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AbstractThis thesis describes about the domination of Western knowledge toward Chinese tradition by illustrating the superiority or prominence of Western knowledge in the novel East Wind: West Wind written by Pearl S. Buck. The analysis focuses on two goals, there are (1) to portray how are the Eastern and the Western represented in the novel, and (2) to analyze how the influence of western knowledge dominated Chinese tradition. To analyze this novel, the the writer applied post-colonial criticism the writer focused on Orientalism as an approach by Edward Said. In analyze aspech the way Western discourse dominates the main character, Kwei-lan, as represented of Chinese people by issuing the discourse of superiority. In addition, the writer applied content analysis method to analyze documents in order to give a deep understanding toward the novel by using close reading technique, which requires to read the whole of the novel for several times. From the analysis, the writer found that Western discourse did construct the domination over the Orient (Chinese culture) by representing the differences in term family relationships (simple vs complex), mind (open minded vs narow minded) and beliave (superstitious vs rational), the discourse succeed to dominate and create the truth or reality as the assumption about the West as supperior and the East as inferior.Key word: orientalismBackgroundThe term discourse is the range of social practices, customs, and institutions that cover any given subject matter. According to Michel Foucault, ―.discourse is strongly bounded area of social knowledge; a system of statements within the world can be known‖ (1967:70). Through language, discourse gives the role of us in our society. It constructs our knowledge and understanding about who we are and what the world we live are. Because of discourse covers every social matters, it can be used in any perspective.Therefore, the influence of Western discourse to the world made people tend to consider West is more superior than East. The Western discourse of domination is one of the effects of Industrial revolution that born the idea of imperialism that implement in the form of colonialism.In journal of universty of pretoria by Lazere S. Rukundwa and Andries G. Van Ardel The Formation of Postcolonial Theory2Research Associate (2007:421), through Orientalism, Said presented the discourse that have been constructed to society about the perception of Eurocentric or Western where naturally they represented as the rational, mature, progressive, honest, normal, masculine, good, upright, democratic, and superior instead of Eastern which represent irrational, abnormal, backward, passive, undisciplined, primitiveness, and inferior. The simplest example regarded to this is people are assumed as smart or intelligent whenever we use English to non-native. It widely influenced people, society, lifestyles, and human life. Such discourse was able to construct the human standard as seem as they are. This system, discourse, has taught people, certainly us, the world of what they want us to be.Thus, literary works is one of the ways western domination affect our mind. However, it is also a good implementation in understanding aspects of post-colonialism issues which concern the life; cultural, and interactions of cultural aspects. The interactions of difference cultures have much inspire author to make various literary works to explore those issues. Pearl S. Buck's novel East Wind: West Wind (1930) is one of popular works considered has postcolonial implication.The novel East Wind: West Wind tells about Kwei-Lan, a girl who was born as traditional noble Chinese family. She has no experience with modern western style before. As a Chinese royal woman, she has taught everything to become a good daughter of the family and to be good wife for her husband. Her husband is a noble Chinese royal man that had twelve years abroad, America, studying medicine. Kwei-lan has been betrothed to her husband since she was born. Her husband has adapted and adopted western lifestyle. He feels western life is better and rational than his Chinese culture that strange and irrelevant. Different perspective about being woman makes Kwei-Lan cannot win her husband's heart as she thinks and has taught before. Kwei-Lan as a Chinese traditional woman and her husband's lifestyle emerge distinguishes understanding about family between the West and the Chinese tradition.The novel describes how Kwei-Lan's cultural traditional background opposed with her husband's Western lifestyle. In the part II of the novel, Kwei-Lan has to accept that her brother goes to study in America. Later the conflict comes up when her brother has already married with a foreign woman. Even though he has betrothed to one of daughters of Li family since he was child. Their mother is shocked to know such news. The family has to accept that son has been betrayed the family. Her brother chooses to disobey the Chinese tradition of married and his duty as a3son of Royal Family to keep the heir. It is seen as the impact of western culture influence toward her brother.Based on explanation above, the writer is interested and challenged to discuss this novel. Pearl S Buck is able to tell the story with her elegant way. East Wind: West Wind shows the elegant internal conflict of traditional Chinese woman who tries to oppose her ideology of being good woman and wife toward the western discourse that influences her life.In this novel, Pearl S Buck portrays how the Western culture meets the Eastern old tradition and tended to degrade the East. It seems she shows West lifestyle is better and rational than East. Through the main character Kwei-Lan, Buck explains in detail Chinese woman's role in life and compares to the knowledge of Western within her husband. The author also shows the reader how Kwai-Lan's brother finally betrays his old tradition, the Chinese Family tradition, by secretly marriage a foreign woman. Until the end of this novel, Buck confirms the superiority and rationality of Western discourse toward Chinese tradition as East.By using post-colonialism, especially Orientalism of Edward Said, the writer will analyze how these texts construct the Orient through imaginative representations of the main character, Kwei-Lan, in the novel. The writer wants to analyze the differences of two cultures and perceptions based on the the orientalism that found in the novel. It is able to create the assumption about the West as superior and the East is inferior. Orientalism argues those discourses made by Western as a political tool to conquer the reader's minds showing inferiority of the East.Further, Post-colonial criticisms also appropriate as a ―knife‖ to discuss, analyze, and examine a work with its relations and effect of colonialism and the interaction of two different cultures. Therefore, this research is entitled ―Western Domination Implied over Chinese Tradition in Pearl S Buck's East Wind: West Wind (An Orientalism Reading)‖.MetodologyIn this chapter, the writer focuses on the steps that must take to finish this research, that proposed by Sudaryanto (1993). Some steps make this research success. This step relates each other and cannot release form the other steps. There are three steps, first, collecting the data, second, analyzing the data, and third presenting the data.1. Collecting the dataIn collecting data, the writer conducts a library research. Through the library research, the writer collects the data needed,4which can be categorized as primary and secondary data. The primary data itself is; "East Wind; West Wind" by Pearl S Buck, the more specific is sentences and quotations that have relationship with the topic and that have relations with the theory. The secondary data function as tools in analyzing the primary data. It consists of books and other sources from journals and internet sites.The writer conducts the library research about post-colonial criticism. In this step writer finds the definitions and concept of post colonialism, especially the theory of Orientalism by Edward Said. It is helpful to broaden the perspective of writer about the term.2. Analyzing the DataIn analyzing the data writer examines the primary data by the way of close reading and in analyzing specific sentences and quotations that have relationship with the topic and the theory. Based on Edgar Robert, ―to analyze the problems in the literary work, it can be found by digging up through characters in the ways of speech, dialogue and action between one character and other characters‖ (56).Besides, the writer explores some data related about the Post-Colonial criticism, especially Orientalism approach by Edward Said. Writer will identify the sentence related to the topic and the theory supporting to completing the research.3. Presenting the ResultThe last step is presenting the analysis. The writer thus uses descriptive method to present the data. Based on Bogdan and Biklen, qualitative research is descriptive, the data are collected in the form of words, rather than number, and result of analysis is written descriptively (1982:27) as the rule to conducts this research. The data is presented descriptively in this analysis by quoting the sentences of dialogue from the novel that relevant to the analysis.Result and DiscussionIn this chapter, the writer wants to analyze about the data. In analyzing data the writer uses the theory orientalism by Edwar said. The writer analyzes about the The analysis focuses on two goals, there are (1) to portray the different perspective between Western knowledge and Chinese tradition, and (2) to analyze the implication of Western knowledge as domination over Chinese tradition.Orientalism is a branch of Postcolonial theory that developed by Edward Said According to said this theory is about how The West see the world by binary oposition where It seems to explore the overplus of Western and expose the lacking5of Eastern and make it as if those are natural by using discourse. And the discorse is formed and it will effect to human mind who read it. Besides based on discourse the reader consciusness or uncansciousness will judge what that they read it is god or it is bad. Said does not question about the truth or the wrong. He tries to give us deeply understanding of how colonizer or Western discourse constructs the domination of the world toward colonized or Eastern in every way and how it continues until now.The Different Perspective of the Eastern and the Western in the NovelIn this chapter, the writer would discuss the portrait of contradictive perspective between western Knowledge or Occident and Chinese old tradition or orient. Pearl S Back does not frankly describe what the western culture in the novel East Wind: West Wind is. She implicitly explains how Western culture by contrasted it with Chinese culture experienced by the character Kwei-lanThis chapter, the writer cuncludes that there are saveral contradictions of differernt perspective of the western knowledge and the chinese tradition. The writer divided two subchapter, the Eastern and the Western. It consist the complex family relationships and simple family relationships, narrow minded and open minded, superstitious and rational.Family in the eastern in this case family in Chinese is narrated differently with family in western. It is described that Chinese family is a big extended family, complex and has not much freedom because bound of tradition. Different with western family, that consists of nuclear family, father, mother and children and has more freedom because not bound with the old tradition, it is because they explained are more logic and more simple besides they has right and free will to choose and do whatever they want to do.In the novel describe although the Chinese man has been married, they are allowed or naturally believed to take some concubines as they like. It can be seen by following quotation in the novel:―The desire for sons in a household like ours, where my father had three concubines whose sole interest was in the conceiving and bearing of children was too ordinary to contain any mystery.‖ [11-12]Kwei-Lan's father, as stated above, has three concubines in order to pour his desire in woman and to conduct a birth son for his clan. In the Chinese family, it is normal for the husband to marry other woman. Man in Chinese tradition has a duty to give great male offspring to maintain their clan. Further, Buck states:―They had caught my father fancy at first though a6prettiness which faded like flowers plucking in spring, and my father's favor ceased when their brief beauty was gone.‖[19]The husband can marry any woman if his wife cannot give birth and give him a son. Chinese man can whenever he wants to marry woman and leave them when their beauties are gone.In contrast, the portrayal of Western woman is described as dichotomy to Chinese tradition where the family relationship is simpler. Besides the family in the western is nuclear family and the decision is make by own self \. They do not need many procedure to do something. In the novel, it is narrated by Kwei-lan brother to marry his girlfriend, the kwei-lan brother and hiss wife do not need many procedure to get merit. In this case Buck tries ti show that thee western people are better than Eastern peoplebecause western people has more freedom.In addition, the wife or woman in the western culture tends to not accepting become subordinate position in family. It clarifies in the novel:―The trouble in all this may be that the foreigner is not willing to accept a subordinate position. It is not customary in their country to have secondary wives.‖ [160]Western women believe that they have right and capable to follow their own will. There are no such certain rules either as woman or as wife of their family that have to be obeyed.Kwei-Lan's brother who has been taught the wisdom of the Great Master, has to fulfill the first duty as a man to pay careful heed to every desire of his parents. In spite of obeying the custom, he married a foreign woman when he studied in America. Kwei-lan who shocked to hear is alarmed by her husband. It can be seen in the novel that, he said:―You must be prepared…it is better to face the truth. He will probably not obey you mother… Old foundations are breaking – have broken… there must be stronger reasons than in this days‖ [150]As the one who adapts the Western culture, Kwei-Lan's husband precisely knows that her brother will consistently disobey the old and primitive tradition. Kwei-lan's brother breaks the old custom and chooses to live in progressive and democratic ways as his will. Related to this, Hans Bertens states that―The inferiority that Orientalism attributes to the East simultaneously serves to construct the West's superiority. The sensuality, irrationality, primitiveness, and despotism of the East construct the West as rational, democratic, progressive, and so on‖ [Bertens, 2006: 205]The writer examines that the novel describes the primitiveness and despotism of Chinese7old tradition. Western discourse seems to take place and dominates the character Kwei-Lan's brother, even our perspective, to disobey such custom.Secondly, it is also happened to different perspective can also be seen in the mindset or lifestyle contradiction in the novel. in the family, that is to produces son to maintain the clan and descendent. In Chinese custom, Kwei-lan and her husband should remain stay within the ancestral home. For his father, a noble Chinese man should not waste their dignified leisure time and stay still in home. The family has plenty of food and space. It can be seen when Kwei-lan's father in law spoke to her husband;"here is plenty of food and space. You need never waste your body in physical labor. Spend your days in dignified leisure and in study that suits your pleasure. Allow your daughter in law of your honored mother to produce son. Three generations of sons less than one roof is sight pleasing to heaven‖ [43]In Chinese custom, a noble family should only worry to give born the great son in order to maintain the clan and the descendant of family. It is reflected in the important of a son existence. A husband should not be worried about food and money. This is what has been taught by the ancestor for hundred years. In the other side, Kwei-lan's husband, who has been studied in West, has his own perception. It can be seen in the quotation below:I wish to work father, I am trained in scientific professions – the noblest in the western world. As for sons, they are not my desire. I wish to produce the fruit of my brain for my country's good. A mare dog may fill the earth with the fruit of his body‖ [43]The father of Kwei-Lan's husband wants to keep them in the house without worrying about food and money. He wants them to pay attention to deliver his grandson. Rather than focus on producing son, Kwei-lan's husband wants to work and earn money by himself to his family. His custom cannot change the decision he has taken.Thirdly difference is seen based on the story is superstition and custom and Chinese culture which is described so irrational to be believed. In the novel, Kwei-lan's husband is a doctor. One day someone called him to come to the house where a lady tried to kill herself by hanging her neck. She is still alive but unconscious. In order to heal the woman's soul, the priest came and made a ceremony by plugging a piece of cloth to her nose and mouth.―He sent for the priests to beat the gongs to call the woman's soul back, and her8relatives gathered about and placed the poor unconscious girl…into a kneeling position on the floor; then they deliberately filled her nose and mouth with cotton and cloth and bound clothing around her face‖ [76]Kwei-lan firstly agreed to the old tradition, taking back the soul, which has been done for hundred years. In the contrary, Kwei-lan's husband totally disagreed with such custom that has lost so much spirit of human life.―Would you die if I did this long enough? And he seized my hands in one of his and placed his handkerchief roughly over my mouth and nose. I twisted free and tore it away‖ [76-77]The quotation convinces the irrationality of Chinese old custom, and on the contrary also convinces the rationality of Western discourse. The way of Kwei-lan's husband tries to show to Kwei-Lan seems like confirm the opposite of perspective between Kwei-lan, reprented Chinese tradition, over Western discourse of her husband.The writer concluded that those contradictions are the portrayal of different perspective of the Eastern in this case traditional Chinese and the western knowledge.The Western Knowledge as Domination Implied over Chinese Tradition in The NovelThe writer found the orientalism issues which Western is assumed to has much more realistic to be true. This is a discourse, western discourse, which dominates the assumption about Chinese tradition in the novel. The changing perception of the character, even the readers, seem t confirms this discourse.Kwei-Lan's husband seems to confirm Western discourse based on the way he treat Kwei-lan Kwei-Lan also surprises to hear ‗the new ways' her husband meant to her. Her husband has been certainly influenced by Western culture. For twelve years he studied in foreign country. Then, he now tries to convince Kwei-lan as it is best way for their life. Kwei-lan then responds to think that, it can be seen in the following quotation:―I equal to him? But why? Was I not his wife? .was he not my master by law? …what else could I do if I did not marry? And how could I marry except as my parents arranged it? … it was all according to my custom‖ [36-37].In order to construct the superiority of Western culture, the text shall describe the inferiority of others. In this novel, Pearl S Buck draws the domination or superiority of9Western culture by contrasting to Chinese custom. Therefore, Pearl S Buck's novel has been influenced by Western discourse in the perspective of Orientalism. The writer found that the novel conducts unintentionally domination of Western over Chinese tradition.