Suchergebnisse

This South African Agricultural Public Expenditure Review (AgPer) is one of a series of similar studies undertaken in several countries in Sub-Saharan Africa under the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Program (CAADP) of the African Union's (AU) New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) which encourages governments and development partners (DPs) to target public expenditure on the agriculture sector as the most effective way of stimulating growth. The overall purpose of the budget tracking and public expenditure review is to provide recommendations to address budgetary planning, budget execution, and accountability in the agricultural sector, the creation of a reliable data base, and more effective intra- and inter-sectoral coordination. It is also aimed at stimulating increased resource allocations and to enhance the harmonization and alignment of resources around national and provincial priorities in the agricultural sector. The report aims to produce the following outputs: foundation data set for understanding reflecting the COFOG and South African nomenclature in budgeting; synthesis of the level, composition and quality of budget; and recommendations for enhancement of the budget tracking process.

This Report on Observance and Codes-Accounting and Auditing (ROSC-A&A) assesses the corporate sector accounting, financial reporting, and auditing practices in Jamaica. It builds on its predecessor, a 2003 ROSC-A&A, and its aims to assist the Government of Jamaica's efforts to strengthen accounting and auditing practices and to enhance financial transparency in the corporate sector, so as to support the Government's economic reform program and provide greater confidence to current and potential investors with respect to the financial reporting environment. Jamaica has embarked on an economic reform program whose main objectives are to contain the country's growing economic and external vulnerabilities and address economic imbalances, while putting the country on a path to sustainable growth. Important reforms include: (a) strengthening public finances, including through comprehensive tax reform, expenditure rationalization, and improved public debt management and public financial management; (b) enhancing the resilience of the financial sector through strengthened supervisory, regulatory, and crisis-management frameworks; and (c) improving growth generating efficiency through enhancements to the business environment and strengthened institutional capacity and governance.

With this Cameroon economic update, the World Bank is pursuing a program of short, crisp and frequent country economic reports. These economic updates provide an analysis of the trends and constraints in Cameroon's economic development. Each issue, produced bi-annually, provides an update of recent economic developments as well as a special focus on a topical issue. The economic updates aim to share knowledge and stimulate debate among those interested in improving the economic management of Cameroon and unleashing its enormous potential. The notes thereby offer another voice on economic issues in Cameroon, and an additional platform for engagement, learning and change.

The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) has been described by one senior African diplomat at the United Nations as a 'state in the making; it is not yet a state.' Further, this 'state in the making' also is a state that, with few exceptions, has been in decline since the early 1970s. The colonial era, from 1885 until 1958, was a period of nearly uninterrupted state construction; the hegemony of the Belgian colonial apparatus steadily deepened. In its final two years, the colonial edifice progressively lost control over civil society to a tumultuous and fragmented nationalist movement, which was unable to capture intact the colonial infrastructure. The result was five years of turbulent state deflation, generally known as the 'Congo crisis.' The Mobutu coup of 1965 inaugurated a new cycle, with eight years in which a rising tide of state ascendancy seemed to dominate the political process. After 1974 currents of decline again began to flow strongly, progressively eroding the superstructure of hegemony. The actual purpose of the Zairian government under Mobutu was not to fulfill basic state functions; rather, the government existed as a structure for individual enrichment and patronage. Officials at the highest levels stole large amounts of money, usually from mineral or customs revenues, sometimes through extremely straightforward strategies, such as literally pocketing gem diamonds and having them sold for personal gain in Antwerp or elsewhere.

Problem setting. Ukraine has set a strategic course for integration into the European Union. This issue is actualized in the context of the implementation of the governmental decentralization reform, aimed at forming an effective local self-government and territorial organization of the government in order to create and maintain a full-fledged living environment for citizens, to provide high-quality and affordable public services, to establish institutions of direct democracy, to coordinate the interests of the state and territorial communities.Analysis of recent research and publications. The works of many leading scientists are devoted to the development of local self-government in Ukraine. In particular, theoretical and organizational and legal aspects of the formation of territorial communities were considered in the scientific papers of O. Batanov, I. Butko, V. Bordeniuk, I. Drobot, V. Kampo, I. Myshchak, V. Pogorilko. The study of foreign experience of local self-government and the problem of adaptation of Ukrainian legislation to the European one were covered in the research papers of M. Baimuratov, I. Hrytsiak, I. Koziura, O. Trush. Problematics of formation of self-sufficient territorial communities and their resource support were considered in the papers of A. Hoshko, Yu. Kuts, V. Mamonova and other scientists. The formation of communities under the conditions of administrative-territorial reform was covered in the research papers of V. Kuybida, M. Pittsyk, M. Pukhtynskyi and many other leading Ukrainian scientists. The analysis of scientific sources proves the relevance and importance of the problem, that is why the subject of the study of theoretical foundations of the formation and development of territorial communities in Ukraine under the conditions of decentralization of the state power requires coverage and attracting the attention of the scientific community.Highlighting previously unsettled parts of the general problem. Based on the analysis of scientific sources to determine the main stages of the formation of legal foundations for the formation and development of amalgamated territorial communities in Ukraine under the conditions of decentralization of state power.Paper main body. Decentralization of state power under the conditions of modern state-building in Ukraine is the basis for the formation of a new system of governing the country – public administration, and its subjects include the state, the territorial community and civil society. European integration vector of Ukraine's development stipulates further implementation of reforms of decentralization of state power on the basis of openness, transparency, and democracy.Conclusions of the research and prospects for further studies. The analysis of scientific sources on the issues of decentralization of state power and the formation of territorial communities proves the relevance and importance of the topic of developing theoretical foundations for the formation and development of amalgamated territorial communities in Ukraine under conditions of decentralization of state power.Studying the works of scientists proves the existence of different points of view on the essence of the concept of territorial community, but despite the diversity of interpretations of the concept of community by scientists, there are common views on the presence of residents who reside on a certain territory and are united by common values and interests.There are five main stages of establishing of the legal basis for the formation and development of territorial communities in Ukraine under the conditions of decentralization of state power: the first stage (1990 – 1996) – overcoming the Soviet legacy of governing and instituting democratic decentralization; the second stage (1996 – 1999) – creation of a legal basis for decentralization of power; the third stage (1999 – 2014) – formation of preconditions for resource (including financial) provision of capacity of territorial communities; the fourth stage (from 2014 – 2019) – formation of prerequisites for the formation of amalgamated territorial communities and unions of territorial communities; the fifth stage (from 2019 to the present) is the continuation of the policy of creation of amalgamated territorial communities, formation of legal bases for transferring resources, powers and responsibility for their implementation. ; Розглянуто теоретичні аспекти становлення та розвитку територіальних громад у незалежній Україні за умов децентралізації державної влади. Доведено, що однією з основних характеристик "територіальної громади" є наявність жителів, які проживають на певній території, що об'єднані спільними цінностями та інтересами. Визначено п'ять основних етапів формування правових основ становлення та розвитку спроможних територіальних громад в Україні за умов децентралізації державної влади.

