Suchergebnisse

Many people can not even draw the line between work and personal life, just as the last – is absent, complex economic situation throughout the world keeps the tension of ordinary workers, firm hold restructuring and organizational changes, to somehow survive the crisis and to stay afloat, reduce expenses, from here mass layoffs, unemployment, reducing financial stability. No wonder that these facts leave their imprint on the health of workers, and hence the stress in the workplace, reflected on his personal life. If you think the theme is not very important, then nothing. In fact, stress at the workplace – this is a plague of our time, which leads to a rather sad consequences and it should be fought. Currently, many workers are facing psychological and physical pressure, to match the today's employment rate. Here and physiological risks, such as the competition in the labor market, its constant growth, expectations from workers more and more high productivity and working hours, forcing the work literally at wear, all this contribute to the emergence situations of tension and worsen health. Today stress, associated with work is really recognized by a global problem and keenly interested in as researchers and psy-chologists, doctors and even politicians. The influence of stress on safety implementation of works for today is defined global problem, concerning the working people of all professions and occupations, as in developed countries and those in developing countries. Therefore it is important to unite and find mutually beneficial and really working solution. Stress in the workplace can undermine not only the health of the worker, but also the «health» of the entire company no worse than industrial accident, although this condition does not apply to professional diseases, but contributes to their appearance. A great pity that not yet invented «vaccine» from stress, which allows workers to be stable in any situation, however, good working conditions can be a panacea for confidence in the future and reducing psycho-emotional stress. ; Многие люди даже не могут провести грань между работой и личной жизнью, так как последнее просто – отсутст-вует, сложная экономическая ситуация во всем мире держит в напряжении рядовых работников, фирмы проводят реструктуризацию и организационные изменения, чтобы хоть как-то пережить кризисные ситуации и остаться на плаву, снизив расходы, отсюда массовые увольнения, безработица, снижение финансовой стабильности. Неудивительно, что данные факты накладывают отпечаток на здоровье работников, а отсюда стресс на рабочем месте, что сказывается на личной жизни. Если тема кажется вам не очень важной, то зря. На самом деле стресс на рабочем месте – это чума современности, ведущей к весьма печальным последствиям и с ней нужно бороться. В настоящее время многие работники сталкиваются с давлением психологическим и физическим, чтобы соответствовать современному трудовому ритму. Здесь и психофизиологические риски, такие как конкуренция на рынке труда, ее постоянный рост, ожидания от работников все более и более высокой производительности, и продолжительности рабочего дня, заставляя работать буквально на износ, все это способствует возникновению напряженной обстановки и ухудшает состояние здоровья. Сегодня стресс, связанный с работой, признается действительно глобальной проблемой и живо интересует как иссле-дователей, так и психологов, врачей и даже политиков. Влияние стресса на безопасность выполнения работ на сегодня определяется глобальной проблемой, касающейся работающих людей всех профессий и занятий, как в развитых странах, так и в развивающихся. Поэтому очень важно объединиться и найти взаимовыгодное и действительно работающее решение проблемы. Стресс на рабочем месте может подорвать не только здоровье работника, но и «здоровье» всей компании не хуже, чем несчастный случай на производстве, хотя и такое положение не относится к профессиональным заболеваниям, но способ-ствует их появлению. Очень жаль, что еще не изобрели «прививку» от стресса, что позволяет работникам быть устой-чивыми в любой ситуации, однако хорошие условия труда могут стать панацеей для уверенности в завтрашнем дне и снижении психоэмоциональных нагрузок. ; Багато людей навіть не можуть провести грань між роботою та особистим життям, так як останнє просто - від-сутнє, складна економічна ситуація по всьому світу тримає в напрузі рядових працівників, фірми проводять реструктури-зацію і організаційні зміни, щоб хоч якось пережити кризові ситуації і залишитися на плаву, знизивши витрати, звідси масові звільнення, безробіття, зниження фінансової стабільності. Тож не дивно, що дані факти накладають відбиток на здоров'я працівників, а звідси стрес на робочому місці, що позначається на особистому житті. Якщо тема здається вам не дуже важливою, то даремно. Насправді стрес на робочому місці – це чума сучасності, яка веде до досить сумних наслідків і з нею слід боротися. В даний час багато працівників стикаються з тиском психологічним і фізичним, щоб відповідати сучасному трудовому ритму. Тут і психофізіологічні ризики, такі як конкуренція на ринку праці, її постійне зростання, очікування від працівників все більш і більш високої продуктивності, і тривалості робочого дня, змушуючи працювати буквально на знос, все це сприяє виникненню напруженої обстановки та погіршує стан здоров'я. Сьогодні стрес, пов'язаний з роботою, визнається дійсно глобальною проблемою і жваво цікавить як дослідників, так і психологів, лікарів і навіть політиків. Вплив стресу на безпеку виконання робіт на сьогодні визначається глобальною про-блемою, що стосується працюючих людей усіх професій і занять, як у розвинених країнах, так і в тих, що розвиваються. Тому дуже важливо об'єднатися і знайти взаємовигідне і дійсно працююче вирішення проблеми. Стрес на робочому мі-сці може підірвати не тільки здоров'я працівника, а й «здоров'я» всієї компанії не гірше, ніж нещасний випадок на виробни-цтві, хоч і такий стан не відноситься до професійних захворювань, але сприяє їх появі. Дуже шкода, що ще не винайшли «щеплення» від стресу, що дозволяє працівникам бути стійкими в будь-якій ситуації, проте хороші умови праці можуть стати панацеєю для впевненості в завтрашньому дні і зниженні психоемоційних навантажень.

Following, among other documents, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) lays down the right to a fair remuneration in order to provide to the workers and their families an existence worthy to human dignity. However, the level of wages in the country is far from such a constitutional ideal, despite the rules and institutions that have been established for this purpose. Consequently, the following question arises: does the legal and institutional framework in the DRC contribute to effectively guarantee a fair remuneration to employed persons? We conclude it does not, because of the weak involvement of the state, the social partners and the workers themselves in the elaboration and the application of the rules which should help to ensure that remuneration. Based on the rules of international labour law, which have often been incorporated in the national legal system, the DRC has also undertaken to change its legislation and practices in order to guarantee a fair remuneration to employed persons. However, the situation in this country unfortunately reveals that, despite the setting of a interprofessional guaranteed minimum wage ('salaire minimum interprofessionnel garanti' or SMIG in French), such a wage is extremely low and generally not revised. This very low level of wages is due to a combination of factors, including the deficit in collective bargaining and concertation, the predominance of economic criteria in the determination of wages, the negative impact of international financial institutions' policies, the low level of wages in the public sector and the lack and/or inadequacy of reductions in social security contributions and taxes paid by workers and employers. Moreover, the right to a fair remuneration can hardly be enforced since it is unclear how certain components of the salary, such as bonuses, commissions, cost-of-living allowance and profit-sharing benefits should be legally treated. On the other hand, breaches to the SMIG are common because of the ineffectiveness of the control performed by social inspections and of the penalties foreseen for breaches to the minimum wage, as well as because of the crisis of trade unionism in the DRC. As a result, the right to a fair remuneration in Congolese law requires an improvement of the legal and institutional framework in this respect, in order to take into account the inherent difficulties and to provide remedies to these difficulties. This study puts forward proposals in this sense. However, the improvement of wages requires a holistic approach, setting up other measures designed to directly or indirectly reinforce the low remuneration of employed persons. To further encourage countries to guarantee a fair remuneration, the ILO should also explicitly affirm the fundamental nature of the right to a fair remuneration. ; A la suite, particulièrement, de la Déclaration universelle des droits de l'homme et du Pacte international relatif aux droits économiques – sociaux et culturels, la République Démocratique du Congo (R.D.C.) consacre le droit à une rémunération équitable pour assurer aux travailleurs et à leurs familles une existence conforme à la dignité humaine. La situation salariale des travailleurs de ce pays est, cependant, loin de correspondre à cet idéal proclamé par sa Constitution, en dépit des règles et institutions qui ont été établies à cet effet. Nous nous posons, dès lors, la question de savoir : le cadre juridique et institutionnel mis en place, en R.D.C., concourt-t-il à garantir efficacement une rémunération équitable aux travailleurs salariés ? Nous estimons que tel n'est pas le cas en raison d'une faible implication de l'Etat, des partenaires sociaux et des travailleurs, eux-mêmes, dans l'élaboration et l'application des règles devant concourir à garantir cette rémunération. Alors que la R.D.C., en s'inspirant des normes du droit international du travail - dont d'ailleurs – plusieurs ont été intégrées dans son ordre juridique, s'est engagée à faire évoluer sa législation et ses pratiques afin d'assurer une rémunération équitable aux travailleurs salariés, la situation de ce pays révèle, malheureusement, que malgré la fixation d'un salaire minimum interprofessionnel garanti (SMIG), ce dernier est extrêmement bas et généralement il n'est pas révisé. Ce niveau très bas de rémunération s'explique par un ensemble des facteurs dont le déficit des cadres de concertation et de négociation collective, la prédominance des critères économiques dans la fixation des rémunérations, l'impact négatif des politiques des institutions financières internationales, le faible niveau des rémunérations dans le secteur public et le manque et/ou l'insuffisance d'allègement des charges sociales et fiscales des travailleurs et des employeurs. En outre, le manque de clarification du régime juridique de certains éléments de la rémunération, tels que certaines primes – les commissions – l'indemnité de vie chère et la participation aux bénéfices, ne contribue pas non plus à assurer une rémunération équitable. Par ailleurs, le SMIG fixé n'est pas, dans beaucoup de cas, respecté en raison de l'inefficacité du contrôle exercé par l'inspection du travail et des sanctions qui ont été prévues pour assurer le respect de ce salaire ainsi que de la crise du syndicalisme dans ce pays. Il s'ensuit que la garantie d'une rémunération équitable en droit congolais nécessite une amélioration du cadre juridique et du cadre institutionnel prévu à cet égard, afin de prendre en compte ces difficultés qui compromettent le droit à une rémunération équitable et d'y remédier. Cette étude tente, à cet égard, de proposer des pistes de solution. Toutefois, l'amélioration des rémunérations implique également une politique d'ensemble nécessitant de mettre en place d'autres dispositifs ayant vocation à renforcer directement ou indirectement les faibles rémunérations des travailleurs salariés. Pour inciter davantage les Etats à garantir une rémunération équitable, l'OIT devrait également consacrer la fondamentalité du droit à une rémunération équitable. ; (DROI - Sciences juridiques) -- UCL, 2016

