролю за використанням та охороною земель, звільнення від відшкодування втрат сільськогосподарського та лісогосподарського виробництва, складання проектів землеустрою з аналізом агролісомеліоративного забезпечення щодо охорони земель і обсягів необхідних площ захисних насаджень за категоріями на найближчу перспективу.

The research aims at contributing to a better understanding of the adoption of eco-friendly innovations. It analyses representations of environment and practices associated with sustainable management of cotton farming systems in order to deepen understanding of logics and strategies underlining farmers' practices, and motivations that determine their sustainable farming system adoption behaviors. Organic cotton (SCBIO) and cotton made in Africa (SCMIA) systems were used as case study. Field research was carried out in Kandi and Pehunco in the largest area of cotton production in the North of Benin. The theoretical framework is based on the theories of technical change analysis, the actor-oriented approach and the theories of social representations. Data were collected from a sample of 90 organic cotton farmers and 100 CmiA farmers selected from a typology based on endogenous criteria of prosperity. 39 field agents from organizations promoting sustainable cotton farming system were surveyed. Individuals and groups interviews were used to collect data. The data were analyzed with a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods including normative and relative comparison analysis, perception analysis, descriptive statistics, analysis of variance, chi square test, etc. Results show a marginal contribution of organic cotton and cotton made in Africa to national economy in comparison to the conventional system. At farmer's level farming system analysis reveals that both organic cotton and cotton made in Africa systems are not intensively sustainable. Their implementation is characterized by a large gap between recommendations and farmers' practices, especially in soils' fertility and pests' management. The use of organic matters in combination with crops rotation including leguminous plants is the main approach of soils fertility management in organic cotton system. However, quantities of organic matters used, especially cow dung, are not sufficient due to its low availability and the lack of transportation means. The management of pests and diseases faces enormous constraints ranging from biopesticides production difficulties, weak efficiency of biopesticides, to observation of the evolution of parasitic complex, etc. Although the use of organo-chemical fertilizer is recommended in SCMIA system, more than 50% of SCMIA farmers apply only chemical fertilizer. Globally, the quantities of chemical fertilizer applied are under the requirements while the quantities of organic fertilizers are too small. Application of staged and targeted pest control (lutte étagée ciblée) is limited by constraints coming from the late implementation and the ineffectiveness of pesticides, the high number of observations needed, etc. Therefore, pesticides are used in overdose and prohibited pesticides such as endosulfan are also used. Consequently yields are very low and decrease. In addition, some farmers, especially from organic system, considering necessity of chemical fertilizers use for maize production develop diverse strategic logics such as misappropriation, craftiness, etc. to obtain these fertilizers. It appears from analysis that strategic logics carried out by farmers in farming systems' adoption are the result of a combination of explanatory factors. These factors contribute to deepen the understanding of the weaknesses of organic and CmiA values chains in Benin and the bottlenecks in their development. Far from being static, farmers' logics area temporary equilibrium resulting from different explanatory categories relative to social representations of environment, perceptions of projects and production and social reproduction objectives of farmers, the demand of sustainable cotton on international market, etc. Consequently, all actions aimed at promoting the sustainability of cotton farming system may facilitate access of farmers to inputs through the improvement of their existence means for a better soil fertility and pests management. Sensitization and training programs on the importance of leguminous plants integration to crops rotation, staged and targeted pest control, etc., may be carried out. At policy level it would be desirable that policies decisions don't negatively affect the development of alternative cotton value chains. In addition, measures may be taken to facilitate farmers' access to chemical fertilizers for food crops, especially maize, to avoid their selling off. ; La présente recherche vise à contribuer à une meilleure compréhension du phénomène d'adoption des innovations environnementales. Elle part de l'analyse des représentations de l'environnement et des pratiques culturales associées à la gestion durable des exploitations cotonnières afin de mieux saisir les logiques et stratégies qui les fondent d'une part ainsi que les raisons qui expliquent les comportements paysans dans l'adoption des systèmes alternatifs de production de coton (SAPC) au Bénin d'autre part. Les théories d'analyse du changement technique, plus particulièrement la théorie de l'appropriation des innovations, renforcée par la théorie orientée vers les acteurs et les considérations théoriques sur les logiques et stratégies d'acteurs et les représentations sociales, ont servi de fil conducteur. Les systèmes de production de coton biologique (SCBIO) et du Cotton made in Africa (SCMIA) ont servi de cas d'étude. La phase empirique de la recherche s'est déroulée dans les communes de Kandi et de Péhunco, situées dans le bassin cotonnier du Nord Bénin. Un échantillon de 90 exploitants SCBIO, de 100 exploitants SCMIA et de 39 agents des structures promotrices de ces systèmes, a été constitué à partir d'une typologie à dires d'acteurs, conçue sur la base de critères endogènes de prospérité. Vu le caractère empirique de la recherche, une attention particulière a été accordée aux données primaires. Des outils qualitatifs et quantitatifs ont été combinés pour l'analyse des données collectées grâce à des entretiens individuels et de groupes. Il ressort de l'étude que la contribution du SCBIO et du SCMIA à l'économie nationale reste marginale en comparaison au mode conventionnel, système pourtant décrié. Au niveau paysan, l'analyse de ces systèmes de production montre qu'ils ne sont pas durablement intensifs et leur appropriation est caractérisée par des divergences entre les exigences et pratiques recommandées et les pratiques paysannes. En particulier, la gestion de la fertilité des sols et des ravageurs reste problématique. En clair, l'utilisation de la matière organique et la pratique de la rotation intégrant des légumineuses constituent les principales formes de gestion de la fertilité des sols au sein des exploitations SCBIO. Cependant, les apports de la matière organique en quantité et en qualité restent limités par la faible disponibilité de la matière organique, le manque crucial de matériel de transport, les conditions de production de la fumure, etc. Par ailleurs, la difficulté liée à la préparation des biopesticides et leur efficacité réduite, les contraintes liées à l'observation du complexe parasitaire, etc. constituent d'énormes contraintes à une gestion efficace des ravageurs. Au niveau des exploitations SCMIA, la pratique de la fertilisation organo-minérale reste peu répandue ; les apports de fumure organique sont très infimes et ceux des engrais minéraux insuffisants. L'application de la lutte étagée ciblée (LEC), principale méthode de gestion des ravageurs, est limitée par des contraintes de mise en place tardive des insecticides, leur faible efficacité, la pénibilité de la méthode, etc. ; ce qui contraint les exploitants à l'usage de pesticides en surdose ou au recours aux pesticides prohibés tels que l'endosulfan. Jugeant de la nécessité de recourir aux engrais minéraux pour les vivriers, notamment le maïs, certains producteurs développent diverses logiques stratégiques pouvant revêtir la forme de ruse, de contournement, de non-respect des cahiers de charges, d'abandon, etc. en vue d'y accéder. L'analyse de ces logiques stratégiques a montré qu'elles constituent un équilibre provisoire, une résultante de différents registres explicatifs relatifs aux représentations sociales de l'environnement, à la perception des dispositifs de développement, aux objectifs de production et de reproduction sociale, à la particularité de la demande de coton « durable », etc. Dès lors, toute action visant la durabilité des systèmes de production de coton doit permettre l'amélioration des moyens d'existence des producteurs afin de favoriser leur accès aux intrants en quantité et en qualité suffisantes pour une meilleure gestion de la fertilité des sols et des ravageurs. Des actions de sensibilisation et de renforcement des capacités sur l'importance de l'intégration des légumineuses au système de rotation, l'amélioration de la méthode de la lutte étagée ciblée, etc. devront être envisagées. Au niveau politique, il serait souhaitable que les décisions politiques n'affectent pas négativement le développement de filières cotonnières alternatives. Il importe aussi que des mesures soient prises en vue de faciliter l'accès des exploitants aux engrais minéraux destinés aux cultures vivrières dont principalement le maïs afin d'éviter le bradage des vivriers.

La literatura no només compleix una funció de gaudi estètic, sinó també una funció educativa i social; per tant, pel que fa a la traducció d'una literatura estrangera, per estudiar la selecció dels escriptors i les seves obres representatives cal tenir en compte no només el punt de vista estètic sinó també el polític, l'econòmic, el filosòfic i el cultural, en definitiva, les diferents circumstàncies en què es generen i són rebudes aquestes traduccions. Les ideologies i estètiques en diferents períodes històrics decideixen la selecció dels textos i marquen la norma en la traducció. I a més, en molts casos, els condicionaments ideològics i l'anhel de la valor literari no concorden, llavors un dels dos exerciria el paper dirigent. Com a conseqüència d'això, la història de la traducció d'una literatura estrangera serà resultat de les accions alternatives i mancomunades d'ambdues parts. A la Xina dels primers seixanta anys de segle XX, quan les obres no satisfeien tots dos requisits a el mateix temps, l'ideològic i la recerca de la valor literari formaven dues forces contraposades, així que la selecció d'obres estrangeres per a la seva traducció vacil·lava entre els dos i freqüentment el requisit polític va arribar a ser el criteri primordial, perquè en aquest moment la Xina patia l'agressió imperialista des de l'exterior ia l'interior s'estava duent a terme la transformació d'una societat feudal en una societat moderna; aquest entorn polític i social obligava a la literatura a carregar més amb una missió històrica que amb una funció estètica. Entre 1966 i 1976, període en què dominava la Gran Revolució Cultural, va quedar gairebé interrompuda la traducció de les literatures estrangeres. A partir dels anys vuitanta de segle XX, la Xina va entrar en el nou Període de Reforma i Obertura en què la construcció econòmica era la tasca primordial de la nació, així que la importància dels factors polítics en la literatura va ser disminuint i cada dia més obres estrangeres van ser conegudes i traduïdes pels seus valors estètics i literaris. L'objectiu del nostre treball és estudiar el fenomen literari des de la perspectiva sociològica, demostrar com han estat seleccionats i presentats els diferents escriptors espanyols i hispanoamericans i les seves obres a la Xina en diferents períodes històrics i estudiar els possibles criteris que van impulsar la publicació d'uns escriptors mentre es va excloure a altres. Mentrestant, com la literatura espanyola i la literatura hispanoamericana provenen de dues zones geogràficament distants -encara s'escriuen en la mateixa llengua-, examinem conjuntament les dues per tal d'investigar si hi hagués algun vincle entre elles pel que fa a la selecció i divulgació o, en el cas que no hi hagués cap relació, vam investigar les possibles causes d'això. Els anys escollits en el nostre estudi es divideixen en tres períodes segons esdeveniments històrics: el 1949 es va fundar la República Popular de la Xina; durant les dècades de 1950 a 1970, la nació es consagrava a la tasca de reorganitzar i construir el nou Estat; a partir d'l'any 1978, amb la implantació de la política de reforma i obertura, la Xina va entrar en un nou període i va començar a gaudir cada dia de més prosperitat. Al llarg d'aquests tres diferents períodes històrics es veurà com la trajectòria de la presència i recepció de la literatura en llengua espanyola a la Xina es correspon amb les condicions de país. ; La literatura no sólo cumple una función de goce estético, sino también una función educativa y social; por lo tanto, en lo que se refiere a la traducción de una literatura extranjera, para estudiar la selección de los escritores y sus obras representativas hay que tener en cuenta no sólo el punto de vista estético sino también el político, el económico, el filosófico y el cultural, en definitiva, las diferentes circunstancias en que se generan y son recibidas dichas traducciones. Las ideologías y estéticas en diferentes períodos históricos deciden la selección de los textos y marcan la norma en la traducción. Y además, en muchos casos, los condicionamientos ideológicos y el anhelo del valor literario no concuerdan, entonces uno de los dos desempeñaría el papel dirigente. Como consecuencia de ello, la historia de la traducción de una literatura extranjera será resultado de las acciones alternativas y mancomunadas de ambas partes. En la China de los primeros sesenta años del siglo XX, cuando las obras no satisfacían ambos requisitos al mismo tiempo, el ideológico y la búsqueda del valor literario formaban dos fuerzas contrapuestas, así que la selección de obras extranjeras para su traducción vacilaba entre los dos y frecuentemente el requisito político llegó a ser el criterio primordial, porque en ese momento China sufría la agresión imperialista desde el exterior y en el interior se estaba llevando a cabo la transformación de una sociedad feudal en una sociedad moderna; este entorno político y social obligaba