Eighteen years ago, I started my out-patients' experience as specialist dermatologist. I worked from the very first day with National Health Insurance System. It was a chance to build a huge experience (more than 120,000 visits since then). Over time, relationships with patients have changed, influenced by many factors. To preserve good relationships we have to reflect and to use different approaches. In 2001, my stamp and my signature were enough for a consultation. The cell phone era was at the beginning. Over the years, the process has become more and more complicated. Today, if the computer, internet, different types of applications, software, other devices (printer, card reader, etc.) are not working, my knowledge becomes absolutely necessary, but not sufficient for a consultation. So, the doctor is now, totally dependent on IT issues. Besides instant information, cell phones induce a lack of intimacy. Everyone could reach you everywhere, every moment. You are almost "forced" to give advice on whatsapp, e-mail, messenger and people expect you to answer on-site, otherwise you are not "reachable". Time is the first pressure that we are feeling. Patients want and expect a consultation as soon as possible even you have appointments for the next few weeks. I try my best not to push later than 10 days, if it is a new ordinary consultation. Sometimes, it is possible for me to see the patient on-site (a child, an emergency, pregnant women, etc.). In the literature, time for appointment could vary from 7 working days in Brazil [1], to median 41 days in Canada (Ontario) [2] or median 45 days in US (Pennsylvania) [3] to a certain dramatic situation waiting list of 57 weeks in a unit in UK [4]. The number of consultations tends to increase. It is not only a perception, but a reality, revealed also by a French study (21% increase from 2000 to 2010) [5]. Time is also a burden for the doctor, because the real time for consultation has dramatically reduced in favor of bureaucratic issues. Official papers seem to be more important than people. It is a constant effort to remain emphatic and to really listen to patient's history. The stories that we are ignoring for lacking time could give us important clues for diagnosis, approach, could enforce the relationship and give trust, could relief the worries. "You are the 5th dermatologist I am seeing"- a young woman told me the other day. I looked at her: she was around 20, some pimples on her jaw (not too many) and some tiny scars on her forehead covered by a lot of makeup. Not quite a good start for a relationship. Her expectations were not fulfilled by visiting the other doctors. Maybe the expectations were not realistic, maybe she was fed up trying different things. "How can I propose something new or miraculous when she tried probably "everything"? - I asked myself. I spent at least half an hour discussing about acne, therapeutic options and adjusting the expectations to our limits. It was more a counseling session than a dermatologic consultation. Today, patients are coming in our office very informed. They "know" the diagnosis and sometimes even the treatment they want or need. After "Dr. Google" you can be a second opinion. Dermatology is underestimated even by other physicians that feel competent enough to prescribe medication inducing iatrogenesis [6]. So, what to expect from patients? It is a good thing to have an informed patient. It will save you a lot of time and energy in expanded explanations. But, there is also a lot of incorrect or 1 Dali Medical, Bucharest, Romania 118 misunderstood information, prejudices from other's experience shared on forums, incorrect auto-diagnosis or even incorrect auto-medication. It is our duty to listen and to correct, as much as we can. Patients have to be taught how to choose important information from the constant "soup of news feed". The flux of information is huge, also for doctors as for patients. Thousands of opinions, articles, and new approaches invade our space daily. A good selection criteria for useful, relevant data is absolutely necessary. A "happy" patient seems to be the one with a certain diagnosis, with clear treatment plan, including explaining side effects and with a contact number in case of recurrence [7]. The access of any information being so instant, patients expect a rapid response of the treatment. The result has to be now and definitive. The pressure of quick response is not very subtle, the doctor feeling it as a burden. It takes time to explain and to understand the progression of chronic illnesses. Sometimes, the expectations are to get well with any treatment, eventually without any changes of their life style, even when doctor explains that some habits could aggravate or maintain the lesions. Taking responsibility for some adjustments is an important part to discuss with patient, as part of therapeutic approach. Paternal, omniscient doctor's image is no longer in actuality and patient is an important part of the relationship. Instead of an "infantile" patient, coming for any transitory rash or any mosquito bite, it is better to "grow" him/her as a self-confident "partner". The new and healthy bond has to transform patient from the passive, sometimes passive-aggressive role, into an assumed, informed, pro-active one. Cooperation is the key of healthy relation. Patient has the right to ask for explanations, to discuss therapeutic options, to refuse treatments. Patients have opinions that have to be respected and sometimes corrected if they are distorted. On the way to get therapeutic alliance and long-term cooperation, the doctor-patient relationship has to be personalized, giving value to it. This kind of relationship will make the difference in the end and even the direction is to involve more high tech and robots. Face-to-face relationship will not be replaced by anything and it will be highly appreciated after the "speed" condition passes. More social skills are often required, doctors not being known as the best communicators. Sometimes, doctors are not aware of patients' perception regarding communication [8]. I have got my social skills working day by day, no special courses were made during faculty, unfortunately. "We need fewer memorizers and more thinkers and communicators in modern medicine" is the most recent conclusion of Canadian Debate Series regarding medical students' selection [9]. Another pressure point is the constant fear of errors. With all the efforts of protocols for reducing the risk of mistakes or misconducts, unfortunately there are lots of gaps and debates. The fear of error and malpraxis leads to excess of medication and investigations, sometimes too expensive and useless. Doctors should not be scared by the abundance of products, instruments, techniques, aggressively promoted. They have to be more flexible, more intuitive and more eager to try, making personal experience and not taking results for granted. Many of these products will not pass the test of time, even they are presented as "miraculous". Sometimes, patients' needs are the trigger for experimenting new methods and push us to progress faster. Not only patients are in a rush, doctors too. The race for EMC points is making the doctor more informed, but we have to be careful not to become too superficial. Even a doctor is getting a diploma after a "3 days course", it doesn't mean that he/she will be an expert in that field, not even competent. It will take a lot of time and energy to really get the expertise, that course being only the very first step on the road. The "diplomas wall", real or virtual is a false goal. In the end, the real skills are more important than a sublime image and it will take time to get them. Sometimes, vanity makes the teamwork harder. This will be unproductive for both doctors and patients. It is not a shame to refer the patient to an expert on a field when you feel that you have reached a limit. People are hardly trying to change our state from patient to client, that new status being debatable. Being a client means to take some responsibilities as in a contract. That is the good part. But, fortunately, remaining a doctor means more than providing services. Practicing medicine is a state of knowledge, art, experience, intuition, with magic touches sometimes. Fortunately, with all the changes during the last years, dermatologists seem to remain satisfied with their specialty. A recent Mexican study shows that 93% of dermatologists (with an average of 16 years of practice) were happy with their professional life, more than 98% choosing it once again [10]. Maintaining certain levels of professional and personal happiness, keeping informed and open-minded, avoiding burn-out, trying to fulfill patients' expectations, doctors are not in a battle, but in strong alliance with patients.
Tom Cyberbezpieczeństwo wyzwaniem XXI wieku jest opracowaniem, które wpisuje się w kontekst rozważań poświęconych wielorakim aspektom bezpieczeństwa w cyberprzestrzeni. Autorzy, którzy zostali zaproszeni do realizacji tego projektu, prezentują różne spojrzenia na tę problematykę. Pomysłodawcą pierwszego rozdziału – Główni aktorzy cyberprzestrzeni i ich działalność jest Tomasz Hoffman. Autor, piszący z perspektywy prawno-politologicznej, posiłkujący się dorobkiem nauk o bezpieczeństwie, koncentruje się na ukazaniu potencjalnych aktorów cyberprzestrzeni, ich działalności, a w tym również zachowań niezgodnych z prawem. Cyberbezpieczeństwo, zdaniem Hoffmana, jest nową dziedziną bezpieczeństwa narodowego, z którą nieodłącznie wiążą się takie wyzwania, jak cyberprzestępczość oraz cyberterroryzm. Drugi rozdział – Cyberbezpieczeństwo jako wyzwanie dla współczesnego państwa i społeczeństwa – wyszedł spod pióra Marka Górki. Badacz dokonał przeglądu aktualnego stanu bezpieczeństwa cybernetycznego w kontekście rozprzestrzeniania się zagrożeń pochodzących z cyberprzestrzeni, tworzonych przez organizacje państwowe oraz niepaństwowe. Górka stoi na stanowisku, że cyberprzestrzeń stała się podstawową cechą świata i stworzyła nową rzeczywistość dla prawie wszystkich krajów, co sprawia, że problemy z cyberprzestępczością oraz cyberbezpieczeństwem mają istotne, globalne znaczenie zarówno w wymiarze politycznym, jak i gospodarczym. Z przemyśleniami Górki koresponduje tekst Bogusława Węglińskiego – Cyberterroryści w cyfrowych czasach – profesjonalizacja i digitalizacja współczesnych organizacji terrorystycznych. Autor poddał analizie ewoluujące wraz z rozwojem technologii instrumentarium wykorzystywane przez grupy terrorystyczne, zwracając uwagę na Internet, który otworzył przed nimi nowe możliwości oddziaływania, a w tym także w sferze kreowania przekazu medialnego. W tekście zawarte są również dociekania dotyczące możliwości użycia przez terrorystów dronów. Nadmieńmy, że także czwarty rozdział Ataki cyberfizyczne a system bezpieczeństwa narodowego, którego autorem jest Bogusław Olszewski, wpisuje się w nurt wcześniejszych dociekań. W tej części tomu poruszone zostały sprawy związane z niepożądanym oddziaływaniem systemów cyberfizycznych na bezpieczeństwo otoczenia międzynarodowego. Zdaniem Olszewskiego, ich hybrydowy (cyfrowo-materialny) charakter sprawia, że wpływają nie tylko na logiczną warstwę cyberprzestrzeni, ale także na dziedzinę fizyczną. Umożliwiają m.in. destabilizację porządku wewnętrznego państwa, co w konsekwencji może prowadzić do destrukcyjnych zmian w szerszym, międzynarodowym kontekście. Stanowią zatem wielowymiarowe zagrożenie dla szeroko pojętego systemu bezpieczeństwa globalnego W rozdziale piątym, Marcin Adamczyk przedłożył tekst Cyberszpiegostwo w relacjach chińsko-amerykańskich w kontekście potencjalnej zmiany światowego hegemona. Opracowanie poświęcone jest działaniom Chińskiej Republiki Ludowej w cyberprzestrzeni, ukierunkowanych na nielegalne pozyskanie amerykańskich technologii wojskowych i cywilnych. Zdaniem autora, Państwo Środka jest aktualnie jedynym krajem, który obecnie mógłby rzucić wyzwanie dominacji Stanów Zjednoczonych. Dążenie do uzyskania statusu państwa hegemonicznego wymaga zatem od Pekinu zbudowania odpowiedniej koalicji wspierającej Chiny na arenie międzynarodowej, ale również zmniejszenia dystansu ekonomicznego, jaki dzieli to państwo od Waszyngtonu. Autorem kolejnego rozdziału jest Kamil Baraniuk, którzy przygotował tekst Zarys przemian instytucjonalnych rosyjskiego wywiadu radioelektronicznego. Baraniuk podkreśla, że współczesny wysoki stopień zinformatyzowania społeczeństw i powszechności korzystania z technologii informatycznych sprawia, iż dane o charakterze sygnałowym i elektromagnetycznym stanowią bardzo istotne źródło informacji dla wyspecjalizowanych instytucji, zajmujących się ich gromadzeniem oraz przetwarzaniem. W tym kontekście zarysowuje genezę i przekształcenia instytucjonalne wywiadu radioelektronicznego Federacji Rosyjskiej, a co za tym idzie wojskowe i cywilne instytucje zajmujące się tego rodzaju działalnością na przestrzeni ostatnich kilkudziesięciu lat, przy uwzględnieniu ich zadań, a także zmian personalnych w ich kierownictwie. Rozdział siódmy napisany został przez dwie autorki z Ukrainy. Tetiana W. Nagachevskaya i Lyudmila Frliksowa przygotowały rozważania zatytułowane Napriamky formuwannia miżnarodnoji konkurentospromożnosti IT-sektoru Ukrajiny. Zawierają one analizę stanu i osobliwości kształtowania się międzynarodowej konkurencyjności sektora IT na Ukrainie. Nagachevskaya i Frliksowa zaprezentowały pozycję ukraińskiego sektora IT rozpatrywaną w kontekście Networked Readiness Index, który mierzy skłonność do wykorzystywania przez kraje możliwości oferowanych przez technologie informacyjno-komunikacyjne. Ponadto, ukazały przewagę konkurencyjną i wady ukraińskich firm IT na rynkach międzynarodowych oraz kierunki wzrostu międzynarodowej konkurencyjności sektora informatycznego Ukrainy. Kolejne dwa rozdziały dotykają problematyki religijnej w cyberprzestrzeni. Autorem dociekań – Religijne i parareligijne grupy destrukcyjne: wyzwania cyberprzestrzeni – jest Wojciech Gajewski, który zwraca uwagę na sprawę penetrowania wirtualnej przestrzeni przez destrukcyjne grupy religijne. Jego zdaniem, stanowią one wzrastające zagrożenie nie tylko dla jej indywidualnych użytkowników, ale także zbiorowości społecznych. Religioznawca jest zwolennikiem podejmowania szeroko zakrojonych działań badawczych, edukacyjnych, a także prawnych, które wpłyną na ograniczenie negatywnych następstw ich aktywności w cyberprzestrzeni. Z kolei, Lucjan Klimsza przedłożył tekst Filozoficzne aspekty działania Internetu w kontekście zadań misyjnych Kościoła. Autor, który jest duchownym ewangelickim, zwraca uwagę na możliwości, jakie otwiera przed współczesnym chrześcijaństwem dostęp do przestrzeni cyfrowej. Klimsza wyraźnie zaznacza, że obecny Kościół musi być wspólnotą multimedialną, jednakże nie wirtualną, która jest oddalona od człowieka i jego realnej egzystencji. Autor, Internet postrzega zatem jako metamedium umożliwiające przekazywanie treści religijnych, które może być pomocne m.in. w spotkaniu i relacjach człowieka z człowiekiem oraz Boga z człowiekiem. Dziesiąty rozdziały Cyberbezpieczeństwo jako konstrukt w polskiej przestrzeni publicznej, będący rozważaniami o nachyleniu politologicznym, napisał Przemysław Mikiewicz. Tekst jest refleksją nad obecnością kategorii cyberbezpieczeństwa w polskiej przestrzeni publicznej, którą autor zawęził do opiniotwórczego oddziaływania centralnych instytucji państwowych oraz partii politycznych. Autor wskazuje, że pojęcie cyberbezpieczeństwa jest obecne w polskiej przestrzeni publicznej w różnym stopniu w dokumentach rządowych i w programach partii politycznych. Zdaniem Mikiewicza, występuje zasadnicza asymetria pomiędzy oboma typami dokumentów: dokumenty urzędowe poświęcają uwagę cyberbezpieczeństwu w znacznym stopniu, podczas gdy w dokumentach partyjnych kwestia ta jest jedynie wzmiankowana. Tak więc, cyberbezpieczeństwo jawi się jako rodzaj konstruktu, za pomocą którego kreowany jest obraz świata pełnego nienamacalnych niebezpieczeństw, do zwalczania których nieodzowne wydaje się publikowanie dokumentów pod postacią kolejnych doktryn i strategii walki z zagrożeniami w cyberprzrestrzeni. W nurt rozważań politologicznych wpisują się także dwa kolejne teksty. Autorem pierwszego jest Grzegorz Tokarz, którego dociekania zostały zatytułowane Internet jako instrument nawoływania do przemocy – przykład organizacji "Krew i Honor" Polska. Tekst przybliża działalność polskiej sekcji neonazistowskiej organizacji "Krew i Honor", a w tym zawartość jej strony internetowej, która jest istotnym narzędziem w propagowaniu idei tego środowiska, jak również źródłem informacji o osobach oraz instytucji uznawanych za zdrajców "białej rasy". Drugi tekst, który zarazem kończy niniejszy tom przygotował Mariusz Kozerski. W rozdziale Dawne afery polityczne ze współczesnej perspektywy: przykład sprawy Barschela/Pffeifera analizowana jest rola, jaką media odgrywają w nagłaśnianiu afer politycznych. Autor poddał oglądowi wydarzenia, które rozegrały się w latach 80 XX wieku, w północnoniemieckim landzie Szlezwik-Holsztyn, a w których ważną rolę odegrał opiniotwórczy tygodnik "Der Spiegel". Dodajmy, że Kozerski podejmuje się również próby odpowiedzi na pytanie, w jaki sposób afera kilońska mogłaby przebiegać współcześnie, w kontekście potencjału informacyjnego/opiniotwórczego, którym charakteryzuje się globalna sieć komputerowa. ; "Cybersecurity as the challenge of the XXI century" is a collection of considerations dedicated to various aspects of security in cyberspace. Authors, who have been invited to this project, present different views on this subject. An author of the first chapter, "The main actors of cyberspace and their activities", is Tomasz Hoffman. Writing from a legal and political perspective, including the achievements of security sciences, he tries to present potential actors of cyberspace, and their activities, including behaviors against the law. Cybersecurity, according to Hoffman, is a new element of national security and is related to challenges, such as cybercrime and cyberterrorism. The second chapter, "Cybersecurity as a challenge for modern countries and societies", has been written by Marek Górka. The researcher has reviewed the current situation of the cybersecurity in the context of the spread of dangers in cyberspace, created by government and non-government organizations. Górka states that cyberspace has become a basic feature of the world and has created a new reality for almost all countries, what caused that the problems with cybercrime and cybersecurity became significant in both, the political and the economic aspect. A text, which corresponds to the Górka's thoughts, is the text "Cyberterrorists in digital times - professionalization and digitalization of modern terrorist organizations" by Bogusław Węgliński. The author has analyzed the instruments used by terrorist groups. The instruments which have been evolving along with the development of technology. The most important of them is the Internet, which has opened new opportunities for terrorists, including digital communicating. The text also includes aspects of the usage of drones by terrorists. The fourth chapter, "Cyber-physical attacks and the national security system", by Bogusław Olszewski, is also related to the previously mentioned issues. This part of the book deals with matters of the undesirable impact of cyber-physical systems on the safety of the international environment. According to Olszewski, their hybrid (digital-material) character causes that they affect not only the logical aspect of cyberspace but also the physical one. They enable destabilization of the internal structure of countries, what can lead to destructive changes in the wider, international context. They are a multifaceted danger to the broadly understood system of the global security. In the fifth chapter, Marcin Adamczyk has presented a text titled "Cyberspying in Chinese-American relations, in the context of the potential change of the world hegemon". The study is dedicated to the activities of the People's Republic of China in cyberspace, taken to acquire American military and civil technologies. The author claims that China is currently the only country that could challenge the global domination of the United States. However, to obtain the status of the hegemonic state, Beijing would need to build a solid coalition, supporting China on the international arena, but also reduce the economic distance between Beijing and Washington. An author of the next chapter is Kamil Baraniuk, who has prepared a text titled "Outline of the institutional changes in the Russian radio-electronic intelligence". Baraniuk emphasizes that the high level of computerization of societies and the common use of information technologies makes the signal and electromagnetic data a very important source of information for specialized institutions dealing with information collection and processing. In this context the author outlines the genesis and the institutional transformation of the Russian radio-electronic intelligence, as well as the military and civil institutions dealing with this kind of activities over the last decades, analyzing their tasks and personnel changes in their management. The seventh chapter has been written by two authors from Ukraine. Tetiana W. Nagachevskaya and Lyudmila Frliksowa prepared a text "Napryamky formuvannya mizhnarodnoyi konkurentospromozhnosti IT-sector Ukrayiny". This text contains an analysis of the current situation and peculiarities in the shaping of the international competitiveness of the IT sector in Ukraine. Nagachevskaya and Frliksowa have presented the position of the Ukrainian IT sector, considered in the context of the Networked Readiness Index, which measures the tendency of different countries to use the opportunities offered by informational and communicational technology. In addition, they have shown competitive advantages and disadvantages of Ukrainian IT companies on international markets, and directions of growth of the international competitiveness of the IT sector in Ukraine. Next two chapters have been related to religious issues in cyberspace. "Religious and pseudoreligious destructive groups: the challenges of cyberspace" has been written by Wojciech Gajewski, who pays attention to the matter of penetrating of the virtual space by various destructive religious groups. In his opinion, they become increasing dangers not only for individual users of the cyberspace but also for entire social groups. The religious scholar is a supporter of extensive research, educational and even legal activities, that suppose to reduce the negative consequences of the sectarian activity in cyberspace. Next author, Lucjan Klimsza, has presented a text "Philosophical aspects of the Internet in the context of missionary tasks of the Church". Klimsza, who is a Protestant pastor, pays attention to the possibilities that the access to the digital space opens to contemporary Christianity. He clearly states that the current Church must be a multimedia, but not a virtual community, distant from a man and his real existence. The author sees the Internet as a meta-medium enabling the transmission of religious content, which may be helpful in cognition and relationship between man and God, as well as between man and man. Tenth chapter, "Cybersecurity as a construct in the Polish public space", has been written by Przemysław Mikiewicz from a political perspective. The text is a reflection of the presence of the cybersecurity in Polish public space, which has been specified by the author as the opinion-making influence of the central government institutions and political parties. The author indicates that the concept of the cybersecurity is present in the Polish public space in government documents and programs of political parties. According to Mikiewicz, there is a fundamental asymmetry between these two types: government documents pay a lot of attention to cybersecurity, programs of political parties, however, only mention about the issue. Finally, cybersecurity appears as a kind of a construct used to create an image of the modern world, full of immaterial dangers, which might be eliminated only by publication of new doctrines and strategies, created to combat dangers in cyberspace. The political aspect of the cybersecurity issue is present also in the next two texts. An author of the first one is Grzegorz Tokarz, whose section has been titled "The Internet as an instrument to incite violence - an example of Poland". The text introduces activities of the Polish section of this neo- Nazi organization, including the content of its website, which is an important tool, used to promote the ideas of this environment, as well as a source of information about people and institutions considered to be the traitors of the "white race". The second text, which also ends this book, has been prepared by Mariusz Kozerski. In this chapter, titled "Former political scandals from a modern perspective: an example of the Barschel/Pffeifer case", the analyzed issue is the role played by media to publicize political scandals. The author has reviewed incidents that took place in the 1980s, in the German land of Schleswig-Holstein. A significant role in those happenings was played by "Der Spiegel", an opinion-forming weekly magazine. Let's add that Kozerski also tries to answer the question of how that, socalled "Kiel scandal" could look like if it happened today, in the context of the contemporary informational/opinion-forming potential, which characterizes the global computer network.
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Operating squarely within their histories of lack of transparency, Bossier Parish and Bossier City's legislative organs recently tackled controversial legal issues differently, one to the benefit and one to the detriment of the citizenry.
The Police Jury appoints a member to the Cypress Black Bayou Recreation and Water Conservation District, and that current term expires at the end of the month. Held at present by Robert Berry, controversy arose when, two terms back, Berry and his fellow commissioners appointed him also as executive director. This eventually caught the attention of the state's attorney general as a violation of dual officeholding, and after a protracted legal battle this spring the Louisiana Supreme Court instructed lower courts to rule along those lines.
Even so, the district's Board of Commissioners petitioned for Berry's reappointment. Perhaps one reason was, according to public comments made at their meetings, it had become dependent on Berry to make and execute decisions on its behalf, and another maybe being that state law would force Berry if leaving the Board to resign as executive director, as a former member generally of a state board can't be employed by it until two years pass after end of service, so commissioners wanted to keep him in that job.
But that wish simply didn't comport to legal reality. At the meeting, a parade of Berry's and the District's lawyers (it's uncertain to this point how many taxpayer dollars they have burned on trying to fight the state's case, but it's certainly into six figures and probably a tenth or more of all District expenses annually over the last two or three years), other commissioners, his friends, and family spoke about how great of a guy he was and how great of a job he had done and how the decision hadn't actually kicked him out of office, all arguing for reappointment.
However, legal advice rendered by lawyer and area political insider Neil Erwin to the Jury reminded, if not understated, that eventually it was a virtual lock that the judiciary in the future would find Berry in violation. Erwin, rather than the attorney assigned by the district attorney's office to serve as parish attorney, Patrick Jackson, delivered this message, which was unusual in that Jackson rarely misses a meeting and only two weeks earlier had busted a gut to return from the east coast in time to attend that previous meeting, yet was absent for this one.
In early June, the Jury formally had solicited applications for the post, drawing half a dozen applicants for vetting. All but one spoke to the Jury, making the one who didn't conspicuous by his absence – Rodney Madden, a local business owner and 2019 campaign supporter of Republican Juror Philip Rodgers. Although Rogers financed that campaign with mostly his own and some family resources, Madden had made a testimonial video supporting Rodgers. Additionally, Rodgers was one of the public complainers about Berry having too much influence by default over the Board, where he, rather politically guilelessly, said Berry had made certain representations that came as a result of Rodgers' political position that now the Board he accused was trying to renege upon.
Madden, it was asserted, was out of the country on vacation and couldn't appear in person although he sent along a short video segment – filmed by GOP Jury Pres. Doug Rimmer – introducing himself. It would seem odd that somebody who followed the Berry case and felt committed to offer services as a result, understanding importance of letting the Jury publicly vet him, would have scheduled a vacation at the very time he would have known, because of his interest in the appointment, that the appointment would be made. That behavior seems more consistent with someone who hadn't considered the matter until asked relatively close to the opening of the search process to offer his services and who had assurances that to receive serious considerations that jurors didn't need to vet him publicly.
Whether this signaled the fix was in, at least one applicant thought the fix in fact was in. Andy Modica, who actually in past and present has been appointed to several positions in government by the Jury, testified he had been told jurors already have decided upon someone, not him. Rimmer then said he didn't doubt someone had told Modica that, but claimed it was "news" to him who the mysterious slam-dunk appointee was.
Yet there was a slam-dunk appointee, when all was said and done. Rodgers nominated the missing Madden and he received at least seven votes in favor – recall that the Jury, despite having a budget in the hundreds of millions of dollars annually, refuses to set up anything but a rinky-dink cellphone-driven narrowcast Facebook Live transmission system for meetings so it's impossible to tell who or how many votes are cast on measures without actual physical attendance, until the minutes are approved weeks later.
That takes the issue of Berry being the Jury's appointee off the table for fall juror elections – and without the timing of the end of the five-year term happening to be months before the election, without that spotlight Berry might have won a third term leading taxpayers to fork over more dollars to defend his lost cause. Of course, other election issues remain such as having Parish Administrator Butch Ford apparently illegally registered to vote at a place that is not his residence that disqualifies him from holding the job with the Jury's tacit consent and jurors illegally serving on the parish's Library Board of Control.
Still, at least Madden legally may hold the position and has the potential to serve well, making the action a victory for the parish residents, most of whom pay directly or indirectly property taxes to fund the District. Things didn't turn out so well for Bossier City residents in the previous day's meeting of the Bossier City Council.
There, a Council majority followed through on making a formal request to ask for an outside legal opinion on petitioning for a charter change to install term limits, despite the fact that the Charter and state Constitution allow for the process followed, and that the two propositions that limit officeholders to three lifetime terms don't unconstitutionally violate retroactivity prohibitions on criminal or penal laws. It came up as a Council matter as a delaying tactic designed to push farther into the future to a lower-stimulus election date the inevitable election that must be called, which could increase the chances of its defeat.
But even more than that, rhetoric from City Attorney Charles Jacobs and others indicated, arising from questions asked and unasked, beginning with why Jacobs brought the matter in the first place. It certainly wasn't at the behest of Republican Mayor Tommy Chandler, who in the course of discussion made clear he was for term limits and wouldn't impede their adoption. It therefore came from at least one councilor, as the Charter permits that.
More blatantly, as articulated by GOP Councilor Chris Smith, why did the Council have to do something formal about this when, just in the past month, without seeking Council approval, Jacobs had engaged outside counsel on another matter? Jacobs' response never addressed that discrepancy.
However, what it did do was reveal the endgame strategy behind the request that could benefit at least four of the five who voted for the resolution, who with adoption of the proposals all would become ineligible to serve any more terms. Essentially, Jacobs issued a veiled threat, apparently reflecting the thinking of the Council graybeards, by invoking the long-running dispute over the establishment of the city of St. George within East Baton Rouge Parish as what could happen.