Following, among other documents, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) lays down the right to a fair remuneration in order to provide to the workers and their families an existence worthy to human dignity. However, the level of wages in the country is far from such a constitutional ideal, despite the rules and institutions that have been established for this purpose. Consequently, the following question arises: does the legal and institutional framework in the DRC contribute to effectively guarantee a fair remuneration to employed persons? We conclude it does not, because of the weak involvement of the state, the social partners and the workers themselves in the elaboration and the application of the rules which should help to ensure that remuneration. Based on the rules of international labour law, which have often been incorporated in the national legal system, the DRC has also undertaken to change its legislation and practices in order to guarantee a fair remuneration to employed persons. However, the situation in this country unfortunately reveals that, despite the setting of a interprofessional guaranteed minimum wage ('salaire minimum interprofessionnel garanti' or SMIG in French), such a wage is extremely low and generally not revised. This very low level of wages is due to a combination of factors, including the deficit in collective bargaining and concertation, the predominance of economic criteria in the determination of wages, the negative impact of international financial institutions' policies, the low level of wages in the public sector and the lack and/or inadequacy of reductions in social security contributions and taxes paid by workers and employers. Moreover, the right to a fair remuneration can hardly be enforced since it is unclear how certain components of the salary, such as bonuses, commissions, cost-of-living allowance and profit-sharing benefits should be legally treated. On the other hand, breaches to the SMIG are common because of the ineffectiveness of the control performed by social inspections and of the penalties foreseen for breaches to the minimum wage, as well as because of the crisis of trade unionism in the DRC. As a result, the right to a fair remuneration in Congolese law requires an improvement of the legal and institutional framework in this respect, in order to take into account the inherent difficulties and to provide remedies to these difficulties. This study puts forward proposals in this sense. However, the improvement of wages requires a holistic approach, setting up other measures designed to directly or indirectly reinforce the low remuneration of employed persons. To further encourage countries to guarantee a fair remuneration, the ILO should also explicitly affirm the fundamental nature of the right to a fair remuneration. ; A la suite, particulièrement, de la Déclaration universelle des droits de l'homme et du Pacte international relatif aux droits économiques – sociaux et culturels, la République Démocratique du Congo (R.D.C.) consacre le droit à une rémunération équitable pour assurer aux travailleurs et à leurs familles une existence conforme à la dignité humaine. La situation salariale des travailleurs de ce pays est, cependant, loin de correspondre à cet idéal proclamé par sa Constitution, en dépit des règles et institutions qui ont été établies à cet effet. Nous nous posons, dès lors, la question de savoir : le cadre juridique et institutionnel mis en place, en R.D.C., concourt-t-il à garantir efficacement une rémunération équitable aux travailleurs salariés ? Nous estimons que tel n'est pas le cas en raison d'une faible implication de l'Etat, des partenaires sociaux et des travailleurs, eux-mêmes, dans l'élaboration et l'application des règles devant concourir à garantir cette rémunération. Alors que la R.D.C., en s'inspirant des normes du droit international du travail - dont d'ailleurs – plusieurs ont été intégrées dans son ordre juridique, s'est engagée à faire évoluer sa législation et ses pratiques afin d'assurer une rémunération équitable aux travailleurs salariés, la situation de ce pays révèle, malheureusement, que malgré la fixation d'un salaire minimum interprofessionnel garanti (SMIG), ce dernier est extrêmement bas et généralement il n'est pas révisé. Ce niveau très bas de rémunération s'explique par un ensemble des facteurs dont le déficit des cadres de concertation et de négociation collective, la prédominance des critères économiques dans la fixation des rémunérations, l'impact négatif des politiques des institutions financières internationales, le faible niveau des rémunérations dans le secteur public et le manque et/ou l'insuffisance d'allègement des charges sociales et fiscales des travailleurs et des employeurs. En outre, le manque de clarification du régime juridique de certains éléments de la rémunération, tels que certaines primes – les commissions – l'indemnité de vie chère et la participation aux bénéfices, ne contribue pas non plus à assurer une rémunération équitable. Par ailleurs, le SMIG fixé n'est pas, dans beaucoup de cas, respecté en raison de l'inefficacité du contrôle exercé par l'inspection du travail et des sanctions qui ont été prévues pour assurer le respect de ce salaire ainsi que de la crise du syndicalisme dans ce pays. Il s'ensuit que la garantie d'une rémunération équitable en droit congolais nécessite une amélioration du cadre juridique et du cadre institutionnel prévu à cet égard, afin de prendre en compte ces difficultés qui compromettent le droit à une rémunération équitable et d'y remédier. Cette étude tente, à cet égard, de proposer des pistes de solution. Toutefois, l'amélioration des rémunérations implique également une politique d'ensemble nécessitant de mettre en place d'autres dispositifs ayant vocation à renforcer directement ou indirectement les faibles rémunérations des travailleurs salariés. Pour inciter davantage les Etats à garantir une rémunération équitable, l'OIT devrait également consacrer la fondamentalité du droit à une rémunération équitable. ; (DROI - Sciences juridiques) -- UCL, 2016

This dissertation describes how, in the decades after World War II, a new cohort of outside experts helped build confidence among their clients in particular visions of American democratic capitalism. This moment in American history is, as the historian Daniel Horowitz has called it, an era of the "cold war consensus" among social scientists, industry leaders, and policy makers, in the idea that mass affluence would bring social well-being to the many, especially vis-à-vis communism. I add, however, that especially among members of America's business and financial establishments, there was a lack of confidence in how this particular future could be achieved. Thus, there was an ongoing need to build confidence to move America in new directions that to contemporaries seemed foreign and new, and with no certainty of their ultimate success. As discussed in the historiography section later in this introduction, although historians and other scholars have looked at how modernity, and American democratic capitalism specifically, came to be, including its social, cultural, economic, and political configurations, there has been little exploration into the role of for-profit professional services firms in this story. This dissertation also complicates our narratives of the Cold War military-industrial complex by adding new actors to a familiar casts of characters. This dissertation also describes the expansion of quantification and rationality in American social life, especially in the contexts of business, banking, and government. It is about the role and meaning of "economics" outside the halls of academia and government. Lastly, this provides insight into the meaning of objectivity over the 1950s through 1970s, and how that played out in the formation of new professional identities.To explore these concerns, I look at several instances of constructing mass leisure in the United States. These include: the location and feasibility studies for Disneyland completed by Stanford Research Institute (SRI) in 1953 and 1954, discussed in Chapter 1; construction and operations planning completed by SRI and ERA for the 1962 Seattle World's Fair, also known as the Century 21 Exposition, in Chapter 2; the use of outside advisors by the non-profit New York World's Fair 1964-65 Corporation in Chapter 3; ERA's role in the development of Audio-Animatronics and other Disney attractions at the 1964-1965 New York World's Fair in Chapter 4; and finally Miami's never-built Inter-American Cultural and Trade Center (Interama), discussed in Chapter 5. Taken together, these instances cover the time period from the early 1950s until just before the 1970s energy crisis and Watergate began to corrode the nation's confidence in the idea that mass affluence was sustainable.The actors in this dissertation are both familiar and unfamiliar. Few have not heard of Walt Disney, but the role of Harrison Price and his firm ERA in the story of Disney's theme parks are rarely found outside of histories documenting particular aspects of the Disney enterprise. Both ERA and PRC were founded by alumni from non-profit research and development firms and other think tanks. But their main line of work straddled to a far greater extent the public/private division than that of their peers at RAND or the federal departments of the executive branch. Arthur D. Little, Inc., of Cambridge, Massachusetts, is a key actor in the story of industrial research & development in the United States and the history of operations research, but the firm's work on projects of mass leisure (including the 1964-1965 New York World's Fair and Miami's Interama) is little known. The significance of this work in mass leisure is not simply that it is outside of the area explored by scholars. Besides Price, many of these men went on to become key figures in domestic and international development. Some of the very first projects they worked on were in mass leisure, and in very real ways this early work shaped their later careers. Disneyland, Century 21, and New York's "Olympics of Progress" (as Robert Moses called the 1964-1965 New York World Fair) were the crucibles in which these consultants learned how to apply their trades.This dissertation takes the perspective that what mattered the most to their clients was in the ability of these outside advisors to act as prognosticators of the future. While their successes in these efforts did matter (or at the very least, how they presented and explained their past successes and failures), it was their abilities to perform as virtuosos in quantitative methods and to mediate between the worlds of banking, government, industry, and the design professions which mattered the most. They performed as objective counsel, and used a range of methods from statistics to operations research and systems analysis. Some called themselves industrial engineers. Others identified as industrial economists, land economists, or recreational economists. There was never one fixed professional identity among them. They were on the whole, however, not academic economists concerned with theory. The trade of these men was entirely in applied research. Methods they used ran the gamut from statistical analysis to linear programming to computer simulations. What drove demand for their services among their clients in mass leisure was the need to build confidence in the postwar's highly capitalized, financially risky, and otherwise unproven ventures among a diverse set of interests, both public and private. The value of consultants such as Price to clients lay chiefly in their role as depoliticized actors, and it was their public performances of objectivity which made them appear neutral. Indeed, objectivity was one of the chief products they sold, packaged as a service.