―… I wish to follow the new ways. I wish to regard you in all things as my equal. I shall never force you anything. You are not my possession—my chattel‖ [36]Changing perception about Western people also described in which the character Kwei-lan asked to her husband about what they think about Chinese tradition. In the novel, Kwei-lan's husband told that;―They think our clothes are funny and our faces and our food and all what we do. It does not occur to them that people can look as we do and behave as we do, and be wholly as human as they are… In fact, I believe they come over here thinking to teach us civilization‖ [88-89]Assuming the clothes, faces, food and all what Chinese people do are funny imply the issue of imperialism of Western domination to Chinese people. The text seems to approve and convince that Western culture is more rational and represented universal civilization. Again, our perception about Eastern culture is conducted to change by contrasting the superiority of Western culture.Further, the writers also found the changing perception of characters in the way Kwei-lan become happy to adopt the modern way of life.―But now, selfish woman that I am, I do not care that the tradition is broken, I think only of my son… I thank the gods that I am married to a modern man… he gives me my son for my own…all my life is not enough to repay my gratitude‖ [114]The climax of disobedient of Chinese tradition as the impact of Western discourse is when Kwei-lan's brother in the end chooses to live freely like what he has been experienced in Western country. It can be seen in the end of novel:―…from this day I have no father. I have no clan – I repudiate the name of Yang! Remove my name from the books! I and my wife, we will go forth. In this day we shall be free as the young if other countries are free‖ [264]In Orientalism perspective, the character Kwei-lan's brother clearly emphasize the domination over Eastern Culture, or Chinese tradition. The final disobedient of character against the old custom confirms the primitiveness and10irrational way of life. Kwei-Lan's brother asserts that that Western culture represented the universal civilization. Accepting the domination of Western culture could benefit him from the ‗backward' or ‗superstitious' conditions in which he lived.In the end, the writer concluded that the the main character Kwei-lan is influenced by Western discourse.―We must let all that go, my love, my love! We do not want our son fettered by old, useless things!‖And thinking of these two, my son and his cousin brother I know that my husband is right – always right! [277]The effect of such discourse is a change of Kwei-lan's perspective about the modernism of Western culture and the backward of her Chinese tradition. Through the hand of her husband, Kwei-lan admitted that Western discourse dominate her whole life assuming as the best way of civilization rather than Chinese ancestors. Influence and changing perception also gives impact to disobey the law of old Chinese tradition that for hundred years believed by the ancestors.ConclusionIn the conclusion, the novel East Wind: West Wind written by Pearl S. Buck tells about Kwei-Lan, a noble Chinese woman who had no experience with modern western style before. She has been taught to become a good daughter of the family and to be good wife for her husband. Kwei-lan has been betrothed since she was born to a noble Chinese royal man whom had twelve years abroad studying medical science. Her husband has adapted and adopted western lifestyle. Kwei-Lan as represented Chinese woman and her husband's lifestyle emerge distinguishes understanding about family between the West and the Chinese tradition. Kwei-Lan's cultural traditional background opposed her husband's Western lifestyle. The conflicts come up from the different perception of life between Western Knowledge and Eastern culture (Chinese Tradition). It is seen in binary opposition such as complex family relationshps and simple family relationships, open minded and narow minded, and superstition and rationality.By using Orientalism approach presented by Edward Said, the writer found that the novel East Wind: West Wind constructs the imaginative representations of the Orient (Chinese culture) through the main character Kwei-Lan. The writer found the indication of Western discourse which dominates the Orient, in this case Chinese culture, through negative perception by describing cultural conflicts of the main character. Kwei-lan is influenced by her11husband who taught her about the Western knowledge. She gradually changed her perception about the West. Kwei-lan who applied her ancestors' custom, started to doubt and questioning the truth about Chinese tradition. Orientalism examined the West constructs such discourse through contrasting the right and rational way of life and the backward and irrational custom of Chinese.In the end, through the analysis the writer emphasize that the novel East Wind: West Wind written by Pearl S. Buck implied the Western Domination over Chinese Tradition. Western discourse succeeds to dominate the assumption and about the West as superior and the East is inferior. Orientalism argues those are constructed by Western as a political tool to conquer the reader's minds showing inferiority of the East. This novel construct discourse of Western domination as well as judgment of China's tradition, which are funny, strange, and backward and need help. The discourse of West to dominate the Chinese tradition by degrading them and shows their better and rational way of life finally create the ‗truth' or ‗reality' about West as standard civilization.Acknowledgement Alhamdulillahirobbil'alamin, First of all let me give my highest praise to Allah SWT, The Almighty God, for help, blessing, mercy, loves and guidance to me. Without the help, guidance and mercy this thesis could not have finished, and for opportunities and everything in my life. Then the writer would like to say thank to great human leader Muhammad SAW who guide people from the bad style of life to the good style of life.I wish to express my gratitudes to both my supervisors: Ms. Suci Humairah, S.Pd.,M.A., and Mrs. Dra. Mariati, M.Hum., for their support and guidance in finishing this thesis. The contribution and guidance in my thesis are valuable things which will not be forgotten to me. I also want to say Thanks to Mrs. Femmy Dahlan, S.S.,M.Hum., and Mr. Dr. Elfiondri, S.S.,M.Hum., as my examiners. Thank you so much for the suggestion, correction, advices and time, so that I can finish my thesis. I would like to thank too, to all of the lectures in English Department. Many tanks to guide and teach the writer during studied in English department.Thank you for my mom Syahlidarmiwati and my dad Bukhari. I would like to say thank you to suggestion, sacrifice, sincere love, patience, and always remaind me to pray and work hardly. And thank you to my brother Renza Putra, Rolanda Putra, and Fauzan Azim. Then I want to dedicate this thesis to science and human live.12I also would like to say Thanks to all of my friends, Sing 08, who have helped me in process of writing this thesis, my friend in faculty, My friend in boarding house, For all of my friends who I cannot mention one by one, thank you very much to have been contributing the most beautiful part in my life. Do the best in our life and get the greatest future.BibliographyBartens, Hans. Literary Theory: The Basic. London: Rouledge, 2001Buck, S. Pearl. East Wind: West Wind. New York. Mayor Bell. 2010Childs, Peter. Roger Fowler. The Rouledge Dictionary of Literary Terms. New York: Rouledge, 2006Hithcock, Loise. A Theory for Classics: a Strident Guide. New York: Rouledge, 2008.Lane, Richard J. Fifty Key Literary Theorists. New York: Rouledge, 2006M. A. R. Habib. Modern Literary Criticism and Theory: A History. Cornwell: Blackwell, 2005Malpas, Simon. Paul Wake. The Rouledge Companion to Critical Theory. New York: Rouledge, 2006Tyson, Lois. Critical Theory Today: A User Friendly Guide. New York: Rouledge, 2006Sudaryanto. Metode dan Aneka Teknik Analisis Bahasa: Pengantar Penelitian Wahana Kebudayaan secara Linguistis. Yogyakarta: Duta Wacana University Press, 1993Journal:Lazare S. Rukundwa & Andries G. van Aarde1. The Formation of Postcolonial Theory Research Associate: Department of New Testament Studies. Cornwell. 2007

Utemeljen na polazištima kritički orijentiranih sigurnosnih studija i studija terorizma, rad propituje metodološke, epistemološke pa i ontološke aspekte fenomena državnog terorizma. Tvrdi se kako je državni terorizam sustavno zanemareno područje znanja o terorizmu, iako je empirijski vrlo evidentan fenomen. U prvom dijelu rada propituje se klasična i suvremena politološka, sociološka, pravna i filozofska misao važna za razumijevanje države, sigurnosti, terorizma i državnog terorizma. Počevši od Weberove definicije države kao nositeljice monopola na nasilje i njegova koncepta razlikovanja vladavine (Herrschaft) i sile (Macht) tvrdi se da monopol na silu ne podrazumijeva korištenje svakog oblika sile i da država ne može biti ekskulpirana u situacijama kada koristi silu koja ima sva obilježja terorizma. Upravo za ključnim obilježjima terorizma traga se u drugom dijelu rada gdje se analizira postojeće znanje o terorizmu i državnom terorizmu. Na temelju postojećih definicija koje čine bazu od ukupno 373 definicije, sadržajnom i frekvencijskom analizom, dolazi se do operacionalne definicije terorizma i državnog terorizma. Izlučenih šest konstitutivnih elemenata terorizma ukazali su da je državni terorizam organizirana upotreba sile i nasilja ili prijetnja upotrebom nasilja kojom se posredstvom intencionalnog širenja straha odnosno terora, a na temelju anticipiranih reakcija širih psiholoških učinaka, nastoje ostvariti politički ciljevi, a kojega provodi i/ili sponzorira država. U fokusiranoj studiji s mnogo slučajeva u trećem dijelu analizira se državni terorizam na empirijskim primjerima dvadeset i jedne države (N=21). Slučajevi su selektirani na stogodišnjem dijakronijskom kontinuumu, počevši od 1914. godine i sarajevskog atentata na austro-ugarskog prijestolonasljednika Franju Ferdinanda pa do recentnih primjera protuterorističkih politika. Kroz povijesnu perspektivu, komparativnom metodom uz primjenu dizajna najrazličitijih slučajeva, potvrđena je polazna pretpostavka: terorizam jest ciljno racionalno sredstvo za postizanje političkih ciljeva država i njegova je pojavnost neovisna o tipu političkog režima. Kvalitativna i kvantitativna obilježja državnog terorizma nerijetko se razlikuju kako između tako i unutar triju poduzoraka (režima), no usprkos kontekstualnim razlikama, može se utvrditi da je u totalitarnim režimima državni terorizmu ekstremnih razmjera i predstavlja važnu polugu vladavine, dok je u autoritarnima, a napose u demokratskima riječ o fokusiranijem državnom nasilju, najčešće sa specifičnim oblicima djelovanja. ; The basis of this doctoral work rests on the fact that the state terrorism is ignored in the context of mainstream security and terrorism knowledge. Security studies as well as rapidly growing terrorism studies are predominantly focused on non-state terrorism. Critical voices which indicating the importance of the state terrorism phenomenon have emerged in the mid-1990s. Based on the starting points of critically oriented security studies and terrorism studies, this work analyzes the methodological, epistemological and even ontological aspects of the phenomenon of state terrorism. It is argued that the state terrorism is systematically neglected area of knowledge, although it is very evident phenomenon. In the first part of this doctoral work the classical and the contemporary political, social, philosophical thought and jurisprudence important for the understanding of the state security, terrorism and state terrorism have been examined. Max Weber's concept of the state and difference between legitimate domination (Herrschaft) and coercive power (Macht) in the exercise of sovereign state functions is at the center of theoretical discussions. We claim that this distinction remained outside of much Western scholarship. Their concepts are based on logic of what the state and its relations to society should be not what it is. In contrast to this mainstream normative oriented model we examine the empirical reality which is laden of state terrorism examples. Therefore, the second part of this work is dedicated to analysis of existing knowledge about terrorism and state terrorism. The emphasis is on the definitions of terrorism, so for this purpose the database of 373 terrorism definitions was constructed. Definitions collected from the scientific and academic sources, the expert sources, the available official sources of various institutions and organizations, news, etc. were subjected to content and frequency analysis. Those analyses indicated six key elements used for defining state terrorism, which is relevant to the selection of empirical cases. It is found that the state terrorism is the use of organized force and violence or threat to use violence as a means of intentional spreading fear and terror based on the anticipated reactions of broader psychological effects which seeks to achieve political objectives and which is conducted and/or sponsored by the state. It is not an ideology, but the strategy and tactic that can be used by all, including the states. Despite the fact that the most of the definitios are actor-neutral and that their contents coincide, there is no unified definition. According to such understanding, the third part is a focused study with a lot of cases (N=21) where the unit of analysis was state terrorism and analytical sub-units were states (cases) selected from the one century time span (1914th-2014th) complemented with the most recent cases (until the end of 2016th). Thus, it is a diachronic analysis (cross-historical analysis). Since the selected cases differ in several relevant independent variables (social, economic, geographic, cultural) the comparative analysis is based on the most different systems research designs. The basic criterion of comparison was the regime (totalitarian, authoritarian and democratic) in accordance with the tipology of Juan Linz. The main aim of such typology and case selection was to test the general thesis: terrorism is an integral instrument of state action that occurs in all types of political regimes and which states used/use as a form of rational choice to achieve their goals. The third part includes political and sociological analysis of primary and secondary sources for each case (state). The analysis of state terrorism included Italy during Mussolini, Nazi Germany, Lenin and Stalin Russia/Soviet Union, communist Poland, Mao Zednog's China, North Korea regime and Idi Amin's Uganda as a totalitarian regimes. The second group of states are, according to Linz proposal, authoritarian regimes. Here is a Serbian example of state sponsored terrorism in Sarajevo 1914 and assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Another example is Yugoslavia from the mid of 1960 even if it is not purely clear is it predominantly totalitarian or authoritarian regime. Other examples are the rule of Francisco Franco in Spain, death squad in Argentina, Gaddafi's Libya, the rule of Shah Reza Pahlavi in Iran and Suadi Arabia sponsoring of terrorism. Within a democratic cluster the United States of America, Israel, United Kingdom, France, Russian Federation, modern Turkey and Macedonia were analysed. The main findings in turn suggest that the state terrorism was/is practiced in totalitarian, authoritarian and democratic systems, was/is used in war or peace, was/is used by the rich and the poor countries of different cultural, political, economic, geographic and other features. In other words, terrorism is an universal form of state action, but the specific context of each of the analyzed cases does not provide the right to generalize or compare countries according to the basic independent variables - the type of regime. Divided societies and various social cleavages like political (ideological), ethnic, cultural, language, religious, economic and other are evident in the most of the internal state terrorism cases. Although the contexts of countries are quite heterogeneous, in each case analyzed rationality is a common feature of state terrorism. Statet are trying to achieve political goals in the most effective way, what is decisively for using a specific form of violence or threats of violence that we call terrorism. Although it is one of the most frequently used terms in the social sciences, it is evident that terrorism is not conceptually cleared. It is deeply socially constructed concept which depends on a variety of interests. This also affects the contemporary counterterrorism policy. Within the science and policy, terrorism is predominantly viewed as a war and/or criminal. Terrorism is not treated as a phenomenon that is generated from the political area and counterterrorism policies do not target the real causes of terrorism. The perspective of terrorism as a war and crime which is imposed by politics that cooperates with science, leads to a spiral of violence. Illegal and immoral state counterterrorism actions lead to the even more brutal reactions of non-state groups. This trend is especially noticeable from September 9/11 when the "war on terror" started. From this moment it is especially evident that in the name of national security, the degradation of democratic values and endangering human rights and civil liberties have begun. This is best reflected in the new security policies, counterterrorism laws and the state of emergency institute. Also, the democratic deficits are obvious in the examples of interventions in other countries. Illegal character of the war in Iraq shows that international law is not a guarantee nor law nor justice. Those are some contemporary examples of state illegal actions which could be classified as state terrorism in democratic states, but the history is full of state terrorism evidence. Totalitarian and authoritarian regimes in the 20th century, as well as some actual examples, suggesting that the scientific community is biased and ignores the important historical facts as well as contemporary trends. By securitization of terrorism concept, the state harnessed science to its own interest – first of all creating counterterrorism policies. Instrumented science can act only within the limits defined by the state. The main characteristic of the joint state and scientific activity is hypocrisy where identical phenomena do not have identical names. State and science are taking a morally superior position, so state terrorist actions are called "necessary security measures", and terrorism as a pejorative term is reserved only for non-state actors. Further scientific and political ignoring of state terrorism topic, denying a unique definition of terrorism, refusing the recognition of state crimes that fall into the category of terrorism and insistence on counterterrorism as war strategy only feeds the modern evil of non-state terrorism. As long as there is not a change of paradigm in which the force will be firmly under the auspices of the law and policy of double standards will not exist, it is not realistic to expect that the state will eliminate the problem of contemporary non-state terrorism.