Of course, significant differences exist in these two cases, where St. George's centers on a judgment call whether demands in state law were met in the petitioning and election that approved the city's establishment, but Bossier City's term limit proposal is cut-and-dried valid. Still, the idea of launching costly litigation – weaponizing city government at taxpayer expense precisely to attempt thwarting the will of the people – visibly was put on the table.
This scorched earth strategy to save four part-time jobs hopes best case to wear down those backing limits – who may have to retain counsel to sue the city if the Council doesn't approve of term limits in its next meeting or fails to place the matter on the Nov. 18 ballot by Sept. 25 – so that they give up or to delay matters to a lower-stimulus election, and worst case to string things out so much as to buy another term possibility for the graybeards. Regardless, bringing about such litigation would be a selfish, self-interested response by a handful of governing elites that, in attempting so hard to get around the clearly valid rules in place, questions the very fitness of such persons to serve in office.
Es inaudito encontrar un sistema de cualquier tipo basado en computadores en el que el humano no interactúe con él. Incluso aunque se trate de una comunicación exclusivamente entre dos computadores, normalmente se incluye una interfaz que permita solucionar el enlace entre máquinas cuando aparece algún problema [Mulligan et al. 1991]. El usuario, como ser humano, necesita información, lo que se considera una de las pocas constantes en nuestro mundo, independientemente de la cultura a la que pertenezca o en el instante de tiempo en el que transcurra su actividad. Esta necesidad se combina con la ocupación del usuario en otras tareas que requieren su atención, de forma que hay al menos dos focos de atención que compiten por el bien más preciado de cualquier interfaz humano-computador: la atención del usuario. La existencia de diferentes escenarios, en las que el usuario espera resultados diferentes y consecuencias distintas ante la existencia de un error controla la aparición de distintos tipos de aplicaciones y dispositivos para soportar las demandas del usuario en condiciones de multitarea. En estos sistemas, conocidos como Sistemas de Notificación, las interfaces están diseñadas como un medio para acceder a información valiosa para el usuario de una forma efectiva y eficiente sin introducir interrupciones no deseadas en la ejecución de la tarea principal. Pueden encontrarse numerosas implementaciones de Sistemas de Notificación en una gran variedad de plataformas. Quizás en los sistemas de sobremesa son más fácilmente identificables: servicios de mensajería instantánea, aplicaciones que muestran el estado de un sistema, servicios de noticias e indicadores de cantidades almacenadas. Otros ejemplos familiares pueden encontrarse en procesos industriales y tecnológicos como la cadena danzante de Weiser como representación del tráfico de una red [Weiser y Brown 1996], los sistemas de información embarcados en vehículos, los sistemas incorporados en los vehículos para proporcionar información de los sistemas, los sistemas que proporcionan información sobre el entorno, los sistemas multi-monitor que indican los excesos de rango de un sistema y las cabinas de los aviones modernos. De otro lado, un sistema se considera crítico cuando un único fallo debido al sistema, al usuario o al modo en el que el usuario realiza las tareas para las que el sistema se diseñó, puede producir daños graves en el sistema, en su entorno o, aún más grave, en los usuarios del sistema. Ejemplos de este tipo de sistemas pueden encontrarse en los aviones, correspondiéndose con sistemas manejados por usuarios muy especializados. Genéricamente hablando, la evaluación de usabilidad incluye un amplio rango de métodos y técnicas usados por los evaluadores para evaluar, cualitativa o cuantitativamente, distintos aspectos relacionados con la usabilidad. Como soporte al diseño, la evaluación debe permitir, en primer lugar, la verificación de las decisiones de diseño y en segundo lugar elegir entre varias alternativas. Aunque se le conceda gran importancia, la evaluación de cualquier sistema está poco implantada como un proceso más en el ciclo de vida de un producto, ya que se suele considerar un proceso costoso, en tiempo y recursos, y que no añade ningún valor al producto. La evaluación de la interfaz humano-computador permite la comparación de distintas alternativas de diseño de sistemas y, en último lugar, determinar qué sistema es mejor. Por tanto, la evaluación debe proporcionar medidas cuantitativas para determinar la usabilidad de una interfaz y comparar dos interfaces distintas de forma objetiva. Aunque los usuarios de computadores están habituados al uso de Sistemas de Notificación, su evaluación está limitada a probar el valor intrínseco de paradigmas aislados de diseño basados en una única implementación. La evaluación de usabilidad de los Sistemas de Notificación está muy poco desarrollada en las interfaces de propósito general y, particularmente, en las interfaces de los sistemas críticos. Las únicas experiencias disponibles están basadas en datos empíricos reducidos en entornos simulados y en el seguimiento de ciertas guías de diseño probadas por la experiencia. Están guías proceden de aplicaciones militares y, aunque pueden ser cuestionadas desde el punto de vista de la ciencias cognitivas, están ampliamente aceptadas en el diseño de interfaces para Sistemas de Notificación críticos. Los diseñadores de estos sistemas pueden, razonablemente, rechazarlas basándose en su experiencia y en su juicio. Si no existe una evaluación cuantitativa basada en modelos cognitivos entonces el evaluador no puede ser capaz de determinar científicamente los errores en la interfaz. De hecho, puede llegarse a la situación sin salida en la que se enfrenten el juicio y el conocimiento del diseñador con los del evaluador. Esta situación puede resolverse con un marco de evaluación que proporcione datos cuantitativos que muestren si una alternativa de diseño es mejor que otra, basado en principios objetivos. El diseño y la evaluación de las interfaces humano-computador han evolucionado mucho más rápidamente que las teorías basadas en la psicología y la ciencia cognitiva y aún existen un gran número de problemas por resolver. Así, el diseño de interfaces ha evolucionado desde los editores de líneas y aplicaciones a medida con interfaces muy reducidas basadas en crípticos comandos de línea hasta las interfaces WIMP (Windows-Icons-Menus-Pointers), los sistemas de recuperación de la información, los agentes inteligentes, los servidores CSCW (Cooperative and Shared Computer Works), los entornos virtuales, la realidad aumentada, los bits tangibles, la computación ubicua, la web y los múltiples tipos de interfaces capaces de hablar y mostrar emociones. Mientras tanto, la evaluación de la usabilidad ha evolucionado basada principalmente en heurísticas y en la evaluación empírica [Nielsen 1993; Dix et al. 2.003]. La evaluación basada en la teoría ha sido considerada de un valor muy limitado [Landauer 1987] debido a su reducido ámbito de aplicación, aplicable únicamente a características propias de una interfaz y con una capacidad muy reducida para ser aplicada en otros diseños del mundo real, alejado de los laboratorios. Aunque se están realizando grandes esfuerzos para desarrollar teorías que cubran un amplio rango de tópicos, la mayor parte de ellas son solamente ajustes para explicar aplicaciones del día a día [Rudisill et al. 1996]. Actualmente la medida de prestaciones no se realiza frente a requisitos específicos previos al diseño. Es notable la ausencia de este tipo de requisitos en el ciclo de vida para el desarrollo de una interfaz humano-computador. En estos casos, se puede introducir un conjunto de parámetros críticos que permita definir las unidades de medida [Newman et al. 2000]. Estos parámetros son críticos porque el éxito o el fracaso del diseño dependen de forma crítica del cumplimiento de los objetivos fijados para estos parámetros. Los parámetros críticos permiten formalizar un espacio de diseño en el que se re-usa el conocimiento [Cheward et al. 2004], expresando los problemas asociados a una interfaz con un lenguaje consistente y que permite a los expertos expresar juicios a través de una 'evaluación medida' [Caroll et al. 1992]. El principal objetivo de esta tesis es desarrollar un marco de evaluación predictiva para Sistemas de Notificación en Aviónica (SNA) basado en las teorías cognitivas, que pueda proporcionar datos cualitativos y cuantitativos que permita a los diseñadores y evaluadores de interfaces averiguar si la interfaz sea usable antes de construirlo. De este modo, el diseñador de interfaces puede ser capaz de introducir la evaluación como patrones de diseño de la interfaz humano-computador sin requerir recursos adicionales. En esta tesis, la aproximación a la evaluación de la interfaz humano-computador de los Sistemas de Notificación para sistemas críticos en aviónica se propone en varios pasos. En primer lugar se establecen un conjunto de parámetros críticos basado en los modelos psicológicos, para después, realizar una evaluación predictiva de la usabilidad basada en la cuantificación de estos parámetros y, finalmente, aplicar de forma incremental las guías de diseño basándose en una estrategia de escenarios. Esta aproximación permitirá una evaluación sistemática garantizando, por un lado, centrarse en el diseño en términos de objetivos cuantificables, independientemente del evaluador y del usuario y, por otro lado, mejorar de forma continua y agregativa los diseños específicos aplicables a un problema determinado. En esta tesis, la principal contribución es la formalización matemática de cada uno de los parámetros críticos seleccionados para llevar a cabo la evaluación de usabilidad de las interfaces de Sistemas de Notificación integrados en sistemas críticos. El objetivo de esta tesis es conseguir una función de evaluación Ф, tal que aplicada a la interfaz del sistema de notificación permita obtener datos numéricos en el dominio de los números reales. Formalmente, el objetivo es obtener ℜΦ∃∀a)(/IIφ Donde I es la interfaz del sistema de notificación y Ф es la función de evaluación de la usabilidad que produce como resultado un número real. Para evaluar la validez de este marco de evaluación es aplicado a la interfaz de la planta de potencia de dos aviones modernos y a la interfaz de control de la planta de potencia de un avión de transporte militar. La aplicación de este marco de evaluación está basada en la ejecución de tests automáticos implementados en Ada95 aplicados a una caracterización XML de las interfaces. ____________________________________________ ; It's unheard-of to find any system of any kind, whether critical or not, based on computer with no human interaction. Even though it will be a system related with the communication between two computers it is mostly used to find an interface allowing to solve any problem related with the link between computers [Mulligan et al. 1991]. The user of a computer interface, as any human being, needs information, which is considered one of the few constants in our every day world, whatever his culture or activity. This need plays together with other tasks the user has to perform in such a way that there are at least two systems competing for the most appraised resource at any human-computer interface: the user attention. Different usage situations, expectations, and error consequences govern the growing breed of applications and devices being introduced to support multitasking information demands. Referred to as notification systems, these interfaces are generally desired as a means to access valued information in an efficient and effective manner without introducing unwanted interruption to a primary task. They can be found in many implementation forms and on a variety of platforms. Perhaps classic desktop systems are the most readily identifiable—instant messengers, status programs, and news and stock tickers. Other familiar examples such as Weiser's dangling string representation of network, in-vehicle information systems, ambient media, multi-monitor displays hint at the potential range of systems and modern aircraft cockpit. While use of these systems and the range of solutions have skyrocketed, our ability to scientifically recognize, pattern, and improve success within the HCI community has not kept pace. There are surprisingly few efforts in the literature that effectively evaluate usability of the information and interaction design for notification systems. On the other hand, a system will be considered as critic when a sole failure due to the system, the user, or the way the user executes the tasks that the system is designed for could produce serious damage to the system itself, in its surrounds or even tragic damage to the user. Examples of this kind of system can be found on many aircrafts corresponding to critical systems handled by very specialized users. Generically usability evaluation includes a spread set of methods and techniques used by evaluators for examining, qualitatively or quantitatively, several aspects related with usability. As support to the design, evaluation will allow firstly verification of design decisions and secondly to choose among possible alternatives. Although evaluation is recognized as very valuable it is rarely introduced in the design cycle of a product and it is deemed as very hard in terms of time and resources and what is worse is that it does not add any value to the product. Human-computer interface evaluation permits the comparison of different systems and ultimately to determine which system is better. Therefore evaluation shall provide direct measurement units to determine the interface usability and to compare two interfaces objectively. Even though computer users are extensively used for notification systems their evaluation is limited to probe the intrinsic value of some isolated paradigms of design based in a single implementation. The evaluation of notification systems is poorly developed on interfaces for systems in general and extremely rare in critical systems. The only available experiences are based on empirical data on simulated environments and the follow-up of some guidebooks probed by the experience. Those guidebooks come from military applications and even they can be questioned from the cognitive science point of view. These guidebooks are mostly accepted on interface user design for notification critical systems. The designer of these interfaces can justifiably reject them based on his experience and judgement. If there is no quantitative evaluation based on cognitive models then the evaluator will never be able to scientifically determine the errors in the interface. A situation can be reached with no way out, with the designer and the evaluator set against each other with conflicting needs. This situation can be resolved with an evaluation framework, which provides quantitative data showing whether one design is better than the other based on objective principles. Design and evaluation of human-computer interfaces have evolved much faster than theories based on psychology and cognitive science and still there are a number of issues that remain unresolved. The design has evolved since line editors and customized application with interfaces reduced to very cryptic line commands up to interfaces WIMP (Windows-Icons-Menus-Pointers), information recovery systems, smart agents, CSCW (Cooperative and Shared Computer Works) servers, virtual environments, augmented reality, tangible bits, ubiquitous computation, the web and many types of interfaces able to talk and show emotions. Usability evaluation has evolved based only on heuristics and empirical evaluation [Nielsen 1993; Dix et al. 2.003]. Evaluation based on theory has been considered as being of very limited value [Landauer 1987] due to the fact that it has a very limited scope and application areas, applicable only to local features of an interface and with a very reduced capacity to be re-used on other designs in the real world, far away from laboratories. Although a big effort is paid for developing theories covering a wide set of topics most of them are only adjustments so as to explain every day applications. Currently, the performance measurements are not done against specific requirements prior to design. It is notable that there is an absence of this kind of requirements in a human-computer interface development life cycle. In case of absence of performance requirements a set of critical parameters could be introduced in order to define measurement units [Newman et al. 2000]. These parameters are so called critical because the success or failure of a design will depend critically whether the fixed objectives are fulfilled or not. Critical parameters allow formalising a design space [Cheward et al. 2004] which allocates acknowledge re-use, expressing interface problems with a consistent language and let experts to express judgements through a mediated evaluation [Caroll et al. 1992]. The main objective of this thesis is to develop a framework of predictive evaluation for notification system on avionics (NSA) (from aviation electronics) based on cognitive theories which can bring both quantitative and qualitative data which allow interface designers and evaluators to guess whether the system will be usable before it is built. The interface designer will be able to include evaluation on the Human-Computer Interface pattern design without adding any additional resources. In this thesis the approach to usability evaluation for the design of Human-Computer Interface of notification systems for critical design in avionics is proposed in several steps. Firstly to establish the set of critical parameters based on psychological models, then to carry out a predictive usability evaluation based on the quantification of these parameters and finally to apply in an incremental way the design guidelines based on a scenario strategy. This approach will allow a systematic evaluation, achieving on one side to focalize the design in term of quantifiable objectives independently of the evaluator and the user and, on other side improving in a continuous and aggregative way the different designs applicable on a specific problem. In this thesis, the main contribution is a mathematical formalization of each critical parameter for carrying out quantitative usability evaluation on interfaces for notification systems integrated on critical system. The objective is to reach an evaluation function Ф in such a way that applied to the interface of a notification system I it will permit to get quantitative data on the real numbers domain. Formally the objective is to obtain ℜΦ∃∀a)(/IIφ Where I is the interface of the notification system and Ф is the usability evaluation function which produce a real number. To evaluate the validity of this framework it will be applied to two power plant control interfaces of modern aircrafts and to a power plant control interface to be implemented in a military transport aircraft. The application of this framework is based on the execution of automatic test implemented on Ada95 applied to a XML characterization for the interfaces.
Density or Intensity?There is much debate about how to measure density – dwellings per hectare, bedrooms per hectare or people per hectare; including or excluding major highways, parks and open spaces; the permanent population only or the transient one too?While this gives urban planners something to disagree about it risks missing the point: great urban places are not created by density; they are created by intensity.And the difference matters. When people describe the buzz of a marketplace they do not say, "Wow - it was so dense!". They are much more likely to say how intense it was. Density is a word used by planners. Intensity is a word that real people use, and perhaps because it describes the outcomes that people experience rather than the inputs that have gone in to creating them. It is the outcomes that are ultimately more important. But planning professionals like density. Even though density fails to capture the essence of what it feels like to be somewhere, the term appeals to professional instincts. It describes the raw ingredients that planners have to handle and, once you choose which version of the formula you are going to use, density is easy to measure. It involves a simple calculation of straightforward urban quantities such as the number of people, the number of houses or the number of bedrooms, all divided by the geographic area over which those ingredients occur. Easy.In contrast, intensity seems more difficult to pin down, not least because it appears to have a subjectively emotional dimension; it speaks of feelings, of responses, of stimuli, and this raises problems about how it can be effectively measured. But intensity is also a response to context, to place and above all to people - and here we can find clues to its measurement.Observing IntensitySo what are the factors that people are responding to when they instinctively feel the intensity of a great place? For a start, they can not be calculating a planner's measure of urban density because, even if they were so minded, they could not possibly know about populations and geographic areas when they are walking along a street or sitting at a café table on a public space.What people can respond to though is what is happening around them in the public realm: they can see how many other people there are, and they can see what these people are up to. In other words, intensity is obvious, immediate and instinctively calculable to the person in the street: not only the mobile population of walkers, drivers and cyclists but also the immobile population of sitters, leaners and pausers. Intensity has a static as well as a kinetic dimension. Indeed the stationary people are the essential ingredient of intensity. They are the people who have chosen to be there, to add to the place through their semi-permanence and not simply to pass through on the way to somewhere else. Intensity is not therefore about the population density of an area but the population that is participating in the public realm of an area. And this should be obvious. And everyday. But any attempt to emphasise the benefits of static participation runs counter to the mindset of the traffic engineer and counter to the still-persuasive, kinetic legacy of Le Corbusier, who described "grinding gears and burning gasoline" as the pleasurable objectives of the Plan Voisin.Nevertheless, intense places are sticky places and especially so when people are not only co-present in space but when they are also interacting: talking to each other, sharing thoughts, ideas, opinions. This is the essence of intensity; there is an exchange - a transaction – be it economic, social, cultural, intellectual, factual or simply facile. It is the daily public life of every thriving village, town and city. It is so apparently unremarkable as to go unnoticed, unobserved and unmeasured. Until it is not there. And that is when you feel it most clearly.A number of years ago my colleagues at Space Syntax were working on a sample of towns across the UK, some historic and some new. The towns had similar residential populations and similar retail floorspace provisions across similar geographical areas; in other words, similar densities. But what the team had also done was to count the numbers of people using the centres of each town: how many were walking and sitting in public space. They had counted over several days, from morning until evening. What they found was that the historic towns consistently had many more people using their centres than the new ones - and they knew from other evidence that the historic towns had stronger economic performances. Here then were places with similar urban densities but different intensities of human activity.What seemed to explain the differences between historic and new towns were first, the spatial layout and second, the street design of each place. The historic towns were laid out around radial streets that were designed to carry cars as well as vehicles and which met at the centre of the town in a public space. Behind these radial streets were more or less continuously connected grids of residential streets, interrupted by the occasional large open space. Both cars and pedestrians could use the residential streets, while the open spaces were generally for pedestrians only. There was some limited pedestrianisation in the very centre of each town.In contrast, the new towns often had separate street networks for vehicles and pedestrians, no high street or central public space and usually one or two enclosed shopping malls. Their central areas were typically pedestrianised and spatially separated from the surrounding residential areas by a vehicle-only ring road; these residential areas were separated from each other by large swathes of open space.To summarise, the key differences were first in the intensity of the human experience and second in the design of the street network. Intensity, it seems, is facilitated by an alignment of physical and spatial factors: having the movement-sensitive land uses on sufficiently well-connected streets that are, in the main, shared by vehicles and pedestrians.Measuring IntensityImportantly, both the amount of human activity and the degree of street connectivity are measurable commodities – if you know how. This is the professional specialism of my practice, Space Syntax, and it has two key parts: one part that takes place in the studio, using purpose-designed software that measures the amount of connectivity in street grids and the other part that happens on site using some form of counting device. This device may be a camera strapped to a lamp post or, in recent years, a drone flight. Or it may simply be a set of human eyes, a pencil and a notepad. Onto these 'foundational' datasets are added other information, which might be about air quality, land value, crime rates or health outcomes. Statistical software is employed to explore relations between the datasets: how is health or wealth or educational achievement related to spatial connectivity or isolation? The product of this process is an Integrated Urban Model: a quantitative record of urban form and urban performance. A Geographical Information System is used to hold the datasets in one place and a basic form of artificial intelligence is run to explore the links between the data.However it is possible to create a primitive version of a data platform using only PowerPoint and Excel. After all, Space Syntax began its work before the Macintosh, before colour screens, before the internet, before CAD, before GIS and long before BIM. Its observations of pedestrian movements around Trafalgar Square were done with pen and paper, the results coded manually into a simple drawing programme.What matters today is what mattered then: to bring data to life using maps and colours rather than spreadsheets and charts. To make it accessible to the audiences that will be making judgments about the future of places: investors, planning officers, politicians and local communities. Measures of intensity therefore need to speak to multiple audiences and not least to the design community, into whose creative hands is entrusted the responsibility for shaping the aspirations of stakeholders. An Integrated Urban Model must be nimble, capable of responding again and again to the short and intensive programme of a rapid design process. Beware the Smart City "Control Room" stuffed with technicians; eintegratedmbrace instead a portable platform that can respond to the timescale of a creative whim.Creating a Profession of "Urban Intensity Surveyors"So why do we not measure towns and cities in such a systematic way? Why is there not a profession of urban intensity surveyors? And a culture among architects and urban planners of designing for intense human interactions?The problems start when the responsibility for thinking about cities, streets and public spaces moves from the individual enjoying the buzz of the boulevard to the collective of professional institutes charged with creating place. Density prevails over intensity and we revert to simplifications. Assumptions are made - incorrectly as we have seen - that the quality of street life will be in direct proportion to the density of people in an area. That if we have more people then the streets will be busier and the busier the streets, the better the place. But then the counter view is quite reasonably made that people need quiet streets and so densities should not be too high. And a compromise is eventually reached for neither super high nor super low densities; neither towns that are too big nor too small. And if we need big towns then they should be broken up into manageable parcels. Since we want pedestrians then we should pedestrianise.We end up with an urbanism of averages and a morphology of enclaves through an approach that is much too simplistic to ever create great place. It is not born of science and it does not reflect human experience: people know instinctively that you can turn off the busiest street in the city and immediately find yourself on a lane that is one of the quietest; that the intensity of the urban experience can transform itself in seconds. This is one of the great joys of exploring great cities: they are not pervasively busy; they are intensely quiet as well. They have a foreground grid of busy streets and a background grid of quiet ones. If we can systematically measure urban intensity then we will understand how towns and cities work in ways that will transform practice. And by transforming practice we will transform place.The Future for IntensityThe professions will be unwise to avoid the opportunities presented by technology. Both the technologies of data capture, visualisation and analysis as well as the technologies that are affecting human behaviours: broadband, social media, augmented reality (AR) and artificial intelligence (AI). Human activity is becoming ever more intense and this gives us another reason to systematically measure urban intensity. People are walking more slowly, ensconced in virtual worlds at the same time as participating in physical space; seeing their surroundings augmented with pop-up information. The trend will continue as AR on our smartphones becomes AR on our spectacles. As well as talking to each other we will be talking to objects on display in shops, to screens in buildings and on streets, and to ourselves – our digital twin may appear as an avatar walking alongside us in our peripheral vision or in front of us when trying on clothes for us. This intensity of communication can already be seen in early adopting countries, especially China, and it may seem strange at first. But there was a time, not long ago, when it seemed strangely ostentatious to put down a mobile phone on a table in a public place.The brain has a finite processing capacity and so what goes into handling increased visual information will have to be taken away from the control of bodily function. People may therefore adapt to the amplified intensity of visual stimuli by moving ever more slowly. We will need more space for these intense activities and the obvious place is the street, where we will need more space for people. Road space will have to narrow and footways will have to widen. We will need more places to sit and lean - to be sticky.And this presents a choice for designers: continue to disagree about the best way to measure density or embrace intensity and anticipate the radical transformation of place.
