Suchergebnisse

Introducción
La literatura infantil ha sido, desde sus inicios, un elemento esencial en la vida y el desarrollo de la primera infancia. Desde el punto de vista pedagógico, específicamente los cuentos infantiles son un elemento fundamental en la vida cotidiana del niño. Procuran dejar un mensaje, una enseñanza, una moraleja o, simplemente, cautivar la atención del lector. La literatura en general ha sido, durante siglos, utilizada para comunicar historias, sentimientos, opiniones. Particularmente, la literatura infantil, pretende cultivar hábitos de lectura desde edades muy tempranas e incentivar el gusto por la lectura a medida que el niño va creciendo. En este sentido, Angelo Nobile afirma que:

En nuestros días existe una rica literatura pedagógica que, sobre la base de los geniales descubrimientos freudianos y sintonizando con los resultados obtenidos por la más reciente y acreditada investigación en psicología en la que se pone en evidencia la enorme capacidad educativa de la etapa preescolar, subraya la importancia fundamental de los primeros años de vida, no sólo para el posterior desarrollo intelectual, lingüístico, emotivo-afectivo, ético y social del individuo, sino también para la aparición, el refuerzo y el futuro despliegue de los hábitos activos de lectura. (1992, p. 27).

En efecto, los tradicionales cuentos para niños, que han permanecido vigentes pasando de generación en generación, son una pieza fundamental en la cotidianidad del niño. Asimismo, con la llegada de las tecnologías de la información y la comunicación, el cuento infantil se transforma de manera radical al pasar del papel a la pantalla, convirtiéndose en cuentos interactivos. Estas transformaciones requieren diferentes aspectos de análisis, debido a que las nuevas generaciones, es decir, los niños del siglo XXI que nacieron en un mundo invadido por las nuevas tecnologías, tienen una adaptación innata a estas tecnologías, por lo cual, estos chicos prefieren los formatos digitales, a diferencia de lo que puede suceder con un lector adulto que prefiere el formato impreso, puesto que es el referente que conoce. Según señalan Julio Alonso Arévalo y José A. Cordón:

Este esfuerzo de adaptación al nuevo formato es menor para las nuevas generaciones, los llamados 'nativos digitales', que han convivido desde siempre con las tecnologías de la información y que se sienten incluso más cómodos leyendo en una pantalla que sobre papel. Incluso, según algún estudio que se ha llevado a cabo, afirman que se sienten más motivados y lo hacen con más eficiencia y rapidez leyendo en un dispositivo electrónico que sobre el papel. (2010, p. 62).

De esta manera, nace la necesidad de generar otros métodos de enseñanza, acordes a los avances y las transformaciones de la sociedad, de la mano de las nuevas tecnologías de la información y la comunicación, pues los modelos de aprendizaje que se aplicaban hace más de 20 años, pueden ya no ser tan efectivos para la infancia y la juventud del siglo XXI. El eje principal de la presente investigación son los cuentos infantiles, diseñados por PlayTales, una librería digital de cuentos interactivos multilenguaje, que ofrece contenidos de alta calidad para bebes, niños preescolares y en edad escolar. Como objetivo general, esta Tesis busca identificar las características con las cuales PlayTales diseña sus cuentos Infantiles, con el fin de que sean herramientas lúdico-didácticas que estimulen el desarrollo lingüístico del niño entre los 3 y 5 años de edad. Del mismo modo, propone tres objetivos específicos con los que se pretende corroborar la hipótesis planteada, el primero busca identificar las características de los cuentos infantiles clásicos que facilitan el desarrollo lingüístico en la primera infancia. Igualmente se propone investigar la importancia de las aplicaciones interactivas como herramientas lúdico-didácticas para niños entre 3 y 5 años. Finalmente, se realiza un análisis gráfico los cuentos clásicos interactivos, desarrollados por PlayTales, para determinar si tienen alguna repercusión en el desarrollo lingüístico del niño. Esta investigación consta de cuatro capítulos, basados en conceptos derivados de tres campos específicos, teorías del diseño y la comunicación, la aplicación de nuevas tecnologías y pedagogía infantil, atravesando diferentes conceptos como cuentos infantiles y sus variaciones, interactividad y multimedia. En este sentido, es fundamental realizar un acercamiento a cada término con el fin de lograr una mayor claridad en el desarrollo del proyecto. A lo largo de la Tesis, se consideran distintas variaciones con respecto al cuento infantil en cuanto al contenido y la historia. Cabe aclarar que cuando se menciona cuento clásico o tradicional, se toma la definición de Rossini y Calvo (2013) quienes basan su teoría en el autor Vladimir Propp (1985), estos autores definen los cuentos clásicos o también llamados cuentos tradicionales, como aquellas historias que le dieron vida a la literatura infantil y han sido transmitidas de generación en generación hace más de cuatro mil años. Por su parte, al hablar de cuentos actuales se hace referencia a historias escritas y creadas en el siglo XXI, con temáticas más modernas y contemporáneas. (Rossini y Calvo, 2013) Del mismo modo, se consideran los cuentos maravillosos o cuentos de hadas, a aquellos cuentos con cierto grado de contenido fantástico pero orientados al público y/o lectores infantiles, independientemente si sus historias son clásicas o actuales. "El sentido dramático de los cuentos de hadas busca un cambio, en sus finales, una conciliación para el conflicto. Su intención moralizadora hace que los buenos triunfen y que sus esfuerzos sean premiados por una vida feliz" (Rossini y Calvo, 2013).
Asimismo, se tiene en cuenta la definición de los cuentos fantásticos, en los que se ven finales trágicos e inesperados. "Mientras en el mundo de las hadas la magia y el encantamiento se aceptan como hechos cotidianos y naturales, lo fantástico irrumpe como lo inexplicable, lo misteriosos y lo insólito" (Rossini y Calvo, 2013). Y por último, se encuentran los cuentos folklóricos, entendidos como aquellas historias antiguas, provenientes de la tradición oral de su cultura. "El término 'folklore' significa 'saber del pueblo'. Integran el folklore aquellas manifestaciones que, surgidas en el seno del pueblo y en una región determinada, se han transmitido a través de las generaciones, preservadas por la tradición" (Rossini y Calvo, 2013).
Vinculado al concepto de cuentos infantiles, el eje principal de esta Tesis, se estudia a la interactividad como una característica facilitadora de la literatura infantil. Igualmente, se hace referencia al cuento multimedial interactivo, mencionado también en esta Tesis como cuento interactivo o cuento multimedial. Para esto, se realiza una definición de multimedia e interactividad, se sigue la definición de Alfonso Gutiérrez Martín (1997) quien define la multimedia como cualquier producto hardware o software que relacione la imagen y el sonido en un ordenador, integrando diversos medios digitales para la creación de un documento multisensorial e interactivo visto en una plataforma.
Mientras que para el concepto de interactividad, se considera la teoría de Rodrigo Alonso (2005), quien se refiere a interactividad como el proceso por el cual una instalación necesita de un usuario para poner en marcha su funcionamiento. Alonso (2005) afirma que en una pieza interactiva no existen espectadores, existen usuarios. La relación entre el usuario y la pieza ya no se basa en la contemplación, sino que para su funcionamiento el usuario deberá activarla, manipularla o interferir en ella, su uso depende de la forma en que se opera o estimula; de otra manera la pieza carece de todo sentido y función.
En este sentido, se puede afirmar que un cuento infantil interactivo para dispositivos móviles es, en otras palabras, un cuento multimedial, que tiene como factor primordial de diseño y comunicación la interactividad.
Dentro de este marco teórico, se hace énfasis en cada uno de los contenidos a desarrollar en los cuatro capítulos que conforman esta Tesis. Inicialmente, el capítulo I hace referencia a los cuentos infantiles, allí se realiza una contextualización histórica de la literatura infantil de la mano de teorías como la de Xabier Etxaniz (2008) quien realizó una investigación en torno al tema. Asimismo, se realiza un análisis teórico con el fin de determinar la importancia que tiene la literatura en la primera infancia, se define qué es un cuento clásico, debido a la elección del caso de estudio que analiza tres cuentos clásicos: Caperucita Roja, Los Tres Cerditos y Peter Pan, y su inclusión en las nuevas tecnologías.
En el capítulo II se aborda el desarrollo pedagógico de los nativos digitales que están entre los 3 y los 5 años de edad, y cómo es la transformación que enfrentan los procesos de enseñanza-aprendizaje. En este capítulo se recurre a las teorías de Jerome S. Bruner (1998) y Jean Piaget (1996) quienes se refieren a diferentes etapas o estadios que se dan en los primeros años de vida de un niño, del mismo modo se analizan algunas de las características de niños entre 3 y 5 años de edad, en el siglo XXI (Fernández, 2010).