Problem setting. Ukraine has set a strategic course for integration into the European Union. This issue is actualized in the context of the implementation of the governmental decentralization reform, aimed at forming an effective local self-government and territorial organization of the government in order to create and maintain a full-fledged living environment for citizens, to provide high-quality and affordable public services, to establish institutions of direct democracy, to coordinate the interests of the state and territorial communities.Analysis of recent research and publications. The works of many leading scientists are devoted to the development of local self-government in Ukraine. In particular, theoretical and organizational and legal aspects of the formation of territorial communities were considered in the scientific papers of O. Batanov, I. Butko, V. Bordeniuk, I. Drobot, V. Kampo, I. Myshchak, V. Pogorilko. The study of foreign experience of local self-government and the problem of adaptation of Ukrainian legislation to the European one were covered in the research papers of M. Baimuratov, I. Hrytsiak, I. Koziura, O. Trush. Problematics of formation of self-sufficient territorial communities and their resource support were considered in the papers of A. Hoshko, Yu. Kuts, V. Mamonova and other scientists. The formation of communities under the conditions of administrative-territorial reform was covered in the research papers of V. Kuybida, M. Pittsyk, M. Pukhtynskyi and many other leading Ukrainian scientists. The analysis of scientific sources proves the relevance and importance of the problem, that is why the subject of the study of theoretical foundations of the formation and development of territorial communities in Ukraine under the conditions of decentralization of the state power requires coverage and attracting the attention of the scientific community.Highlighting previously unsettled parts of the general problem. Based on the analysis of scientific sources to determine the main stages of the formation of legal foundations for the formation and development of amalgamated territorial communities in Ukraine under the conditions of decentralization of state power.Paper main body. Decentralization of state power under the conditions of modern state-building in Ukraine is the basis for the formation of a new system of governing the country – public administration, and its subjects include the state, the territorial community and civil society. European integration vector of Ukraine's development stipulates further implementation of reforms of decentralization of state power on the basis of openness, transparency, and democracy.Conclusions of the research and prospects for further studies. The analysis of scientific sources on the issues of decentralization of state power and the formation of territorial communities proves the relevance and importance of the topic of developing theoretical foundations for the formation and development of amalgamated territorial communities in Ukraine under conditions of decentralization of state power.Studying the works of scientists proves the existence of different points of view on the essence of the concept of territorial community, but despite the diversity of interpretations of the concept of community by scientists, there are common views on the presence of residents who reside on a certain territory and are united by common values and interests.There are five main stages of establishing of the legal basis for the formation and development of territorial communities in Ukraine under the conditions of decentralization of state power: the first stage (1990 – 1996) – overcoming the Soviet legacy of governing and instituting democratic decentralization; the second stage (1996 – 1999) – creation of a legal basis for decentralization of power; the third stage (1999 – 2014) – formation of preconditions for resource (including financial) provision of capacity of territorial communities; the fourth stage (from 2014 – 2019) – formation of prerequisites for the formation of amalgamated territorial communities and unions of territorial communities; the fifth stage (from 2019 to the present) is the continuation of the policy of creation of amalgamated territorial communities, formation of legal bases for transferring resources, powers and responsibility for their implementation. ; Розглянуто теоретичні аспекти становлення та розвитку територіальних громад у незалежній Україні за умов децентралізації державної влади. Доведено, що однією з основних характеристик "територіальної громади" є наявність жителів, які проживають на певній території, що об'єднані спільними цінностями та інтересами. Визначено п'ять основних етапів формування правових основ становлення та розвитку спроможних територіальних громад в Україні за умов децентралізації державної влади.

This report discusses potential future systems for waste-to-energy production in the Baltic Sea Region, and especially for the project REMOWE partner regions, the County of Västmanland in Sweden, Northern Savo in Finland, Lower Silesia in Poland, western part of Lithuania and Estonia. The waste-to-energy systems planned for in the partner regions are combustion of municipal solid waste (MSW) and solid recovered fuels from household and industry as well as anaerobic digestion of sewage sludge and agriculture waste. The potential future waste-to-energy systems in the partner regions include increased utilization of available waste resources. Examples of resources possible to use are straw that could be used for ethanol production and biowaste from households and manure that could be used for biogas production. If the utilization in all partner regions would reach the same level as already exists in the County of Västmanland it would correspond to an increased energy supply of 3 TWh/year which corresponds to about 2.5 % of the total energy use in the partner regions year 2008. An important aspect of future anaerobic processes for biogas production is the possibility to use the residue. West Lithuanian biogas production residue is planned to be dewatered up to 90 % of dry matter to make future utilization options possible. Pre-processing is necessary to be able to use the residue from digestion of solid waste as fertilizer. The pre-processing should include crushing, removal of metals, wood and plastics, and pulping. Without pre-processing it is possible to combust the residues with energy utilisation. Results from an investigation of the residues from biogas production tests using substrates from the project partner regions show a remaining energy potential of the digestate corresponding to 17 to 50% of the biogas energy. A combination of digestate combustion and fertilizer use could be a possibility. Hydrothermal carbonization, HTC, is a process that could be of interest to use for treating digestate in order both to utilize the energy left after biogas production but also for sanitation of the digestate. In this process heat is released and coal is produced. This process could also be of interest for waste-to-energy conversion of waste which is usually not usable for other biological process like e.g. biogas production, for example sharp leaved rush, straw or leaves from gardening etc. Initial tests on pulp and paper waste show promising results. Among the possible processes for increasing the output of biogas from anaerobic digestion using ultrasound technology for thickening of surplus waste water sludge can be mentioned. It allows increasing the biogas production up to 30 % and reducing the amount of organic substances in the digested sewage sludge by up to 25 %. Another area of possible improvement is the mixing in the digester. The mixing is important for distribution of microorganisms and nutrition, inoculation of fresh feed, homogenizing of the material and for the removal of end products of the metabolism. Studies of the digester for biowaste in the County of Västmanland indicate that about 30 % of digester volume can have dead and stagnant zones. 2 Waste-to-energy utilisation could also be possible to realise by further development and introduction of new processes and concepts. An option for solving the problem of old sewage sludge could be to use it in a gasifier to convert it to energy rich gases. Microbiological conversion of waste can be further developed to produce several different products, such as heat, power, fuels and chemicals, the development of so-called biorefineries. Also the biorefinery's water management can be renewed in order to remove toxic substances, minimize environmental impacts and produce pure, clean water. Finnoflag Oy has developed a technology that converts waste materials into e.g. fuels, chemicals, plastic and rubber via low-energy routes. The Finnoflag technology is based on the PMEU (Portable Microbe Enrichment Unit) which is a new innovative instrument for use in the microbe detection process and that is designed to create an optimal growth environment for microbes. For fibrous and well-structured biowaste dry digestion could be a good option for biogas production. Several different configurations have been tested in Germany. The garage digestion method has the advantage that an extensive pre- treatment of substrate is not necessary and no pumps or stirrers, which can be destroyed by disturbing materials, are involved. However, the efficiency of garage digesters is low compared to other digestion methods due to lack of effective substrate turbation. More research work is needed to improve the efficiency. Tests of five existing dry digestion processes show that the Tower-digester is the most suitable dry digestion method for household waste. Among the reviewed plants the Dranco-tower digester showed the best efficiency in reference to biogas potential. The plant design is robust enough to handle substrates like household waste with fractions of disturbing materials. The mixing in the reactor is based on the force of gravity and the used pumps are powerful and very resistant. Pyrolysis is a process of interest for converting wood based waste into energy products such as gas, bio-oil and/or solid fuel/carbon. This has been identified as a process suitable for a new business model with a franchise based model, offering an earning opportunity for small size entrepreneurs. Possible improvement of existing and new waste-to-energy systems also includes increasing the overall efficiency of the utilization of waste resources by integration of several processes. A study on integrating pellets production from the residues from straw-based ethanol production with an existing combined heat and power plant shows that the total production cost can be reduced by the integration. Possible development of waste-to-energy systems for the partner regions could be the following:  Estonian - biogas production using the organic waste, use of the digestate as fertilizer on demand or combustion for power and heat production, recycling plants for paper, plastics and other recyclable wastes and combustion for power and heat production after recycling  North Savo, Finland- the same options as for Estonia is of interest. Added to this is the potential for power and heat production from large amount of wood waste. Also the possibility for pellet production from wood waste could be of interest.  Western Lithuania- the same system as mentioned for Finland is also of interest for western Lithuania. 3  Lower Silesia, Poland- also for Lower Silesia high amounts of organic wastes is suitable to use for biogas production in anaerobic digestion. Recovered derived fuel (RDF) is already used as fuel for power and heat production. There are also some attempts to involve combustion of residual mixed waste in 1-2 of the most densely populated areas.  County of Västmanland, Sweden- Here a system for separate collection of the biowaste from households, digestion of the fraction together with ley crop silage from regional farmers to produce biogas and use of the digestate from the digestion process as fertilizer at farmland already exists and a new power and heat plant using recovered derived fuels is under construction. Further waste- to-energy plants for production of bioethanol from straw and biogas from agricultural waste could be possible. The potential future waste-to-energy systems are not only dependent on available technologies for waste-to-energy conversion but also on the development within the waste and energy areas including also economic and political aspects. There is a growing interest for waste prevention in waste management within the EU, and growing concern about food losses and food waste at global and national levels. During past decades the waste amounts have steadily increased with economic growth but due to waste prevention actions a decoupling of the waste amount and economic growth is foreseen. This has to be considered in development of future waste-to-energy systems. Further, policies and goals concerning fossil fuel free transportation systems and low carbon energy systems is of importance. Analysis of combined previous proposed scenarios for energy demand and use development and waste amount development for waste-to-energy in Sweden 2010 to 2050 shows that the contribution of waste-to-energy to the total energy supply in 2050 varies from 6 to 47 % depending on the scenarios combined. The lowest contribution occur for scenarios with low waste amounts combined with energy scenarios with low changes in energy demand while the highest contribution occurs for scenarios with high amount of waste combined with energy scenarios with large decrease in energy demand. ; REMOWE