Dottorato di ricerca in Economia e territorio ; Il cambiamento tecnologico comporta una "rimodellatura" e, a volte, un vero e proprio rovesciamento dell'ordine esistente all'interno delle organizzazioni produttive. La conoscenza generata dall'innovazione tecnologica, per essere "assorbita", necessita di un corredo di pratiche organizzative adeguate: per tale ragione è sempre più stretto il processo co-evolutivo tra sviluppo tecnologico e cambiamento organizzativo. Il coordinamento e la gestione delle sinergie e dei feedbacks tra diversi aspetti dell'attività innovativa diventa una specifica linea d'azione strategica per le imprese al fine di ottenere performances economiche superiori. La stretta complementarità tra investimenti in beni tangibili (nuove tecnologie) e intangibili (struttura organizzativa), da cui scaturisce una maggiore crescita della produttività, è il fulcro del nuovo approccio a queste tematiche. L'ipotesi di complementarità nei processi innovativi assume particolare rilievo con l'avvento delle tecnologie ICT, con la loro natura generalista o aspecifica (general purpose technology), il loro carattere ampiamente pervasivo, e l'esigenza connessa di una prestazione a più alto contenuto cognitivo e relazionale (Breshnahan et al. 2002, Brynjolfsson et al., 2000, Brynjolfsson et al., 2002, Bugamelli e Pagano 2004). La penetrazione di queste tecnologie nel tessuto produttivo favorisce lo sviluppo di diversi input complementari e comporta diverse ondate di innovazioni "secondarie" che creano nuovi prodotti e nuovi processi, dando luogo a periodi più o meno prolungati di aggiustamento strutturale che coinvolgono la riorganizzazione aziendale e l'implementazione delle pratiche del lavoro ad alta performance o High Performance Workplace Practices (Breshanan e Trajtenberg 1995). Quest'ultime si esplicitano in una serie di azioni che hanno nell'empowerment delle risorse umane l'elemento centrale, e che si concretizzano nella riduzione dei livelli gerarchici, nell'assunzione generalizzata di responsabilità, nel coinvolgimento dei lavoratori, nello svolgimento di ruoli attivi, nel lavoro in team, nella polivalenza e nella policompetenza, nei sistemi di valutazione della performance e dei suggerimenti dal basso, e infine nelle buone relazioni industriali. La concettualizzazione dell'organizzazione come un insieme di elementi profondamente eterogenei ma complementari risale a Milgrom e Roberts (1990 e 1995) che, dapprima, ne forniscono una definizione basata sulle proprietà di supermodularità della funzione di redditività dell'impresa, e poi modellano il raggruppamento delle pratiche risultanti dalla complementarità tra innovazioni tecnologiche e cambiamenti organizzativi. Implicita nella definizione di complementarità è l'idea che fare di più in una certa attività non impedisce di fare di più in un'altra, contrariamente alla teoria tradizionale dell'impresa in cui l'ipotesi di rendimenti di scala decrescenti può porre dei vincoli alla possibilità di incremento simultaneo delle variabili di scelta dell'impresa. Le analisi empiriche hanno messo in rilievo come frequentemente innovazioni tecnologiche ed organizzative siano adottate congiuntamente e come entrambe influiscano sulle performances delle imprese (Black e Lynch 2000, Bresnahan, Brynjolfsson e Hitt 2002, Brynjolfsson, Lindbeck e Snower 1996, Malone et al. 1994, Pini 2006, Pini et al. 2010). Nel nostro paese gli studi empirici sulle complementarità tra sfere innovative sono ancora pochi. I principali lavori di natura econometrica realizzati, sulla base di limitati campioni di imprese a livello provinciale, sono attribuibili a Cristini et al. (2003 e 2008), Leoni (2008), Mazzanti et al. (2006), Piva et al. (2005), Pini et al. (2010). Un aspetto poco indagato, anche nei lavori citati, è quello dell'interazione tra tecnologie ICT, cambiamenti organizzativi e pratiche lavorative ad alta performance sulla produttività del lavoro, che è proprio l'argomento specifico che ci siamo proposti di indagare. Preliminarmente abbiamo ricostruito il dibattito teorico ed empirico sul ruolo di driver al fine dell'ottenimento di performances superiori delle tecnologie ICT, dei cambiamenti organizzativi e delle nuove pratiche del lavoro, singolarmente presi. In una seconda fase abbiamo verificato l'esistenza di legami virtuosi tra le tre attività innovative e la produttività del lavoro mettendo in evidenza le complementarità tra le sfere innovative. Per questo abbiamo effettuato un'analisi empirica utilizzando due fonti principali: IX e X indagine sulle imprese manifatturiere del Mediocredito Centrale (ora Capitalia) e la Community Innovation Survey (Cis-4) dell'Istat. Questi ultimi dati sono integrati con quelli di bilancio delle imprese società di capitali attive dal 2001 al 2008, con i caratteri strutturali del Registro delle imprese (Asia), con i dati del commercio estero (Coe), e dell'occupazione (Oros). Seguendo il productivity approach, abbiamo ricercato i legami di complementarità eseguendo, con il software STATA 10, una serie di regressioni multivariate, utilizzando funzioni di produzione aggiustate con le strategie innovative e le loro interazioni. I modelli, stimati con la tecnica dell'Ordinary Least Square (OLS), sono differenti a seconda della tipologia di dati disponibili: con i dati Mediocredito si è stimata una funzione di produzione di tipo Cobb-Douglas, per i dati Cis-4 un stimato un modello a effetti fissi tramite una funzione di produzione di tipo Translog. Se il ricorso alla funzione Cobb-Douglas è ricorrente nella letteratura internazionale, soprattutto per stimare gli effetti delle singole strategie innovative sulla produttività del lavoro (Black e Lynch 2001, 2004, Breshnan et al. 2002, Gera e Gu 2004), l'utilizzo di una funzione Translog, è scelta assolutamente non ricorrente in letteratura per quanto riguarda l'oggetto di analisi. A tal riguardo ci si è ispirati al lavoro di Amess (2003), nel quale vengono valutati gli effetti del management buyouts sull'efficienza di lungo termine delle imprese manifatturiere della Gran Bretagna. Inoltre abbiamo testato la presenza di complementarità attraverso l'analisi delle differenze in termini di performance, suddividendo le imprese in base a diverse combinazioni nell'utilizzo delle strategie innovative. Un aspetto da rilevare è che, le nostre analisi realizzate sul panel integrato Cis-4 utilizzano un campione particolarmente numeroso e rappresentativo della realtà industriale italiana, un fatto, come detto, non frequente negli studi sull'argomento condotti nel nostro Paese. I risultati ottenuti dall'analisi di entrambi i campioni sono in linea con i principali studi empirici italiani (Cristini et al. 2003 e 2008, Mazzanti et al. 2006, Pini 2006, Pini et al. 2010), convalidando ampiamente l'ipotesi di un impatto positivo delle tre strategie innovative sull'aumento delle performances produttive delle imprese, anche se implementate singolarmente in azienda. Per quanto riguarda la verifica di un legame di complementarità tra le tre aree innovative emerge, chiaramente un effetto additivo sul valore aggiunto attraverso l'analisi dei differenziali e seguendo l'approccio sulla supermodularità di Milgrom e Roberts (1990, 1995). L'aspetto più rilevante dei risultati ottenuti è costituito dal fatto che alcune variabili diventano particolarmente significative quando le imprese le adottano simultaneamente: ciò vale in particolare per la formazione e la partnership in R&D. L'attività di formazione è associata positivamente alla presenza di tecnologie ICT e all'innovazione organizzativa, intesa come instaurazione di partnership per la R&D. Inoltre dall'analisi sui dati Mediocredito emerge, in conformità alla teoria skill biased technical change, una propensione a domandare lavoratori in possesso di qualifiche più elevate da parte delle imprese che hanno implementato in maniera significativa cambiamenti tecnologico-organizzativi (Berman, Bound e Griliches1994, Breshnan et al. 2002, Draca, Sadun e Van Reenen 2006). ; Technological development results in a "reshaping" and, sometimes, a complete change within existing productive structures. The knowledge brought about by technological innovations, to be incorporated need a wealth of suitable structural procedures: for this reason the evolution between the technological development and the structural change is getting narrower. The coordination and management of the sinergies and feedbacks among the different aspects of the innovative activity becomes a line of strategic action within the companies to obtain superior economic performances. The strict complementarity between investments in tangible goods (new technologies) and intangibles ones ( organization structure), which brings about a better productivity growth, is the pivot of the new approach to these thematics. The complementarity hypothesis in the innovative processes is particularly important with the advent of the ICT technologies, with their general purpose technology, their widely pervesive characters and the associated requirements of a knowledge at a higher contexct. (Breshnahan et al. 2002, Brynjolfsson et al., 2000, Brynjolfsson et al., 2002, Bugamelli e Pagano 2004). The penetration of these technologies in the productive frame favours the development of the different complementary inputs and allows several flows of "secondary" innovations, which creates new products and processes, bringing more or less long sructural adjustments which include the business reorganization and to carry out work documentation at high performance or High Performance Workplace Practices (Breshanan e Trajtenberg 1995). The latter can be explained in a series of actions which have in the human resources empowerment its central element (unit) and which are reliased with the reduction of the hierarchical levels of employment at general responsibility level, bringing in the employees in active running roles, in working as a team with many duties and competence, in the methods of valuing performance and suggesions from below and lastly in good industial relations. La concettualizzazione dell'organizzazione come un insieme di elementi profondamente eterogenei ma complementari risale a Milgrom e Roberts (1990 e 1995) che, dapprima, ne forniscono una definizione basata sulle proprietà di supermodularità della funzione di redditività dell'impresa, e poi modellano il raggruppamento delle pratiche risultanti dalla complementarità tra innovazioni tecnologiche e cambiamenti organizzativi. Implicita nella definizione di complementarità è l'idea che fare di più in una certa attività non impedisce di fare di più in un'altra, contrariamente alla teoria tradizionale dell'impresa in cui l'ipotesi di rendimenti di scala decrescenti può porre dei vincoli alla possibilità di incremento simultaneo delle variabili di scelta dell'impresa. The notion of the organisation as a collection of elements extremely different, but complementary, goes back to Milgrom and Roberts (1990 e 1995) who, at first, gave a definition based on the properties of modular dimensions of the firm income capacity and then they (the set of elements) put together the resulting documentation due to the complementarity between technological innovations and structural changes. Implicit to the complementariety definition, is the idea that to do more in a certain activity does not exclude to do more in another one; this is to the contrary to the firm traditional theory where the hypothesis of decreasing range efficiency can limit the possible simultaneous increase of the firm variable choices. The empiric analysis have put in evidence that often technological and structural innovetions are taken together and that both influence the firms performances (Black e Lynch 2000, Bresnahan, Brynjolfsson e Hitt 2002, Brynjolfsson, Lindbeck e Snower 1996, Malone et al. 1994, Pini 2006, Pini et al. 2010). In our country the empiric studies on the complementarity within the innovative fields are still few. The major econometric works realised, based on limited samples at provincial level are ascribed to Cristini et al. (2003 e 2008), Leoni (2008), Mazzanti et al. (2006), Piva et al. (2005), Pini et al. (2010). The integration within the ICT technologies, stuctural changes, work habits at high performance on work productivity are aspects investigated insufficiently even on the studies already mentioned. This is the specific subject we propose to examine. At first we have reconstructed the theoric and empiric argument on the driver role aiming to obtain performances better than the the ICT technologies, stuctural developments, work habits, each taken individually. In a second phase we have verified the existence of virtual bonds between the innovative activities and labour productivity putting in evidence the complementariety within the innovative areas. For this reason we carried out an empiric analysis using two main sources: IX and X investigation on manufactury firms of Mediocredito Centrale (now Capitalia) and the Community Innovation Survey (Cis-4) by Istat. These last data are put together with the ones of active plc (public limited companies) balances from 2001 to 2008 with structural characteristics according to Companies Register (Asia), foreign trade data (Coe) and employment (Oros). By following the productivity approach we searched complementarity bonds, achieved with software STATA 10, a range of changeble regressions, using production activities related to innovative strategies and their interactions. The samples, based on the Ordinary Least Square (OLS) technique, are different according to the type of data: available with Mediocredito data, we valued a production function of the Cobb-Douglas type; for the Cis-4 was valued a sample at fixed results using a production function of Tanslog type. If going back to the Cobb-Douglas function appears again in the international literature, especially to value the consequences of single innovative strategies on labour productivity (Black e Lynch 2001, 2004, Breshnan et al. 2002, Gera e Gu 2004), the use of a Translog funtion, is chosen absolutely, without going back to literature when referring to the object of the analysis. From this point of view, we were influenced by Amess' (2003) work, where were valued the results of the management buyouts on the long term efficiency of manifacturing industies in Great Britain. Besides we tested the presence of complementarity by using the analysis of the differences based on performance, by dividing the firms according to their different utilization of innovative strategies. An aspect to take into consideration is that, our analysis carried out on the integrated Cis-4 panel utilise a rather special and large sample which represents the Italian industrial reality, a fact, as already mentioned, not common in the studies undertaken in our Country on this subject. The results obtained from the analysis of both samples are in line with the principal Italian empiric studies (Cristini et al. 2003 e 2008, Mazzanti et al. 2006, Pini 2006, Pini et al. 2010), widely confirming the hipothesys of a positive impact within the three innovative strategies on the companies increase of the producteve performances, even if singularly employed by the business. As regards the examination of a complementarity connection within the three innovative areas, emerges clearly an additive effect on its added value using the analysis of the differentials and approching the super modularity of Milgrom e Roberts (1990, 1995). The most important aspect of these results is that some variables become particularly significative when the firms use them simultaneously: this is particularly valid at educational level and partnership in R&D. The activity at educational level is positively associated to ICT technologies and structural innovetions, understood as the setting up of partnership for R&D. In addition from the analysis of Mediocredito data emerges, according to the skill biased technical change theory, a tendency by the companies, which have made significant techinical-structural changes to look for employees with higher qualification levels (Berman, Bound e Griliches1994, Breshnan et al. 2002, Draca, Sadun e Van Reenen 2006).
Hubo un tiempo que las fronteras de la intimidad estuvieron defendidas por el tiempo y por el espacio. No hace mucho eran, precisamente, el tiempo y la distancia los que mantenían indemne a la intimidad. La sociedad era otra. Los medios de transporte evolucionaron poco a poco. En los últimos años las comunicaciones dieron un salto hacia el futuro de manera asombrosa. Con los avances se despertó, la ambición del ser humano por el conocimiento y la información. Así pues, se reconoció masivamente el valor de la información. Como contrapartida, el derecho a la intimidad se vio afectado y comenzó su defensa. Se desató una lucha enfurecida entre el derecho a la intimidad y la libertad de información. De ahí, en 1890 en los Estados Unidos, Samuel Warren y Louis Brandeis, publican, en la Harvard Law Review, un artículo con el título Right to privacy en el cual defienden la protección de refracciones de la personalidad humana. Esta nueva dimensión merecedora de protección ante los peligros provocados por la masificación de la difusión de informaciones a través de la prensa escrita fue por los autores identificada como el Right to be let alone. La batalla del derecho a la intimidad continuó y continúa hasta hoy a medida que aparecen nuevas técnicas de procesamiento de datos, formas más rápidas, eficaces y económicas de almacenar y transportar el dato con la revolución tecnológica. Los campos de batalla se van reciclando. Hoy, con la sociedad de la información se ha producido una nueva imagen del hombre, definido por Frosini como un 'hombre artificial', para referirse a la dimensión psicológica de un hombre nuevo que vive en un mundo artificial, creado por el propio hombre y no por la naturaleza. Es innegable que esta revolución tecnológica tiene generado profundos cambios en la dinámica de la sociedad actual y en el comportamiento de las personas. Hoy, las nuevas tecnologías de la información y comunicación (en adelante TIC's) forman parte de la sociedad, es mucho más, son ella misma. Esta es la sociedad de la información, la sucesora de la sociedad industrial, con una cultura transnacional, globalizada y conectada en red. Todos estos cambios en la historia de la humanidad siempre exigen una respuesta por parte de los sistemas que los gobiernan. De la misma manera que el sistema jurídico en los que se sustentan debe ser dinámico para acompañar estas mudanzas y cumplir con su función social. Fue exactamente lo que Warren y Brandeis sugerían en el comienzo de su opúsculo cuando expresaban "(…) es un principio tan viejo como el 'common law' que el individuo debe gozar de total protección en su persona y en sus bienes, sin embargo, resulta necesario, de vez en cuando, redefinir con precisión la naturaleza y la extensión de esta protección. Los cambios políticos, sociales y económicos imponen el reconocimiento de nuevos derechos, y el 'common law', en su eterna juventud, evoluciona para dar cabida a las demandas de la sociedad". En la época en la que dichos autores publicaron su artículo, los medios tecnológicos de intrusión en la vida privada era la fotografía sin permiso y la distribución por la prensa. Después de más de un siglo, las denuncias de vulneración a la intimidad se realizan contra otras familias tecnológicas. El Tribunal Constitucional español (en adelante TC), dentro de su amplia jurisprudencia en esta materia, ha ido perfilando diferentes dimensiones dentro de ese derecho de difícil definición, que es la intimidad. Aquéllas que se han dibujado en función de las diferentes amenazas frente a las que se ha de articular la protección de este derecho, no definido constitucionalmente y de doble proyección. Lo ha hecho en todo caso desde una formulación amplia, no en vano el concepto de intimidad como señala la doctrina (más allá de esa referencia clásica al estudio de Warren y Brandeis), es esencialmente abierto, pues '¿Qué relación existe entre las inmisiones de ruidos evitables insoportables en el propio domicilio (STC 119/2001, de 24 de mayo) y las indagaciones o investigaciones sobre partes íntimas del cuerpo (STC 37/1989, de 15 de febrero)? Garantizar al individuo un ámbito reservado de su vida frente a la acción y el conocimiento de los demás es el objeto de este derecho que ahora tratamos. Éste ámbito se protege tanto respecto de los poderes públicos como de los particulares, y se encuentra vinculado de manera inmediata y directa con el respecto de su dignidad como persona, su personalidad, siendo necesario para mantener su calidad mínima de vida humana. Como señaló el TC en su sentencia 20/1992, de 14 de febrero, sin este derecho no sería realizable, ni concebible la existencia de la dignidad que a todos quiere asegurar la norma fundamental. La elección del tema de esta investigación deriva del hecho que la revolución tecnológica ha traído consecuencias importantísimas al mundo del derecho constitucional. Los avances de las últimas décadas han incidido considerablemente en el concepto del derecho a la intimidad, de la misma manera que el uso masivo de las redes sociales son unos de los motores de este cambio. Las fronteras entre lo público y lo privado son cada vez más porosas. Por consiguiente, han aparecido elementos nuevos que nos obligan a realizar nuevas valoraciones sobre las relaciones de las personas entre sí, de éstos con la naturaleza, y de su convivencia con las nuevas tecnologías de la información. Dentro de este contexto, de las tecnologías de información, internet es la gran estrella, razón por la cual, en esta investigación, daremos mayor énfasis a internet y redes sociales. La hipótesis que se traduce es que la incorporación de las nuevas tecnologías de la información (en adelante NTI) en la sociedad actual, ha abierto el debate sobre la necesidad de establecer normas que restrinjan su uso en beneficio de la protección de los derechos fundamentales, como la intimidad. El control electrónico al que nos vemos sometidos produce efectos negativos que inciden de lleno en nuestra vida familiar e intima, porque nos somete, a un 'juicio universal permanente'. La tecnología de la información ha revolucionado la sociedad y sigue provocando cambios. Cambios de hábitos, de necesidades, de prioridades y aun de evaluación de los derechos. Internet presupone una amenaza al derecho a la intimidad. La red no es solo un medio de comunicación, sino que también se configura como un nuevo medio de vigilancia, no solo por parte del Estado sino también por particulares curiosos. Los peligros de este uso masivo de internet, pide a gritos mecanismos de defensa que hagan eficaz la protección horizontal del derecho (Drittwirkung) y no solo frente a las agresiones del poder público. Los riesgos de vulneración del derecho a la intimidad son interminables. Mencionaremos algunos de ellos, por ejemplo, el actual problema con los motores de búsqueda como google, que eternizan la disponibilidad de informaciones en la red. Un verdadero 'atestado de muerte' del derecho al olvido digital. Los sistemas de vigilancia y seguimiento en lugares estratégicos como aeropuertos, centros comerciales, calles etc., enaltecidos sobre todo tras los últimos ataques terroristas en Paris, Bruselas y Niza. Estos dispositivos suministran una gran cantidad de información biográfica y geofísica, representan sin duda una repercusión negativa sobre la intimidad de las personas. Además, solo para tener una idea de este contexto, citamos otros sistemas tecnológicos de seguimiento y vigilancia existentes. Las tabletas y los teléfonos móviles con tecnología 3G y 4G están equipados con GPS (Global Positioning Systems) que permiten la situación exacta de los usuarios a través de satélites. En Estados Unidos, utilizan el sistema de "localización social" denominado Verizon Chaperone para saber dónde se encuentran las personas en cada momento. Junto a los GPS, las cajas negras en los vehículos, que muchos usuarios desconocen que la tienen, están dotados de una tecnología EDRS (Electronic Data Recorders) que recogen y gravan datos como la velocidad, el uso de cinturones, el estado de frenos, aceleración, etc. Una gran mayoría de ciudadanos no tienen conocimiento de otras tecnologías de vigilancia y rastreo como el sistema ANPR (Automatic Number Plate Reconigtion); de la identificación mediante radio frecuencia (RFID, Radio Frecuency Identification), etc. Igualmente, las transacciones que realizamos a través de internet pueden ser vigiladas, sin adentrar en el mundo del google earth, google street view, drones, etc. que invaden cualquier espacio. Como se nota la realidad es asustadora. La convergencia entre las diversas tecnologías de la información y comunicación, parece un fenómeno imparable. La actual realidad está provocando una dificultad creciente para delimitar los medios tradicionales dedicados a la transmisión pública de la información, y los dedicados a la comunicación privada; entre los 'tradicionales' medios audiovisuales y los medios de telecomunicación. Y el problema va más allá, en pleno auge de los reality show, el derecho a la intimidad también está siendo devaluado a través de su comercio, donde la falta de conciencia de las personas alcanza las esferas más intimas. Parece que los tiempos futuros serán aún más controlados, se pronostica una invasión creciente sobre esta parcela íntima del ser humano; "(…) el futuro no estará dominado por un 'Gran Hermano', sino por cientos de pequeños hermanos que constantemente irrumpirán y observarán nuestras vidas". Esto se traducirá "(…) en la captura sistemática de los eventos diarios de nuestras vidas; cada lugar al que viajemos, cada palabra que digamos, cada página que leamos". Junto a estos programas existen otros, que no se diferencian de los reality show, la única diferencia es que en lugar de comerciar su propia intimidad, lo hacen con la intimidad ajena. Los que no son devotos de estos fenómenos televisivos, sufren la imposición de ese tipo de información, sin poder hacer nada al respecto. Hasta los programas de noticias e informativos convencionales han entrado en la dinámica del 'consumo de la intimidad'. Con la excusa del derecho a la información y a la libertad de expresión se está poniendo en peligro el derecho a la intimidad. Es evidente la crisis de este derecho. En la sociedad de la información, la exposición de la vida íntima es cada vez más intensa y cotidiana. Se verifica una deformación progresiva de la noción de intimidad en muchas camadas sociales y no se notan reacciones proporcionales, sobre todo, la generación de los 'nativos digitales'. Vivimos en verdad una redefinición de los contornos del público y del privado. Los 'nativos digitales' crecen con la aceptación de la pérdida del anonimato y de la intimidad, que a nosotros nos parece tan esencial. Adoptan un concepto de dicho derecho completamente distinto de las generaciones anteriores. La gran mayoría de los ciudadanos no son conscientes de las enormes consecuencias, del trasfondo de sus 'actos informáticos cotidianos' y así, cualquier nuevo desarrollo se asume y celebra como un avance, obviando la reflexión crucial de si el derecho a la intimidad cabe en este mundo actual tal y como se ha entendido hasta ahora. No en vano, el directivo de Google, Eric Schmidt, afirma que internet juega en contra del individuo, asevera que "(…) los jóvenes quizás tengan que cambiar su nombre en el futuro para escapar de su antigua actividad online". Los grandes de internet no han dudado en sentenciar la muerte de la privacidad en el mundo online bajo la premisa de que, "(…) si no quieres que algo se sepa, mejor no hacerlo", porque "(…) nosotros tenemos idea de lo que eres, de lo que te importa y de quiénes son tus amigos"; o como afirma Zuckerberg, fundador de facebook, "(…) la Era de la privacidad ha acabado". ¿Están ellos correctos? Ante todos estos hechos, lo que no queda duda, es que, las NTI presentan un potencial sin precedentes para agredir la intimidad. Así, se denota que son interminables las hipótesis que involucran el tema en la misma proporción que las razones que justifican la presente investigación. Este escenario alarmante forma ya parte de nuestra realidad y multiplicará sus manifestaciones en el futuro, salvo que la sociedad arbitre mecanismos que maticen tal intromisión en la esfera individual invirtiendo la tendencia inaugurada por el nefasto principio, "(…) si no tengo nada que esconder, no tengo por qué preocuparme por el respeto de mi privacidad". En el mundo antiguo o pasado era fácil sustraerse de la curiosidad ajena, retirándose a un lugar apartado y no suministrando noticias personales, no existían medios de identificación inmediata, el reconocimiento o la noticia cierta sobre la persona se conseguía a través de medios de comunicación y difusión lentos. Hoy, la realidad es totalmente otra, los datos estadísticos comprueban que, a finales del 2012, en el mundo, alrededor de 2.500 millones de personas estaban en línea (incremento del 10% anual), 241 millones más que el año anterior. La media de acceso en Europa, según esos datos es de 63% y de Norte América 78%. En 2013 se estima que casi el 40% de la población mundial estaba conectada a internet. El porcentaje de personas que utilizan internet en los países desarrollados