В статье изучена сущность государственного долга, рассмотрены положительные и отрицательные социально-экономические последствия долговых заимствований для стран заемщиков. Проанализирована динамика основных показателей государственного долга отдельных экономически развитых и развивающихся странах мира. Рассмотрена возможность его погашения. В целях удовлетворения разнообразных потребностей общества, для покрытия своих расходов государство вынуждено привлекать свободные финансовые ресурсы хозяйствующих субъектов и населения. Государственный долг является, наравне с налоговыми поступлениями и эмиссией денежных средств, основным источником покрытия дефицита бюджета. Финансовый климат любого государства, перспективы его развития определяются, прежде всего, состоянием таких показателей как величина государственного бюджета, дефицита, и конечно, государственного долга, который является агрегированной характеристикой как бюджета, так и дефицита. В настоящее время в условиях продолжающегося мирового финансового кризиса проблема состояния государственного долга и управления им становится все более актуальной. Целью исследования является определение сущности, последствий государственного долга и поиск возможностей его погашения. Для достижения цели были поставлены следующие задачи: уточнить экономическую сущность государственного долга; раскрыть положительное и отрицательное влияние государственной задолженности на социально-экономические процессы; проанализировать динамику государственного долга отдельных стран мира; рассмотреть возможность его погашения. С экономической точки зрения: «Государственный долг это система денежно-кредитных отношений, в результате которых происходит перераспределение временно свободных денежных средств резидентов и нерезидентов, иностранных государств и международных финансовых организаций в процессе которых образуется долговые обязательства для удовлетворения государственных потребностей». В настоящее время рост государственной задолженности рассматривается как условие экономического развития. С помощью государственного долга обеспечивается способность государства решать поставленные социально-экономические задачи, осуществляется государственное регулирование экономики. Государственный долг может иметь как положительное значение для страны, так и отрицательное. Величину государственного долга следует рассматривать в сравнении с другими макроэкономическими показателями состояния экономического развития страны, такими, к примеру, как ВВП. Этот показатель показывает возможность обслуживания долга за счет произведенного в стране продукта за год. Причем, если наблюдается рост ВВП, то и долг может увеличиваться, главное, чтобы темпы роста ВВП превышали темп роста долга. Анализ мировой практики государственных заимствований свидетельствует, что государственный долг это нормальное явление в финансовом хозяйстве цивилизованной страны. Однако, он свидетельствует о разрыве между экономическими возможностями и социальными потребностями страны. Объем государственного долга большинства стран мира ежегодно увеличивается и полное погашение этих долговых заимствований в настоящее время становится все более нереальным из-за их размера, и государственный долг превращается виртуальную величину. Поэтому, многие страны-должники стараются принять все возможные меры, чтобы не попасть в список безнадежных заемщиков. Главным путем решения проблемы роста государственного долга стран-заемщиков является мобилизация собственных усилий по подъему экономики своей страны, а именно: реализации политики, направленной на сокращение расходов государственного долга, рационализацию импорта, расширение и диверсификацию экспортного потенциала, повышение эффективности использования внешних кредитов и ряд иных мероприятий. В то же время, необходимо отметить, что взаимные долговые обязательства разных стран мира являются фактором стимулирующим экономическое развитие страны и укрепляющим международное сотрудничество.An essence of public debt is reviewed in this article along with its impacts (good and bad) on economy and society of borrowing countries. Evolution of main indicators of public debt in certain countries is analyzed in this article. Authors also review public loan's redemption possibilities. Governments had to attract free capital of other business entities and citizens to satisfy various public needs and to cover its expenditures. Public debt together with taxes Financial climate of any country, its development possibilities are defined by such indicators as public budget, deficit and, of course public debt, which is an aggregate indicator of both budget and deficit. Nowadays this problem becomes more and more important in the view of global economic crisis. A purpose of this research is to define essence and economic impacts of public debt and its redemption possibilities. The following tasks were set to reach these goals: to specify economic essence of public debt, to show pros and cons of public debt for social and economic activities; to analyze certain countries' public debt's evolution; to review its redemption possibilities. The economic point of view is that "A public debt is a system of monetary relations that cause redistribution of free capital of residents, non-residents, foreign countries and international monetary funds that transfer to debts aiming at public needs' satisfaction". Nowadays public debt's increase is reviewed as a condition of economic growth. A public debt provides government's ability to solve social-economic problems. A public debt can have positive or negative impact on the country. The amount of the public debt can be analyzed together with the other indicators, such as GDP, for example. This indicator show an ability to cover the debt with the output produced in the country for a period. The main point is that a growth rate of the GDP should be higher than a growth rate of GDP. A public debt is a normal thing for modern countries according to world public borrowing practice. Nevertheless it shows a difference between country's economic potential and society's needs. The amount of a public debt of modern countries increases annually, and nowadays full redemption of this debt is unreal grace to its size, so it becomes virtual. That's why many country-borrowers try not to become bad debtors. Their main method is to mobilize their efforts to internal economic growth, namely to cut budgetary expenditures, to rationalize import, to diverse economic potential, to improve efficiency of external borrowing, etc. At the same time we must admit that mutual obligations of different countries are stimulating economic growth and enlarge international cooperation.

In the article the author considers the main innovation of the new law «On Higher Education» and autonomy of universities. The author analyzes the main positives and benefits of this innovation and the experience of Western universities and justifies position on the need for radical change in management, developing new standards, plans and etc. Thus, at the first place of the list there are innovations related to changes in management. They, in turn, also form a hierarchy, where on the top there are educational policy proposals, and on the lowest stage are personnel changes in the management of an institution. The successful implementation of decentralization reforms or significant implications requires strong and durable and contemporary models of rational planning and implementation. In this sense, the author assesses the likely hazards and Ukrainian autonomy of Higher Education, the trends, which are the prospects for the unsuccessful implementation and have negative social consequences. Proving the idea that the first means of preventing negative tendencies is a gradual balance and account crisis of socio­economic situation in Ukraine, the author also emphasizes that efforts in this direction requires, above all, political support, because of such conversion should be wide access to the constant monitoring of the situation, statistical data on the state and trends of changes in higher education of the country. 1.07. In 2014, the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine adopted the Law "On Higher Education" (No. 1187-2) in its second reading and in general. Presenting the bill, People's Deputy from the "Batkivshchyna", chairman of the Verkhovna Rada Committee on Science and Education Lilia Grinevich reminded that attempts to adopt this document lasted 5 years. His text received about a thousand suggestions from the public. One of the main innovations of the law is the autonomy of higher education, according to the Minister of Education S. Kvit, "the law is based on the idea of university autonomy in a broad sense. We understand university autonomy as an autonomous academic, financial and organizational, that is, the university itself will solve most issues without seeking permissions to the Ministry of Education. By this law, we give the universities some tools in their hands so that they can understand themselves. Together with autonomy and broad rights, we pass on the responsibility of universities for their quality ". Thus, according to the new Law, "autonomy of a higher educational establishment is independence, independence and responsibility of a higher educational institution in making decisions regarding the development of academic freedoms, organization of scientific research, educational process, internal management and finance, etc. The rights of a higher educational institution, which determine the content of its autonomy, are established by law and can not be restricted by other laws and regulations "[1]. At first glance, this version of the law is clear, balanced, comprehensible, and moreover - the long-awaited community of educators. But is everything so simple and easy to be implemented? How many "pitfalls" awaits especially at state universities, which trends can provoke this, since the transition to autonomy implies a radical change in the management system in education, the formation of new quality standards and independent accreditation centers. We will try to understand the main innovations that Ukrainian universities should be prepared for. ; У статті розглядається основна інновація нового закону «Про вищу освіту» – автономізація вищих навчальних закладів . Автор аналізує основні позитиви і переваги цього нововведення і на досвіді західноєвропейських вишів обґрунтовує позицію щодо потреби докорінної зміни менеджменту, формування нових стандартів, планів тощо. Таким чином, на першому місці у переліку інновацій, пов'язаних з автономізацією, завжди виявляються зміни в управлінні. Вони, у свою чергу, теж формують певну ієрархію – на вищому рівні знаходяться освітньо­політичні пропозиції, на найнижчому – персональні зміни у керівництві того чи іншого закладу. Тому успішне втілення реформ децентралізаційного чи іншого, значного за наслідками, плану вимагає потужних і довготривалих раціональних і сучасних моделей планування і втілення. В цьому сенсі автор оцінює і ймовірні небезпеки автономізації української вищої школи, ті тенденції, які за перспективи неуспішної реалізації матимуть негативні соціальні наслідки. Відстоюючи думку про те, що найперший засіб запобігання негативним тенденціям – це поступовість, зваженість і врахування кризової соціально­економічної ситуації в Україні, авторка також підкреслює, що зусилля в цьому напрямку вимагають, насамперед, політичної підтримки, оскільки для проведення подібного перетворення необхідно мати широкий доступ до постійного моніторингу ситуації, статистичних матеріалів стосовно стану і тенденцій змін у вищій школі країни. ; У статті розглядається основна інновація нового закону «Про вищу освіту» – автономізація вищих навчальних закладів . Автор аналізує основні позитиви і переваги цього нововведення і на досвіді західноєвропейських вишів обґрунтовує позицію щодо потреби докорінної зміни менеджменту, формування нових стандартів, планів тощо. Таким чином, на першому місці у переліку інновацій, пов'язаних з автономізацією, завжди виявляються зміни в управлінні. Вони, у свою чергу, теж формують певну ієрархію – на вищому рівні знаходяться освітньо­політичні пропозиції, на найнижчому – персональні зміни у керівництві того чи іншого закладу. Тому успішне втілення реформ децентралізаційного чи іншого, значного за наслідками, плану вимагає потужних і довготривалих раціональних і сучасних моделей планування і втілення. В цьому сенсі автор оцінює і ймовірні небезпеки автономізації української вищої школи, ті тенденції, які за перспективи неуспішної реалізації матимуть негативні соціальні наслідки. Відстоюючи думку про те, що найперший засіб запобігання негативним тенденціям – це поступовість, зваженість і врахування кризової соціально­економічної ситуації в Україні, авторка також підкреслює, що зусилля в цьому напрямку вимагають, насамперед, політичної підтримки, оскільки для проведення подібного перетворення необхідно мати широкий доступ до постійного моніторингу ситуації, статистичних матеріалів стосовно стану і тенденцій змін у вищій школі країни.

Immediately after the dicision of the Ambasador's Council of July 28, 1920,concerning the division of the Cieszyn Silesia, it became clear thet the said delimitation did not win the acceptance of any serious political forces in Poland. The Polish state's difficult international situation, however, made the Polish authorities abandon the idea of resolving the Zaolzie question by force. Fruitless negotiations were, at the same time, conducted to obtain the cossion of at least a part of the disputed territory in Poland's favour and various diplomatic interventions were undertaken to improve the situation of the Polish population inhabiting the Zaolzie Silesia. In spite of the low efficiency of such initiatives, in 1925 the political relation between Poland and Czechoslovakia were normalised and a liquidation agreement was signed, which led to a normalisation of mutual relations in the divided area. The actions of the Polish Republic in relation to the Zaolzie were influenced by various factors that were difficult to harmonise. One of them was the necessity to subjugate the Zaolzie question to the atate's general interests, which included an acceptance of the Versailles status quo, and attempts to find a platform of co-operation with Czechoslovakia in view of the growing German threat. Another factor was the desire to maintain the Polish national character of the Zaolzie motivated by the reluctance to give up that territory in an unequivocal way. The expectation of a cooperation with Czechoslovakia in the international context led to the policy of letting bygones be bygones. The democratic nature of the Chechoslovak state afforded a possibility of making the defence of the Polish national rights the responsibility of the Polish deputies in the parliament in Prague. The Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs tried then to persuade the leaders of the Polish community in the Zaolzie to assume a more activistic attitude. At the same time, the Polish Consul in Moravska Ostrava supported financially the institutions of the Polish national life nad tried to resist the assimilating policy of the Czech authorities. This tactics brought, up to a point, some results, but it did not prevent all attempts at an assimilation on the part of influential Czech organisations and bussiness circles, neither did it safeguard the conditions of the national life in the Zaolzie so as to obviate the need for the steady flow of the Polish financial aid without which the Polish educational and cultural institutions would not survive. In the late 1920s and early 1930s a rapprochement between Warsaw and Prague seemed to substantiate the hopes for a betterment of the situation of the Poles in the Zaolzie. In the wake of such hopes there appeared Polish-Czechoslovak societies and Czechoslovak-Polish clubs. These clubs reised high expectations in the consular centre in Moravska Ostrava, which hoped that they would help to break down the barriers between the Polish and Czech population and to obtain the support of influential Czech circles for the postulates of the Polish minority. The most committed members of the clubs (just like all, with no exceptions, Polish cosuits in Moravska Ostrava) were treated, however, with great suspicion and aversion by the Czech nationalist circles, as well as by the personalities representing the views of the Czechoslovak Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The most far-reaching initiative, that is the idea of calling a reconciliation conference concerning the matters of the Cieszyn Silesia in 1932, ended in a fiasco. Such factors as the way the 1930 sensus was carried out, the obvious deterioration of the living standards at the time of the Great Depression, and the attitude of the persons responsible for the Czech foreign policy who insisted on all Polish citizens leaving Czechoslovakia before "equitable" negotiations with Poland could begin, signalled the end of the period in which a positive and active conduct of the Polish population could seem an efficient antidote to the growing pressure for assimilation. The political events of 1933 changed the perception of the chances for a cooperation between Poland and Czechoslovakia, both of them being situated between Germany and the Soviet Union, which, in early 1934, made the representatives of the Polish Republic change their policy in the Zaolzie. From then, on the support of the Polish authorities and society for the Polish minority was emphasised, also a pressure was being exerted on the Czechoslovak government by means of an organised press campaign in Poland. The Czechoslovak government, however, did not yield under pressure, and assumed an intransigent attitude, taking this opportunity to get rid of a certain number of the Poles in the Zaolzie. The assimilation of the local Poles both of a natural kind and enforced by political and economic pressure seemed to the Czech authorities to be the best way to pacify this important borderline region. The tactics to which the Polish side resorted did not then lead to an improvement of the situation of the ethnic Poles in Czechoslovakia, it had, however, a different result, namely it aroused the national feelings and kindled the hopes for the Polish state's stronger support for the minority aspirations. In Poland, on the other hand, the internal situation in Poland's southern neighbour state, beginning with the elections of 1935, started to be looked at from the perspective of the apparently imminent crisis. In view of this, while the idea of an intensive propaganda camping was abandoned, the Czech policy in relation to the ethnic minorities was carefully watched, and the internal integration of the Polish community in the Zaolzie was strongly supported.