In the eyes of the ruling international elites, the Great War had been driven by a rising nationalism that left Europe's civilization in shambles. The elites argued that a new modernism, combined with a world that was increasingly technologically interconnected, was to blame for the ruins, anguish, and hatred that dominated peoples' minds after 1918. These intellectual elites tried to rebuild Europe's civilization and create awareness beyond national boundaries. In this context, broadcasting experts in Europe built the first radio broadcasting infrastructures inside and beyond their borders. This book examines if, how, and why the promoters of broadcasting linked their activities in the interwar period to projects that aimed to unite Europe. The book describes five cross-border issues that the emerging transnational community of broadcasting experts worked to resolve. These issues concerned the institutionalization of broadcasting; the construction of networks; the interactions between broadcasting systems such as Radio Moscow, Radio Nations, Vatican Radio, and Radio Luxembourg; the role of broadcasting within a broader international context of warfare and peace building; and international programming efforts. The book is mainly based on research in the archives of international organizations such as the International Broadcasting Union, the League of Nations, and the International Telegraph Union. These organizations could all be seen as European system builders. They functioned as arenas in which various actors simultaneously negotiated the futures of both transnational broadcasting and Europe. Chapter 2 examines the "birth of an idea." Broadcasting was originally a private activity whereby states usually granted concessions to companies that would then operate (and sometimes construct) the stations. Several of the operational and construction problems mentioned above could not be resolved without a certain amount of international collaboration. However, international organizations such as the League of Nations and the International Telegraph Union (ITU) did not face such problems. They argued that the rapidly developing technology outpaced legislative action. As a result, ten European broadcasting organizations established the International Broadcasting Union (IBU) in 1925. The IBU's institutional structure followed the European tradition of combining a technical approach with the ideals of international peace and rapprochement. A wave of nationalizing broadcasting in Europe challenged this structure. Eventually, shared European traditions, combined with the central role of a small core group of experts in the IBU, ensured minimal state interference. The IBU was able to continue to seek cross-border collaboration and became the key player for interwar broadcasting in Europe. Chapter 3 deals with the pressing problem of network construction. Radio signals traveled through the air freely, which caused interference with signals across borders and major inefficiencies in the network. The IBU, at first alone, but later in collaboration with national PTT administrations, the League of Nations' Communication and Transit Committee, the ITU and its consultative committee for long-distance telephony, drafted plans to allocate frequencies in Europe. These activities secured efficient national wireless broadcasting. Furthermore, the gradually growing transnational community of broadcasting experts complemented these wireless systems with an interconnected European relay network for broadcasting via wire and cable. This network, coupled to the national wireless networks, facilitated the exchange of music and broadcasting of international programs throughout Europe. The construction processes were contested along the way. Throughout the 1930s, the development of short waves challenged the recently established European frequency allocation standards. Attempts to standardize these short waves resulted in an unplanned global regionalization of broadcasting. Chapter 4 challenges the IBU and ITU network efforts by focusing on their interaction with other structures, such as Radio Moscow, Radio Nations, Vatican Radio, and Radio Luxembourg. These stations, with the exception of Radio Moscow, were expanding at a time when the IBU and ITU efforts were well on their way to becoming the European standard. The ideas of the new stations' promoters, which were mostly globally-oriented, did not necessarily coincide with the IBU's vision of a Europe with national wireless broadcasting systems. Fine-tuning these standards with the structure of Radio Moscow, for instance, would redefine the eastern boundaries of the European network. Furthermore, the structure of Radio Nations and Radio Luxembourg threatened the very idea of a Europe made up of nation states. These systems favored a pan-national approach to the organization and network construction of broadcasting. International fine-tuning of these different systems in Europe could usually only take place via "technified" discussions that bridged ideological and political differences. Chapter 5 looks more closely at the role of broadcasting in the context of war and peace. Illicit propaganda broadcasting created serious problems on a continent with as many states as Europe and in an era of rapidly changing international relations. Any attempt to solve this problem depended on how well international relations were progressing. In a reluctant international atmosphere, the IBU initially took a gentleman's approach, requesting that its members broadcast in a civilized way without offending people in other countries. When international relations improved in the late 1920s, the League recognized the idea of positive propaganda. The subsequent close collaboration between the League and the IBU endorsed an international mindset based on European values of civilization and Enlightenment. The collaboration came to a halt when the rise in harsh nationalism caused international relations to deteriorate in the 1930s, thereby disrupting a well-oiled European broadcasting system. Nazi Germany forced the IBU to cease any activity related to power politics. The IBU officially dropped out of propaganda regulation, but a core of IBU experts continued to individually facilitate the League on this matter. Solutions came too late – a new world war broke out in 1939. Chapter 6 explores international programming. Programs and music touched the heart of culture and had a direct impact on feelings of belonging and identity. Any effort to standardize transnational cultural broadcasting policy, build international programs, and compile a musical repertoire suitable for broadcasting became an intricate matter. IBU experts and intellectual elites, both within and outside the League of Nations, disagreed substantially on what constituted a "high quality," "high culture," or "suitable" program. Consequently, many programming issues remained unresolved in 1939. Over the years, the various promoters of broadcasting expressed different concepts of the kind of unity that international programs should convey to listeners. They related programming more directly to the creation of European unity than their other broadcasting activities. Ultimately, their programs communicated a European culture that reflected a universal idea of national diversity. The promoters contributed a relatively safe, generally accepted, high-quality, and high-art image of European culture to Europe's cultural heritage in the interwar years. They balanced the local and national diversity of Europe with the international unity of Europe. Europe – On Air concludes that interwar promoters of broadcasting did indeed connect their activities to projects for European unification. To most of these promoters, broadcasting was a matter of practical internationalism. In the First instance, this meant resolving practical problems from a technical standpoint. The promoters formed a cross-organizational and flexible transnational expert community that could adapt to the problems at hand. Diffuse personal networks offered a way out when official routes failed. Secondly, practical internationalism meant that the promoters' ultimate goal was to contribute to the internationalist ideals of peace and rapprochement worldwide. With the exception of Radio Luxembourg, systems such as Radio Moscow, Radio Nations and Vatican Radio had global aims, albeit for different reasons. As always, Europe was shimmering somewhere in the background, whether entering into construction efforts and interests for a practical in-between solution, as a geographical space, as a tradition of commerce and organization, or as an explicit goal for cultural unification and civilization. Opinions vary regarding the success or failure of these interwar efforts. On one hand, the promoters of broadcasting created suitable international institutions, material networks, a great variety of "international" programs, and managed to let their vision trickle down into European program guides. On the other hand, increasing tension during the 1930s and the outbreak of the Second World War hindered the implementation and effective employment of their efforts. Many issues remained unresolved. Europe – On Air argues that the efforts of these promoters were not in vain. They have managed to create a European space, a community, and a kind of European regulatory culture for broadcasting. Equally important, their efforts have found a new start in post-Second World War organizations like the European Broadcasting Union and the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. In this way, interwar projects have influenced the broadcasting agenda right through to today.