Capítols 1 i 7 escrits també en anglés ; The spatial decision-making process for the purpose of planning, policies, plans, or territorial programs, is intimately tied to the concept of location in the respective geographical space, mainly because many aspects such as natural resources; raw materials, infrastructure, proximity to markets, weather, culture, safety and strategic areas, among others, can be determined, and directly or indirectly related, based on spatial locations. Because of this and assuming that the geographical space constitutes a complex system, it is necessary that the spatial decision-making process intended for achieving aspects of location of goods and services, and/or events for the aforementioned purposes, is carried out in an interdisciplinary way, preferably through participation and consensus from the involved stakeholders involved.In this thesis, an applied research is presented that had as main purpose to provide an archetype that supports the process of spatial decision-making through the spatial consensus by diverse social actors, specially in regard to the location of goods, services and/or events. The archetype, based on the spatial version of the Delphi method modified, has as main characteristic the use of the opinions from a group of experts to solve a problem in the context of the decision-making process and / or in the framework for foresight while also considering the geographical aspect, all of this in order to reach a consensus in regard to the identification of an optimal location in a limited part of a territory.By following the Design Science Research methodology (DSR) and by adopting as auxiliary methods, Documentary Research and Reuse-Based Software Development, an artifact called Geospatial System of Collective Intelligence (SIGIC) was devised through which a collective intelligence behavior could be induced into multidisciplinary groups not experienced in the use of geotechnologies, and for the purpose of locating goods, services, and / or events through the spatial consensus from the participants. After having evaluated the artifact in five different spatial decision situations, two of them in Italy for the location of an air quality monitoring station, and for the zoning of the street prostitution process; two of them in Ecuador to determine the location for the installation of a booth for the screening of HIV and to state the location of booths for the annual initiative for blood collection, and finally, one more in Antarctica, Greenwich Island to determine the location of goods and services to plan the activities of the Scientific Station Pedro Vicente Maldonado.The main results exhibit that even multidisciplinary groups without previous experience in the use of geotechnologies can interact with these tools to study and determine through consensus of their spatial opinions, the potential location of goods, services and / or events in a given territory, thus achieving in this way a process of Collective Spatial Analysis as support for spatial decisions, mainly in aspects related to planning, organization, and use of resources in the territory, and even for the evaluation, preparation, or adoption of policies, plans, and corresponding programs. ; El proceso de toma de decisiones espaciales con fines de planificación, políticas, planes o programas territoriales, está estrechamente vinculado con el concepto de la localización en el espacio geográfico respectivo, principalmente porque en base a las ubicaciones espaciales se pueden determinar y relacionar directa e indirectamente, muchos otros aspectos como son los recursos naturales, las materias primas, la infraestructura, la proximidad al mercado, el clima, la cultura, las áreas estratégicas y de seguridad, entre otros. Por esta razón, y asumiendo que el espacio geográfico constituye un sistema complejo, es necesario que la toma de decisiones espaciales destinada a lograr aspectos de localización de bienes servicios y/o eventos para lo fines antes mencionados, se efectúe interdisciplinarmente, preferentemente a través de la participación y consenso de los actores involucrados.En esta tesis se presenta una investigación aplicada que tuvo como propósito aportar un arquetipo para coadyuvar en el proceso de toma de decisiones espaciales por medio del consenso espacial entre diversos actores sociales, primordialmente con respecto a la localización de bienes, servicios y/o eventos. El arquetipo, basado en la versión espacial del Método Delphi modificado, tiene como característica principal el uso de las opiniones de un grupo de expertos para resolver un problema en el contexto de toma de decisiones y/o marco de previsión considerando el aspecto geográfico, con el objetivo de llegar a un consenso respecto a la identificación de una ubicación óptima en una parte limitada del territorio.Siguiendo la metodología de Investigación en Ciencia del Diseño (DSR por su acrónimo en Inglés) y adoptando como métodos auxiliares la Investigación Documental y el Desarrollo de Software Basado en la Reutilización, se ideó el artefacto llamado Sistema Geoespacial de Inteligencia Colectiva (SIGIC), con el cual se logró inducir y coordinar un comportamiento de inteligencia colectiva en grupos multidisciplinares no experimentados en el uso de geotecnologías, con el propósito de localizar bienes, servicios y/o eventos mediante el consenso espacial de los participantes. Este artefacto se evaluó en cinco situaciones diferentes de decisión espacial: dos en Italia, para la ubicación de una estación de monitoreo de calidad del aire y para la zonificación del proceso de prostitución de calle; dos en Ecuador, para determinar el lugar de instalación de un puesto para pruebas de tamizaje de VIH y para establecer las ubicaciones de puestos para la campaña anual de colecta de sangre; y una en la Antártida, Isla de Greenwich, para determinar la ubicación de bienes y servicios con fines de planificación de actividades de la Estación Científica Pedro Vicente Maldonado.Los principales resultados exhiben que grupos multidisciplinares sin práctica en el uso de geotecnologías pueden interactuar con estas herramientas para estudiar y determinar a través del consenso de sus opiniones espaciales, la probable localización de bienes, servicios y/o eventos en un territorio determinado, conformando de esta manera un proceso de Análisis Espacial Colectivo como soporte a las decisiones espaciales principalmente, para aspectos de planificación, organización y empleo de recursos en el territorio o bien para la evaluación, preparación o adopción de políticas, planes y programas correspondientes. ; El procés de presa de decisions espacials amb fins de planificació, polítiques, plans o programes territorials, esta íntimament vinculat amb el concepte de la localització en l'espai geogràfic respectiu, principalment perquè en base a las ubicacions espacials es pot determinar i relacionar directament i indirecta, molts altres aspectes com són els recursos naturals, les matèries primeres, la infraestructura, la proximitat al mercat, el clima, la cultura, les àrees estratègiques i de seguretat, entre d´altres. Per aquesta raó, i assolint que el espai geogràfic constitueix un sistema complex, és necessari que la presa de decisions espacials destinada a aconseguir aspectes de localització de béns serveis i/o esdeveniments per els fins anteriorment esmentats, s'efectui interdisciplinariament, de manera preferent mitjançant la participació i consens dels actors involucrats.A aquesta tesi es presenta una investigació aplicada que va tenir com a propòsit aportar un arquetip per coadjuvar en el procés de presa de decisions espacials mitjançant el consens espacial entre diversos actors socials, primordialment respecte de la localització de béns, serveis i/o esdeveniments. L'arquetip, basat en la versió espacial del Mètode Delphi modificat, té com a característica principal l'ús de les opinions d'un grup d'experts per resoldre un problema en el context de presa de decisions i/o marc de previsió considerant l'aspecte geogràfic, amb el objectiu d'arribar a un consens respecte a la identificació d'una ubicació òptima en una part limitada del territori.Tot seguint la metodologia d´Investigació en Ciència del Disseny (DSR per el seu acrònim en anglès) i adoptant com a mètodes auxiliars la Investigació Documental i el Desenvolupament de Software Fonamentat en la Reutilització, es va idear l'artefacte anomenat Sistema Geoespacial d'Intel·ligència Col·lectiva (SIGIC), mitjançant del qual es va aconseguir induir i coordinar un comportament d'intel·ligència col·lectiva en grups multidisciplinaris no experimentats en l'ús de geotecnologíes, amb el propòsit de localitzar béns, serveis i/o esdeveniments mitjançant el consens espacial dels participants. Aquest artefacte es va avaluar en cinc situacions diferents de decisió espacial: dos a Itàlia, per a la ubicació d'una estació de monitorització de qualitat de l'aire i per a la zonificació del procés de prostitució del carrer; dos a Equador, per determinar el lloc d'instal·lació d'un posat per a proves de tamisatge de VIH i per establir les ubicacions de llocs per a la campanya anual de col·lecta de sang; i una a l'Antàrtida, Illa de Greenwich, per determinar la ubicació de béns i serveis amb fins de planificació d'activitats de l'Estació Científica Pedro Vicente Maldonado.Els principals resultats exhibeixen que grups multidisciplinaris sense practica en l'ús de les geotecnologíes poden interactuar amb aquestes eines per estudiar i determinar mitjançant el consens de les seves opinions espacials, la probable localització de béns, serveis i/o esdeveniments en un territori determinat, conformant d´aquesta manera un procés d'Anàlisi Espacial Col·lectiu com a suport a les decisions espacials principalment, per aspectes de planificació, organització i ocupació de recursos en el territori o bé per l´avaluació, preparació o adopció de polítiques, plans i programes corresponents. ; Il processo decisionale spaziale ai fini della pianificazione, delle politiche, dei piani o dei programmi territoriali, è strettamente legato al concetto di localizzazione dello spazio geografico di riferimento, principalmente perché in base alle ubicazioni spaziali possono essere determinati e si relazionano direttamente e indirettamente, molti altri aspetti tra i quali le risorse naturali, le materie prime, le infrastrutture, la vicinanza al mercato, il clima, la cultura, le aree strategiche e di sicurezza. Quindi, assumendo che lo spazio geografico costituisce un sistema complesso, è necessario che le decisioni spaziali volte ad ottenere aspetti per la localizzazione di beni e servizi e/o eventi per i fini prima menzionati, siano effettuate in maniera interdisciplinare, preferibilmente attraverso la partecipazione e il consenso tra le parti interessate. In questa tesi viene presentata una ricerca applicata che ha avuto come proposito fornire un archetipo per aiutare nel processo decisionale spaziale per mezzo del consenso speciale tra diversi attori sociali, soprattutto per quanto riguarda la localizzazione dei beni, servizi e/o eventi. L'archetipo, in base alla versione spaziale del Metodo Delphi modificato, ha come caratteristica principale l'uso delle opinioni di un gruppo di esperti per risolvere un problema nel contesto del processo decisionale e/o di un quadro di previsione considerando l'aspetto geografico, con l'obiettivo di giungere ad un consenso riguardo l'identificazione di una posizione ottimale in una parte limitata del territorio. Seguendo la metodologia della Ricerca Scientifica di Progettazione (DSR con il suo acronimo in inglese) e adottando come metodi ausiliari la Ricerca Documentaria e lo Sviluppo del Software Basato sulla Riutilizzazione, è stato messo a punto l'artefatto chiamato Sistema Geo-Spaziale di Intelligenza Collettiva (SIGIC), con il quale è stato possibile indurre e coordinare un comportamento di intelligenza collettiva in gruppi multidisciplinari non sperimentati nell'uso di geo-tecniche, al fine di localizzare beni, servizi e/o eventi attraverso il consenso spaziale dei partecipanti. Questo artefatto è stato valutato in cinque situazioni diverse di decisione spaziale: due in Italia, per l'ubicazione di una stazione di monitoraggio della qualità dell'aria e per la zonizzazione del processo di prostituzione di strada; due in Ecuador, per determinare il luogo di installazione di un centro per i test per l'HIV e per stabilire le ubicazioni di centri per la campagna annuale di donazione del sangue; e una in Antartide, nell'isola Greenwich, per determinare l'ubicazione di beni e servizi al fine di pianificare le attività della Stazione Scientifica Pedro Vicente Maldonado. Dopo aver valutato l'artefatto in cinque differenti situazioni di decisione spaziale, i principali risultati mostrano che i gruppi multidisciplinari senza pratica nell'uso di geo-tecniche possono interagire con questi strumenti per studiare e determinare attraverso il consenso delle loro opinioni spaziali, la probabile localizzazione dei beni, servizi e/o eventi in un determinato territorio, formando così un processo di Analisi Spaziale Collettiva principalmente come supporto alle decisioni spaziali, per gli aspetti di pianificazione, organizzazione e l'uso delle risorse in il territorio o anche per la valutazione, la preparazione o l'adozione di politiche, piani e programmi corrispondenti. ; Postprint (published version)

Capítols 1 i 7 escrits també en anglés ; The spatial decision-making process for the purpose of planning, policies, plans, or territorial programs, is intimately tied to the concept of location in the respective geographical space, mainly because many aspects such as natural resources; raw materials, infrastructure, proximity to markets, weather, culture, safety and strategic areas, among others, can be determined, and directly or indirectly related, based on spatial locations. Because of this and assuming that the geographical space constitutes a complex system, it is necessary that the spatial decision-making process intended for achieving aspects of location of goods and services, and/or events for the aforementioned purposes, is carried out in an interdisciplinary way, preferably through participation and consensus from the involved stakeholders involved.In this thesis, an applied research is presented that had as main purpose to provide an archetype that supports the process of spatial decision-making through the spatial consensus by diverse social actors, specially in regard to the location of goods, services and/or events. The archetype, based on the spatial version of the Delphi method modified, has as main characteristic the use of the opinions from a group of experts to solve a problem in the context of the decision-making process and / or in the framework for foresight while also considering the geographical aspect, all of this in order to reach a consensus in regard to the identification of an optimal location in a limited part of a territory.By following the Design Science Research methodology (DSR) and by adopting as auxiliary methods, Documentary Research and Reuse-Based Software Development, an artifact called Geospatial System of Collective Intelligence (SIGIC) was devised through which a collective intelligence behavior could be induced into multidisciplinary groups not experienced in the use of geotechnologies, and for the purpose of locating goods, services, and / or events through the spatial consensus from the participants. After having evaluated the artifact in five different spatial decision situations, two of them in Italy for the location of an air quality monitoring station, and for the zoning of the street prostitution process; two of them in Ecuador to determine the location for the installation of a booth for the screening of HIV and to state the location of booths for the annual initiative for blood collection, and finally, one more in Antarctica, Greenwich Island to determine the location of goods and services to plan the activities of the Scientific Station Pedro Vicente Maldonado.The main results exhibit that even multidisciplinary groups without previous experience in the use of geotechnologies can interact with these tools to study and determine through consensus of their spatial opinions, the potential location of goods, services and / or events in a given territory, thus achieving in this way a process of Collective Spatial Analysis as support for spatial decisions, mainly in aspects related to planning, organization, and use of resources in the territory, and even for the evaluation, preparation, or adoption of policies, plans, and corresponding programs. ; El proceso de toma de decisiones espaciales con fines de planificación, políticas, planes o programas territoriales, está estrechamente vinculado con el concepto de la localización en el espacio geográfico respectivo, principalmente porque en base a las ubicaciones espaciales se pueden determinar y relacionar directa e indirectamente, muchos otros aspectos como son los recursos naturales, las materias primas, la infraestructura, la proximidad al mercado, el clima, la cultura, las áreas estratégicas y de seguridad, entre otros. Por esta razón, y asumiendo que el espacio geográfico constituye un sistema complejo, es necesario que la toma de decisiones espaciales destinada a lograr aspectos de localización de bienes servicios y/o eventos para lo fines antes mencionados, se efectúe interdisciplinarmente, preferentemente a través de la participación y consenso de los actores involucrados.En esta tesis se presenta una investigación aplicada que tuvo como propósito aportar un arquetipo para coadyuvar en el proceso de toma de decisiones espaciales por medio del consenso espacial entre diversos actores sociales, primordialmente con respecto a la localización de bienes, servicios y/o eventos. El arquetipo, basado en la versión espacial del Método Delphi modificado, tiene como característica principal el uso de las opiniones de un grupo de expertos para resolver un problema en el contexto de toma de decisiones y/o marco de previsión considerando el aspecto geográfico, con el objetivo de llegar a un consenso respecto a la identificación de una ubicación óptima en una parte limitada del territorio.Siguiendo la metodología de Investigación en Ciencia del Diseño (DSR por su acrónimo en Inglés) y adoptando como métodos auxiliares la Investigación Documental y el Desarrollo de Software Basado en la Reutilización, se ideó el artefacto llamado Sistema Geoespacial de Inteligencia Colectiva (SIGIC), con el cual se logró inducir y coordinar un comportamiento de inteligencia colectiva en grupos multidisciplinares no experimentados en el uso de geotecnologías, con el propósito de localizar bienes, servicios y/o eventos mediante el consenso espacial de los participantes. Este artefacto se evaluó en cinco situaciones diferentes de decisión espacial: dos en Italia, para la ubicación de una estación de monitoreo de calidad del aire y para la zonificación del proceso de prostitución de calle; dos en Ecuador, para determinar el lugar de instalación de un puesto para pruebas de tamizaje de VIH y para establecer las ubicaciones de puestos para la campaña anual de colecta de sangre; y una en la Antártida, Isla de Greenwich, para determinar la ubicación de bienes y servicios con fines de planificación de actividades de la Estación Científica Pedro Vicente Maldonado.Los principales resultados exhiben que grupos multidisciplinares sin práctica en el uso de geotecnologías pueden interactuar con estas herramientas para estudiar y determinar a través del consenso de sus opiniones espaciales, la probable localización de bienes, servicios y/o eventos en un territorio determinado, conformando de esta manera un proceso de Análisis Espacial Colectivo como soporte a las decisiones espaciales principalmente, para aspectos de planificación, organización y empleo de recursos en el territorio o bien para la evaluación, preparación o adopción de políticas, planes y programas correspondientes. ; El procés de presa de decisions espacials amb fins de planificació, polítiques, plans o programes territorials, esta íntimament vinculat amb el concepte de la localització en l'espai geogràfic respectiu, principalment perquè en base a las ubicacions espacials es pot determinar i relacionar directament i indirecta, molts altres aspectes com són els recursos naturals, les matèries primeres, la infraestructura, la proximitat al mercat, el clima, la cultura, les àrees estratègiques i de seguretat, entre d´altres. Per aquesta raó, i