a la literatura a cargar más con una misión histórica que con una función estética. Entre 1966 y 1976, período en el que dominaba la Gran Revolución Cultural, quedó casi interrumpida la traducción de las literaturas extranjeras. A partir de los años ochenta del siglo XX, China entró en el nuevo Período de Reforma y Apertura en el que la construcción económica era la tarea primordial de la nación, así que la importancia de los factores políticos en la literatura fue disminuyendo y cada día más obras extranjeras fueron conocidas y traducidas por sus valores estéticos y literarios. El objetivo de nuestro trabajo es estudiar el fenómeno literario desde la perspectiva sociológica, demostrar cómo han sido seleccionados y presentados los diferentes escritores españoles e hispanoamericanos y sus obras en China en diferentes períodos históricos y estudiar los posibles criterios que impulsaron la publicación de unos escritores mientras se excluyó a otros. Entre tanto, como la literatura española y la literatura hispanoamericana provienen de dos zonas geográficamente distantes -aunque se escriben en la misma lengua-, examinamos conjuntamente las dos con el fin de investigar si existiera algún vínculo entre ellas en lo que se refiere a la selección y divulgación o, en el caso de que no hubiera relación alguna, investigamos las posibles causas de ello. Los años escogidos en nuestro estudio se dividen en tres períodos según acontecimientos históricos: en 1949 se fundó la República Popular de China; durante las décadas de 1950 a 1970, la nación se consagraba a la labor de reorganizar y construir el nuevo Estado; a partir del año 1978, con la implantación de la política de Reforma y Apertura, China entró en un nuevo período y comenzó a gozar cada día de mayor prosperidad. A lo largo de estos tres distintos períodos históricos se verá cómo la trayectoria de la presencia y recepción de la literatura en lengua española en China se corresponde con las condiciones del país. ; Literature not only fulfills a function of aesthetic enjoyment, but also an educational and social function; Therefore, when it comes to the translation of a foreign literature, to study the selection of writers and their representative works it is necessary to take into account not only the aesthetic point of view, but also the political, economic, and philosophical and the cultural, in short, the different circumstances in which these translations are generated and received. Ideologies and aesthetics in different historical periods decide the selection of texts and set the standard in translation. And furthermore, in many cases, the ideological conditioning and the desire for literary value do not match, then one of the two would play the leading role. As a consequence, the history of the translation of a foreign literature will be the result of the alternative and joint actions of both parties. In China in the early 60's of the 20th century, when works did not satisfy both requirements at the same time, ideological and the pursuit of literary value were two opposing forces, so the selection of foreign works for translation wavered between the two and frequently the political requirement became the primary criterion, because at that time China was suffering imperialist aggression from the outside and the transformation of a feudal society into a modern society was taking place inside; This political and social environment forced literature to carry more with a historical mission than with an aesthetic function. Between 1966 and 1976, the period in which the Great Cultural Revolution dominated, the translation of foreign literatures was almost interrupted. From the eighties of the twentieth century, China entered the new Reform and Opening Period in which economic construction was the primary task of the nation, so the importance of political factors in literature was decreasing and every day more foreign works were known and translated for their aesthetic and literary values. The objective of our work is to study the literary phenomenon from a sociological perspective, to demonstrate how the different Spanish and Hispanic American writers and their works have been selected and presented in China in different historical periods, and to study the possible criteria that prompted the publication of some writers while others were excluded. In the meantime, as Spanish literature and Latin American literature come from two geographically distant areas -although they are written in the same language-, we examined the two together in order to investigate whether there was any link between them in terms of selection. and disclosure or, in the event that there is no relationship, we investigate the possible causes of it. The years chosen in our study are divided into three periods according to historical events: in 1949 the People's Republic of China was founded; During the decades from 1950 to 1970, the nation was devoted to the work of reorganizing and building the new state; Starting in 1978, with the implementation of the Reform and Opening Policy, China entered a new period and began to enjoy greater prosperity every day. Throughout these three different historical periods, it will be seen how the trajectory of the presence and reception of literature in the Spanish language in China corresponds to the conditions of the country.

Pädagogische Fachkräfte nutzen Social Media-Plattformen als professionelle Handlungsräume. Diese Nutzung umfasst die Grundformen pädagogischen Handelns, wie Arrangieren, Animieren und Informieren/Beraten. "Wenn ich als Pädagogikprofessor in einer Straßenbahn Eltern Ratschläge gebe, wie sie mit einem offensichtlich übermüdeten Kind umgehen sollen, dann handele ich vermutlich anmaßend, aber nicht professionell, denn die Tram ist nicht der Ort meiner Profession." (Giesecke 1997: 47) Wie sieht es aus, wenn die Orte pädagogischer Profession nun aber gezielt ausgedehnt werden, indem pädagogische Fachkräfte in Sozialen Onlinenetzwerken (SONW) pädagogisch agieren? SONW werden somit zu neuen pädagogischen Handlungsräumen. Der Beitrag zeigt anhand ausgewählter Fallbeispiele, wie SONW von pädagogischen Fachkräften der Offenen Kinder- und Jugendarbeit (OKJA) als pädagogische Handlungsräume genutzt werden. Noch nie zuvor haben so viele junge Menschen und Erwachsene das Internet täglich genutzt (mpfs 2017; Projektgruppe ARD/ZDF–Multimedia 2017). Angesichts dieser hohen Bedeutung stellt sich die Frage, inwiefern auch die Soziale Arbeit die Potenziale des Internets und besonders die Potenziale von SONW für sich nutzen kann. Eine Vorreiterrolle bezüglich der Nutzung von SONW als pädagogische Handlungsräume nehmen die pädagogischen Fachkräfte der OKJA ein (JFF 2011). Zunächst wird in diesem Beitrag anhand einiger Situationen aus der OKJA verdeutlicht, wie SONW als pädagogische Handlungsräume genutzt werden. Die verwendeten Beispiele entstammen qualitativen Interviews mit Fachkräften, die im Rahmen des Dissertationsprojekts der Autorin geführt wurden. Der anschließende Abschnitt beschäftigt sich mit der Frage nach der Wahrnehmung und Artikulation von SONW als pädagogische Handlungsräume durch die Fachkräfte. In einer Zusammenfassung werden die geschilderten Situationen hinsichtlich der Grundformen pädagogischen Handelns nach Giesecke kategorisiert. Der Artikel schließt mit einer Positionierung zu den Herausforderungen durch SONW und einem Ausblick. Exemplarische Situationen der Nutzung von SONW Im Folgenden werden ausgewählte Situationen der alltäglichen Nutzung von SONW und deren pädagogische Implikationen vorgestellt. Der erste Beispielkomplex zeigt dies am Beispiel der Postings von Jugendlichen. Dadurch, dass die Jugendarbeiterin Clara auf Facebook mit den Jugendlichen befreundet ist, erfährt sie von Beleidigungen und Streits und hat die Möglichkeit Einfluss zu nehmen: "Dann hab ich gemerkt, die fängt dann an mit der zu chatten und auf die Startseite: 'Und du bist so doof' und haste nicht gesehen [zu schreiben]. Und dann konnte ich natürlich im Vorfeld schon eingreifen. Und wenn sie dann kamen, dann hatte ich eine Information, die ich sonst nicht gehabt hätte und hab sie mir dann alle ins Büro geholt und hab das ganz offen angesprochen." Bei Streits zu intervenieren ist für die pädagogischen Fachkräfte in der OKJA alltägliche pädagogische Arbeit. In einem ersten Schritt wird die Situation beruhigt und in einem anschließenden Schritt mit den Beteiligten in einem pädagogischen Rahmen bearbeitet. Clara kann situativ entweder mittels Kommentar direkt in die Interaktion im SONW einsteigen oder zu einem späteren Zeitpunkt ein Gespräch in der Einrichtung forcieren. Sie bewertet es als sehr hilfreich, Dinge indirekt zu erfahren, da sich das o.g. Mädchen vielleicht nicht von sich aus an sie gewandt hätte. Clara erhält durch ihre Facebook-Freundschaft auch Informationen, die nicht explizit an sie adressiert wurden, somit obliegt es ihrer pädagogischen Kompetenz, sensibel mit diesen Informationen umzugehen und zu entscheiden, ob sie sie aktiv nutzt oder die Situation passiv beobachtet. Der Jugendarbeiter Felix hat ein Bild kommentiert, das zwei Mädchen gepostet hatten. Auf diesem Bild inszenieren sich die Mädchen auf Straßenbahnschienen sitzend. Felix schien es erforderlich dies zu hinterfragen: "'Okay, das ist nicht so ganz eindeutig, was wollt ihr mit diesem Foto sagen? Wollt ihr sagen, dass euch das Leben nicht mehr gefällt und ihr wartet darauf, dass die nächste Straßenbahn kommt und euch überfährt?'" Die Mädchen erfahren Selbstwirksamkeit, da der Jugendarbeiter auf das Foto reagiert. Durch das offene Thematisieren der Bildbotschaften werden sie zum Reflektieren ihres Handelns angehalten und somit Bildungsprozesse angeregt. Felix ist zudem sensibilisiert und kann zu einem späteren Zeitpunkt ggf. eine Beratungs- oder Informationssituation initiieren. Informationen, die Clara aus den Postings der Jugendlichen über diese erhält, nutzt sie, um in der Anschlusskommunikation ein Gefühl emotionaler Verbundenheit hervorzurufen: "Und wenn du dann zum Beispiel bei Facebook schon gesagt hast: 'Finde ich toll, du hast ein neues Kleid'. Dann kommen sie an: 'Mensch Clara, wirklich? Ist das ein schönes Kleid? Sag mal ehrlich.'" Die Jugendarbeiterin reagiert hier wertschätzend auf Dinge, die für die Jugendlichen aktuell von Belang sind und zwar im Einzelfall, aber ebenso auch bereits durch die Tatsache, dass sie sich auf die Kommunikationsweise der Jugendlichen einlässt. Sie erzeugt dadurch ein positives Klima und ruft ein Gefühl emotionaler Verbundenheit hervor. Clara selbst beschreibt dies als Intensivierung der Kontakte. Oder anders gesagt: Sie nutzt die SONW unterstützend, um die Beziehung zu den Jugendlichen kontinuierlich weiterzuentwickeln. Diese Grundlagen für den Aufbau einer vertrauensvollen Arbeitsbeziehung werden von der Jugendarbeiterin arrangiert. Im zweiten Beispielkomplex werden die pädagogischen Implikationen und Intentionen anhand der Postings der pädagogischen Fachkräfte vorgestellt. Felix verfolgt sowohl pädagogische als auch administrative Absichten, wenn er Aktionen der Einrichtung mittels Bildpostings in SONW dokumentiert. Die Postings haben zum einen den Zweck ein Zugehörigkeitsgefühl zur Einrichtung zu fördern, indem gemeinsame Erlebnisse positiv erinnert werden und die Jugendlichen animiert werden, diese Emotionen zu reflektieren und zu verbalisieren. "Also wenn ein schönes Foto natürlich da ist und dann die Reaktion drauf kommen würde: 'Ja, ich war dabei. Das war total geil.' Dann wäre damit schon sehr viel erreicht." Außerdem möchte Felix einen Dialog über diese spezifische Aktion unter den Jugendlichen anregen. Er eröffnet mit der Kommentarfunktion eine niedrigschwellige Möglichkeit und motiviert die Jugendlichen damit, sich zu artikulieren. En passant erhält er durch die Kommentare Feedback und kann weitere entsprechende Angebote arrangieren. Zugleich hat sowohl die Dokumentation als auch der Anschlussdialog der Jugendlichen Signalcharakter nach außen: Außenstehende erhalten einen Eindruck von Angeboten und Zielgruppe sowie einen Eindruck davon, wie die pädagogischen Fachkräfte arbeiten; Lebendigkeit und Offenheit wird signalisiert. Sowohl Clara als auch Felix nutzen die SONW, um alltägliche pädagogische Angebote oder besondere Erlebnisse zu arrangieren und initiieren. Einen Vorteil sehen sie vor allem darin, dass sie mittels Postings in kurzer Zeit eine große Zielgruppe, nämlich alle mit der Einrichtung verbundenen Jugendlichen, erreichen können. Deutlich wird dies in Felix' Einrichtung, in der täglich das aktuelle pädagogische Angebot gepostet wird. Dadurch erreicht er auch eine Zielgruppe, die sonst nicht die Einrichtung besucht, sondern lediglich punktuell zu Außenveranstaltungen kommt. "Wie zum Beispiel jetzt im Sommer, wenn wir irgendwo Baden fahren dann wird das gepostet." Das Werben für den Badeausflug mittels Postings in SONW ermöglicht den o.g. Jugendlichen einen Zugang zur Einrichtung bzw. zu dem pädagogischen Personal und die Teilnahme an den pädagogischen Aktionen. Felix kann dies wiederum nutzen, um mit den Jugendlichen in Kontakt zu treten und Vertrauen aufzubauen. Außerdem kann eine andere Umgebung einen guten Rahmen bieten, um Barrieren zwischen den unterschiedlichen Besucher_innengruppen abzubauen und neue gruppendynamische Prozesse anzustoßen. Clara hatte beispielsweise Karten für die Castings von X Factor und Supertalent und postete: "Ich hab Karten. Wer will […] mitkommen?" bzw. "Ich hab keine Karten mehr." Sie ermöglicht den Jugendlichen damit, etwas Besonderes, nicht Alltägliches, zu erleben und schafft Möglichkeiten für Bildungsprozesse. Das Arrangieren der Teilnahme an besonderen Erlebnissen und pädagogischen Angeboten impliziert dementsprechend auch pädagogisches Handeln und ist über ein massenmediales Werben hinausgehend. Das pädagogische Handeln in SONW und SONW als pädagogische Handlungsräume Die vorherigen Explikationen haben den pädagogischen Gehalt im Umgang mit beiderseitigen Postings aufgezeigt. In einigen Beispielen wurde direkt im SONW interveniert, womit deutlich wurde, wie dieses als zusätzlicher, pädagogischer Handlungsraum der OKJA genutzt wird. Weiterführend stellt sich nun aber die Frage, inwiefern die beiden pädagogischen Fachkräfte die SONW als pädagogische Handlungsräume wahrnehmen und in dieser Deutlichkeit als solche bezeichnen. Nach ihrem Begriffsverständnis befragt, definiert Clara pädagogisches Handeln als "alles Handeln, was du in Bezug auf Jugendliche erzieherisch ausübst". Als Beispiel benennt sie das Eingehen