The purpose of the article is to reveal the peculiarities of the artistic interpretation of W. Shakespeare's drama by the British theatre director Peter Hall and to develop a periodisation of his interpretive strategies in the second half of the 20th century. Research methodology. The research is based on the achievements of the domestic school of theatre studies and the principles of study and analysis of the play, in relation to the historical and cultural context, as well as in relation to the worldview and individuality of the director. The research methodology is based on the traditions of domestic theatre and art studies and modern approaches that combine the methods of related humanitarian disciplines – cultural studies, philosophy, and aesthetics. A complex theatre analysis of the features of the artistic interpretation of W. Shakespeare's plays by P. Hall determines the logic of the research: Through the identification of the director's orientation of the drama, the formation of the principles of play theatre in the director's reading of W. Shakespeare's plays, to the definition of the aesthetic foundations of Peter Hall's direction. The bibliographical method, the method of art analysis, the stylistic method, the systematic method, and the method of comparative analysis are applied. The scientific novelty of the article lies in the fact that, for the first time, it attempts a comprehensive art analysis of the interpretive strategies of the British director Peter Hall in the context of W. Shakespeare's theatrical discourse of the second half of the 20th century (on the material of the performances "Coriolanus", "War of the Roses", "Henry VI", and "Hamlet"); little-known facts from the life and work of P. Hall were introduced into domestic scientific circulation, and an art analysis of the director's most resonant performances was carried out; for the first time, the periodisation of P. Hall's work is proposed, based on the analysis of his performances from the perspective of the given theme, the study of the specifics of the artistic interpretation of W. Shakespeare's drama and the evolution of the master's philosophical and aesthetic vision. Conclusions. The figure of Peter Hall is one of the most significant in the history of British theatre of the 20th and early 20th centuries. The famous theatre director changed the situation and, in many ways, determined the direction of the development of the British theatre by creating repertory troupes based mainly on the works of W. Shakespeare. Based on the art analysis of Peter Hall's work from the perspective of the given topic, the periodisation of his interpretive strategies was developed in accordance with the specifics of the artistic interpretation of W. Shakespeare's drama and the evolution of the director's philosophical and aesthetic vision in the second half of the 20th century. The first period, 1955–1959, is characterised by high creative activity and the ease with which the young director masters the theatrical language, the system of stage thinking of the English theatre of the 1940s–1950s, develops an author's handwriting, emphasising devotion to traditions; performances are distinguished by the delicacy of the reading of W. Shakespeare's drama, aesthetic perfection and the presence of meaningful and verified innovation (for instance, "Twelfth Night", 1958). The second period, 1959–1968, is characterised by mastering and rethinking the problematics and poetics of W. Shakespeare's drama; in the performances of the 1960s, the aesthetics of the deromantic Brechtian style of P. Hall was formed; the emphasis in productions shifts to the problem of repetition of historical patterns, to the de-aestheticization of events and historical figures; the stylistics of interpretative thought and modern theatrical vocabulary receive a new development. The third period, 1968–1970s, is characterised by the desire to preserve the theatrical tradition from excessive conceptualisation of direction; the strengthening of the importance of protecting W. Shakespeare's drama from modernist interpretations and P. Hall's desire to convey to the viewer the full content of the world's masterpieces due to an in-depth study of the classical text. The fourth period, 1980–1990, marked by the creation and development of a new style of Shakespearean productions, caused by the rethinking of approaches to the figurative translation of classical drama into stage language in accordance with the trends of postmodernism.
Key words: Peter Hall, theatre direction, dramaturgy, W. Shakespeare, interpretive strategies, Royal Shakespeare Company.

En Colombia los bancos nacionales de desarrollo (BND) conforman un sistema de cuatro (inicialmente cinco) instituciones especializadas. Se han enfocado en atender, con instrumentos financieros y no financieros, cuatro fallas de mercado: (i) el escaso financiamiento de largo plazo para proyectos de infraestructura, donde la FDN y Findeter han desempeñado un papel importante; (ii) la baja inclusión financiera, mediante el apoyo de Bancóldex y Finagro a pequeños y medianos productores; (iii) los altos riesgos asociados con la innovación y el cambio estructural, un área en la cual Bancóldex debe ampliar su alcance, y (iv) el limitado financiamiento verde, para lo cual recientemente se ha establecido una coordinación institucional, donde ya hay avances (como la creación del mercado de bonos verdes). El papel de los BND en atender una quinta falla de mercado, el carácter procíclico del financiamiento privado, ha sido limitado. El tamaño del sistema se ha reducido, comparado con el de los años noventa: la participación en el PIB creció para Findeter, se mantuvo para Finagro, y disminuyó para Bancóldex y la FDN, aunque con un impulso reciente en este último caso. Los bancos, excepto la FDN, operan mediante redescuento y se fondean con diversas fuentes nacionales e internacionales En su caso, Finagro se sigue beneficiando del crédito dirigido. El conjunto de los BND debe avanzar en términos de coordinación, para actuar como un verdadero sistema, y debe desarrollarse un nuevo marco regulatorio para las operaciones de redescuento. ; In Colombia, national development banks (NDB) constitute a system of four (initially five) specialized institutions. They have focused on attending, with financial and non-financial instruments, to four market failures: (i) the provision of long-term financing for infrastructure, in which FDN and Findeter have played an important role; (ii) limited financial inclusion of small and medium-sized producers, with support from Bancoldex and Finagro; (iii) the high risks associated to innovation and technical change, a field in which Bancoldex must expand its role; and (iv) limited green financing, for which there are recent coordinated actions and advances such as the promotion of a market for green bonds. The role of NDBs in attending to a fifth market failure, compensating for the pro-cyclical pattern of private financing, has been limited. The size of the system has shrunk vis-à-vis the early 1990s: its share of GDP has increased for Findeter, while remaining constant for Finagro, and has fallen for Bancoldex and FDN, albeit with a recent increase in the latter. Except for FDN, banks operate through rediscounts and are funded by different national and international sources. Finagro still benefits from directed credit. NDBs must advance in terms of coordination in order to operate as a true system, and there must be a new regulatory framework for rediscount operations. ; La banca nacional de desarrollo en Colombia Resumen no técnico En Colombia los bancos nacionales de desarrollo (BND) están organizados como un sistema de cuatro (inicialmente cinco) instituciones especializadas. Este sistema fue adoptado durante las reformas de mercado de comienzos de los años noventa, las cuales eliminaron las funciones de fomento del banco central, liberalizaron al sector financiero y privatizaron los bancos públicos, con excepción del Banco Agrario, pero mantuvieron el sistema de bancos de desarrollo. La participación en términos de tamaño de la economía de dos de estas entidades, Findeter y Finagro, ha crecido o se ha mantenido constante, mientras que la de las otras dos, Bancóldex (incluido el IFI, al cual absorbió) y la FDN (anteriormente FEN), se ha reducido. No obstante, la FDN, después de su reestructuración reciente, se encuentra en un dinámico proceso de crecimiento. Los BND operan fundamentalmente mediante crédito de redescuento, excepto la FDN, que lo hace como banco de primer piso, y Bancóldex, que puede hacerlo, pero ha usado muy poco esta facultad. Con excepción del sector agropecuario, para el cual todavía existen instrumentos de crédito dirigido, las demás entidades deben salir a buscar recursos en el mercado local o internacional. Finagro, Findeter y Bancóldex también obtienen recursos del gobierno para líneas de redescuento subsidiadas o a tasas especiales. Los cuatro bancos son muy activos en la promoción de fondos de capital privado y de deuda, administración de portafolios, estructuración de proyectos y asistencia técnica. Este ensayo explora cinco áreas de acción en las cuales los BND deben actuar para superar fallas de mercado, entre las cuales se encuentran el financiamiento contracíclico, el desarrollo de la infraestructura (financiamiento de largo plazo), la inclusión financiera, el fomento a la innovación y el cambio estructural, y las finanzas verdes. En cuanto al financiamiento contracíclico, esta función se ha realizado de forma muy limitada. La cartera de los BND ha tendido a crecer a ritmos más moderados durante los auges crediticios, pero no ha aumentado en forma significativa durante las crisis. Con respecto a la segunda función, la novedad más importante ha sido la reestructuración de la FDN con el desarrollo de infraestructura como foco estratégico. La FDN busca servir como catalizador de la inversión y fuente de financiamiento de proyectos de infraestructura desarrollados como asociaciones público-privadas, en particular el programa de concesiones viales de cuarta generación 4G. Sin embargo, enfrenta importantes retos para movilizar los recursos de otros inversionistas y bancos. Deberá ampliar su foco de acción, como ha comenzado a hacerlo, hacia proyectos de energías renovables o de infraestructura y renovación urbana, aunque evitando entrar en competencia con Findeter. Por su parte, Findeter, el banco especializado en la promoción de la infraestructura urbana y regional, ha sido el más activo desde el cambio de siglo. Ha sido fundamental en la ejecución de programas públicos con un fuerte componente regional en servicios sociales, transporte, vivienda, y agua y saneamiento. Dos bancos, Bancóldex y Finagro, son activos en inclusión financiera. En cuanto al primero, más de la mitad de sus desembolsos en 2017 fueron para las mipymes; además, administra el programa de política de inclusión financiera del país, Banca de las Oportunidades. El segundo destina una gran proporción de los créditos de redescuento a medianos y grandes productores agropecuarios. Uno de sus retos es cómo hacer que los créditos sustitutivos no agoten los títulos de desarrollo agropecuario (TDA) destinados a pequeños productores. Para ello, convendría adoptar la propuesta de la Misión para la Transformación del Campo de destinar el crédito dirigido exclusivamente a dos objetivos: promover la inclusión financiera y fomentar la inversión en el campo de todo tipo de productores. Entre las actividades tradicionales de Bancóldex se encuentra el fomento de la innovación y el cambio estructural, pero estas actividades no han recibido la atención necesaria. Uno de los principales instrumentos del Gobierno en esta área es el programa iNNpulsa, el cual Bancóldex administró hasta el año pasado, pero luego cedió a su fiduciaria. Con excepción de la inclusión financiera, es necesario que las funciones de esta entidad sean definidas con toda claridad, con un importante énfasis en el fomento de la innovación, y no cambien dependiendo de quién la presida. En cuanto a las finanzas verdes, todos los BND han sido incorporados en las políticas de crecimiento verde impulsadas por el gobierno nacional. Para evitar conflictos en este campo, es necesario una mayor coordinación entre ellos para que los proyectos que apoyen se complementen. Si bien el apalancamiento de estas inversiones es reciente, Bancóldex y Findeter han realizado ya una labor importante en términos de apoyo financiero, no financiero y de liderazgo, asumido en el marco del Protocolo Verde. Finagro debe ser mucho más activo en este campo, especialmente en cuanto al buen uso del suelo y la reforestación. En la actualidad existe el mayor apoyo al papel de los BND desde las reformas de mercado de comienzos de los años noventa. En consecuencia, el gobierno nacional debería mantener este sistema, permitiendo que los bancos continúen operando con políticas claras, definidas bajo su orientación. Es crucial, sin embargo, que operen como un sistema y, por tanto, interactúen y coordinen sus actividades, en especial en áreas en donde el mandato de dos bancos o más se cruza. En la actualidad no existe un mecanismo institucional de coordinación, el cual debería, por tanto, crearse. También, los bancos deben intercambiar en forma activa experiencias en materia de fondeo, en particular para garantizar que los programas de financiación sean razonables en términos de costos y consistentes con un sector financiero más competitivo. Tanto o más importante es el apoyo mutuo para desarrollar nuevos instrumentos, en especial la promoción de fondos de capital privado y de deuda, así como sistemas de garantías a la inversión. Además, es crucial que aumente el tamaño del sistema, al menos a los niveles de comienzos de los años noventa, y que los BND cumplan un papel contracíclico más activo cuando sea necesario. Aunque en materia de supervisión la práctica actual debe mantenerse, sería conveniente desarrollar una regulación más específica para las operaciones de redescuento, ya que enfrentan riesgos muy distintos a los del financiamiento de primer piso.