assolint que el espai geogràfic constitueix un sistema complex, és necessari que la presa de decisions espacials destinada a aconseguir aspectes de localització de béns serveis i/o esdeveniments per els fins anteriorment esmentats, s'efectui interdisciplinariament, de manera preferent mitjançant la participació i consens dels actors involucrats.A aquesta tesi es presenta una investigació aplicada que va tenir com a propòsit aportar un arquetip per coadjuvar en el procés de presa de decisions espacials mitjançant el consens espacial entre diversos actors socials, primordialment respecte de la localització de béns, serveis i/o esdeveniments. L'arquetip, basat en la versió espacial del Mètode Delphi modificat, té com a característica principal l'ús de les opinions d'un grup d'experts per resoldre un problema en el context de presa de decisions i/o marc de previsió considerant l'aspecte geogràfic, amb el objectiu d'arribar a un consens respecte a la identificació d'una ubicació òptima en una part limitada del territori.Tot seguint la metodologia d´Investigació en Ciència del Disseny (DSR per el seu acrònim en anglès) i adoptant com a mètodes auxiliars la Investigació Documental i el Desenvolupament de Software Fonamentat en la Reutilització, es va idear l'artefacte anomenat Sistema Geoespacial d'Intel·ligència Col·lectiva (SIGIC), mitjançant del qual es va aconseguir induir i coordinar un comportament d'intel·ligència col·lectiva en grups multidisciplinaris no experimentats en l'ús de geotecnologíes, amb el propòsit de localitzar béns, serveis i/o esdeveniments mitjançant el consens espacial dels participants. Aquest artefacte es va avaluar en cinc situacions diferents de decisió espacial: dos a Itàlia, per a la ubicació d'una estació de monitorització de qualitat de l'aire i per a la zonificació del procés de prostitució del carrer; dos a Equador, per determinar el lloc d'instal·lació d'un posat per a proves de tamisatge de VIH i per establir les ubicacions de llocs per a la campanya anual de col·lecta de sang; i una a l'Antàrtida, Illa de Greenwich, per determinar la ubicació de béns i serveis amb fins de planificació d'activitats de l'Estació Científica Pedro Vicente Maldonado.Els principals resultats exhibeixen que grups multidisciplinaris sense practica en l'ús de les geotecnologíes poden interactuar amb aquestes eines per estudiar i determinar mitjançant el consens de les seves opinions espacials, la probable localització de béns, serveis i/o esdeveniments en un territori determinat, conformant d´aquesta manera un procés d'Anàlisi Espacial Col·lectiu com a suport a les decisions espacials principalment, per aspectes de planificació, organització i ocupació de recursos en el territori o bé per l´avaluació, preparació o adopció de polítiques, plans i programes corresponents. ; Il processo decisionale spaziale ai fini della pianificazione, delle politiche, dei piani o dei programmi territoriali, è strettamente legato al concetto di localizzazione dello spazio geografico di riferimento, principalmente perché in base alle ubicazioni spaziali possono essere determinati e si relazionano direttamente e indirettamente, molti altri aspetti tra i quali le risorse naturali, le materie prime, le infrastrutture, la vicinanza al mercato, il clima, la cultura, le aree strategiche e di sicurezza. Quindi, assumendo che lo spazio geografico costituisce un sistema complesso, è necessario che le decisioni spaziali volte ad ottenere aspetti per la localizzazione di beni e servizi e/o eventi per i fini prima menzionati, siano effettuate in maniera interdisciplinare, preferibilmente attraverso la partecipazione e il consenso tra le parti interessate. In questa tesi viene presentata una ricerca applicata che ha avuto come proposito fornire un archetipo per aiutare nel processo decisionale spaziale per mezzo del consenso speciale tra diversi attori sociali, soprattutto per quanto riguarda la localizzazione dei beni, servizi e/o eventi. L'archetipo, in base alla versione spaziale del Metodo Delphi modificato, ha come caratteristica principale l'uso delle opinioni di un gruppo di esperti per risolvere un problema nel contesto del processo decisionale e/o di un quadro di previsione considerando l'aspetto geografico, con l'obiettivo di giungere ad un consenso riguardo l'identificazione di una posizione ottimale in una parte limitata del territorio. Seguendo la metodologia della Ricerca Scientifica di Progettazione (DSR con il suo acronimo in inglese) e adottando come metodi ausiliari la Ricerca Documentaria e lo Sviluppo del Software Basato sulla Riutilizzazione, è stato messo a punto l'artefatto chiamato Sistema Geo-Spaziale di Intelligenza Collettiva (SIGIC), con il quale è stato possibile indurre e coordinare un comportamento di intelligenza collettiva in gruppi multidisciplinari non sperimentati nell'uso di geo-tecniche, al fine di localizzare beni, servizi e/o eventi attraverso il consenso spaziale dei partecipanti. Questo artefatto è stato valutato in cinque situazioni diverse di decisione spaziale: due in Italia, per l'ubicazione di una stazione di monitoraggio della qualità dell'aria e per la zonizzazione del processo di prostituzione di strada; due in Ecuador, per determinare il luogo di installazione di un centro per i test per l'HIV e per stabilire le ubicazioni di centri per la campagna annuale di donazione del sangue; e una in Antartide, nell'isola Greenwich, per determinare l'ubicazione di beni e servizi al fine di pianificare le attività della Stazione Scientifica Pedro Vicente Maldonado. Dopo aver valutato l'artefatto in cinque differenti situazioni di decisione spaziale, i principali risultati mostrano che i gruppi multidisciplinari senza pratica nell'uso di geo-tecniche possono interagire con questi strumenti per studiare e determinare attraverso il consenso delle loro opinioni spaziali, la probabile localizzazione dei beni, servizi e/o eventi in un determinato territorio, formando così un processo di Analisi Spaziale Collettiva principalmente come supporto alle decisioni spaziali, per gli aspetti di pianificazione, organizzazione e l'uso delle risorse in il territorio o anche per la valutazione, la preparazione o l'adozione di politiche, piani e programmi corrispondenti. ; Postprint (published version)

Muhammad Zia Mehmood is a PhD candidate in the Business and Public Policy Program at the Haas School of Business, UC Berkeley. In his job market paper, Zia studies the demand for and potential of business trainings provided over text messages to impact outcomes for micro-entrepreneurs in Kenya. This study was supported by CEGA's Development Economics Challenge initiative. This blog post was originally published on the Econ That Really Matters blog.A small business welder at work. Credit: Adobe StockIntroductionSmall businesses form the economic backbone of low-income countries and strengthening these enterprises is fundamental to alleviating poverty. Poor management practices is a major factor constraining firm productivity in these contexts, and over $1 billion is spent annually to address this constraint by providing business trainings to entrepreneurs. However, most of these are conventional, in-person, classroom-style trainings, which are expensive and hard to scale, and can exclude those who are unable to participate in person. Due to their low costs, scalability, and reach, phone-based trainings are gaining popularity as a potential solution, but there is limited evidence on whether remotely provided trainings are effective for micro-entrepreneurs in low-income settings.In my job market paper, I study the demand for and potential of text message-based business trainings using a field experiment in Kenya, in which access to an SMS-based training was randomized across 4,700 micro-entrepreneurs. I estimate short- and longer-run impacts using phone-based surveys conducted three months (Midline: 307 observations) and twelve months (Endline: 2,780 observations) after the intervention. I also elicit ex ante predictions for 12-month treatment effects from researchers through the Social Science Predictions Platform (SSPP), to assess whether the main findings depart from existing priors. Finally, I measure demand for the trainings through Take-It-Or-Leave-It (TIOLI) offers and the Becker-DeGroot-Marschak (BDM) willingness-to-pay elicitation method for a subset of the sample.Context and InterventionAccording to a 2016 nationwide survey of small businesses in Kenya, 90 percent of micro-entrepreneurs had never received any type of business training. This was reflected in their business practices: More than three-fourths did not advertise any of their products, over two-thirds didn't keep any business records, and less than a tenth accounted for prices set by their competitors when choosing their own prices.I partnered with a local firm specializing in digital content development and dissemination to implement an SMS-based training aimed at addressing these management gaps and others. Available in English and Swahili, the training modules covered best practices, including marketing, advertising, pricing, record-keeping, and stock management. The content was structured around stories about the decisions of hypothetical micro-entrepreneurs in different scenarios. Users accessed the trainings through self-paced engagement with an interactive chat-bot, which sent bite-sized chunks spanning about 150 text messages. The entire training could be completed in five to seven hours, and all content was retained indefinitely on users' phones. Weekly text reminders were sent to those who stopped engaging, and these reminders stopped if engagement was resumed or after two consecutive months of inactivity.The primary sample for the study was sourced from a list of micro-entrepreneurs compiled by my implementation partner and a local microfinance institution. Half of the study sample consists of female micro-entrepreneurs, and roughly 45 percent is based in rural areas. The average individual was about 35 years old, and had completed almost twelve years of education (high school level).Figure 1: Screenshots of user engagement with the chatbot. Note: This figure shows screenshots of interactions with the SMS-based chatbot as it pushes out content to users. In this context, most micro-entrepreneurs set prices just based on their buying costs, without accounting for prices of their competitors, so the content pushes them to change their pricing strategy. Credit: Muhammad Zia MehmoodResultsThree months after the intervention, I find that the SMS training increased knowledge and adoption of best practices by 0.20 and 0.33 standard deviations, respectively. I also find large positive, but statistically insignificant, effects on business performance in the overall sample, and significant positive effects for younger (below-median) micro-entrepreneurs on sales (109 percent increase), profits (38 percent increase), and business survival (11.6 percentage points increase). These positive effects for younger entrepreneurs are driven by higher engagement with the content, and larger effects on time spent on business, and loan amounts applied for and received.However, these positive results dissipate in the longer run; twelve months after the intervention, I see no effects on knowledge and adoption of best practices, as well as business sales, profits and survival. Additionally, the positive effects on business outcomes observed for younger entrepreneurs at three months disappear after twelve months. The lack of long-term impact was likely driven by micro-entrepreneurs abandoning all interactions with the content within the first few months of the intervention. The survival curve in Figure 2 shows how all cumulative aggregate engagement with the platform ended by May 2022 — five months into the intervention.Figure 2: Survival curve of interactions with chatbot. Note: This figure illustrates how interactions with the chatbot were distributed throughout the study period. The plot shows reverse cumulative engagement over time; for example, it shows that 80% of all the interactions with the chat-bot throughout the course of the study, had ended by 4/1/2022. The shaded areas represent the time-spans during which the Midline and Endline surveys were conducted. Credit: Muhammad Zia MehmoodFigure 3: Predictions vs observed treatment effects. Note: This figure shows how predicted treatment effects for the Endline compare with observed Midline and Endline effects. Error bars represent 90% confidence intervals. Credit: Muhammad Zia MehmoodFigure 3 illustrates how these results compare with predictions for 12-month treatment effects elicited ex ante through the SSPP. I find that SSPP researchers overestimated the engagement levels, both in terms of the proportion of the treatment group that would start engaging with the content (50 percent vs 30 percent) and how much training content the average user would complete after twelve months (40 percent vs 7 percent). Furthermore, predictions for the 12-month treatment effects on knowledge and adoption of best practices are somewhat similar to observed effects at three months, but significantly overestimated in light of observed 12-month treatment effects. Effects on business performance offer a similar story: SSPP predictions for the 12-month treatment effects on sales and profits are similar in magnitude to effects observed at three months (albeit statistically insignificant), but they grossly overestimate the effects at twelve months.Additionally, notwithstanding the low engagement and lack of longer-run effects, I find positive demand for SMS-based trainings among micro-entrepreneurs; both methods of elicitation — the TIOLI offers and the BDM exercise — reveal that individuals are willing to pay a small amount for an additional SMS-based training, suggesting that they value access to the content.Policy ImplicationsThese results indicate that SMS-based trainings are unlikely to improve outcomes for micro-entrepreneurs in the long run, despite their growing popularity in low-income and less accessible settings. These findings also highlight the lack of engagement with trainings as a major challenge that limits the potential of remotely-provided information-based support.Further, the forecasting exercise reveals that social science researchers overestimate the potential of SMS-based trainings to improve outcomes for micro-entrepreneurs, and the findings from this study are thus contrary to priors. Updating these priors is important because policymakers and practitioners often rely on social science experts to make decisions about how to invest in remote, information-based support programs.Lastly, the results on willingness to pay suggest that engagement with the content might not reflect the actual demand for SMS-based trainings, pointing towards possible behavioral drivers constraining engagement. To capitalize on the full potential of digital content delivery in low-income settings, further research is needed to shed light on how to encourage engagement with remotely provided content.Short Messages Fall Short for Micro-Entrepreneurs: Experimental Evidence from Kenya was originally published in CEGA on Medium, where people are continuing the conversation by highlighting and responding to this story.

El presente trabajo ha sido realizado con apoyo de la Coordinación de Perfeccionamiento de Personal de Nivel Superior - Brasil (CAPES) - Código de Financiación 001. ; En 2014 Suecia fue el primer país en afirmar que pasaría a desarrollar una política exterior feminista (PEF). Este anuncio suscitó varias especulaciones sobre lo que significaría la inserción del paradigma feminista como política exterior. Autores y centros de estudio fueron, a lo largo de estos años, definiendo que una PEF trataría de un cambio en la ética de la política internacional revisando actores, estructuras y narrativas que tienden a generar una desigualdad de género y que suma opresiones de raza, identidad, etnia, religión, entre otros. En este contexto, este estudio se considera importante al desarrollar un análisis en torno a la aplicación de la PEF sueca desde una perspectiva del Sur global, con el objetivo de observar las narrativas sobre las prácticas de cooperación sueca en el ámbito de la PEF. En este sentido, se ha optado por analizar la retórica sobre los resultados de la cooperación sueca en los tres primeros años de PEF de manera a observar si la narrativa sobre los resultados también presenta el mismo cambio propuesto por la definición de la cooperación, o si reproduce, en alguna medida, los discursos tradicionales. Este estudio fue realizado a partir del análisis de la narrativa presentada en documentos producidos por el gobierno sueco en el año de 2017. Se puede concluir que, a pesar de que Suecia ha avanzado en el tema al integrar las demandas de los movimientos feministas a sus políticas de estado y gobierno, aún se puede observar la reproducción de discursos tradicionales de la cooperación internacional al desarrollo. Puesto que en su retórica no se explotan las asociaciones con los estados del Sur receptores de la cooperación y mantiene actores de la cooperación tradicional del Norte, reforzando el uso de la categoría género como indicador en la ayuda al desarrollo y poco cuestionadora de las relaciones de poder existentes entre Norte y Sur. ; The announcement of Sweden's adherence to a feminist perspective on its foreign policy contributed to the gender agenda debate being broadened internationally. Therefore, it is considered important to analyze, from the South, how feminist foreign policy (FFP) has modified the discourses on traditional practices in foreign policy. In order to carry out this study, the Swedish International Cooperation agenda was selected as a case to be examined. This research takes into account that the debate on gender and development has been articulated at least since the 1970s, and several contributions have underlined the need to question the power patterns involving the cooperation policies of the countries from North to South (Aguinaga et al, 2011). Moreover, over the years countless alternatives to traditional and hierarchical practices of cooperation have been articulated by feminist women in both the South and the global North. Given that Sweden adopted, as part of the feminist paradigm, the habit of carrying out a review of its policies, this study is developed from an analysis of Swedish rhetoric in the document on FFP policy practices released in 2017. Taking into account the narrative of seven themes, the extent to which there has been an insertion of the debates developed by Southern Feminisms in discourses on practices is debated. In the first part of this article, a theoretical review is carried out on the debate around the construction of feminist solidarity in international politics (Mohanty, 2003; 2008). It is understood that the category of women was included in the cooperation programs and policies through the process of homogenization of differences; that is, it was based on a universal assumption about feminist demands, without including the perspectives of the states receiving policies. Thus, a process of naturalization and generalization on the discursive performance and international practice on North-South cooperation was established. This has resulted in an elaboration on women of the North and South in opposite directions, in which there is an idea that one has to teach the other how to achieve gender equality. The argument of this study is that an FFP pursues the goal of building a shared relationship, in which cooperation is an interaction without hierarchies between the states involved; that is, there is a feminist solidarity in the construction of policies. In other words, it seeks to identify the differences around gender issues and the category of women, adding them to political perspectives and thus developing more universal international approaches. While this should be an objective pursued by a FFP, and while there has also been discussion of what happens in traditional cooperation practices and discourses, northern countries tend to homogenize differences between women. This is done in line with neoliberal feminist perspectives, and does not include analyses of the patriarchal structure that promotes gender coloniality and generates subinclusive and superinclusive policies (Crenshaw, 2002). In the second part of the article, the Swedish context that contributed to the elaboration of a paradigmatic feminist policy is presented. The country's women's social movements have had the