auf Konflikte auf Basis von pädagogischen und entwicklungspsychologischen Fachkenntnissen, also "zu wissen, was damit gemeint sein kann und das dann eben ansprechen". Dabei verwendet sie einen aufrüttelnd-provokanten Sprachstil, sog. Modulationen (vgl. Cloos et al. 2009), um den Jugendlichen ihr Verhalten und dessen Konsequenzen bewusst zu machen. Für Clara findet sich diese Art pädagogischen Handelns fraglos auch in den SONW wieder. Sie verdeutlicht dies am weiteren Beispiel eines männlichen Jugendlichen, der sich in Bodybuilder-Pose fotografiert hat: "Und ich sage, 'Meine Güte, jetzt machste aber einen auf Muskelprotz!' und mach das mit so'nem Smiley hinten dran, so dass der eigentlich weiß, was ich damit meine." Auch hier verwendet sie Modulationen, um den Jugendlichen zur Reflexion seines Verhaltens anzuregen und ihm die Wirkungen des geposteten Bildes vor Augen zu führen. Zusätzlich hätte Clara die Möglichkeit die Interaktion auf Facebook für spätere Anschlusskommunikation innerhalb der Einrichtung zu verwenden. Auffällig an Claras Verständnis von pädagogischem Handeln ist vor allem, dass sie den Fokus im Schwerpunkt auf konflikthafte oder problematische Situationen richtet. Pädagogisches Handeln umfasst für sie somit korrigierendes Handeln. Darin unterscheidet sich ihre Definition von der Gieseckes. Dieser definiert pädagogisches Handeln als positive Beeinflussung des Menschen hin zu einer mündigen Persönlichkeit, indem man Gelegenheiten zu Bildungsprozessen bietet (vgl. 1997: 22ff.). Felix definiert pädagogisches Handeln als das Arrangieren von Workshops, das Animieren oder das Vermitteln von Toleranz in der Gruppe. Damit bezieht er sich allerdings lediglich auf die Face-to-Face-Arbeit innerhalb der Einrichtung, denn Felix bezweifelt, dass pädagogisches Handeln auf SONW übertragen werden kann: "Und bezogen auf Netzwerke lässt sich wirklich die Frage stellen, ist das eine Form von pädagogischem Handeln wenn ich das veröffentliche, die Angebote? Weil das ist ja wirklich eigentlich nur Öffentlichkeitsarbeit, Informationsarbeit". Obwohl er also durchaus in SONW pädagogisch agiert, reflektiert und artikuliert er dies nicht dementsprechend. Für ihn sind SONW weniger zusätzliche pädagogische Handlungsräume als vielmehr Werkzeuge, die administrative Aufgaben erleichtern. Auch Giesecke grenzt den Informationsoutput von Massenmedien von pädagogischem Handeln ab und hält fest, dieses finde immer von Angesicht zu Angesicht statt. Lediglich in den ggf. daran anschließend hergestellten, interaktiven Situationen könne pädagogisch gehandelt werden (1997: 47f.). Wie die Explikationen aber deutlich gemacht haben, ist dies auf Grund der Interaktivität von SONW heute keine grundlegende Bedingung für pädagogisches Handeln mehr. Felix nutz zwar in der Handlungspraxis diese Interaktivität, in der Reflexion und Artikulation spielt die Interaktivität jedoch keine Rolle. Anhand der beiden Fallbeispiele wird deutlich, dass die Reflexion pädagogischer Implikationen in der Nutzung von SONW nicht unbedingt die Praxis abbildet. Laut Giesecke ist der Gegenpol zum Handeln stets die Reflexion (1997: 45). Sein Konzept der Grundformen pädagogischen Handelns sieht er als Instrument, das Handeln zu reflektieren (1997: 17). Diese Grundformen (1997: 76ff.)1 dienen nun als Struktur, um das pädagogische Handeln der Explikationen reflektierend zu verdeutlichen. Arrangieren (1): Indem die pädagogischen Fachkräfte die vielfältigen Kommunikationskanäle von SONW nutzen, arrangieren sie die Voraussetzungen für vertrauensvolle Arbeitsbeziehungen oder arrangieren Situationen, die Bildungsprozesse ermöglichen. Animieren: Die pädagogischen Fachkräfte animieren die Jugendlichen zur Teilnahme an pädagogischen Arrangements wie Ausflügen und weiteren pädagogischen Situationen. Ebenso animieren sie die Jugendlichen sich in SONW zu artikulieren. Informieren/Beraten: Das Informieren und Beraten kann sich einerseits in den SONW abspielen, andererseits aber auch lediglich inhaltlich auf die SONW bezogen sein und offline/face-to-face stattfinden. Beide pädagogische Fachkräfte merken an, dass aus ihrer Sicht ein Face-to-Face-Gespräch aufgrund der Kanalreduktion nicht durch Nachrichten über SONW zu ersetzen und es daher wichtig sei, stets "zweigleisig" (Clara) zu arbeiten. Im Folgenden werden Herausforderungen und Reflexionsbedarfe, die sich aus den obigen Beispielen ergeben, erörtert. Herausforderungen und Ausblick SONW sind keine Jugendräume. Firmen sind dort ebenso präsent wie Erwachsene, die dort beruflich und privat netzwerken. Dementsprechend ist die Frage, ob sich pädagogische Fachkräfte in SONW aufhalten sollten, hinfällig (vgl. Stix 2014). Wichtiger ist es, einen Umgang miteinander zu entwickeln, der weder den pädagogischen Fachkräften noch den Jugendlichen zum Nachteil wird. Um die Jugendlichen zu erreichen, nutzen die pädagogischen Fachkräfte die bei jungen Menschen angesagten SONW-Angebote. Diese sind in der Regel kommerziell und wenig transparent oder reguliert, was den Umgang mit Nutzer_innendaten betrifft. Dies erfordert aus pädagogischer Sicht das Prüfen und Abwägen von Vor- und Nachteilen. Dementsprechend kann es nicht nur aufgrund der Kanalreduktion wichtig sein, ein Gespräch über ein sensibles Thema face-to-face zu führen und dies den Jugendlichen zu vermitteln. Ein reflektierter und sensibler Umgang mit Daten gilt auch für die Dokumentation von Aktionen, wie Felix ihn schildert. Beim Posten von Bildern muss er das Persönlichkeitsrecht der Jugendlichen beachten und prüfen, ob und ggf. welche Informationen möglicherweise unbeabsichtigt preisgegeben werden. Des Weiteren stellt sich die ethische Frage, inwiefern sich pädagogische Fachkräfte Informationen aktiv aus SONW besorgen und nutzen dürfen (vgl. Kutscher 2015). Eine weitere Herausforderung ergibt sich aus der Frage, ob nicht Jugendliche, die keinen Zugang zu SONW haben, ausgegrenzt oder benachteiligt werden. Dies zu reflektieren ist eine Aufgabe pädagogischer Professionalität. Die Nutzung von SONW birgt pädagogische Chancen. Zugleich ergeben sich daraus auch neue Verantwortungsdimensionen für das professionelle Handeln pädagogischer Fachkräfte. Das Handeln in SONW muss hinsichtlich möglicher negativer Konsequenzen für die Jugendlichen reflektiert werden. Die Entwicklung einer eigenen (medien-) pädagogischen Haltung sowie eine Rahmung durch Träger und kollegialer Austausch können dabei helfen. Pädagogisch professionell zu sein bedeutet auch, die Trends der jungen Menschen zu kennen und pädagogisch darauf zu reagieren. Im Falle von Social Media bewegt sich die Masse seit 2015 zu Angeboten wie WhatsApp und Instagram (mpfs 2016: 32f.). Es bleibt spannend, ob sich auch WhatsApp mit seinen anderen Strukturen mittelfristig als pädagogischer Handlungsraum etablieren und wie das pädagogische Handeln dort konkret aussehen wird – und welche Konflikte dies zu fachlichen Logiken und Standards mit sich bringt (vgl. Deutscher Bundestag 2013, S. 394), die zu reflektieren und in die Gestaltung pädagogischen Handelns einzubeziehen sind. (1) Ausgenommen das Unterrichten, von Giesecke verstanden als das Erklären von relativ komplexen Sachzusammenhängen in einem längeren Argumentationsprozess (1997: 79). ; Pedagogical professionals use social media platforms as professional spaces for action. This use includes the basic forms of pedagogical action, such as arranging, animating and informing/advising. "If I, as a professor of education, give advice to parents in a tram on how to deal with an obviously overtired child, then I am probably acting presumptuously, but not professionally, because the tram is not the place of my profession." (Giesecke 1997: 47) But how does it look when the places of pedagogical profession are now deliberately extended by pedagogical professionals acting pedagogically in online social networks (SONW)? SONW thus become new spaces for pedagogical action. The article uses selected case studies to show how SONW are used as pedagogical spaces of action by pedagogical professionals in open child and youth work (OKJA). Never before have so many young people and adults used the internet on a daily basis (mpfs 2017; Projektgruppe ARD/ZDF-Multimedia 2017). In view of this high importance, the question arises to what extent social work can also use the potentials of the internet and especially the potentials of SONW for itself. A pioneering role with regard to the use of SONW as pedagogical spaces for action is played by the pedagogical professionals of OKJA (JFF 2011). First of all, this article will illustrate how SONW are used as pedagogical spaces of action by means of some situations from OKJA. The examples used are taken from qualitative interviews with professionals conducted as part of the author's dissertation project. The following section deals with the question of how professionals perceive and articulate SONW as pedagogical spaces for action. In a summary, the situations described are categorised with regard to the basic forms of pedagogical action according to Giesecke. The article concludes with a position on the challenges posed by SONW and an outlook. Exemplary situations of SONW useIn the following, selected situations of everyday SONW use and their pedagogical implications are presented. The first set of examples shows this with the example of postings by young people. Because the youth worker Clara is friends with the young people on Facebook, she learns about insults and arguments and has the opportunity to influence them: "Then I noticed that she starts chatting with them and writes on the homepage: 'And you are so stupid' and hasn't seen it [to write]. And then of course I could intervene in advance. And then when they came, then I had information that I wouldn't have had otherwise and then I got them all into the office and addressed it quite openly." Intervening in disputes is everyday pedagogical work for the educational professionals in OKJA. In a first step, the situation is calmed down and then dealt with in a pedagogical framework with the parties involved. Clara can either directly enter into the interaction in the SONW by means of comments or force a conversation in the facility at a later time. She finds it very helpful to learn things indirectly, as the girl mentioned above might not have approached her on her own. Through her Facebook friendship, Clara also receives information that was not explicitly addressed to her, so it is up to her pedagogical competence to deal sensitively with this information and to decide whether she uses it actively or observes the situation passively. The youth worker Felix commented on a picture that two girls had posted. In this picture, the girls are staging themselves sitting on tram tracks. Felix seemed to need to question this: ''Okay, that's not so clear, what are you trying to say with this photo? Are you saying you don't like life anymore and you're waiting for the next tram to come and run you over?'" The girls experience self-efficacy as the youth worker responds to the photo. By openly thematising the picture messages, they are encouraged to reflect on their actions and thus educational processes are stimulated. Felix is also sensitised and can initiate a counselling or information situation at a later stage if necessary. Clara uses information that she receives about the young people from their postings to evoke a feeling of emotional connection in the follow-up communication: "And if, for example, you have already said on Facebook: 'I think it's great, you have a new dress'. Then they arrive: 'Gee Clara, really? Is that a nice dress? Tell me honestly.'" Here, the youth worker responds appreciatively to things that are of current concern to the young people, in individual cases, but also by the very fact that she engages with the young people's way of communicating. She thus creates a positive climate and evokes a feeling of emotional connection. Clara herself describes this as an intensification of contacts. Or in other words, she uses the SONW in a supportive way to continuously develop the relationship with the young people. These foundations for building a trusting working relationship are arranged by the youth worker. In the second set of examples, the pedagogical implications and intentions are presented based on the postings of the pedagogical professionals. Felix pursues both pedagogical and administrative intentions when he documents actions of the institution by means of picture postings in SONW. On the one hand, the postings have the purpose of promoting a sense of belonging to the institution by positively remembering shared experiences and encouraging the young people to reflect on and verbalise these emotions. "So if a nice photo is there, of course, and then the reaction to it would be: 'Yes, I was there. That was totally cool. Then that would already achieve a lot." Felix also wants to stimulate a dialogue about this specific action among the young people. With the comment function, he opens up a low-threshold possibility and thus motivates the young people to articulate themselves. En passant, he receives feedback through the comments and can arrange further corresponding offers. At the same time, both the documentation and the follow-up dialogue of the young people have a signal character to the outside: outsiders get an impression of the offers and the target group as well as an impression of how the educational professionals work; liveliness and openness are signalled. Both Clara and Felix use the SONW to arrange and initiate everyday educational offers or special experiences. They see an advantage above all in the fact that they can reach a large target group, namely all the young people associated with the institution, in a short time by means of postings. This becomes clear in Felix's facility, where the current educational offer is posted daily. In this way, he also reaches a target group that otherwise does not visit the facility, but only comes to outside events selectively. "Like now, for example, in the summer, when we go swimming somewhere then it is posted." Advertising the swimming trip by means of postings in SONW enables the above-mentioned young people to gain access to the facility or to the educational staff and to participate in the educational activities. Felix can in turn use this to get in touch with the young people and build trust. In addition, a different environment can provide a good framework to break down barriers between the different groups of visitors and to initiate new group dynamic processes. For example, Clara had tickets for the X Factor and Supertalent auditions and posted: "I got tickets. Who wants to come [.]