Problem setting. Modern global challenges have significantly changed the landscape of higher education and intensified the process of its internationalization, the consideration of which has become one of the most discussed scientific problems in the field of higher education. Socio-philosophical understanding of the internationalization of higher education allows us to present it not only as an effective tool for improving the competitiveness of universities, but also as a basis for their social responsibility, a significant factor in improving the quality of higher education. This is extremely relevant to the study of the process of internationalization of higher education in a globalized world.
Recent research and publications analysis. The study of the problems of internationalization of higher education belongs to the sphere of scientific interests of both Ukrainian and foreign scientists. Among modern domestic researchers who deal with theoretical and methodological issues of internationalization of higher education and analysis of the peculiarities of internationalization of higher education in Ukraine in the context of global challenges should be noted such scientists as Boychenko M., Verbytska A., Voronkova V., Gorbunova L., Debych M. , Zinchenko V., Kiykov A., Krasovska O., Kurbatov S., Mishchenko M., Nitenko O., Sbrueva A., Sikorska I., Stepanenko I., Terepyshchy S., Shipko O. and others. Significant contribution to the theoretical development of ideas for the internationalization of higher education in the context of globalization has also made foreign scientists ‑ Altbach F., Bergmann H., Branderburg W., Brooks R., Wang M., H. de Wit., Geissler M., Knight J. , Robertson S., Scott P., Hudzik J., Hundt S. et al. Despite the fact that the scientific literature has widely reflected the understanding of various problems of internationalization of higher education, still remain debatable a number of issues that need to be constantly considered.
Paper objective. The aim of the article is to study the essence of the concept of internationalization of higher education in modern socio-philosophical discourse; consideration of methodological approaches to the analysis of internationalization of higher education; identifying the prerequisites for the development of internationalization of education in a globalized world; disclosure of the national strategy for the internationalization of higher education in Ukraine.
Paper main body. The development of modern higher education takes place in the context of global challenges, among which the most important, as stated in the founding document of UNESCO "Higher Education in a Globalized Society", are: the growing importance of the knowledge society / knowledge economy; development of new trade agreements, which include, inter alia, trade in educational services; innovations in the field of information and communication technologies; the growing role of the market and market economy. To date, according to many scholars, the most comprehensive and scientifically sound of the existing definitions of the internationalization of higher education is the definition given by H. de Wit and F. Hunter. According to them, the internationalization of higher education is a deliberate process of integrating the international, intercultural or global dimension into the purpose, functions and methods of higher education in order to improve the quality of education and research for all students and staff and make a significant contribution to society. Experience shows that in the field of internationalization of higher education there are two institutional models: traditional and complex. The first model includes components such as academic mobility; internationalization of the curriculum; international cooperation in the field of scientific research; partnerships with foreign higher education institutions. The comprehensive model of internationalization of higher education includes academic mobility; internationalization of the curriculum; international cooperation in the field of scientific research; partnerships with foreign higher education institutions; international educational programs of joint / double / multilateral diplomas; branches abroad; online / electronic training courses. Currently, the main ideas of the strategy of internationalization of the market of educational services in Ukraine are: 1. strengthening international competitiveness in higher education and research; 2. active participation of Ukraine in the development of European higher education; 3. expanding the opportunities of Ukrainian higher education institutions to enter the European educational market; 4. positioning Ukraine as a leader in the international market of educational services; 5. expanding opportunities for improving the system of higher education and research infrastructure of universities; 6. development of cross-border higher education.
Conclusions of the research. For leading Ukrainian universities seeking to become competitive members of the global education market, internationalization has already become an imperative and has become one of the most important tools for innovative development of higher education in Ukraine, its successful integration into the European and global educational space.