Adicionalmente, en el capítulo III, se toma el concepto 'lúdico-didáctico' y se realiza un desarrollo de ambos términos, destacando la importancia que tienen aquellas herramientas que buscan enseñar, por medio del juego, a niños en la primera infancia. Del mismo modo, se presentan los cuentos infantiles interactivos como herramientas lúdico-didácticas, y finalmente se realiza un panorama del diseño y la comunicación visual en los cuentos infantiles y algunos de sus recursos gráficos.
Por último, en el capítulo IV se realiza todo el planteo metodológico que enmarca tres instrumentos de recolección de datos, por medio de los cuales se busca, finalmente, afirmar que los cuentos infantiles interactivos desarrollados por PlayTales son herramientas lúdico-didácticas que facilitan el desarrollo lingüístico del niño entre 3 y 5 años de edad, hipótesis planteada en esta investigación.
En conclusión, se plantea que el cuento infantil forma parte del mundo digital, convirtiéndose en una herramienta interactiva más atractiva para el niño. No obstante, para lograr que un cuento multimedial interactivo sea considerado un complemento de un cuento impreso, es necesario tener en cuenta las características gráficas y pedagógicas que tienen los cuentos impresos, además de añadir a su diseño características de interactividad. En efecto, el cuento infantil interactivo será una edición mejorada o un avance exitoso en la historia de la literatura infantil, que sin perder sus fines pedagógicos incursiona en el mundo digital y se convierte en una herramienta interactiva. Para finalizar, es importante resaltar que esta Tesis se enmarca en dos líneas temáticas para su desarrollo, nuevas tecnologías y pedagogía del diseño y la comunicación.

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Hosahalli-1Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 764 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 571 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 3 ha area is covered by railway line, 42 ha area is under rock outcrops, 8 ha area is covered by mining/industrial and 139 ha area is covered by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 4 soil series and 4 soil phases (management units) and 2 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 1 per cent of area is moderately deep (75-100 cm), 15 per cent of area is deep (100 - 150 cm) and 59 per cent of area is very deep (>150 cm).  About 25 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 50 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  Entire area in the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity and 1 per cent of area is very low (0.75%), 28 per cent area is medium (0.5-0.75%) and 36 per cent area is low (57 kg/ha) and 14 per cent of area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium content.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in an area of 24 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (1 ppm) in an area of 27 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in an area of 34 per cent and deficient (<4.5 ppm) in an area of 41 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in an area of 47 per cent and sufficient in an area of 28 per cent of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 571 (75) Guava - 9 (1) Maize 9 (1) 562 (74) Sapota - 9 (1) Bajra 9 (1) 562 (74) Pomegranate - 9 (1) Groundnut 9 (1) - Musambi - 9 (1) Sunflower - 9 (1) Lime - 9 (1) Redgram - 571 (75) Amla 9 (1) - Bengal gram - 372 (49) Cashew 9 (1) - Cotton - - Jackfruit - 9 (1) Chilli 9 (1) - Jamun - - Tomato 9 (1) - Custard apple 9 (1) - Brinjal 9 (1) - Tamarind - - Onion 9 (1) - Mulberry - 9 (1) Bhendi 9 (1) - Marigold 9 (1) - Drumstick - 9 (1) Chrysanthemum 9 (1) - Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Hosahalli-1 is located at North latitude 160 45' 9.943" and 160 43' 46.781" and East longitude 770 10' 30.248" and 770 7' 20.483" covering an area of about 763.80 ha coming under Yadhigrir. B and Majara hosalli villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Hosahalli-1 micro watersheds of Shettigeri subwatershed, Yadgir taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 31 farmers were sampled in Hosahalli-1 micro-watershed among households surveyed 9 (29.03%) were marginal, 8 (25.81%) were small, 2 (6.45 %) were semi medium, 2 (6.45 %) were medium farmers. 10 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 86 (53.75%) men and 74 (46.25 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (54.37%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 36.88 per cent illiterates, 1.25 percent were functional literates, 50.01 per cent pre university education and 14.37 per cent attained graduation.  About, 48.39 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 29.03 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 23.13 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 45.16 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 25.81 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 93.55 per cent possess TV, 54.84 per cent possess mixer grinder, 96.77 per cent possess mobile phones and 29.03 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 9.68 per cent of the households possess plough, 3.23 per cent possess tractor, 6.45 per cent possess bullock cart and 3.23 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 16.13 per cent possess local cow and 12.90 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.13, women available in the micro watershed was 2, hired labour (men) available was 6.44 and hired labour (women) available was 6.  Further, 25.81 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season. 2  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 49.50 per cent (32.30 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 32.58 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 1.00 live bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 9.69 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Paddy, Cotton, Greengram, Sorghum and Greengram and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  Out of the sample households 54.84 percent possessed bank account and 41.94 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 25.81 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 50.00 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 25.00 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 100.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Paddy and Cotton was Rs. and 81454.07 with benefit cost ratio of 1:5.90 and 1: 1.10 respectively.  Further, 35.48 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 12.90 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 203258.06 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 127935.48 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 38 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 3387.10 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 19.35 per cent depends on own funds and 6.45 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 32.26 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 16.13 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 45.16 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (22.58%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 48.39 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 74.19 per cent of the households and 38.71 per cent households has LPG connection. 3  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 83.87 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 96.77 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 58.06 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 83.87 per cent of the households possessed BPL card, 16.13 per cent of the household's possessed APL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (77.42%), pulses (67.74%) and oilseeds (22.58%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (54.84%) wild animal menace on farm field (41.94%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (32.26%), inadequacy of irrigation water (25.81%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (38.71%), high rate of interest on credit (12.90%), low price for the agricultural commodities (29.03%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (12.90%), inadequate extension services (6.45%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (12.90%), Less rainfall (25.81%) and Source of Agri-technology information (Newspaper/ TV/Mobile) (22.58%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Padasavli-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characterstics, classification and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 667 ha in Aland taluk of Kalaburagi district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought prone with an average annual rainfall of 786 mm of which about 595 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 116mm during north-east and the remaining 75 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 98 per cent is covered by soils, two per cent by waterbodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 6 soil series and 29 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from the 3rd week of June to 1st week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 84 per cent area is suitable for agriculture and 14 per cent is not suitable for agriculture but well suited for forestry, pasture, agroforestry, silvi-pasture, recreation, installation of wind mills and as habitat for wildlife.  About 4 per cent of the soils are very deep (>150 cm), 9 per cent are moderately deep (75- 100 cm), 39 per cent are moderately shallow to shallow (25-75 cm) and about 46 per cent are very shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 9 per cent medium (100-150 mm/m) and about 85 per cent low (50-100 mm/m) and very low (9.0) and about 33 per cent slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8) and 3 per cent has soils that are neutral (6.5-7.3) in reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) and 17 per cent low (337 kg/ha) and 9 per cent low (20 ppm).  Available boron is low (0.6 ppm) in available iron.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  About 78 per cent area has soils that are deficient (0.6 ppm) in available zinc.  The land suitability for 18 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 61 (9) 40 (6) Sapota - - Maize - - Jackfruit - - Red gram - 101 (15) Jamun - 30(4) Sunflower 61(9) 27(4) Musambi 30(4) 58(9) Cotton 61 (9) 40 (6) Lime 30(4) 58(9) Sugarcane - - Cashew - - Soybean 61 (9) 40 (6) Custard apple 61 (9) 40 (6) Guava - - Amla 61 (9) 40 (6) Mango - - Tamarind - 30(4) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 5 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops that helps in maintaining the ecological balance in microwatershed  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands and also in the field bunds, hillocks, mounds and ridges SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS OF FARM HOUSEHOLDS Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Padasavli-2 micro-watershed (Padasavli sub-watershed, Aland taluk, Gulbarga district) is located in between 17034'–17037' North latitudes and 76025'– 76028' East longitudes, covering an area of about 666.62 ha, bounded by Chincholi Khurd, Khanapur, Nagalogaon and Nirgudi villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for Padasavli-2 micro-watershed (Padasavli subwatershed, Aland taluk, Gulbarga district) are presented here. Social Indicators  Male and female ratio is 58.7 to 41.3 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 57.4 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 97.8 per cent.  Social groups belong to others backward caste (OBC) is around 90.0 per cent.  Fire wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 90.0 per cent.  About 90.0 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 90.0 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 20.0 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making of agriculture production activities was found. Economic Indicators  The average land holding is 3.33 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to medium and large farmers. The total cultivated area by dry land condition among the sample farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation among 23.9 per cent and agriculture is the main and agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 71.7 per cent of sample households. 2  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs.6300 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 4575 per household, about 60.0 per cent of sample farmers weeder and sprayer.  The average value of livestock is around Rs. 43000 per household; about 20.0 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 786.8 grams (1814.6 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 90.0 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs. 47502 per household. About 60.0 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs.3280. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 1364 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 893286 per year for the total area of 666.62 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs 14165/ ha/year. Per hectare food grains production services is maximum in sunflower (Rs. 15850) and redgram (Rs. 12479).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in redgram (Rs 496378) and sunflower (Rs 23903). Economic Land Evaluation  The major cropping pattern is redgram (90.3 %) and sunflower (9.7 %).  In Padsalvi-2 micro-watershed, major soils are margutti (MGT) series is having very shallow soil depth cover around 46.28 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing redgram (85.0 %), sunflower (15.0 %) and Mannur (MAN) are also having very deep soil depth cover 4.45 % of area, the crops are redgram.  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area of red gram range between Rs.21016/ha in MGT soil (with BCR of 1.64) and Rs.16175/ha in MAR soil (with BCR of 1.52).  In sunflower the cost of cultivation Rs. 16105/ha in MGT soil (with BCR of 1.98). 3  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in redgram (19.3 to 56.4 %) and sunflower (46.0 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Dargah-3 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 465 ha in Chitapur taluk of Gulbarga district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought prone with an average annual rainfall of 762 mm of which about 571mm is received during south –west monsoon, 99 mm during north-east and the remaining 92 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 99 per cent is covered by soils, one per cent by water bodies and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 3 soil series and 5 soil phases (management units) and 2 Land Use Classes.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 2nd week of June to 3rd week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 99 per cent area is suitable for agriculture and 1 per cent is not suitable for agriculture.  About 40 per cent of the soils are moderately deep to deep (75-150 cm) and 60 per cent of the soils are very deep (>150cm).  About 99 per cent of the area has clayey soils at the surface.  About 99 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils.  About 88 per cent of the area has soils that are very high (>200mm/m) in available water capacity and 11 per cent medium (100-150 mm/m).  About 99 per cent of the area has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 33 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 66 per cent moderately eroded (e2).  An area of about 57 per cent has soils that are moderately alkaline (pH 7.8 to 8.4), 43 per cent strongly to very strongly alkaline (pH 8.4 to >9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) and 4 per cent low (20 ppm).  Available boron is low (1.0 ppm).  Available iron is deficient (4.5 ppm).  Available manganese is sufficient (>1.0 ppm) in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available copper is sufficient (>0.2 ppm) in all the soils of the microwatershed.  About 2 per cent area has soils that are sufficient (>0.6 ppm) in available zinc and about 452 ha (97%) area is deficient.  The land suitability for 19 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 319(68) 145(31) Sapota - 464(99) Maize - - Jackfruit - - Redgram 114 (24) 349(75) Jamun - 464(99) Sunflower 319 (68) 145(31) Musambi 410(88) 54(11) Cotton 319 (68) 145(31) Lime 410(88) 54(11) Sugarcane - - Cashew - - Soybean 319 (68) 145(31) Custard apple 464(99) - Bengal gram 465(99) - Amla 464(99) - Guava - 464(99) Tamarind - 464(99) Mango - - Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the two identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel, generate lot of biomass which helps in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Dargah-3 Microwatershed (Invi sub-watershed, Chitapur taluk, Gulbarga district) is located in between 17012' – 17014' North latitudes and 7704' – 7707' East longitudes, covering an area of about 465 ha, bounded by Tonsanhalli, Mudbol, Mulkod, Belgumpa and Gundagurthi villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for Dargah-3 Microwatershed (Invi sub-watershed, Chitapur taluk, Gulbarga district) are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 61.8 to 38.2 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 49.1 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 89.1 per cent.  Social groups belong to other backward caste (OBC) among all sample households.  Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is the source of energy for a cooking among 60.0 per cent.  About 40.0 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  Around 30.0 percent of farm households are having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 90.0 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 70.0 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making for agriculture production was found. 2 Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 2.09 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to small and medium farmers. The total cultivated area by dry land condition among the sample farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation among 32.4 per cent and agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 35.3 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 128017 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 108399 per household, about 70 per cent of sample farmers having bullock cart.  The average value of livestock is around Rs.36667 per household; about 33.3 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 976.5 grams (2202.14 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 60.0 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs. 53513 per household. About 40.0 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs.2045. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 927 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 430021 per year for the total area of 463.98 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 19591/ha/year in red gram.  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in red gram (Rs.56126). Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is redgram (100 %).  In Dergah-3 Microwatershed, major soils are soil of Dargah (DRG) series is having deep soil depth cover around 28.05 % of area. On this soil farmers are 3 presently growing red gram (100 %) and Dandothi (DDT) are also having very deep soil depth cover 60.08 % of area, the crops are red gram (100 %).  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for red gram range between Rs. 24975/ha in DRG soil (with BCR of 2.23) and Rs 22079/ha in DDT soil (with BCR of 2.29).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in redgram (12.4%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Belagunda-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 493 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 473 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 21 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 5 soil series and 5 soil phases (management units) and 3 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 96 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep to very deep (75 - >150 cm) and 200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 9 per cent is medium (101-150 mm/m) and 0.75).  About 53 per cent area is low in available phosphorus and 43 per area is medium (23-57 kg/ha).  About 25 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in available potassium and 71 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha).  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 88 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in 55 per cent area.  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in 63 per cent area and deficient in 33 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 4 per cent area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 26 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 425(86) 47(9) Sapota - - Maize - 471(96) Pomegranate - 367(15) Bajra - 472(96) Musambi 367(75) 104(21) Groundnut - - Lime 367(75) 104(21) Sunflower 367(75) 104(21) Amla 57(12) 414(84) Redgram - 414(84) Cashew - - Bengal gram 425(86) 47(9) Jackfruit - - Cotton 425(86) 47(9) Jamun - 424(86) Chilli - 472(96) Custard apple 471(96) - Tomato - 367 (75) Tamarind - 424(86) Drumstick - 472(96) Mulberry - - Mango - - Marigold - 472(96) Guava - - Chrysanthemum - 472(96)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUSs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Belagunda-2 is located at North latitude 160 33' 45.008" and 160 31' 56.225" and East longitude 770 13' 48.438'' and 770 11' 46.97" covering an area of about 474.74 ha coming unde Bheemanalli and Belagundi Villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Belagunda-2 micro watersheds of Belagunda subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 farmers were sampled in Belagunda-2 micro-watershed among households surveyed 8 (22.86%) were marginal, 11 (31.43%) were small, 9 (25.71 %) were semi medium, 2 (5.71 %) were medium and 1 (2.86 %) were large farmers. 4 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 84 (50.91%) men and 81 (49.09 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (42.42%) were in the age group of 16-35 years. The average population of landless was 5.5, marginal farmers were 4.5, small farmers were 4.4, semi medium farmers were 4.7, medium farmers were 6.5 and large farmers were 4.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 21.21 per cent illiterates, 83.64 per cent pre university education and 3.03 per cent attained graduation.  About, 82.86 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 5.71 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 41.21 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 80.00 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 2.86 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 48.57 per cent possess TV, 5.71 per cent possess mixer grinder, 100.00 per cent possess mobile phones and 5.71 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 25.71 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.86 per cent possess tractor, 5.71 per cent possess bullock cart and 2.86 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 2.86 per cent possess local cow.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.26, women available in the micro watershed was 1.17, hired labour (men) available was 7.43 and hired labour (women) available was 13.6. 2  Further, 34.29 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 53.69 per cent (46.89 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 46.31 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 10.00 live bore wells and 5.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 25.71 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Paddy, Jowar, Cotton and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  Out of the sample households 74.29 percent possessed bank account and 31.43 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 100.00 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 71.43 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 100.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Paddy, Jowar, Cotton was Rs.44928.33 , 24733.19, 36434.67 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.10, 1: 1.40, 1: 2.40 respectively.  Further, 25.71 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 97065.71 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 62608.57 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 2 horticulture trees and 6 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  About 34.29 per cent of the households shown interest to cultivate horticultural crops.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs.2914.29 for land development and Rs. 4285.71 for irrigation facility.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 17.14 per cent depends on own funds.  Regarding marketing channels, 22.86 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 65.71 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 62.86 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity. 3  Majority of the farmers (51.43%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 77.14 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 60.00 per cent of the households and 40.00 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 91.43 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 40.00 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (80.00%), pulses (65.71%) and oilseeds (57.14%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (80.00%) wild animal menace on farm field (51.43%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (54.29%), inadequacy of irrigation water (62.86%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (88.57%), high rate of interest on credit (85.71%), low price for the agricultural commodities (88.57%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (88.57%), inadequate extension services (11.43%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (62.86%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Gudigeri North-1microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 448ha in Koppaltalukand district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 98 per cent is covered by soils, two per cent bywaterbodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 5 soil series and 9 soil phases (management units) and 4 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  Entire area has clayey soils at the surface.  