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Interview with Fred Mastrangelo. Topics include: The history of the Mastrangelo name. How his father immigrated to the United States from Italy and became a tailor in Fitchburg, MA. What Fitchburg was like when Fred was growing up with a diverse population. His father and uncle's carpentry business. Fred's education. The Angel Hotel in Hyannis, MA. The different businesses Fred has started. How kitchens in America are different from those in Europe and how European kitchens have changed over time. Fred's children and their occupations. The traditions Fred carried on with his family. Memories from his childhood. The house his father built. What his parents were like. ; 1 LINDA ROSE: Okay. This is Linda Rose and we're on at the Center for Italian Culture. FRED MASTRANGELO: That's right. LINDA ROSE: Right? FRED MASTRANGELO: Mm-hmm. LINDA ROSE: And [unintelligible - 00:00:10]. FRED MASTRANGELO: It's Mastrangelo. It's just the way it sounds, M-A-S-T-R-A-N-G-E-L-O. LINDA ROSE: So can you give me a little bit of a history. FRED MASTRANGELO: Obviously when my dad emigrated here to the United States and attempted to get assimilated into society, he felt that in business purposes that a shorter name would be much better because he was competing with the Browns and the Whites and the Smith, and so he just took the last part of the name and called it Angel and used it as his business name. We in turn carried it on. We've never changed it legally to Angels, you know, but it's an alias that makes it easy, because Angel or Angel with tailor, which is what he started his business, so it's a lot easier to say and anybody to know. That's the reason for the Angel name. LINDA ROSE: Okay. Now can you give me… FRED MASTRANGELO: Interesting story. He emigrated over here in the late 1890s, young man, 21 years old. He had $21 in his pocket when he landed in New York and obviously moved in with friends from the old country. And like all immigrants, he had to learn the trade. His trade was a tailor and so he worked as a tailor in the Bronx in New York for a number of years, but becoming independent – now you got to know that my dad had no education, you know, relatively speaking. He's a very smart man, and I'm not saying that 2 lightly because he had to cope with all of the language difficulties in a whole bit. After a few years in the Bronx, he went… he started to feel his oats, as all young men did and wanted to become independent, and then he realized how life in the country was. He analyzed it as he tell us and says, "Look if I – look, for example, I settled in Florida and they had a [unintelligible - 00:01:55], no one would buy my suits. If I went to Pennsylvania and joined the Lewis [coal] mine strike, the miners wouldn't buy my suits." So somebody told him in New York that there was a little town known as Fitchburg, Mass that was diversified, even at that time was very diversified. They had paper mills. They had industrial complexes. They had their [unintelligible - 00:02:14]. They had a fantastic ethnic background made up of Italians, Jews, Irish, French, all in their own colonies, and it was a such diversification that my dad said, "Gee, if, you know, everyone else go down, at least [unintelligible - 00:02:30] the guys will buy my suits, so independent [unintelligible - 00:02:34] group will buy. So that up to business per se, in the community, if one segment or area dropped, at least I have an opportunity to market my product." So he moved to Fitchburg and started Angel Tailor in Main Street. That tailor shop right now is presently occupied by Mario the Tailor, whose family also came from the same part of Italy that my dad did. So, that was the start of Angel. As my mother says, your father wasn't a very good tailor but he was a hell of a businessman – and that's true; he was. He was extremely marketing-oriented and he employed at the time, at the height of his career, somewhere in the 19… part of the World War I, at least six or seven tailors, so he was doing a 3 very lucrative business. That was the start of the tailor shop. LINDA ROSE: Okay, just getting back, when did he come to Fitchburg? FRED MASTRANGELO: I'm going to say probably in the early 1900s and he spent about two, three or four years in New York and then became independent. I hadn't documented to trace it down, but I'm sure I could. You know, I just hadn't done it. LINDA ROSE: And did he travel to the United States by himself? FRED MASTRANGELO: Yes, mm-hmm. LINDA ROSE: How old was he? FRED MASTRANGELO: 21. LINDA ROSE: So 21in the market? FRED MASTRANGELO: Mm-hmm. LINDA ROSE: So young to see a man… FRED MASTRANGELO: No, it's just that through the contacts, as all immigrants have, there was a good established Italian culture community, as it were, as I indicated to you before, very strong ethnic groups in Fitchburg, which makes up the strength of Fitchburg. And he made contacts with some of the people from the [unintelligible - 00:04:20] which is the old country and the [unintelligible - 00:04:22] for example and some other people in Water Street, which was where the Italians lived, and decided to do it and that's what he did. As the business got successful, he bought a place on Granich Street, right above the so-called Water Street Complex and that's where we grew up as kids, so it's a fun time. LINDA ROSE: That was your Fitchburg [unintelligible - 00:04:48].4 FRED MASTRANGELO: Mm-hmm. It's great, great time and, you know, the community was close-knit. It was friendly, more kids that you can stick at and so we had an enjoyable childhood. LINDA ROSE: Do you remember any particular? FRED MASTRANGELO: In reference to? LINDA ROSE: Any special time? FRED MASTRANGELO: No, it's just that in retrospect, as I look back on it—and this isn't particularly just with our family—but the old-time immigrants had a flare. They had a strong cultural belief and tradition, and as they became involved in the American way of life, they adapted easily. They still maintained their all, you know, language and culture and religious backgrounds, but all of them, regardless of their occupation, believed in family number one and continuation of the traditions that they've learned which makes [unintelligible - 00:05:40] and integrity and working hard to success. I think those were the qualifications, particularly in my dad's generation. We're just so strong and it stuck in my mind. Now as I reach the autumn of my years, remembering my childhood, you know, we respected them and the authority that they [brought up]. Obviously it was interesting because as kids, we were brought into the parochial school system. I'm sure [unintelligible - 00:06:12] about that a bit, but that was quite an experience because we had it. In my particular class maybe three or four Italians in a strong Irish St. Bernard's grade school complex, and every day was a tremendous experience for us, particularly maintaining our culture. And you know how kids can be, so we had an awful