capacity to articulate with the state over the years, which has accessed the welfare state and encouraged governments to assume discourses and policies that provide gender equality. The basis of this action is the formulation of the Swedish welfare state, which has elaborated domestically movement towards gender equality, and included social feminist demands in the formulation of public policies. In 2014, this perspective was formally placed in international politics and, consequently, in the country's agendas, such as international development cooperation. With regard to this context of progress, the Swedish 2017 document was analyzed, seeking to identify elements that would point to a reproduction of the traditional perspective of cooperation in the country's rhetoric on the effectiveness of cooperation. This is where the actors of the North are the majority in the agreements, and where there is no discursive representation of the demands of the collectives of the South nor the processes of joint construction with the receiving countries. In the study, it was possible to verify, like Nylund (2017), that the feminist foreign policy of Sweden produces totally feminist discourses, but also post-colonial rhetoric. In the feminist sense, we highlight the articulation capacity of feminism between the Swedish state and the feminist movements of the country in order to recognize, as in Llistar (2009), that when a country has the capacity to absorb the demands of social collectives in its international agendas -in the case of cooperation- it can be said that it is a cooperation of solidarity with low selfish interests. On the other hand, when we argue that Sweden has postcolonial discourses, we mean that, although it points out in its FFP manual that it seeks to develop a horizontal and intersectional policy, with the inclusion of local participation, in its rhetoric about the practice of cooperation the country does not emphasize joint actions with receiving countries. A narrative was also observed that values the performance of the state itself as a donor and its traditional partners in the North, such as development banks and private actors. Nevertheless, it does not present the integration of the critical vision of the southern feminisms on this classic performance of international cooperation. In this way, it is argued that one side of feminist solidarity is missing. This means that, although there is recognition of the advance of Swedish feminisms in favoring the development of an FFP, the valorization and presentation of the performance of the southern actors is still lacking in the rhetoric in the results. So that, once again, they are not described as passive actors of cooperation, but that their different and critical perspectives contribute to the presentation of a more plural and universal discourse. Finally, this article concludes that the development of critical analyses from the global South contributes to FFP being articulated in pursuit of the goal of feminist solidarity. We do not propose this analysis as a way to deny the advances established by Swedish politics, but to integrate the other part of feminist solidarity: including the vision of the South in the formulation of the agenda. ; Coordinación de Perfeccionamiento de Personal de Nivel Superior - Brasil (CAPES) - Código de Financiación 001

The announcement of Sweden's adherence to a feminist perspective on its foreign policy contributed to the gender agenda debate being broadened internationally. Therefore, it is considered important to analyze, from the South, how feminist foreign policy (FFP) has modified the discourses on traditional practices in foreign policy. In order to carry out this study, the Swedish International Cooperation agenda was selected as a case to be examined. This research takes into account that the debate on gender and development has been articulated at least since the 1970s, and several contributions have underlined the need to question the power patterns involving the cooperation policies of the countries from North to South (Aguinaga et al, 2011). Moreover, over the years countless alternatives to traditional and hierarchical practices of cooperation have been articulated by feminist women in both the South and the global North. Given that Sweden adopted, as part of the feminist paradigm, the habit of carrying out a review of its policies, this study is developed from an analysis of Swedish rhetoric in the document on FFP policy practices released in 2017. Taking into account the narrative of seven themes, the extent to which there has been an insertion of the debates developed by Southern Feminisms in discourses on practices is debated. In the first part of this article, a theoretical review is carried out on the debate around the construction of feminist solidarity in international politics (Mohanty, 2003; 2008). It is understood that the category of women was included in the cooperation programs and policies through the process of homogenization of differences; that is, it was based on a universal assumption about feminist demands, without including the perspectives of the states receiving policies. Thus, a process of naturalization and generalization on the discursive performance and international practice on North-South cooperation was established. This has resulted in an elaboration on women of the North and South in opposite directions, in which there is an idea that one has to teach the other how to achieve gender equality. The argument of this study is that an FFP pursues the goal of building a shared relationship, in which cooperation is an interaction without hierarchies between the states involved; that is, there is a feminist solidarity in the construction of policies. In other words, it seeks to identify the differences around gender issues and the category of women, adding them to political perspectives and thus developing more universal international approaches. While this should be an objective pursued by a FFP, and while there has also been discussion of what happens in traditional cooperation practices and discourses, northern countries tend to homogenize differences between women. This is done in line with neoliberal feminist perspectives, and does not include analyses of the patriarchal structure that promotes gender coloniality and generates subinclusive and superinclusive policies (Crenshaw, 2002). In the second part of the article, the Swedish context that contributed to the elaboration of a paradigmatic feminist policy is presented. The country's women's social movements have had the capacity to articulate with the state over the years, which has accessed the welfare state and encouraged governments to assume discourses and policies that provide gender equality. The basis of this action is the formulation of the Swedish welfare state, which has elaborated domestically movement towards gender equality, and included social feminist demands in the formulation of public policies. In 2014, this perspective was formally placed in international politics and, consequently, in the country's agendas, such as international development cooperation. With regard to this context of progress, the Swedish 2017 document was analyzed, seeking to identify elements that would point to a reproduction of the traditional perspective of cooperation in the country's rhetoric on the effectiveness of cooperation. This is where the actors of the North are the majority in the agreements, and where there is no discursive representation of the demands of the collectives of the South nor the processes of joint construction with the receiving countries. In the study, it was possible to verify, like Nylund (2017), that the feminist foreign policy of Sweden produces totally feminist discourses, but also post-colonial rhetoric. In the feminist sense, we highlight the articulation capacity of feminism between the Swedish state and the feminist movements of the country in order to recognize, as in Llistar (2009), that when a country has the capacity to absorb the demands of social collectives in its international agendas -in the case of cooperation- it can be said that it is a cooperation of solidarity with low selfish interests. On the other hand, when we argue that Sweden has postcolonial discourses, we mean that, although it points out in its FFP manual that it seeks to develop a horizontal and intersectional policy, with the inclusion of local participation, in its rhetoric about the practice of cooperation the country does not emphasize joint actions with receiving countries. A narrative was also observed that values the performance of the state itself as a donor and its traditional partners in the North, such as development banks and private actors. Nevertheless, it does not present the integration of the critical vision of the southern feminisms on this classic performance of international cooperation. In this way, it is argued that one side of feminist solidarity is missing. This means that, although there is recognition of the advance of Swedish feminisms in favoring the development of an FFP, the valorization and presentation of the performance of the southern actors is still lacking in the rhetoric in the results. So that, once again, they are not described as passive actors of cooperation, but that their different and critical perspectives contribute to the presentation of a more plural and universal discourse. Finally, this article concludes that the development of critical analyses from the global South contributes to FFP being articulated in pursuit of the goal of feminist solidarity. We do not propose this analysis as a way to deny the advances established by Swedish politics, but to integrate the other part of feminist solidarity: including the vision of the South in the formulation of the agenda. ; En 2014 Suecia fue el primer país en afirmar que pasaría a desarrollar una Política Exterior Feminista (PEF). Este anuncio suscitó varias especulaciones sobre lo que significaría la inserción del paradigma feminista como política exterior. Autores y centros de estudio fueron, a lo largo de estos años, definiendo que una PEF trataría de un cambio en la ética de la política internacional revisando actores, estructuras y narrativas que tienden a generar una desigualdad de género y que suma opresiones de raza, identidad, etnia, religión, entre otros. En este contexto, este estudio se considera importante al desarrollar un análisis en torno a la aplicación de la PEF sueca desde una perspectiva del Sur global, con el objetivo de observar las narrativas sobre las prácticas de cooperación sueca en el ámbito de la PEF. En este sentido, se ha optado por analizar la retórica sobre los resultados de la cooperación sueca en los tres primeros años de PEF de manera a observar si la narrativa sobre los resultados también presenta el mismo cambio propuesto por la definición de la cooperación, o si reproduce, en alguna medida, los discursos tradicionales. Este estudio fue realizado a partir del análisis de la narrativa presentada en documentos producidos por el gobierno sueco en el año de 2017. Se puede concluir que, a pesar de que Suecia ha avanzado en el tema al integrar las demandas de los movimientos feministas a sus políticas de Estado y gobierno, aún se puede observar la reproducción de discursos tradicionales de la cooperación internacional al desarrollo. Puesto que en su retórica no se explotan las asociaciones con los Estados del Sur receptores de la cooperación y mantiene actores de la cooperación tradicional del Norte, reforzando el uso de la categoría género como indicador en la ayuda al desarrollo y poco cuestionadora de las relaciones de poder existentes entre Norte y Sur.

ABSTRAK Lingkungan rumah tangga keluarga merupakan tempat pertama kali kita menghadapi persoalan ekonomi. Ketidakpastian ekonomi di satu sisi meningkatkan permintaan akan perencanaan keuangan. Penelitian ini akan berfokus pada mencari tahu faktor-faktor mikro keluarga muslim di Indonesia yang dapat mempengaruhi keputusan investasi khususnya saham. Penelitian ini menerapkan metode kuantitatif dengan instrumen data sekunder Indonesia Family Life Survey (IFLS) gelombang 5. Teknik analisis data yang digunakan adalah analisis regresi probit, teknik analisis yang dilakukan dalam regresi probit meliputi; uji kelayakan model, analisis koefisien determinasi (R2), dan uji hipotesis. Berdasarkan hasil penelitian ditemukan bahwa variabel variabel jumlah keluarga, pinjaman, usia, dan status pernikahan tidak berpengaruh secara signifikan terhadap probabilitas kepemilikan saham. Adapun variabel pendapatan, tingkat pendidikan, jenis kelamin dan financial worship memiliki hubungan positif dan signifikan terhadap probabilitas kepemilikan saham pada keluarga muslim di Indonesia. Diharapkan penelitian ini dapat bermanfaat bagi Otoritas Jasa Keuangan dan Bursa Efek Indonesia sebagai informasi tambahan dan bahan pertimbangan dalam pembenahan kebijakan mengenai peningkatan literasi manajemen keuangan keluarga dan kesejahteraan masyarakat di Indonesia. Kata Kunci: Kepemilikan Saham, Pendapatan, Tingkat Pendidikan, Jumlah Tanggungan Keluarga, Pinjaman, Usia, Jenis Kelamin, Status Pernikahan, Financial Worship. ABSTRACT The family home environment is the first place we face economic problems. Economic uncertainty on the one hand increases the demand for financial planning. This study will focus on finding out the micro factors of Muslim families in Indonesia that can influence investment decisions, especially stocks. This study applies quantitative methods with secondary data instruments Indonesia Family Life Survey (IFLS) wave 5 The data analysis technique used is probit regression analysis, the analysis techniques carried out in probit regression include; model feasibility test, analysis of the coefficient of determination (R2), and hypothesis testing. Based on the results of the study, it was found that the variables of family size, loan, age, and marital status did not significantly influence the probability of stock ownership. The variables of income, education level, gender and financial worship have a positive and significant relationship to the probability of stock ownership in Muslim families in Indonesia. It is hoped that this research can be useful for the Otoritas Jasa Keuangan and the Bursa Efek Indonesia as additional information and consideration in reforming policies regarding increasing literacy in family financial management and community welfare in Indonesia. 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학위논문 (석사) -- 서울대학교 대학원 : 사범대학 사회교육과(일반사회전공), 2020. 8. 이미나. ; 본 연구는 청소년의 정치효능감과 디지털 리터러시 수준이 정치 참여에 미치는 영향을 알아보고, 디지털 리터러시 수준이 정치효능감과 정치 참여 활동 사이의 관계에 조절변인으로 작용하는지를 살펴보고자 한다. 궁극적으로 디지털 미디어의 활용에 적극적인 청소년의 정치 참여 방안을 찾는데 기여하는 것을 목적으로 한다. 위와 같은 문제인식을 바탕으로 본 연구는 다음과 같은 연구 문제를 제기하였다. 1. 정치효능감이 높은 청소년일수록 정치 참여에 적극적인가? 1) 내적 정치효능감이 높은 청소년일수록 정치 참여 행위에 적극적인가? 2) 외적 정치효능감이 높은 청소년일수록 정치 참여 행위에 적극적인가? 3) 내적 정치효능감이 높은 청소년일수록 정치 참여 의지가 클 것인가? 4) 외적 정치효능감이 높은 청소년일수록 정치 참여 의지가 클 것인가? 2. 디지털 리터러시 수준이 높을수록 정치 참여에 적극적인가? 1) 디지털 리터러시 수준이 높은 청소년일수록 정치 참여 행위에 적극 적인가? 2) 디지털 리터러시 수준이 높은 청소년일수록 정치 참여 의지가 클 것인가? 3. 디지털 리터러시 수준이 높을수록 정치효능감이 청소년의 정치 참 여에 미치는 영향이 클 것인가? 1) 디지털 리터러시 수준이 높을수록 정치효능감이 청소년의 정 치 참여 행위에 미치는 영향이 클 것인가? 2) 디지털 리터러시 수준이 높을수록 정치효능감이 청소년의 정 치 참여 의지에 미치는 영향이 클 것인가? 첫 번째 질문은 정치효능감이 청소년의 정치 참여에 미치는 영향을 측정하기 위해 설정하였다. 두 번째 질문은 디지털 리터러시 수준이 정치 참여에 미치는 효과를 측정하기 위해 설정하였다. 마지막 세 번째 질문은 디지털 리터러시 수준과 정치효능감이 청소년의 정치 참여에 미치는 상호작용 효과를 측정하기 위해 설정하였다. 본 연구를 통해 다음과 같은 결과를 알 수 있었다. 첫째, 정치효능감이 청소년의 정치참여에 미치는 영향을 검증한 결과, 내적 정치효능감이 청소년의 정치참여에 유의미한 영향을 미치고 있었다. 상세하게 살펴보면, 내적 정치효능감이 정치 참여 행위와 정치 참여 의지에 유의미한 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났다. 반면에 외적 정치효능감은 정치 참여 행위와 정적인 영향 관계를 보이지만, 그 값이 유의미 하지는 않았다. 외적 정치 효능감은 청소년의 정치 참여 의지에는 유의미한 영향을 주는 것으로 나타났다. 정치효능감과 정치 참여 전체를 대상으로 한 회귀 분석에서는 정치 효능감이 정치 참여에 유의한 것으로 나타났다. 둘째, 디지털 리터러시는 정치 참여 행위와 정치 참여 의지에 유의미한 영향을 끼치는 것으로 나타났다. 디지털 리터러시가 정치 참여에 유의한 영향을 끼친다는 결론은 디지털 세대인 청소년들에게 커다란 의미를 가진다. 청소년들은 디지털 미디어를 통해서 정치에 관한 정보를 접하고, 정치에 참여한다. 따라서 디지털 리터러시 함양을 위한 정치 교육 자료를 개발하고 활용할 필요성을 말해 준다고 볼 수 있다. 특히 연구대상이 된 청소년들에게 디지털 리터러시를 정보 활용 능력, 비판적 사고 능력, 의사 소통 능력, 규범 준수 능력의 하위 요인으로 구분하여 질문하였기에 이와 같은 하위 요인에 포함된 리터러시 능력을 키워주는 일이 중요하다고 하겠다. . 셋째, 정치효능감과 디지털 리터러시 수준의 상호작용 효과를 살펴본 결과, 그 영향력이 크지 않아 모든 가설이 기각되어 정치 효능감과 디지털 리터러시가 정치 참여에 유의미한 상호 작용 효과를 가지지는 않는 것으로 나타났다. 이러한 연구 결과를 바탕으로 청소년의 정치 참여 활성화를 위한 몇가지 교육적 제안을 하고자 한다. 첫째, 청소년들은 정부의 반응에 따라 정치 행위에 참여하기보다는 본인이 정치에 영향을 끼칠 수 있다는 믿음에 따라 정치 행위에 참여하는 것으로 보인다. 따라서 청소년의 내적 정치효능감을 키울 수 있는 정치 교육 자료를 계발할 필요성이 있다. 둘째, 본 연구에서는 디지털 리터러시 수준이 청소년의 정치 참여 행위와 정치 참여 의지에 모두 긍정적인 영향을 끼치는 것으로 나타났다. 이는 디지털 미디어를 적극 활용한 정치 교육에 대해서 많은 자료를 개발하고 활용할 필요성을 말해 준다고 볼 수 있다. 셋째, 청소년의 정치 참여를 위한 교육적 지원 방안 또한 필요하다. 청소년 중에서도 고등학생은 성인이 되기까지 1∼3년 남은 준 성인에 해당한다고 할 수 있다. 실제 만 18세 이상의 고등학생은 참정권까지 보장받았다. 그러나 청소년을 대상으로 하는 정치 교육은 학교 교육 외에는 선거연수원에서 실시하는 '민주주의 선거교실'이 유일하다. 그리고 고등학교 통합 사회에는 정치 참여와 관련한 단원이 없고, 정치와 법은 선택 과목으로 10% 미만의 학생만 수업을 듣는다. 따라서 고등학생들의 정치 참여를 위한 첫 번째 방안으로 고등학교 통합사회 안에 정치 참여와 관련한 단원을 포함시켜야 한다. 주요어 : 청소년, 정치효능감, 디지털리터러시, 정치참여 학 번 : 2017-29900 ; Abstract The Effect of Political Efficacy and Digital Literacy on Adolescents Political Participation Inhae, Song Department of Social Suties Education The Graduate School Seoul National University In the revised social studies curriculum of 2015, democratic citizens are those who develop democratic values based on knowledge and participate with a sense of responsibility. Therefore, it can be said that raising students who are actively participating is a core element of social studies. In recent years, in terms of the political climate of our society, adolescents who participated in the election of the National Assembly directly appeared after the election age was reduced to 18, and the number of adolescents participating in candlelight vigils and Internet petitions is increasing. According to previous studies, it can be seen that political efficacy is a major factor influencing adolescents's political participation. Political efficacy is a direct motivation for individuals to participate in politics. It is said that individuals with high political efficacy have a strong willingness to participate in politics and actively participate in political activities such as voting. Adolescents needs literacy to become a meaningful activity and exercise of rights. In particular, digital literacy is indispensable in times of increasing political participation through digital media such as these days. Digital literacy refers to the level of critical thinking required by all users to properly evaluate the value of information found on the Internet, and the ability to understand and use various types of information found from various sources and to newly combine it for their purposes ( Gilster, 1997). The purpose of this study is to examine the effect of adolescents' political efficacy and digital literacy level on political participation, and to examine whether digital literacy level acts as a moderating variable in the relationship between political efficacy and political participation. The purpose of this study is to contribute to finding ways to actively participate in politics of adolescents in the use of digital media. Based on the above problem recognition, this study raised the following research problems. 1. Are adolescentss with higher political efficacy active in political participation? 1) Are adolescentss with higher internal political efficacy active in political participation? 2) Are adolescentss with higher external political efficacy active in political participation? 3) Is the willingness to participate in politics greater as the adolescents with higher internal political efficacy? 4) Is the willingness to participate in politics greater for adolescents with higher external political efficacy? 2. The higher the level of digital literacy, is it more active in political participation? 1) The higher the digital literacy level, the more actively participate in political participation Is it an enemy? 2) Will the higher the digital literacy level, the greater willingness to participate in politics? 3. The higher the digital literacy level, the greater the effect of political efficacy on adolescents's political participation? 1) The higher the digital literacy level, the greater the effect of political efficacy on adolescents' political participation. 2) The higher the digital literacy level, the greater the effect of political efficacy on the willingness of adolescents to participate in politics? The following results were found through this study. First, as a result of examining the effect of political efficacy on adolescents's political participation, it was found that internal political efficacy had a significant effect on political participation behavior and willingness to participate. On the other hand, it was found that external political efficacy had no significant effect on political participation, but only on the will of political participation. Political efficacy was found to be significant in political participation in the regression analysis of political efficacy and political participation. Second, digital literacy was found to have a significant effect on political participation and willingness to participate. As a sub-factor of digital literacy, the results of dividing it into information utilization ability, critical understanding ability, communication ability, and norm-compliance ability showed that communication ability was particularly significant for both political participation behavior and political willingness at significance level P 설문지 63 Abstract 68 ; Master