RIASSUNTO TESI Il concetto della performance, della sua misurazione, gestione e controllo, accanto a quelli di efficienza, trasparenza, accountability e responsabilità, rappresentano gli elementi fondanti la dottrina del New Public Management e in quanto tali sono stato oggetto di studi accademici e analisi da parte dei professionisti del settore pubblico. La crisi economica dei primi anni '90, le sue implicazioni e le conseguenti tensioni politiche hanno aumentato l'interesse dei governi e parlamenti italiani, che si sono susseguiti, sulle problematiche dell'aumento incontrollato della spesa e del debito pubblico. La conseguenza immediata di questa nuova attenzione, anche per le nuove esigenze di bilancio derivanti dal processo di adesione all'Unione Europea, è stata un incremento della produzione legislativa. In questo contesto gli interventi legislativi, a partire in primo luogo dalla legge n. 142 del 1990, hanno avuto tutti il medesimo filo conduttore, ovvero l'obiettivo di realizzare in concreto il disegno costituzionale di articolazione del governo centrale nei suoi livelli territoriali, quali Comuni, Province e Regioni (queste ultime previste successivamente nel 1970, operative con il d.P.R. n 616/77). I governi e i parlamenti hanno incentrato la loro azione legislativa su interventi finalizzati a favorire il decentramento amministrativo e l'autonomia locale, dapprima solo statutaria e regolamentare, poi anche impositiva, finanziaria e gestionale. L'attenzione nei confronti della programmazione dell'attività amministrativa locale, e successivamente anche sulle prestazioni pubbliche, è aumentato contestualmente al crescere delle esigenze informative dei cittadini sulle modalità di utilizzo delle scarse risorse pubbliche (derivanti in grande parte dal gettito fiscale), al fine di poter garantire i servizi essenziali alla collettività. Gli organi di indirizzo politico – amministrativo orientano la gestione tramite il complesso di decisioni ed azioni organizzative che seguono le linee di indirizzo generali (D.Lgs 165/2001), la definizione di piani, programmi e direttive generali. L'oggetto della Legge n. 150 del 2009 (c.d. riforma Brunetta) è la performance della pubblica amministrazione, la performance organizzativa ed individuale dei dipendenti pubblici. Quest'ultima in particolare è un tema sensibile nel dibattito pubblico, spesso con un'accezione negativa nell'opinione pubblica. A seguito dei più recenti interventi in materia di armonizzazione contabile, si è ritenuto fosse necessario e interessante avviare una riflessione sul complessivo sistema di programmazione e controllo della performance negli enti locali allo scopo di sviluppare un modello della performance integrato. In questo senso, la presente tesi di dottorato si è concentrata sugli strumenti a disposizione degli enti locali italiani per la programmazione, la misurazione e la gestione della performance, partendo dai primi dettati legislativi in materia di programmazione e controllo, analizzando successivamente quanto introdotto dal D.Lgs 150/09 e più recentemente dal D.Lgs 118/2011, al fine di giungere allo sviluppo di uno strumento che rispondesse alle principali esigenze informative in materia di performance della PA locale. A questo scopo, inizialmente è stata effettuata un'analisi della letteratura, il più completa possibile, sul concetto della performance e della sua misurazione, sottolineando i benefici e gli effetti inaspettati delle misure di performance, i limiti e la differenze esistenti tra misurazione e gestione della performance. La trattazione successivamente si concentrerà sull'illustrazione dei concetti di indicatori e misure di performance, dal punto di vista delle caratteristiche e differente principali, oltre che dell'utilità, dei possibili usi ed utilizzatori dell'informazione di performance (ad esempio: decision-makers, politici e cittadini). L'analisi del background teorico sarà finalizzata alla descrizione del complessivo contesto del tema della performance tramite i) il contesto internazionale del settore pubblico e ii) le dinamiche della performance delle pubbliche amministrazione. Il contesto specifico di rifermento è quello degli enti locali italiani, 1) descritto nei suoi aspetti normativi e dottrinali in termini di programmazione, performance, pianificazione e gestione della performance nonché di armonizzazione contabile e di controllo, con particolare riferimento ai controlli interni, e 2) analizzato con riferimento a principi, criteri, obiettivi e strumenti pluriennali ed annuali che ogni ente è tenuto e può utilizzare per poter al meglio pianificare, programmazione e controllare le proprie prestazioni di breve, medio e lungo termine. Una volta delineato il background teorico si procederà alla descrizione di un'ipotesi di piano integrato della performance, sotto il punto di vista del processo di sviluppo e degli strumenti, con l'evidenziazione di punti di forza, possibili benefici, ma anche dei limiti e delle questioni non affrontate o che rimangono senza una risposta efficace. A titolo di approfondimento verrà presentato un caso di studio per evidenziare come un sistema integrato di performance possa essere considerato un sistema di governance amministrativa. La definizione del modello è stato guidata da due principi guida: i) semplificazione del contesto e ii) riduzione della complessità degli strumenti. Il tutto, in una prospettiva di possibile futura applicazione pratica all'interno degli enti locali italiani di piccole dimensioni. Tali enti sono caratterizzati da strutture organizzative con un minor grado di complessità, minori risorse economiche, finanziarie, strumentali ed umane, rispetto ad enti di maggiori dimensioni. Per queste ragioni, questi enti rappresentano un miglior contesto in cui adottare uno strumento di pianificazione e programmazione semplice e chiaro che possa aggiungersi agli altri adempimenti previsti per legge, senza appesantire troppo la gestione amministrativa. Se da un lato il modello proposto ha il vantaggio di riunire in un unico documento gli elementi di pianificazione e programmazione della performance strategica con collegamenti chiari e diretti ai documenti di programmazione pluriennali dell'intera attività amministrativa degli enti (DUP) e a quelli di gestione amministrativa e di bilancio (PEG), dall'altro potrebbe incorrere nel rischio di recepimento dello stesso come mero elemento formale, senza un'utilità sostanziale. Lo strumento ipotizzato permette, da un lato, di rispondere a quanto previsto dalla riforma del 2009 e con i dettati derivanti dal processo di armonizzazione contabile, ma, dall'altro, potrebbe contribuire a creare confusione, soprattutto all'interno di quegli enti locali con competenze limitate e risorse inadeguate all'utilizzo di strumenti innovativi per la gestione strategica e dell'intero ciclo di programmazione e controllo A questi punti possono e devono essere aggiunte riflessioni in merito alle modalità di trasmissione, gestione e comunicazione dell'informazione di performance oltre che di conciliazione e sintesi con i processi di decentramento amministrativo, di sviluppo ed affermazione dell'autonomia locale, nel nuovo quadro dei vincoli finanziaria, economici ed istituzionali nazionali e comunitari. THESIS SUMMARY Performance, performance measurement, management and control, alongside the concepts of efficiency, transparency, accountability and responsibility are considered the basis of New Public Management by both scholars and practioners of public sector. The economic crisis at the beginning of the 90's, its implications and political tensions have increased the concern of Italian governments and parliaments (over the years) on uncontrolled growth of public expenses and public debt. An increasing legislative provision on local government dynamics and principles was a consequence of this concerning, amplifying also by the new European Union's budget procedures and needs. The State organization in different levels of government as stated by the constitutional prevision was the focus of main legislative measures (starting form the law no. 142/1990) . In particular Italian local governments are articled in three different levels: Municipality, Provinces and Regions (last are stated in 1970 but became operating with the republican president decree no. 616/77). Moreover governments and parliaments focused their attention on the promotion of administrative decentralization and local statutory, regulative, fiscal, financial and management autonomy. The focus on local government planning activity and performance increased as well as the attention on citizens' informative needs about the use of scarce public resources in order to guarantee the public services. Decisions and actions of the political and administrative bodies followed the general guidelines (legislative decree 165/2001), plans and programs. The object of the Law no. 150 of 2009 (Brunetta Law) is public administration performance, organizational and individual performance of public employees. The public performance is often a sensitive issue in the public debate and generates negative point of views. The last regulation on accounting harmonization generates i) a rethinking process about the overall local governments performance programming and control systems ii) to develop an integrated system to satisfy informative needs on local public administration performance. The present PhD thesis's focused on Italian local governments tools and procedures to i) program, ii) measure and iii) manage the performance by the analysis of the legislative provisions until the last legislative decree 150/09 and the legislative decree 118/2011. First, a full literature review about performance meanings and performance measurement has been carried out. This work highlighted the benefits and the unexpected effects of the performance measures, their limitations and the existing differences between performance measurement and management. Then, concepts of indicators and performance measures are introduced, their principal features and differences, utility and possible uses and the users of performance information (e.g. decision makers, politicians, citizens). The presentation of the theoretical background will be aimed to describe the overall context of performance issue through, i) the international context of public sector and ii) the local public administration performance dynamics. The specific context of this dissertation will be the Italian local government focusing on 1) the description of legislation and doctrine for the programming, planning and management of performance, as well as the accounting harmonization and internal controls and 2) the analysis of local governments' principles, criteria, aims and tools for long and short term performance planning, programming and controls. The next section will be dedicated to describe an hypothesis of integrated performance plan, its development process and tools, its strengths and weaknesses, and the non-addressed and unresolved issues. Further a case study is presented in order to highlight how an integrated performance system can be considered as an administrative governance system. The overall analysis is guided by two principles: i) context simplification and ii) tools' complexity reduction. The future perspective of its practical application is represented by small local governments, characterized by lower complexity and economic, financial, instrumental and human resources than larger ones. For these reasons small governments are better context to apply a new simple tool in addition to the traditional legislative fulfillments without increasing the administrative complexity. Elements of performance planning and programming and their connections with the others multiannual programming, budgeting and management documents (Single Programming Document: DUP, Executive Management Plan: PEG) are included in one single document. However, this system can be seen as another mere formality, without substantial benefits. It meets the aims of the 2009 reform and the principles of the accounting harmonization but it can also create confusion, in particular for local governments with limited skills and inadequate resources to use innovative tools of strategic governance, programming and control. Finally, it will be presented a reflection about systems of performance information transmission, management and communication and the settlement between decentralization processes, development and statement of local autonomy, national and European economic-financial constraints.