lot of fun defending our name. LINDA ROSE: Because they give it fun back then?5 FRED MASTRANGELO: It was a learning experience, but nothing earth-shattering, and of course the sisters got left on the farm during their early years, as you know the rules of going to parochial school. They were hard taskmasters. LINDA ROSE: Mm-hmm. FRED MASTRANGELO: Delightful growing up in that community and to mingle with the various groups and… not really, it's just that we knew they were Irish and we were Italians, and that's the way it worked – but no, nothing like in today's current situation where bias is so strong and dominant, you know, no. We defended our positions and they defended theirs, but we got along [eventually]. LINDA ROSE: But the [unintelligible - 00:07:33]? FRED MASTRANGELO: Indirectly but nothing strong. We had large classes too, I mean, 90 in a class; it was, you know, a bit large. LINDA ROSE: That's a really – 90? FRED MASTRANGELO: In many classes. I think my first grade class is something like 76, 77; it's unbelievable. Oh, yeah, all in a row and all maintain the discipline and all maintained that pecking order. The smart kids sit up front, the dummies sit in the back. LINDA ROSE: Really? So it wasn't alphabetized? FRED MASTRANGELO: [No]. LINDA ROSE: So where were you? FRED MASTRANGELO: God knows, from grade to grade, probably raising hell in everyone of them. LINDA ROSE: You remember that? FRED MASTRANGELO: It sounds like my sister. LINDA ROSE: So it's great. I got [unintelligible - 00:08:16] movie but you don't remember. FRED MASTRANGELO: Mm-hmm.6 LINDA ROSE: Is that your experience? FRED MASTRANGELO: Yes ma'am, mm-hmm. [Unintelligible - 00:08:23] very friendly and as I said, it was just a little bit of…we didn't realize it at the time, but later on, it's a little bit of, you know, and likely so, the pride of their ethnic background, the pride of our ethnic background. We would have little conflict, I think no [unintelligible - 00:08:42]. Yes, yes, but the Water Street Complex was Italian. I mean all those markets and stalls were Italian, but obviously the parish, St. Bernard's Parish, is made up of the Irish people that lived—that wasn't the dominant; the dominant group up there were Italians up from Water Street. The Irish lived in the so-called Tahoe District, which is where the present St. Bernard's High School is. That was there area. If we crossed the bridge, we were in their territory, and they cross it the other way, they were in our territory. And I don't mean to constantly harp on this. It's just a little bit of a background – that's all. LINDA ROSE: That's important. FRED MASTRANGELO: Now they're changing… they're changing that area but there were still the great community [unintelligible - 00:09:39] you know, the [unintelligible - 00:09:43] element, the strong Finnish colony, the French [unintelligible - 00:09:48] area, I mean you know they've been infiltrated by other cultures, but at the time we were growing up, those were strong enclaves. If I were a politician and wanted to feel my oaths, I would have come to Fitchburg, because if I could cope with all of these groups, I would know I have a great stand. And they're strong dominant groups, no question about it, but… go ahead, go ahead.7 LINDA ROSE: Were there any rites of passage? FRED MASTRANGELO: Yeah, that was part of it, but I can't think of anything too dominant; you know, it's kids' things. The guys used to come down with me and we'd swim at the lake and we had fun together, but if they took the issue with a certain fact, then we'd stand up – because that part of the culture. If it was Mastrangelo, it was Mastrangelo, don't insult my name, don't insult my family and vice versa. Don't mess with the [O'Malley's] and the [Riley's] and, you know – we were just not… but we are harping on something that we shouldn't harp on so… LINDA ROSE: I was thinking more about right… FRED MASTRANGELO: All through the grade schools, from first grade to eight. LINDA ROSE: I had heard that… FRED MASTRANGELO: I suppose. LINDA ROSE: Maybe you were a little too young. FRED MASTRANGELO: Right, I think the important fact there is the strong mark that my dad and his people like him, marked in the community. That's the important part of our discussion. LINDA ROSE: Now… FRED MASTRANGELO: Yes. And the interesting approach was, as I indicated before, all of the immigrants had a trade. My father's brother, Alfonse, was a carpenter by trade. My dad when he was successful in the tailor business brought him over and Al lived with my dad. And to keep him out of trouble, they started a little woodworking shop, known as the Angel Novelty Company, and that was the start of the Angel Company per se. My dad had become successful and he bought a building off of Route 2A in Lunenburg Street, which is the halfway bakery at the time and that's where they started manufacturing wooden novelties. So, that 8 finally led to interior millwork, so the Angel Company became very dominant in interior millwork and by that, I mean doors and windows and corner cabinets. Now the important thing was that was also a successful business. I mean prohibition hit and that lasted a relatively short period of time; the brothers decided that it has nothing to do since the prohibition is going to be repealed as they get the restaurant seating, so they manufactured a line of wooden bar seating equipment that even today, I can recognize if I go to on an old-time bar and sit down, because it's the most comfortable goddamn thing you ever sat in your life. It was very successful and that was the flipside that they used throughout their business ability when… it was successful during that time period, manufacturing the restaurant seating, as I indicated, doors and windows—and you may not remember this because you're too young for it—but at one time, many of the houses had the so-called milkman access. There was a spot on your front door, as you buy a front door that the milkman will bring the milk in, you would open it from the inside and to take your milk in. And they were very successful on that approach and they did – as I said, it was novelty items, but then they changed the name to Strong Millwork at the Angel Company and that started… I'm going to say the real strong starting point was right after the end of World War II and then the so-called climb back in economic climate, and then the recession hit. And my father often—my mother often tells the story about my dad—but he told me himself; he said in recession he had another guy who's jumping out of the window. He said to himself, "This country is so strong; this country, there's so 9 much going for it that it can't go bad." So while everybody else was panicking, he took everything he owned, put mortgages on it, all his lifesavings, and invested in mills. This was the full run of the side of the Angel Company on Broad Street, which is a huge 100,000 square foot complex, and he bought mills on River Street. He bought property in downtown Fitchburg, and that was