Salam sejahtera, Pada tahun 2015 silam, lebih dari 100 peneliti dari berbagai institusi di beberapa benua melakukan sebuah usaha replikasi penelitian besar-besaran. Tak kurang dari 100 eksperimen yang terbit dalam jurnal psikologi bereputasi diuji kembali untuk menemukan apakah memang betul hasil eksperimen sesuai dengan laporan asli. Ternyata, hanya 68% dari usaha replikasi itu yang berhasil menemukan bukti signifikan secara statistik (Open Science Collaboration, 2015). Masalah yang dikemukakan oleh komunitas Open Science Collaboration ini menggegerkan ilmu psikologi, tak terkecuali psikologi sosial. Sejak munculnya isu krisis replikasi ini, berbagai temuan – mulai dari yang klasik sampai yang kontemporer dalam bidang psikologi – dipertanyakan kembali keabsahannya. Beberapa tahun kemudian, pakar neurosains kognitif dan advokat sains terbuka Christopher D. Chambers dari Cardiff University mempublikasikan sebuah buku yang membahas masalah fundamental dalam praktik ilmiah di psikologi. Dalam buku yang ia beri judul "The 7 Deadly Sins of Psychology" (7 Dosa Besar Psikologi), ia memaparkan sejumlah isu dimana metodologi merupakan salah satu isu yang bermasalah dalam psikologi (Chambers, 2019). Analisis statistik dan penentuan metodologi dalam riset-riset psikologi dianggap terlalu fleksibel sehingga rentan untuk dimanipulasi oleh peneliti. Tidak kalah pentingnya dan konsisten dengan temuan Open Science Collaboration, ilmu psikologi juga dianggap tidak reliabel. Temuan-temuan penting bisa tidak konsisten ketika diuji kembali dengan metode yang sama. Masalah pada reliabilitas temuan seperti itu bisa diatribusikan ke berbagai faktor. Pertama, psikologi belum membudayakan replikasi. Padahal, disiplin ilmu alam seperti fisika senantiasa berusaha mereplikasi temuan-temuan laboratorium mereka (Franklin, 2018). Kedua, adalah masalah fraud serta pelaporan metodologi atau analisis yang terlalu fleksibel sebagaimana dikemukakan Chambers (Chambers, 2019). Selain kedua alasan tersebut, ada satu alasan lain yang nampaknya jarang dibahas – bahwa ada faktor kebudayaan atau kontekstual yang menyebabkan kondisi studi asli dan studi berikutnya mengalami perbedaan. Alasan ini dikemukakan oleh Stroebe dan Strack (2014) dalam artikel mereka yang isinya mengemukakan bahwa replikasi dengan temuan sama persis itu sangat sulit terjadi. Faktor perbedaan budaya adalah isu yang substansial dan perlu diperhatikan dalam ilmu psikologi. Ini sudah lama ditekankan oleh Henrich, Heine, dan Norenzayan (2010) dalam artikel mereka yang berjudul "The weirdest people in the world?". Menurut mereka, banyak (jika tidak dibilang mayoritas) riset psikologi dilakukan di komunitas atau negara WEIRD (Western – kebudayaan barat, Educated – sampel mahasiswa atau kaum terdidik, Industrialized – negara industri maju, Rich – kalangan ekonomi menengah keatas, dan Democratic – negara demokratik). Dengan kata lain, teori-teori yang dihasilkan dari riset-riset psikologi hanya terfokus pada kebudayaan WEIRD seperti Amerika Serikat dan Eropa Barat, namun mengabaikan konteks-konteks budaya lainnya. Sehingga, usaha generalisasi suatu teori tanpa memahami konteks lokal dari tiap kebudayaan non-WEIRD bisa menghasilkan temuan yang tidak konsisten. Menyadari betapa fundamentalnya isu kebudayaan ini, Jurnal Psikologi Sosial (JPS) mengeluarkan isu khusus tentang perspektif dan isu metodologi dalam psikologi sosial. Dalam isu khusus ini, JPS mempublikasikan naskah-naskah yang mengevaluasi perspektif atau paradigma yang muncul dari kebudayaan atau masyarakat WEIRD. Dalam naskah yang berjudul "Social neuroscience: Pendekatan multi-level integratif dalam penelitian psikologi sosial", Galang Lufityanto berusaha mengulas potensi dari perspektif neurosains kognitif untuk psikologi sosial dalam konteks manusia Indonesia. Artikel ini sangat penting karena perspektif biologis seperti neurosains kognitif perlu direplikasi di berbagai konteks masyarakat berbeda (Fischer & Poortinga, 2018) agar terhindar dari generalisasi yang terlalu cepat. Sementara dalam naskah yang berjudul "Epistemological violence, essentialization dan tantangan etik dalam penelitian psikologi sosial", Monica Eviandaru Madyaningrum berusaha mendiskusikan isu etika dalam riset psikologi sosial. Seringkali, psikologi sosial mengadopsi pandangan etika yang muncul dari kebudayaan seperti Amerika Serikat dimana etika prosedural yang terfokus pada individu menjadi tolak ukurnya. Padahal, etika juga men-cakup kerangka berpikir dan relasi kuasa yang terjadi dalam masyarakat. Naskah ini mengajak kita untuk keluar dari isu etika individu menjadi isu etika dalam relasi antar elemen masyarakat, sehingga lebih sesuai dengan konteks masyarakat Indonesia. Isu khusus ini tidak hanya terfokus pada persoalan paradigma epistemik dan etika dalam psikologi sosial. Beberapa naskah berikutnya membahas tentang potensi penggunaan metode alternatif untuk riset-riset psikologi sosial. Andrian Liem dan Brian J. Hall dalam naskah mereka yang berjudul "Respondent-driven sampling (RDS) method: Introduction and its potential use for social psychology research" membahas potensi metode pencarian sampel (sampling) yang lebih superior daripada metode non-probabilitas lain tetapi juga lebih mungkin dilakukan dibandingkan metode random sampling. Dalam metode respondent-driven sampling (RDS), peneliti merekrut partisipan berdasarkan struktur jejaring atau rasa saling percaya antar partisipan. Mengingat masyarakat Indonesia beroperasi berdasarkan struktur relasi dan rasa saling percaya (Hopner & Liu, in press), metode RDS ini sangat menjanjikan untuk diterapkan. Bukan hanya karena kemudahan dalam pengambilan data, namun juga karena potensinya untuk lebih mampu menggeneralisasi temuan ke dalam populasi yang diteliti. Tidak kalah menariknya adalah naskah yang ditulis oleh Tsana Afrani dan para koleganya dengan judul "Apakah intervensi prasangka lewat media bisa mengurangi prasangka implisit terhadap orang dengan HIV/AIDS? Eksperimen menggunakan implicit association test (IAT)." Dalam beberapa tahun terakhir, IAT atau tes asosiasi implisit menjadi alat ukur prasangka implisit yang dianggap kontroversial (Jost, 2019; Singal, 2017). Intervensi berbasis prasangka implisit juga menjadi sasaran kritik. Maka dari itu, penting untuk menguji IAT dalam konteks intervensi di berbagai konteks seperti di kebudayaan non-WEIRD. Ditemukan bahwa prasangka implisit tidak berubah setelah partisipan ikut serta dalam intervensi prasangka lewat media. Ini semakin mempertebal daftar kritik terhadap IAT. Naskah berikutnya membahas potensi metode kualitatif yang jarang digunakan dalam psikologi sosial, yaitu metode historis-komparatif. Dalam naskah yang berjudul "Menggunakan metode historis komparatif dalam penelitian psikologi", Nugraha Arif Karyanta, Suryanto, dan Wiwin Hendriani menjelaskan bahwa data-data seperti dokumen bersejarah, catatan sejarah, bahkan dokumen sipil yang masih berlangsung bisa digunakan untuk menjelaskan proses psikologis yang terjadi pada suatu konteks masyarakat. Metode ini berpotensi untuk mengeksplorasi bagaimana temuan-temuan psiko-logi sosial yang seringkali muncul dari kebudayaan WEIRD bisa relevan atau tidak relevan dengan perkembangan sejarah, kebijakan sosial dan hukum, yang ada pada masyarakat non-WEIRD seperti masyarakat Indonesia. Sementara itu Retno Hanggarani Ninin dan kolega-koleganya menekankan pentingnya asesmen psikologi dalam situasi alamiah. Dalam naskah yang berjudul "Psikoetnografi sebagai metoda asesmen psikologi komunitas", mereka membahas bahwa seringkali asesmen psikologis mencerabut individu dari situasi ekologis alami mereka. Padahal, individu tidak terlepas dari struktur sosial dan budaya yang ia alami sehari-hari. Dalam naskah ini, para penulis juga memberikan contoh bagaimana asesmen psikoetnografi bisa dilakukan. Membahas perbedaan dan kesetaraan antar budaya, tentu juga sulit dilepaskan dari isu kesetaraan lintas budaya dari alat ukur psikologis. Dalam isu khusus ini, JPS mempublikasikan dua naskah validasi alat ukur. Kedua alat ukur ini dinilai penting dan relevan untuk diadaptasi dan divalidasi pada konteks Indonesia. Dalam naskah "Adaptasi alat ukur Munroe Multicultural Attitude Scale Questionnaire versi Indonesia", Intan Permatasari dan kolega-koleganya mempertanyakan validasi alat ukur sikap multikultural karena pada budaya Indonesia, sikap multikultural lebih prevalen pada relasi antar etnis sementara di budaya Amerika Serikat (budaya asal alat ukurnya), sikap multicultural lebih terfokus pada warna kulit. Sementara pada naskah "Adaptasi dan properti psikometrik skala kontrol diri ringkas versi Indonesia", Haykal Hafizul Arifin dan Mirra Noor Milla berusaha mengadaptasi dan menemukan validitas konstruk dan validitas diskriminan dari alat ukur kontrol diri. Ada banyak struktur dimensi dari alat ukur kontrol diri dalam riset-riset sebelumnya. Para penulis menguji struktur dimensi mana yang paling cocok untuk konteks Indonesia. Akhir kata, izinkanlah kami berterima kasih kepada para reviewer yang telah memberikan masukkan kepada naskah-naskah di edisi khusus ini, mulai dari awal sampai naskah siap dipublikasikan. Kami berharap, edisi khusus ini bisa menjadi pemantik diskusi-diskusi saintifik lanjutan tentang ragam perspektif dan isu metodologi di psikologi sosial, khususnya untuk konteks kebudayaan non-WEIRD seperti Indonesia. Tidak hanya itu, kami juga berharap bahwa edisi khusus ini bisa menjadi pedoman atau acuan bagi penggunaan berbagai metode seperti sampling RDS, alat ukur IAT, asesmen psiko-etnografi, dan riset historis komparatif. Kami juga berharap edisi khusus ini menstimulasi riset lanjutan dengan paradigma social neuroscience dan paradigma etika yang lebih luas dari sekedar analisis etika prosedural.

The article contains information about historical memory like an element and at the same time a factor in theformation of national identity based common values, norms, beliefs, behavior models, stereotypes and ideas aboutthe historical past. Firstly, we defined the properties of historical memory as a social-cultural phenomenon andits features in modern Ukrainian society. Also, we emphasized the importance of the social context and nationalidentity in the process of the formation of historical memory. For example, social environment influences onthe formation and change of memory of certain historical events and their consequences in the minds of citizen.Secondly, we investigated that the similar perceptions, appraisals and attitudes to the historical process contributethe consolidation of society and facilitate its integration around common identities. In contrast, different andeven opposite interpretations of the historical past constructed in the minds of citizens of different regions ofour country depending on socio-cultured, historical and political background can influence the peculiaritiesof the formation of new identities, as well as they determine vectors of both potential and actual conflicts.Nevertheless, differences in interpretations of history and dominant identity types among residents of differentregions of Ukraine do not make a threat to national integrity, but they can be the basis for ideological and politicalmanipulation from internal and external factors connected with destruction of Ukrainian statehood foundations.Using a secondary analysis of the results of empirical research conducted by leading sociological agencies weinvestigated that fragmentation and multiplicity are the peculiarities of Ukrainian historical memory. Thesepeculiarities are the results of domination of regional identity types in the minds of people. In fact, local featuresof historical memory are related to the history of the region and its socio-cultural characteristics. Also we foundout about the existence of certain differences and contradictions in interpretations of the historical past of Easternand Western residents. Under such circumstances, the historical memory becomes a disintegrating factor and asource of strife because it produces opposited and often incompatible views on the perspectives of the state and thenation. On the one hand, historical memory can enhance the role of national identity in the integration of a nationbased on common interpretation of history. On the other hand, historical memory can contribute the formationmostly of contradictory identity types and increase tendencies towards antagonism updating conflicts betweenmodels / options of historical memory of representatives in different regions of Ukraine. Actually, politicalagents (both domestic and foreign) can make «desirable» representations, evaluations, and interpretations ofhistorical events by means of propaganda, provoking disintegration and destabilization in the country, using thedifference between the models / options of historical memory of the inhabitants in different parts of the country,as well as the essential properties of historical memory (symbolism, irrationality, mythology, etc.). To sum up,there is an essential need in Ukraine for the implementation of a prudent memory policy in order to form anationwide model of historical memory that would be able to contribute the unification of citizens into a singlepolitical nation based on common identities regardless of resident region. ; В статье идет речь о феномене исторической памяти как элементе и одновременно факторе формиро-вания национальной идентичности на основе общих ценностей, норм, убеждений, образцов поведения,стереотипов и представлений о собственной истории. Определены свойства исторической памяти каксоциокультурного явления в целом и ее особенности в современном украинском обществе в частности.Отмечено значение социального контекста формирования исторической памяти как поля конструирова-ния ценностного наполнения определенных исторических событий и их последствий в сознании граж-дан, а также представлений о себе как национальной общности. Обосновано мнение о том, что похожиепредставления, оценки и отношения к историческому процессу способствуют консолидации общества иединению вокруг общих идентитетов, в тоже время как разные, даже противоположные интерпретацииисторического прошлого, сконструированные в сознании граждан различных регионов нашей страны взависимости от социокультурных, исторических и политических обстоятельств, могут стать факторами,которые влияют на особенности формирования новых идентичностей, а также во многом определяютвекторы как потенциальных, так и актуальных конфликтов. Отмечено, что сами по себе различия в ин-терпретациях истории и доминирующих типах идентичности среди жителей разных регионов не несутугрозы национальной целостности, однако могут стать почвой для идеологических и политических ма-нипуляций со стороны внутренних и внешних агентов влияния, заинтересованных в разрушении осно-ваний украинской государственности. На основе вторичного анализа результатов эмпирических иссле-дований ведущих социологических агентств определено, что характерной особенностью историческойпамяти украинцев является ее фрагментарность и множественность, что связано с доминированием всознании людей региональных типов идентичности. Речь идет о локальных особенностях историческойпамяти, связанных с историей региона и его социокультурными особенностями. Определенные различияв интерпретациях исторического прошлого жителями Востока и Запада страны отражаются в формиро-вании разных, даже противоречивых типах идентичности. Отмечено, что в таких условиях историческаяпамять становится дезинтегрирующим фактором, источником противостояний, противоположных, частонесовместимых, взглядов на перспективы государства и нации. Обосновано мнение о том, что, опираясьна такие свойства исторической памяти, как иррациональность, мифологичность и т.д., различные по-литические агенты могут использовать ее как средство манипуляции в сфере политики и идеологии, на-меренно конструируя в сознании народа «желаемые» для себя оценки и представления об определенныхисторических событиях, фактах, деятелях и т. п. В указанном контексте делаются выводы о необходимо-сти реализации государством взвешенной политики памяти с целью формирования общенациональноймодели исторической памяти, способной содействовать объединению граждан страны независимо отрегиона проживания в единую политическую нацию на основе общих идентитетов. ; У статті йдеться про феномен історичної пам'яті як елемент та водночас чинник формування націо-нальної ідентичності на базі спільних цінностей, норм, переконань, зразків поведінки, стереотипів та уяв-лень про власну історію. Визначено властивості історичної пам'яті як соціокультурного явища загаломта її особливості в сучасному українському суспільстві зокрема. Наголошено на вагомості соціальногоконтексту формування історичної пам'яті як поля конструювання ціннісного наповнення певних істо-ричних подій та їх наслідків у свідомості громадян, а також уявлень про себе як національну спільність.Обґрунтовано думку про те, що схожі уявлення, оцінки і ставлення до історичного процесу сприяютьконсолідації суспільства та гуртуванню довкола спільних ідентитетів, натомість відмінні, навіть проти-лежні інтерпретації історичного минулого, сконструйовані в свідомості громадян різних регіонів нашоїкраїни залежно від соціокультурних, історичних та політичних обставин, можуть стати факторами, яківпливають на особливості формування нових ідентичностей, а також багато в чому визначають векторияк потенційних, так і актуальних конфліктів. Зазначено, що самі по собі відмінності в інтерпретаціяхісторії та домінантних типах ідентичності серед жителів різних регіонів не несуть загрози національнійцілісності, однак можуть стати ґрунтом для ідеологічних та політичних маніпуляцій з боку внутрішніхта зовнішніх агентів впливу, зацікавлених у руйнуванні підстав української державності. На основі вто-ринного аналізу результатів емпіричних досліджень провідних соціологічних агенцій визначено, що ха-рактерною особливістю історичної пам'яті українців є її фрагментарність та множинність, що пов'язаноз домінуванням у свідомості людей регіональних типів ідентичності. Йдеться про локальні особливостіісторичної пам'яті, пов'язані з історією регіону та його соціокультурними особливостями; певні відмін-ності в інтерпретаціях історичного минулого жителями Сходу та Заходу країни, що відображається увідмінних, навіть суперечливих типах ідентичностей. За таких умов історична пам'ять стає дезінтегру-ючим чинником, джерелом протистоянь, продукує у громадян протилежні, часто несумісні, погляди наперспективи держави й нації. Зазначено, що історична пам'ять як чинник формування національної іден-тичності може підсилювати роль останньої в інтеграції нації на ґрунті спільної інтерпретації історії, або,за умови актуалізації суперечностей між моделями/опціями історичної пам'яті представників різних ре-гіонів України, сприяти формуванню відверто суперечливих типів ідентичності, підсилюючи тенденціїдо антагонізму. Обґрунтовано думку про те, політичні агенти (як вітчизняні, так і закордонні), використо-вуючи різницю між моделями/опціями історичної пам'яті жителів різних частин країни, а також сутніснівластивості історичної пам'яті (символічність, ірраціональність, міфологічність тощо), можуть констру-ювати «бажані» уявлення, оцінки та інтерпретації історичних подій засобами пропаганди, провокуючидезінтеграцію та дестабілізацію в країні. У зазначеному контексті робляться висновки про необхідністьреалізації державою виваженої політики пам'яті з метою формування загальнонаціональної моделі істо-ричної пам'яті, здатної сприяти об'єднанню громадян країни незалежно від регіону проживання в єдинуполітичну націю на основі спільних ідентитетів.