Agriculture in Tanzania accounts for 28 percent of the country's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and employs 80 percent of its labor force. The sector is also an important source of export revenues. The data and findings presented in this report provide a summary of the performance of the agriculture sector in Tanzania using a set of indicators covering six areas. These are: 1) access to and availability of certified seed; 2) availability of and access to fertilizer; 3) access to farm machinery, particularly tractor hire services for land preparation; 4) access to agricultural and agro-enterprise finance; 5) the cost and efficiency of transporting agricultural commodities; and 6) measures of policy certainty and uncertainty as perceived by private investors and the effects these have on the enabling environment for producers and agribusinesses. The Agribusiness Indicators (ABI) team conducted interviews with Government agencies, private firms (fertilizer importers, seed companies, tractor importers and distributors, transporters), commercial banks, farmer-based organizations, donors, and Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs). The ABI program is pilot testing an initial set of indicators on the ease (or difficulty) of operating agribusinesses in African countries. The indicators are used to assess whether the countries have an enabling environment that is conducive to agribusiness investment, competitiveness, and ultimately agriculture-led growth.

Väitöskirja tarkastelee poliittista perustulokeskustelua Suomessa ideoiden tutkimuksen näkökulmasta. Perustulo on universaali, jokaiselle poliittisen yhteisön jäsenelle henkilökohtaisesti tasaisin väliajoin maksettava vastikkeeton tulonsiirto. Perustulosta ja sitä lähellä olevista ideoista on Suomessa keskusteltu neljä vuosikymmentä keinona uudistaa vähimmäissosiaaliturvaa. Väitöskirja tutkii poliittisten dokumenttien pohjalta perustuloidean kehystystä Suomen poliittisessa diskurssissa ja yrityksiä tuoda perustuloehdotusta poliittiselle agendalle. Perustuloehdotus on saanut viime aikoina lisääntyvää kansainvälistä akateemista ja poliittista huomiota. Huomio liittyy yhtäältä huoleen eriarvoisuuden ja epävarmuuden kasvusta, ja toisaalta tarpeeseen uudistaa yhteiskuntia ekologisesti kestävämmälle pohjalle. Perustulon kaltaisten uusien politiikkaehdotusten toteuttamisen poliittisia ehtoja tunnetaan kuitenkin huonosti. Viime aikoina useat tutkimukset ovat kiinnittäneet huomiota perustulon toteuttamisen institutionaalisiin ja poliittisiin ehtoihin. Kuitenkin ideoiden, kuten poliittisten ideologioiden, politiikkaparadigmojen, sekä arvojen, uskomusten ja moraalisten käsitysten, poliittisten diskurssien ja kehystyksen rooli on useimmissa tutkimuksissa saanut ainoastaan marginaalista huomiota. Tämä tutkimus valottaa ideoiden roolia perustulon poliittisten mahdollisuuksien ymmärtämisessä. Se tutkii kehystyksen ja ehdotetun perustulon toteutustavan roolia siinä, miten perustulon idea on ymmärretty Suomen poliittisessa perustulokeskustelussa. Tutkimus osoittaa, kuinka ideoiden tutkimuksen näkökulman kytkeminen perustulon poliittisten ehtojen tutkimukseen auttaa rakentamaan parempaa ymmärrystä perustulon toteutukseen liittyvistä haasteista. Systemaattinen empiirinen analyysi perustuloidean kehystyksestä ja kannattajien laatimien perustulomallien sisällöistä auttaa ymmärtämään poliittisten toimijoiden erilaisia rooleja suhteessa perustulokysymykseen. Se auttaa myös tunnistamaan sellaisia perustulon toteutukseen liittyviä esteitä, jotka liittyvät yhteiskunnallisen todellisuuden ymmärtämistä jäsentäviin kognitiivisiin ja normatiivisiin kategorioihin. Tutkimus hyödyntää poliittisista dokumenteista koostuvaa aineistoa, joka kattaa aikavälin 1980-2018. Aineisto mahdollistaa Suomen poliittisen perustulokeskustelun kontekstisidonnaisten piirteiden kattavan tarkastelun. Tutkimus havaitsee, että perustulokeskustelun rationaliteetti muuttui ajan myötä. Perustulon kehystys seuraili yhteiskunnan ideologisia muutoksia sekä uusia politiikan asialistalle nousevia kysymyksiä. Keskustelun varhaiselle vaiheelle oli ominaista termien, ehdotusten ja keskustelussa käytettyjen kehysten kirjo. Varhaisia perustuloa muistuttavia ehdotuksia kehystettiin usein sosiaalisten oikeuksien ja tasa-arvon näkökulmista, ja keskustelussa esiintyi visionäärisiä tulevaisuuskuvia. Tutkimus havaitsi radikaalin muutoksen perustuloidean kehystyksessä Suomen poliittista ilmapiiriä syvällisesti muuttaneen 1990-luvun laman jälkimainingeissa. Perustuloehdotus kehystettiin yhteensopivaksi uuden työvoiman aktivointiparadigman ja julkisten varojen niukkuutta korostavan ajattelun kanssa. Myöhäisempää perustulokeskustelua leimasi näkökulmien kaventuminen käytännöllisiin, perustulon työmarkkinavaikutuksia korostaviin näkemyksiin. Vaihtoehtoisia tulevaisuuskuvia herätteleviä tai vallitsevaa politiikkaparadigmaa kyseenalaistavia kehystyksiä esiintyi myöhemmässä keskustelussa harvoin. Tutkimus valottaa poliittisten toimijoiden erilaisia rooleja perustuloehdotusta koskevan kollektiivisen ymmärryksen muovaamisessa. Yksittäiset toimijat toivat ehdotuksen puolueiden agendalle sekä nostivat aihetta esiin eduskuntakeskusteluissa. Puolueista vihreillä oli keskeinen rooli perustuloa koskevan ymmärryksen luomisessa. Puolue piti ideaa hengissä aikoina, jolloin yleinen keskustelu siitä oli vähäistä. Se myös kehysti perustuloehdotuksen tavalla, joka lisäsi sen laajempaa hyväksyttävyyttä poliittisten toimijoiden keskuudessa. Muut perustuloa kannattavat puolueet – vasemmistoliitto, keskusta, sekä 1990-luvulla Suomen liberaalipuolue ja nuorsuomalaiset – korostivat enemmän omia ideologisia näkökulmiaan perustuloon. Perustulokeskustelussa yleisimmin käytettyjä kehyksiä käyttivät kuitenkin kaikki puolueet ja poliitikot, jotka käyttivät perustuloa puoltavia puheenvuoroja. Tämä viittaa siihen, ettei kannattajien välillä ollut voimakkaita ideologisia konflikteja liittyen perustulouudistuksen keskeisiin tavoitteisiin. Tutkimus havaitsi, että kehystys, joka esitti perustulon maltillisena, valtavirtaiseen talousajatteluun ja vallitseviin normatiivisiin käsityksiin sopivana uudistuksena resonoi laajasti Suomen poliittisessa keskustelussa. Tämä kehystys korosti erityisesti perustulon potentiaalia aktivointipolitiikan välineenä. Tarkastelujakson loppua kohden perustulosta keskusteltiin yhä enemmän kannustuspolitiikan viitekehyksessä. Tässä kehyksessä perustulokeskustelu kaventui koskemaan sosiaaliturvabyrokratiaan ja työmarkkinavaikutuksiin liittyviä teknisiä kysymyksiä. Se ei jättänyt tilaa vaihtoehtoisille yhteiskunnallisten ongelmien luonnetta koskeville pohdinnoille tai periaatteellisemmalle keskustelulle. Tutkimus valottaa uudenlaisen politiikkaehdotuksen kehystämiseen liittyviä rajoitteita vallitsevan sosiaalipoliittisen ymmärryksen puitteissa. Vallitsevat yhteiskunnallisten ongelmien luonnetta määrittävät kategoriat rajoittivat keskustelua uudistuksesta, joka toteutuessaan muuttaisi olennaisesti hyvinvointipolitiikan logiikkaa. Vallitsevaa politiikkaparadigmaa mukaileva maltillinen kehystys auttoi saamaan positiivista huomiota perustuloehdotukselle poliittisten toimijoiden keskuudessa. Se ei kuitenkaan tarjonnut vankkaa perustelua vastikkeettoman etuuden käyttöönotolle. Tutkimuksen löydökset alleviivaavat ideoiden ja niihin liittyvien prosessien empiirisen tutkimuksen tärkeyttä perustulon kaltaisten uusien politiikkaehdotusten mahdollisuuksien ymmärtämiseksi. ; This thesis employs an ideational institutionalist perspective to examine the debate on basic income in Finnish politics. Basic income is an income transfer paid universally and unconditionally at regular intervals to every individual member of a political community. The idea of basic income has been discussed in Finnish politics for four decades as a proposal to reform the minimum social protection system. This dissertation draws on political documents in which the basic income proposal is discussed to examine the evolution of the idea in the Finnish political discourse and the attempts to place the proposal on the political agenda. The basic income idea is attracting growing global scholarly and political attention. This attention stems from concerns about the increasing inequality and precarization, and from the need to restructure societies on more ecological bases. However, the political conditions for implementing new path-departing policies such as basic income are less well-known. A growing number of studies have focused on institutional and political constraints on basic income. However, most studies have paid only marginal attention to the role of ideational factors – such as political ideologies or policy paradigms, values, beliefs or moral sentiments, and political discourses and frames – as determinants of the political feasibility of basic income. The present study sheds light on the ideational dimension of the political feasibility of basic income. Examining the role of framing and the proposed policy design in the Finnish political basic income debate, the study demonstrates how integrating an ideational perspective into the analysis enables a more nuanced understanding of the political challenges related to basic income. A systematic empirical analysis of the content of the basic income debate and the specific proposals put forward by its proponents helps clarify the roles of different political actors in the debate on basic income. Furthermore, this analysis enables the identification of constraints on the policy that relate to cognitive and normative categories through which we understand society. The study of the political documents discussing basic income covers the period 1980-2018 and provides a comprehensive overview of the context-specific features of the basic income debate in Finnish politics. The study finds that the rationale of the basic income proposal evolved over time alongside ideological shifts in Finnish politics and to incorporate new issues that appeared on the political agenda. The early period of the debate was characterized by a variety of concepts, proposals, and frames used in communicating proposals. Justification for the early proposals was based on social rights and egalitarian principles, and the discussion often evoked visionary ideas for the future. The study observed a radical shift in the rationale of the basic income debate in the aftermath of the economic crisis of the early 1990s. The crisis dramatically changed the political climate in Finland. The basic income proposal was reframed as compatible with the emerging labor activation paradigm and the new era of financial austerity of the welfare state. Over time, the framing of basic income narrowed to emphasize pragmatic labor market-related aspects of the policy. The frames that evoked alternative visions of the future or challenged the status quo were rarely used in the latter part of the debate. The study shows that political actors played different roles in shaping the collective understanding of basic income. Individual actors played a role in putting the proposal on parties' agendas and bringing it up in parliamentary debates. The Green Party was a key player in keeping the basic income proposal alive during the periods of silence in the general discussion and in communicating the proposal in a way that made it acceptable to a wide range of political actors. The other supportive parties – the Left Alliance, the Centre Party, and two small liberal parties in the 1990s – placed more emphasis on their own ideological perspectives on basic income. However, the study also finds that the most frequent frames used in communicating the proposal were widely shared among the parties, which suggests that there are no strong ideological conflicts among the Finnish parties endorsing basic income in terms of the key aims of the policy. The study observes that the framing that portrayed basic income as a moderate reform in line with the mainstream economic rationales and the deep-rooted normative values in society was widely resonant among the Finnish parties. This framing particularly emphasized the activation potential of basic income. Toward the end of the examined period, the basic income proposal was increasingly discussed in the framework of the activation paradigm. This framing narrowed the communication on the policy to the technical issues concerning welfare bureaucracy and work incentives and did not enable alternative diagnoses on the nature of societal problems or a more principled discussion of a good society. The study illustrates the difficulties of translating a new transformative policy alternative into the language of everyday policymaking. The established categories of understanding the nature of the social problems constrained the communication on basic income, a policy that would fundamentally shift the logic of providing welfare. A moderate framing in line with the prevailing paradigm of welfare helped win positive attention for the policy among mainstream political actors, but it did not provide a robust justification for an unconditional benefit. The findings of the study underline the importance of empirically studying ideational processes to develop a fuller understanding of the prospects of new policies, such as basic income.