the success of his operations as a businessman. He brought his brother along with him. They were successful in that operation. So, on Broad Street, in this 100,000-square foot plant, they employed about 110 people and they changed their marketing approach, from restaurant seating to interior mill work—stone doors, windows, corner cabinets, kitchen cabinets—very large well-equipped plant, very successful through the years. LINDA ROSE: Now before you go on… FRED MASTRANGELO: By that time, he had sold his tailor shop to a shop, by the name of Sccino, which you may have interviewed. It's Sccino, S-C-C-I-N-O. It's another well-known name in Italian culture here in the Fitchburg area, and he spent all of his time devoted to the Angel Company. LINDA ROSE: Okay. FRED MASTRANGELO: And now that was roughly, as I indicated, from '38 to well, all the way through until the day he died, which was, you know, in the '60s…'50s and '60s. Now it was a full-grown conclusion that the boys, myself and my cousin who's the same age, Alfonse' son, would take all of the business. So after we graduated in college, I went to the service for two years. When I came back out, we got involved with the business, and at that time, the two brothers, Frank and Al, passed away within two to three years of each other. So we 10 took over and changed it from the millwork company into a kitchen cabinet company, and we were very, very successful. The interesting thing, reverting back to the Italian culture, is the fact that at the Angel Company, I bet you, 70 percent of the employees, even though we employed 100 and some on, were of Italian background. And I can see them doing that because they still spoke the language and they still have that strong cultural feeling, and they did everything in their power to work with the community. Yeah, tables and benches, very similar to breakfast nooks – remember the yellow old-fashioned breakfast, that type of concept. Yeah. LINDA ROSE: Mm-hmm. FRED MASTRANGELO: We're very, very successful on that because through a business, we feel everybody got involved with the problems and, you know, that's fine. LINDA ROSE: [Unintelligible - 00:16:52] FRED MASTRANGELO: That's a good sign. LINDA ROSE: Okay. So who was…? FRED MASTRANGELO: Yeah, that's when I stay put, that's exactly how it worked. My dad was in marketing, sales unit, and Alfonse, because of his woodworking background, handled the production, and they got along very well on that – because I tell you that it started with his brother and they were so close and his brother was a woodworker and a carpenter, and so it led to doing something with Alfonse, which in turn led to the growth of the business. LINDA ROSE: Right. [Unintelligible - 00:17:30] your father, Frank… FRED MASTRANGELO: That's a minor incident. LINDA ROSE: [Unintelligible - 00:17:32]?11 FRED MASTRANGELO: Yeah, right. In becoming a tailor, he just had designed a ruler to help measure pants; that was insignificant. It had no bearing on this over all, because it's just a minor type of… just like I had pants on my own right now that are worthless, but they don't mean a damn thing, right. What's important, if you look at the headlines of that paper, you'll see that the impetus is on sales and marketing, and that's the knowledge that he brought in. That's the ability to be ahead of his time, which is why he bought mills and why he turned his business ability into more than just making suits. If he were only to be a tailor, he would just still fight to go on a tailoring business in the community such as Fitchburg, but if you were a manufacturer, you had 52 states from which to draw, the world from which to draw, and my father saw that and his brother went along with it and they became – we changed it to Angel Novelty; it's when, Ed, my cousin and I came up, we decided it had to make sense so we changed the name to the Angel Company. You got to remember, the work there is youngsters, both my cousin and I all our lives, because it was the rule of stepping in, in time, and so it became very strong in millwork, and by millwork, I mean things that had to be milled: doors, windows, pine products, kitchen cabinets, corner cabinets, balustrades, stairwells. And we had a very strong – the marketing approach was to sell through distributors, someone termed '[south] lumberyards', so people like Webber Lumber Company that was in Fitchburg were our outlets. There is no such thing as a Home Depot in those days. They were all lumberyards, all small individual minor power operations. They did it together. They did together, you know in their 12 own way, uneducated men but very smart, in their own way test marketed, analyzed it, brought in a strong group of sales managers, production managers, accounting experts, because it was a multimillion dollar business. [Unintelligible - 00:19:56] LINDA ROSE: [Unintelligible - 00:19:59] market for that? FRED MASTRANGELO: [Unintelligible - 00:20:01] took over. This is in time when Dr. [Giolidante] was expected to start his father's shoe shop. He got smart; he became a doctor. That's what made him a smart man, because he did it at the time when he was independently a pioneer and, like many of those cohorts, had to do it. But like all that was so-called immigrants, number one on their list is to make their life better for their kids and they recognized that education was important for you to make it. If you had the wherewithal, you went beyond high school, into college. We were very lucky that he felt that way. I went to… after I got out of St. Bernard's, I graduated from Philips Andover Academy in '46, and then I went to Boston University, graduated in the class of '50. Actually I worked my tail off. I went to four years of college in three years by going to summer school and I had [unintelligible - 00:21:04]. LINDA ROSE: So why did you want to do that? FRED MASTRANGELO: I want to get the hell out of it and to work right away. I was working, because in the group of college people that I roomed with, they were all ex-veterans from World War II so they straightened me out, yes. And then I went… as soon as I graduated, for all my work, I went to Miami for three years, so I was in the service during the Korean War. Now I spent all my life in the military going to school. I went from private one to a second lieutenant in three years,13 so that was all due to schooling. I spent my lifetime in Miami Boarding School, which is fun. LINDA ROSE: So it was a… FRED MASTRANGELO: Oh God, yes. Even today in retrospect, I look back and say, you know, school's into this. Thank God it was fantastic because instead of climbing up from the bottom of the ladder, they put me in the middle of the ladder so, you know, that was a very fortunate approach. But would I have wanted to do this? I don't know. I always have misgiving. I should have done something else, etcetera, etcetera, etcetera, which is why I got involved with many other businesses, such as aviation, which is my first love, and my cousin with a motel in