alcanzó a finales del 2012 el 73,4%. En términos absolutos, casi la mitad de los conectados a internet en el mundo son en Asia Pacífico, siendo 1.133 millones en 2012. En España, en general el acceso ronda el 70% en 2013 unos 19 millones de españoles "viven conectados" a internet y consultan el móvil unas 150 veces al día. El 53,8% de la población se conecta a diario, siendo el 86% de los jóvenes entre 16 a 24 años. Veinticinco millones de españoles acceden a internet, y las redes sociales forman parte de la vida del 64,1% de los usuarios (del 95% de los jóvenes entre 16 a 24 años). Por cuanto a los usos administrativos, el 45% de la ciudadanía interactuó con las Administraciones Públicas a través de internet. En términos comparativos relativos a 2012, los conectados a internet en España son el 67,2% (38.7% en 2006), con 17,5 millones de usuarios de Facebook, ocupando un lugar medio en la Unión Europea frente a países como Holanda (93%) o Noruega (96,9%). Para América Latina, los datos más recientes señalan que un 48% (32,1 % en 2009 y 14,4% en 2006) de la población de América Latina (sin Caribe) están ya conectados a internet. Los datos estadísticos demuestran la utilización masiva del internet en el mundo. Números estos generados a partir de la revolución tecnológica, se puede considerar internet el grande paradigma de esta revolución, sin duda un medio de comunicación de grande relevancia, sin embargo, generador de grandes controversias también. En este estudio se investigará este nuevo entorno que involucra el derecho a la intimidad y cuáles son los efectos que derivan de esta convivencia en dicho derecho. Es sin duda, un tema de innegable actualidad que exige una renovación constante, considerando el imparable desarrollo tecnológico. El estudio es arduo porque el dinamismo de la evolución tecnológica es sorprendente y ocurre en paralelo a la experiencia jurídica exigiendo una doble dedicación porque son distintas ciencias en confluencia, creando situaciones cuya resolución va más allá de sus propios muros, exigiendo del jurista estudios en mundos científicos foráneos. En este sentido, oportunas y estimulantes las palabras del autor ANTONI ROIG cuando asevera que "(…) el jurista debería acercarse sin complejos a esta propuesta multidisciplinar de estudio de las libertades informativas, si de verdad quiere complementar la protección jurídica de derechos fundamentales con el también apasionante mundo de la tecnología (…)". El derecho a la intimidad ya es un clásico en la doctrina constitucional en razón de las innumerables implicaciones que ofrece a lo largo de las evoluciones sociales, justamente por acompañar los cambios de perfil de la sociedad. Desde su primera formulación hace más de cien años, ha adquirido un nuevo y diverso significado tras la aparición de los ordenadores en el campo de la información, ya que este nuevo instrumento es como una prótesis de la inteligencia humana que con su capacidad de memorizar, procesar los datos y repartir informaciones se ha convertido en un 'informante electrónico', un 'cerebro artificial' capaz de controlar, cotejar y entrecruzar los datos recogidos. Es por esta razón que es reconocida en la doctrina la dificultad en la definición de este derecho, a pesar de las diversas tentativas, persiste el problema en delimitar los límites entre lo público y lo privado, entre la esfera privada y la íntima, entre la esfera íntima y la esfera del secreto, así es porque, estos límites son muy difusos y este derecho evoluciona con mucha rapidez, a tal punto, que hoy, se puede observar que raros son los conceptos jurídicos aún conectados a la esencia del ser humano. Las implicaciones de las TIC's en los derechos fundamentales son enormes. Varios son los derechos y principios constitucionales afectados genéricamente por el asombroso desarrollo de todas las nuevas tecnologías. En España, el derecho a la intimidad está expreso en el artículo 18.1 de la Constitución (en adelante CE) y, atendiendo al mandato contenido en el artículo 53.1 CE y, en consonancia con el artículo 81.1 CE, el desarrollo normativo para la protección del derecho a la Intimidad Personal y Familiar ha correspondido a la Ley Orgánica 1/1982 - de 5 de mayo - de Protección Civil del Derecho al Honor, a la Intimidad Personal y Familiar y a la Propia Imagen (en adelante LODHI). En los últimos tiempos, y debido a la necesidad de afrontar estos nuevos riesgos planteados por la tecnología informática, tanto la doctrina como los operadores jurídicos se han visto obligados a replantear el concepto de intimidad. No hay incertidumbre que todo este avance ha producido una mejora sustancial de nuestra democracia, pero también, no hay duda que aportó muchos problemas hasta ahora sin soluciones. Dicho fenómeno, lanza a cada día una multitud de interrogantes que el derecho, por la extrema dinámica casuística, no consigue acompañar y debe responder eficazmente a la sociedad. La metodología utilizada para esta investigación será la teórica doctrinaria y jurisprudencial. Cumple además aclarar que, la distinción entre información y comunicación vendría dada porque la 'información' pretende la libre difusión de datos de todo tipo, y tendencialmente es abierta; la 'comunicación' busca acercar a las personas y facilitar los contactos y la transmisión de todo tipo de mensajes y opiniones entre ellas, de modo que tendería más bien a un contexto más cerrado o privado. No obstante, se ha destacado acertadamente que el aspecto más interesante de las nuevas tecnologías es la convergencia entre la tecnología de las telecomunicaciones, la informática y la radiodifusión, de manera que "(…) en el futuro inmediato ya no tendrá sentido entender el teléfono como algo diferente de la televisión y esta como algo muy distinto de un periódico". Por tanto, cada vez es más difícil, y tiene menos sentido, distinguir entre la información y la comunicación, y ello aboga por una visión amplia y convergente de las nuevas tecnologías. Así subrayamos que, desde esta perspectiva, y a efectos de esta investigación, consideraremos las expresiones 'tecnologías de la información y de la comunicación' – TIC's, 'nuevas tecnologías'- NT y 'nuevas tecnologías de información'- NTI, sinónimos. Este impacto de las NTI sobre el derecho fundamental a la intimidad será el objeto de esta investigación. Así, enfocaremos el estudio en 5 Capítulos, todas ellos orientados por la doctrina, legislación y jurisprudencia, sobre todo del Tribunal Constitucional (en adelante TC) y del Tribunal Europeo de Derechos Humanos (en adelante TEDH). En el Capítulo Primero de la tesis, perseguiremos un conocimiento de forma profundizada de la configuración constitucional del derecho a la intimidad en España, empezando por un estudio de la evolución histórica de dicho derecho (sección I). En la sección II analizaremos el controvertido concepto de intimidad, las tendencias doctrinales y las principales interpretaciones sobre el tema del Tribunal Constitucional. Como el derecho a la intimidad está expreso en el artículo 18.1 CE, juntamente con el derecho al honor y el derecho a la imagen, analizaremos, consonante doctrina y jurisprudencia, si se trata de un único derecho – trifonte, o de tres derechos autónomos (sección II.1). Además cuando hablamos de intimidad percibimos que en la vida cotidiana y hasta mismo en algunas doctrinas se hacen uso de las expresiones "privacidad", "vida privada" e "intimidad" como sinónimos. Así, en la sección II.2 investigaremos si estas expresiones designan la misma realidad. Aún con respeto al análisis del tenor del artículo 18 CE, ahora con referencia a los apartados 2,3 y 4 - la inviolabilidad del domicilio, el secreto de las comunicaciones y la autodeterminación informativa respectivamente, examinaremos en la sección II.3, cual es la dinámica existente entre estos derechos y el derecho a la intimidad. Delineada las interpretaciones del artículo 18 de la CE, partiremos para el estudio exhaustivo de los sujetos titulares del derecho a la intimidad (sección III). Ya que la intimidad es un derecho que tiene un carácter individual, innato, abordaremos en la sección III.1 los rasgos de la titularidad de dicho derecho entre los personajes públicos y famosos. En la sección III.2 detallaremos el ejercicio del derecho por los menores de edad, ya que una afectación de su intimidad se presume ser mucho más grave que para cualquier otro sujeto pues afecta al libre desarrollo de su personalidad. En el contexto de la sección III.3 estudiaremos cómo es ejercido el derecho a la intimidad de una persona fallecida ya que los derechos de la personalidad se extinguen con la muerte. De igual forma se estudiará en las secciones III.4 y III.5 si la persona jurídica y extranjeros son sujetos titulares del derecho a la intimidad en España. Aunque el contenido del derecho a la intimidad sea reconocido en la doctrina especializada y en la jurisprudencia como flotante y flexible, porque, como dicho, este derecho acompaña la evolución de la sociedad, dedicaremos a la sección IV el estudio de los intentos doctrinales en delimitarlo. Entre los varios intentos, investigaremos la célebre doctrina alemana de la Sphärentheorie (la teoría alemana de los círculos concéntricos), la tesis maximalista de Fariñas Matoni, entre otros intentos. En el Capítulo Segundo de esta tesis trataremos de los límites del derecho a la intimidad. Dentro de este contexto, partimos del tenor del art. 10.1 CE, donde se extrae que la dignidad humana es el fundamento de la legitimación del orden político español en su conjunto. Este precepto constituye el principio rector supremo del ordenamiento jurídico, es decir, es el núcleo de todo el sistema de valores constitucionalmente establecido. Si así es, cuando hablamos de 'límites de los derechos fundamentales' debemos, por tanto, traer a un primer plano el tema de la dignidad humana. En efecto, empezaremos en la sección I con el estudio de la dignidad humana como fundamento de los límites de los derechos fundamentales. Analizaremos en esta sección las principales sentencias sobre el asunto. Vencido este tema, abordaremos en la sección II, la inexistencia de derechos absolutos y, consecuentemente el análisis de los límites de los derechos fundamentales. Analizaremos la tipología de límites presentados por variada doctrina. El importantísimo valor que tienen los derechos fundamentales en los sistemas democráticos, hace que su limitación se vea sometida al cumplimiento de ciertas condiciones y que se interpreten siempre de forma restrictiva. En este contexto llegaremos al estudio de 'los límites de los límites' (sección III), donde abordaremos la reserva de ley, el contenido esencial y las garantías normativas frente a las limitaciones. En este punto estudiaremos cómo las limitaciones de los derechos fundamentales deben estar habilitadas (art. 53.1 CE) y cual el tipo de ley exigido en cada circunstancia (art. 81.1 CE), también analizaremos qué debe ser entendido por contenido esencial (sección III.1). No obstante, hay situaciones que no resulta suficiente delimitar el objeto del derecho fundamental y fijar los límites que cabe imponer a éste. Puede suceder que sea necesario definir la intensidad en que estos límites deben ser aplicados, así urge investigar la aplicación del principio de la proporcionalidad como criterio orientador, cuyo estudio desarrollaremos en la sección III.2. Pasaremos a analizar en la sección IV, los límites del derecho a la intimidad propiamente dicho, cuyas restricciones pueden estar en la exacta frontera en que la dignidad y la conveniencia del individuo deben ceder ante las exigencias del bienestar general o de la equidad. Así como todos los derechos fundamentales dicho derecho también es susceptible de limitación, sea en su inevitable articulación con otros derechos fundamentales, como la libertad de información, o en el plan de protección de otros bienes jurídicos, como la seguridad pública, prevención y persecución de delitos. Como el derecho a la intimidad reconocido en el apartado primero del art. 18 de la CE tiene la peculiaridad de recibir una doble mención constitucional: en el art. 18.1 CE, en cuanto derecho substantivo, y en el art. 20.4, como límite de los derechos a una comunicación libre, en la sección V nos dedicaremos a estudiar los derechos a una comunicación libre desde la perspectiva constitucional. En la sección VI pasaremos al estudio de los frecuentes conflictos entre el derecho a la intimidad y la libertad de información y expresión, el juicio de la ponderación como medio de solución de estos conflictos, la posición preferente del derecho a la información y los requisitos de la relevancia y la veracidad de la información como criterio legitimador a la invasión de la intimidad (sección VI.1 y VI.2 respectivamente). Se hará también, un estudio de la Ley Orgánica 1/1982 de 5 de mayo, de protección civil del derecho al honor, la intimidad personal y familiar y a la propia imagen, considerando que dicha Ley Orgánica tipifica las intromisiones al derecho a la intimidad que se consideran legítimas e ilegítimas. Daremos énfasis al artículo 7, apartado 1 y 2 – que se refieren a la forma de obtención de una información; el apartado 3 – que se refiere a la divulgación de una información; y el 4 en el quebrantamiento de confianza (sección VI.3). Pues bien, como la intimidad antes de ser un fenómeno jurídico es un fenómeno social, como dicho, es inevitable que su concepto tenga un reconocido carácter flotante pues acompaña los cambios de la sociedad. Así siendo, en la actualidad, más una vez, a partir del desarrollo tecnológico, el derecho a la intimidad adquiere un nuevo perfil. Las nuevas tecnologías de la información, además de propiciar un irrefutable crecimiento económico sin precedentes en todo el planeta, han permitido la captación y mercantilización de datos personales y que la información circule a escala mundial con una rapidez inconcebible. Hoy, las personas, más que destinatarios de la información, corren el riesgo de convertirse en sus rehenes. Así es porque el acceso a las informaciones disponibles permite la creación de retratos que muestran los principales hábitos y prácticas de una persona (teoría del mosaico de Madrid Conesa), revelando facetas de las cuales el propio individuo muchas veces no es consciente y que pueden ser utilizados para diversos fines. Con esta realidad mundial, conservar el derecho a la intimidad intacto se está tornando muy difícil. Los satélites cada vez más modernos exhiben imágenes que eran inimaginables hasta hace poco tiempo. Dentro de todo este avanzado universo tecnológico, no sólo la prensa, empresas o los órganos públicos, sino que también cualquier persona puede invadir la intimidad ajena sin salir de casa. Algunos hablan de la 'industrialización de la indiscreción' como pauta del comportamiento del Estado, de los órganos de comunicación social y también de los particulares, cuya curiosidad acerca de la vida ajena se manifiesta asombrosa. La sociedad de la información está totalmente inmersa en las nuevas tecnologías, en un hábitat donde estamos en permanente contacto con el mundo, aunque creemos que en la mayoría de las veces el mayor riesgo se encuentra en el usuario que en la propia tecnología en sí. En efecto, cerramos este capítulo con la sección VII donde empezaremos a confrontar el tema del derecho a la intimidad en la Era de la sociedad de la información. Hoy en día, se dice, irónicamente, que gozamos de más intimidad que nuestros antepasados precisamente gracias al anonimato de la vida urbana y los medios tecnológicos. Sin embargo, consideramos que en etapas anteriores al desarrollo tecnológico, el respeto a la vida privada se centraba en el uso de los sentidos, tales como la vista o el oído. Se permanecía así dentro de los límites de relaciones naturales y los muros de una casa, la soledad de un lugar desierto, eran suficientes para asegurar la protección de la intimidad y para excluir el conocimiento o la difusión de las acciones y de las palabras de un individuo o de varias personas unidas entre sí por vínculos confidenciales. En el Capítulo Tercero de la tesis trataremos de las nuevas tecnologías de la información propiamente dichas. Plantearemos como las nuevas tecnologías de la información han supuesto, por una parte, grandes ventajas y por otra parte, perjuicios a los ciudadanos. Como estamos hablando de una nueva ciencia en confluencia con el derecho a la intimidad, urge estudiar algunas nociones básicas relativas a las NTI para entender el modo en el que se van a ver afectados los derechos y libertades constitucionalmente reconocidos (sección I). Fundamental comprender de qué se trata cuando hablamos de un mundo digital, de un mundo analógico o de una información digitalizada. Estos conceptos básicos y otros más desarrollaremos en la sección I.1. De igual importancia es la comprensión de las estructuras, los medios de transmisión y el ancho de banda que estudiaremos en la sección I.2 porque estos conceptos ayudan a entender cuál es el entorno fáctico de los problemas jurídicos. Como ya hicimos hincapié, el tema 'nuevas tecnologías de la información' involucra un universo extenso, así, daremos énfasis a internet, pues es el gran protagonista de las tecnologías de la información y, hoy, internet ha convertido en realidad el 'hogar global', en la medida en que cada domicilio de los usuarios de la red constituye la terminal de un sistema integrado universal. Así, buscaremos en la sección I.3 una necesaria aproximación técnica del 'mundo de internet', verificando conceptos, características y evolución, desde la web 1.0, web 2.0 hasta la web 3.0 (sección I.3.1), Todos estos nuevos sistemas socio-técnico-informáticos no solo han puesto de manifiesto el poder de la innovación informática y los beneficios que aportan, como también han revelado nuevas amenazas y desafíos en materia de protección a la intimidad. De ahí, trataremos en la sección II de este capítulo las medidas tecnológicas que están siendo reclamadas para la protección del derecho a la intimidad como la Privacy Enhancing Tecnologie (PET) y la Privacy by Design (PbD). El Capítulo Cuarto se intitula el derecho a la intimidad en internet y sus límites. Expondremos en la sección I, como cuestiones previas, la difícil tarea que representa la protección de la intimidad frente a esta dimensión global que alcanza una publicación en internet. Todos estos aspectos de la 'revolución llamada internet' será objeto en la sección II. Nadie es indiferente a estos avances tecnológicos de las últimas décadas ni a los cambios que, sobre todo, el internet ha desencadenado en distintos ámbitos de la vida personal y social. Las TIC's han propiciado profundos cambios en las pautas del proceso comunicativo. Se ha producido con el adviento internet una convergencia en los medios de comunicación, generando dificultades en la delimitación de las Tecnologías de Información y Comunicación a través de las que se ejerce en la libertad de información y expresión y las que son aptas para el ejercicio de una comunicación libre, este tema será objeto de estudios en la sección III. En la sección IV estudiaremos el derecho a la intimidad en internet. Analizaremos como este proceso ha producido un progresivo extrañamiento del hombre respecto a la naturaleza, paulatinamente sustituida por un ambiente artificial. Cómo el desarrollo de estas mismas tecnologías ha acarreado nuevos riesgos para los derechos y libertades de los ciudadanos debido a la capacidad de las entidades y personas tanto públicas como privadas, de acumular informaciones personales en formato digital para finalidades muy diversas y no siempre perfectamente identificadas. La pérdida de control sobre estas informaciones puede incidir de manera directa en los derechos y libertades ya que esta capacidad de acumulación de grandes cantidades de datos personales hace posible su alteración, manipulación y transmisión a terceros de manera rápida, lo cual incide en la libertad de elección y decisión de los individuos ante la incertidumbre de si sus comunicaciones, actividades o elecciones serán registradas por entidades desconocidas y para finalidades que igualmente ignoran. Otra pregunta que se hace es que una vez revelada voluntariamente una información en un medio virtual, ¿abarcaría sustentar renuncia al derecho a la intimidad?; ¿dejando desamparado a su titular, víctima de su propio poder de decisión sobre lo que considera íntimo o no?, este análisis lo desarrollaremos en la sección V. Vivimos una nueva Era, en un hábitat donde la comunicación a través de la web y de los dispositivos móviles dio voz al diálogo interactivo. Hoy en día, en cualquier lugar, estamos en permanente contacto con el mundo e igualmente vigilados por el mundo. Internet y las redes sociales de internet, como Facebook, Tuenti, Linkedin, Instagram, etc. afectan de forma directa el derecho a la intimidad. Tan grande su afectación que, sin duda, está provocando un cambio en el concepto 'de lo íntimo'. No es difícil observar, por ejemplo, cuando estamos en un restaurante, a las personas que están a nuestro entorno con sus teléfonos, en total silencio, publicando fotografías de la comida que comen e informando en la red donde están y con quien. En internet, el peligro es invisible. Jamás, como en la sociedad de la información, las personas han estado tan expuestas a ojos extraños en su vida cotidiana. Internet está cada vez más presente en todos los espacios donde se desarrollan actividades humanas, difícil no encontrarla en todos los lugares. Internet permite no sólo nuevas, más fáciles y más sofisticadas formas de comunicación, sino también, y como contrapartida, la posibilidad técnica de que se produzcan más injerencias en las mismas. En efecto, daremos énfasis en el estudio de las redes sociales. Así iniciaremos su estudio en la sección VI intitulada las redes sociales como forma de limitación del derecho a la intimidad. Analizaremos los nuevos retos que enfrenta el derecho a la intimidad con las redes sociales que, como dicho, representan uno de los motores del cambio del concepto de intimidad (sección VI.1). Examinaremos los riesgos que plantean las redes sociales para el derecho a la intimidad (sección VI.1.1). Haremos un análisis normativo y un análisis de la evolución legislativa del derecho a la intimidad personal y familiar (art. 18 CE), haciendo especial hincapié en la protección de este derecho en internet y en los servicios asociados a ésta. Para contar con una visión global de la situación también se analizará el ámbito internacional, comunitario o europeo y el nacional (sección VI.1.2). El marco legal en materia de protección de datos en las redes sociales será objeto de estudios en la sección VI.1.3. Los menores de edad y los incapaces, colectivos especialmente vulnerables en las redes sociales, serán analizados en la sección VI.1.4 y, las medidas empleadas en las redes sociales para protección del derecho a la intimidad, serán estudiadas en la sección VI.1.5 respectivamente. También discutiremos otro supuesto de limitación al derecho a la intimidad, la seguridad pública. Analizaremos como el terrorismo, sobre todo después de los atentados de 11 de septiembre de 2001(en adelante 11-S) en Estados Unidos y los más recientes en Paris, en 13 de noviembre de 2015; en Bruselas, en 22 de marzo de 2016 y, en Niza, en 14 de julio de 2016, reabre la discusión sobre la necesidad de intensos métodos de seguridad (por ejemplo, las amplias medidas de seguridad como cámaras de vigilancia, presencia policial, y registros personales en aeropuertos, estaciones, control de telecomunicaciones, actividades privadas etc.) que puedan implicar un recorte en el derecho a la intimidad. El terrorismo ha desencadenado una exagerada colecta de informaciones personales, la intromisión en la intimidad de los ciudadanos también se consuma por medio de ciberespionaje operada por los sistemas de inteligencia. Hoy, las agencias de inteligencia interceptan comunicaciones realizadas por medio de teléfonos, internet, entre otros. Estos hechos se desprenden diariamente de las noticias en los periódicos, por ejemplo: 'El mundo' – EEUU 'espía' a través de los servidores de Apple, Google o Facebook: "El Gobierno de Barack Obama no sólo tiene información sensible de millones de llamadas telefónicas, también tiene acceso directo a los datos y a los servidores de poderosas empresas de Internet como Google, Facebook o Apple. Una presentación en PowerPoint de la Agencia de Seguridad Nacional (NSA) a la que ha tenido acceso los diarios 'The Guardian' y 'The Washington Post' probaría el control de EEUU sobre el contenido de determinados e-mails, fotografías, vídeos conversaciones de chat o transferencia de archivos.(…)"; - "EEUU vigila de forma 'rutinaria' sitios de noticias, Twitter y redes sociales"; "Un ataque informático expone los correos de centenas de militares británicos"; "El gobierno de Obama espía desde abril las llamadas de millones de ciudadanos", "EE.UU. espió más de 60 millones de llamadas telefónicas en España". Así pues, en la sección VII analizaremos otros supuestos de limitación del derecho a la intimidad beneficiados por el avance de las nuevas tecnologías de la información. En este sentido, discutiremos cómo las nuevas demandas de seguridad pública de la sociedad de la información, con sus avanzados sistemas informáticos, tienen implicado en un recorte en el derecho a la intimidad de sus ciudadanos. Cómo el creciente temor al terrorismo tiene estimulado a la aparición de marcos normativos que restringen o eliminan el derecho a la intimidad (sección VII.1). Dentro de este contexto, la tecnología de la videovigilancia pública es uno de los métodos de seguridad pública cuyo uso indiscriminado tiene preocupado a juristas y activistas de organizaciones no gubernamentales de defensa de las libertades públicas en todo el mundo. En efecto, haremos un análisis de la Ley Orgánica 4/1997 sobre la utilización de videocámaras por las Fuerzas y Cuerpos de Seguridad bajo el prisma del derecho a la intimidad. El Capítulo Quinto lleva el título 'hacia una redefinición del concepto del derecho a la intimidad con el impacto de las nuevas tecnologías de información', donde en la sección I abordaremos el tema la crisis del derecho a la intimidad con esta realidad social que se impone y la perspectiva del incremento futuro de la crisis con el perfil de los nativos digitales. Por ello, la sociedad de la información reclama nuevos derechos. Esta temática será desarrollada en la sección II. Como las TIC's no encuentran entrabes en el tiempo, hacen que los hechos practicados desde hace mucho tiempo, en momentos distantes, y ya olvidados, pueden, ser rescatados por los motores de búsquedas, causando nuevas formas de intromisiones, actuales, y mucho más ruinosas, más allá de aquellos causados en época pretérita. Dentro de este contexto, estudiaremos el derecho al olvido digital como una de las medidas jurídicas discutidas en la actualidad para preservar el derecho a la intimidad en el espacio virtual. Analizaremos una Sentencia de gran repercusión sobre el tema dictada por el Tribunal de Justicia de la Unión Europea (en adelante TJUE) el día 13 de mayo de 2014 (sección II.1). En la sección II.2 abordaremos otro derecho que se presenta en la doctrina especializada como medida jurídica necesaria para garantía de la intimidad. Estamos hablando del derecho al anonimato que es consagrado legalmente en el ámbito de las comunicaciones telefónicas, pero muy discutido en la doctrina en el ámbito de internet como uno de los nuevos derechos fundamentales vinculados a la red. Para algunos autores se ha configurado como el derecho más importante de cuantos se reconocen a los internautas, como reacción frente a la monitorización de las huellas de navegación. Ante estas discusiones doctrinarias, analizaremos el derecho al olvido y el derecho al anonimato como posibles medidas jurídicas protectoras del derecho a la intimidad en el mundo virtual. Comprobada esta realidad, urge una consecuente redefinición del derecho a la intimidad con el impacto de las NTI, que trataremos en la sección III. De esta manera, ancorado en algunos entendimientos ya sedimentados en la doctrina constitucional y conclusiones formuladas en cada sección de este estudio, buscaremos descubrir algunas cuestiones. Entre ellas, destacamos la necesidad de reconceptualización del derecho a la intimidad y de las libertades comunicativas. Sin embargo, para una correcta conclusión a respecto del tema central, imperioso será analizar otras cuestiones como: ¿Está el derecho a la intimidad amenazado a extinción? ¿Los nativos digitales están creando pautas de comunicación en internet que pueden atingir al derecho a la intimidad de todos los demás? ¿Considerando el ejercicio de la propia voluntad en la definición de 'lo intimo', la intimidad hoy ha evolucionado tanto que tiene su ámbito reducido para todos? ¿La seguridad pública puede transformar el derecho a la intimidad en un derecho ficticio? ¿La reglamentación del derecho al olvido digital y del derecho al anonimato es suficiente para asegurar la intimidad en internet? Estos son algunos de los principales aspectos que se pretende desarrollar en este trabajo de investigación. Por fin, presentaremos algunas sugerencias, propuestas y recomendaciones dirigidas a los servicios de redes sociales y usuarios para la protección del derecho a la intimidad (anexo).