The Norwegians' construction and use of second homes has been an issue in public planning since the development of its antecedent, the cabin, began to take toll on the beautiful Norwegian landscape in the 1950s and 1960s. Still today, the development of second homes have great impacts on landscape, but maybe more troublesome are impacts to ecology and environmental issues such as energy use and use of materials. Although new environmental issues have been introduced by the continued development and increasing material standards, planning still seem to follow the same principles for spatial allocation and material use that were laid down in combination with the introduction of regulations in the 1965 planning act. Alongside the increased environmental issues, the increased material standards have also introduced other kinds of problems. One consequence is the rising cost of second homes, which secludes many from ownership. Nonetheless, second home ownership is still presented as something truly Norwegian and as a relief from the everyday stress. This thesis contributes by investigating some underlying political-economic structures and mechanisms that seem to drive the continued development of the phenomenon. This approach is entirely new as a research focus. This aim has been followed through three different articles, which the following synthesising chapters reflect upon, while also aligning the methodological, theoretical and empirical methods of the three articles. The first article reflects on the discrepancy between rising second home ownership cost and annual salary, links it to motives for ownership and, based on this, develops a concept of a Norwegian second home ownership paradox. The second article empirically explores the hypothesis of the first article, primarily through a questionnaire survey among second home owners. The third article looks at how planning and development of second homes have changed in an interplay with political changes of society, i.e. how neoliberalism seems to have influenced second home planning and which developments it has resulted in. The thesis adopts a critical realist ontology and the methodology that follows of moving from the concrete to the abstract and back again. It does so through the so-called RRREI(C) schema, which first aims at developing a so-called laminated system of the phenomenon, and then goes on to redescribe components of the laminated system with regards to a chosen theoretical frame. After this, it is a matter of either theoretically explaining antecedent causes to these components, or through retroduction, discover such antecedent causes. Subsequently, the theoretical frame needs to be empirically tested and possibly the frame needs to be altered, accordingly. As a basic theoretical frame, a concept of sustainability that adopt a strong conceptualizing, i.e. an understanding that rejects the notion that nature is substitutable with human-made capital, is chosen. This understanding operates for framing the problem issue in focus throughout the thesis. The main theoretical concepts rest on the mechanisms of the capitalist industrial growth oriented society. Therefore, the thesis is to some extent also a critical analysis of contemporary society and the consumerist practices, which it articulates on a broad spectrum and of which the Norwegian second home phenomenon is an intricate example. Through a questionnaire survey that asks about second home owners' motives for ownership and use as well as whether their second home is financed through debt, the thesis investigates the reality of the Norwegian second home ownership paradox. Through a case study of the municipality of Trysil, applying document and interview analysis, some examples of the influences of neoliberalism on second home planning are investigated. The thesis contributes to research on different levels. First, there is the general contribution of the ontology of critical realism to research on second homes. The thesis shows how the rich ontology and following methodology can contribute to a deeper understanding of underlying structures and mechanisms that have not been seriously questioned before. The thesis also contributes to research by exemplifying how the RRREI(C) model for scientific inquiry of can be carried out, which is very rarely seen before. Second, the thesis contributes to the general knowledge production related to the research field of Norwegian second homes by offering a theorization and conceptualization of the field, which has been predominantly empirically oriented. The conceptualization and empirical confirmation of a second home ownership paradox as well as a description of the transformation of the phenomenon as going from convivial and simple to technocratic and commodified including iatrogenic second home planning, serves as new concepts to the understanding of the Norwegian second home phenomenon in relation to sustainability (environmental, social and economic). The thesis thereby also proves relevant to a wider theoretical debate related to sustainability in general, economic growth and the prospects of ecological modernization. Thirdly, these new concepts, and the analysis that lies behind them, prove valuable because planning needs to take a new direction if second home developments are not to continue the unsustainable practices it rests upon now. To foster a discussion, the thesis develops a set of planning principles, which basically tries to tame the increasing materiality of second home developments. Second home development needs, however, to be further problematized in relation to many different aspects of sustainability and the critical perspective should enter mainstream political discourse if a transition of the phenomenon is to be hoped for. The analysis and concepts put forth here might offer a starting point from which the basic conditions of planning could be discussed. If such basic conditions are not discussed and transformed, the continued reliance on planning for solving the multiplicity of environmental, economic and socio-cultural problems, originated in the modern second home phenomenon, will probably prove insufficient. At least, this is what history tells us. ; Norges bygging og bruk av fritidsboliger har vært et problem i den offentlige planleggingen siden utviklingen av den moderne fritidsboligens forgjenger, hytta, begynte å forandre det vakre norske landskapet på 1950- og 1960-tallet. Utviklingen av fritidsboliger har fortsatt stor innvirkning på landskapet, men kanskje mer problematisk er innvirkningen på økologi og miljørelaterte faktorer som energibruk og bruk av materialer. Selv om nye miljøspørsmål har meldt seg gjennom fortsatt utbygging og økende materialstandarder, synes planleggingen fremdeles å følge de samme prinsippene for lokalisering og materialbruk som ble introdusert i forbindelse med innføringen av forskrifter i bygningsloven av 1965. Sammen med nye typer miljøbelastninger har økt materiell standard også medført andre typer problemer. En konsekvens er det stigende prisnivået for fritidsboliger, som avskjærer mange fra eierskap. Ikke desto mindre blir det å eie fritidsbolig fortsatt sett på som noe ekte norsk og som en utvei fra hverdagens stress. Denne avhandlingen undersøker noen underliggende politisk-økonomiske strukturer og mekanismer som ser ut til å drive den fortsatte utviklingen av fritidsbolig-fenomenet. Denne tilnærmingen er helt ny som forskningsfokus. Dette formålet har blitt fulgt gjennom tre forskjellige artikler som de følgende «kappe»-kapitlene reflekterer over, samtidig som de forbinder de metodologiske og teoretiske tilnærmingene og de empiriske metodene, som de tre artiklene bygger på. Den første artikkelen reflekterer over en stigende uoverensstemmelsen mellom fritidsboligkostnader og folks lønnsnivå og diskuterer denne motsetningen opp imot motiv for eierskap. Med bakgrunn i dette utvikler artikkelen et begrep om et norsk fritidsboligeierskaps-paradoks. Den andre artikkelen undersøker empirisk hypotesen fra den første artikkelen, først og fremst gjennom en spørreskjemaundersøkelse blant eiere av fritidsboliger. Den tredje artikkelen ser nærmere på hvordan planlegging og utvikling av fritidsboliger har endret seg i samspill med politiske samfunnsendringer, dvs. hvordan nyliberalismen ser ut til å ha påvirket planlegging av fritidsboliger og hvilke konkrete utviklingstrekk dette har resultert i. Avhandlingen bygger på kritisk realistisk ontologi og en metodikk basert på denne, der forskningen beveger seg fra det konkrete til det abstrakt og tilbake igjen. Dette gjøres ved å følge det såkalte RRREI(C)-skjemaet, som først tar sikte på å utvikle et såkalt laminert system av fenomenet, og deretter fortsetter ved å beskrive komponentene i det laminerte systemet på nytt ved hjelp av begreper fra en valgt teoretisk ramme. Etter dette handler det om å teoretisk forklare underliggende årsaker til disse komponentene, eller å komme på sporet etter slike underliggende årsaker gjennom såkalt retroduksjon. Deretter må den teoretiske rammen bli empirisk testet. Muligens må rammen så endres i tråd med de empiriske funnene. Som en grunnleggende teoretisk ramme bygger avhandlingen på et begrep for bærekraft med høy vekt på å respektere naturen. Dette innebærer en avvisning av ideen om at naturen er substituerbar med menneskelig kapital. Denne bærekraftforståelsen utgjør en overordnet ramme for arbeidet med problemstillingene gjennom hele avhandlingen. De viktigste teoretiske begrepene dreier seg om mekanismene i det kapitalistiske industrielle vekstorienterte samfunnet. Derfor inneholder avhandlingen til en viss grad også en kritisk analyse av dagens samfunn og forbrukerpraksis som manifesterer seg på en lang rekke områder og som det norske fritidsboligfenomenet er et intrikat eksempel på. Gjennom en spørreskjemaundersøkelse om fritidsboligeieres motivasjon for eierskap og bruk, samt om hvorvidt fritidsboligen(e) er finansiert gjennom gjeld, belyser avhandlingen i hvilken grad det postulerte fritidsboligeierskaps-paradokset eksisterer i blant norske fritidsboligeiere i dag. Gjennom en case-studie av Trysil kommune, basert på dokument- og intervjuanalyse, belyser avhandlingen dessuten eksempler på nyliberalismens påvirkning på fritidsboligplanleggingen. Avhandlingen bidrar til forskningslitteraturen på ulike nivåer. For det første gir den et generelt teoretisk bidrag gjennom å anvende kritisk realistisk ontologi innenfor forskning på fritidsboliger. Avhandlingen viser hvordan denne rike ontologien og tilhørende metodikk kan bidra til en dypere forståelse av underliggende strukturer og mekanismer som i liten grad har blitt undersøkt tidligere innenfor dette forskningstemaet. Tilsvarende bidrar avhandlingen generelt til forskningslitteraturen ved å eksemplifisere hvordan den kritisk-realistiske modellen for vitenskapelig undersøkelse dvs. RRREI(C)-skjemaet, kan brukes i praksis, noe som sjelden er sett før. For det andre bidrar avhandlingen til generell kunnskapsproduksjon innenfor forskningen om fritidsboliger gjennom teoretisering og konseptualisering av dette forskningstemaet, som for tidligere for det meste har vært ensidig empirisk orientert. Avhandlingen bidrar også med nye begreper til forståelsen av det norske fritidsboligfenomenet i forhold til bærekraft (miljø, sosial og økonomisk) gjennom konseptualisering og empirisk bekreftelse av et norsk fritidsboligeierskaps-paradoks, samt en beskrivelse av fenomenets forvandling fra å være samværsorientert og enkelt til å være teknokratisk og varepreget. En iatrogen (dvs. med negative bivirkninger) fritidsboligplanlegging hører også med til denne endringen. Disse begrepene bidrar til en forståelse av fritidsboligfenomenet i forhold til bærekraft. Avhandlingen bidrar derfor også med kritiske perspektiver til en bredere teoretisk debatt rundt bærekraft, økonomisk vekst og økologisk modernisering. For det tredje er avhandlingens sentrale begreper og analysene som ligger bak dem verdifulle i lys av at planleggingen må ta en ny retning hvis utbyggingen av fritidsboliger ikke skal fortsette langs det ikke-bærekraftige sporet den følger nå. For å stimulere til diskusjon utvikler avhandlingen et sett av planleggingsprinsipper som kan bidra til å snu det økende materielle forbruket som fritidsboliger fører med seg. For å få til en overgang til et bærekraftig fritidsbolig-fenomen, er det imidlertid nødvendig med ytterligere problematisering av utbyggingen av fritidsboliger i forhold til de mange forskjellige aspektene av bærekraft. En slik problematisering må også bli en del av den fremherskende politiske diskursen. Analysen og begrepene som presenteres her, kan gi et utgangspunkt for å diskutere de grunnleggende vilkårene for planlegging. Hvis slike grunnleggende forhold ikke blir diskutert og endret, vil planleggingen fortsatt være ute av stand til å løse mangfoldet av miljømessige, økonomiske og sosialkulturelle problemer som det moderne fritidsboligfenomenet gir opphav til. Det forteller historien oss i det minste.