?" or "I don't have tickets anymore." It thus enables young people to experience something special, not ordinary, and creates opportunities for educational processes. Arranging participation in special experiences and educational offers accordingly implies pedagogical action and goes beyond mass media advertising. The pedagogical action in SONW and SONW as pedagogical action spacesThe previous explications have shown the pedagogical content in dealing with mutual postings. In some examples, interventions were made directly in the SONW, making it clear how this is used as an additional, pedagogical space for action by the OKJA. However, the question now arises as to what extent the two pedagogical professionals perceive the SONW as a pedagogical space for action and describe it as such. When asked about her understanding of the term, Clara defines pedagogical action as "all actions that you carry out educationally in relation to young people". As an example, she mentions addressing conflicts on the basis of pedagogical and developmental psychological expertise, i.e. "knowing what can be meant by this and then addressing it". In doing so, she uses an evocative-provocative style of language, so-called modulations (cf. Cloos et al. 2009), to make the young people aware of their behaviour and its consequences. For Clara, this kind of pedagogical action is unquestionably also found in the SONW. She illustrates this with another example of a male adolescent who has photographed himself in a bodybuilder's pose: "And I say, 'My goodness, now you're being a muscleman!' and do it with a smiley face on the back, so that he actually knows what I mean." Again, she uses modulations to encourage the young person to reflect on their behaviour and to make them aware of the effects of the posted image. In addition, Clara would have the opportunity to use the interaction on Facebook for later follow-up communication within the institution. What is striking about Clara's understanding of pedagogical action is that she focuses on conflictual or problematic situations. For her, pedagogical action thus includes corrective action. In this, her definition differs from that of Giesecke. The latter defines pedagogical action as positively influencing people towards a mature personality by providing opportunities for educational processes (cf. 1997: 22ff.). Felix defines pedagogical action as arranging workshops, animating or teaching tolerance in the group. However, he only refers to face-to-face work within the institution, because Felix doubts that pedagogical action can be transferred to SONW: "And in relation to networks, the question can really be asked, is this a form of pedagogical action when I publish the offers? Because that is really only public relations work, information work. Although he does act pedagogically in SONW, he does not reflect and articulate this accordingly. For him, SONW are less additional pedagogical spaces for action than tools that facilitate administrative tasks. Giesecke also distinguishes the information output of mass media from pedagogical action and states that this always takes place face to face. Pedagogical action can only take place in the interactive situations that may subsequently be created (1997: 47f.). However, as the explications have made clear, this is no longer a fundamental condition for pedagogical action due to the interactivity of SONW today. Felix does use this interactivity in the practice of action, but interactivity does not play a role in reflection and articulation. Based on the two case studies, it becomes clear that the reflection of pedagogical implications in the use of SONW does not necessarily reflect practice. According to Giesecke, the antithesis of action is always reflection (1997: 45). He sees his concept of basic forms of pedagogical action as an instrument to reflect action (1997: 17). These basic forms (1997: 76ff.)1 now serve as a structure to reflectively clarify the pedagogical action of the explications. Arranging (1): By using SONW's multiple channels of communication, the pedagogical professionals arrange the conditions for trusting working relationships or arrange situations that make educational processes possible. Animate: The educational professionals encourage the young people to participate in educational arrangements such as excursions and other educational situations. They also encourage the young people to articulate themselves in SONW. Informing/advising: On the one hand, information and counselling can take place in the SONW, but on the other hand, it can also be related to the content of the SONW and take place offline/face-to-face. Both pedagogical professionals note that from their point of view, a face-to-face conversation cannot be replaced by messages via SONW due to the reduction of channels and that it is therefore important to always work "on two tracks" (Clara). Challenges and needs for reflection arising from the above examples are discussed below. Challenges and outlookSONW are not youth spaces. Companies are present there as well as adults who network there professionally and privately. Accordingly, the question of whether educational professionals should be in SONW is moot (cf. Stix 2014). It is more important to develop a way of dealing with each other that is not detrimental to either the pedagogical professionals or the young people. In order to reach the young people, the educational professionals use the SONW offers that are popular among young people. These are usually commercial and not very transparent or regulated when it comes to handling user data. From a pedagogical point of view, this requires checking and weighing the advantages and disadvantages. Accordingly, it can be important to have a conversation about a sensitive topic face-to-face and to communicate this to the young people, not only because of the channel reduction. A reflective and sensitive handling of data also applies to the documentation of actions, as Felix describes. When posting pictures, he has to consider the young people's right to privacy and check whether and which information might be revealed unintentionally. Furthermore, the ethical question arises to what extent educational professionals may actively obtain and use information from SONW (cf. Kutscher 2015). Another challenge arises from the question of whether young people who do not have access to SONW are excluded or disadvantaged. Reflecting on this is a task of pedagogical professionalism. The use of SONW offers pedagogical opportunities. At the same time, it also gives rise to new dimensions of responsibility for the professional action of educational specialists. The actions in SONW must be reflected on with regard to possible negative consequences for the young people. The development of one's own (media) pedagogical attitude as well as framing by the responsible body and collegial exchange can help here. Being pedagogically professional also means being aware of young people's trends and reacting to them pedagogically. In the case of social media, the masses have been moving towards offers such as WhatsApp and Instagram since 2015 (mpfs 2016: 32f.). It remains exciting to see whether WhatsApp with its other structures will also establish itself as a pedagogical space of action in the medium term and what pedagogical action there will look like in concrete terms - and what conflicts this will entail with professional logics and standards (cf. Deutscher Bundestag 2013, p. 394), which need to be reflected and included in the design of pedagogical action. (1) Except for teaching, understood by Giesecke as explaining relatively complex factual contexts in a longer process of argumentation (1997: 79).

Ali E. Abbas (" From the Editors: Probability Scoring Rules, Ambiguity, Multiattribute Terrorist Utility, and Sensitivity Analysis ") is an associate professor in the Department of Industrial and Enterprise Systems Engineering at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign. He received an M.S. in electrical engineering (1998), an M.S. in engineering economic systems and operations research (2001), a Ph.D. in management science and engineering (2003), and a Ph.D. (minor) in electrical engineering, all from Stanford University. He worked as a lecturer in the Department of Management Science and Engineering at Stanford and in Schlumberger Oilfield Services, where he held several international positions in wireline logging, operations management, and international training. He has also worked on several consulting projects for mergers and acquisitions in California, and cotaught several executive seminars on decision analysis at Strategic Decisions Group in Menlo Park, California. His research interests include utility theory, decision making with incomplete information and preferences, dynamic programming, and information theory. Dr. Abbas is a senior member of the IEEE and a member of the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences (INFORMS). He is also an associate editor for the Decision Analysis and Operations Research journals of INFORMS. Address: Department of Industrial and Enterprise Systems Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, 117 Transportation Building, MC-238, 104 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801; e-mail: aliabbas@illinois.edu . J. Eric Bickel (" From the Editors: Probability Scoring Rules, Ambiguity, Multiattribute Terrorist Utility, and Sensitivity Analysis ") is an assistant professor in both the Graduate Program in Operations Research (Department of Mechanical Engineering) and the Department of Petroleum and Geosystems Engineering at the University of Texas at Austin. In addition, Professor Bickel is a fellow in both the Center for International Energy and Environmental Policy and the Center for Petroleum Asset Risk Management. He holds an M.S. and Ph.D. from the Department of Engineering–Economic Systems at Stanford University and a B.S. in mechanical engineering with a minor in economics from New Mexico State University. His research interests include the theory and practice of decision analysis and its application in the energy and climate-change arenas. His research has addressed the modeling of probabilistic dependence, value of information, scoring rules, calibration, risk preference, education, decision making in sports, and climate engineering as a response to climate change. Prior to returning to academia, Eric was a senior engagement manager for Strategic Decisions Group. He has consulted around the world in a range of industries, including oil and gas, electricity generation/transmission/delivery, energy trading and marketing, commodity and specialty chemicals, life sciences, financial services, and metals and mining. Address: Graduate Program in Operations Research, University of Texas at Austin, 1 University Station, C2200, Austin, TX 78712-0292; e-mail: ebickel@mail.utexas.edu . Vicki M. Bier (" From the Editors: Probability Scoring Rules, Ambiguity, Multiattribute Terrorist Utility, and Sensitivity Analysis" and "Target-Hardening Decisions Based on Uncertain Multiattribute Terrorist Utility ") is a full professor in the Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, where she is currently department chair and also directs the Center for Human Performance and Risk Analysis. She is also the president of the Decision Analysis Society. Her research interests include applications of operations research, risk analysis, and decision analysis to problems of homeland security and critical infrastructure protection. Address: Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Mechanical Engineering Building, Room 3270A, 1513 University Avenue, Madison, WI 53706; e-mail: bier@engr.wisc.edu . David V. Budescu (" From the Editors: Probability Scoring Rules, Ambiguity, Multiattribute Terrorist Utility, and Sensitivity Analysis ") is the Anne Anastasi Professor of Psychometrics and Quantitative Psychology at Fordham University. He held positions at the University of Illinois and the University of Haifa, and visiting positions at Carnegie Mellon University, University of Gotheborg, the Kellogg School of Management at Northwestern University, the Hebrew University, and the Israel Institute of Technology (Technion). His research is in the areas of human judgment, individual and group decision making under uncertainty and with incomplete and vague information, and statistics for the behavioral and social sciences. He is on the editorial boards of Applied Psychological Measurement; Decision Analysis; Journal of Behavioral Decision Making; Journal of Mathematical Psychology; Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory & Cognition (2000–2003); Multivariate Behavioral Research; Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes (1992–2002); and Psychological Methods (1996–2000). He is past president of the Society for Judgment and Decision Making (2000–2001), fellow of the Association for Psychological Science, and an elected member of the Society of Multivariate Experimental Psychologists. Address: Department of Psychology, Fordham University, Bronx, New York, NY 10458; e-mail: budescu@fordham.edu . John C. Butler (" From the Editors: Probability Scoring Rules, Ambiguity, Multiattribute Terrorist Utility, and Sensitivity Analysis ") is a clinical associate professor of finance and the academic director of the Energy Management and Innovation Center in the McCombs School of Business at the University of Texas at Austin, and he is the secretary/treasurer of the INFORMS Decision Analysis Society. Butler received his Ph.D. in management science and information systems from the University of Texas at Austin in 1998. His research interests involve the use of decision science models to support decision making, with a particular emphasis on decision and risk analysis models with multiple performance criteria. Butler has consulted with a number of organizations regarding the application of decision analysis tools to a variety of practical problems. Most of his consulting projects involve use of Visual Basic for Applications and Excel to implement complex decision science models in a user friendly format. Address: Energy Management and Innovation Center, McCombs School of Business, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712-1178; e-mail: john.butler2@mccombs.utexas.edu . Stephen P. Chambal (" A Practical Procedure for Customizable One-Way Sensitivity Analysis in Additive Value Models ") earned a Ph.D. from Arizona State University in industrial engineering and is vice president for the Perduco Group responsible for strategic business development for federal services. The Perduco Group provides high-end operations research and business intelligence support to the Department of Defense. Dr. Chambal recently retired from the U.S. Air Force after more than 24 years of honorable service. Most recently, he served as the director of Operational Analysis for the Air Force Institute of Technology. Dr. Chambal enlisted in the Air Force in 1986 and obtained his commission from the Air Force Academy in 1993. He held various assignments within the scientific analysis career field, including test, space, and special programs and has authored or coauthored numerous articles, white papers, and conference presentations. Address: 256 Earlsgate Road, Dayton, OH 45440; e-mail: stephen.chambal@theperducogroup.com . Philippe Delquié (" From the Editors: Probability Scoring Rules, Ambiguity, Multiattribute Terrorist Utility, and Sensitivity Analysis ") is an associate professor of decision sciences at the George Washington University and holds a Ph.D. from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Professor Delquié's teaching and research are in decision, risk, and multicriteria analysis. His work addresses behavioral and normative issues in preference assessment, value of information, nonexpected utility models of choice under risk, and risk measures. Prior to joining the George Washington University, Delquié held academic appointments at INSEAD, École Normale Supérieure, France, and the University of Texas at Austin, and visiting appointments at Duke University's Fuqua School of Business. Address: Department of Decision Sciences, The George Washington University, Funger Hall, Suite 415, Washington, DC 20052; e-mail: delquie@gwu.edu . Alex J. Gutman (" A Practical Procedure for Customizable One-Way Sensitivity Analysis in Additive Value Models ") is a research associate for the Air Force Institute of Technology's (AFIT) Center for Operational Analysis. He holds an M.S. and B.S. in mathematics from Wright State University and is currently a Ph.D. student at AFIT. His research interests include decision analysis, algorithm design, and design of experiments. He is a member of the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences (INFORMS), the Military Operations Research Society (MORS), and the International Test and Evaluation Association (ITEA). Address: Department of Operational Sciences, Air Force Institute of Technology, Dayton, OH 45433; e-mail: agutman@afit.edu . David J. Johnstone (" Tailored Scoring Rules for Probabilities ") is the National Australia Bank Professor of Finance at the University of Sydney. He holds a Ph.D. from the University of Sydney. His research is primarily in the statistical foundations of financial markets and financial decisions. His professional activities involve more conventional subjects in finance, particularly business valuation and capital budgeting. Address: Discipline of Finance H69, University of Sydney Business School, Sydney NSW 2006, Australia; e-mail: david.johnstone@sydney.edu.au . Victor Richmond R. Jose (" Tailored Scoring Rules for Probabilities ") is an assistant professor of Operations and Information Management in the McDonough School of Business at Georgetown University. His main research interests lie in decision analysis and the use of Bayesian statistical methods in management science, operations research, and risk analysis. Address: Operations and Information Management Department, McDonough School of Business, Georgetown University, Washington, DC 20057; e-mail: vrj2@georgetown.edu . Yucel R. Kahraman (" A Practical Procedure for Customizable One-Way Sensitivity Analysis in Additive Value Models ") is a recent graduate of the Air Force Institute of Technology, where he received his M.Sc. in operations research. He graduated from ISIKLAR Military High School in Bursa in 1985 and entered the Turkish Air Force Academy in Istanbul. He graduated in 1993 with a bachelor's degree in aeronautical engineering. He completed pilot training at Laughlin AFB in Del Rio, Texas, and has flown fighter aircraft for the Turkish Air Force for 10 years. Address: Department of Operational Sciences, Air Force Institute of Technology, 2950 Hobson Way, WPAFB, Ohio 45433-7765; e-mail: yucelrkahraman@gmail.com . L. Robin Keller (" From the Editors: Probability Scoring Rules, Ambiguity, Multiattribute Terrorist Utility, and Sensitivity Analysis ") is a professor of operations and decision technologies in the Merage School of Business at the University of California, Irvine. She received her Ph.D. and M.B.A. in management science and her B.A. in mathematics from the University of California, Los Angeles. She has served as a program director for the Decision, Risk, and Management Science Program of the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF). Her research is on decision analysis and risk analysis for business and policy decisions and has been funded by NSF and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Her research interests cover multiple attribute decision making, riskiness, fairness, probability judgments, ambiguity of probabilities or outcomes, risk analysis (for terrorism, environmental, health, and safety risks), time preferences, problem structuring, cross-cultural decisions, and medical decision making. She is currently Editor-in-Chief of Decision Analysis, published by the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences (INFORMS). She is a Fellow of INFORMS and has held numerous roles in INFORMS, including board member and chair of the INFORMS Decision Analysis Society. She is a recipient of the George F. Kimball Medal from INFORMS. She has served as the decision analyst on three National Academy of Sciences committees. Address: Merage School of Business, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697-3125; e-mail: lrkeller@uci.edu . Kenneth C. Lichtendahl Jr. (" From the Editors: Probability Scoring Rules, Ambiguity, Multiattribute Terrorist Utility, and Sensitivity Analysis ") is an assistant professor who teaches quantitative analysis courses in Darden's MBA program at the University of Virginia. His research focuses on eliciting, evaluating, and combining expert probability forecasts for use in dynamic decision situations. His current research projects include the performance of inference in Bayesian models of dynamic expert forecasts and the formulation optimal strategies in forecasting competitions. Lichtendahl joined the Darden faculty in 2006. Previously, he served as a visiting instructor in the economics department at Duke University. Currently, he also serves as a business consultant and director for the Tradewinds Beverage Company, which he cofounded in 1992. Address: Darden School of Business, University of Virginia, 100 Darden Boulevard, Charlottesville, VA 22903; e-mail: lichtendahlc@darden.virginia.edu . Jason R. W. Merrick (" From the Editors: Probability Scoring Rules, Ambiguity, Multiattribute Terrorist Utility, and Sensitivity Analysis ") is a professor in the Department of Statistical Sciences and Operations Research at Virginia Commonwealth University. He has a D.Sc. in operations research from George Washington University. He teaches courses in decision analysis, risk analysis, and simulation. His research is primarily in the area of decision analysis and Bayesian statistics. He has worked on projects ranging from assessing maritime oil transportation and ferry system safety, the environmental health of watersheds, and optimal replacement policies for rail tracks and machine tools. He has received grants from the National Science Foundation, the Federal Aviation Administration, the U.S. Coast Guard, the American Bureau of Shipping, British Petroleum, and Booz-Allen-Hamilton, among others. He has also performed training for Infineon Technologies, Wyeth Pharmaceuticals, and Capital One Services. He is an associate editor for Decision Analysis and Operations Research. He is the information officer for the Decision Analysis Society. Address: Department of Statistical Sciences and Operations Research, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23284; e-mail: jrmerric@vcu.edu . Ahti Salo (" From the Editors: Probability Scoring Rules, Ambiguity, Multiattribute Terrorist Utility, and Sensitivity Analysis ") is a professor of systems analysis in the Department of Mathematics and Systems Analysis at Aalto University. His research interests include topics in portfolio decision analysis, multicriteria decision making, risk management, efficiency analysis, and technology foresight. He is currently president of the Finnish Operations Research Society (FORS) and represents Europe and the Middle East in the INFORMS International Activities Committee. Recently, he has been appointed Editor-in-Chief of the EURO Journal on Decision Processes, launched by the Association of European Operational Research Societies (EURO). Professor Salo has been responsible for the methodological design and implementation of numerous high-impact decision and policy processes, including FinnSight 2015, the national foresight exercise of the Academy of Finland and the National Funding Agency for Technology and Innovations (Tekes). Address: Systems Analysis Laboratory, Aalto University, P.O. Box 11100, 00076 Aalto, Finland; e-mail: ahti.salo@aalto.fi . Chen Wang (" Target-Hardening Decisions Based on Uncertain Multiattribute Terrorist Utility ") is currently a Ph.D. student in the Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. She holds a master's degree in industrial engineering also from the same department. Chen works as a research assistant in the Center for Human Performance and Risk Analysis, under the supervision of Professor Vicki M. Bier. Her research interests include application of operations research and decision analysis in security problems and critical infrastructure protection. Address: 3239 Mechanical Engineering, University of Wisconsin–Madison, 1513 University Avenue, Madison, WI 53706; e-mail: cwang37@wisc.edu . Jeffery D. Weir (" A Practical Procedure for Customizable One-Way Sensitivity Analysis in Additive Value Models ") is an associate professor in the Department of Operational Sciences at the Air Force Institute of Technology. He has a Ph.D. in industrial and systems engineering from Georgia Tech. He teaches courses in decision analysis, risk analysis, and multiobjective optimization. His research interests are in the areas of decision analysis and transportation modeling. A former officer in the U.S. Air Force, he has worked on a wide variety of projects ranging from scheduling and routing aircraft, determining the value of future intelligence information, assessing the impact of FAA regulation changes to passenger and aircrew safety, and mode selection for multimodal multicommodity distribution networks. He has received grants from the Defense Intelligence Agency, U.S. Transportation Command, Air Force Material Command, the Joint Improvised Explosive Device Defeat Organization, Air Force Research Laboratory, and Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, among others. Address: Department of Operational Sciences, Air Force Institute of Technology, Dayton, OH 45433; e-mail: jweir@afit.edu . Robert L. Winkler (" Tailored Scoring Rules for Probabilities ") is James B. Duke Professor in the Fuqua School of Business at Duke University and also holds an appointment in the Department of Statistical Science at Duke. His primary research areas include decision analysis, Bayesian statistics, probability forecasting, competitive decision making, and risk analysis. Address: Fuqua School of Business, Duke University, 100 Fuqua Drive, Box 90120, Durham, NC 27708-0120; e-mail: rwinkler@duke.edu . George Wu (" From the Editors: Probability Scoring Rules, Ambiguity, Multiattribute Terrorist Utility, and Sensitivity Analysis ") has been on the faculty of the University of Chicago Booth School of Business since September 1997. His degrees include A.B. (applied mathematics, 1985), S.M. (applied mathematics, 1987), and Ph.D. (decision sciences, 1991), all from Harvard University. Prior to joining the faculty at the University of Chicago, Professor Wu was on the faculty at Harvard Business School. Wu worked as a decision analyst at Procter & Gamble prior to starting graduate school. His research interests include descriptive and prescriptive aspects of decision making, in particular, decision making involving risk, cognitive biases in bargaining and negotiation, and managerial and organizational decision making. Professor Wu is a coordinating editor for Theory and Decision, an advisory editor for Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, and an associate editor of Decision Analysis. He is on the editorial board of the Journal of Behavioral Decision Making and is a former department editor of Management Science. Address: Booth School of Business, University of Chicago, 5807 South Woodlawn Avenue, Chicago, IL 60636; e-mail: wu@chicagobooth.edu . Alexander Zimper (" Do Bayesians Learn Their Way Out of Ambiguity? ") is a professor in the Department of Economics at the University of Pretoria and holds a Ph.D. in economics from the University of Mannheim. He started out as a specialist on iterative solution concepts for strategic games, but his current research interests concern topics in economic theory in the broadest sense. He does not believe that there is one big truth out there but rather that classical as well as bounded-rationality approaches provide us with structures that may improve—within their respective limits—our understanding of reality. His most recent work is on plausible refinements of Roy Radner's rational expectations equilibrium, existence and uniqueness of an equilibrium price function in a Lucas fruit-tree economy with ambiguous beliefs, overreaction and underreaction in asset markets, and optimal liquidity provision under demand deposit schemes. His work in decision theory mainly concerns dynamically inconsistent behavior arising from ambiguity attitudes and, in particular, Bayesian learning modeled within nonadditive probability spaces. Address: Department of Economics, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X20, Hatfield 0028, South Africa; e-mail: alexander.zimper@up.ac.za .