About 67 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils, 23 per cent gravelly soils (15-35 % gravel) and 8 per cent very gravelly (35- 60% gravel) soils.  About 65 per cent of the area has low (51-100 mm/m), 4 per cent medium (101-150 mm/m) and 30 per cent very high (>200mm/m) available water capacity.  Entire area has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  Entire area has moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 47 per cent has soils that are strongly alkaline (pH 8.4 to 9.0)and about 52 per cent are very strongly alkaline (pH>9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 337 kg/ha) in the entire area of the microwatershed  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm).  Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 69 per cent area and medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) in 30 per cent area.  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in the entire area.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 24 major crops grown in the microwatershedwere assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 4 (<1) 326 (72 ) Sapota - - Maize - - Jackfruit - - Bajra - - Jamun - 133(29) Groundnut - 181 (40) Musambi 4(<1) 145 (32) Sunflower 4 (<1) 145 (31) Lime 4(<1) 145 (32) Chilli - - Cashew - - Tomato - - Custard apple 4 (<1) 326 (73) Drumstick - 149 (32) Amla 329 (73) Mulbery 329 (73) Tamarind - 133 (30) Pomegranate - 149 (33) Marigold - 329 (72) Guava - - Chrysanthemum - 329 (73) Mango - - Jasmine - 181(40) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which inturn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: The Gudigeri North-1 micro-watershed is located in between 15020' – 15021' North latitudes and 75054' – 75056' East longitudes, covering an area of about 448.57 ha and bounded by Kavalura, Gudigeri villages and Yelburga Taluk in Koppal taluk and district. It falls under Agro Ecological Region (AER)–3: (Deccan plateau, hot arid ecosubregion) Karnataka Plateau (Rayalseema as inclusion), hot arid ESR with deep loamy and clayey mixed red and black soils, low to medium AWC and LGP 60-90 days We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified for each watershed. Results: We found that Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 52 to 47 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age groups of population is around 54 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 54.3 per cent.  Wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 87.5 per cent.  About 12.5 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  Majority of farm households (50 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employments.  Dependence on ration cards through public distribution system is around 100 per cent  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 62.5 per cent of sample households.  Institutional participation is only 2.2 per cent of sample households.  Rural migration to unban centre for employment is prevent among 37.5 per cent of farm households.  Women participation is decisions making are around 12.5 per cent of households were found. 2 Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 1.9 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation among 23 per cent and Agriculture labour is predominant subsidiary occupation for 60 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs 24875 per household. Mobile and television are mass popular mass communication media.  The average farm assets a value is around Rs 197441 per household, about 50 per cent of sample farmers are owing tractors.  The average livestock value is around Rs 39067 per livestock; about 62.5 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 675 grams (1515 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition recommendation at 827 gram. Around 88 per cent of sample farmers are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs 4909 per household. About 12.5 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita monthly expenditure is around Rs 752 per household. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs 7121 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs 3086740 per year for the total area of 448.57 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food production is around Rs 1500/ ha/year. Per ha food production services is maximum in Bengal gram (Rs 5102/ha) followed by sunflower (Rs 2224/ha) and green gram (Rs 2149).  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs 2779/ ha/year. Per ha fodder production services is maximum in Sorghum (Rs 2964 /ha) followed by Maize (Rs 2470 /ha) (Rs 14/ha).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in Bengal gram (Rs 46909) followed by Green gram (Rs 32659), Sunflower (Rs 21683), sorghum (Rs 18821) and maize (Rs 12073). Economic Land Evaluation  The major cropping pattern is green gram (48.2%) followed by sunflower (23.1%), bengal gram (12.7 %), maize (9.5 %) and sorghum (6.4 %). 3  In Gudigeri North-1 micro watershed, major soils are Muttal (MTL) soil series are having very shallow soil depth covers around 25.1 % of area. On the soil farmers are presently growing are green gram (44.4 %), maize (16.7 %) and sorghum (11.1 %). Ravanaki (RNK) series are having moderately shallow soil deep cover around 40.32 % of area, crops growing sunflower (41.9 %) and green gram (76.6 %). Gatareddihalla (GRH) soil series are having deep soil depth cover around 28.69 per cent of area; crops are bengal gram and sunflower.  The total cost of cultivation in the study area for green gram ranges between Rs.17355/ha in MTL soil (with BCR of 1.09) and Rs.10274/ha in RNK soil (with BCR of 1.35).  In sunflower the cost of cultivation range between Rs 22200/ha in GRH soil (with of 1.03) and Rs.18544/ha in MTL soil (with BCR of 1.13).  In sorghum the cost of cultivation in MTL soil is Rs.17047/ha (with BCR of 1.08).  In bengal gram the cost of cultivation in GRH soil is Rs.22068/ha (with BCR of 1.23) and maize cultivation in MTL soil is Rs 18148/ha (with BCR of 1.12). Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthening institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in bengal gram (23.6 %), sunflower (33.3 to 50.6 %), green gram (14 to 43.7 %), maize (82.6 %) and sorghum (66.7 %) ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Govankop-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 600 ha in Shirahatti taluk of Gadag district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought- prone with an average annual rainfall of 633 mm of which about 363 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 165 mm during north-east and the remaining 105 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 96 per cent is covered by soils, four per cent by waterbodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 11 soil series and 32 soil phases (management units) and 7 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from the 3rd week of June to 1st week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 96 per cent area is suitable for agriculture.  About 9 per cent of the soils are deep (100 - 150 cm) to moderately deep (75-100 cm), 59 per cent are moderately shallow to shallow (25-75 cm) and about 28 per cent are very shallow (9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon.  Entire area in the microwatershed is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm).  Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 52 per cent area, medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) in 21 per cent area and high (>1.0 ppm) in 23 per cent area.  Available iron is deficient in about 15 per cent area and sufficient in 81 per cent area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  Available zinc is sufficient (>0.6 ppm) in 4 per cent and deficient (<0.6 ppm) in 92 per cent area of the Microwatershed.  The land suitability for 21 major crops grown in the Microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 191 (32) Jackfruit - 16 (3) Maize - 72 (12) Jamun - - Bengalgram - 146 (24) Musambi - 52 (9) Groundnut - 72 (12) Lime - 16 (3) Sunflower - 52 (9) Cashew - 16 (3) Cotton - 138 (23) Custard Apple - 108 (18) Banana - 52 (9) Amla - 108 (18) Pomegranate - 52 (9) Tamarind - 16 (3) Mango - 16 (3) Marigold - 138 (23) Sapota - 16(3) Chrysanthemum - 138 (23) Guava - 16 (3) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fibre and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS OF FARM HOUSEHOLDS Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Govankop-1 micro-watershed (Kanakvad sub-watershed, Shirahatti taluk, Gadag district) is located in between 1500' – 1501' North latitudes and 75038' – 75041' East longitudes, covering an area of about 600 ha, bounded by Kerikoppa, Belhatti, Kanakvad and Kerikoppa villages with length of growing period (LGP) 150-180 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Govankop-1 micro-watershed (Kanakvad sub-watershed, Shirahatti taluk, Gadag district) are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 52.3 to 47.7 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 67.8 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 80 per cent.  Social groups belong to other backward caste (SC) is around 80 per cent.  Fire wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 80 per cent.  About 70 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  Majority of farm households (50 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 70 per cent of sample households.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 80 per cent of sample households.  Institutional participation is only 1.5 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making is among all the households were found. Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 1.02 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to small and medium farmers. The dry land of 80.6 % and irrigated land 19.4 % of total cultivated land area among the sample farmers. 2  Agriculture is the main occupation and agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation among 90.8 per cent and agriculture is the main and government services are a subsidiary occupation for 1.5 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 97362 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average farm assets value is around Rs. 142619 per household, about 30 per cent of sample farmers having plough and sprayer.  The average livestock value is around Rs. 29731 per household; about 71.43 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 1014 grams (2227.5 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Among all sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs.16631 per household. About 100 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita monthly average expenditure is around Rs.1929. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 1044 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 600606 per year for the total area of 600.4 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 3187/ha/year in maize crops.  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 2805/ ha/year.  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in maize (Rs. 27159). Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is maize (100 %).  In Govinkoppa-1 micro-watershed, major soil is Hanganakatti (HGK) and Shirol (SRL) soil series is having very shallow soil depth cover around 10.40 per cent and 17.43 per cent of areas, respectively. On this soil farmers are presently growing maize. Yelisirunj (YSJ) and Beladadi (BLD) soil series are having shallow soil depth cover around 6.38 per cent and 8.85 per cent of area, respectively the crop is maize. Kabulayathakatti Tanda (KKT), Attikatti Tanda (ATT) and Venkatapur (VKP) soil series are having moderately shallow soil 3 depth covers around 12.24 per cent, 5.0 per cent and 13.89 per cent of areas, respectively on crop is maize. Jelligeri (JLG) soil is having moderately deep soil depth cover around 6.0 per cent of area the crop on maize.  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for maize ranges between Rs.48232/ha in BLD soil (with BCR of 1.34) and Rs.12643/ha in YSJ soil (with BCR of 1.80).