La presente tesis tiene por objetivo realizar una minuciosa investigación sobre las ventajas e inconvenientes de la dación en pago, equilibrando las dos partes del procedimiento de ejecución hipotecaria (acreedor y deudor hipotecario). En primer lugar, se ha hecho un análisis exhaustivo de todas aquellas normas legales, doctrina y jurisprudencia que regulan la protección de los deudores hipotecarios, así como la normativa que suspende los lanzamientos hasta el año 2020. En segundo lugar, se ha utilizado el tipo de preguntas y respuestas a fin de solventar todas aquellas cuestiones que en la vida cotidiana suelen ocurrir y se ha explicado el iter procesal que se sigue en un procedimiento de ejecución hipotecaria, señalando los motivos de oposición que el deudor podrá alegar en tal caso, así como la estructura que tiene tanto una demanda de ejecución hipotecaria como la oposición a la misma. En tercer lugar, se ha aludido a los sistemas de ordenación de la propiedad inmueble en otros países, haciendo especial hincapié al derecho inglés por las particularidades que ostenta en comparación con el derecho español y que resultan totalmente ilustrativas y de gran ejemplo para España al proteger a ambas partes y conseguir ayudas gubernamentales para solventar las situaciones de aquellas personas que en un momento dado de su vida no pueden hacer frente a la deuda que contrajeron. Por ello, el objetivo de la presente no es otro que la investigación dirigida a evitar la desgracia económica que han sufrido muchas familias con ocasión de la crisis inmobiliaria, realizando al efecto una serie de conclusiones y propuestas, ambas basadas en un estudio de investigación legal, doctrinal y jurisprudencial profundo. No hay que olvidar que todo tiene su origen en un préstamo hipotecario concedido por la entidad acreedora, (en España bancos o cajas de ahorro y en Inglaterra, además de bancos, entidades locales y building societies, sociedades industriales y económicas, sociedades de previsión social y fiduciarios, entre otros) que debió ser explicado de forma previa a la contratación, en concreto, debió informarse de los escenarios positivos y negativos que se podían producir en caso de incumplimiento, así como no incluir cláusulas declaradas absolutamente abusivas, tanto por el Tribunal Supremo como por el Tribunal de Unión Europea, entre otros. Dichas cláusulas son las relativas a la cláusula suelo, gastos hipotecarios o vencimiento anticipado, por nombrar algunas, en las que el Banco, en una posición dominante hizo que el consumidor se adhiriera a ellas, sin posibilidad de negociación. La nulidad de las mismas no implicará la nulidad del contrato por completo, sino que se tendrán por no puestas. Por ello, a la entidad bancaria se le exige un grado de diligencia superior que al hombre medio, muy cercana a la responsabilidad por riesgo del profesional dada su experiencia profesional en la actividad financiera. A consecuencia de ello, serán muchos los supuestos en los que la oposición a la ejecución hipotecaria acabará en éxito para la parte deudora, sin perjuicio de la suspensión acordada en estos procedimientos por los Tribunales a día de hoy. De ahí, que resulte más equitativo para un Estado de Derecho como el que vivimos que en caso de incumplimiento, la entidad acreedora solo pueda reclamar judicialmente el impago cuando el mismo represente un porcentaje de la totalidad y en ningún caso tres cuotas como indica en la actualidad la propia Ley de Enjuiciamiento Civil. Interesa destacar propuestas tales como la unificación de normativa en transparencia bancaria a nivel europeo, debiendo ser facilitada por el Banco Central Europeo a fin de lograr que las medidas se apliquen por igual a todos los ciudadanos de la Unión, de modo eficiente y equitativo. Otra propuesta que sería de gran interés para la economía española y sobre todo para aquellos consumidores que soliciten préstamos hipotecarios en el futuro es la regulación de modelos escritos con las cláusulas contractuales adecuadas para evitar aquellas abusivas que imponen obligaciones y gastos al prestatario pero no a la parte prestamista. Otras propuestas de lege ferenda que se encuentra en la tesis aluden a la necesidad de que se produzca la inversión de la regla del artículo 140 de la Ley Hipotecaria, así como impedir que sea el Banco el que se adjudique la vivienda por un precio inferior al valor de tasación, debiendo cubrirse correctamente las lagunas que siguen patentes y que son gravemente perjudiciales para el ciudadano de a pie". This thesis aims to carry out a thorough investigation of the advantages and disadvantages of the dation in payment, balancing the two parts of the foreclosure procedure (creditor and mortgage debtor). Firstly, an exhaustive analysis has been made about all those legal norms, doctrine and jurisprudence that regulate the protection of mortgage debtors, as well as the regulations that suspend launches until the year 2020. Secondly, it has been used the type of questions and answers in order to solve all those issues that in the everyday life usually happen. In addition to that it has also been explained the procedure in a mortgage execution, pointing out the reasons that the debtor may argue in such a case, as well as the structure that has both a demand of mortgage execution and the opposition to it. Thirdly, reference has been made to real estate management systems in other countries, with special emphasis on English law because of the peculiarities it has in comparison with Spanish law, which are totally illustrative and a great example for Spain. That's because such a law protects both parties and gets government aid to solve the situations of those people who at a certain moment of their lives could not cope with the debt they incurred in. Therefore, the purpose of this thesis is a research aimed at avoiding the economic misfortune suffered by many families during the real estate crisis. Moreover, within the thesis are proposed several concluding and different ideas and proposals, both based on a legal research study, with doctrinal and jurisprudential fundamentals. It should not be forgotten that everything has its origin in a mortgage loan granted by the creditor entity, (in Spain, Banks or local savings Banks (cajas), and in England, in addition to banks, local entities and building societies, industrial and economic societies, social welfare societies and fiduciaries, among others). That's why it should have been explained the risk prior to the hiring, in particular, it should have had to be informed of the positive and negative scenarios that could occur in case of non-compliance, as well as not include clauses declared absolutely abusive, both by the Court Supreme as by the European Union Court, among others. Those clauses are the so-called "interest rate floors", mortgage expenses or advanced maturity, to name a few, in which the Bank, in a dominant position, caused the consumer to adhere to them, without possibility of negotiation. The nullity of those clauses will not imply the contract nullity in full, but the consideration of "not set". Therefore, banks are required a higher degree of diligence than regular people, very close to the risk liability of the professional given their professional experience in financial activity. Hence, the aforementioned scenario is more equitable for the Spanish State that in case of default, in which the creditor can only claim the default if it represents a percentage of the total amount, and in no case three quotas as indicated in the Civil Procedure Law. It is important to highlight proposals such as rules unification in bank transparency at European level, which also must be provided by the European Central Bank in order to ensure that the measures are applied equally to all Union citizens, in an efficient and Equitable way. Another proposal that that would be very interesting to Spanish economy and especially for consumers who apply for mortgage loans in the future is the regulation of "written models" with the appropriate contractual clauses to avoid those abusive clauses because these clauses impose obligations and expenses on the borrower but not on the lender party. Other "lege ferenda" proposals explained in this thesis allude to the need of reversing the 140th Article of the Mortgage Law, as well as the need of preventing the Bank from self-adjudicating housing in a lower price than its appraised value. The ideas and proposals within this thesis could help to bridge the gap in matters that are seriously and negatively affecting ordinary citizens."