Issue 17.4 of the Review for Religious, 1958. ; JULY 15,= 1958, " Unceasing Prayer Venerable Anne de Xainctongb : The General Chapter' ". VOLUME 17 For. Your Information 'J Book Revtews (~uesfions and -~Answe~ Roman Documents about: Religious kit:e ""' ': - :::''~ "> :'~ ': " ~; ¯ Coedu~atlon " °. The Family RI::VIi::W FOR RI:LIGIOUS VOLUME 17 JULY, 1958 NUMnER 4 CONTI::NTS FOR YOUR INFORMAT_ION .193 UNCEASING PRAYER--Edward Hageraann, S.J . 194 OUR CONTRIBUTORS . 200 VENERABLE ANNE DE XAINCTONGE-- Sister Marie Celestine, U.T.S.V . 201 PROFICIENTS~WHO DO NOT PROGRESS-- Hugh Kelly, S.J . 211 THE GENERAL CHAPTER--Joseph F. Gallen, S.J . 223 SOME BOOKS RECEIVED . 231 SURVEY OF ROMAN DOCUMENTS~R. F. smith, S.J . 232 BOOK REVIEWS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS: Editor: Bernard A. Hausmann, S.J. West Baden College West Baden Springs, Indiana . 241~ QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS: 20. Baptism in Another Rite and Subsequent Profession . 250 21. Authority over and Direction of Institutes of Religious Women . " . . . ¯ . 251 22. Duties of the Cardinal Protector . 252 23. Idiomatic Translations of Constitutions . 253 24. Moment of Covering the Ciborium at the Consecration . 253 25. Pausing Before Prayers at the Foot of the Alta'r . 25~4 26. Place of the Sign of the .Cross on the Missal . 254 27. Simple Genuflhction Between Consecration andCommunion,254 28. Interference in External and Internal Government . 255 29. May a Superioress Bless Her Subjects? . 256 REVIE~Y¢" FOR RELIGIOUS, July, 1958, Vol. 17, No. 4. Published bi-monthly by The Queen's Work, 3115 South Grand Blvd., St. Louis 18, Mo. Edited by the Jesuit Fathers of St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas, with ecclesiastical approval~ Second class mail privilege authorized at St. Louis, Mo. Editorial Board: Augustine G. Ellard, S.J.; Gerald Kelly, S.J.; Henry Willmering, S.J. Literary Editor: Robert F. Weiss, S.J. Copyright, 1958, by The Queen's Work. Subscription price in U.S.A. and Canada: 3 dollars a year; 50 cents a copy. Printed in U.S.A. Please send all renewals and new subscriptions to: Review for Religious, 3115 South Grand Boulevard. St. Louis 18, Missouri. For Your Int:ormat:ion Editor's Golden Jubilee FATHER HENRY WILLMERING will celebrate~ the Golden Jubilee of his entrance into the Society of Jesus on July 25, 1958. Father Willmering has been teaching Sacred Scripture to Jesuit seminarians for thirty years. He became a member of our editorial board in 1955. "His fellow editors feel sure that the readers of the REVIEW will join them in congratulating Father Willmering and helping him by their prayers to thank God for the great privilege of spend-ing fifty years in the religious life. Delayed Vocations In the May, 1957, number of REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS (p. 154) we published an announcement at the suggestion of a" priest who was spiritual director to some women who were interested in dedicating their lives to God, but who were ham-pered by the fact that they were older than the age limit for admission in most religic~us communities, ,~ere widows, and so forth. This priest thought it would be very helpful to others, as well as to himself, to know of religious or secular institutes th. at would accept such candidates. Two replies were published in our November, 1957, number (p.342); and a third reply was published in our March, 1958, issue (p. 90). We have recently received a fourth reply from the Daughters of the Paraclete, a group of women who have organized and are taking steps to become a secular institute in the diocese of Little Rock. The Daughters of the Paraclete now have two houses in the diocese of Little Rock. They seek further candidates and realize that these must be obtained from outside the state of Arkansas. Any single Catholic ~voman of good character and good physical and mental health is eligible for entrance. There (Continued on page 210) 193 U, nceasing Prayer Edward I-lagemannr S.J. OUR LORD told us, "We ought always to pray" (Lk. 18:1). His words were echoed by St. Paul when he wrote, "Pray without ceasing" (I Thess. 5~17). Dif-ferent ways of explaining this seemingly impossible behest have often been proposed. I here wish to call to mind .an explanation found in. the ascetical writings of certain French Jesuits from the seventeenth century to the present. What they teach is not, however, original nor exclusively their own. Father Julien 'Hayneuve, S.J., a well-.known spiritual writer around the middle of the seventeenth century, tells us in one of his volumes of meditations that there are three ways of conversing with our Lord: (1) by sanctifying grace, i.e., by being in a state of friendship with Christ; (2) by formal prayer in which we manifest our needs to Him;.and (3) by "this unceasing prayer of which Scripture speaks, that is to say, by a spiritual and divine life that consists a) in doing nothing except by His.spirit, by His orders, fbr His glory, b) in acting not according to the inclinations of nature but confokmably with the inspirations of. grace and according to His maxims, in the same way that He Himself lived on earth and as He desires to live in us, in a word, according to the knowledge He gives us by His lights and interior inspirations" (M~ditations sur la vie de N.S. Jdsus Christ, Vol. I, p. 474). This manner of life we call virtual.prayer. It consists in a complete union of our wills with God, whereby we hearken .to His will expressed not only exteriorly through, the duties of our state of life and the various manifestations of divine providence, but also interiorly tl~rough the movements of grace. It is not an act nor a series of acts but a state, a readi-ness to stop or change what we are d~ing if God wishes it. We are or, at least, we wish to be as responsive to God's will 194 ,I UNCEASING PRAYER expressed through His actual g~aces as a harp to the slightest touch of a master. Father L~once de Grandmaison, s.J., sums it up thus: "Formal prayer differs from virtual in that the latter consists in habitually preferring the will of God ~o our own will . In short, virtual prayer consists in .being docile to. the Holy.Spirit." (We and the Holy Spirit, p. 134) Virtual prayer is, therefore, not a question of intellectual attention, of recollection where the mind is conscious of God, but of habitual, permanent intention directing our wills by God's will, in a word, union of wills. Thus we can be busy,. our minds occupied with intellectual or material work, and yet be praying because we want to do only what God wants us to do and we should cease immediately if we knew He wished us to stop. Father Raoul Plus, S.J'., has practically the same thought when he says: "The state of prayer consists in preserv-ing a pure dntention during the fulfillment of our daily tasks. I cannot have my thoughts occupied with God without inter-ruption. But my will should never be directed towards "any object e~xcept God, ~at any rate as its last end." (How to Pray Always, p. 15) Father Jean Croiset, the spiritual director of St. Margaret Mary, insists on this union of wills: "It is necessary' that while the mind. works, the heart be in. repose and' remain, motionless in its center, which is the will of God, t~rom which it should never separate itself" (The Devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus, p. 87). We might here add in the words of. De Grandmaison why this state of attentiveness to God's will is termed prayer. "It is truly prayer because it unites us to God, makes us docile to His inspirations, and attunes us to His will of good pleasure-" (We and the Holy Spirit, pp. 122-23). According to Father Jean-pierre de Caussade, s.J., who lived in .the first half of the eighteenth century, perfection will consist in this virtual pray~er, "The more we advance the rciore is God pleased to take it 'out of our power, to produce many acts . In all the different changes both interior and exterior 195 ]~DWARD HAGEMANN Review for Religious say always from the depths of your heart, 'My God, I wish what You ,wish, I refuse nothing from Your fatherly hand, I accept all and submit to all.' In this simple act, continued or rather habitual, consists our whole perfection." (Abandon-ment to Divine Providence, Exeter, 1921, pp. 157-58) Jean- Nicholas Grou, the junior of De Caussade by about fifty years, one of the best known Jesuit writers of his time, tells us that the sole object of the interior soul is to glorify God and to love Him. He develops this latter point thus, "To love Him, not by formal acts or by effusions of sensible devotion, but by being effectually and continually devoted to Him, and by entire resignation of her own will to His" (Manual for Interior Souls, p. 93). Grou says that the interior soul is "effectually and continually devoted" to God. This is devotion that St. Thomas defines as "the will to give oneself readily to things concerning the service of God" (II-II, q. 82, a.1)--not just sensible devotion but the deep, substantial devotion of a com-pliant will. In another work Grou devotes a chapter'to virtual prayer. In this chapter, which he entitles "unceasing prayer," he de-scribes this virtual prayer and then gives some examples: "Among the actions that may be regarded as prayer I would include visits of politeness and good manners; I would even include amusing conversations and necessary relaxations of body and mind, provided they be harmless, and carried no further thatx is allowed by Christian pririciples. None of these occupations is incompatible with continual prayer; with the exception of things that are wrong, inexpedient, or useless there is" nothing that the Holy Spirit cannot make His own, nothing that He cannot contrive to sanctify and bring into the realm of prayer." (The School of Jesus Christ, p. 281) As we have said, virtual prayer consists in a readiness to do God's will expressed not only exteriorly but also interiorly through the movements of grace. It is necessary, then, that we be able to discern these movements in our souls. These 196 July, 1958 UNCEASING PRAYER are normally slight illuminations of the intellect and gentle promptings of the will. But are all interior movements prompt-ing to seeming good the work of God? Unfortunately, no. The evil spirit and our fallen nature suggest thoughts that seemingly prompt to good but, as we know from sad experi. ence, result in something bad or less good. We must be experienced, then, in distinguishing between the spirits, between the movements of grace and of nature, so as to accept the former and reject the latter. (See The Imitation of Christ, Bk. III, Chap. 54, "On the Diverse Motions of Nature and Grace.") Father Jean-Joseph Surin, one of the most brilliant Jesuit writers of the first half of the seventeenth century, states that this attention to the movements of grace and nature consti-tutes the interior life (Spiritual Letters, p. 391). In~ this he was but giving the teaching of his famous tertian instructor, Father Louis Lallemant (Spiritual TeachingI 5th Princ., Chap. l,a. 1, sec. 3). : The rule of thumb for distinguishing :~between the move. ments of the spirits, or of nature and grace, is the difference in the immediate effect they have on the soul. In a soul going from good to better the good spirit or grace produces a peace-ful impression like a drop of water falling on a sponge. The bad spirit or nature, on the other hand, produces a slight agita-tion, a slight disturbance like a drop of water falling on a stone. All seemingly good thoughts and desires, then, that cause such an agitation will be rejected as soon as discerned without being examined. As a result, peace of soul will be the climate ir~ which that person lives who is in a state of attentiveness to God's will, who, in a word, practices continual prayer. I say advisedly peace of soul, not peace of mind. Our imagination or emotions may be disturbed violently or we may have trying problems over which to ponder; but all of these are, so to speak, on the surface of the soul. Deep down under all this is peace. De Caussade in his letters of direction is never weary of. insisting on the necessity of peace. For ~example, he writes, 197 EDWARD HAGEMANN Review for Religious '-'The great principle of the interior life is the peace of the s0ul, and it must be preser~,ed with such care that the moment it is attacked all else must be put aside and every effort made to try and regain this holy peace, just as, in an outbreak of fire everything else is neglected to hasten to extinguish the flames'" (Abandonment to Divine Providence, p. 142). In the midst of work and occupations that can take up our complete" attention, we are praying, yes even with the prayer o'f ~petition,' We all have some great personal desires that mean much to us. We' don't have to express them in wbrds. God ~ees them in our' heart. "De Caussade is never tired of repeating St. Augustine's saying that our desires are our prayers (Migne, P:C., 36: 404): our desire to love God, our desire to grow in a certain virtue, our desire for the wel-fare, spiritual or corporal, of someone dearto us, and so forth. A mother ~hosd baby is ill may be busy with chores around the house or have her attention taken up with some pressing problem, but surely we can say that all the time underlying all this activity is her desire for the recov~ery of h~r child. Besides a few big, permanent desires, we all have also many small, transient ones. We can put all these desires, big and small, into the Morning Offering of-the Apostleship of Prayer and then not think of them again during the da.y. They are not dropped Out .of our hearts. Even though we do not forma[ly. repeat these ',petitions, God sees them in our hearts. . Our desires are our,p.rayers. This virtual prayer can be of great comfort to us when we are assailed by temptations. These temptations seize on our imagination and emotion~, and thus influence us physically. While we are thus very conscious of the temptation, we do not, on the other hand, feel the. act of the will or, bdtter still, the state of our will Which is kept turned toward' God. Yet it is in the will not the imagination and' emotions that. our real self is found. De Caussade refers to this again and again, often telling us to go beneath all this agitation in our sense life and 198 July, 1958 UNCEASING PRAYER emotional life and deep down 'rest with our will united with God's or again,, in a somewhat opposite illustration, .to remain above all this agitation like a high mountain whose peak 'is bathed in sunshine but around whose base the" storm clouds lash furiously (Abandonment to Divine Providence, I3. 119). As. this state of will conformed to God's will is our continual prayer, we "are praying, then, even in the midst of the most turbulent temptations. This constant prayer c~in be a source" of consolation when arresting distractions occur during 6urordinary period of for-mal prayer. Who of ~us' has not experienced and does not continue to experience eveky day the wanderings Of the mind that seem at times to make up such a~large pa~t of the time allotted to mental prayer? ~This shbuld not trouble us as long as our will is habituidly directed toward God. As Father de Graridmaison says: "In virtual pray~.r we' call into action the faculty Over which we have the greate.st controli our free Will. Virtual prayer does not "require favorable mental, emotional, or even bodily dispositions . We cannot always think imagine and feel as we would like. But we can always will that God be glorified and that we be obedient to H~m. (We and the Holy Spirit, p. 123) Of course, when these distrac-tions occur, the sooner we recover ourselves and get back to ~formal meditation the better for our mental pr~yer and fgr the growth in motivation that mental prayer gives. But it is consoling to know that in the midst of our distractions our heart has been praying. I am not recommending this practice of virthal player to all indiscriminately. "The Spirit breatheth where he Gill" (Jn. 3:8). 'Some will prefer to make frequent .aipirati~ns during the day or to lift the mind occasionally to God. Well and good. They should follow this attraction. But others will be found who cannot raise the mind to God, particularly when occupied with mental work. Let them, then," not f~el they cannot be praying. The words we havre written will show them 199 EDWARD HAGI~MANN that, as long as their will is united to God's, ready to obey the slightest indication of His holy will, they are in a state of prayer. In one of his letters Father de Caussade gives the following advice: "During the day try to keep yourself united to God, either by frequent aspirations towards Him, or by the simple glance of pure faith; or better still, by a certain calm in the depths of your soul and of your whole being in God, accompanied by a complete detachment from all the exterior objects of this world. God Himself will.show you which of these three ways will best suit you to unite yourself to Him, by the attraction to it, the taste for it, and the facility in the prac-tice of it which He will give you, for this union is in propor-tion to the degree of prayer to which the soul is raised. Each of these states has its special attraction; one must learn to know one's own, and then follow it with simplicity and fidelity, but without anxiety, uneasiness~ or haste; always sweetly and peace-fully as St. Francis of Sales says." (Abandonm.ent to Divine Providence, p. 142). This third method ot: De Caussade is the virtual prayer we h~ave described in this article. OUR CONTRIBUTORS EDWARD HAGEMANN is spiritual director at Alma College, a theologate for Jesuit scholastics, at Los Gatos, California. SISTER MARIE CELESTINE teaches Latin at Notre Dam~ School, 168 West 79th Street, New York 24, New York. HUGH KELLY is instructor of tertians at Rathfarnham-Castle, Rathfarnham~ Dublin, Ireland. JOSEPH F. GALLEN is professor of canon law at kVoodstock Col-lege, W~odstock, Maryland. R.F. SMITH is a member ofthe faculty of St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas. 200 Venerable Anne de Xainc!:onge Sisl:er Marie Celest:ine, U.T.S.V. The story of the founding of the first non-cloistered teaching congregation of sisters. T O EXTEND THE REIGN of Jesus Christ--that is my only ambition--my sublime enterprise." These words of Venerable Anne de Xainctonge echoed the yearn.'ing of her heart for a quest that led her through~ twenty years of suffering and trial and ended in the establishm.ent of th~ first non-cloistered congregation for the education of girls, the Society of St. Ursula of the Blessed Virgifi, on June .16, 1606. The successful completion of that quest was celebrated in 1956, the 350th anniversary year. When the American religious of the Society assisted on June 16 at a solemn pontifical Mass offered by His Excellency, Most Reverend Joseph F. Flannelly, aux. iliary bishbp of New York, in St. Patrick's Cathedral, their joy and gratitude reflected two Of the striking marks of their foundress's life--her joy and gratitude for her vocation. That vocation is best understood by its twofold achievement, the founding of a congregation without enclosure and her con-tribution to education. Her project brought change to religious life as well as to the world of pedagogy. Today it is as natural to see nuns walking along the streets of our large cities or traveling cross-country to spend their holidays in educational conventions as it is to find them taking part in scientific discoveries or teaching Christ in pagan lands. However, such scenes were unknown in the sixteenth century when nun-educators remained in their convents to impart to a small group of fortunate girls the essentials of Christian learning. The revolutionary character of this new idea--a non. cloistered order for women--can be appreciated by recalling the conditions existing in the days of Anne de Xainctonge. 201 SISTER MARIE CELESTINE Review for, Religious Dynamic changes in the field of ideas were keeping Europe in turmoil and coni~usion. The Protestant Revolt had led to the destruction bt~ schools" and colleges. Religious wars, par-ticularly in France, kept Huguenot and Catholic at bitter odds. Science, through Galileo and Kepler, was interesting men in new discoveries. It was a period teeming with new nationalisms, new adventures, and new literary trends. Henry IV, Sir Walter Raleigh, ai~d Montaigne dr~w admiring i~ollowers to their new endeavors. But if the peridd reflected feverish restlessness, it also prodhced: great figures of true serenity, a serenity acquired by th.e grace oi~ God and adherence to truth. In literature, Shakespe,are and Cervantes; in art, Holbein and Tintoretto; in theology, Bella'rmine and Canisitls--these Were but a fe~ who proved the worth ot~ the old "dducational values. Throughout the century the" Church struggled for reform. Her effort~, especially through the Council of Trent, bore fruit." Saints like Teresa of Avila,. Ignatius, and Francis de 'Sales fought for Christ with new ,weapons on new battlefields. It"was the field of education that challenged Anne de Xainctonge. to plan, suffer for, and reach her quest. The disastrous effects of the Reformation on educatiori had caused the Council of Trent to regtore the ancient discipline for ~thd trainii~g of the clergy, to legislate for the instruction of the faithful by preaching and the printed word, to ar'range for Sunday schools and the reopening of parish schools. France, not suffering the same persecutibn as England and Germany, wa.~ active in applying the i:egulations. ~' ~ If these recommendations, were followed, a new vitality would appear in the faithi~ul. In what way could Anne help? How could she extend the reign of Christ? ¯ Her desire.tosave souls became an overwhelming ambition. Developed.by prayer and nurtured by sacrifice, it was a decisive influence in her life --molding the quality of her spiritual growth and pointing .to its outward expression. 202 July, 1958 VENERABLE ANNE DE XAINCTONGE Actually, it was the. work of St; Ignatius, the most bril-liant of the educational leadersl .which most attracted the young girl. It was the. Jesuit .ideal in training youth which gave Anne the inspiration for her new Society. It was her Jesuit dir.ectors, Father de, Villars and Father Gentil, who prepared and tested her soul for' the difficulties ahead. When at last in. 1606 she formed her congregation,¯ it was the Ratio StuJiorum which she made the basis of her educational system, adapting and modifying it to the needs of gi~:ls, while following its broad lines of method and administration. The work of the Jesuits appealed strongly to Anne be-cause she watched their efforts at close range. 'Anne de Xainc-tonge was born in Dijon, France, November 21,'1567, daughter of Jean de Xainctonge, councilor of Parliament, and Lady Marguerite Colard. The child showed such a keen intellect that her father arranged an educational program for her, in-cluding subjects usually studied by boys. He himself became one of her tutors, choosing religion for his course, just as' his neighbor, ' President ~Fremyot, did for his children, among them the future St. Jane Frances de Chantal. While still young, Anne sl~owed herself a born teacher; for, after her lessons with her father, she would go to the servants and teacl~ them what she had just learned. She was 13eg~nmng to extend Christ's reign. A strong desire to do God's will ~aught her enthusias'm, so that even in an illness declared hopeless, but from which she recovered miraculodsly, she preferred God's will to her cure. 'A hunger for. Holy Com-munion and confirmation made her lea; nothing undone until she had succeeded in receiving both sacraments earlier than usual. This love for God and apostolic yearning made the young girl's decisions firm. When presented to society, ~he followed her mother's desires by dressing richly and taking an active part in the social life of the nobility of Dijon. However, she 2O3 SISTER ~ARIE CELESTINE Review for Religious refused to 'consider a proposal of marriage. Just what her vocation was Anne did not know. Neither marriage nor the cloistered life drew her, but a deep yearning to serve God and save souls possessed her. In the meantime, her confessor al-lowed her to teach catechism. However, he demanded that she put aside her fashionable dress while teaching in the churches or instructing the sick in hospitals. Anne felt that the work of the Jesuits was really extending the reign of Christ in the hearts of boys. Their new college, opened in Dijon in 1582, was adjoining her father's estate. Watching from her window or the garden, ,she was impressed by the new methods, ~he good order of the thousand pupils, and the gay recreations supervised by the masters on the playground behind the school. The more she appreciated their progress, the more she contrasted it with the feeble efforts made in the two or three schools for girls in Dijon, where reading, writing, and needlework formed the entire curriculum. If only a work similar to that 0f the Jesuits could be undertaken for girls! Then the light came. It could be undertaken--and she could begin it! At last, God's will seemed clear. She told her director, Father Gentil, that poor girls had been neglected, since "among us, no one has the courage to use her natural talents to glorify God as you are glorifying Him by yours." ~ Anne realized that for the work she envisioned her religious could not be cloistered. They would need to go out, to churches, schools, hospitals--to reach the rich and the poor --as many children as possible. But--an uncloistered order of women? The quest seemed fantastic. The mere thought of such a congregation would shock sixteenth-century France. Again, teaching was a task despised by people of high society; it was a work relegated to widows or ladies in financial distress, who usually knew little more than their pupils. The girls of poor families attended school until they were nine, while the wealthy had to educate their daughters at home or, if fortunate, send them to a cloistered convent as boarders. 204 July, 1958 VENERABLE ANNE DE XAINCTONGE To. Anne, the thought of teaching was not revolting. It was an apostolate! It was not only a challenge, but an inspira-tion, a means of extending the kingdom. But to form a society, she would need companions. Would any of her friends stoop to the humiliating task of instructing children? Anne began to prepare herself for her vocation by serious study, especially of religion. Soon her parents withdrew their promises of help for the work when they learned that God's will was leading Anne to establish it, not in Dijon, but in Dole, then enemy territory under Spanish rule. Her arrival in Dole, November 29, 1596, was welcomed as an answer to prayer by a group of. young ladies with a similar ambition. However, Dole was to exact ten years of suffering and humiliation before Anne could reach her goal. The history of those years shows h~r in the role of public benefactor--a lone figure digging the groundwork of her society. Most of those who had prayed for a leader lost courage in the face of hardships caused by social custom and family prejudice. For Anne herself, difficulties reached the height of persecu-tion as her father inaugurated violent methods of attack to force his daughter's return. Obliged to submit the plan of her congregation to two different courts of prominent and prejudiced theologians, she convinced them that her project for a non-cloistered community was sound, practical, and of divine inspiration. The battle over non-enclosure was won! Ecclesiastical and municipal authorization paved the way for the new foundation; and on June 16, 1606, there came to life. a non-cloistered congregation for the education of girls, the Society of St. Ursula. The work grew rapidly in France, Germany, and Switzerland. A few years after Mother Anne's foundation, St. Francis de Sales had to face the same problem of non-enclosure. When, with St. Jane Frances de Chantali he began the Visitation order in. 1610, it was as a non-cloistered community dedicated to the 2O5 SISTER ~IARIE CELESTINE Review :for Religious sick and poor. However, in 1615 Cardinal de Marquemont of Lyons, who had invited the Visitandines to establish a house in his diocese, urged St. Francis dd Sales to change the status of his congregation to one of strict enclosure. The cardinal feared that the fervor of the. religious would be weakened and that dangers would be encountered by their contact with the world. After resisting at first, the bishop of Geneva in humility finally yielded to the .cardinal's request, seeing in it a sign of God's will in his superiors and a means of spreading the work in this modified form to m, any parts of France. The saint admired Mother Anne's work and in 1608 had gone to Dole to see the schools of the Ursules. In 1621 he wrote to Mother Anne, asking her to establish a house in Thonon, Savoy. In requesting it he wrote: I have always admired, honored, and esteemed the works oi: very great charity which your Society practices, whose growth I have always very affectionately desired, especially in this province of Savoy. Relying on the hope 'which the Fathers of the.Society of Jesus have given me for establishing a house here, I have obtained permission for it from her 'Most Serene Highness. But if I have the pleasure of seeing a branch of the holy tree of Sainte Ursule in this diocese, I shall~ try to make known, by all sorts of proofs, the affection I have for it. That is why I beg you very humbly, my very dear Sister, to contribute to this project all you can, in God, not doubting that it is for the greatest glo~-y of God, the advancement and strengthening of many souls in piety, and finally, a very great consolation for those who come first to take part in this good work . Thus, humbly acceding to the wishes of others, St. Francis de Sales gave up his plan of non-enclosure. Mother Anne in an indomitable spirit of perse.verance worked and suffered for twenty years until she overcame all obstacles to non-enclosure. Her work. stood the test of time. The French Revolution could not annihilate it, nor the" laws of 1901 expelling religious from France. This expulsion brought forth new branches in Italy, .Belgium, and the United States. .The American work began in 1901, ~when Right ~Reverend Monsignor.Joseph H. McMahon invited the sisters to teach in Our Lady of Lourdes Parochial School in New York. Then an .academy was opened 206 July, 1958 VENERABLE ANNE DE XAINCTONGE " in 1912, now the Notre Dame School on West 79th Street; the Academy of St. Ursula, Kingston, New York, was begun in 1925. Two parochial schools, St. Joseph's, Kingston, and St. Augustine's, Providence, are conducted by the religious, who also have charge of the Latin Department in Cathedral High School, New York City. Mother Anne's second achievement was her contribution to education. Basing her system on the'Ratio Studiorum ¯ of-the Jesuits, she insisted on the. training of her teachers, a gentle fiimness in discipline, and an arrangement of classes suited to th~ age and ability of, th~ pupils. Her philosophy of education followed logically from her grasp of the-child's nature, a being composed of body and soul, ~stined for the City of God. The goal must be kept in mind, but the nature of the child must not be forgotten. To make the Incarnation real in the lives of the children was her aim. For her, the very end of education was to imitate Jesus Christ, to form Him in the young. "In working with these little souls, we shall do something very great if we keep our interior glance fixed on Jesus Christ." If her am-bition was to form Christ in the students, it was first-to-train, each of her daughters to be another Christ--that the re.ality of the Incarnation, the living of the Christ-life might radiate to o~thers. Her spiritual counsels speak again and again of the "reign of Christ." "I desire with all my heart, to make Jesus Christ reign and live within me." This aim was reflected in her methodsi which showed 'a humanistic approach. Women were losing their souls for lack of instruction; therefore, moral training was of prime im-p? rtance, while the core-curriculum subject wasreligion. One of the points Mother. Anne stressed .was the exacting of work~ according to the child's ,capacity. Individua! recitations, pupil activity, and self-expression to develop the reason were insisted upon.in all but the lowest classes. This practice, proper .to the new institute in 1606, was considered "one of the great pe~da, 207 SISTER MARIE CELESTINE Review for Religious gogical discoveries of the nineteenth century." Plays and pageants were presented to develop oral expression. In the teacher training program, similar attention is giver~ to the individual. The teacher must try to win each soul: by her gay and open manner, to inspire confidence; by a gentle firmness, to correct and exhort; by a personal spirit of sacrifice and abnegation, to serve others. To serve the whole world and particularly those of our sex, to instruct, console, warn, to give good example everywhere, and to pray always for the conversion or perfection of souls--that is the profession of the Ursules, but on condition that it is carried on without affecta-tion, complacency, or vanity . . . simply, humbly, cordially . Such exterior works sprang from a deep Christ-centered spirituality. Every fiber of Anne's being spent itself to extend Christ's reign. Again and again she exhorts her daughters "to spend themselves for the glory of God and to make Jesus Christ reign." Christ living in the Blessed Sacrament was the center of her life. If her desire as a child was to receive the Blessed Sacrament before the usual age; if, as a religious, she planned her pupils' day to end with a short visit to the Blessed Sacrament; and if her guardian angel walked behind her on Communion days instead of preceding her, it was because her devotion to our Lord in the tabernacle was a solid and practical one. It was so deeply practical that, although in dire need in Dole, she had refused our Lord's offer to live on the Blessed Sacrament alone, lest she cease to be a model of imitation for her daughters. Her motto, "Mihi vivere Christus est--et mori lucrum," was a practical rule of action by which she could' give in gratitude for Holy Communion "heart for heart, life for life, soul for soul." Tkus, by building the child's character on conscidnce and love of God, she hoped, to build it high above the petty disputes and local antagonisms. Human interests must transcend the national. In 1956 the Society opened its first foreign mission in Luena, the Belgian Congo, and boasts three nationalitids, including American, among the four pioneers. Mother Anne 208 July, 1958 VENERABLE ANNE DE XAI~CTON(~E had braved the derision of a class:conscious society to devote herself to the poor and ignorant. Her principle of adaptation to new needs has given her Society a framework within which to develop varied educational works. During Cana Conferences, when parents come to the convent for a day of spiritual refreshment, Mother'Anne's daughters care for their children just as she herself 350 years ago cared for the babies in the vestibule of the church to allow their mothers to assist at Mass in .peace. As she urged her daughters to discuss the problems of the children's education with the parents, so the Society's P.T.A.'s hope to serve the same worthy purpose of informing them of their childen's progress in knowledge and virtue. Besides academies and free schools, orphanages are conducted. In Italy a special program is set up to help servant girls, called "Zites," a work dedicated to St. Zita, patroness of .domestic servants. It is a beautiful continuation of Mother Anne's attention to the servants, first as a child in her own home, and later, on a much larger scale. In the United Stat.es, in addition to academies and sch6ols, catechetical work is also done. In Phoenicia, New York, a religious vacation school is open in the summer to the children of the neighboring ~illages. To this restful spot in the Cat-skills comes a group of children from Casita Maria in New York each .year for a few w~eks of vacation. Thus a sixteenth century educator may be called modern because her principles have a universal appeal' and allow for adaptation. To see the child with his charm and weakness looking up to God--to see God in His infinite fatherly love bending down to the child--is .to see a picture of the educa-tional process in Mother Anne's mind. To help the child reach up with hands and head and heart--to plead .with the Father" to bend lower to lift up the child--that is a picture of the teacher's role in Mother Anne's plan. To carry out ~his plan, 'this quest of saving souls, the Venerable Anne de Xainctorlge established a non-cloistered 209 SISTER MARIE