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households. By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in maize (63.1 to 79.8 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Yadgir Rf6 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 547 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 535 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 5 ha area is under rock outcrops and 8 ha area is covered by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 4 soil series and 4 soil phases (management units) and 2 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 535 ha area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  Very shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 3 per cent is low (51-100 mm/m) and 90 per cent area is very low (0.75%) and 63 per cent area is medium (0.5- 0.75%) in organic carbon content.  An area of about 41 per cent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 57 per cent of area is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus content in the microwatershed.  An area of about 66 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 31 per cent area is low (20 ppm) in an area of 4.5 ppm) in an area of 58 per cent and deficient (<4.5 ppm) in an area of 39 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in an area of 70 per cent and sufficient in an area of 28 per cent of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - - Guava - - Maize - - Sapota - - Bajra - - Pomegranate - - Groundnut - - Musambi - - Sunflower - - Lime - - Redgram - - Amla - - Bengal gram - - Cashew - - Cotton - - Jackfruit - - Chilli - - Jamun - - Tomato - - Custard apple - - Brinjal - - Tamarind - - Onion - - Mulberry - - Bhendi - - Marigold - - Drumstick - - Chrysanthemum - - Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Yadgiri Rf-6 is located at North latitude 160 55' 30.912" and 160 53' 56.834'' and East longitude 770 12' 14.293'' and 770 10' 18.069" covering an area of about 547.21 ha coming under Motahalli and Baggalamadu Villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Yadgiri Rf-6 micro watersheds of Yadgiri Rf subwatershed, Yadagiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 34 total respondents, 12 (35.29 %) were marginal, 16 (47.06%) were small, 1 (2.94 %) were Semi medium and 1 (2.94 %) were medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 87 (55.06%) men and 71 (44.94 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (46.20%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 70.89 per cent illiterates, 5.70 per cent of them had primary school education, 3.16 per cent middle school education, and 10.76 per cent high school education, 4.43 per cent of them had PUC education, 2.53 per cent attained graduation.  About, 94.12 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 11.76 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 69.62 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 94.12 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 8.82 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 67.65 per cent possess TV, 14.71 per cent possess mixer grinder, 91.18 per cent possess mobile phones and 17.65 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 35.29 per cent of the households possess plough, 17.65 per cent possess bullock cart and 17.65 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 14.71 per cent possess local cow and 2.94 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own men and women labour availability in the micro watershed was 9.39 each, while the hired labour (men) availability was1.47.  Further, 94.1 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was adequate during the agricultural season.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 82.22 per cent (30.24 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 17.78 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 3.00 live bore wells among the sampled households. 2  Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 14.70 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Paddy, Groundnut, Redgram and Cotton and cropping intensity was recorded as 96.80 per cent.  Out of the sample households 85.29 percent possessed bank account and 17.65 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 76.47 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 100 per cent have borrowed loan from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 80.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations, while, only 20.00 per cent respondents opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfil their requirement.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Paddy, Groundnut, Redgram and Cotton as Rs.71067.10, 93085.66, 31222.76 and 31443.11with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.20, 1: 1.00, 1: 2.10 and 1: 1.50 respectively.  Further, 55.88 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 106000.00 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 47558.82 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 9 horticulture trees and 52 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 4091.18 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 14.71 per cent depends on own funds and 2.94 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 91.18 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 2.94 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 61.76 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (38.24%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 88.24 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  About, 8.82 per cent of farmers practicing Loose Border Checks as soil and water conservation practice.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 82.35 per cent of the households and 35.29 per cent households has LPG connection. 3  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 94.12 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 97.06 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 58.82 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 97.06 per cent of the households possessed BPL card and 2.94 per cent of the household's were not having ration cards.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (100.00%), pulses (70.59%) and oilseeds (41.18%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (88.24%) wild animal menace on farm field (82.35%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (88.24%), inadequacy of irrigation water (85.29%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (88.24%), high rate of interest on credit (91.18%), low price for the agricultural commodities (91.18%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (88.24%), inadequate extension services (61.76%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (88.24%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Mavanahalli-1Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 361 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 403 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 5 ha area is covered by railway line, 323 ha area is covered by mining/industrial and 31 ha area is covered by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 8 soil series and 8 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 336 ha area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 12 per cent of area is shallow (25-50 cm), 150 cm).  About 12 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 19 per cent loamy soils and 62 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  An area of 50 per cent is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 32 per cent area is medium (101-150 mm/m) and 13 per cent of area is very low (0.75%), 56 per cent area is medium (0.5-0.75%) and 2 per cent area is low (57 kg/ha) and 61 per cent of area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium content.  Available sulphur content is low (4.5 ppm) in an area of 39 per cent and deficient (<4.5 ppm) in an area of 55 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 67 (19) 137 (38) Guava - 67 (19) Maize 67 (19) 137 (38) Sapota - 67 (19) Bajra 67 (19) 137 (38) Pomegranate - 146 (40) Groundnut - 67 (19) Musambi - 146 (40) Sunflower - 146 (40) Lime - 146 (40) Redgram - 204 (57) Amla 67 (19) - Bengal gram - 137 (38) Cashew - - Cotton - 146 (40) Jackfruit - 67 (19) Chilli - 146 (40) Jamun - - Tomato - 67 (19) Custard apple - 146 (40) Brinjal - 67 (19) Tamarind - - Onion - 67 (19) Mulberry - 67 (19) Bhendi - 146 (40) Marigold - 146 (40) Drumstick - 67 (19) Chrysanthemum - 146 (40) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Mavanahalli-1 is located at North latitude 160 31' 9.304" and 160 29' 12.155" and East longitude 770 19' 56.248'' and 770 19' 1.502" covering an area of about 343.08 ha coming under Mavinahalli and Kadechoora villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Mavanahalli-1 micro watersheds of Kadechur subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 total respondents, 3 (8.57 %) were marginal, 20 (57.14%)were small, 5 (14.29 %) were Semi medium and 2 (5.71 %) were medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 110 (60.44%) men and 72 (39.56 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (50.00%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 40.66 per cent illiterates, 1.10 percent were functional literates, 57.69 per cent pre university education and 5.49 per cent attained graduation.  About, 82.86 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 14.29 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 62.09 per cent of the household members.  In the study area and 68.57 per cent of the households possess katcha house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 82.86 per cent possess TV, 82.86 per cent possess mixer grinder, 94.29 per cent possess mobile phones and 20.00 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 25.71 per cent of the households possess plough, 5.71 per cent possess tractor, 20.00 per cent possess bullock cart and 14.29 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 8.57 per cent possess local cow.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.69, women available in the micro watershed was 1.60, hired labour (men) available was 6.03 and hired labour (women) available was 7.86.  Further, 8.57 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  In the study area, about 9.34 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 1114.17 kms for about 4.00 months.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 89.09 per cent (48.98 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 10.91 per cent area is irrigated land. 2  There were 3.00 live bore wells and 4.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 8.57 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut and Sorghum and cropping intensity was recorded as 91.38 per cent.  Out of the sample households 100.00 percent possessed bank account and 100.00 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 34.29 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 16.67 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 158.33 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 77.27 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut and Sorghum was Rs.56915.69 , 33986.70, 39587.88 and 28264.01 with benefit cost ratio of 1:0.70, 1: 1.20, 1: 1.10 and 1: 1.30 respectively.  Further, 60.00 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 17.14 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 81191.43 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 49574.29 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 8 horticulture trees and 32 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  About 45.71 per cent of the households shown interest to cultivate horticultural crops.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 11685.71 for land development and Rs. 371.43 for irrigation facility.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 77.14 per cent depends on own funds and 2.86 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 80.00 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants.  Further, 2.86 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (85.71%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 82.86 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 71.43 per cent of the households and 22.86 per cent households has LPG connection. 3  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 74.29 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 97.14 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 34.29 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 94.29 per cent of the households possessed BPL card, 2.86 per cent of the household's possessed APL card and 0.00 per cent of the household's were not having ration cards.