Hyannis, which was fun to do. I ran a Japanese restaurant. I built condominiums and [unintelligible - 00:22:19]. I had a ball going beyond the Angel Company but that's me personally. LINDA ROSE: Yeah, so coming up forward with building, you have [unintelligible - 00:22:31]. FRED MASTRANGELO: Well, once again, as the business started to develop, we turned it into a very successful prefinished cabinet company. The Angel cabinet line was well known in the northeast, and when I got out of the service, the industry was changing. I recognized the fact that instead of just millwork, we had to get into something else that was currently… we're losing our doors and our windows to the aluminum people. We were losing some of our product line, because they were building ranch houses rather than two-storey homes, and so we lost some of the product line, and so I was instrumental in turning the company to a prefinished cabinet company. I remember the first—we had always made kitchen cabinets; we had never done 14 prefinished cabinetry—and I remember the first cabinet we did; we thought it was absolutely gorgeous, but it was an abomination because we knew nothing about finishing so we had to just do it, to develop it, and that turned out to be very, very successful. With that success, obviously, a nice start to gain more independence because of our financial approach and we thought in terms of other investments. I had thought at the time that prefabrication was coming into this in the housing market, and I said, "Gee, I've been leading a big factory here. We got a fantastic approach. We know how to work with wood. Why am I thinking in terms of prefabrication?" But we decided that instead of prefabricating homes because they're all different, we would get involve with something that would be standardized, and motels seemed to be – all the rooms are the same. We put up 20 units and, you know, 20 walls the size, and so we spent a year looking for a site to build and we thought in terms of Hyannis because the Cape at that time was in its [growth] period. This goes back to 1955, '56, I mean, that time period. We found a delightful site on Route 132 that is now completely overgrown, but we were fortunate. We designed a motel, called it the Angel Motel, built it and – we knew nothing about the motel business. We knew very little about prefabrication, but the two seemed to work. We built it in the factory, shipped it down by truck, put it up in 30 days, opened up, and the first season was a huge success. Then we realized that the motel business was a fun thing to do. We paid for it, we did it off in something like five years, because here was a business that had no accounts receivable, that had no [late effect] because we hired high 15 school girls to clean; it had no merchandising inventory, and every night, you pick up, you know, X amount of dollars in cash, so it was a fun thing to do. And we sold it about three years ago, and I did. I mean, during that time, I got involved with the flight instruction and selling of aircraft at the Fitchburg Airport with another chap, a partner of mine, and we started the Silver Wings Company. We trained students how to fly and we sold type of aircrafts. Now it was fun because you could jump in a plane at Fitchburg, land at Hyannis and walk to the site, so both Dad and I used to fly down periodically, you know, in a matter of 20-30 minutes and walk way to the motel, so that was a beautiful approach to it. As I indicated, that was also successful. LINDA ROSE: What is the hotel called now? FRED MASTRANGELO: They've torn it down. They've put instead a mall now. Right after that, what was – it's interesting some of the stuff I've done and it sounds like I'm blowing my own horn, and I don't mean to. LINDA ROSE: No, it's important. FRED MASTRANGELO: Cleaning up and laundry were just coming in, okay. I've been involved with a group of investors and we started this, [Taco Outfit]. We're the first cleanup and laundry in Fitchburg. We had the second one on Duck Mill Road. It sounded like a great idea because the concept was outstanding. In other words, you put in machines, 24 hours a day, people would come in with quarters and you go get them the next morning, and it sounded like you make an awful lot of money because you know it was unattended. Well, we learned the hard way then. The first week, every called "liberty man," every oil man, every mechanic 16 brought in their overalls and they destroyed the machine. So that was a fun thing to do, but a terrible business decision. Now, of course, it's changed, as you know, because there are usually attendants in there. Then at the same time, right after that, I got involved with a group of people and we… well, I shouldn't say right after that. After Ed and I decided we had enough with the Angel Company, which is back in the '70s, I got involved establishing my own business because I was strong in marketing and I started Angel and Associates, which is a small advertising company. I said, "Gee, you know, the Fitchburg—as my dad said, you know, said in the past—Fitchburg area lends itself with someone who can carry some marketing, like the big boys do into a small-time operation," so I started an individual advertising. That was my background in college, marketing and advertising, and I had a number of the towns in Fitchburg that I would do their advertising for, both the newspaper, establish on TV, mostly paperwork ads and so on. One of my accounts was a friend of a friend who had a Japanese restaurant in Amherst, Mass and I did his advertising and it was very successful. And we got involved in saying, "Gee, you know, what should be done is something like McDonald's, except in Japanese style, and we would have…" He said he thought it was a hell of an idea. We would have a place on the Cape, because that's where all the activity was, but instead of 15 Japanese chefs chopping and doing things, we would have one in the window and you'd drive up and get your Chinese takeout. He thought it was like… yeah, so we spent a year looking at that. And at that time, right across the street from the Angel Motel was a Chinese 17 restaurant that had gone under. We made a bid for it and changed that concept and opened up the second Japanese restaurant, full-time scale with the chefs at the table. We had 12 tables and 12 Japanese chefs and that was an interesting experience. That's a whole another story, but it was fun to do. And so what happened in my business life and the reason for this spouting and rambling is that you asked if I have ever done something else besides. Well, yes, in later years, I did explore, but they still directly involved marketing and sales. That was my forte and I just had a ball in some of the things that I had done. Some were successful; some utter failures but an awful lot of interests. LINDA ROSE: You mentioned that you and your cousin were [unintelligible - 00:29:27]. FRED MASTRANGELO: We sold it. LINDA ROSE: Okay. FRED MASTRANGELO: Yup. LINDA ROSE: And that was a