CELESTINE teaching order for the education of girls, the Society of St. Ursula of the Blessed Virgin. She made that Society able and re.ady to meet new needs and new conditions. Charted by .unchanging principles, it can face the challenge of e~ch century on. the path of its unending quest. Last year, its 350th anni-versary, each haember of the Society, whether in Europe, the United States, or Africa, dedicated herself anew to that quest in the words of her venerable foundress, "To extend the reign of Jesus Christ--that is my only ambition--my sublime enterprise." For Your la[ormation (Continued from page 193) is no age limit beyond that of common sense. There are no special financial or educational qualifications. In the apostolate of the Daughters of the Paraclete, there is a place and. a work for all--nurses, teachers, o~ce workers, domestic workers, and so forth. Requests for further information may 'be sent either to: Most Reverend Albert L. Fletcher, D.D., 305 West Second Street, Little Rock, Arkansas; or to: Miss L. A. Manes, Para-. clete House, 802 Center Street, Little Rock, Arkansas. The Catholic Counselor Our attention has recently been called to The °Catholic Counselor, a magazine that has just finished its second year of publication. The purpose of this periodical, ~is describdd on its masthead, is: "To act as an organ of communication for Catholics in the field of guidance. Spdcifically, the staff plans through The Catholic Counselor (1) to develop knowledge and interest in Student' Pdrsonnel Worl~ in Catholic Institutions; (2) to serve as a forum of expression on the mutual problems of Catholics in counseling; (3) to foster the. professional growth of Catholic guidance workers by membership in the A.P.G.A. (Continued on page 222) 210 Prot:icien!:sm Who Do No!: Progress I-lUgh Kelly, S.J. FATHER, I have not been making any advance in my spiritual life for some time past. In fact,' I seem to be going back. I seem to have lost much of that fervor I had in my early days in religious life. I have no longer the sense of God's presence I had formerly, nor the desire to sub; due self and to make progress in prayer and in the interior life. I have made efforts to get back again to my former state of fervor but with pool results. I am much discouraged and do not know what to do." There are few priests with any experience as retreat masters or confessors of religiofis who have not heard such a complaint often. These are complaints which a priest must take seriously as they come from a real anxiety and are a strong appeal for help. What is the truth of that diagnosis? Has progress really stopped? Has there been deterioration? Has the desire of' advance grown slack? It may well be that these questions can be answered in the affirmative and that there l~as been delib-erate infidelity and a slacking in the duties and practices which are the condition of fervor. In that case the problem is easily solved; the religious ha~ but to resume his forme~: fide.lity. At least this is the necessary preliminary step. Whether it is the only step and can remedy the situation will depend on other questions. But let us suppose there has not been conscious, deliberate neglect; and the religious can be fairly certain of this. ~ What, then, is the cause of the state in which he finds himself and which he diagnosed so accurately? There has been a great change. The soul is at a loss, is much discouraged, a~d is sorely in need of help. How is a priest to deal with such a case? 211 HUGH KELLY Review for Relig.ious As a help to a solution let us put the case in professional language!. We can say that the religious in question has passed through the stage of beginners and is well within the ranks of the proficients. The division of souls, seriously living the spiritual life, into beginners, proficients, and perfect is strongly traditional and is natural and easy to" understand. It is based on the different measure of charity which the soul possesses. The first class 'consists of those who possess charity and whose chief concern is to secure it firmly against that which would destroy it, mortal sin. In the next class, the proficients, are those who have consolidated charity in their souls and whose concern is to develop it and integrate it by the addition of the other virtues which it needs for its full growth and flowering. The perfecf are those in whom charity has got its appropriate extension and depth and whose concern is to live a life in which all xhe activity is dominated and controlled by charity. There is scarcely any need to note that within each of these main divisions there ale many minor steps or stages. The division has this advantage that it denotes the two main ideas--that perfection is a movement, a progress with definite stages, and that it is measured by charity. To return now m the definite case we are considering-- we can say that the. religious in question has passed from the stage of beginners to that of proficients. We may say that the early years of religious life are the stage of beginners, that period when the young religious learned to live well the new way of life on which he had entered. The period would be considered to last up to the final profession or to some years: beyond it. At this stage the religious has abundant help and guidance. from his spiritual superiors. Assuming that he was reasonably faithful and generous and thus corresponded substantially with the training, we can say that at the end of this period we have one who assuredly is not yet perfect, but who is emphatically a good religious; one who is observant and edifying, diligent and obedient; one who has learned the place of prayer in life; 212 I July, 1958 PROFICIENTS~WHo DO NoT'PROGRESS who has reached a considerable degree of union with God; one who has peace of soul and delicacy of conscience; in a word, one who is happy and successful in his vocation. Clearly, a definite stage has been passed through with credit. A Spiritual Crisis But now there comes a change; there comes a halt to the advance; or at least the sense of progress is no longer felt. The motive power which carried the soul forward to this stage of the spiritual life seems suddenly to fail, and the whole growth and activity of the soul seem to come to a standstill. What is to be done to counteract the paralysis and to set things moving again? "Only too many religious lose courage, remain passive, unable to extricate themselves from the morass in which they are held. Perhaps they ask for advice and help and get none. There was never a moment in their religious life when they needed help so sorely; if the help does not come, the whole of their future life will be much the poorer. Only too many religious find themselves in this condition. Hence, we have only too ,often the disturbing phenomenon of a spiritual life which began well, which showed progress for the early years and then petere~t out into mediocrity and dis-illusionment. The early hopes have not been fulfilled; the dreams and right spiritual ambitions have faded away in early middle age. A career that promised much for God has been some way blighted. The religious we have envisaged at the opening of this paper has reached such a crisis in the spiritual life. He needs guidance and encouragement. A'director or retreat master who takes his work. seriously cannot shirk what is his duty; he cannot refuse to stretch out a helping hand, to ~ndicate ¯ some means, to give some helpful direction. What, then, is a director to do in the face of this situation --that of the religious who has quickly and successfully trav-ersed the first stage and then stops and comes to a standstill; whose initiative and motive power seem to fail, to be stricken 213 Review for Religious with a mysterious paralysis? The first thing the director must grasp and which he must make clear to the religious is that the soul has now entered into a new stage in which the main con-ditions are quite different from those of the previous stage. The conditions which determine the life of the proficient are very different from those that the beginner had to deal with. What will ohelp t.he one may harm the other. "When I was a ~hild I spoke as a child, I understood as a child, I thought .as a child" (2 ~or. 13:11). Proficients are no longer children; but they do not realize that they have changed, and they con-tinue to speak and think as children; they have not yet put away the things of.a child. The first, perhaps, of the new conditions to be reckoned with is that there has been a weakening of the desire of' per-fection-- which is the motive power of spiritual advance-- Owing to the "fact that it has been enfeebled by certain faults or maladies which belong particularly to this stage. The faults are "interior, 'often. scarcely perceptible and henci~ not com-batted; but they exercise a powerful adverse influence on the condition of the soul.--These faults and adverse tendencies may bd reduced to four. 1. The. soul is secretly pleased with the progress it has made and unwittingly is inclined to relax in its desires and to rest on its oars. And it is a fact that much Progress has been made which the soul cannot help seeing. A worldly life has changed its directioni many external faults have been elim-inated or Controlled; many ,~irtues and good practices have been acquired; the soul has reached a considerable degree of familiarity with God and enjoys the peace and satisfaction which comes from being rightly orientated toward its true end~ and supreme good. These feelings and considerations which are well founded may come to leave a certain feeling of satis-faction or even of complacency, a half:accepted idea that the progress, which is undeniable, is due in a good measure to 214 July, 1958 PROFICIENTS--WHo DO NOT PROGRESS one's own efforts. In that way vanity may be nourished subtly, and any such feeling is a hindrance, to a'.true advance in "charity. 2." Moreover, that complacency may be further fed by the idea that the chief obstacles to a fervent rel!gious life have been alreddy overcome. It is a fact that no s~rious faults' are now visible, that no new conquests are to be called for. The religious has been well trained, no doubt at the cost bf many sacrifices, to fit smoothly into his r~ligious life and is clearly an edifying, observant, diligent member "of his community. What more can-be reasonably expected? He does not 'see 'in what direction he is to direct his effort~. But therd :precisely is one of the new condition~ he has not taken account of--that the faults are hidden, that khe ol3jectives are not ~)isible, that ~he soul simply doe~ not see its way. . 3. It is 'normal, too, that'sby thi~ time'wo~k and activity play a large, part in the life of ~he're}igious ~ve are considering; b)~ now h~ will' h~a~,e ~ound the a~prop~:iate exe~:cise of .his gift~, B~) that ~ery fact he is e.xpose~d to a fault, which the old spiritual writers called effusio ac/ exteriora~an e~cessive pr.e-occupation with external things. This religious has come to see how he can serve God effectively; he do~s his work well, "is deeply .interested in it. That activity, as an essenti~il part of his vocation, was 'meant inGod's design to b~ a potent ~ans of sanctification, to be a school of certain virtues which could not be learned easily 'in :another school. If the work is not carried, on in this spirit, it will affect "the 'spiritual condi: tion of the.soul. Joy in successl in ~ongenial adtivity, in the praise and recognition which" follow a job.w~ll done, " these tend to'produce a feeling of ~exaggerated self-satisfaction~, a certairf conceit, a sense of one's own value,, a self-assurance, an exigency in one's demands and in time will produce an atmosphere of soul in which purity of heart, detachment, meekness, which arethe interior equipment of the apostle, will not flourish. Here, then, is another of these new conditions which must" be taken account of if there is to be true spiritual'progress. 215 HUGH KELLY Review for Religious ~4. 'If the faults mentioned are really at work and having their effect, then we must conclude that the prayer is not what it should be for the simple reason that if the prayer were right it would prevail over the adverse in.fluences. A true prayer would give light to keep the goal in view steadily; it would unmask hidden faults; it would give strength to overcome them and to make the effort necessary to advance. Hence, we may say confidently that the most important of the new conditions which have not been recognized is that the prayer has not kept pace with the other advances, that it is not the prayer appropriate to the present spiritual state. The religious may have clung to the type of prayer he was taught at the beginning of his religious career and which he may well have outgrown. A prayer that is predominantly active, meditative, that deals largely in reasoning, comparisons, formal definite resolutions, is assuredly a most useful prayer for beginners but not necessarily for proficients. It may well be that the prayer has b~come formal, superficial, that it is not sufficiently interior and does not give that light and unction that the sohl needs in its :present state. Other reasons, operative in individual cases, .could be ,mentioned; but those given are generally found and are suffi-cient .to account for the phenomenon we are considering-- that is, a religious who began in the best dispositions, who went through the first stage with generosity and courage, who had reached a cr.editable stage of union with God, and who then seemed to slow up and make little further progress. And then--perhaps in the course of a retreat such a religious comes to realize his state---he will experience a deep feeling of dis-couragement, a feeling of. paralysis of one who knows that there is something seriously amiss but who cannot say what it is exactly and hence cannot do much about it. If he does not get the guidance and help he needs now, he is likely to lower his spiritual aims and settle into an abiding mood of frustration and disillusionment. 216 July, 1958 PROFICIENTS --- WH0 Do NOT PROGRESS The Remedy So far we have attempted a diagnosis of a malady and a mood common to souls." who have reached the degree of proficients. They are the proficients who have ceased to pro. gress. We may now attempt something in the way of remedy or prescription. The first step of the director should be to point out to the religious that he must realize that he is in a new stage, that the whole nature of the struggle has changed, that he had been clinging to .the things of a child now that he has ceased to be a child. The methods of the previous stage have done their work, all that they were meant to do; but they will not serve in the new stage. Now there is question of new obstacles, new means, new kinds of virtues to be cultivated. The frustra-tion experienced is due to the fact that the conditions of one stage have been retained "for a stage for which they are not suitable. ~ Speaking generally, the spiritual life must now become more interior. The struggle has now been transferred to a deeper region within the soul. The whole spiritual lit:e must grow in intdriority. And first of all the soul must come to a deeper knowledge of the implications of the call of Christ, to a truer realization of the.depth of renunciation contained in His invi-tations. "If any man will come after me, let him deny him-self" (Matt. 16:24). Had the soul come to know the full force of the word deny, that it is the word that is used by the gospel to indicate the action of St. Peter in the Passion--that it implies an entire repudiation and rejection! When Our Lord spoke the words, "Unless the grain of wheat falling into " the earth die, itself remaineth alone" (Jn. 12:24), He spoke of His own Passion and indicated the measure of His sacrifice; but He also gave some idea of what He expected from those whom He called to follow Him. No doubt something of that renouncement was already understood by th~ religious, but how imperfectly. I2Iis words contain depths of renunciation 217 -HUGH KELLY Review for Religious which are revealed only slowly and as a result of much purifi-cation of soul. The. invitation., "Come follow Me," contains many~ degrees of imitation and proximity. Purity.-- Dod.lity The chief means by which the soul is to reach to this interi.ority are, according to L. Lallement, greater purity of heart and greater docility to the .Holy Spirit. Greater purity of heart presupposes a-greater knowledge owfa sth ceh ifeafulyl tcsg oncf etrhnee dh'e waritt.h I nac tthioen psr, eovri oaut sle, asstta gwei tthh e't h,roeu~glihgtiso ours feelings that might be .considered as .venial sins, and the examina-tion of conscience was instituted with a view to confess them as such. But now the examination must probe more deeply. There is a whole stratum of tendencies, instinctive movements, automatic reactions, which indicate the p.resence of that self which is the center of resistance to God's advances. Self-examination must now penetrate to this hitherto unknown region~in which'will be fo~und ~i self that is wayward, dissipated, full of the ¯seeds of sin and ~evolt and which¯ must be controlled before there can be any true domination of charity. Such a purification must be systematic and must cover the heart, the imagination, and the judgment. The heart obviously needs such a fine purification seeing that it is the source of countless movements and affections which cannot be left uncontrolled, because they ¯exercise a strong in-fluence on the.decisions of .the will. These movements are the obscure stirrings of inordinate self-love in some of its manifold manifestations--little indulgences, almost-instinctive preferences,, resentment.s, impatiences, little acts of selfishness of one kind or another. "Fie on't; tis an unweeded garden." It cannot be ¯left to the weeds; it must be cleared and cleansed if it is to be brought under the sweet rule of charity. The imagination no less than the heart needs its own systematic purification. This is the faculty which St. Thomas called 218 July, 1958 PROFICIENTS---WHo DO NOT PROGRESS domlna falsitatis, the mistress of the false.;, and it can very seriously trouble the soul by its vain and foolish images and fancies. Such a source of dissipation and distraction is a chal-lenge to the spirit of prayer or to peace of mind. The purification of the judgment is still more necessary because its acts are more ddliberative. We find ourselves almost instinctively passing judgment, on people, on actions~ ¯ on motives, judgments which are often wrong, ungenerous, suspicious. If such a tendency is left unchecked, it will make fraternal charity a very difficult thing. Such a systematic effort of purification, deeper and more searching than was called for in-the beginning of religious life, is necessary at this stage. The kind of examination which sought out .sins or exterior faults will be ineffectual now. Such an interior purification our Lord aims at in the preaching of the Beatitudes; these are the virtues which .give the disposition of heart necessary for a generous acceptance 9f His new religion. There is another region of the spi.ritual .life which calls for purification, one which is more hidden, more unexpected. even than any we have yet considered. The very spiritual life, of beginners is often full of unconscious self-seeking. In their spiritual practices they seek their own satisfaction; they look for consolation and sensible devotion in their prayers; they ar~ attached to certain, methods or forms of prayer. And their activity in spiritual things ,can produce such faults as vanity, jealousy, arid a sense of superiority over others. St, John of the Cross has devoted a long section of the Ascent of Mount Carmel to a close analysis of such faults: The control of these is the fruit of different stages of the dark. night, some of them being eliminated by the effort of the individual aided, of course, by grace, others .being so deep-seated, so well hidden that they yield only. to the action of infused prayer in the passive night of the sense. Of the second necessary condition mentioned by Lallement, docility to the Holy Spirit, it is not necessary to speak at any 219 KELLY' Review for Religious great length. "According to the instruction of our Lord, the Holy Spirit is by attribution the master of .the interior life. Describing His function our Lord said, "He will teach you all things and bring all things to your mind whatsoever I shall have said to you" (Jn. 14:26). The Paraclete was thus to teach in-teriorly what our Lord had taught by word of mouth to the apostles, opening their hearts sweetly to the fuller depths and force of His teaching. All movement in the spiritual life will be His concern, but He will be particularly active when the spiritual life is to grow more deep and interior. The finer purification already spoken of will be achieved only by His special presence. But the work of the Holy Spirit is not merely or chiefly the negative one of purification; it is still more a positive formative activity--to supply the light needed to get a deeper grasp of the spiritual life and the strength to live up to that light. The general results of this assistance of the Paraclete can be indicated here only in a summary way; they may be said to consist in a new enlightenment in three points. (I) The Holy Spirit will give a deeper understanding of the theological virtue of faith--a better realization that it is faith alone which gives us "the true and loving God" and is the true and unfail-ing approach to Him in every stage of the spiritual life on earth. (2) Again the Paraclete. will lead the soul to a kind of prayer which the soul has need of at this stage of its ad-vance. It is a prayer of great simplicity which will be nour-ished interiorly chiefly on the words of the gospel and the liturgy, the mysteries of Christianity, a prayer which opens up the teaching of Christ in such a way that it yields its sweetness and unction more abundantly. St. Ignatiu~ has described this prayer as that which enables the soul sentire et gustare res interne, . to get the true inner savor, of spiritual things. (3) But the action of the Holy Spirit will have as its chief aim to reveal Christ more fully; to make the soul realize better His role in the spiritual life. "I am the way, the truth, and the life. No man cometh to the Father but by Me.': (Jn. 14:6) 220 July, 1958 PROFICIENTS---WHo DO NOT PROGRESS A real, practical acceptance of this cardinal truth is the c-o-fi-dition and measure of advance at this stage. And it is to" be kept in mind that this is the function attributed to the Paraclete that our Lord stressed. "But when the Paraclete cometh---He Shall give testimony of Me" (Jn. 15:26) and again "He shall glorify Me because He shall receive of Mine and shall show it to you" (Jn. 16:14). The Holy Spirit is sent, then, to give testimony to Christ, to His transcendant role in the gpiritual life as the unique medium by which the soul can attain its supreme good and last end; and this is to glorify Christ by showing His true greatness. The spiritual perfection of the soul is constituted by union with Christ in charity. The stages toward this goal are marked by a fuller realization of the part which Christ must play in this advance; and, consequently, a more perfect exercise of faith and charity. The end of the process is expressed by St. Paul, "And I live, now not I; but Christ liveth in me" (Gal. 11:20). It ¯ was expressed still better by our Lord Himself as He was enter-ing on His Passion, "That they all may be one as Thou Fatl~er in Me and I in Thee; that they also may be one in Us" (Jn. 17:21). The stage of the spiritual life we have been considering, that of proficients, is simply the study of the fuller action of Christ and His Spirit at a specially critical moment. This divine action is, of course, essential in every step, even at the first; but it is deeper, stronger, more interior in the later 'and higher stages. The soul we have been considering depended on the grace and example of Christ even for its first steps. But advance beyond this initial stage calls for a more powerful aid. To qualify for that newer assistance the soul had to dispose itself by a deeper and finer asceticism. Without that special prepara-tion it could not have caught the breath of the Spirit which Christ was to send, the new impulse without which it would have languished ineffectively, if not a wreck, at least a failure. 221 HUGH KELLY From the foregoing pages it is hoped that it will appear that the division of the spiritual life into beginners, proficients, and perfect is not merely a theoretical matter, the concern of professors and historians. They are the actual stages through which, normally, all souls pass who try to realize the great design for which God has created them and for which He has given them His Son to be for them the way, the truth, and the life. It should then be clear also that the priest who is director or retreat master should have a workable knowledge of these di-visions. He is certain to come across souls who are going that way, who need his guidance and help at moments when such assistance may make just all the difference in the world. For Your Informal:ion (Continued from page 210) [American Personnel and Guidance Association- and (4) to encourage cooperation among Catholic Guidance Councils on local and regional levels." The subscription price is $1.00 per year--for three issues, autumn, winter, an~d .spring. Subscriptions should be sent to: The Catholic Counselor, 650 Grand Concourse, Bronx 51, New Yo~'k. Good Spiritual Reading? A superioress would like to obtain"a helpful list of worth-while spiritual reading books for a community." She refers to currently published books, not to the old masters. We do our best to supply such lists through our Book Review De-partment. It has occurred to us, however, that the suggestions we make in that department might be supplemented in a very practical way if our readers would send in brief communications about books they or their communities have found helpful. If you wish to recommend a book that you or your com-munity found helpful, please address your letter, to: The Editor, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS~ St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas. And please type the letter, preferably triple-spaced, at least double-spaced. 222 The eneral .Chapt:er .Joseph F. Gallen, S.J. QUESTIONS AND CASES are frequently received on the general chapter. A coml~lete article on this matter would. be of prohibitive length. It would also be excessively de-tailed and technical. We believe that ~he practical purpose of such an article will be better attained by presenting the matter under the form of questions and cases. The following ques-tions are the first part of a series. I. Delegates 1. According to our constitutions, a former brother general is a mem-ber of the general chapter in virtue of this office that he had held. A former brother general is a member of our house, but he is not the local superior. The hl)use elected him as delegate to the general chapter. Does he have two votes in the general chapter? No. Anyone may be elected in a chapter who is not excluded from the office in question by canon law or the par-ticular constitutions. Canon law does not exclude the election of anyone as delegate because he otherwise has the right of membership in the general Chapter in virt'fid~"of hi~ office or from some other title, nor do the constitutions of lay institutes enact any such ~general exclusion. These constitutions also do not ordinarily .forbid the election of a former superior general as a delegate. Unless there is such an exclusion in the present constitutions, the election is valid. However, this. brother will have only one vote in the general chapter. It is certain from canon 164 that no one may cast many votes by reason of many titles to vote, e. g., a brother may not c,ast two votes in the general chapter because he is a former brother general and an elected delegate from a province or house or because he is a general councilor and also a local superior. It is not 'certain, even. though the wording of the. canon favors the contrary opinion, tl~at one may not cast many votes when the one title gives the right to many votes, e. g., if the constitutions give 223 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Religious the superior general or provincial two votes. The constitutions of lay institutes *do not make such a grant. A religious may cast his own vote and another as proxy for another elector when the constitutions or customs permit voting by proxy, which is excluded with practical universality in the constitu-tions of lay institutes (c. 163). 2. Doesn't canon law deprive of active voice one who had been a Catholic, joined a non-Catholic sect, returned to the faith, and had been admitted to the noviceship of a religious institute with a dispensation from the Holy See from the impediment, to entrance? The question is based on canon 167, § 1, 4°, which reads: "The following are excluded from voting: Those who joined or publicly adhered to'a heretidal or schismatical sect." However, it is a safely probably opinion that the dispensation to enter the noviceship removes also the disability of canon 167, § 1, 4"°. Goyeneche, Quaestiones Canonicae, I, 164-65; Schaefer, De R~- ligiosis, n. 493; J.one, Commentarium in Codicem Iuris Canonici, I, 171. 3. When we elect a delegate, may we instruct him whom he is to vote for and what proposals he is to vote for in the general chapter? You may not do this unless it is permitted b)) the particular law of your institute. The very few institutes that do permit this also contain a provision of the following tenor: "Ttie com-munity represented by a delegate may give him instructions regarding the election and other matters to be discussed either at the provincial or general chapter, but the delegate remains free as to the exercise of his vote for the interests of the con-gregation." 4. Is a delegate to a general chapter obliged to' accept proposals from other members of the institute? When the constitutions give prov.inces, houses, or individuals the right to make proposals, a superior or delegatd must accept the. proposal and submit it to the general chapter; but he is not obliged to promote or vote for the proposal in the chapter. If the right '.is not granted, individuals may suggest propogals 224 July , 19fi8 THE GENERAL CHAPTER to members of the chapter; but there is no obligation to accept merely suggested proposals. Anyone who makes a proposal should study carefully and even consult as to whether the pro-posal is well i:0unded and prudent. Careless, groundless, and extraneous proposals can waste a great deal of time in the chapter. II. Preliminaries 5. Our constitutions speak of the "election" ot~ local superiors and other officials by the superior general and his council. Is this an accurate expression? An election to an office in a religious institute or society of common life is the designation of a person made in a chapter. The designation to an office made by a superior alone or with the consultive or deliberative vote of a council is not an election but an appointment. The latter is frequently called an election in the constitutions of lay institutes. It is not such and is not governed by the norms on elections. 6. How long should a general chapter last in a lay congregation? Constitutions appr6ved by the Holy See state that the general chapter is not to be prolonged beyond a reasonable length of time but that no precise limits can be fixed for its duration. It is obvious that the duration will vary according to the number and importance of the matters proposed to the chapter of affairs;and it is evident also that the chapter should not be so rushed and abbreviated that it fails to perform its duties properly, especially as regards the chapter of affairs. The constant brevity of some chapters creates a suspicion that insuf-fi~ ent attention is given to the chapter of affairs. Bastien states thh~ the chapters of lay congregations, outside of particular arid~ exceptional circumstances, will last five days. (Directoire Canonique, n. ~291) This would give three full days t~or the chapter of affairs. Apt 'and careful preparation, the mimeo-graphing and previous distribution of reports, and capable direc-tion by the president will expedite the chapter and render it more efficient. 225 ,JOSEPH F. ~ALLEN Review for Religious 7. Our constitutions impose a retreat of one day before the general chapter. We believe that the retreat would be more helpful if made after the preliminary sessions and immediately before the election of the superior general. May we change the time of the retreat without securing authority to change the constitutions? Yes. The time is a completely accidental part of this law, and there is a sufficient reason for changing the time in this case. A day of prayer is most helpful for the quiet of soul and purification of motives that are necessary for any election, arid these effects are mo~e apt to persist undiminished when the retreat is made immediately before the supremely important election of the superior general. 8. What is the meaning of the article of our constitutions regarding Mass on the day of the election of the superior general, i. e., "If the rubrics permit, the Mass shall be that of the Holy Spirit"? The constitutions of lay congregations almost universally prescribe that Mass is to be oi~ered on the day of the election of the superior general in the house where the chapter is held. The intention usually specified is for the election of the superior general. Sometimes this intention is for all the work of the chapter. If the former intention is designated, it is to be coun-seled that Mass or Masses be offered on the following days for the other works of the chapter. The constitutions, with the same universality, exhort all the capitulars to receive Holy Communion at this Mass for the same intention. Even if the wording of the constitutions imposes this Communion as obligatory, it is to be interpreted as merely exhortatory (c. 595, § 4).° If the rubrics permit, the votive Mass of the Holy Spirit is to be the one used, since this is the traditional Mass for an election. It is found at the end of the missal, in the first series of votive Masses, under Thursday. If the ordo of the place of celebration permits, this Mass is ordinarily to be celebrated as a private votive Mass. It may be low, sung, or solemn. Private votive Masses when sung are forbidden on any double; any Sunday; on the privileged ferias (Ash Wednesday, Monday- Tuesday-Wednesday of Holy Week); on the privileged vigils 226 July, 1958 THE GENERAL CHAPTER (Christmas and Pentecost) ; within the privileged octaves (Christ-mas, Easter, and Pentecost); and on All Souls' Day. When read, they are forbidden also. on ferias of Lent and Passiontide; all vigils; ember days; Monday of Rogations (before Ascension) ; Dec. 17-23; Jan. 2-5 and 7-12; and Ascension-Vigil of Pente-cost. This Mass has no Gloria nor Gredo, occurring com-memorations and orationes imt~eratae are included according to the usual norms, the preface is proper, Benedicamus Domino is used at the end, and the last Gospel is that of St. John. If the election occurs on one of the forbidden days, the local ordinary may be requested to grant a solemn votive Mass. The election of a general or provincial superior is sufficient reason to give this permission. This must be a sung or solemn Mass. It is forbidden only on feasts and Sundays that are doubles of the first class; the privileged ferias (Ash Wednesday,.Monday- Tuesday-Wednesday of Holy Week) ; the privileged vigils (Christ-mas and Pentecost); within the privileged octaves of Easter and Pentecost; and on All Souls' Day. The rite of this Mass is the same as above; but there is a Gloria, Gredo, Ite, Missa est, and only imperative commemorations and orationes impera-tae/~ ro re gra~i are included. For greater solemnity, ~his Mass may also be requested on days when a private votive Mass is permitted. If neither type of votive Mass is possible, the Mass of the Office of the day must be said or sung. 9. An article of our constitutions states: "The superior general or, in her absence, the vicaress shall present to the members of the chapter a report of the m.aterial: personal, disciplinary, and financial status of the entire congregation and of all matters of greaier importance" that have occurred sim:e the last general chapter. The report is to be drawn up by the procurator general. It must be approved by the general council, who sign their names to the report before the celebration of the chapter." Does the procurator general draw up this entire report? No. The only part of the report that is drawn up by the procurator, bursar, or treasurer general is the financial section. All other sections of thd report are compiled by the mother 227 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Religious general herself. The material section under its economic or financial aspect appertains to the procurator, under an aspect such as the opening and closing of houses, to the mother general. It is evident that the personal and disciplinary state of the institute does not appertain to the office of the procurator general. 