This is a key time to protect global forests. While pressure is still strong on many key global ecosystems, such as the Amazon and Borneo, the significant results of governments such as Lula's in Brazil, as well as the ambitious vision of policies such as the recently enacted EU's Deforestation-Free Regulation (EUDR),[1] show that the devastating trend of deforestation of the past decades can indeed be reversed. Yet, a set of tools needs to be delivered to support this new wave of action to protect global forests, which has been triggered by raising awareness of the climate and biodiversity crises – a mix of social, economic and political, but also technological instruments. New technologies can indeed be a game changer in protecting global forests, if adequately understood and implemented: while some can significantly reduce the costs of once expensive activities, such as monitoring large territories, others can achieve what was otherwise impossible in the past, such as easily checking the origin of legal or illegal timber. It will be however necessary to address a series of obstacles – from a policy, legal, but also cultural perspectives – as well as to understand the interaction of such technologies with social and political aspects, for them to be fully effective.Technologies to fight deforestation
While deforestation is almost entirely caused by the expansion of global agriculture (up to 90 per cent of total clearings),[2] failure to prevent it has been due to a number of issues: the cost of monitoring vast or inaccessible territories, such as the core of the Amazon or Indonesia's islands, the lack of effectiveness of enforcement by authorities at all levels, corruption and the relative easiness in evading national and international regulations (also due to their complexity, as in the case of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species – CITES). Technology helps in a number of ways: it reduces the need for specialisation, as many activities can be automatised (such as checking documents through QR codes). It also provides incontrovertible proof of deforestation, raising global awareness on the issue: this has been the case of the sharp increase in the Amazon deforestation under the Bolsonaro administration, which was accurately documented through satellite imagery analysis.[3] It can significantly reduce the cost of monitoring activities and the need for personnel in often understaffed entities, such as NGOs or environmental agencies; drones can cover in a few hours areas that would take entire days to teams on foot. New, experimental technologies also allow for results that were once considered impossible: scanners being now developed by the Spanish police SEPRONA will allow customs officers to trace the origin of wood and eventually declare its legal or illegal origin only by using mobile phones.[4]
While the technologies being applied in the sector are many indeed, a few are particularly promising. Satellite imagery analysis is by far the most relevant and most extensively used. While natural photos are now being coupled with artificial intelligence (AI) to monitor deforestation patterns on a weekly or even daily basis (as in the case of the Forest Watcher app),[5] multispectral images offer new insights that were once impossible even to think of. Drones have helped with patrolling, but they also have other applications, especially if they use advanced instruments (as in the case of the thermal and multispectral cameras now available also on commercial agricultural drones). Among experimental technologies, scanners for the recognition of the origin of timber are instead using DNA and isotope technologies – two methods that can trace the timber sample to the specific region where the tree grew and was harvested. While DNA and isotope technologies are relatively consolidated and, if used in conjunction, have an extremely low margin of error,[6] they also require a significant mapping of forest areas to create the database that will be used to determine the actual origin of timber. This in turn requires a solid collaboration between different authorities – particularly between those in the countries producing the timber and those in the countries buying it – which has historically proved complicated.
While all these methods proved effective over the years, many are indeed the obstacles still ahead. Authorities sometimes do not accept them as valid proof in investigations – this has been the case of several environmental investigations in France, for instance – while their implementation is sometimes impeded by bureaucracy or outdated legislation. This is the case for commercial drones: their technology has made giant leaps in the past ten years, but laws and environmental applications by national authorities are generally based on the low-autonomy drones of the 2010s. Sometimes obstacles are also cultural: technologies are perceived as expensive or inaccessible, even if quick advancements have remarkably changed the landscape in recent years (as again in the case of drones, but also concerning the availability and definition of satellite images). Politics also plays a role: data supplied from sensors, satellite images or drones have in many cases been denied or disregarded by public authorities. Bolsonaro's administration even tried to accuse its own National Institute for Spatial Research, the INPE, of manipulation.[7]The case of Indonesia
Indonesia is alternatively the first or second country for deforestation rates (depending on the year) globally, and has long faced issues in addressing the problem; agriculture (palm oil production in particular) has been the main cause for the clear cutting of its forests, but also the main driver for the country's economic growth since the end of the Suharto dictatorship in 1998. The management of forests and the landscape has been thus entangled with significant political and economic interests, some even dating back to the dictatorship time.[8] Technology is thus key for Indonesia to fight an issue that is still plaguing its ample and often inaccessible forest. The tools being applied in the country are mostly three: satellite imagery analysis, drones and apps.
Satellite images have been extensively used in the past decade and are an established tool throughout all levels of analysis – institutions, international NGOs such as the World Conservation Society (WCS), but also local NGOs. Professors such as Bambang Hero Saharjo from the IPB University have been using satellite data also to conduct investigations and produce evidence for criminal trials against companies illegally clearing forests to plant palm oil (and other crops). Local NGOs such as Jikalahari (based in the Riau province of Sumatra) or Titian (in West Kalimantan, part of the Indonesian Borneo) use a mix of the NASA Fire Information for Resource Management System (FIRMS) and the ESA Copernicus Sentinel-2 data to detect "hotspots" – that is, large fires on agricultural or forest land – in real time. The staff from these NGOs then selects the most relevant locations and tries to understand the entity of the fire first through a network of local informers, and then perform a final check on the field using drones. Photos and videos are then used as evidence in investigations run by national agencies. Technologies are also supporting the sustainable production of commodities. Apps such as KoltiTrace by the agri service provider Koltiva[9] allow for the geolocalisation of the production of coffee, so that buyers can trace the origin of the commodity to legal plantations outside protected forests (this being also one of the key legal requirements of the EUDR). Farms on mountainous terrain, such as those in South Sumatra, are testing drones to map large areas in a short time.
While all these tools are promising and are already bringing results, it is worth noting that they do not exist in a vacuum: politicians and agencies can ignore the data provided by satellites and drones, for instance. This is an ongoing issue in Indonesia, where the government often overestimated the impact of its regulations against deforestation and underestimated the rate of cutting, in contrast with data supplied from satellite imagery. Concerns about government-supplied data have for example been raised in relation to the debate over the 2020 payments under the REDD+ platform (a UN system to compensate countries that limit deforestation)[10] or the estimations for the devastating 2019 forest fires[11] – the research associate David Gaveau, of the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), had even to depart from Indonesia over disagreement with authorities on the data.[12] Similarly, farmers can also find ways to trick the geolocalisation systems – by, for instance, stating that the apps don't work in their area because of lack of signal, or using farms on unprotected land as their own. Corruption can also represent a significant obstacle, the issue being still highly relevant across the country; corrupted officers can avoid reporting what drones or sensors helped them spot, and automatic monitoring systems can be put offline by simulating a malfunction.Looking ahead
In order for the anti-deforestation technologies to be fully effective, it will be necessary to implement a series of complementary measures: economic incentives should be provided for sustainable farming, while the cost of using these technologies should not fall entirely on farmers, but be equally distributed throughout the supply chain. In theory this is already the case with most certification schemes and policies such as the EUDR – the final buyer of the commodity has the duty to perform training and tracing, and to bear the cost for this, while also giving farmers a premium price for their sustainability efforts. However, in many cases this extra budget is absorbed by intermediaries in the supply chain and little actually comes to producers, particularly when they are smallholders. At a more general level, international regulations and treaties, such as the EUDR and the CITES, should push for the integration of satellite data into national policies to define a common understanding of the magnitude and causes of deforestation – so far, they only give general recommendations. Integration of regulations is also essential: countries such as Indonesia have worked on providing guidelines for the sustainable production of key commodities in previous years, but these efforts have rarely been integrated into European policies. Particularly from a technology perspective, such integration could instead solve many of the issues being currently debated around EUDR compliance (particularly tracing and geolocalisation). In this sense, technologies can become a key component of a new, holistic approach to the protection of global forests that the world now needs more than ever.Lorenzo Colantoni is researcher of the Energy, Climate and Resources programme at the Istituto Affari Internazionali (IAI).
This Commentary has been produced under the PRODIGEES project, which has received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement No 873119. The research reported from Indonesia has been witnessed directly by the author, who participated in a number of missions with local experts and NGOs and conducted interviews with them with informed consent.[1] European Parliament and Council of the European Union, Regulation (EU) 2023/1115 of 31 May 2023 on the Making Available on the Union Market and the Export from the Union of Certain Commodities and Products Associated with Deforestation and Forest Degradation, http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2023/1115/oj.[2] FAO, "FRA 2020 Remote Sensing Survey", in FAO Forestry Papers, No. 186 (2022), p. 47, https://doi.org/10.4060/cb9970en.[3] M. Cecilia Oliveira and Leandro Siqueira, "Digitalization between Environmental Activism and Counter-Activism: The Case of Satellite Data on Deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon", in Earth System Governance, Vol. 12 (April 2022), Article 100135, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esg.2022.100135.[4] Lorenzo Colantoni, Giulia Sofia Sarno and Margherita Bianchi, Fighting Illegal Logging in Europe. An Overview of Trends, Players and Action, Rome, IAI and Ambitus, September 2022, p. 35, https://www.iai.it/en/node/15859.[5] ITU News, How AI Can Help Protect Forest Ecosystems, 9 November 2022, https://www.itu.int/hub/?p=23702.[6] David Abrahamson, "It's Time Forensic Timber Tracing Became Mainstream", in DAI Developments Blog, May 2022, https://dai-global-developments.com/articles/its-time-forensic-timber-tracing-became-mainstream.[7] Karla Mendes, "Experts Deny Alleged Manipulation of Amazon Satellite Deforestation Data", in Mongabay, 16 July 2019, https://news.mongabay.com/?p=220464.[8] Tom Johnson, "It's Time to Confront the Collusion Between the Palm Oil Industry and Politicians that Is Driving Indonesia's Deforestation Crisis (Commentary)", in Mongabay, 18 April 2018, https://news.mongabay.com/?p=205867.[9] Koltiva website: KoltiTrace, https://www.koltiva.com/koltitrace.[10] Hans Nicholas Jong, "Experts Question Integrity of Indonesia's Claim of Avoided Deforestation", in Mongabay, 8 September 2020, https://news.mongabay.com/?p=234649.[11] Hans Nicholas Jong, "2019 Fires in Indonesia Were Twice as Bad as the Government Claimed, Study Shows", in Mongabay, 16 December 2021, https://news.mongabay.com/?p=250761.[12] Dyna Rochmyaningsih, "Wildfire Researcher Deported amid Growing Rift between Indonesian Government and Scientists", in Science, 12 February 2020, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abb2763.