mistake? FRED MASTRANGELO: Yes. And the other thing too is, of course, having brought up the company into the 20th century with prefinished cabinetry, when we sold the company and I thought it would be summary… a retirement, I lasted maybe about five weeks and my sister said, "Get on and go do something, you're driving me crazy." At the time, one of my good competitors had an opening, who would open a retail store in Shrewsbury, Mass, selling kitchen cabinetry, which does a full run of the so-called design centers, which you now see. I went down there and I started to work with him, and after the second year, I had done enough selling so that the business just about tripled and he said, "Why 18 don't you take it over?" So I turned around and took over and turned that in what they call [Margelo] Kitchens, and we had a retail store on Route 9 in Shrewsbury. It was very, very successful for about five or six or seven years. We had a staff of four designers, five installers and we sold a design and custom work for kitchen cabinetry, which is a fascinating business, lost our lease and – at the time, I had some, I had my daughter working for me, and I said, "Christina, you have to go find another spot." And then one day, we woke up and said, "This is crazy. Why don't we, you know, we pay out our bills and let's shut it down?" She was up to here with it and she had had enough and I had had enough. It demanded a lot of our attention, being once again a small manpower operation, and so I said that enough is enough and we liquidated the business. About three weeks later, I got a call from one of my competitors and explained our present situation, I still work in the kitchen industry from one of my competitors on a part-time basis and I fully enjoy it. It's gone from cupboards to furniture. You got to bear in mind that cupboards… the word "cupboards" means cup boards. They were boards that were put up that you put your cups on. In the old days, you had you big stove then you had shelving in which you put cups and your dishes, and then sooner or later, somebody put doors on them and turned them into cabinets. Then, instead of going from the so-called pantry kitchen concept, the Americans and others in their own home, decided that they needed cabinetry in their kitchen and they didn't have maids and pantries and butlers anymore, and so we… it developed into where I'm putting furniture on four walls. The kitchen history has turned into putting custom 19 furniture, as you have in your house, as I have in my house, and with it came the changes in appliances, came the changes in countertops, came the changes in living, came the changes in microwave cooking – the whole thing has progressed. It's the most important room in the home. That's where the fun has come, and staying abreast with it has been, you know, it's remarkable what has happened in the industry, from just cupboards, you know, to literally thousands and thousands of dollars spent in furniture in the home. It's not unusual to see a $70,000-80,000 kitchen. LINDA ROSE: So… FRED MASTRANGELO: The Europeans, as we said, have developed this so-called kitchen concept. The Europeans designed kitchen cabinetry [unintelligible - 00:32:59] they were the forerunners of some of the present and modern day, and so well designed for one reason. One is most Europeans do daily shopping. They go out to the market— in particular, the Italians—they go down to the market and buy that fresh, you know, fruits and vegetables and take them home and cook and go down again, so they didn't really have the need for the tremendous amounts spent on appliances or refrigeration, that type of thing. Of course, it's changed a lot now but that's the background. That's number one. Number two, when you sell a house in Europe, you take the cabinets with you, and Americans attached it to the wall, they're going to stay here. The European concept develops so that you just undo them and take them with you, because they didn't have many, many cabinets because of the concept of shopping everyday at the marketplace. But they were instrumental in developing the so-called sleek sophisticated post-1938 modern approach and just recently,20 the past decade, this high streamline effect that they've done some beautiful work, and the Americans have copied them. It's been a fun business. LINDA ROSE: What do you see at the future for those? FRED MASTRANGELO: We have yet… we haven't touched the potential in kitchen cabinetry because every home you see, sooner or later, works in the premise that you get to keep up with the Joneses, which is step number one. You got to stay advance with style. The appliance factory has changed tremendously. No one used this microwave cooking until recently; that's changing. Refrigeration has changed in concept; dishwashing – you know, I see a more sophisticated sleek utilization of the kitchen. It's still kind of [unintelligible - 00:34:44] of the family gathering, but making it a lot more efficient, so you go out and do what you're supposed to do because we're just running to keep up living today, so the American public, in particular, want to spend less time in the kitchen and more time up playing tennis, golf and bridge. LINDA ROSE: Can you see that in [unintelligible - 00:35:01] culture? FRED MASTRANGELO: I think they will. I think as they start to advance in electronic technology, you find the same concept going on where you can press the button, you know, and electronically you get food processed into whatever cooking, stirs it in, and 30 seconds later, you have your seven-course meal. You'll always have that so-called throwback in the old days when the kitchen was a warm friendly approach, but I think that in time, the changes that will come will be electronically. The appliances will change dramatically, and with them, the lesser need for storage and lesser food preparation.21 LINDA ROSE: I thought [unintelligible - 00:35:42] electronic cabinet. FRED MASTRANGELO: Yes ma'am – yeah, yeah, no question about it, yeah. LINDA ROSE: That would be amazing [unintelligible - 00:35:046] what do you think your father would [say]? FRED MASTRANGELO: He would have been the first one to say, "Yeah, let's go for it." LINDA ROSE: Yeah. FRED MASTRANGELO: And the ability to take a shot into… foresee the future, , you know be ahead of this time and… they just didn't sit back and say, well, damn, you know, make little no work to it. They were ahead of their time. LINDA ROSE: Do you ever [unintelligible - 00:36:15]? FRED MASTRANGELO: I think it was inborn obviously, but it was [thrusted] and promulgated by the opportunity that existed in America, which is why they…people of that ilk jumped ahead and invested in property and tried things, because the country is just – and even today, it's such a dramatic country. We haven't capped its natural resources and saw its potential, even with the stuff that we got going on, which, you know, worldwide fiasco. But every day – and the proof of the pudding is that modest invention