10. In the several general chapters that I have attended, I have found the reports of the brother general very fatiguing. What can be done to eliminate this difficulty? Since the reports are of the state of the entire institute, they can evidently be very long and detailed. The mere reading of such reports will be fatiguing to the capitulars; they will not grasp many of the details and can very readily fail also to perceive the general state of the institute or at least the content of some sections of the reports. The following obvious method will lessen these difficulties. The complete reports should be mimeo-graphed before the chapter, and numbered copies given to each capitular as soon after his arrival as is prudently possible. The members will then have a sufficiently prolonged time for studying the reports; and the brother general can confine his presentation to necessary explanations, descriptions, and to emphasizing the more important parts of the reports. The numbered copies are to be collected from the capitulars after the chapter of affairs. III. Tellers 11. Our constitutions speak of "scrutineers" at chapters. I cannot find this word in the dictionary. Is it correct? The Latin original is scrutator, feminine scrutatrix. The idiomatic translation that should be in constitutions is teller. Many awkward translations are found in constitutions, e. g., scrutators, scrutinizers, scrutatrixes, scrutatrices, examiners, depu-ties, anti ballot mistresses. The style of constitutions should be accurate, direct, simple, brief, and readily intelligible. All words redolent of formalism or legalistic jargon are to be avoided. A similar error is found in the many constitutions that speak of the first, second, etc., "scrutiny." This again is a completely literal translation of the Latin "scrutinium." The idiomatic English 228 July, 1958 translation is ballot. "Balk employed also to signify th, THE GENERAL CHAPTER ring" may also be used. "Ballot" is individual voting slip or ticket, but ! the context will exclude anyI ambiguity. 12. I have on several occasionsl been appointed as one of the two priest tellers at the elections in monaster.ies' of nuns (c. 506, .~ 2). Was I obliged to take the oath imp, osed by canon 171, § 1, on tellers? No The president a~ld the tellers, provided they are mem-bets of the chapter, are "ob oath to perform their dut proceedings of the chapter, A president who is not a m local ordinary who presides [iged by canon 171, § 1, to take an es faithfully and to keep secret the even after the close of the chapter. mber of the elective body, e. g., the at an election of religious women, is certainly not obliged to take" this oath. The same exemption from the oath probably ex~ends to tellers who are not members of the elective body and thlerefore to the two priest tellers at an election in a monastery of Inuns. Cf. Larraona, Commentarium Pro Religiosis, 8-1927-102-9; Jone, Commentarium in Codicem Iuris Canonici, I, 416; Scha~efer, De Religiosis, n. 512; De Carlo, ~ Jus Religiosorum, n. 129; ~Berutti, II, De Personis et de Clericis in Genere, 225; Parsons, Canonical Elections, 147; Lewis, Chap-ters in Religious Institutes, 107. 13. A local ordinary complained of the delay occasioned by the election of the two tellers and the secretary before the electi on of the mother general. What can we do t~ eliminate the source of this complaint? The local ordinary justifiably! complained. The tellers and the secretary should be el~ected in the first preliminary session of the chapter. The conlstitutions fisually put these elections under the section on the election of the mother general, but it is far more convenient to hold them in the early part of the first preliminary session. "~his greater convenience is a sufficient reason for changing the o~rder stated in the constitutions. The wording of a. 226 of the ~/ormae of 1901 appears to favor the elections at this prehmlna.ry session",n s li ct es t t eas that they are to be held before anything else. If this is done, the secre-tary can begin immediatel~y to corripi[e the acts, the tellers can 229 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Religious perform their duties also at the election of the committee for the reports of the mother general, and the local ordinary is spared a sufficiently long and inconvenient delay in presiding over the session for the election o~ the mother general. IV. Presiding 14. Who presides at the general chapter of a congregation of brothers? The brother general presides at the general chapter in lay institutes of men; but pontifical and diocesan constitutions can be found that give this right, personally or through a delegate, to the ordinary of the place of election. 15. Who presides at the election of a superioress of a monastery o~ nuns? In a monastery of nuns that is not subject to regulars, the president of the election 6f the superioress is the local ordinary or his delegate. If a monastery is subject to regulars, the local ordinary is to be opportunely informed of the day and hour of the election. The presidency appertains to the ordinary or his delegate, if eithdr attends; but either may attend and leave the presidency wholly or partially to the regular superior. If neither the local ordinary nor his delegate attends, the regular superior presides (c. 506, § 2). The regular superior also may preside through a delegate (c. 199, § 1). As in the case of a mother general, canon 506, § 2, confines the presidency of the local ordinary or regular superior to the election of the superioress; but this presidency is extended to the elections of the councilors by the law of many constitutions. Canon 506, § 3, forbids the appointment of the ordinary confessor of the community as a teller for the election of the superioress in a monastery of nuns. This prohibition extends to his delegation as president of. such an election, since the office of president implies also the duties of a teller. 16. Our pontifical constitutions read: "The bishop of the diocese pre-sides at the chapter as the Apostolic Delegate, personally or in the person of any priest authorized by him." Is this correct? 230 July, 1958 In the law of the C THE ~ENERAL CHAPTER ~de of Canon Law, the ordinary ~f the placd of election presides, personally or through a deIegate, at the election of the mother general in pontifical and'diocesan congregations and at both in virtue of his office as local ordinary. Before the code, May 19, 1918, the local ordinary presided at the chapters of diocesan congregations in virtue of his office but at the elections in pontifical congregations as the delegate of the Holy See. The law befoie the code was based on the apostolic constitution, "Conditae a Christo," of Leo XIII, De-cember 8, 1900, Chapter I, n. II, Chapter ~II, n. I. There. fore, the wording of your constitutions is of a law that no longer exists. This is a probable indication of constitutions that were never conformed to the Code of Canon Law. Cf. Schaefer, De Religiosis, n. 509; Bastien, Directoire Canonique, n. 251, 1; Bat-tandier, Guide Canonique, n. 363; Wernz-Vidal, III, De Religiosis, n. 119. ¯ SOME BOOKS RECEIVED [Only books sent directly to the Book Review Editor, West Baden College, West Baden Springs, Indiana, are included in our Reviews and Announcements. The following books were sent to St. Marys.] The Pulpit, the Press and the Paulists. By Reverend John F. Ritzius, C.S.P. The Paulist Press, 401 West 59th Street, New York 19 New York. $1.00 (paper cover). Come, Holy Spirit.* By" Winfrid Herbst, S.D.S. Society of St. Paul, 2187 Victory Boulevard~ Staten Island 14, New York. 25c (paper cover). Gli Istituti Secolari nella Nuova Legislazione Canonica. By Dr. Giuseppe M. Benucci'. Catholic Book Agency, Via de[ Vaccaro, 5, Rome. A Catholic Child's Book about the Mass. By Reverend Louis A~ Gales. Catechetical 'Guild Educational Society, 260 Summit Avenue, St. Paul 2, Minnesota. $1.95 (paper cover). My Catholic Faith. By Most Reverend Louis L. R. Morrow. My Mission House, 1324 52nd Street, Kenosha, Wisconsin. $4.00. Perpetual Help Daily Missal. In four volumes. Perpetual Help Center, 294 East 150th Street, New York 51, New York. A Land of Miracles for Three Hundred Years. By Eugene Lefebvre, C.SS.R. St. Anne's Bookshop, Ste. Anne de Beaupre, Quebec, Canada. $2.00. 231 Survey of Roman Document:s R. I~. Smil~h, S.,J. [In the present survey there will be given a summary of the documents which appeared in /Iota /lpostolicae Sedis (AAS) during the months of February and March, 1958. Page references throughout the article will be to the 1958 ,~AS (v. 50).] Pertaining to the Religious Life ON FEBRUARY 11, 1958 (AAS, pp. 153-61), the Holy Father addressed an allocution to the superiors general of the orders and congregations of religious men with generalates in the city of Rome. The allocution consisted prin-cipally of a geries of matters which the Pontiff thought it opportune to bring to the attention of his listeners. Since there is danger that religious may become imbued with existenti-alism to the detriment of eternal truthi the Pope warned ¯ superiors to draw their own inspiration from file fonts of re-vealed truth and from the teaching power of the Church. Even in ascetical matters there, are some who wish to withdraw from the teaching of the Church; accordingly, he advised su-periors to adhere firmly to the balanced and solid ascetical doctrine traditional in the Church. In this and in all other matters superiors must consult and study the question at length; but, once the~ have reached a decision, then they must un-hesitatingly lead their subjects along the path they have chosen. In this connection the Vicar of Christ deplored any attitude that would assume that the yoke of religious obedience is too heavy for men of the present time; rather the superior should constantly keep in mind that as superior he is responsible for the spiritual welfare of his subjects. His Holiness then considered the renunciation of worldly things that is common to all religious groups, however else they may be diversified. This renunciation, he remarked, must be complete in desire, though in actuality it may vary according 232 ROMAN DOCUMENTS to the exigencies of each religious family. The need for this renunciation, the Pope said, is obvious; for how can anyone ascend to God by the wings of charity if. he is not free from the multiform concupiscence of the world? Moreover, no one can enjoy the comfort~ and pleasures of the world without losing something of his spirit of faith and charity. And pro-longed laxness and indulgence can gradually and insensibly lead to defection from one's state in life. The Vicar of Christ then observed to the assembled su-periors that their way of acting and judging must be different from that of the world; for their norm of action is that of the gospel and the Church: Christ crucified. Accordingly, superiors must nourish this Christian attitude in themselves by a diligent consideration of the things of God, by the study of sound doctrine, and by a familiarity with ancient and recent writers who excelled both in faith and in piety. These same norms' of thought and action must also be followed by their subjects;. they must seek not the pleasant and the comfortable but God alone, whom they will find in the assiduous control of" the senses by austerity and of the will by submission to religious obedience. The .Pontiff also spent some little time on the matter of religious rules. These were drawn up, he said, by religious fohnders to secure peace and serenity of spirit for members of their societies. While some of these rules may need modification in non-essential matters, esteem for the rule in general must never be lost. It is the duty of superiors to maintain the rule of each institute; this at times will require firmness which, however, should never degenerate into harshness. In the concluding part of his address His Holiness ex-horted his listeners to build up a spirit of union and cooperation among the various religious institutes of the Church. He urged them to be especially notable in their zealous obedience to the Holy See and advised them to be strict in the matter of admission of candidates to religious life; otherwise, he warned, 233 R. F. SMITH Review for Religious religious groups will be not an honor to the Church, but a disgrace. On July 30, 1957 (AAS, p. 103), the Sacred Congrega-tion of Religious issued a document declaring that the apostolic constitution~ Sedes Sal~ientiae and .its accompanying Statutes are applicable to. all religious congregations and societies who li,~e in common without, public vows and who are dependent on the Sacred Congregation of the Consistory or on the Con-gregation for the Propagation of the Faith. The only exception concerns the executive function considered in Article 18 of the Statutes; in this matter the competency of .the Sacred Cons.istgry and of Propaga~tion is retained for those religious societies entrusted to those congregations by common law or .by apostolic privilege. Educational Matters Under the date of December 8, 1957 (AAS, pp. 99-I03), the Sacred Congregation .of Religious issued an important instruction concerning coeducation. The document considers the matter of coeducation only in secondary schools;' coedtica-tion in colleges and universities is not envisaged ih the document, while coeducation in primary schools is left to the discretion of the. ordinary. The document deals successively with the prin-ciples, by which a correct estimate of coeducation can be made; the obligatory norms which must be observed wherever co-education appears to be necessary; and the measures (the Latin word is aautiones) recommended to rem0.ve the evils that accompany coeducation. In the section dealing with principles the document states that coeducation on the whole cannot be approved. Although it has a number of definite advantages., still the danger it entails to morality, especially during the time of puberty, out- ¯ weigh all those advantages. Nevertheless, in some cases co-education may be a lesser evil. Thus where Catholic students would be exposed to grave danger to their faith by attending public schools and where the Catholics of the region cannot 234 July, 1958 ROMAN DOCUMENTS afford separate schools for boys and girls, coeducation may be tolerated provided the dangers to morality are averted as far as possible. In dealing with the obligatory norms to be followed such situ~itions, the document urges~ the practice of what it calls "coinstitutional" education in place of coeducation. "Co-institution" provides for a sirigle building under a single administration with, however, separate wings or sections, one for boys, the other for girls. Such a school may have a common library as well as common science laboratories provided the latter are used at different tim~s by the boys and girls. Where this "coinstitution" is impossible, then coeducation may be tolerated; but the conduct of such coeducational schools is to be included in the quinquennial reports; moreover, each of the national councils of bishops can set up definite norms to be observed wherever coeducation is practiced in their respec-tive countries. The last section of the document then lists a series of recommendations. The religious men and women chosen to teach in coeducational schools should be persons whose virtue and judgment have already been proven. Each school should have a spiritual director who is to be in charge of the spiritual li~e of the student body. Religious men are no.t to be in charge of coeducational schools except in rare cases and then only after an indult has been secured from the Sacred Con-gregation of Religious. Common physical and gymnastic ac-tivities or competitions must be avoided. Schools should not provide boarding facilities for both sexes. Separate entrances and separate locker facilities should be provided for students of each sex. Gym classes and dramatic productions should not be in common; and boys and girls should receive separate ¯ instruction in the sixth commandment, in parts of biology, and in other similar areas of study. Finally, the document recom-mends that religious men who teach or exercise the ministry 235 Review for Religious in coeducati6nal schools should limit their activities with regard to the girl students to the exercise of their assigned work. On January 3, 1958 (AAS, pp. 82-85), the Holy Father spoke to a group of religious women associated with the work of Catholic Action. He urged them to give their students a fully human and Christian formation. They must prepare their students to judge the world as it actually is, to see how. the world should be, and then to work unceasingly until the world corresponds to the divine plan for it. The Pope praised his listeners for their endeavor to build up a strong core of Catholic Action among their students, a core which will be first in every-thing: in studies, in discipline, in piety. On December 28, 1957 (AAS, pp. 118-19), the Sacred Peniter~tiary released the text of a prayer composed by the Holy Father to be recited by those who teach. Teachers may gain an indulgence of 1,000 days each time they recite the prayer with contrite heart. Family Life On January 2.0, 1958 (AAS, pp. 90-96), the Roman Pontiff addressed the members of the Italian Federation of Associations of Large Families. After pointing out that one of the most dangerous aberrations of modern paganized society is the opinion of those who define fecundity in marriage as a social malady, he continued by remarking that common sense has always recognized large families as the sign and proof of physical health, while history shows that the non-observance of the laws of marriage and of procreation is a primary cause ot~ the decadence of nations. Later in hi~ talk the Holy Father takes up the matter of overpopulation. God, he said, does not deny the means of livelihood to those whom He has called into life. If individual episodes, large or small as the case may be, at times seem to prove the contrary, these are in reality only signs that man has placed some impediment to the execution of the divine plan. 236 Ju~, 1958 ROMAN ~)OCUMENTS Overpopulation, then, to the extent that it exists, is due not to the inertia of Providence but to the disorder of men. Since progress in science and newly discovered sources of energy guarantee the earth prosperity for a long time to come, since no one can foresee what now-hidden resources will one day be discovered in our planet, and since no one can tell whether the rate of procreation will always be equal to that of today, overpopulation is not a valid reason for the use of illicit means of birth control. It would be more rational to apply human energy to the eradication of the causes of famine in underdeveloped countries, to foster less nationalistic economies, and to replace egoism by charity, avarice by justice. Moreover, God does no~ demand of men responsibility for the over-all destiny of humanity--that is His affair; but He does demand of them that they follow the dictates of their consciences. In the final section of the allocution the Holy Father says that in the intention of God every family is to be an oasis of spiritual peace. This is especially true of large families, for in the parents of such families there is no trace of .anguish of conscience or fear of an irreparable return to solitude; in such families, too, thework and hardship involved are repaid even in this life by the affection of the children. A large family assists in the formation of character; indeed, in the history of the Church large families would seem to have a special preroga-tive of producing saints, as is shown in the cases of St. Louis, St. Catherine of Siena, St. Robert Bellarmine, and St. Pius X. The Pontiff concluded his speech by urging his listeners to work unceasingly for the economic welfare and protection of large families, dxhorting them to wake society from its lethargy on this point. On January 19, 1958 (AAS, pp. 85-90), His Holiness "addressed 15,000 Italian women engaged in domestic work. He told them that their work excelled other forms of labor such as agricultural or industrial occupations, for these latter are chiefly concerned with things, while their own work is con- 237 R. F. SMITH l~eview for Religious cerned with persons. Because 0f this the relations between domestic servants and their employers must be. regulated not only by the laws of commutative justice but also by.a mutual interchange of human values. Love must lighten the tasks of the domestic worker; and that love can not be repaid by money alone, but by an exchange of affection. He further p?inted out to his listeners that they must gauge the importance of their work by considering that their activity is directed to the existence and stability of family life. Hence, they should be concerned for the good name of the family they work for,. seek to develop harmony among its members, and help in the correct formation of the children. He concluded his allocution by urging the women listening to him to consider their work as a service rendered to God in the person of their neighbor; he also reminded the employers of domestic servants that these servants, if they devote all their activity to their work, themselves deserve a family wage. On December 30, 1957 (AAS, pp. 119~20), the Sacred Penitentiary published the text of a prayer composed by the Holy~Father to be recited by members of Christian families, who, each time they recite the prayer with contrite heart, may gain an indulgence of 1,000 days. Miscellaneous Several documents which appeared in February and March concern the liturgy and the Church's life of worship. On February 8, 1958 (AAS, p. 114), the Holy Office issued a document condemning the growing practice of delaying baptism because of alleged liturgical reasons bolstered by foundationless opinions concerning the condition of infants dying without baptism. Hence, the Holy Office warns the faithful that infants should be baptized as soon as possible in accordance with canon 770. Five days later on February 14, 1958 (AAS, p. 114), the Holy Office issued another document dealing with another 238 July, 1958 ROMAN DOCUMENTS abuse, this one consisting in adding prayer or scripture passages to liturgical functions or in deleting prescribed pfayers~ from such functions. The document restates the current discipline of the Church that only the Holy See. can make changes in the ceremonies, rites, prayers, and readings of liturgical functions. On February 5, 1958 (AAS, p. 104), the Sacred Congre-gation of Rites empowered lbcal ordinaries to permit the blessing of ashes to be repeated before afternoon Mass on Ash Wednesday, provided the Mass is attended by large numbers of the faithful. Under.the date of January 7, 1958 (AAS, pp. 179-81), the same congregation ai~proved the miracles needed for the canonization: of Blessed Juana Joaquina de Vedruna de Mas (1783-1854), .widow and foundress of the~ Carmelite Sisters of Charity. ~ Four other talks of the Holy Father, the texts of whic~ were published du.ring February~ and March, should be noted. On i%bruary 1~8, 1958 (AAS, pp. 161-69), His Holiness delivered the traditio'nal¯ allocution to. the parish priests and Lenten preachers of Rome. He urged .his listeners to make the greatest efforts during the forthcoming extraordinary mission to' be held throughout the city of Rome on the occasion of the centenary of the apparitions at Lourdes. He told them to stress three matters. The first is' that of the sanctificati6n of Sundays and holy days; the second is respect for one's own life and, hence, a repudiation of suicide, a ~in which not only excludes the normal channels of divine mercy, but is also an indication 'of a lack of~'Christian faith and hope;' the third point to be stressed is respect for the lives of others to be shown by a sense of Christian responsibility with regard to the ingreasing traffic accidents in the city of Rome. He concluded his allocu-tion by exhorting the priests present to tell the people during the coming mission that the world needs priest and religious saints, but above all at the present time it needs a multitude of lay saints. 239 R. F. SMITH On January 14, 1958 (AAS, pp. 150-53), the Pontiff addressed the professors and students of the Angelicum, urging them to imitate in their lives St. Thomas Aquinas. Like that great saint, they should have the greatest docility and respect for the teaching authority of the Church; like him they should strive for a profound knowledge of Scripture; and in imitation of him they should foster an intense interior life where charity, the queen of the virtues, may reign[ On February 22, 1958 (AAS, pp. 170-74), 10,000 rail-road workers of Italy heard an allocution given by the Holy Father. The Pontiff: told his audience that their occupation should constantly remind them of the most important of human travels--human life itself which is a journey to the possession of God. On February 19, 1958 (AAS, pp. 174-76), the Pon-tiff broadcast a message to the school children of the United States to solicit their charity for the needy children of other countries. He devoted his message to St. Joseph, telling the children that St. Joseph who is the protector of the Church is asking them to contribute their part to the needs of other children throughout the world. Two documents of the period under survey concern political matters. On February 1, 1958 {AAS, pp. 68-81), a convention was ratified between the Apostolic See and the Republic of Bolivia. On January 27, 1958 {AAS, pp. 121-22}, the Sacred Penitentiary issued the text of a prayer composed by His Holiness to be recited by Catholic legislators and poli-ticians. Each time they recite the prayer with contrite heart they can gain an indulgence of three years. The last document to be considered was issued on February 15, 1958 (AAS, p. 116), as a declaration of the excommunica-tion of three Hungarian priests who participated' in the Hun-garian Parliament contrary to the decree of the same congre-gation previously issued on July 16, 1957 (See REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, January 15, 1958, pp. 48-49). 240 t oo! Reviews [Material for this department should be sent to Book Review Editor, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, West Baden College, West Baden Springs, Indiana.] MAN AND HIS HAPPINESS. Theology Library, Vol. III. Edited by A. M. Henry, O.p. Translated from the French by Charles Miltner, C.S.C. Pp. xxxix and 420. Fides Publishers Associa-tion, Chicago. 1956. $6.50. THE VIRTUES AND STATES OF LIFE. Theology Library, Vol. IV. Edited by A. Mo Henry, O.P. Translated from the French by Robert J. Olsen and Genevieve T. Lennon. Pp. xii and 778. Fides Publishers Association, Chicago. 1956. $8.75. With these two volumes the Theology Library moves into the realm of moral theology. The Preface and Introduction to Volume III are at pains to point out that in the conception of the authors moral theology is not distinguished from dogmatic theology as is done in many manuals. Volume III treats of moral matters in their general principles: the happiness of man, psychological and moral analysis of human action, the passions, habits and virtues, sin, law, and grace. Volume IV descends to a more particular treatment which considers the theological virtues, the cardinal virtues, charismatic gifts, the functions, states, and orders in the Church, the active and the contemplative life, and, finally, Christian perfection. It is safe to wager that the matter contained in these volumes will prove very interesting simply because of the subject matter which certainly "comes home to our hearts and our bosoms." Father 'Tonneau's remarks in the Introduction to Volume III about the mistake of transferring mere social relations to our rela-tions to God and thus trying to determine the pattern of morality and its foundation are timely. God is primarily a creator of natures before being a legislator. The brief sketch of Christian mora|ity -from the New Testament in the introductory chapter is from the pen of Father Spicq who is well qualified for the task. One may well ask, though, whether the distinction, not to use a stronger word, which he draws between the morality of the Old and the New Testaments is not overdone. As in the preceding volumes, each chapter is followed by a section called "Reflexions and Perspectives" and by a bibliography. In these volumes the French bibliography is not translated into English. 241 .Review for Religiou:~ It may come as a surprise to many (it should be a pleasant surprise) to find a treatise on morality opening with a consideration about man's happiness. This was prepared for by Father Tonneau's Introduction wherein morality is seen in the perspective, not primarily; of law and obligation, but of rational pursuit of happiness. The profundity of this starting-point becomes apparent when the author shows, rightly it seems, that man has a natural de~ire for seeirig the essence of God." The chapter on the passions is well done and brings to light some poin. ts about "the irascible" which are either neglected or, worse, misunderstood. In the chapter on grace there is a long introdtictory section on the meaning of grace in Scripture. This is definitely a gain. Unfortunately, the study is'confined~ mainly to the word grace and its meaning. Such a method leaves wide gaps: in St. Paul the meaning of the terms Spirit and spiritual should have been studied to help grasp the reality of the gift and its super-naturality. Actually, the writer was forced to follow such a pro-cedure for St. John who. expresses the reality of grace by the term eternal life. The theological treatment of grace is admittedly a difficult task. Even given the scriptural foundations, the history of thought about grace is almost required if one is to grasp "the" significance of t~rms, problems, and solutions. Here it seems that 'the work has not been well done. The various divisions of the meaning of the word grace include that of operative and cooperative. Augustine provided the basis for this distinction, but the explanation given on page 384 does not 'correspond with that of St. Thomas in I-II,111,2. Further, the statement about the meaning of excitant and assistant grace in the Council of Trent is not correct. Now, while one may legitimately develop his own theory and interpretation of both Thomas and Trent, it ought to be made clear, especially with regard to the council, that this is' an interpretation. Finally, what was the use of this discussion on operative, and cooperative grace? It seems that the distinction functions only once. in the subsequent pages and, actually, provides no clarification in its application. The whble treatment, of justification is unsatisfying. The writer seems to be so anxious to insist on the instantaneous occurrence of justification that he neglects other equally important aspects of the matter. In., Volume IV, on the virtues and the states of life,, we have matter which will prove still more interesting. It is in this volumd that greater originality is attempted, all the while adhering to the 242 July, 1958 BOOK REVIEWS fundamental doctrine of St. Thomas. Of all the chapters in this volume the most original is the first, on faith, by Father Li~g~. It may well prove to be the most helpful: it is concrete, psychological as well as metaphysical, and offers some excellent suggestions about the faith in reference to its different "ages" in the child, the adolescent, the adult. Finally, this chapter is up-to-date. The writer takes full cognizance of the latest work on the relation of sigfis (miracles) to th~ genesis of the act of faith, the question of immanence and connaturality.in the judgment of credibility, and the need of affirming the motive of faith in the act of faith. This latter point is well brought out by insisting on the very meaning of revelation as the self-disclosure of a person ~o persons. The fact of Jesus Christ's being "the fulness of the Word of God" is established and the consequences of this for a right understanding of the development of dogma are indicated. The insistence, in the last chapter, on the call of all Christians to perfection is most acceptable and~ forms a fitting close to the two volumes °which began with the statement that man naturally desires to know and love God in whom his happiness and, therefore, his perfection consists. . If we must add here some complaints that were voiced about the earlier volumes of the Theology Library, we must be forgiven for the simple reason that we are performing the duty of a revie~ker. First, the translation, in general, is better. Yet there are numerous blunders. There is still the tendency to retain in English the narrative present tense of the French; the antecedents of pronouns are not always clear. There is no doubt that some of the responsibility for the difficulty exlSerienced by the English reader lies with the authors of the articles themselves. They have written rapidly, even hastily, so that, at times, one gets the impression that he is reading jottings. Combine this with the difficulty of the subject matter and the technical vocabulary (sometimes Latin phrases and sentences are left in the original Latin), and you have books which will not prove easy reading for the un-initiated.-- JA,x~ES J. DOYLIL S.J. THE WORSHIP OF THE CHURCH. A Companion to Liturgical Studies. By William J. O'Shea, S.S., D.D. Pp. 646.The lqew. n/an Press, Westminster," Maryland. 1957. $7.00. After more than thirteen years of careful preparation, Father O'Shea presents in the present volume a comprehensive, mode[n study, well calculated to supplement knowledge of the liturgy gleaned from 243 ]~OOK REVIEWS Review for Religious primary sources. The author treats his subject very thoroughly from all important aspects and with great attention to detail. The result is a fund of thought-provoking material not only for the dlerical reader (for whom the book was ~riginally intended) but also for all who would draw near to the fullest participation in ~he official prayer of the Church. Having explained the definition of the liturgy given in Mediator Dei, Father O'Shea goes on to discuss its latreutic-sanctifying purpose. Attention is here and elsewhere given to the pivotal question of re-quisite interior disposition without which external liturgical elements quickly degenerate into vacuous formalism. As interior devotion fosters liturgical observance, so too the liturgy occasions (and even causes through its sacraments) an increase in interior graces con-sonant with its purpose: the glory of God and the sanctification of souls. Further chapters turn in detail to the impersonal and objective components of the full liturgy in the light of its historical develop-ment under the guidance of the Holy See. The Holy Sacrifice, the Divine Office, the sacraments, and the major sacramentals are all treated in great detail, as well as their exterior surroundings, in-clusive of vestments, liturgical music, and art forms. A special chapter is devoted to consideration of the liturgical year. The whole book spells out the magnificent plan of the liturgy intoa splendid living, mosaic of corporate worship in which the individual grows in grace as he willingly" takes active part. There are difficulties. But the cumulative effect of the pre-sentation is intellectually satisfying, if the reader is willing to work and does not allow himself to be weighed down by the great mass of detail. Firmly grounded intellectual conviction about the value of the full liturgy is precisely what is needed and is precisely what the author brings to his persistent student. The conclusion reached, however, will be best realized by most of us through actual par-ticipation in the full liturgy, to which the book is but the necessary scientific prelude. Great stress is accorded throughout the work to the corporate character of Christian worship, in which each member of the Mystical Body of Christ is ideally to participate in the fullest measure allowed by his state of life. The result is a desired liturgical context in which the various recognized systems of spirituality participate and from which they draw in due proportion to their secondary purposes assigned by the Church. 