Madagascar is one of the richest countries when it comes to natural and mineral resources. As is the case in many tropical countries, however, this wealth is bluntly coupled with an ever increasing poverty, where more than 92 % of the 21 million inhabitants are living below $US2 a day. Madagascar has received international aid and conservation interests for years, as part of which, millions of dollars have been donated to the country, but with very little to show for it (Horning 2008). When Madagascar appeared to hit rock bottom in 2009, a political coup d'état took place which led to the international donor community curtailing financial support (Randrianja 2012). During the following years, the transitional government did not receive the international support that the previous government had benefitted from. Here we will analyze the pattern of two cases of natural resource governance, both coinciding with a political event.Case 1 pertains to rosewood: Since 2009, illegal logging and exporting of rosewood has reached unprecedented levels in Madagascar (Schuurman and Lowry 2009, Innes 2010, Randriamalala and Liu 2010) affecting the entire east coast, with highest intensity of pillage in the national parks of Masoala and Marojejy. In 2011, reportedly over 500,000 tons of rosewood were in stocks; discussions among experts at the global table revolved around a solution finding to best deal with these stocks (Randriamalala et al. 2011). However, the issue then went mysteriously silent to a remarkable degree for almost two years. In the meantime, the African Union supported by the international community pushed the current government to organize presidential elections with a first round on 25 October 2013, and the second and final round scheduled for 20 December 2013. Coincidently, in mid 2013 the World Bank requested a "Study to Assess the Options of Disposal of the Illicit Stocks of Rosewood and Ebony"1 issued 31 July 2013 with a deadline for the expressions of interest fixed at 13 August 2013.During the last year, a new phenomenon has emerged: inventoried rosewood logs have slowly but regularly been ferreted out of the depots they were stored in. During the early months of 2013, traffickers from Maroantsetra visited the Masoala peninsula and generously offered 1 million MGA per household to turn a blind eye regarding any rosewood. Simultaneously, large vessels positioned just too far to be seen from any shore, were collecting logs transferred to them at night in smaller boats. Encouraged by the incredulous ineptitude on the part of the local legal authorities, this process has been ongoing, even during daylight hours, with the 'mother ships' eventually even clearly visible from the shores. The timber stocks in the known depots have almost been completely cleared out by now. At the end of September 2013 a petition was suddenly circulated by EIA (Environmental Investigation Agency) bearing the message "Urgent Sign - on To Stop Madagascar Illegal Sale of Massive Stockpiles of Rosewood and Ebony" that many people and international and national NGOs have signed2. Interestingly, the concerns revolved around the estimated value of stocks, whether they were worth US$5 billion or only US$600 million. The question which goes begging is, why is the World Bank suddenly trying to find a legal solution for the stocks, when they de facto have already been removed from Madagascar and transported to Asia? We propose the following hypotheses as some food for thought: (i) There is insufficient information to assess the quantity and value of the remaining stocks. If any stock does indeed remain, it does represent a threat to the natural resources, and in principle, conservation NGOs cannot support the legalizing of the sale of such stocks. This implies that in the past, the legalizing and therefore selling of timber held in stocks represented a threat to the remaining precious trees, i.e., it has led to further illegal logging (Randriamalala and Liu 2010). (ii) The stockpiled timber has already steadily and consistently been exported to China: the government, the conservation community, and the public are all cognizant of this. There is a complex financial arrangement proposed by the international funding agencies and promoters of democracy, to appease all the parties involved in the case of dealing in illegally-felled rosewood3.Hypothesis 1 appears naïve and almost unrealistic, given that the case is well known by all the parties involved. Hypothesis 2 requires a deeper understanding of the financial, legal, and institutional mechanisms involved, since international funding agencies and the World Bank are not allowed to support an illegitimate government (i.e., one which assumed power through a coup d'état). The question which remains alludes to a problem which may be described as "wicked", for lack of a better prescriptive (cf. Rittel and Webber 1973): how can someone make more money from a product which has already been sold?We will try to shed some light by performing a reductio ad absurdum, which entails a step - by - step hypothetical appeasing of every party or individual involved in the rosewood traf­ficking process. To begin with, we ask the question: where do the interests of the various actors, really lie? This may be answered as follows: (i) Some, such as international funding agencies and NGOs seek a 'green' image. (ii) Others wish to be seen as promoters of democracy (western countries). (iii) Some are in a position of being in dire need of funding: they include certain NGOs and the Malagasy government. (iv) Some are lenders of money: these are the funding agencies and foreign governments. (v) There are some seeking to launder money, i.e., timber sellers and buyers.To 'green - wash' the illegally - sourced logs, necessitates the issuance of a CITES permit, something which could be lobbied for by NGOs, who would then receive money from the funding agencies, officially to help them protect the wildlife. On the other hand, timber traders and buyers would thereby legalize their business, and push for the supporting of the required democratic process, i.e., the ongoing elections. Therefore, the value of the legalized stocks of wood would lie in its 'greening - up' of the buyers' profiles, and allow some of the laundered money to flow back to Madagascar so that 'business as usual' could continue.Let's take a step back though: Hypothesis 2 appears to be in the realms of the absurd. The World Bank and other international funding agencies should not take such a risk: despite their interests to support democracy, development and conservation, they should not get involved in the green - washing of illegal timber. Furthermore, international NGOs should never invest effort in lobbying for a CITES permit allowing for sale of illegally logged ebony and rosewood. NGOs are well aware of the risks involved in such a procedure, and legalizing illegally-traded logs could potentially once again open up the forests to further illegal tree felling and trafficking. Which takes us back to square one: the million dollar question that goes begging pertains to the true level of transparency when it comes to the intentions of all parties involved in this process.The second case is on a smaller scale, and concerns wetlands, which are among the most threatened ecosystems in Madagascar (Thieme et al. 2005, Rabearivony et al. 2010).Case 2: Alaotra marshlands, vanishing in a puff of smoke? The Lake Alaotra wetland constitutes the biggest wetland system in Madagascar and is of national importance for its fish and rice production. About 23,000 hectares of marshlands fringe the lake, delivering crucial ecosystem services (water, plant material, fish stock) while hosting unique wildlife such as Hapalemur alaotrensis, the only primate species living constantly in marshland, or the recently described carnivore Salanoia durrelli, also adapted to wetland. International conservation efforts have been ongoing since the 1990s to sustain this wetland biodiversity and ecosystem, leading to the inscription of the entire Alaotra wetland as the third Ramsar site in Madagascar in 2003. The government of Madagascar then acknowledged the system's biodiversity and conservation values by classifying the wetland as a New Protected Area within national law N°381-2007/ MINENVEF/MAEP on 17 January 2007. Though formally protected, there are increasing pressures on this wetland. The region is dominated by rice paddies, with all the terrain already claimed; the marshlands hence represent a future reservoir for rice production. The increasing scarcity in production capacity is further accentuated by changing hydrologic balance and leads to an underproduction of the existing rice fields. This forces resource users further into the remaining marshlands. For example, the number of rice fields within the lakefront (the so called riz de contre-saison) has increased significantly in the past years (Ratsimbazafy et al. In press). The same accounts for the number of fires. According to the same authors, the years 2000 and 2004 have been extreme fire years affecting more than 40% of the entire marshland area. In 2012, the number of fires from October to December exceeded 150 cases (ibid). The year 2013 appears set to break any previous records. According to MWC (Madagascar Wildlife Conservation) and DWCT (Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust), the marshes are being burnt at an unprecedented level with, for example, a few fires affecting several hundred hectares within a few days in October 2013 alone. The local management and monitoring entities such as VOI (Vondron'Olona Ifototra) and CFL (Comité Forestier Local) are hopelessly overwhelmed by the many fires, while national actors such as DWCT and MWC can only gather evidence to describe the breaches of the legal or regulatory framework that are being perpetrated. It is very interesting to note that marsh (and forest) fires have reached a peak during this electoral period, where some political actors have repeatedly been observed promising land in exchange for votes. Alaotra represents a case specifically where actors outside of the system, instigate local communities to burn marshland for the sake of rice production (Ratsimbazafy et al. In press). However it is difficult to judge clearly when the smoke is so heavy over the lake. As is the case with many other governments, the Malagasy government is faced with the challenge of balancing the interests of its citizens, which are often in stark contrast with those of players or parties within the international community. The value of Madagascar's resource richness is measured differently by the different stakeholders, and thus governance of these natural resources has become increasingly more complex, and promises to do so even more in the near future. What constitutes a serious hindrance in sound governance is the fact that many of the processes are difficult to trace and assess due to an evident lack of transparency as discussed in these two cases. To strengthen governance depends first and foremost on the political will of the hosting country to improve its governance system, and hence to accept monitors to maintain observation over its performance. This however, requires a marked stepping up of transparency and accountability. At present, the bleak and questionable scenario painted by the above two cases presented here, seem to imply that for the people of Madagascar, its rich biodiversity may be more of a curse than a blessing.