that just broke… I mean just like what's happening. And in my lifetime, especially my love for aviation, you know the Wright Brothers started in 1907, that's 100 years, and we've gone to the moon, so it's fascinating. LINDA ROSE: But it's just in a side but [unintelligible - 00:37:04]? FRED MASTRANGELO: No, really. LINDA ROSE: I guess the power, if you lost power [unintelligible - 00:37:08] so I was a little surprised to see a plane coming in.22 FRED MASTRANGELO: My heart goes out to him, because, well, about three years ago, he started building my own aircraft and I had an engine failure and put in the Blackstone River Valley. That was quite an experience. It was a fun time. LINDA ROSE: It was fun? FRED MASTRANGELO: Yeah. LINDA ROSE: Were you alone? FRED MASTRANGELO: Yup. LINDA ROSE: So what [unintelligible - 00:37:05]? FRED MASTRANGELO: The light didn't flash in a failure. What you do is you pull your fate that it doesn't happen so fast and when it's down, my reaction was, "Damn it, I just lost a $25,000 airplane, which took me three years to build." Not that I was hurt or anything else, that's what went through my mind. What a shame! But if you deal with transportation, I don't think if they're rollerblading, driving a cab, on a school bus, in an airplane, sooner or later, something's going to happen. If it's a human being moved, something's going to happen to him. LINDA ROSE: Just thinking of transportation, what is…? FRED MASTRANGELO: It's marvelous and I think it's going to… its advancement is going to come in… people who are on their feet all the time, such as the couriers in New York and such as the postal service people. And then in time, as the market warrants it and they bring the prices down, we'll all have them. I can be going to school on the damn things, no question about it. LINDA ROSE: And that brings up a whole other issue sort of [unintelligible - 00:38:23]. FRED MASTRANGELO: Yeah, but we've got them now. We've got so-called sidelines and we got running tracks and we've got mediums 23 in the middle of highways that they can easily convert to, whole bunches of people and these two-wheel [drivers]. LINDA ROSE: I never thought of that. Is there a talk of doing something [unintelligible - 00:38:39]? FRED MASTRANGELO: It's just something that makes good sense to me. LINDA ROSE: Right. Sounds like a new business. FRED MASTRANGELO: Yeah, right, that was all 20 years yonder. LINDA ROSE: Oh yeah. FRED MASTRANGELO: Oh god yes, I guess that's what I want to do. LINDA ROSE: You mentioned your daughter; do you have any other kids? FRED MASTRANGELO: I have three girls and a guy. LINDA ROSE: And [unintelligible - 00:38:54]? FRED MASTRANGELO: My oldest daughter works in the kitchen industry. The other children are involved with their own life and had no inkling to it – and I didn't force the issue. I didn't. You know, from my experience, I said to my son, "I'm not going to make him a kitchen designer." Let him do what the hell he wants. LINDA ROSE: What are they doing? FRED MASTRANGELO: My son is involved… he is a Fitchburg state teacher, graduate in communications. He spent his first two years in one of the TV channels and he said, "Dad, I don't want to be [confined] to a desk. I want to be outdoors," and he got involved with outdoor landscaping and diving. He became an assistant [mini-skipper] for a country club in Duxbury and now he works for a private millionaire in Duxbury as the head of the landscape crew. He loves it. My oldest daughter works for kitchen design center in Maine. My second daughter married a young naval aviator and she lives up in Kittery and is involved with one of the merchandisers of home style jellies and that type of thing –24 and does very well. And my baby daughter married a young budding artist here in Lunenburg, of the Demers family. Donald Demers became well-known as a maritime artist and did some outstanding work in the maritime painting field. And that's the crew! We still carry the traditions that my dad and mom instilled and we have our family get-together. We're very close. You take on one, you take them all on, so… a very close family. LINDA ROSE: Good, so tell me… FRED MASTRANGELO: Over and above, the integrity traditions of honor, loyalty, family, you know, the so-called [side] expressions are still strong. Yeah, it involves the holidays, the get-togethers, getting together on family events… pull them together in case of need. That's a very strong trait of our family. If someone needs a hand, everybody else jumps in. And then, of course, the story-swapping and the fun that we had growing up altogether and I just truly love my babies because I had so much fun raising them; they're just a delight, night after night. So those are the things. It's not a strong religious tradition because we're all forced into our religious background. We didn't choose it, but we brought them all up to respect it and they all understand that. But it's more, yeah, the Christmas dinners and the daily flickers because of the fish dinner, and the Easter – how [sad] we were that we didn't learn how to do Nana's Easter bread and that type of thing. LINDA ROSE: Did you bring up your child? FRED MASTRANGELO: Yes, it's about 40 years, yeah. LINDA ROSE: So right across from the home that you grew up?25 FRED MASTRANGELO: Yes, the reason I built this house with the A-frame was when we did the motel. I had designed the office as an [A-frame], because it seemed to make sense to me, a very simple structure, where the rough became finished, and I fell in love with the concept and built this one which was way ahead of its time – an awful lot of room in this house and very economical to build – well, absolute well. You know when school was up, I put on a pair of shorts and I spent the entire summer with my friends. I'll buy myself, exploring every nook and cranny on that lake, doing the fishing and the swimming. And across the park was in full [throttle]; that would mean riding over my bike and getting to know everybody and riding on the rides and hopping in out on the roller coaster, pedaling my bike down at the airport to watch some planes so I can learn to fly—and I soloed at an, early, early age—and it's just so much fun. Then come wintertime, the ice would freeze over, it was skating parties and hockey and, you know, it was idyllic growing up – idyllic because we explored. We didn't have TV. We didn't care about it. You know, we didn't worry about the radio; maybe often Nana got some of the other shows that were on, so it meant looking up – your own fun, like playing pirates or, you know, whatever we did on the summer's day was so much fun, and on the wintertime, going to the woods, you know. It was just play time. I had a happy childhood. LINDA ROSE: That's must have been enjoyable for you to think. FRED MASTRANGELO: Same thing, exactly the same. They had… when I built this house and I had the driveway put in, I built them up at the black top at the back which is a basketball court, hopscotch area and then they