Para la rehabilitación del parque habitacional en zonas vulnerables, es necesario implementar modelos de gestión innovadores mediante la colaboración público-privada.El modelo de gestión utilizado en el Área de Conservación y Rehabilitación (ACR) en calle Pirineos, en el municipio de Santa Coloma de Gramenet es pionero en Cataluña ya que no se había logrado una rehabilitación del parque habitacional privado con recursos de los mismos particulares, en el contexto de un área con una población de renta baja. La función del gobierno municipal fue de promotor y mediador con los vecinos, proyectos técnicos y contratistas para la ejecución de la obra. Otro de los factores innovadores es que el Ayuntamiento funge como instancia crediticia, financiando el proyecto y ofreciendo facilidades de pago a los propietarios de las viviendas, por lo que asume el pago inicial a los contratistas, siendo una de las claves para lograr llevar a cabo la rehabilitación. Así, los propietarios tienen facilidades para retornar al Ayuntamiento el coste de las obras, o bien en dos pagos, o bien en pagos fraccionados durante cinco años e incluso inscribiendo la deuda en el registro de la propiedad en función de las condiciones individuales de cada titular.Considerando lo anterior, la presente investigación pretende conocer con mayor profundidad los cambios percibidos por los usuarios, después de la rehabilitación de sus viviendas, en tres áreas: (I) el confort térmico; (II) la satisfacción residencial; (III) y el modelo de gestión utilizado por el Ayuntamiento de Santa Coloma de Gramenet; para lo cual se realizó una encuesta cerrada, aplicada a las personas mayores de edad, cabezas de familia y que llevan habitando dentro del ACR Pirineos por más de un año, al ser susceptibles de haber notado los posibles cambios producidos por la intervención.De los resultados encontrados, uno de los más relevantes es la gestión del Ayuntamiento, que en términos generales se percibe como buena y en particular el sistema de pago. En relación con la satisfacción residencial, aún no se percibe ningún cambio trascendental sobre las relaciones sociales entre los vecinos del barrio y edificio, sin embargo, existe una percepción de mejora en la imagen del barrio y en la revalorización de sus viviendas. Respecto al confort térmico interior, la percepción de los usuarios ha mejorado en las viviendas que antes de la rehabilitación eran más frías, sin embargo, no en todos los casos han sentido diferencia en la temperatura de su hogar.Esta investigación se ha realizado dentro del seminario de la línea de máster en Gestión y Valoración Urbana y Arquitectónica en el marco del proyecto EnerValor (MINECO/FEDER BIA2015-63606-R) ; Per a la rehabilitació del parc residencial en zones vulnerables, cal implementar models de gestió innovadors mitjançant la col·laboració publico-privada.El model de gestió utilitzat en l'Àrea de Conservació i Rehabilitació (ACR) en carrer Pirineus, al municipi de Santa Coloma de Gramenet és pioner a Catalunya ja que no s'havia aconseguit una rehabilitació del parc d'habitatge privat amb recursos dels mateixos particulars, en el context d'una àrea amb una població de renda baixa. La funció del govern municipal va ser de promotor i mediador amb els veïns, projectes tècnics i contractistes per a l'execució de l'obra. Un altre dels factors innovadors és que l'Ajuntament dona com a instància creditícia, finançant el projecte i oferint facilitats de pagament als propietaris dels habitatges, de manera que assumeix el pagament inicial als contractistes, sent una de les claus per aconseguir dur a terme la rehabilitació. Així, els propietaris tenen facilitats per retornar a l'Ajuntament el cost de les obres, o bé en dos pagaments, o bé en pagaments fraccionats durant cinc anys i fins i tot inscrivint el deute en el registre de la propietat en funció de les condicions individuals de cada titular .Atès l'anterior, la present investigació pretén conèixer amb més profunditat els canvis percebuts pels usuaris, després de la rehabilitació dels seus habitatges, en tres àrees: (I) el confort tèrmic; (II) la satisfacció residencial; (III) i el model de gestió utilitzat per l'Ajuntament de Santa Coloma de Gramenet; per a això es va realitzar una enquesta tancada, aplicada a les persones majors d'edat, caps de família i que porten habitant dins el ACR Pirineus per més d'un any, en ser susceptibles d'haver notat els possibles canvis produïts per la intervenció.Dels resultats trobats, un dels més rellevants és la gestió de l'Ajuntament, que en termes generals es percep com a bona i en particular el sistema de pagament. En relació amb la satisfacció residencial, encara no es percep cap canvi transcendental sobre les relacions socials entre els veïns del barri i edifici, però, hi ha una percepció de millora en la imatge del barri i en la re valorització dels seus habitatges. Pel que fa al confort tèrmic interior, la percepció dels usuaris ha millorat en els habitatges que abans de la rehabilitació eren més fredes, però, no en tots els casos han sentit diferència en la temperatura de la seva llar.Aquesta investigació s'ha realitzat dins del seminari de la línia de màster en Gestió i Valoració Urbana i Arquitectònica en el marc del projecte EnerValor (MINECO / FEDER BIA2015-63606-R) ; For the rehabilitation of the housing stock in vulnerable areas, it is necessary to implement innovative management models through public-private collaboration.The management model used in the Conservation and Rehabilitation Area (ACR) on Pirineos Street, in the municipality of Santa Coloma de Gramenet, is a pioneer in Catalonia since it had not achieved a rehabilitation of the private housing stock with resources of the same individuals, in the context of an area with a low income population. The function of the municipal government was to promote and mediate with the neighbors, technical projects and contractors for the execution of the work. Another innovative factor is that the City Council acts as a credit institution, financing the project and offering payment facilities to homeowners, so it assumes the initial payment to contractors, being one of the keys to achieving rehabilitation. Thus, the owners have facilities to return to the City Council the cost of the works, either in two payments, or in installments over five years and even inscribing the debt in the property registry depending on the individual conditions of each owner.Considering the above, the present investigation intends to know in greater depth the changes perceived by users after rehabilitation in three areas: (I) thermal comfort; (II) residential satisfaction; (III) and the management model used by the City Council of Santa Coloma de Gramenet; for which a closed survey was carried out, applied to the elderly, heads of family and who have been living within the Pyrenees ACR for more than a year, being susceptible to having noticed the possible changes produced by the intervention.Of the results found, one of the most relevant is the management of the City Council, which in general terms is perceived as good and in particular the payment system. In relation to residential satisfaction, there is still no significant change in the social relations between the residents of the neighborhood and the building; however, there is a perception of improvement in the image of the neighborhood and in the revaluation of their homes. With regard to indoor thermal comfort, the perception of users has improved in homes that were colder before the rehabilitation, but not in all cases they have felt difference in the temperature of their home.This research has been carried out within the seminar of the master's degree in Management and Urban and Architectural Assessment within the framework of the EnerValor project (MINECO/FEDER BIA2015-63606-R) ; Peer Reviewed

El actual panorama mundial caracterizado por una crisis económica con graves repercusiones en el bienestar social, económico, político y cultural, unido a los grandes avances de las tecnologías e Internet, ha provocado un replanteamiento de las prácticas educativas al mismo tiempo que la aparición de nuevos escenarios educativos. En este contexto, la reflexión aparece como una capacidad que puede ayudar a resolver los retos que la sociedad actual plantea a todos sus ciudadanos. La utilización del blog como herramienta de apoyo educativo se ha popularizado rápidamente en la primera década del siglo XXI. El principal propósito de esta tesis consiste en analizar las potencialidades de esta herramienta para el desarrollo del diálogo reflexivo del alumnado y la mejora del aprendizaje, así como proporcionar orientaciones pedagógicas avaladas experimentalmente que posibiliten su óptimo uso como herramienta educativa. Para alcanzar este propósito se han diseñado, implementado y evaluado tres estudios de investigación cuyos objetivos giran alrededor de estos tres ejes: (i) el análisis del diálogo reflexivo; (ii) la percepción del aprendizaje adquirido con el uso del blog y; (iii) las implicaciones educativas que posibilitan un óptimo uso del blog como herramienta de apoyo educativo. Este trabajo parte de la definición del concepto de diálogo reflexivo como la sinergia de las aportaciones de cuatro tipos de diálogos: empático, crítico, de regulación y creativo. Muestra que el uso educativo del blog puede promover el desarrollo del diálogo reflexivo, especialmente del diálogo crítico al centrarse en las herramientas explícitas del pensamiento. Se propone una estructura de trabajo colaborativo con el uso del blog adecuada para la promoción del diálogo reflexivo, que destaca el papel de la lectura de la información presente en el blog y de los comentarios como las principales acciones que apoyan el aprendizaje del alumnado. El blog posibilita el trabajo colaborativo y el acceso a la información almacenada en la red, al tiempo que proporciona más tiempo para pensar, si se compara con la realización de este tipo de actividades sin el uso del blog. Nuestro estudio muestra empíricamente que estas tres características del blog favorecen el desarrollo del diálogo reflexivo en mayor medida que sin el uso de esta herramienta. Este estudio de tesis también señala que la promoción del diálogo reflexivo mediado por el uso del blog, requiere de un diseño pedagógico que tenga en cuenta las cuatro variables educativas siguientes: un asesoramiento en la utilización técnica de esta herramienta; un conjunto de ayudas educativas que incidan en la mejora de la argumentación y del diálogo reflexivo; la presencia de un docente que modele un incierto y abierto cuestionamiento que lleve a los estudiantes a la indagación compartida; y un diseño de actividad poco estructurada y que posibilite múltiples y adecuadas soluciones. ; The current global scenario characterized by an economic crisis with serious implications for the social, economic, political and cultural wellbeing, coupled with major advances in technology and in the Internet, has led to a rethinking of educational practices. In this context, the reflection appears as a capability to help solve the challenges posed by modern society for every citizen. The use of the blog as an educational supporting tool has quickly become popular in the first decade of the XXI century. The main purpose of this thesis is to analyse the potential of the blog for the development of reflective dialogue and the improvement of student learning, as well as to provide indications endorsed experimentally that enable its optimal use as an educational tool. To this end, there have been designed, implemented and evaluated three research studies, whose objectives revolve around three axes: (i) analysis of reflective dialogue; (ii) perception of the learning acquired through the use of blog and; (iii) the educational implications that enable optimal use of the blog as an educational support tool. This work is based on the definition of reflective dialogue as the synergy of the contributions of four types of dialogues: empathic, critical, regulatory and creative dialogues. It shows that the educational use of a blog may promote the development of reflective dialogue, especially the critical one by focusing on explicit tools of thought. A collaborative work structure is proposed with the use of a suitable blog to promote reflective dialogue, which emphasizes the role of reading the information in the blog and commenting as the main actions that support the student learning. The blog enables collaborative work and access to information stored in the network, while providing more time to think, when compared to the performance of these activities without the use of the blog. Our study shows empirically that these three blog features benefit the development of reflective dialogue more than it does without the use of this tool. This thesis study also points out that the promotion of reflective dialogue mediated by the use of a blog requires a pedagogical design that takes into account the following four educational variables: technical advice on the use of this tool; a set of educational aids that can affect the improvement of argumentation and reflective dialogue; the presence of a teacher to model an uncertain and open questioning to lead students to the shared inquiry; and the design of unstructured activities that enable multiple and appropriate solutions. ; L'actual panorama mundial caracteritzat per una crisi econòmica amb greus repercussions en el benestar social, econòmic, polític i cultural, unit als grans avanços de les tecnologies i Internet, ha provocat un replantejament de les pràctiques educatives. En aquest context, la reflexió apareix com una capacitat que pot ajudar a resoldre els reptes que la societat actual planteja a tots els seus ciutadans. La utilització del blog com a eina de suport educatiu s'ha popularitzat ràpidament en la primera dècada del segle XXI. El principal propòsit d'aquesta tesi consisteix a analitzar les potencialitats del blog per al desenvolupament del diàleg reflexiu de l'alumnat i millora de l'aprenentatge, així com proporcionar indicacions avalades experimentalment que possibiliten el seu òptim ús com a eina educativa. Per a aconseguir aquest propòsit, s'han dissenyat, implementat i avaluat tres estudis de recerca, els objectius dels quals giren al voltant d'aquests tres eixos: (i) l'anàlisi dels diàlegs reflexius; (ii) la percepció de l'aprenentatge adquirit amb l'ús del blog i; (iii) les implicacions educatives que possibiliten un òptim ús del blog com a eina de suport educatiu. Aquest treball parteix de la definició del concepte de diàleg reflexiu com la sinergia de les aportacions de quatre tipus de diàlegs: diàleg empàtic, diàleg crític, de regulació i diàleg creatiu. Mostra que l'ús educatiu del blog pot promoure el desenvolupament del diàleg reflexiu, especialment del diàleg crític en centrarse en les eines explícites del pensament. Es proposa una estructura de treball col·laboratiu amb l'ús de blogs adequada per a la promoció del diàleg reflexiu, que destaca el paper de la lectura de la informació present en el blog i dels comentaris com les principals accions que permeten recolzar l'aprenentatge de l'alumnat. El blog possibilita el treball col·laboratiu i l'accés a la informació emmagatzemada a la xarxa, al mateix temps que proporciona més temps per pensar, si es compara amb la realització d'aquest tipus d'activitats sense l'ús del blog. Aquest estudi mostra empíricament que aquestes tres característiques del blog afavoreixen el desenvolupament del diàleg reflexiu en major mesura que sense l'ús d'aquesta eina. Aquest estudi de tesi també assenyala que la promoció del diàleg reflexiu intervingut per l'ús del blog, requereix d'un disseny pedagògic que tinga en compte les quatre variables educatives següents: un assessorament en la utilització tècnica d'aquesta eina; un conjunt d'ajudes educatives que incidisquen en la millora de l'argumentació i del diàleg reflexiu; la presència d'un docent que modele un incert i obert qüestionament que porte als estudiants a la indagació compartida; i un disseny d'activitat poc estructurada i que possibilite múltiples i adequades solucions.