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Gabbur-4 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 344 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 90 per cent is covered by soils, 150 cm).  About 54 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 36 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 57 per cent area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 15 per cent area of the microwatershed has nearly level (0-1% slope) lands and 75 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  An area of about 62 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded and about 28 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded.  An area of about 9.0) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is dominantly 0.75%) in 17 per cent area.  An area of about 89 per cent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 1 per cent is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area of about 11 per cent is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 4.5 ppm) and 88 per cent is deficient (1.0 ppm) in available manganese content.  Entire cultivated area is sufficient (>0.2 ppm) in available copper content.  An area of about 8 per cent is deficient (0.6 ppm) in available zinc content.  The land suitability for 31 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 180(52) 70(20) Sapota 103(30) 32(9) Maize 28(8) 179(52) Pomegranate 103(30) 136(40) Bajra 119(35) 182(53) Guava 103(30) 33(9) Groundnut 32(9) 86(25) Jackfruit 103(30) 32(9) Sunflower 155(45) 69(20) Jamun 74(22) 154(45) Cotton 135(39) 115(33) Musambi 155(45) 84(25) Red gram 103(30) 121(35) Lime 155(45) 84(25) Bengalgram 61(18) 224(65) Cashew 60(18) 74(22) Chilli 77(22) 112(32) Custard apple 180(52) 125(36) Tomato 77(22) 155(45) Amla 162(47) 143(42) Brinjal 45(13) 232(67) Tamarind 74(22) 123(36) Onion 29(8) 144(42) Marigold 60(18) 190(55) Bhendi 29(8) 204(59) Chrysanthemum 60(18) 190(55) Drumstick 103(30) 125 (365) Jasmine 60(18) 129(38) Mulberry 60(18) 97(28) Crossandra 103(30) 96(28) Mango 74(22) 28(8)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserves soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 93 (64.14%) men and 52 (35.86%) were women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers was 3.5, marginal farmers' was 5, small farmers' was 4.8, semi medium farmers' was 3.71 and medium farmers' was 5.  The data indicated that, 39 (19.6 %) people were in 0-15 years of age, 82 (41.21 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 60 (30.15 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 18 (9.05%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Gabbur-4 had 37.93 per cent illiterates, 25.52 per cent of them had primary school education, 0.69 per cent of them had middle school, ITI and master's education, 15.17 per cent of them had high school education, 6.90 per cent of them had PUC and degree education and 1.38 per cent of them had diploma.  The results indicate that, 53.13 per cent of households practicing agriculture and 43.75 per cent of the households were agricultural laborers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 36.55 per cent of the household members, 37.24 per cent were agricultural laborers, 0.69 per cent was in government service and housewives, 2.76 per cent was in private service and children and 19.31 per cent of them were student.  The results show that 100 per cent of the households have not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 9.38 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 37.50 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 12.50 per cent of them possess pucca/RCC house and 40.63 per cent of them possess semi pacca house.  The results shows that 90.63 per cent of the households possess TV, 81.25 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 50 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 96.88 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. The results shows that the average value of television was Rs. 7,068, mixer grinder was Rs. 2,076, motor cycle was Rs. 31,437, mobile phone was Rs. 2,712.  About 12.50 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 34.38 per cent of the households possess plough, 9.38 per cent of the households possess seed/fertilizer drill, 3.13 per cent of the households possess irrigation pump and sprinkler, 3.13 per cent of the households possess tractor, 18.75 per cent of them possess sprayer, 40.63 per cent of them possess weeder and 3.13 per cent of them possess earth remover/duster.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 16,200, the average value of plough was Rs. 1,425, the average value of seed/fertilizer drill was Rs.2,000, the average value of irrigation pump was Rs. 25,000, the average value of tractor was Rs. 450,000, the average value of sprayer was Rs.5,5838, the average 2 value of sprinkler was Rs.1,666 and the average value of weeder Rs.53 and the average value of earth remover/ duster was Rs.3,000.  The results indicate that, 31.25 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 21.88 per cent of the households possess local cow and 25 per cent of the households possess 46.88.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.90, average own labour (women) available was 1.13, average hired labour (men) available was 10 and average hired labour (women) available was 6.65.  The results indicate that, 87.50 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate and 9.38 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Gabbur-4 micro watershed possess 17.26 ha (41.12%) of dry land and 24.71 ha (58.88%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 0.4 ha (45.87%) of dry land and 0.48 ha (54.13%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 12.35 ha (65.18%) of dry land and 6.6 ha (34.82 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium possess 4.5 ha (35.5%) of dry land and 8.18 ha (64.50%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 9.45 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 341,768.29 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 392,384.70. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 741,000 for dry land and Rs. 2,302,542.42 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 340,019.67 for dry land and Rs. 636,441.72 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 310,691.82 for dry land and Rs. 342,037.58 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 169,178.51 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 15 de-functioning and 19 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 59.38 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 61.91 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal farmers had irrigated area of 2.10 ha, small farmers had 7.52ha, semi medium farmers had 6.58 ha and medium farmers had 9.05 ha.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown maize (30.66 ha), bajra (4.3 ha), tomato (1.74 ha), red gram (1.62 ha), groundnut (1.34 ha), brinjal (0.83 ha), onion and paddy (0.81 ha), ladies finger (1.01 ha) and drumstick and sunflower (0.4 ha).  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Gabbur-4 micro watershed was found to be 83.89 per cent. 3  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for brinjal was Rs. 51704.17. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 90365.86. The net income from brinjal cultivation was Rs. 38661.68, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.75.  The total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 27985.15. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 39263.95. The net income from Maize cultivation was Rs. 11278.80, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.4.  The total cost of cultivation for Bajra was Rs. 30365.39. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 30642.85. The net income from Bajra cultivation was Rs. 277.47. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.01. The total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 35982.84. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 74100.  The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 38117.16. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.06. The total cost of cultivation for Drumstick was Rs. 26945.01. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 18525.00. The net income from Drumstick cultivation was Rs. -8420.01. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.69.  The total cost of cultivation for ladies Finger was Rs. 35705.22. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 78113.75. The net income from ladies Finger cultivation was Rs. 42408.53, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.19.  The total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 46251.55. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 47424. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. 1172.45, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.03. The total cost of cultivation for Bengal gram was Rs. 37319.15. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 88195.11. The net income from Bengal gram cultivation was Rs. 50875.96, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.36.  The total cost of cultivation for Tomato was Rs. 26977.42. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 47918.00. The net income from Tomato cultivation was Rs. 20940.58, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.78.  The total cost of cultivation for Onion was Rs. 22455.44. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 22230. The net income from Onion cultivation was Rs. - 225.44, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.99.  The total cost of cultivation for Groundnut was Rs. 34674.92. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 57205.63. The net income from Groundnut cultivation was Rs. 22530.71, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.65.  The results indicate that, 34.38 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and another 46.88 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate. Also, 6.25 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate. 4  The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 20,000 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 172,333.33, for small farmers it was Rs. 84,856.25, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 74,714.29 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 187,250.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 24,974.84. For landless households it was Rs. 6,000, for marginal farmers it was Rs 91,666.67, for small farmers it was Rs. 6,105.93, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 10,428.57 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 85,375.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 113 coconut trees, 1 guava trees, 22 mango trees and 3 pomegranate trees in their field.  The results indicate that, households have planted 32 teak trees, 46 neem trees, 1 acacia trees and 3 tamarind trees in their field and also 4 neem trees in their backyard.  The results indicate that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs.3,250 for land development, Rs.1,437.5 for irrigation facility, Rs.2,437 for improved crop production and Rs. 437.50 for livestock management.  The results indicate that, Loan from bank was the major source of investment for 40.63 per cent of households for land development and improved crop production, 18.75 per cent for irrigation facility and 9.38 per cent for improved livestock management.  The results indicated that, bajra was sold to the extent of 80.39 per cent, brinjal was sold to the extent of 96 per cent, drumstick was sold to the extent of 80 per cent, groundnut was sold to the extent of 80 per cent, ladies finger was sold to the extent of 88.89 per cent, maize was sold to the extent of 97.62 per cent, onion was sold to the extent of 91.67 per cent, paddy was sold to the extent of 57.14 per cent, red gram was sold to the extent of 62.5 per cent, sunflower were sold to the extent of 100 per cent and tomato was sold to the extent of 98.57 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 53.13 per cent of the households sold their produce in agent/traders, 21.88 per cent of the households sold their produce in local/ village merchant, 25 per cent of the households sold their produce in regulated markets and 12.50 per cent have sold their produce to cooperative marketing society.  The results indicated that 112.50 per cent of the farmers have used tractor as a mode of transport for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 22.73 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems.  The results indicated that, 34.38 per cent of the households are interested in soil testing.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 37.50 per cent of the households, bore well was the source of drinking water for 50 5 per cent of the households and lake/tank was the source of drinking water for 9.38 per cent.  The results indicated that, 78.13 percent used fire wood and 21.88 percent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 28.13 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility in the micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 28.13 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals and milk were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 90.63 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 46.88 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 56.25 per cent, egg were adequate for 75 per cent of the and meat were adequate for 68.75 per cent of the households. ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

This Ph.D. thesis is done mainly in the context of the European Research Council's (ERC) Advanced Grant project Scale-FreeBack and partially in the context of Inria's COVID-19 Mission project Healthy-Mobility. The Scale-FreeBack project aims to develop a holistic, scale-free control approach to complex systems and to set new foundations for a theory dealing with complex physical networks with arbitrary dimensions. On the other hand, motivated by the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, the Healthy-Mobility project aims to develop optimal control strategies for testing and urban human mobility to limit the epidemic spread. In relation to both projects, the contributions of the thesis are respectively divided into two parts.In the first part of the thesis, we develop a theory for monitoring large-scale clustered network systems with limited computational and sensing equipment through a projected network system, which is of tractable dimension and is obtained through the aggregation of clusters of a network system. We propose a minimum-order average observer and provide its design criteria. Then, the notions of average reconstructability, average observability, and average detectability are defined and their necessary and sufficient conditions are provided. We also provide graph-theoretic interpretations of these notions through inter-cluster and intra-cluster graph topologies of a clustered network system. When a clustered network system does not meet the design criteria of the average observer, we devise an optimal design methodology to minimize the average estimation error. On the other hand, if the clusters are not pre-specified in a network system, we develop clustering algorithms to achieve minimum average estimation error. Finally, we propose a K-means type clustering approach to estimate the state variance of network systems, which is a nonlinear functional of the state vector and measures the squared deviation of state trajectories from their average mean. We illustrate the results through application examples of a building thermal system and an SIS epidemic spread over large networks.In the second part of the thesis, we first study epidemic suppression through a testing policy. We develop a five-compartment epidemic model that incorporates the testing rate as a control input. We propose a best-effort strategy for testing (BEST), which is an epidemic suppression policy that provides a minimum testing rate from a certain day onward to stop the growth of the epidemic. The BEST policy is evaluated through its impact on the number of active intensive care unit (ICU) cases and the cumulative number of deaths for the COVID-19 case of France. Secondly, we develop a model of urban human mobility between residential areas and social destinations such as industrial areas, business parks, schools, markets, etc. for epidemic mitigation. We formulate two optimal control policies, the so-called optimal capacity control (OCC) and optimal schedule control (OSC), that aim to maximize the economic activity in an urban environment while keeping the number of active infected cases bounded. The OCC limits the epidemic spread by reducing the maximum number of people allowed at each destination category at any time of day, whereas the OSC limits the epidemic spread by reducing the daily business hours of each destination category. ; Cette thèse de doctorat est réalisée principalement dans le cadre du projet Scale-FreeBack de l'European Research Council (ERC) Advanced Grant et partiellement dans le cadre du projet Healthy-Mobility de la mission COVID-19 de l'Inria. Le projet Scale-FreeBack vise à développer une approche holistique de contrôle sans échelle des systèmes complexes et à établir de nouvelles bases pour une théorie traitant des réseaux physiques complexes aux dimensions arbitraires. D'autre part, motivé par la pandémie COVID-19, le projet Healthy-Mobility vise à développer des stratégies de contrôle optimal pour les tests et la mobilité humaine urbaine pour limiter la propagation de l'épidémie. En relation avec ces deux projets, les contributions de la thèse sont respectivement divisées en deux parties.Dans la première partie de la thèse, nous développons une théorie pour la surveillance de systèmes de réseaux en grappes à grande échelle avec des ressources de calcul et de détection limitées par le biais d'un système de réseau projeté, qui est de dimension traçable et est obtenu par l'agrégation de grappes d'un système de réseau. Nous proposons un observateur moyen d'ordre minimum et fournissons ses critères de conception. Ensuite, les notions de reconstructibilité moyenne, d'observabilité moyenne et de détectabilité moyenne sont définies et leurs conditions nécessaires et suffisantes sont fournies. Nous fournissons également des interprétations graph-théoriques de ces notions à travers les topologies de graphe inter-cluster et intra-cluster d'un système de réseau en grappe. Lorsqu'un système de réseau en grappe ne répond pas aux critères de conception de l'observateur moyen, nous concevons une méthodologie de conception optimale pour minimiser l'erreur d'estimation moyenne. D'autre part, si les clusters ne sont pas pré-spécifiés dans un système de réseau, nous développons des algorithmes de clustering pour atteindre une erreur d'estimation moyenne minimale. Enfin, nous proposons une approche de regroupement de type K-means pour estimer la variance d'état des systèmes en réseau, qui est une fonction non linéaire du vecteur d'état et mesure l'écart au carré des trajectoires d'état par rapport à leur moyenne. Nous illustrons les résultats par des exemples d'application d'un système thermique de bâtiment et d'une épidémie de SIS répandue sur de grands réseaux.Dans la deuxième partie de la thèse, nous étudions d'abord la suppression des épidémies par une politique de test. Nous développons un modèle épidémique à cinq compartiments qui incorpore le taux de test comme donnée de contrôle. Nous proposons une stratégie de best-effort pour le test (BEST), qui est une politique de suppression d'épidémie qui fournit un taux de test minimum à partir d'un certain jour pour arrêter la croissance de l'épidémie. La politique BEST est évaluée à travers son impact sur le nombre de cas actifs dans les unités de soins intensifs (USI) et le nombre cumulé de décès pour le cas COVID-19 en France. Deuxièmement, nous développons un modèle de mobilité humaine urbaine entre les zones résidentielles et les destinations sociales telles que les zones industrielles, les parcs d'affaires, les écoles, les marchés, etc. pour l'atténuation des épidémies. Nous formulons deux politiques de contrôle optimal, le contrôle optimal de la capacité et le contrôle optimal de l'horaire, qui visent à maximiser l'activité économique dans un environnement urbain tout en maintenant le nombre de cas d'infection actifs limité. Le contrôle de la capacité optimale limite la propagation de l'épidémie en réduisant le nombre maximum de personnes autorisées dans chaque catégorie de destination à tout moment de la journée, tandis que le contrôle de l'horaire optimal limite la propagation de l'épidémie en réduisant les heures d'ouverture quotidiennes de chaque catégorie de destination.