244 July, 1958 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS The presentation is characteristically positive and enthusiastic in its total import. Its major thesis is one that recommends itself to the prayerful consideration of all who are in a position to influence liturgical practice--if only in their own lives. In practice, for the individual religious or diocesan priest the theme idea may merely mean the more spirited performance of liturgical actions already engaged in. But depth of spirit here and desire for fuller participation under the guidance of obedience are viewed as an excellent index of sound spirituality in full accord with the mind of the Church'. The book is well recommended to the serious student and for conferences to religious, aimed at deeper appreciation of our liturgical heritage.--.¥IATTHE\V ~_~. CREIGHTON, S.J. BOOK ANNOUNCI=MI=NTS THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PRESS, 620 Michigan Avenue, N.E., Washington 17, D. C. Fast and Abstinence in thd First Order of Saint Francis. A Historical Synopsis and a Commentary. By Jordan J. Sullivan, O.F.M.Cap. This is a dissertation submitted to the faculty of the Catholic University of America. Pp. 133. Paper 2.00. CLONMORE & REYNOLDS,. LTD., 29 Kildare Street, Dublin. Mary. Mary's Seven Words. Mary's Seven Sorrows. By Peter Lippert, S. J. Simple, thought-provoking material suitable for medi-tation and spiritual reading. Pp. 78. Paper 5/6. Saint Clare of Assisi. By a Poor Clare Colettine. Meditations on the life and virtues of St. Clare. P.72. Paper 3/-. Saint Anthbny of Padua. By Olive M. Scanlan. A brief bi-ogral:; hy of a very popular saint. Pp. 62. Paper 4/6. Palm Sunday to Easter Sunday. By Dom Ernest Graf, O.S.B. A commentary and explanation of the new liturgy of Holy Week. Books like this are necessary if the faithful are to learn to appreciate the new liturgy. Pp. 88. Paper 5/-. FIDES PUBLISHERS, 744 East 79th Street, Chicago 19, Illinois. What They Ask About the Church. By Monsignor J. D. Con-way. The questions are real and the answers have appeared for the most part in the Davenport Catholic Messenger and the Catholic 245 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS Review for Religious Digest. Here they are ~irranged topically under six heads. If you are looking for honest, clear, and convincing answers to the ques-tions non-Catholics ask about the Church, you will find them in the book. It should prove a valuable aid to all engaged in convert work. Pp. 338. $3.95. FRANCISCAN EDUCATIONAL CONFERENCE, Capuchin Col-lege, Washington 17, D. C. Franciscan Life Today. Report of the thirty-seventh annual meeting of the Franciscan Educational Conference, St. Anthony's Seminary, Santa Barbara, California, August 12-14, 1956. The topics discussed at the conference were all ascetical and as such of interest to all religious. We single out for special mention the following: Renovatio Accommodata; the place of the religious state, of the religious priesthood, of the religious brother in the Church; the value of the common life; genuine concept of obedience; modern dangers to chastity. Pp. 326. Paper $3.75. HAWTHORNE BOOKS, INC., 70 Fifth Avenu'e, New York I1, New York. This Is the Mass as described by Henri Daniel-Rops, as cele-brated by Fulton J. Sheen, as photographed by Yousuf Karsh, with an introduction by Bishop Sheen. We can never understand ~nd appreciate the Mass adequately and so must strive always to grow in understanding and appreciation of this august mystery. No opportunity to learn more about the Mass should be allowed to escape us. If you have read re. any books about the Ma~s, do not dismiss this one as just another book, for its read!ng will profit you greatly; if you have not, this is an excellent book with which to begin your study of the "perfect act of worship of God. Pp. 159. $4.95. B. HERDER BOOK COMPANY, 15 South Broadway, St. Lo.uis 2, Missouri. Summa of the Christian Life. Vol. III. Selected texts from the WritinSs of Venerable Louis of Granada. O.P, Translated and adapted by Jordan. Aumann, O.P: This is the final volume of a classic treatment on the Christian life. It is number eleven in the "Cross and Crown Series of Spirituality." In this volume, which is divided into three books, th~ first, of 206 pages, deals with the Life of Christ;-the second, 0f 102 pages, treats of the sacr.aments; the third, of 46 pages, is on the last things: death, judgment, the p~ains of hell, eternal glory. Pp. 372. $4.75. 246 July, 1958 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS P. J. KENEDY. & SONS, 12 Barclay Street, New York 8, New York. My Last Book, by James M. Gillis, C.S.P., is a book of informal meditations. The ai~thor characterizes them in these words: "These meditations are designed primarily as a help to 'personal religion.'" Again "What. we seek is quiet consideration, reflection, concentration upon the truths of religion." You will like these meditations, the last work of a man grown old in the service of God--he was eighty-one when he diedmand determined to work for God even in his fihal illness. Pp. 246. $3.95. LOYOLA UNIVERS~'TY PRESS, 3441 North Ashlarid Avenue, Chic'~go 13, Illinois. Challenge. By fohn W. O'Malley, S.J., Edward J. McMaho.n, S.J., Robert E. Cahill, S.J., and Carl J. Armbruster, s.J. Challenge is a prayerbook intended primarily for the y?ung, for those not too old to be roused to give of their best when they meet a challenge. It is much more than just a collection of prayer formulae, for it essays to guide its readers to an intense and elevated spirithal life. Ev~en mental prayer "comes in for excellent treatment. The ideals it unfolds for the user are highf they offer a definite challenge. This is a prayerbo~k which you will want to reco'mmend to your students, You might even find it profitable for your own use. ~Sp. 243.~2.50. THE NEWMAN PRESS, Westminster, Maryland. Our Lady Queen of the Religious Life. By Louis~Colila, C.SS.R. Translated by Sister Maria Constance and Sister Agnes Th~r~se. ALl .religious instinctively venerate Mary, the Mother of Jesus, as their Mother and Queen. Father Cblin articulates this instinctive devotion in a new title of' Mary as Queen of the Religious Life. He writes this book not to prove a thesis, for One does not prove what all accept unquestioningly, but to show how very appropriate the title is. The book is divided into t[iree parts. In Part One he shows how~our Lady is the ideal df the.religiou~ life; in Part Two he explains how Mary ig the source of that life; and in Part Three he treats of the" Marian devotion of religious. You will"like this book. Pp. 234. $3.75. Melody" in Your Hearis. Edited by Reverend Georg'e L. Kane. This book is ~/" very ~interesting "and eklifyirig human document: Thirteen sisters tell what" "the religious life ha~ been ~fid meant for them, thdir satisfaction in their work, their joys ahd ~orrows, dis- 247 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS Review for Religious appointments and achievements. Four years ago these same sisters gave the reascms that prompted them to become religious in the book Why I Entered the Cdnvent. The present volume is another effective instrument to promote vocations to the religious life among young girls. Pp. 173. $3.00. Woodstock Papers No. 1. A Catholic Primer on the Ecumenical 'Movement. By Gustave Weigel, S.J. Pp. 79. Paper 95c. Woodstock Papers No. 2 The Testimony of the Patristic Age Concerning Mary's Death. By Walter J. Burghardt, S.J. Pp. 59. Paper 95c. These two volumes introduce a new series of theological essays projected by the .professors of Woodstock College. Several are to appear each year. They are intended primarily for the grow-ing number of lay men and women interested in theology. This means that they will be written in a popular vein yet with care so as not to sacrifice theological accuracy. The choice of topics will be such as to be of interest and assistance, so the projectors of the .series hope, also to their colleagues in the field. Guidance in Spiritual Direction. By Reverend Charles Hugo Doyle. "Tl~e dual purpbse of this book," the author tells his reader, "is to interest more priests in becoming spiritual directors in the fullest sense of the word, and, at the same time, to provide, in as logical and simple a manner as possible, fundamental rules in spiritual guidance as found in the writings of the great masters of the spiritual life." After you have read the book, you will agree that the author does accomplish his second aim. Only time can tell whether he will also gain his first purpose. Pp. 301. $4.75. Stonyhurst Scripture Manuals: The Gospel According to Saint Matthew. The Gospel According to Saint Luke. The Gospel According to Saint John. The general editor of the series is Philip Caraman, s.J. The commentary and the introduction for each volume are by C. C. Martindale, s.J. The books are intended for school use; and the notes and commentaries, therefore, are such as will be most useful for students studying the Gospels for the first time. The volumes average better than 200 pages and sell for $3.00 each. Martyrs of the United States. Manuscript of Preliminary Studies Prepared by the Commission for the Cause of Canonization of the Martyrs of the United States. Edited by Reverend Monsignor James M. Powers, LL.D. This book deserves wide circulation. From it you will learn to your surprise that there are 118 individuals who 248 July, 1958 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS cain claim to have died a martyr's death in the United States. They deserve to be better known. You can advance their cause by learaing to know them, by invoking their aid privately, and by getting others to do so. Pp. 196. $3.20. The Best Poems of John Banister Tabb. Edited with an intro-duction by Dr. Francis E~ Litz. An exceptional treat for the lovers of verse. The poems are arranged in chronological order and so the reader can follow the development of Father Tabb's art~ Pp. 191. $3.00. A Legend of Death and Love. By Joseph Kerns, S.J'. Illustrated by Edward O'Brien. A Poem of 454 lines concerning a heroic trumpeter of Cracow, the Tartar invasion, and our Lady. Pp. 45. 1.75. ST. GREGORY SEMINARY, Mount Washington Station, Cincinnati 30, Ohio. Mosaic of a Bishop. Des.igned by Reverend Maurice E. Reardon, S.T.D. Here is something original in biography. You meet the late archbishop of Cincinnati, John T. McNicholas, O.P., S.T.M., in his own writings. You learn of the details of his life from numerous notes and essays of the designer which serve to introduce many of the sermons, addresses, and lectures. The whole makes a very im-pressi_ ve monument to a distinguished churchman. Pp. 365. $6.00. SHEED & WARD, 840 Broadway, New York 3, New York. The Risen Christ. By Caryll Housela~der. The author needs no introduction, since most ~eaders are familiar with her books an~ the originality and freshness of her thought. She died almost four years ago (October 12, 1954), and so it is something of a mystery to find her author of a new book. No ghost writer is involved, for the style and manner are geauine. The publishers could throw light on this problem, but have not chosen to do so. We recommend this book unreservedly. We found it very stimulating and predict that you will too. Pp. 111. $2.75. The Priestly Life. A Retreat by Ronald Knox. This retreat was given by Father Knox to semiaarians when death was imminent though he did not realize it. In it he shares with his audience the wisdom gathered in a long and active life. Though the meditations were written for priests and seminarians, the faults pointed out and the virtues insisted upon are faults all of us should correct and virtues we should all strive to acquire. Pp. 176. $3.00. 249 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Review for Religious Approach to Penance. By Dom Hubert van Zeller, O.S.B. "If you were asked to put on paper what you know about penance, it is. very. likely that you would not need very much paper, particularly if you were told to leave the sacrament of penance out ot: account. If this is true, then you must read Dom ZeIler's book Approach to Penance. In it you will find an unusually complete and adequate treatment of what most ot: us findto be a painful subject. He does not succeed in making penance attractive, but he will convince you olc its necessity and show you how you can practice it.~ Pp. 104. World Crisis and the Catholic. Here is a collection of studies by lay Catholic men and women, all of whom have become nationally or even internationally prominent in their various fields. They view the modern world and its problems and indicate, each in his own field, what must be done to arrive at a solution: Pp. 231. $3.00. SISTERS OF THE VISITATION, 202 Bancroft Parkway, Wilming-ton 6, Delaware. Lights and Counsels, by the late Right Reverend Alfred A. Curtis, D.D., is a collection of brief spiritual thoughts, one for each day of the year. This is a new printing and now contains an index. Pp. 125. Paper 50c. Answers [The following answers are given by Father Joseph F. Gallen, S.J., professor cat~ort ldw at Woodstock College, Woodstock, Maryland.] --20 - John and. Mary, both of the Syrian rite, immigrated to this country and settled in a town that had only a church of the Latin rite. Thus both automatically passed to the Latin rite. Their daughter Rose, now a professed religious of perpetual vows, was baptized in this Latin "church and consequently is a Latin.~ Are my conclusions correct? No. John and l~.ary remained in the Syrian rite, since par-ticipation ,in another rite, no matter how prolonged, does not effect a change of rite (c. 98, ~ 5). Rose should have been baptized in the rite of her Syrian parents (c. 756, § 1),. She belongs to the rite in which she should ordinarily have been baptized, even if a 25O July, 1958 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS serious reason legitimated the baptism in another rite (c. 98, § 1), and is therefore of the Syrian rite. Her religious professions are valid, since the permission for an Oriental to enter a Latin novitate is required only for the liceity, not the validity, of the noviceship (c. 542, 2°).~ However, even though Rose is a professed of per-petual vows, this permission is still to be obtained. This whole subject and the m~nner of requesting the permission were explained in the REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, September, 1949, 241-54. Does there exist any canonical prohibition against institutes of men having authority over or the direction of
In: Gratchev , D A 2004 , ' Problematika termina abstraktnyj avtor i charakternye certy abstraktnych avtorov v russkich bol'sich narrativach 20-30-ch godov XX veka ' , Doctor of Philosophy .
This study is based on the twin exigencies of introducing the concept of abstract author into the scheme of narrative construction, and distinguishing sharply between this object of analysis and the concepts of concrete author and narrator. In accordance with the definition advanced by Wolf Schmid, whose vision on the issues of narrative instances appears most judicious, the abstract author ('der abstrakte Autor') can be defined as 'the principle that, in a work, determines the articulatory layer, the semantic layer, and the layer of the objectivity deployed, as well as the aesthetic organisation and the hierarchy of these layers in the total structure in one specific way' ('dasjenige Prinzip, das in einem Werk die sprachlautliche Schicht, die Bedeutungsschicht und die Schicht der dargestellten Gegenständlichkeiten sowie die ästhetische Organisation und Hierarchie dieser Schichten in der Gesamtstruktur so und nicht anders beschaffen sein lässt', Schmid 1973. S.24). More succinctly and generally, the abstract author (henceforth: AA) is the principle according to which the meaning of a literary work is constructed. If we wish to switch from phenomenological to structuralist terminology, we can define the AA as the construction principle of the paradigmatic elements of the work. Thus the AA is fundamentally distinguished from both the concrete author and from the narrator in whose name (voice) the story is being told – itself a creation of the AA. This means that the latter is not directly represented in the text, in view of the fact that it is a reconstructed virtual construction. Naturally, this aspect of the AA considerably complicates a study devoted to the reconstruction of various types of AAs as regards concrete literary texts (in our case, great Russian prose forms from the 1920s and 1930s) in view of the fact that it cannot be based on the principle of the reconstruction according to which the AA must be reconstructed. Taking into account that a) no single reconstruction principle could ever be exhaustively explained, and b) various interpretations of facts and motives are possible even within a single analytical doctrine, the final result of this kind of reconstruction will unavoidably contain fairly controversial or debatable aspects. In principle, a certain objectivity could be achieved by blending a large number of different analytical strategies in order to arrive at a reconstruction of the AA, but in view of the fact that this kind of undertaking is not able to be carried out within the framework of a dissertation project, one is obliged to accept a priori a certain sketchiness in the results obtained. As regards methodology, we considered it better to base our undertaking on a structuralistic approach. This does not mean, however, that we regard structuralism as a methodological panacea. Our choice was ultimately determined by the fact that the conclusions reached on the basis of structuralistic analysis are highly illustrative, in the sense that the mechanism of deduction can be represented in the form of logically unambiguous causality. At points where the conclusions of the structuralistic approach appeared to us to be incomplete representations of a work's meaning, we resorted to other approaches. In order to analyse texts from the period in question (the 1920s and 1930s) we applied an analysis model first presented by B. A. Uspensky, and subsequently elaborated by W. Schmid, albeit it with a few specifications, which will be discussed shortly. The Uspensky-Schmid model is based on the division and analysis of the narrative into five levels: spatial, temporal, phraseological, psychological and ideological. It is a rather economic and practical scheme which provides a thorough analysis. Our refinement refers only to the last, ideological, level. We recognize J. Lintvelt's view (Lintvelt 1981) which does not see this as a separate layer, basing his argument on its intertwining with other levels. However, W. Schmid insisted on its retention, indicating that it could also manifest itself independently of the other levels, namely, as a direct, explicit evaluation. In this case the ideological level is then a facultative phenomenon only functional in the narrative scheme of the text when there are explicit ideological utterances. We propose using an old definition of ideology set down by A. J. Greimas and J. Courtés, who, in Sémiotique. Dictionnaire raisonné de la théorie du langue (1979), define ideology as the syntagmatic aspect of the taxonomic concept of axiology. The acceptance of this definition brings with it a number of important consequences: 1) In view of the fact that the narrative text, a product of subjective consciousness, inevitably consists of axiologically meaningful relationships, the axiological level is an immanent element of every narrative text, independent of explicitly manifested ideological rhetoric. 2a) Regardless of its intertwining with the syntagmatics of other narrative levels, there is still the possibility of a paradigmatic reconstruction of the ideology, based on the axiomatics of these narrative levels. 2b) If the analysis of the other four levels is correctly executed, the ideology component will inevitably be the most concise, since it merely summarises all the conclusions that are drawn from analyses of the other levels and brings them into the required equilibrium. After all, to formulate it slightly differently, analysis means the exposure of the axiologically meaningful relationships that have been imposed on the text by the abstract author. Additionally, the mutual hierarchy of the narrative instances must be further determined, a specification one must consistently take into account as one reconstructs the AA. The point at issue here is the more detailed determination of the hierarchical dispositions of instances of abstract author and abstract reader due to Bely's death? Should Moscow be supplemented by the novel Petersburg by the same author because it is apparently symmetrical to Moscow? In that case, should we not also expand the notion of the analysed text to include the novel The silver dove, the first part of an unwritten trilogy of which the novel Petersburg is the second part, etc.? Such questions are allied to the concept of text itself and can arise in infinite shapes and quantities; it is clear that the AA's structure depends on how we respond to them. In our opinion the answers to such questions fall within the competency of the abstract reader who is, par excellence, sensitive to the literary work's nuances in meaning. For this reason we suggest representing the relationship between the abstract author and the abstract reader as an opposition between the principle to be reconstructed and the reconstructing principle, which presupposes a corresponding hierarchical disposition between both. Furthermore, more precision is needed with respect to the analytical methods used in this study. Taking into account the fact that, ideally, the perfectly accurate researcher should concur with the abstract reader, as outlined above, it is useful to call to mind the following aspects: a) the infinitely great competency of the abstract reader with regard to all intertextual connections of a given work and with regard to all meaningful connections, in all their variations, of the work with the extra-literary world – from social-political realia to the psychic circumstances of the concrete author. b) the infinite analytical flexibility of the abstract reader who uses the greatest possible quantity of analytical methods in his interpretative strategy, aiming at the most complete reconstruction of the AA. In view of the fact that, within the framework of a rather restricted study, it is not possible to present a more or less complete description of the AA of even a single work by means of the methodology of even a single analytical approach, it is advisable to limit the analysis to a single feature, albeit one that is shared by the majority of the chosen texts. This means we have mainly confined our efforts to the particular construction which governed the generation of the selected individual texts and which we could provisionally indicate as the abstract meta-author. We believe that the principle of negative anthropology, which – at least regarding Russian literature – was new in the first third of the twentieth century and which contains the denial or explicit 'denigration' of all manifestations of the specifically human, constitutes this kind of integral concept. We must emphasis that this concept – at least in its basic features – is not a twentieth-century invention. However, it does form a sharp contrast with literature of the nineteenth century imbued with humanism. For the analysis of this attitude, large-scale works of prose (novels, short stories) were chosen as the most representative for the 1920s and 1930s. The basis of the selection was the pursuit of maximum diversity with regard to ideology (in the narrowest sense of the word), genre and stylistics, and pragmatics. Taking their fundamental principles into account, the texts were chosen from the following literary movements or paradigms: (post)symbolism (Bely, Moscow), skaz (Klyèkov, Èertuxinskij balakir'), (post)modernism (Nabokov, The Gift), socialist realism (Gaidar, The Tale of the Military Secret). During the course of the analysis it became clear that the following two fundamental constructive principles that nourish the concept of negative anthropology could be identified in the above-mentioned texts. The essence of the matter is that W. Booth (Booth 1961) recognised the usefulness of designing a system of narrative hierarchy within communicative interaction. He defined a receptive side for each of the positions: in his scheme, the concrete author (Flesh-and-Blood Author) was correlated to the concrete reader (Fleshand- Blood Re-Creator), the narrator (or, in his terminology, Teller of This Story) was correlated to the fictive reader (Credulous Listener), and, finally, the abstract author (Implied Author) was correlated to the Postulated Reader, or the 'abstract reader', as Wolf Schmid would refer to him later. In Schmid's view, the abstract reader is the 'ideal recipient of the author', a definition with which we entirely agree. In our opinion, however, this does not apply to the phylogenetic constituent of this concept as Schmid tends to present it. In his view, the picture of the abstract reader seems to be determined in advance by the corresponding structural configurations of the work; in other words, it is a more or less passive communicative duplication of the AA. However, further examination indicates that in the reasoning in question the objectivity of the semantic configurations in the text is implicitly postulated; in other words, there is a presumption that the full (all-embracing) meaning of the work is not only given a priori but is also materially present in the text components themselves. In reality, however, the full meaning (and here we concur with W. Iser) is realised by the reader who fills in, as it were, the gaps in meaning intentionally or unintentionally embedded in the work by the author. In theory, there are an infinitely large number of such gaps and, correspondingly, every time a reader fills in a different number or group of gaps one can speak of a different structure of the total meaning of the work. Only God is capable of filling in all the gaps, making Him the most ideal recipient to figure in all models of narrative instances according to the communicative model. Nonetheless, we must also take into consideration the possibly less obvious fact that the text whose meaning is to be reconstructed in the analysis is not a protoplasmic entity but the product of certain conventions or analytic procedures. Both the conventions and the analytic procedures applied to the text belong to the competencies of the abstract reader. We shall explain this in more detail below. When dealing with, for example, Pushkin's novel Yevgeny Onegin, it is clear that the text itself provides no answer to the question whether this work has been completed. Our decision to regard this work as finished or unfinished affects its significance and, correspondingly, the picture of the AA. In our opinion, the instance of the abstract reader is responsible for the decision concerning the boundaries of the text; in other words, the decision to limit interpretative activity to eight chapters, or ten, or to state, as a matter of principle, that the work has only one boundary – a beginning. In each of these cases, the complete meaning of the work will have a different structure. The same argument can be applied with regard to varying editions of one and the same work. Consider the case of collected stories. How can one correctly determine this text's boundaries? Should we reconstruct each story's AA, so that something like a portrait gallery is created, or is it more sensible to regard a collection of stories as a single text and to reconstruct an integral AA on the basis of all the stories? Or, as in the case of the novel Moscow by Andrei Bely analysed in this dissertation: is it valid to regard the three sections of this work as separate texts – after all, they were published as separate books at different times, and the stylistic variations are evident? Is it valid to speak about an AA as a self-contained concept in view of the fact that the novel actually remained unfinished 1. Space destabilisation In view of the fact that it is only through history that man realises himself as an intrinsic integrity, he is most easily marginalised in the most unequivocal, i.e., most effective, way in a universe in which history in the usual sense of the term is seriously problematised by spatio-temporal ambivalence. The spatio-temporal continuum evaporates in this set-up, which may manifest itself in various ways but essentially involves the same mechanism. In some texts, normally seen as belonging to the modernistic paradigms (in our case, Moscow, Èertuxinskij balakir', The Gift), a destabilisation of the normal world view has occurred and this is more or less evident to the reader: the attributes of a certain point in space can easily belong to a different point, just as the attributes of a certain object can turn out to be the attributes of a different object. One spatial area can be projected upon a different spatial area, and, in such cases, the boundaries between the areas become so transparent that distinction between them is no longer possible. All objects and points in this kind of space enter, as it were, into relationships of mutual equivalence, or if we regard it in semiotic terms, all objects enter into relationships of crosswise reference without having an unambiguously phraseable singular denotation. Another way to destabilise space, however paradoxical it may sound, is by structuring space by means of mythopoetic patterns. We believe that mythopoetic structures occur in every narrative text, which seems largely self-evident. In view of the fact that in narrative texts we deal with subjectivity pur sang, it is perfectly logical that this subjectivity will lend varying axiological colour to the different segments of space. In conjunction with our cognitive schemes, i.e., the structure of our brains, this colour is generated according to the principle of binary opposition. In this way each narrative space has an axiological marking on the basis of duality (high-low, here-there, citycountry, etc.), for which in historical terms the priority lies with the myth as the first (spontaneous) project in human history to be given structure. The issue is merely one concerning the extent to which this mythopoetic – or as one may prefer, quasimythopoetic – scheme becomes manifest, and even the rather confined analysis we have performed demonstrates that this is largely the situation in Russian prose of the 1920s and 1930s. It is understandable that in both cases space destabilisation results in the elimination of the human subject. In the former case, when space is characterised by a high degree of relativity, man adopts in a metonymic way space's capacity to undergo all kinds of metamorphoses whose degree of radicalness can vary: from the possibility of metempsychosis, as in the case of the reincarnated protagonists in Nabokov's The Gift, to the division of protagonists in a synchronous system of look-alikes, of which each one has a role in the distinction of meaning and which only begin to acquire consolidated meaning when they have been conceptually united (cf. the Korobkin brothers, Mandro – Dromarden, Lizaša – Leonora, and Kierko – Titelev in Moscow; Ul'jana – Maria in Èertuxinskij balakir'; the whole herd of doubles in The Gift). In the latter case, when space has been structured according to the myth, for a number of reasons man is also eliminated: a) man, as we know him, necessarily realises himself in history (only God realises himself in infinity), whereas myth knows no linearity and therefore no history. Thus only a certain notion of man or a model of subjectivity can possibly realise itself in myth, but not man as such b) the concept of realisation itself (of man or of other objects that occupy mythical space) is weakened here by virtue of the fact that determinism rules in myth – a genuine paradigmatic formation – which substantially weakens the independence and the responsibility of the protagonists somehow engaged in realising themselves c) which also directly combines points a) and b): myth, which does not recognise the singularity of here and now, does not accommodate the aspect of subjectivity, which is a constitutive element of man (and without this relationship, there can be no subjectivity). 2. Theatricalisation of narrative space An important factor in the construction of the great narrative forms of this period is the theatricalisation of space: in some cases the accent is placed on an analogous segmentation of space (Gaidar) when, for example, the entire adventurous part of the narrative is linked to a concrete topos, while the lyrical part, as a whole, is connected to another area, etc.; in other words, the narrative space, just as in theatre space, is divided into semiologically clearly delineated segments. In other cases the theatricalisation can be achieved by assigning purely dramatic characteristics to the protagonists. In this latter case there is a strikingly varied list of procedures that can be applied to create a 'theatrical text' in which the majority of the protagonists, or even all of them, are assigned a role. The most prominent technique is the construction of a character on the basis of a marionette or automatic dummy (Bely) with the corresponding imitation of its expressiveness and speech which become isomorphous with the discrete, emphatically affected expressiveness of a doll, where the character disintegrates into disassociated sememes and is only held together by the context. In such cases, to emphasise the artificiality a complicated, deviating syntax and an extremely extensive vocabulary of occasionalisms is employed. A less conspicuous strategy (as in Gaidar and also in many social-realist authors of the 1920s and 1930s) consists of a return to the constructive configurations of pre-realistic theatre in which the only possible actors are masks or, to use a more recent term, types, whose dynamics are determined entirely by fable and not by any intrinsic structure or stratification of character. Each of them has an ontologically determined role (of course, this concerns only the ontology of that specific space) and the mode of existence here is such that there are no a priori opportunities to switch roles; this space simply does not enable this kind of transformation. A strictly natural effect of this type of situation is the extremely normative behaviour of the characters in both their actions and their verbal expressions. Another method of desecrating narrative space is rooted in the symbolistic paradigm (or to be more precise, in the paradigm of early Russian symbolism) which is typified by the representation of this world as a close-knit semiotic universe whose characters refer to a supratextual substance that governs this world. A consequence of this worldview is the acceptance of fairly strict definitions of determinism and its unavoidable companion destiny. The concept of destiny assumes a certain marked role for each of the characters; after all, a complete behavioural paradigm (as regards destiny) can be created for a (marked) role, whereas this is impossible for the vital realisation of a person in his existence: in this latter case only the syntagmatic logical coherence can be determined, and that coherence is incomplete by definition. The narrative in The Gift (as in several other of Nabokov's novels) is constructed in this way, i.e., in functional-behavioural terms of destiny. This is also the case in Èertuxinskij balakir' by Klyèkov, in which the centre of the narrative is occupied by a kind of minus type: a character that not only lacks psychology (in as much as this kind of reduction is possible for humans), but also every manifestation of his own will which could testify to even an illusory independence from the functional universe. We must consider that a person's dramatic accessories (e.g., a person on stage) are essentially emancipated from existence and as a result revealingly attest to the nature of the processes that eliminate humans from the prose of the era. The observation of AA structures in 1920s and 1930s Russian prose thus offers the opportunity to bring to light a collection of these texts' implicit features, which manifest themselves in the first third of the twentieth century and which consequently enabled radical qualitative change in the entire structure of Russian prose. If executed with sufficient accuracy, the reconstruction of AAs in works from different periods can offer new insight into the history of literature. In more precise terms, it can open a new history of literature, a history engaged in the diachronous modification of the models according to which creative texts are generated at a certain points in time.