weren't any trees there, so they used to 26 slide down the hill into the little pond—because we still swim at the point that you saw from my sister's house up there, but that belongs to my son now—and they had a ball here, too. LINDA ROSE: Tell me about the revolutionary. FRED MASTRANGELO: I think I've explained that it was a [far see] thing, seeing man, you know, that he looked to the future. He and my mom went to the Chicago World's Fair in 1938. LINDA ROSE: So it was the Chicago [unintelligible - 00:44:26]. FRED MASTRANGELO: No, Chicago in '38. Chicago World's Fair in '38 was the forerunner of the avant-garde thinking of modern period; the so-called New Age of modernism started at the Chicago World's Fair, but prior to that time, it was all the old antiquity that was exciting the world, but this was the new concept. My dad fell in love with the modern concept. He came back and said he was going to build a house, and then, you know, just like poppy seeds that just kept growing and growing and growing, but he wanted clean cut lines and thought some unusual approaches towards the modern concept. So he designed this house, which is the first of its kind in the area, sleek sophisticated lines with the pine, had custom furniture done in the modern period, had custom—you know, you should see the house—and sometimes, the light [unintelligible - 00:45:21]. LINDA ROSE: It's for sale now. FRED MASTRANGELO: Yeah, right – and, once again, way ahead of his time. It's the first time anybody had put in horizontal windows, small touch but nonetheless. The first time anybody had used the [sleek] approach to dramatize the area. Modeling the interior wasn't done as the old-fashioned traditional Italian model of sleek, sophisticated black turn of 1938 thinking 27 statues that he found from the states that carried that theme. So it's a huge house, very modern, very well-advanced for its time, and we had a ball living in that one, too. LINDA ROSE: Did it take him very long building it? FRED MASTRANGELO: Oh yeah. Oh yeah. One time, we had a tally of how many [pounds of] bricks were in there and how many glass. He used glass spot extensively. Now it's a [unintelligible - 00:46:16] but at the time [unintelligible - 00:046:17] so yeah, so it's amazing. LINDA ROSE: So you were living on Granich Street while it was being built? FRED MASTRANGELO: Oh we had… my sister's house is the so-called summer camp, and we used to go down the area from Granich Street to that and we stayed there when the house was being built and during the summer that we moved back in Granich Street. That house of my sister's—I don't know if she told you—was the camp house and the ice run for when we used to cut ice in [unintelligible - 00:46:44] and that was turned into a… there are still… in some of the [cove], there are still states that have the ice run, where they used to cut the ice and then bring it up into the shed. LINDA ROSE: Is that the way [unintelligible - 00:46:58]? FRED MASTRANGELO: Yeah, that was the bunk house and the shed for the ice storage. LINDA ROSE: [Unintelligible - 00:47:03] so what was the… FRED MASTRANGELO: That wasn't, it was, once again, ahead of its time, sleek cabinetry, not high glass but, you know, very plain, simple, modern look – and the first time anyone had used stainless steel cabinets in the area, and this goes way, that's a long time ago. All [prefost] sinks and the stainless steel countertop, tile, back splashes, it wasn't…we still had a 28 separate range and a separate refrigerator, the so-called built-in concept that we have now, still ahead of its time. LINDA ROSE: Did your mother ever [unintelligible - 00:47:38]? FRED MASTRANGELO: Oh yes, my mother was very strong in supporting my father, knowing that, but when my father took one of the [mostly] bought and opened up [unintelligible - 00:47:47] to a gift shop, very large four-storey milk gift shop, known as the MDS Gift Shop in Fitchburg. She ran that one; my mother was ahead of her time, too. LINDA ROSE: She was quite a bit younger. FRED MASTRANGELO: Yes, mm-hmm. Her family had a market on Water Street. LINDA ROSE: Okay. FRED MASTRANGELO: That's the Montourri family. The Montourri family is [unintelligible - 00:48:08] Montourri Distribution, Montourri Trucking, a whole bunch of others. So that between Al and his kids, my mother's six …you know Christmas was a ball and it's like 50 people in that house at Christmastime. My mother lived in a house where we had the very first Angel cabinets put in; it was called a Cinderella line with a sloped phase, and she loved it, because she adapted, you know she's a modern girl. LINDA ROSE: [Unintelligible - 00:48:36]? FRED MASTRANGELO: Oh no. I know. I fell in love with them. LINDA ROSE: Yeah [unintelligible - 00:48:43]. FRED MASTRANGELO: As I indicated, very, very fortunate, very fortunate, but I think I know it's up in the air. You know, all my Italian buddies were – I didn't know any better. I didn't know I was a little bit more… better off than they were per se, so we just had a ball. LINDA ROSE: What kind of remarks?29 FRED MASTRANGELO: They call it the castle because it's such a big huge edifice. And it's so funny because I heard some comments when I was building this house. This house was a revolution for its time also. And they said, "Oh, yeah, just like his father, his father built a castle, he built a church," and they talked about it. Its design was going to be a simple story ranch, all one floor, make it easy for Marcia and I to you, know, spend our life before you go to the Happy Valley Restaurant. LINDA ROSE: [Unintelligible - 00:49:33] FRED MASTRANGELO: Broken, yeah, but pretty well, oh yeah. LINDA ROSE: Do you know how he learned? FRED MASTRANGELO: He was an avid reader and he started with the classics and followed every single newspaper, listened to the radio and paid attention, and then when he was in business, he had to because he had to negotiate deals. My father was genuine character, delightful genuine character, strong-willed, lovely man, twinkle in his eye all the time. He's the type of the guy that if you get involved with an argument, you know how you and I would say oftentimes – what I should have said was… well, he'd jump on his cab the next day and go back and start it out [unintelligible - 00:50:08]. He's just a fun guy to be with. LINDA ROSE: It seems that [unintelligible - 00:50:14] I felt my errands experience in Worcester, because I never give myself permission to work on. FRED MASTRANGELO: Okay. One of the [unintelligible - 00:50:029] C-U-C-C-A-R-O [unintelligible - 00:50:35] cabinetry is the most dominant line established in the [unintelligible - 00:50:53] and then mother [unintelligible - 00:50:56] everybody and 30 everything involving [unintelligible - 00:51:08] you go in there. LINDA ROSE: Okay, we may have to… I'm not really sure what's happening with this machine because as it keeps up printing's talking and it should never do that. Oh boy, now it isn't, now it is, I don't know. It's not [unintelligible - 