This Ph.D. thesis is done mainly in the context of the European Research Council's (ERC) Advanced Grant project Scale-FreeBack and partially in the context of the Inria's COVID-19 Mission project Healthy-Mobility. The Scale-FreeBack project aims to develop a holistic, scale-free control approach to complex systems and to set new foundations for a theory dealing with complex physical networks with arbitrary dimensions. On the other hand, motivated by the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, the Healthy-Mobility project aims to develop optimal control strategies for testing and urban human mobility to limit the epidemic spread. In relation to both projects, the contributions of the thesis are respectively divided into two parts.In the first part of the thesis, we develop a theory for monitoring large-scale clustered network systems with limited computational and sensing equipment through a projected network system, which is of tractable dimension and is obtained through the aggregation of clusters of a network system. We propose a minimum-order average observer and provide its design criteria. Then, the notions of average reconstructability, average observability, and average detectability are defined and their necessary and sufficient conditions are provided. We also provide graph-theoretic interpretations of these notions through inter-cluster and intra-cluster graph topologies of a clustered network system. When a clustered network system does not meet the design criteria of the average observer, we devise an optimal design methodology to minimize the average estimation error. On the other hand, if the clusters are not pre-specified in a network system, we develop clustering algorithms to achieve minimum average estimation error. Finally, we propose a K-means type clustering approach to estimate the state variance of network systems, which is a nonlinear functional of the state vector and measures the squared deviation of state trajectories from their average mean. We illustrate the results through application examples of a building thermal system and an SIS epidemic spread over large networks.In the second part of the thesis, we first study epidemic suppression through a testing policy. We develop a five-compartment epidemic model that incorporates the testing rate as a control input. We propose a best-effort strategy for testing (BEST), which is an epidemic suppression policy that provides a minimum testing rate from a certain day onward to stop the growth of the epidemic. The BEST policy is evaluated through its impact on the number of active intensive care unit (ICU) cases and the cumulative number of deaths for the COVID-19 case of France. Secondly, we develop a model of urban human mobility between residential areas and social destinations such as industrial areas, business parks, schools, markets, etc. for epidemic mitigation. We formulate two optimal control policies, the so-called optimal capacity control (OCC) and optimal schedule control (OSC), that aims to maximize the economic activity in an urban environment while keeping the number of active infected cases bounded. The OCC limits the epidemic spread by reducing the maximum number of people allowed at each destination category at any time of day, whereas the OSC limits the epidemic spread by reducing the daily business hours of each destination category. ; Cette thèse de doctorat est réalisée principalement dans le cadre du projet Scale-FreeBack de l'European Research Council (ERC) Advanced Grant et partiellement dans le cadre du projet Healthy-Mobility de la mission COVID-19 de l'Inria. Le projet Scale-FreeBack vise à développer une approche holistique de contrôle sans échelle des systèmes complexes et à établir de nouvelles bases pour une théorie traitant des réseaux physiques complexes aux dimensions arbitraires. D'autre part, motivé par la pandémie COVID-19, le projet Healthy-Mobility vise à développer des stratégies de contrôle optimal pour les tests et la mobilité humaine urbaine pour limiter la propagation de l'épidémie. En relation avec ces deux projets, les contributions de la thèse sont respectivement divisées en deux parties.Dans la première partie de la thèse, nous développons une théorie pour la surveillance de systèmes de réseaux en grappes à grande échelle avec des ressources de calcul et de détection limitées par le biais d'un système de réseau projeté, qui est de dimension traçable et est obtenu par l'agrégation de grappes d'un système de réseau. Nous proposons un observateur moyen d'ordre minimum et fournissons ses critères de conception. Ensuite, les notions de reconstructibilité moyenne, d'observabilité moyenne et de détectabilité moyenne sont définies et leurs conditions nécessaires et suffisantes sont fournies. Nous fournissons également des interprétations graph-théoriques de ces notions à travers les topologies de graphe inter-cluster et intra-cluster d'un système de réseau en grappe. Lorsqu'un système de réseau en grappe ne répond pas aux critères de conception de l'observateur moyen, nous concevons une méthodologie de conception optimale pour minimiser l'erreur d'estimation moyenne. D'autre part, si les clusters ne sont pas pré-spécifiés dans un système de réseau, nous développons des algorithmes de clustering pour atteindre une erreur d'estimation moyenne minimale. Enfin, nous proposons une approche de regroupement de type K-means pour estimer la variance d'état des systèmes en réseau, qui est une fonction non linéaire du vecteur d'état et mesure l'écart au carré des trajectoires d'état par rapport à leur moyenne. Nous illustrons les résultats par des exemples d'application d'un système thermique de bâtiment et d'une épidémie de SIS répandue sur de grands réseaux.Dans la deuxième partie de la thèse, nous étudions d'abord la suppression des épidémies par une politique de test. Nous développons un modèle épidémique à cinq compartiments qui incorpore le taux de test comme donnée de contrôle. Nous proposons une stratégie de best-effort pour le test (BEST), qui est une politique de suppression d'épidémie qui fournit un taux de test minimum à partir d'un certain jour pour arrêter la croissance de l'épidémie. La politique BEST est évaluée à travers son impact sur le nombre de cas actifs dans les unités de soins intensifs (USI) et le nombre cumulé de décès pour le cas COVID-19 en France. Deuxièmement, nous développons un modèle de mobilité humaine urbaine entre les zones résidentielles et les destinations sociales telles que les zones industrielles, les parcs d'affaires, les écoles, les marchés, etc. pour l'atténuation des épidémies.Nous formulons deux politiques de contrôle optimal, le contrôle optimal de la capacité et le contrôle optimal de l'horaire, qui visent à maximiser l'activité économique dans un environnement urbain tout en maintenant le nombre de cas d'infection actifs limité. Le contrôle de la capacité optimale limite la propagation de l'épidémie en réduisant le nombre maximum de personnes autorisées dans chaque catégorie de destination à tout moment de la journée, tandis que le contrôle de l'horaire optimal limite la propagation de l'épidémie en réduisant les heures d'ouverture quotidiennes de chaque catégorie de destination.

Kryzys druku – spowodowany, jak się wydaje, digitalizacją i transformacją mediów cyfrowych – stanowi jeden z problemów współczesnego dziennikarstwa. Z tej też przyczyny w ciągu trzech ostatnich lat na Ukrainie gwałtownie (o 3 mln egzemplarzy, tj. 27%) spadł obieg prasy drukowanej. W najtrudniejszej sytuacji znajdują się lokalne środki przekazu, które od 2016 roku z rąk władz stopniowo przechodziły do sektora własności prywatnej. Spóźniona reforma doprowadziła do sytuacji, w której wydawnictwa bez doświadczenia w biznesie mierzą się z poważną recesją: niektóre już ogłosiły koniec działaności, inne ledwo przetrwały we współczesnych warunkach rynkowych. Konwergencja mediów niesie ze sobą groźbę marginalizacji mniejszych publikatorów i – co za tym idzie – ich odbiorców, których głosy nie zostaną wysłuchane. Dzieje się to już w sektorze prasy centralnej, ponieważ najpotężniejsze media drukowane należą do największych spółek: Star Light Media, UMH Group, Inter Media Group, 1 + 1 Media i Media Group Ukraine, których właściciele angażują się w ukraińską politykę. Odmawia się natomiast wsparcia lokalnej niezależnej prasie. Ukraina może pójść drogą wielu innych krajów europejskich stosujących się do teorii "spirali cyrkulacyjnej". Według niej gazety o najwyższym nakładzie otrzymują więcej środków pochodzących z reklam oraz prenumeraty, natomiast mniejsze tytuły otrzymują pomoc państwa w celu zachowania pluralizmu myśli, zapobiegania zanikaniu małych publikacji oraz uniknięcia zbyt dużej koncentracji środków masowego przekazu. Projekt ten opracowano w 2016 roku, аle nie został zatwierdzony przez rząd, utrzymywał bowiem zależność gazet od władz publicznych i korupcjogenny model dystrybucji funduszy. Sytuacja niepewności jest korzystna dla władz, ponieważ pozwala wpływać na wydawców, zwłaszcza podczas wyborów. W czasie recesji finansowej wydawnictwa łatwo poddają się sugestiom polityków i dokonują nadużyć polegających na wypuszczaniu materiałów obliczonych na wsparcie wizerunkowe działaczy. Badacze mediów odnotowali 28,1% tego rodzaju publikacji w prasie regionalnej. Negatywny wpływ na sektor medialny mają również stały wzrost taryfy pocztowej za dostarczanie prasy oraz redukcja stacjonarnych oddziałów Ukrposzty, które także znajdują się w recesji finansowej. Innym problemem jest brak regulacji w sprawie statusu mediów elektronicznych, które często zaangażowane są w piractwo własności intelektualnej, co negatywnie wpływa na media drukowane. Odbiorcy w młodym і średnim wieku rzadko są czytelnikami gazet, dlatego czasopisma muszą przekształcać swoje treści w materiały dostępne online. Prasa szuka dodatkowych kanałów przyciągających uwagę czytelników w Internecie, korzysta ze stron internetowych, sieci społecznościowych, hostów wideo, różnych modeli konwergencji, rozmaitych technologii. Centralne środki przekazu – w przeciwieństwie do mniejszych, regionalnych – szybko dostosowały się do panujących trendów. Ponad połowa lokalnych mediów nadal jednak nie ma witryny internetowej. Z powodu niskiego poziomu tabloidyzacji mediów drukowanych mało przydatne jest tworzenie popularnych kanałów informacyjnych, takich jak infotainment. Ledwie w odosobnionych przypadkach wydawnictwa podejmują starania przejścia od tradycyjnej informacji do komunikacji z czytelnikami, a redaktorzy próbują wykorzystywać modele crowdsourcingu i croudfundingu do generowania treści oraz zbiórki funduszy na wsparcie i rozwój nowych pomysłów. Od 2017 roku Lokalna Agencja Wsparcia Mediów uczy kreowania nowoczesnych treści i zarabiania na reklamach – rezultatem są 23 witryny internetowe agencji, liczące sobie 130 700 użytkowników i 620 000 wyświetleń (2018 rok). Mimo kryzysu potrzeba informacji nie maleje, czas pokaże zatem, w jakim formacie istnieć będzie ukraińska prasa. Możliwe, że – podobnie jak w Polsce – będzie to już przede wszystkim gazeta internetowa. ; The print crisis – caused, it seems, by the digitization and transformation of digital media – is one of the problems of contemporary journalism. For this reason, over the past three years, the circulation of the printed press in Ukraine has sharply decreased (by 3 million copies, ie 27%). The most difficult situation is that of local media, which since 2016 have gradually been transformed into private ownership by the authorities. The delayed reform has led to a situation where publishing houses with no experience in business are going through a serious recession: some have already closed, some have barely survived under modern market conditions. The convergence of the media carries the risk of marginalization of smaller publishers and, consequently, of their recipients, whose voices will not be heard. This is already the case with the central press, as the most powerful print media belong to the largest companies: Star Light Media, UMH Group, Inter Media Group, 1 + 1 Media and Media Group Ukraine, whose owners are involved in Ukrainian politics. On the other hand, support for the local independent press is refused. Ukraine can follow the path of many other European countries following the "circular spiral" theory. According to her, the highest circulation newspapers receive more advertising funds and subscriptions, while smaller titles receive state aid in order to maintain pluralism of thought, prevent the disappearance of small publications and avoid excessive media concentration. This project was developed in 2016, but it was not approved by the government as it maintained the news-papers' dependence on public authorities and a corrupt model of fund distribution. The situation of uncertainty is beneficial for the authorities as it allows publishers to be influenced, especially during elections. During a financial recession, publishing houses easily succumb to politicians' suggestions and make abuses consisting in releasing materials designed to support their image. Media researchers recorded 28.1% of such publications in the regional press. The media sector is also negatively affected by the steady increase in the postal tariff for delivering the press and the reduction of Ukrposzta's stationary branches, which are also in the financial recession. Another problem is the lack of regulation on the status of electronic media, which is often involved in piracy of intellectual property, which negatively affects the print media. Young and middle-aged audiences are seldom readers of newspapers, so they need to transform their content into online material. The press is looking for additional channels, attracting readers' attention on the Internet, using websites, social networks, video hosts, various convergence models, various technologies. Central media – as opposed to smaller, regional ones – quickly adapted to the prevailing trends. More than half of the local media still doesn't have a website. Due to the low tabloidization of printed media, it is of little use to create popular news channels such as infotainment. Only in isolated cases do publishers make an effort to shift from traditional information to communicating with readers, and editors try to use crowdsourcing and croudfunding models to generate content and raise funds to support and develop new ideas. Since 2017, the Local Media Support Agency has been teaching how to create modern content and profit on advertisements - the result is 23 agency websites with 1,307,000 users and 6,200,000 views (2018). Despite the crisis, the need for information has not diminished, so time will show the format in which the Ukrainian press will exist. It is possible that – as in Poland – it will be primarily an online newspaper.