The European Union is a space o f continuous negotiations and an arena hosting the clashes of diverse integration options and concepts represented by EU member states and institutions. Furthermore, the disintegration of the EU (which dates back to the Maastricht Treaty) is becoming more and more visible. It is reflected directly by the presence in the European debate concerning multi-speed Europe and the current actions taken by the Eurozone states aimed at escalating the integration among selected states. Poland is also taking part in the debate concerning the future o f the European Union. The author of this paper attempted to examine Poland's place in the political and economic space o f the European Union by referring to the theory of integration. The research objective o f the paper is to analyse the Polish integration policy between late 1989 and 2012 within the context o f the international and European integration theory. The advanced research reflection in this scope in relation to Poland as the selected and important EU member state fits into the debate on the relevance of the European Union uniting concepts. The author posed the following research hypotheses in the dissertation: 1 .Considering the current stage o f development of the European Union, the Polish integration policy does not firmly support strictly one international or European integration concept. The Polish integration policy does not have a cohesive and stable integration policy concept and it is largely dependent on the policy and objectives of the current government (this is not only typical o f Poland) and the integration level. 2.Poland is strongly fixed in western structures, which makes the integration policy a vital component of development. What is more, the outlook on the European Union continues to evolve in the Polish political and social space. Poland sees the European Union as the main point o f reference in many political, economic, and social areas. 3.The organisation of the European Union does not only see Poland affect the form of the integration process, but also sees member states and EU organisations affect the functioning of Poland. The influence of a given state on the form o f the European Union mostly depends on the state's strength and significance in the EU community. This premise sees the place o f a given state in the system conditioned by the current factors, for example the European Union expansion process. Therefore, the interests o f Poland do not always correspond to the interests of the European Union, and the other way around. This deepens the EU's intergovernmental dimension. 4.Member states constitute the most important element o f the European Union. It is a union of states and nations supported by community institutions. This structure covers the convergence o f its methods, theories, and areas. This makes it impossible to profile the structure only from the perspective of the specified international integration theory. 5.The current stage o f the European Union's development, its challenges, and its problems show that the integration process continues to evolve and its result is impossible to foresee. 6.The current economic crisis influences the perception and management o f the European Union. The expectations include the intensification of intergovemmentalism and the establishment of multi-speed Union. If Poland remains outside of the Eurozone, it will find itself on the periphery o f the integration process, which is rather far from its very centre. Based on these research findings, Polish politics with regard to and, later, as part o f the EU can be divided into several principal periods. Period 1: (1989-1997) a time of consolidating Polish independence and security. This time was associated with the choice of a principal direction of the Polish foreign policy after 1989, i.e. Western Europe and declaration of Poland's will to take part in the process of its integration, without having any concrete vision for further course of those processes. This approach was often marked by a claiming attitude, both among political elites (marked by high instability) and the society (a simplified attitude, no social debate or knowledge about integration processes). During that period, Polish politics with regard to the EU cannot be ascribed to any specific model, since that policy was in statu nascendi at the time and was targeted at the EU membership, an objective in its own right. Period 2: (1998-2004) a time of negotiating Poland's accession to the EU, and the candidate's becoming accustomed to the rules o f EU's workings. There was still no vision o f integration processes from the Polish perspective and related opinions were expressed in a very cautious way. The primary aim was membership in the EU, such that was available at a given moment. At the same time, we should stress an important moment in the process of changes: the breakthrough o f the years 1999/2000. The interest in issues related to Poland's integration with the EU grew more intense then. The Polish government began to address this issue not only from the local perspective (a balance o f benefits and losses), but also expressed opinions on the reformation of the EU as a whole. Poland came as a difficult candidate for an EU member state (Polish support for US activities in Iraq and Afghanistan). This "difficulty" also emerged in the government's seeking to secure Poland's financial interests in connection with the accession. It was a period of preparations for membership, marked by a high level o f uncertainty (no clear vision, conflicting views: strong Union or preservation of independence, Common Foreign and Security Policy or working with the USA). Period 3: (2005-2007) a process aimed at building a vision of "Europe of Solidary Nations" in the EU by the government o f K. Marcinkiewicz and J. Kaczyński. Decisive, though not quite stable, support for international liberalism in the Polish integration policy. This manifested itself in reinforcing the Euro-realistic stance, both within Poland and abroad, by many considered, in fact, Eurosceptic. Period 4: (since 2008 to this day) a period of an integration vision being developed by D. Tusk's government, especially the Minister o f Foreign Affairs, R. Sikorski. It is a time of big changes and evolution in the Polish integration policy. An important issue at this time was a real sense of benefits coming from Poland's integration with the EU and the Polish government's pro-European attitude. The integration policy being developed shows a more flexible approach to the concept of independence (emergence o f collective independence) and thinking about the Polish foreign policy from the EU perspective. Additionally, we observed a return to constructing strategic partnership between Poland and Germany, rationalisation of partnership with the USA, Poland's active contribution to solving EU problems (e.g. the economic crisis), working towards a better "Eastern policy" as part of the EU. R. Sikorski was the first Polish Minister o f Foreign Affairs to have officially used the concept of federalism and vow his support for it in integration processes, mindful of Polish experiences and historical heritage in this respect. The Polish government expresses a firm objection to the idea of "multi-speed" Europe and builds an image o f Poland as an active member state (presidency at the EU Council), enjoying a good economic situation and having a society with an enthusiastic approach to the integration processes and strong Europe, and seeking to be as close to the "epicentre" o f countries behind this process.The analysis o f the integrative concepts presented in this paper shows that the different periods of the Polish integration policy (establishment and execution) saw and continue to see various levels in the majority of the international integration theory elements (of course, this is not just a Polish characteristic in the European Union, but rather a predominant trend in the Union's integration process). This has been and continues to be conditioned in large part by the foreign policy objectives of the given government, as well as by the current challenges and problems Poland is facing. In the case of the Polish integration policy, as in most other EU member states, we can observe an aggregation of interests, concepts and attitudes. This research project seeks to systematise them.

La presente tesis estudia las estrategias que utilizan los arquitectos para conseguir encargos, para vender proyectos, para construir obras. Aunque sus modus operandi pueden parecer meras técnicas de marketing no se puede obviar que las relaciones económicas condicionan cada fase de un proyecto, incluso la previa a sus primeros esbozos, y determinan en mayor o menor medida el resultado final. La metodología de trabajo parte de la base del estudio de las noticias sobre arquitectura publicadas en cabeceras internacionales, para analizar y clasificar sus contenidos. Advierto que las informaciones reinciden en determinados temas: el proyecto espectacular –el icono–; el beneficio económico de una promoción –marketing–; la manera de alcanzar el éxito de público –la masa– y el estrella del momento –el número uno–. Y todo ello, de la mano de un político a quien se achaca el éxito o el fracaso del proyecto. Una vez acotadas las constantes, procedía acotar el periodo histórico de la tesis, que establezco desde mediados del siglo pasado hasta nuestros días. La tesis comienza con los inicios del marketing. Hasta la segunda Guerra Mundial, las empresas fabricaban en respuesta a sus pedidos. Los 'stocks' de producción eran casi inexistentes. Pero al estallar la guerra se vieron forzadas a aumentar la producción hasta cotas inimaginables. El Estado lo compraba todo para abastecer a sus soldados. El problema llegó al acabar la contienda. El sistema se había optimizado para fabricar excedentes de producción y había que dar salida a esos productos que no tenían comprador. La posguerra americana marca el inicio del marketing. Las empresas se vieron en la necesidad de idear fórmulas que atrajeran a los consumidores hacia sus productos. En este contexto, profesionales como Charles Luckman trasladan el conocimiento comercial de la empresa a la arquitectura. Se empezaron a promover edificios cuyo beneficio no se basaba en la amortización de bienes para su explotación –ya fuese en régimen de alquiler o venta–, sino en el impacto que produciría en el consumidor de una determinada marca. El desarrollo de un edificio empezó a ser considerado una inversión publicitaria más. Nacía una forma de vincular la arquitectura con bienes intangibles, como la imagen, la marca, el poder o la experiencia del usuario. La tesis tiene la voluntad de ser práctica. Busca ejemplos extrapolables, justificaciones basadas en éxitos económicos y políticos, evitando en lo posible juzgar los proyectos. Cada capítulo expone casos reales para establecer un paralelismo entre la trayectoria de un determinado arquitecto del siglo XX y la de un profesional de nuestro tiempo. De los análisis se desprende que las estrategias de venta no son un fenómeno nuevo y que, adaptadas, siguen un patrón de uso. La tesis se apoya en datos biográficos de los arquitectos objeto de estudio para explicar las circunstancias de las que partieron y cómo alcanzaron el éxito o, por el contrario, qué les condenó al fracaso. Me interesa el momento en que, poniendo en riesgo su vida profesional, apuestan por una estrategia que el mercado decide si es correcta o no. Curiosamente, las investigaciones me han llevado a definir tres características comunes a todos los arquitectos que utilizan la estrategia: Les gusta más construir que proyectar; son hábiles oradores y tienen relación con la Costa Oeste de los Estados Unidos. California es un lugar de oportunidades donde el resultado importa más que la teoría. Todos trabajan allí con estrategias para lograr beneficios. En la zona han nacido o desarrollado su labor profesional Gehry, Gensler, Luckman, Pereira, Ma, Jerde, Koolhaas, Jobs o Page y Brin. Sorprenderá mi inclusión de arquitectos de software en la lista de arquitectos de edificios. El cambio que ha vivido la arquitectura lo justifica. En la actualidad, las empresas ya no encargan edificios que las representen, sino estrategias que mejoren su marca, su eficiencia y sus ventas. Ofrecerlas es hoy también trabajo de un arquitecto. Si entendemos el funcionamiento del mercado, quizás podamos "mantenernos sobre la ola y surfearla", como dice Koolhaas. El desafío es grande y más aún en el contexto actual. La crisis está provocando cambios en el perfil del arquitecto. Pasamos de hablar un lenguaje que sólo entendemos nosotros –el discurso arquitectónico–, a un lenguaje que entienden todos, menos nosotros: el discurso estratégico. A día de hoy, los arquitectos proyectaremos menos edificios, para centrarnos en proyectar estrategias. Empecemos pues a estudiarlas. Descubriremos cómo funcionan y hasta dónde nos pueden llevar. De buen seguro las vamos a necesitar para convencer a la sociedad de que todavía podemos serle útil. Lloc ; This thesis studies the strategies architects use to get commissions, sell projects and build structures. Although their modus operandi may appear to be just marketing techniques, it is undeniable that economic factors govern each stage in a project, even before the initial rough drafts, and determine to a greater or lesser extent the final result. The basis of the methodology involved is the analysis of the international press. Certain recurring themes seem to appear: the eye-catching project – the icon; the financial profit of a development – marketing; the way to win public success – mass; and the current star – the number one. All this under the aegis of a politician who is attributed the success or failure of the project. The timescale covered the period from the mid-1900's onwards. The thesis begins with the beginnings of marketing. Up to the second World War, companies manufactured to order. But the outbreak of war forced production to unimaginable heights. The State bought everything to supply its soldiers. However, the problem arose at the end of hostilities; the system had been optimised to manufacture an excess of production, and an outlet had to be found for all these products without a buyer. The American post-war saw the beginning of marketing. Companies found they had to think up formulas to attract public attention to their products. In this context, professionals such as Charles Luckman applied commercial knowledge to architecture. Buildings started to be put up, not so much for the profits to be earned from the renting or selling the property, as for the impact it would have on the consumer of a particular brand. The development of a building began to be seen more as an investment in publicity. It was a way of linking architecture with intangible assets such as image, brand name, power or user-experience. The thesis is basically practical, presenting comparable examples, justifications based on economic and political successes, while avoiding judgements. Each chapter presents real cases to establish a parallelism between the development of a certain twentieth-century architect and that of a present-day professional. The analyses show sales strategies are not something new and that, duly adapted, they follow a pattern. The thesis uses biographical data of the architects studied to explain the initial circumstances of each, and how they achieved success or what condemned them to failure. Most interesting is the moment when they stake their professional career on a strategy that only the market will decide whether it was right. Curiously, research seems to suggest there are three characteristics common to all architects who use strategy: they prefer building to planning, they are very good speakers, and they are all connected in some way to the U.S. West Coast. California is a place of opportunities where results are more important than theory. Strategies are used to achieve profits. It is where many well-known architects were born or worked, including Gehry, Gensler, Luckman, Pereira, Ma, Jerde, Koolhaas, Jobs and Page and Brin. It may seem surprising to see architects of software amongst the architects of buildings. This is due to the way architecture has changed. Nowadays, companies do not commission buildings to represent them, but strategies to improve their brand, efficiency and sales. This is also an architect's job. We must understand how the market works,. The challenge is enormous, even more so in today's world. The crisis is changing the architect's profile. It is no longer a question of using a language that only we understand – architectural discourse – it is a matter of speaking a language everybody understands, except us – strategical discourse. Nowadays, architects plan fewer buildings, and spend more time planning strategies. So let's start to study them. We will discover how they work and where they will lead us. For we are certainly going to have to convince society we still have our uses. Lloc i ; Postprint (published version)