Includes bibliography (p.231-247). ; Number of sources in the bibliography: 385 ; Thesis (Ph. D.) -- University of Cyprus, Faculty of Humanities, Department of English Studies, 2014. ; The University of Cyprus Library holds the printed form of the thesis. ; Η παρούσα διατριβή διερευνά τις διαδικασίες της γλωσσικής υποχώρησης/διατήρησης που λαμβάνουν χώρα εντός της ποντιακής κοινότητας στην Κύπρο. Οι Έλληνες Πόντιοι, οι οποίοι μετακόμισαν στην Κύπρο για μόνιμη διαμονή από τις χώρες της πρώην Σοβιετικής Ένωσης (πιο συγκεκριμένα από τη Γεωργία και τις νότιες περιοχές της Ρωσίας), διαθέτουν πλούσιο γλωσσικό ρεπερτόριο. Γλώσσες και διάλεκτοι όπως η Ρωσική, η Τουρκική, η Κοινή Νέα Ελληνική (ΚΝΕ), η Ποντιακή διάλεκτος και η Κυπριακή διάλεκτος χαρακτηρίζουν το γλωσσικό προφίλ της ποντιακής κοινότητας στην Κύπρο. Η διατριβή επιχειρεί, συνεπώς, τη διερεύνηση των παραγόντων που οδηγούν τους Ποντίους να διατηρήσουν ή να υποχωρήσουν μία ή περισσότερες γλώσσες του γλωσσικού τους ρεπερτορίου. Ειδικότερα, η έρευνα αυτή αυτό επιχειρεί να απαντήσει τα ακόλουθα ερωτήματα: Ποια(ες) γλώσσα(ες) διατηρείται(ούνται) μέσα στην ποντιακή κοινότητα και ποιοι παράγοντες (γλωσσικοί, κοινωνικοί, πολιτικοί, οικονομικοί, πολιτιστικοί, θρησκευτικοί, εθνικοί) συμβάλλουν σε αυτή τη διατήρηση; Ποια(ες) γλώσσα(ες) διαθέτει(ουν) -έσωθεν ή έξωθεν- υψηλό γόητρο και ποια(ες) χαμηλό; Σε βάρος ποιας(ων) γλώσσας(ών) συμβαίνει η γλωσσική υποχώρηση και γιατί, λαμβάνοντας υπόψη τη θεωρία της Εθνογλωσσικής Ζωτικότητας; Πώς θα μπορούσε η θεωρία της Εθνογλωσσικής Ζωτικότητας να τροποποιηθεί ώστε να μπορεί καλύτερα να επεξηγήσει, να προβλέψει και να περιγράψει τις διαδικασίες της γλωσσικής υποχώρησης/διατήρησης; Αυτά και άλλα σχετικά ερωτήματα εξετάζονται υπό το πρίσμα των ιστορικών, κοινωνικών, πολιτικών και οικονομικών ιδιαιτεροτήτων της χώρας υποδοχής (Κύπρου) και της αντίστοιχης χώρας προέλευσης των συμμετεχόντων (Ρωσίας ή Γεωργίας). Η διερεύνηση αυτών των κοινωνιογλωσσολογικών διαδικασιών στηρίζεται πρωτίστως σε τρεις κοινωνικές μεταβλητές: ηλικία, φύλο και χώρα προέλευσης των συμμετεχόντων όσον αφορά τη γλωσσική τους συμπεριφορά, την προτίμηση γλώσσας, τις γλωσσικές στάσεις και τη σύνδεση της γλώσσας με την ταυτότητα. Η ανάλυση των δεδομένων (ποσοτική - 247 ερωτηματολόγια και ποιοτική – 44 συνεντεύξεις) χρήσης της γλώσσας που έχουν συλλεχθεί αποκάλυψε ότι διαφορετική γλωσσική συμπεριφορά μπορεί να παρατηρηθεί ανάμεσα σε διαφορετικές γενιές. Η ηλικία παίζει σημαντικό ρόλο σε σχέση με τα πρότυπα χρήσης της γλώσσας, υποδεικνύοντας ότι η υποχώρηση της γλώσσας είναι σε εξέλιξη. Πιο συγκεκριμένα, η χρήση της γλώσσας της μεγαλύτερης γενιάς διαφέρει από εκείνη της νεότερης γενιάς των Ποντίων. Ωστόσο, όταν πρόκειται για τα πρότυπα μετάδοσης της γλώσσας από τους γονείς στα παιδιά τους, οι γλωσσικές στάσεις λαμβάνονται υπόψη. Η Τουρκική είναι η γλώσσα που σταδιακά εγκαταλείπεται υπέρ της ΚΝΕ ή/και της Ρωσικής. Ωστόσο, η Τουρκική εξακολουθεί να χρησιμοποιείται ως γλώσσα της καθημερινής επικοινωνίας μεταξύ της μεγαλύτερης γενιάς μέσα στην ποντιακή κοινότητα. Η ποντιακή διάλεκτος είναι σήμερα μια γλωσσική ποικιλία προς εξαφάνιση, αφού ουσιαστικά έχει απωλέσει την χρηστική της αξία και δύσκολα χρησιμοποιείται στην υπό εξέταση κοινότητα. Όσον αφορά στο φύλο, δεν παρουσιάζονται σημαντικές διαφορές. Ωστόσο, κάποιες μικρές διαφορές που διαπιστώθηκαν μεταξύ των δύο φύλων πρόσφεραν ουσιαστικές ερμηνείες όσον αφορά στην επιλογή γλώσσας και την γλωσσικής υποχώρηση. Ένας άλλος σημαντικός παράγοντας που επηρεάζει την υποχώρηση/διατήρηση της γλώσσας είναι ο παράγοντας της προέλευσης. Ο ερευνητής υποστηρίζει ότι η χώρα προέλευσης των μεταναστών φαίνεται να παίζει σημαντικό ρόλο στον καθορισμό της μορφής που πρόκειται να λάβει η διαδικασία της υποχώρησης/διατήρησης της γλώσσας. Η άποψη αυτή βασίζεται στην υπόθεση ότι οι μετανάστες που ζουν σήμερα στη χώρα υποδοχής είναι, παρ' όλα αυτά, συνδεδεμένοι άμεσα ή έμμεσα, με τη χώρα από την οποία έχουν μεταναστεύσει. Υποστηρίζεται ότι η γενική (οικονομική, πολιτική, πολιτιστική κ.λπ.) ευημερία της χώρας προέλευσης, καθώς και η αίσθηση σύνδεσης με αυτή απο την πλευρά των μεταναστών είναι σε θέση να καθορίσει την πορεία των στρατηγικών τις οποίες θα υιοθετήσουν οι μετανάστες στη χώρα υποδοχής τους όσον αφορά στη διατήρηση της μητρικής τους γλώσσας. Υπό αυτές τις συνθήκες, οι Πόντιοι από τη Γεωργία εγκαταλείπουν την γλώσσα του σπιτιού τους ευκολότερα και ταχύτερα υπέρ της ΚΝΕ, παρά οι Πόντιοι από τη Ρωσία. Αυτό, ως αποτέλεσμα, μπορεί να οδηγήσει στην ταχύτερη γλωσσική υποχώρηση από την πλευρά των Ποντίων από τη Γεωργία. ; The present thesis investigates the processes of language shift/maintenance that are taking place within the Pontic Greek community in Cyprus. Pontic Greeks, who moved to Cyprus for permanent stay from the former Soviet republics (more specifically, from Georgia and the southern parts of Russia) possess a rich linguistic repertoire. Such languages and dialects as Russian, Turkish, Standard Modern Greek (henceforth SMG), Pontic Greek dialect (henceforth PGD) and a Cypriot Greek dialect (henceforth CGD) characterize the linguistic profile of the Pontic Greek community in Cyprus. The present thesis attempts, therefore, to investigate the factors that lead Pontic Greeks to shift or maintain one or more languages of their linguistic repertoire. More specifically, this work addresses the following questions: What language(s) is(are) maintained within the community and what factors (linguistic, social, political, economic, cultural, religious, ethnic) contribute to this maintenance? What language(s) bear(s) (or are assigned internally and externally) high status and what low status? At the expense of which language(s) is language shift taking place and why, in light of the Ethnolinguistic Vitality (henceforth EV) theory? How could EV theory be modified to better account for, predict and describe language shift/maintenance processes? These and other relevant questions are pursued through the prism of historical, social, political and economic specificities of the context of the host country (Cyprus) and the participants' respective country of origin (Russia and Georgia). The investigation of these sociolinguistic processes rests primarily on the three social variables: age, gender and the country of origin of the participants as far as language behavior, language preference, language attitudes and the link between language and identity are concerned. The analysis of language use data (quantitative – 247 questionnaires and qualitative – 44 interviews) revealed that different linguistic behavior can be observed between different generations. Age plays an important role with regard to language use patterns signaling language shift in progress. More specifically, the language use of older generation differs to that of younger generation of Pontic Greeks. However, when it comes to language transmission patterns from parents to their children, language attitudes are taken into account. Turkish is the language which is gradually being abandoned in favor of SMG and/or Russian. However, Turkish is still used as the language of everyday communication among older generation within the Pontic Greek community. PGD is a seriously endangered language as it has practically lost its instrumental value and it is hardly used in the community. Generally, insignificant differences were found between male and female participants. However, some minor differences found between the two genders provided meaningful interpretations as regards their language choice and language shift. Another important factor influencing language shift/maintenance is the factor of provenance. The researcher argues that the immigrants' country of origin appears to play a significant role in determining the shape that the language shift/maintenance process is going to take. This is manifested by the assumption that immigrants currently living in the host country are, nonetheless, linked, directly or indirectly, to the country they have migrated from. It is argued that the general (economic, political, cultural etc.) well-being of a country of origin as well as the feeling of association with it on the part of immigrants are able to determine the trajectory of the strategies the immigrants are going to adopt in their host country as regards the maintenance of their home language. Under these circumstances, Pontic Greeks from Georgia abandon the language of their home easier and faster in favor of SMG than Pontic Greeks from Russia do. As a result, this can lead to a faster language shift on the part of Pontic Greeks from Georgia.

A pesar de la amplia bibliografía sobre arquitectos del Movimiento Moderno y sobre los debates de las Vanguardias, aún permanecen obras sin estudiar de arquitectos y artistas, cuyos compromisos contribuyeron en el Nacimiento de las Vanguardias, abriendo camino a la eclosión del Movimiento Moderno. Esta tesis se desarrolla desde la implicación de dos artistas, el arquitecto Michael Loewe (1871-1955) y su hija, la artista Margot Loewe (1905-1974), cuyas obras nos permiten reconocer como se entrelazaron dos generaciones en pro de unos mismos ideales, y como el dialogo entre técnica y arte y entre arte e industria propició nuevos espacios y nuevos modos de vivir. La investigación se ubica en Berlín, escenario cultural de confrontación entre tradición y modernidad, de búsqueda de una nueva identidad arquitectónica, y gran laboratorio urbanístico y social que pasa de pequeña capital de Provincia a Metrópoli, entre 1871 y 1933, desde Bismarck hasta la República de Weimar. El estudio desglosa la trayectoria profesional del arquitecto alemán, partiendo de su formación y carrera como Regierungbaumeister en la Königliche Technische Hochschule de Berlin-Charlottenburg, y sus obras construidas en Berlín entre 1907 y 1933. Por orden de aparición, las obras presentadas son los edificios de Bismarckstrasse 82-83 (1907), Olivaerplatz 8 (1909), Manfred-von-Richthofen-Strasse 2 (1912), Pariser Strasse 20 (1913), los grupos de viviendas de Prausestrasse 5-27 (1920), de Kuno-Fischer-Strasse 3-4-5 (1923) y de Pichelswerder (1927). En las obras de Michael Loewe identificamos una primera etapa, previa a la I Guerra Mundial, de reacción contra el exceso ornamental de los estilos históricos y del Jugendstil, moviéndose entre la desnudez y la simplicidad geométrica, con una clara influencia del Biedermeier y del Neoclasicismo Alemán, y en la que colabora con el arquitecto-ingeniero de prestigio Bruno Möhring. En su segunda etapa, de Entre Guerras, evoluciona y se compromete tempranamente hacia un lenguaje próximo a la Neue Sachlichkeit, en que integra su proyecto en el paisaje, explorando nuevas tecnologías y nuevas formas de vivir, que le permiten expresarse con más libertad, situándose en la primera generación de influencia de F. L. Wright en Europa. En ese temprano compromiso por la Modernidad, Michael Loewe despertó reacciones favorables de partidarios del Neues Bauen, pero también fue punto de mira de los adversarios de la Nueva Arquitectura, cuyos artículos y posicionamientos se radicalizaron, convirtiéndose en objeto de lucha política En su obra afloran sus compromisos profesionales a favor de la Nueva Objetividad, que plantea el problema de la posición del arte en la sociedad, de la relación entre arte y artesanía, entre arte y técnica y finalmente el de la forma y función. Sus compromisos personales le llevaron a ejercer de promotor en los momentos de crisis económica, a adherirse a propuestas de Existenzminimum, y a experimentar nuevas formas de vivir. También le llevaron a impulsar a su hija Margot Loewe a acceder al Bauhaus, que estudia entre 1929 y 1933 en Bauhaus-Dessau, bajo la dirección de Hannes Meyer y de Mies van der Rohe. La trayectoria artística de Margot Loewe que se expone aquí, corresponde al breve periodo comprendido entre los años de sus estudios en Bauhaus-Dessau y el exilio, pero entendido como parte del debate entre las Vanguardias utópicas y la Bauhaus, en su contexto de dialogo entre tecnología y arte, en el que la tecnología permitió una nueva concepción del espacio, argumento común de la arquitectura y del arte. Los compromisos técnicos y sociales de Michael Loewe le llevaron a nuevas propuestas formales y a explorar nuevas maneras de vivir, y en sus motivaciones artísticas participó con su hija Margot Loewe en esa nueva mirada subjetiva, provocando impresiones visuales y emociones, que empuja al arquitecto a experimentar con nuevos espacios, y a la artista a la abstracción de su pintura. ; Despite the extensive literature concerning architects of the Modern Movement and debates on the Avant-Garde, several works of architects and artists remain unstudied. The commitments of these individuals contributed to the birth of the Avant-Garde Movement, opening the door for the flourishing of the Modern Movement. This thesis was developed and inspired by the works of two artists, architect Michael Loewe (1871 -1955) and his daughter, the artist Margot Loewe (1905-1974). These artists' work allows us to recognize how these two generations were interwined and contributed the same ideals, as well as how the dialogues between technique and art and between art and industry led to new spaces and new ways of living. This research project was conducted in Berlin, a cultural center of confrontation between tradition and modernity and a city that is in search of a new architectural identity. Berlin represents a major urban and social laboratory that changed from a small provincial capital into a metropolis between 1871 and 1933. This study anlyses this German architect's career, starting from is training and career as a Regierungbaumeister in the Königliche Technische Hochschule of Berlin-Charlottenburg to his architectural accomplishments that were built between 1907 and 1933. The works presented include the buildings of Bismarckstrasse 82-83 (1907), Olivaerplatz 8 (1909), Manfred-von-Richthofen-Strasse 2 (1912), Pariserstrasse 20 (1913), the housing projects of Prausestrasse 5-27 (1920) and of Kuno-Fischerstrasse 3-4-5 (1923), and Pichelwerder (1927). Regarding the works of Michael Loewe prior to World War I, we have identified an initial stage of reaction against the ornamental excess of historical styles and Jugendstil that moved between unadorned designs and geometric simplicity with clear influence from German Neoclassicism . Collaborative works with the prestigious architect-engineer Bruno Möhring were also identified in this stage. In the second stage of hi work in the years between the wars , Michael Loewe envlved and undertook early steps towards a !anguage close to the Neue Sachlichkeit, integrating his project ¡nto the landscape and exploring new technologies and new ways of living that allowed him to express himsell more freely. During his early commitment to Modernity, Michael Loewe's work elicited favorable reactions from supporters of the Neues Bauen, but he was also targeted by the opponents of the New Architecture, whose papers and positions were radicalized, and became the subject of political conflict. In Michael Loewe's work, his professional commitments emerge in favor of the New Objectivity,which raises the issue of the position of art in society and the relationships between art and craft, art and technology, and form and function . Michael Loewe's personal commitments led him to join Existenzminimum proposals, and to experience new ways of living . He encourages his daughter Margot Loewe to study between 1929 and 1933 at the Bauhaus-Dessau under the guidance of Hannes Meyer and Mies van der Rohe. The artistic trajectory of Margot Loewe that is presented corresponds to the brief period between the years of her studies at the Bauhaus-Dessau and her exile. Margot Loewe's work is understood as part of the discussion between utopian Avant-Garde and Bauhaus, as well as its context for dialogue between technology and art, where techlology enabled a new conception of space, which is a common theme in both architecture and art. The technical commitments of Michael Loewe led him to create new formal proposals and as a result of his artistic motivations, he also participated alongside his daughter Margot Loewe in new forms of subjective insight, which created visual impressions and emotions that pushed the architect to experiment with new spaces and led the artist to the abstraction of her painting. ; Postprint (published version)