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (94.29%), pulses (88.57%) and oilseeds (57.14%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (82.86%) wild animal menace on farm field (85.71%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (74.29%), inadequacy of irrigation water (62.86%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (60.00%), high rate of interest on credit (42.86%), low price for the agricultural commodities (60.00%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (40.00%), inadequate extension services (45.71%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (51.43%), Less rainfall (80.00%) and Source of Agri-technology information (Newspaper/ TV/Mobile) (25.71%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Tonsanhalli-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 576 ha in Chitapur taluk of Gulbarga district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 762 mm, of which about 571 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 99 mm during north-east and the remaining 92 mm during the rest of the year. Entire area of the microwatershed is covered by soils. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 3 soil series and 9 soil phases (management units) and 2 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 2rd week of June to 3rd week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 19 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  An area of about 96 per cent is suitable for agriculture  An area of about 93 per cent of the microwatershed has soils that are deep (100-150 cm) to very deep (>150 cm) and 2 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50-75 cm).  Entire area of the microwatershed has clayey soils at the surface  An area of 82 per cent of the microwatershed soils are non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 96 per cent of the area has nearly level (0-1%) to very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  An area of about 68 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 27 per cent moderately eroded (e2).  An area of about 65 per cent soils that are moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4) and 30 per cent strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75) in organic carbon.  About 91 per cent of the area is low (57 kg/ha).  About 96 per cent of the soils are medium (145-337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is medium (10 -20 ppm) in an area of about 36 per cent and low (4.5 ppm) in 94 per cent area and deficient (<4.5 ppm) in 1 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in 96 per cent soils of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 19 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed. Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 414 (72) 136(24) Sapota - 550(96) Maize - - Jackfruit - - Redgram - 550(96) Jamun - 537(93) Sunflower 414 (72) 123(21) Musambi 537(93) 13(2) Cotton 414 (72) 136(24) Lime 537(93) 13(2) Sugarcane - - Cashew - - Soybean 414 (72) 136(24) Custard apple 550(96) - Bengal gram 355(62) 194(34) Amla 550(96) - Guava - 550(96) Tamarind - 537(93) Mango - - Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 2 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass.Thus helps in maintaining an ecological balance and also in mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology:Tonsanhalli-1 micro-watershed (Mulkod sub-watershed, Chitapur taluk, Gulbarga district) is located in between 17012' – 17014' North latitudes and 7706' – 7709' East longitudes, covering an area of about 576 ha, bounded by Arjamga, Sangai, Mulkod, Mudbol and Invi villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for Tonsanhalli-1 micro-watershed (Mulkod subwatershed, Chitapur taluk, Gulbarga district) are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 51.4 and 48.6 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 40.5 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 59.5 per cent.  Social groups belong to scheduled caste (SC) is around 50 per cent.  Fire wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 80 per cent sample households.  About 10 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  About 10 per cent of farm households are having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 70 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 30 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making for agriculture production is among all the households were found. 2 Economic Indicators;  The average land holding 2.3 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belonging to small and medium and large farmers. The total cultivated land by rainfed land condition is among all the sample farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation around 24.3 per cent and agriculture is the main and agriculture labour is the subsidiary occupation around 73.0 percent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 20298 per household. Mobile and television are mass popular mass communication media.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 208775 per household, about 50 per cent of sample farmers having bullock cart.  The average value of livestock is around Rs.34167 per household; among all the samples household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 1164.4 grams (2590 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 10 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs. 66814 per household. About 50 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita monthly average expenditure is around Rs.2060. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs.629 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 345861 per year for the total area of 575.55 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs 22447/ ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in cotton (Rs. 24925) and red gram (Rs. 19970).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in red gram (Rs. 61136) and cotton (Rs. 54734). Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is redgram (92.9 %) and cotton (7.1 %). 3  Tonsanhalli-1 micro-watershed, major soil is soil of Dhandothi (DDT) series is having very deep soil depth cover around 2.26 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing redgram (91.9 %) and cotton (8.1%). Dargha (DGR) are also having deep soil depth cover around 0.39 % of area, the crops are red gram.  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for red gram ranges between Rs. 30060/ha in DRG soil (with BCR of 1.57) and Rs. 25022 /ha in DDT soil (with BCR of 1.94).  In cotton the cost of cultivation in DDT soil Rs 36208 ha (with BCR of 1.70).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in red gram (7.1 to14.0 %) and cotton (17.3 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kirinala-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 750 ha in Kirinala-2 microwatershed in Afzalpur taluk of Kalaburgi district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought- prone with an average annual rainfall of 680 mm, of which about 482 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 119 mm during north-east and the remaining 79 mm during the rest of the year. Entire area is covered by soils. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 2 soil series and 6 soil phases (management units) and one land use class.  The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from the 3rd week of June to 3rd week of November.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 18 major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area is suitable for agriculture.  Entire area has deep to very deep (100- >150 cm) soils in the microwatershed.  Entire area has clayey soils at the surface.  Entire area has non-gravelly soils in the microwatershed.  Entire area has soils that are very high (>200mm/m) in available water capacity,  About 40 per cent of the area has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and about 60 per cent area is nearly level (0-1% slope) sloping lands.  An area of about 71 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 29 per cent moderately eroded (e2).  Entire area has strongly alkaline (pH 8.4 -9.0) soils.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon.  An area of 42 per cent has soils that are low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in about 11 per cent area.  Available boron is low (4.5ppm) in iron.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  Entire area has soils that are deficient (<0.6 ppm) in available zinc.  The land suitability for 18 major crops (agricultural and horticultural) grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, farm price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable(S1) Moderately suitable(S2) Highly suitable(S1) Moderately suitable(S2) Sorghum - 750 (100) Sapota - - Maize - - Jackfruit - - Red gram - 750 (100) Jamun - 750 (100) Sunflower - 750 (100) Musambi 532 (71) 217 (29) Cotton - 750 (100) Lime 532 (71) 217 (29) Sugarcane - - Cashew - - Soybean - 750 (100) Custard apple 750 (100) - Guava - - Amla 532 (71) 217 (29) Mango - - Tamarind - (75000) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 1 identified LUC by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fibre and horticulture crops that helps in maintaining the ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomas. This helps in maintaining ecological balance and contribute to mitigating climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Kirinala-2 Microwatershed (Mannur sub-watershed, Afzalpur taluk, Gulbarga district) is located in between 17019' – 17021' North latitudes and 7606' – 7608' East longitudes, covering an area of about 750 ha, bounded by Mashyal, Chikkamanur, Agarkhed villages and Maharashtra State with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified for each watershed. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Kirinala-2 micro-watershed (Mannur subwatershed, Afzalpur taluk and Gulbarga district) are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 58.8 to 41.2 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 49.1 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 98.0 per cent.  Social groups belong to general category is around 80.0 per cent.  Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is the source of energy for a cooking among 70.0 per cent.  About 10.0 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 50.0 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 30.0 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making for agriculture production among all sample households was found. Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 3.3 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to medium and semi-medium farmers. The total cultivated land of dry land of area among the sample farmers. 2  Agriculture is the main occupation among 29.4 per cent and agriculture is the main agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 62.7 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 20203 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 6500 per household, about 10.0 per cent of sample farmers having plough, sprayer and bullock cart.  The average value of livestock is around Rs. 18988 per household; about 52.8 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 693.3 grams (1659.6 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 80.0 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs. 30564 per household. About 80.0 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita monthly average expenditure is around Rs.1957. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 685 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 512923 per year for the total area of 749.96 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 15631/ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in red gram (Rs. 61493) and bengal gram (Rs. 9047).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in red gram (Rs. 65889) and bengal gram (Rs. 53949). Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is bengal gram (93.5 %) and red gram (6.5 %).  In Kirinala 2 Microwatershed, major soils are soil of alluvial landscape of Dimal (DIM) series is having deep soil depth cover around 22.5 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing bengal gram (65.4 %) and red gram (34.6 %) and Mannar (MNR) are also having very deep soil depth cover around 77.52 % of area, the crops are bengal gram (94.8 %) and red gram (5.2 %). 3  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for bengal gram ranges Rs. 28131/ha in DIM soil (with BCR of 1.34) and Rs.18563/ha in MAR soil (with BCR of 1.52).  In red gram the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 24315/ha in DIM soil (with of 1.71) and Rs.15976/ha in MAR soil (with BCR of 2.71).