Later this week, Republican Gov. Jeff Landry will
present his first budget to the Legislature, in an environment of future
looming deficits that needs to recognize that spending, not revenues, are the
problem.

Earlier
this month, the Joint Legislative Committee on the Budget received a forecast
of revenues and expenditures for the current and next three budget years,
assuming continued trends in revenue and spending, adjusted by known changes in
each. It predicts this fiscal year will produce a $91 million surplus, but then
next year will see a $64 million deficit, followed by much larger ones of $559
million, $614 million, and $773 million.

In response to this data, Landry issued an executive
order to take immediate action to reduce spending where possible. It
certainly was a refreshing change from his predecessor Democrat Gov. John Bel
Edwards, who in similar circumstances would jawbone for more revenues.

But revenues never have been the problem. State
tax collections increased 60 percent from the time of Edwards' first budget to
his last, in part driven higher by a sales tax increase, slightly lowered on
renewal. That renewed rate will roll off the books for fiscal year 2026 which is
when the deficit is expected to exceed half a billion dollars.

That's irrelevant. The real
problem is spending, which rose almost 90 percent in the same time period (state-sourced
spending being about half that rise), or more than three times the rate of
inflation. In fact, in reviewing the major variances over the coming years,
almost the entirety of the projected deficit comes from increases in Medicaid
spending, in large part from taking on the burden
of needless expansion of Medicaid that is ripe for reform (much of the higher costs come from replacing temporary federal dollars).

Fortunately, that excess spending may come down,
as Medicaid
disenrollment from the pandemic period has exceeded expectations (and would
have done even better had Edwards
not slow-walked the process). Unfortunately, Landry's transition team that reviewed
this policy didn't offer suggestions, along the lines of reforms pursued in
Georgia, that would ensure coverage goes to eligible and deserving individuals
at less cost. Even taking advantage of what federal law allows regarding
co-payments and the like would save only something like $175 million annually,
which should be pursued regardless.

Still, while altogether these changes could lop
off half the presumed FY 2026 deficit, they won't cut expenses enough to offset
all of it and beyond. That's where more rapid defeasance of the state's
unfunded accrued liabilities can come in, which automatically will take a quarter
of any future declared surplus from a past budget cycle.

There
exists such a surplus on the books, but only a tenth of that must go to pay
down the UAL because the constitutional amendment increasing the proportion,
broadening its application, and eliminating a 2029 deadline won't go into
effect until FY 2025. It will take a legislative act to pump more into the
effort.

But the payoff would be well worth it. The Teachers
Retirement System of Louisiana has a UAL
of about $8.5 billion. Plowing that FY 2023 surplus into reducing TRSL UAL
would enable school systems to make permanent more than half of the bonus the state
tacked onto educator paychecks for this year, and removing that from the
forecast (which assumed the bonuses would become permanent) would save $200
million more a year on out.

 The point is, this is just one set of solutions to
address projected deficits that don't involve raising permanently or renewing
temporary taxes that don't unduly inconvenience citizens, allowing the state to
live within its means. This marks a stark contrast from Edwards' (and lackadaisical
legislative resistance to) baking in permanently larger government (even
at the last moment), forcing the people to part with more of their
hard-earned dollars to satisfy this lust for outsized government.

 Landry should pursue these kinds of solutions, and it will be
interesting to see how his FY 2025 budget sets the stage to tackle predicted
deficits in the following years.

The 21st century urbanization under neoliberalisation unfolding in the countries of the Global South is characterized by unprecedented increase in population and infrastructure demand, and by dramatic spatial and institutional transformation, which has escalated disparities at multiple scales. As per United Nations World Urbanization Prospects: The 2018 Revision, urbanization level is set to raise to almost 70% by 2050 with majority of the countries in the Global South doubling their population. India is predicted to surpass China and become the most populous country by 2050. Despite the adoption of spatial distribution initiatives such as development of Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor and spatial decentralisation by the national government, Indian urban landscape is marred by disparities. Under the prevalent disparities, accommodating population growth will be an enormous challenge for India, given its limited institutional capacity to manage growth and provide infrastructure. This research takes the states in India through which the Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor will pass as a study area and aims to develop an analytical framework hinged on a theoretical foundation for reducing disparities by integrating infrastructure provision with settlement structure. This framework using mixed methods and multiscale approach enables discerning
and explaining spatial disparities across space and time. The development of such a framework makes two novel contributions to urban research: first, it underscores the relevance of classic urban theories and models for investigating and interpreting the spatial disparities in the regions of the Global South. Second, given data scarcity in these regions, the employment of mixed methods for understanding spatial disparities can be used as a proactive planning tool by policy makers to formulate evidence-based policies for reducing disparities by integrating growth with infrastructure provision. This research applied classical urban theories and models at multiple scales to describe the manifestation of spatial disparities in India. It established the relevance of these theories and models to understand the settlement system as well as to establish important gaps in infrastructure provision while predicting future growth. The papers presented here provide ample evidence that the mixed methods approach can be usefully applied to explain the context-specific peculiarities of spatial disparities. A further contribution of this research is to show that the development of a dataset well synchronised with spatial information on socioeconomic and infrastructure variables is essential for empirically establishing spatial disparities. This research explained the manifestation of spatial disparities at multiple scales. It applied several indicators such as accessibility, connectivity and commuting patterns to establish the weakness of spatial links at multiple scales (such as metropolitan, regional and inter-state). This can be considered an important contribution since improved transport links and access to employment and public services reduces spatial barriers to development. Variables on social and physical infrastructure were examined to determine a lack of adequate services in small and intermediate cities predicted to grow. This is also a crucial finding, as sufficient infrastructure and other amenities have long been considered essential to reduce spatial disparities. This research provides evidence-based policy reforms at multiple scale for curtailing spatial disparities. It argues for the introduction of spatial planning at the national level and its integration with economic plans. This integration needs to be promoted at lower tiers of government. At regional scale, the findings recommend an empowered regional authority to develop and implement a regional spatial strategy, which is not only integrated with plans of
the respective state governments but is also legally binding for the states. At the lowest scale, it is crucial to enhance the potential of small and intermediate settlements, and to move towards an integrated rural-urban governance that treats these areas as one unit for the planning and implementation of infrastructure. This research recommends implementing the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendment Act to facilitate integrated planning and governance at multiple scales.