La presente tesis estudia las estrategias que utilizan los arquitectos para conseguir encargos, para vender proyectos, para construir obras. Aunque sus modus operandi pueden parecer meras técnicas de marketing no se puede obviar que las relaciones económicas condicionan cada fase de un proyecto, incluso la previa a sus primeros esbozos, y determinan en mayor o menor medida el resultado final. La metodología de trabajo parte de la base del estudio de las noticias sobre arquitectura publicadas en cabeceras internacionales, para analizar y clasificar sus contenidos. Advierto que las informaciones reinciden en determinados temas: el proyecto espectacular –el icono–; el beneficio económico de una promoción –marketing–; la manera de alcanzar el éxito de público –la masa– y el estrella del momento –el número uno–. Y todo ello, de la mano de un político a quien se achaca el éxito o el fracaso del proyecto. Una vez acotadas las constantes, procedía acotar el periodo histórico de la tesis, que establezco desde mediados del siglo pasado hasta nuestros días. La tesis comienza con los inicios del marketing. Hasta la segunda Guerra Mundial, las empresas fabricaban en respuesta a sus pedidos. Los 'stocks' de producción eran casi inexistentes. Pero al estallar la guerra se vieron forzadas a aumentar la producción hasta cotas inimaginables. El Estado lo compraba todo para abastecer a sus soldados. El problema llegó al acabar la contienda. El sistema se había optimizado para fabricar excedentes de producción y había que dar salida a esos productos que no tenían comprador. La posguerra americana marca el inicio del marketing. Las empresas se vieron en la necesidad de idear fórmulas que atrajeran a los consumidores hacia sus productos. En este contexto, profesionales como Charles Luckman trasladan el conocimiento comercial de la empresa a la arquitectura. Se empezaron a promover edificios cuyo beneficio no se basaba en la amortización de bienes para su explotación –ya fuese en régimen de alquiler o venta–, sino en el impacto que produciría en el consumidor de una determinada marca. El desarrollo de un edificio empezó a ser considerado una inversión publicitaria más. Nacía una forma de vincular la arquitectura con bienes intangibles, como la imagen, la marca, el poder o la experiencia del usuario. La tesis tiene la voluntad de ser práctica. Busca ejemplos extrapolables, justificaciones basadas en éxitos económicos y políticos, evitando en lo posible juzgar los proyectos. Cada capítulo expone casos reales para establecer un paralelismo entre la trayectoria de un determinado arquitecto del siglo XX y la de un profesional de nuestro tiempo. De los análisis se desprende que las estrategias de venta no son un fenómeno nuevo y que, adaptadas, siguen un patrón de uso. La tesis se apoya en datos biográficos de los arquitectos objeto de estudio para explicar las circunstancias de las que partieron y cómo alcanzaron el éxito o, por el contrario, qué les condenó al fracaso. Me interesa el momento en que, poniendo en riesgo su vida profesional, apuestan por una estrategia que el mercado decide si es correcta o no. Curiosamente, las investigaciones me han llevado a definir tres características comunes a todos los arquitectos que utilizan la estrategia: Les gusta más construir que proyectar; son hábiles oradores y tienen relación con la Costa Oeste de los Estados Unidos. California es un lugar de oportunidades donde el resultado importa más que la teoría. Todos trabajan allí con estrategias para lograr beneficios. En la zona han nacido o desarrollado su labor profesional Gehry, Gensler, Luckman, Pereira, Ma, Jerde, Koolhaas, Jobs o Page y Brin. Sorprenderá mi inclusión de arquitectos de software en la lista de arquitectos de edificios. El cambio que ha vivido la arquitectura lo justifica. En la actualidad, las empresas ya no encargan edificios que las representen, sino estrategias que mejoren su marca, su eficiencia y sus ventas. Ofrecerlas es hoy también trabajo de un arquitecto. Si entendemos el funcionamiento del mercado, quizás podamos "mantenernos sobre la ola y surfearla", como dice Koolhaas. El desafío es grande y más aún en el contexto actual. La crisis está provocando cambios en el perfil del arquitecto. Pasamos de hablar un lenguaje que sólo entendemos nosotros –el discurso arquitectónico–, a un lenguaje que entienden todos, menos nosotros: el discurso estratégico. A día de hoy, los arquitectos proyectaremos menos edificios, para centrarnos en proyectar estrategias. Empecemos pues a estudiarlas. Descubriremos cómo funcionan y hasta dónde nos pueden llevar. De buen seguro las vamos a necesitar para convencer a la sociedad de que todavía podemos serle útil. Lloc ; This thesis studies the strategies architects use to get commissions, sell projects and build structures. Although their modus operandi may appear to be just marketing techniques, it is undeniable that economic factors govern each stage in a project, even before the initial rough drafts, and determine to a greater or lesser extent the final result. The basis of the methodology involved is the analysis of the international press. Certain recurring themes seem to appear: the eye-catching project – the icon; the financial profit of a development – marketing; the way to win public success – mass; and the current star – the number one. All this under the aegis of a politician who is attributed the success or failure of the project. The timescale covered the period from the mid-1900's onwards. The thesis begins with the beginnings of marketing. Up to the second World War, companies manufactured to order. But the outbreak of war forced production to unimaginable heights. The State bought everything to supply its soldiers. However, the problem arose at the end of hostilities; the system had been optimised to manufacture an excess of production, and an outlet had to be found for all these products without a buyer. The American post-war saw the beginning of marketing. Companies found they had to think up formulas to attract public attention to their products. In this context, professionals such as Charles Luckman applied commercial knowledge to architecture. Buildings started to be put up, not so much for the profits to be earned from the renting or selling the property, as for the impact it would have on the consumer of a particular brand. The development of a building began to be seen more as an investment in publicity. It was a way of linking architecture with intangible assets such as image, brand name, power or user-experience. The thesis is basically practical, presenting comparable examples, justifications based on economic and political successes, while avoiding judgements. Each chapter presents real cases to establish a parallelism between the development of a certain twentieth-century architect and that of a present-day professional. The analyses show sales strategies are not something new and that, duly adapted, they follow a pattern. The thesis uses biographical data of the architects studied to explain the initial circumstances of each, and how they achieved success or what condemned them to failure. Most interesting is the moment when they stake their professional career on a strategy that only the market will decide whether it was right. Curiously, research seems to suggest there are three characteristics common to all architects who use strategy: they prefer building to planning, they are very good speakers, and they are all connected in some way to the U.S. West Coast. California is a place of opportunities where results are more important than theory. Strategies are used to achieve profits. It is where many well-known architects were born or worked, including Gehry, Gensler, Luckman, Pereira, Ma, Jerde, Koolhaas, Jobs and Page and Brin. It may seem surprising to see architects of software amongst the architects of buildings. This is due to the way architecture has changed. Nowadays, companies do not commission buildings to represent them, but strategies to improve their brand, efficiency and sales. This is also an architect's job. We must understand how the market works,. The challenge is enormous, even more so in today's world. The crisis is changing the architect's profile. It is no longer a question of using a language that only we understand – architectural discourse – it is a matter of speaking a language everybody understands, except us – strategical discourse. Nowadays, architects plan fewer buildings, and spend more time planning strategies. So let's start to study them. We will discover how they work and where they will lead us. For we are certainly going to have to convince society we still have our uses. Lloc i ; Postprint (published version)

ABSTRAKSaat ini wisata syariah yang biasa dikenal dengan wisata religi sedang menjamur, khususnya di Jawa Timur. Sosok yang dianggap wali oleh sebagian orang itu berada di Surabaya, Gresik, dan Tuban, namun saat ini berkembang di kabupaten Jombang, yakni makam Presiden ke-4 Abdurrahman Wahid yang disebut Gus Dur. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui pemahaman masyarakat dalam memanfaatkan peluang wisata religi makam Gus Dur dalam meningkatkan perekonomian masyarakat sekitar pondok pesantren Tebuireng khususnya di dusun Jalan Seblak gang III. Penelitian ini dapat dicermati melalui perubahan kehidupan ekonomi, pemanfaatan peluang usaha dan faktor penghambat bagi kepentingan usaha. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode deskriptif kualitatif dengan teknik pengumpulan data wawancara dan dokumentasi. Hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa masyarakat setempat mengalami perubahan ekonomi dengan memanfaatkan peluang untuk membangun warung di atas tanah mereka dan menyewakannya kepada pedagang luar. Ini memberikan nilai ekonomi tambahan. Namun, penjualan warung-warung tersebut dinilai tidak mencukupi, sehingga mengharuskan mereka untuk membuka usaha sampingan. Terdapat peluang yang sangat baik bagi masyarakat untuk memilih menyewakan lapaknya karena faktor penghambat yaitu keluarga, tenaga kerja, permodalan, dan rasa empati yang tinggi terhadap pedagang pendatang. Saran bagi Pemerintah Kabupaten Jombang adalah memfasilitasi masyarakat dengan pengetahuan kewirausahaan dengan mengadakan seminar agar memiliki pengetahuan dan motivasi yang tinggi untuk menjalankan bisnis.Kata Kunci: Wisata Religi Makam Gus Dur, Peningkatan Ekonomi, Peluang Usaha. ABSTRACTCurrently, sharia tourism, commonly known as religious-friendly tourism is proliferating, especially in East Java. The figure, who is considered a guardian by some people, is located in Surabaya, Gresik, and Tuban but currently developing in the Jombang district, namely the tomb of the 4th President Abdurrahman Wahid, who is called Gus Dur. This study aims to determine the understanding of the community in taking advantage of religious tourism opportunities in Gus Dur's tomb in improving the community's economy around the Tebuireng Islamic boarding school, especially in the hamlet of Street Seblak street alley III. This study can be observed through changes in economic life, utilization of business opportunities and inhibiting factors for business interests. This study uses a qualitative descriptive method with interview and documentation data collection techniques. The results of this study show that the local community is experiencing economic changes by taking advantage of the opportunity to build a warung on their land and rent it out to outside traders. It provides added economic value. 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