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in bengal gram (35.7 to 48.2 %), and red gram (2.8 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Mannur-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characterstics, classification and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 727 ha in Mannur-1 microwatershed in Afzalpur taluk of Kalaburgi district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought- prone with an average annual rainfall of 680 mm, of which about 482 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 119 mm during north-east and the remaining 79 mm during the rest of the year. 85 per cent area is covered by soils and remaining 15 per cent is by habitation and waterbodies. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to one soil series and 4 soil phases (mapping units) and one land use class.  The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from the 3rd week of June to 3rd week of November.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 18 major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area is suitable for agriculture.  Entire area has very deep (>150 cm) soils n the microwatershed.  Entire area has clayey soils at the surface.  Entire area has non-gravelly soils in the microwatershed.  Entire area of about 727 ha (85%) has soils that are very high (>200mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 70 per cent of the area has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and about 15 per cent area is gently sloping (0-1% slope) sloping lands.  An area of about 51 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1), 33 per cent moderately eroded (e2) and less than one per cent soils are severely eroded (e3).  Entire area is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4 -9.0) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon.  An area of 36 per cent has soils that are low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in about 5 per cent area.  Available boron is low (0.5%) in 4.5ppm) in iron.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  Entire area has soils that are deficient (<0.6 ppm) in available zinc.  The land suitability for 18 major crops (agricultural and horticultural) grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, farm price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 616 (85) Sapota - - Maize - - Jackfruit - - Red gram - 616 (85) Jamun - 616 (85) Sunflower - 616 (85) Musambi 372 (51) 244 (34) Cotton - 616 (85) Lime 372 (51) 244 (34) Sugarcane - - Cashew - - Soybean - 616 (85) Custard apple 611 (84) 5 (<1) Guava - - Amla 375 (51) 244 (34) Mango - - Tamarind - (6165) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the one identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining the ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass, which inturn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and help to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Mannur-1 Microwatershed (Mannur sub-watershed, Afzalpur taluk and Gulbarga district) is located in between 17017' – 17019' North latitudes and 7603' – 7606' East longitudes, covering an area of about 727 ha, bounded by Agarkhed, Chikkamanur, Karajgi villages and Maharashtra State with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Mannur-1 Microwatershed (Mannur subwatershed, Afzalpur taluk and Gulbarga district) are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 65 to 35 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 58 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 79 per cent.  Fire wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 70 per cent.  About 50 per cent of households having Bhīma and Yashaswini health card.  Only 10.0 percent of farm households are having MGNREGA card for rural employments.  Dependence on ration cards for food grain through public distribution system is around 80.0 per cent  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 30.0 per cent of sample households.  Rural migration to urban centre for employment is prevalent among 10 .0 per cent of farm households.  Women participation in decisions making are around 50.0 per cent of households were found. 2 Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 1.54 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to small and medium farmers. The dry land of 72.8 % and irrigated land 27.2 % of total cultivated land area among the sample farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation and agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation is around 91 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 22513 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 168445 per household, about 30 per cent of sample farmers having plough and weeder (30 %).  The average value of livestock is around Rs. 49250 per households; about 73 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 885.7 grams (1944 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 40 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs. 33179 per household. About 90 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs. 1338. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 795.55 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 490059 per year for the total area of 727.02 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs 30747/ ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in onion (Rs.88666) followed by black gram (Rs.14268), redgram (Rs.13686) and bengalgram (Rs. 6367).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in bengal gram (Rs. 49249) followed by black gram (Rs. 66244), redgram (Rs. 50119) and sugarcane (Rs. 156235). Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is bengalgram (37 %) followed by and sugarcane (9 %) and redgram (54 %). 3  In Mannur1 micro-watershed, major soil is Mannur series is having very deep soil. On this soil farmers are presently growing bengalgram (36.3 %), redgram (34.8 %) black gram (19.8 %) and sugarcane(9.1 %).  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for sugarcane ranges between Rs. 119647/ha in MAR soil (with BCR with of 1.74).  In redgram cost of cultivation in MAR soil is Rs 32345/ha (BCR with of 1.48)  In bengalgram cost of cultivation in MAR soil is Rs. 25724/ha (with BCR of 1.59).  In blackgram cost of cultivation in MAR soil is Rs. 24101/ha (with BCR of 1.59).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in bengalgram (51.3 %), Sugarcane (44.6 %), redgram ( 24.6 %) and blackgram (1.7 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Balbatti-4 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 714 ha in Balbatti- 4 microwatershed in Jewargi taluk of Gulbarga district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought prone with an average annual rainfall of 751 mm of which about 538 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 75 mm during the rest of the year. 98 per cent area is covered by soils and 2 per cent is by Habitation and waterbody. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 7 soil series and 11 soil phases (management units) and 4 Land Use Classes.  The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from the 1st week of June to 1st week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  90 per cent area is suitable for agriculture and 9 per cent is not suitable.  About 82 per cent of the soils are deep to very deep (100->150 cm), about less than one per cent is moderately shallow(50-75 cm) and 16 per cent are very shallow to shallow (200mm/m) in available water capacity and about 16 per cent low (50-100 mm/m) and very low (0.75%) in 6 ha (337 kg/ha) in available potassium and 12 per cent medium (145-337 kg/ha).  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm).  Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in about 6 per cent area.  About 86 per cent area is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in iron and 12 per cent deficient (0.6 ppm).  The land suitability for 19 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 571 (80) 19 (3) Guava - 519 (73) Maize - 7 (1) Jackfruit - - Red gram - 591 (83) Jamun - 583 (82) Soybean 507 (71) 84 (12) Musambi 571 (80) 12 (2) Bengalgram 578 (81) 63 (9) Lime 571 (80) 12 (2) Sunflower 571 (80) 12 (2) Cashew - - Cotton 571 (80) 19 (3) Custard apple 571 (80) 19 (3) Sugarcane - - Amla 571 (80) 19 (3) Mango - - Tamarind - 584 (82) Sapota - 519 (73) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fibre and horticulture crops that helps in maintaining the ecological balance in microwatershed  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges that are edible, economical and produce lot of biomass which helps im restoring the ecological balance and mitigate the climate change phenomenon. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Balbatti 4 Microwatershed (Dummadri sub-watershed, Jewargi taluk, Gulbarga district) is located in between 16046' – 16048' North latitudes and 76032' – 76035' East longitudes, covering an area of about 714.49 ha, bounded by Balbatti, Vadagera, Sumbada, and Hangalga (K) villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for Balbatti-4 Microwatershed (Dummadri subwatershed, Jewargi taluk, Gulbarga district) are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 62.0 to 38.0 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 64.0 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 78.0 per cent.  Social groups belong to other backward caste (OBC) of all sample farmers.  Fire wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 60.0 per cent.  About 20.0 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  Only 30.0 per cent of sample farm households are having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 80.0 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 20.0 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making are around 10.0 per cent of households. Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 3.2 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to medium and semi-medium farmers. The dry land account for 98.7 per cent of total cultivated land area among the sample farmers. 2  Agriculture is the main occupation among 36.0 per cent and agriculture is the main and agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 54.0 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 22852 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 206583 per household, about 30.0 per cent of sample farmers having plough.  The average value of livestock is around Rs. 53888 per household; about 50.0 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 849.1 grams (2033.8 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 40.0 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs.48156 per household. About 80.0 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs.1797. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 995 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 6999398 per year for the total area of 714.49 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs 19675/ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in cotton (Rs. 30989) followed by red gram (Rs. 21364) and paddy (Rs. 6667).  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 3779/ ha/year is paddy.  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in red gram (Rs.59185) followed by cotton (Rs.52852) and paddy (Rs 33058). Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is red gram (42.0 %) followed by cotton (38.9 %) and paddy (19.1 %).  In Balbatti 4 micro-watershed, major soils are soil of Balbatti (BBT) series is having deep soil depth cover around 31.75 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing red gram. Marguti (MGT) is having very shallow soil depth cover around 3.93 % of area; the crops grown are cotton (100 %). Novinihala 3 (NHA) series is having shallow soil depth cover 16.84 % of area, the crops grown are red gram (100 %) and Yedrami (YDM) series is having deep soil depth cover 40.89 % of area, the crops grown are cotton (14.6 %), paddy (21.8 %) and red gram (63.6 %).  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for cotton ranges between Rs.44136 /ha in YDM soil (with BCR of 2.38) and Rs 32414/ha in MGT soil (with BCR of 2.26).  In red gram the cost of cultivation range between Rs 36880/ha in NHA soil (with BCR of 1.83) and Rs.21756/ha in BBT soil (with BCR of 1.65).  In paddy the cost cultivation in YDM soil is Rs.45635/ha (with BCR of 1.16).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in cotton (28.7 to 22.9 %), redgram (26.4 to 7.8 %) and paddy (66.3 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Wankasambar-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 408 ha in Wankasambar-1 microwatershed in Yadgir taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as droughtprone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 87 per cent is covered by soils, 13 per cent by rock lands and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 11 soil series and 11 soil phases (management units) and 8 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is 120-150 days starting from the 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire land area of the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 10 per cent soils are shallow (25-50 cm), 27 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50-75 cm), 18 per cent are moderately deep (75-100 cm) and about 31 per cent soils are deep (100-150 cm) to very deep (>150 cm) soils.  About 12 per cent of the area has clayey soils, 52 per cent loamy soils and 23 per cent sandy soils at the surface.  Entire area of about 87 per cent has non-gravelly.  About 15 per cent of the area has soils that are very high (>200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 31 per cent medium (101-150 mm/m), 27 per cent low (51-100 mm/m) and about 14 per cent very low (0.75%) in organic carbon.  An area of 28 per cent has soils that are low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About 337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in about 1.0 ppm) in about 3 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Entire area has soils that are sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in available iron.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Entire area of the microwatershed is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in available zinc.  The land suitability for 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Wankasambar-1 microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 252 (62) Sapota - 40 (10) Maize - 118 (29) Guava - 40 (10) Red gram - 174 (43) Pomegranate - 174 (43) Bajra - 298 (73) Jackfruit - 23 (6) Ground nut - 135 (33) Jamun - 100 (24) Sunflower - 157 (39) Musambi - 174 (43) Cotton 31 (8) 222 (54) Lime - 174 (43) Bengalgram 31 (8) 221 (54) Cashew - - Chilli - 269 (66) Custard apple - 252 (62) Tomato - 135 (33) Amla - 252 (62) Drumstick - 174 (43) Tamarind - 100 (24) Mulberry - 23 (60) Marigold - 269 (66) Mango - 23 (6) Chrysanthemum - 269 (66) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 8 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining the ecological balance in the microwatershed  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. The survey was conducted in Wankasambar-1 is located at North latitude 160 38' 15.368" and 160 36' 24.117" and East longitude 770 23' 18.585'' and 770 21' 27.725" covering an area of about 407.81 ha coming under Vankasambara, Sambara and VadavataVillages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Wankasambar-1 micro watersheds of Turk Madhawar sub-watershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 34 farmers were sampled in Wankasambar-1 micro-watershed among households surveyed 5 (14.71%) were marginal, 19 (55.88%) were small, 3 (8.82 %) were semi medium and 1 (2.94 %) were medium farmers. 6 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 78 (54.55%) men and 65 (45.45 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (37.06%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 44.76 per cent illiterates, 53.86 per cent pre university education and 4.20 per cent attained graduation.  About, 79.41 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 8.82 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 57.34 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 17.65 percent possess thatched house and 82.35 per cent of the households possess katcha house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 61.76 per cent possess TV, 38.24 per cent possess mixer grinder, 97.06 per cent possess mobile phones and 20.59 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 17.65 per cent of the households possess Bullock Cart, 35.29 per cent possess plough, 2.94 per cent possess Sprayer, 76.47 per cent possess Weeder, 8.82 per cent possess Chaff Cutter and 2.94 per cent possess JCB/Hitachi.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 14.71 per cent possess local cow and 8.82 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.38, women available in the micro watershed was 1.22, hired labour (men) available was 7.41 and hired labour (women) available was 12.41.  Further, 85.29 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate. 2  In the study area, about 2.80 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 495.00 kms for about 3.75 months.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 92.88 per cent (39.84 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 7.12 per cent area is irrigated land.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 2.94 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton, Paddy, Maize and Groundnut and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  Out of the sample households 85.29 percent possessed bank account and 73.53 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 47.06 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 12.50 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 100.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton, Paddy, Maize and Groundnut was Rs.22085.73, 32319.65, 27386.33, 12694.39 and 39182.72 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.90, 1: 1.90, 1: 1.40, 1: 2.50 and 1:1.10 respectively.  Further, 23.53 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 101457.35 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 57680.88 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 60 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  About 79.41 per cent of the households shown interest to cultivate horticultural crops.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 7941.18 for land development and Rs. 12029.41 for irrigation facility.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 34.29 per cent depends on own funds and 5.71 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 41.18 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 44.12 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 50.00 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (38.24%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 82.35 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing. 3  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 85.29 per cent of the households and 11.76 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 76.47 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 67.65 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (94.12%), pulses (94.12%) and oilseeds (47.06%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (82.35%) wild animal menace on farm field (85.29%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (79.41%), inadequacy of irrigation water (79.41%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (82.35%), high rate of interest on credit (79.41%), low price for the agricultural commodities (85.29%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (64.71%), inadequate extension services (58.82%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (64.71 %) and less rainfall (2.94 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kakalawar-2Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 549 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 535 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils and 15 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 5 soil series and 8 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 15 per cent of area is shallow (25-50 cm), 15 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately shallow (50-75 cm), 56 per cent of area is deep (100 - 150 cm) and 11 per cent of area is very deep (>150 cm).  About 7 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 90 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  Maximum of 33 per cent area in the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 15 per cent is low (51-100 mm/m) and 15 per cent area is very low (0.75%) and 3 per cent of area is medium (0.5- 0.75%) in organic carbon content of the soil in the microwatershed.  About 8 per cent of area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 89 per cent of area is low (337 kg/ha).  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in an area of 5 per cent.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 379 (69) Guava - - Maize - 379 (69) Sapota - - Bajra - 379 (69) Pomegranate - 296 (54) Groundnut - 83 (15) Musambi - 296 (54) Sunflower - 296 (54) Lime - 296 (54) Redgram - 296 (54) Amla - 83 (15) Bengal gram - 296 (54) Cashew - - Cotton - 296 (54) Jackfruit - - Chilli - 379 (69) Jamun - - Tomato - 83 (15) Custard apple - 379 (69) Brinjal - 83 (15) Tamarind - - Onion - 83 (15) Mulberry - - Bhendi - 379 (69) Marigold - 379 (69) Drumstick - - Chrysanthemum - 379 (69) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Kakalawar-2 is located at North latitude 160 54' 18.63" and 160 52' 49.076" and East longitude 770 23' 23.834'' and 770 21' 45.908" covering an area of about 403.63 ha coming unde Kakalawara and Gurumitkal villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Kakalawar-2 micro watersheds of Mothakapalli subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 36 total respondents, 18 (50.00 %) were marginal, 5 (13.89%) were small, 7 (19.44 %) were Semi medium and 1 (2.78 %) were medium and 1 (2.78 %) were large farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 119 (72.12%) men and 46 (27.88 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (47.88%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 44.24 per cent illiterates,48.49 per cent pre university education and 16.36 per cent attained graduation.  About, 88.89 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 8.33 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 65.45 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 33.33 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 66.67 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 100.00 per cent possess TV, 69.44 per cent possess mixer grinder, 97.22 per cent possess mobile phones and 66.67 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 55.56 per cent of the households possess plough, 16.67 per cent possess tractor, 38.89 per cent possess bullock cart and 47.22 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 47.22 per cent possess local cow and 33.33 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own men and women labour availability in the micro watershed was 12.62 each, while the hired labour (men) availability was 2.47.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 79.24 per cent (42.94 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 20.76 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 5.00 live bore wells and 1.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households. 2  Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 16.67 per cent of the households.  Out of the sample households 91.67 percent possessed bank account and 69.44 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 44.44 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 45.00 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 65.00 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (90.48%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 68.18 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations, while, only 13.64 per cent respondents opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfil their requirement.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram and Paddy was Rs.118908.53 and 148814.96, with benefit cost ratio of 1:0.82 and 1: 0.50, respectively.  Further, 2.78 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.78 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 148402.78 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 78916.67 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 74 horticulture trees and 30 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 18472.22 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned 91.67 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 91.67 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants.  Further, 86.11 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (88.89%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 88.89 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 86.11 per cent of the households and 63.89 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 100.00 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 58.33 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card. 3  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (94.44%), pulses (11.11%) and oilseeds (5.56%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (88.89%) wild animal menace on farm field (86.11%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (88.89%), inadequacy of irrigation water (88.89%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (86.11%), high rate of interest on credit (88.89%), low price for the agricultural commodities (88.89%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (2.78%), inadequate extension services (83.33%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (11.11%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project