00:51:33]. FRED MASTRANGELO: Okay. LINDA ROSE: Anyway working now, so let's get on. Would you… FRED MASTRANGELO: Just some of the… obviously the high school years [unintelligible - 00:51:44] and we had because of our… it's interesting now to be able to think back on both [unintelligible - 00:51:51]. LINDA ROSE: So [unintelligible - 00:51:52] something to share what makes it interesting? FRED MASTRANGELO: That I think Anthony's [unintelligible - 00:52:00] grade school, they were [unintelligible - 00:52:06] my father and Joe's father at that time [unintelligible - 00:52:12] but you could tell. There's a lot more than everything, Sunday morning after church [unintelligible - 00:52:22] my father [unintelligible - 00:52:23]. It's fascinating stories of their culture the whole day [unintelligible - 00:52:26] Sunday morning and spend some time up there and then they will give you coffee. And that was just delightful because they get hysterical over the most simple story that took place in their parish that took place on Water Street, that took place on Main Street – I mean the simple enjoyable cultural humor; that, to me, stuck in my mind and I'm sure [unintelligible - 00:52:55] touched on that story. The life of everyday story which I had the opportunity to have known my father's family, so that was fun too. What they 31 did in a short of period of time, you know, that's the thing. All of them, you know, I don't care if they're shoemaker or a night grinder or, you know, you own the market or you build cabinets, whatever it was, you know, hardworking. It's the same basic understanding of life [unintelligible - 00:53:28] and fighting because they had a stigma attached to them. They were the [unintelligible - 00:53:37]. They were the Italians that came over, just as the Irish had their tough times too, and they overcame all these obstacles, and they made it – all of them. LINDA ROSE: Did they treat the boy? FRED MASTRANGELO: Oh god, yeah, and they… oh yeah. The fact that they didn't love the girls but just figured they were girls; they too have to know about worldly affairs [unintelligible - 00:54:13] but they still had to [protect] the same rules as guys did, but they weren't involved in the [unintelligible - 00:54:28] not secretive but—what am I thinking of?—banding, the banding of the men. LINDA ROSE: Even with your sister. FRED MASTRANGELO: Well, as I was saying, most of the family, they had a will [unintelligible - 00:54:48] they would strongly force [unintelligible - 00:54:52] all of the children [unintelligible - 00:54:56] so it meant, you know, selling bread and [pick] even those nickels and try to [unintelligible - 00:55:13]. I think it's strictly as they indicated that they have [unintelligible - 00:55:25] because believe it or not, [unintelligible - 00:55:30] followed by whatever, you know, fantastic dinner [unintelligible - 00:55:37] and that was [unintelligible - 00:56:02] things to do and [unintelligible - 00:56:12] people would come over and just drop in for a Sunday dinner because 32 [unintelligible - 00:56:22] that I usually heard of that Sunday. [Unintelligible - 00:56:34] LINDA ROSE: Why is [unintelligible - 00:56:40] how could they keep things? FRED MASTRANGELO: And it was a simple life. I mean you didn't get the instant news or the instant ramification of [unintelligible - 00:56:48]. It was an event driving to Boston [unintelligible - 00:56:50]. You know [unintelligible - 00:56:55] what they are but it wasn't fast-moving, slow pace. Everything was slow pace. [Unintelligible - 00:57:03] It wouldn't take [unintelligible - 00:57:51] but at the time it was happening [unintelligible - 00:57:56]. He bid off something and then what happened, he had to and we just thought it as a natural progression, yeah, he wouldn't get far to it so that's the way all fathers were. Only in later years did you recognize the ability of your parents, you, Marcia and I, and then our kids hopefully in time, if only later on. But while it's going on, you don't think about it. [Unintelligible - 00:58:52] great guy or whatever and then you're growing up – I wouldn't have it any other way. [Unintelligible - 00:59:04] very, very [fortunate] [unintelligible - 00:59:09] bad Italians but by and large, it's just a nice, you know [unintelligible - 00:59:29] English. He probably got some various idea [unintelligible - 00:59:37] you may not want to hear. Oh I'm sure. LINDA ROSE: So I'd like to ask you one thing. FRED MASTRANGELO: Go on. LINDA ROSE: What is your hardest experience then? FRED MASTRANGELO: Oh God, Linda – about what? Life is so complex. I mean emotional, financial or what? Hardest experience? My 33 father's experience… that's a puzzlement. I'd have to really think about that one. Nothing jumps in my head – my hardest experience. LINDA ROSE: How did you [unintelligible - 01:00:23]? FRED MASTRANGELO: Yeah, hardest emotional experience was the loss of my parents. I mean, that happens to everybody, that's an exception. My hardest experience, like I say, I could probably ramble… you've heard an awful lot of it today, but it just sounds too "I, I, I" all the time and I don't mean it to be. LINDA ROSE: I don't think so but… FRED MASTRANGELO: Once again after 50, 60, 70 years, you know, there are little anecdotes and stories that demand going back to the reason why, which would take another two hours to explain why we came to this particular conclusion, if I started the story about the company, so I was giving you highlights rather than individual approach – like I'll tell you one little anecdote about my father to show you what guy he was. He was still in the tailor business—and my mother told us the stories—he was still in the tailor business and one of the Christmas shopping joints downtown Fitchburg would occur at night, you know, the stores stayed open relatively late in the last week. My mother said it was a terrible smelly awful, awful night, and she went down with my dad, and standing on the corner was a so-called urchin trying to sell the daily Fitchburg news, freezing his tail off, you know, as my mother indicated. My father said to him, "How long do you have to be out here?" And he said, "Until I sell all my papers," and my father bought them all from him and sent him home. That's the kind of a guy he was, you know, and it's just a delightful anecdote of his. 34 And he's also philanthropic. He would go down and he would help – but that's true of most of the boys on Water Street, and so that cultural importance came in. They would take care of each other and help. LINDA ROSE: You would help. FRED MASTRANGELO: Which is why the vast majority of the employees of the Angel—and I don't want to knock the rest of them that are there, because there's a whole bunch of them, big portion of Italian descent. LINDA ROSE: [Unintelligible - 01:02:31] FRED MASTRANGELO: Oh God, yes, oh yes – the fathers who worked there, uncles and brothers. LINDA ROSE: Was there any particular [unintelligible - 01:02:40]. FRED MASTRANGELO: Not to my knowledge. LINDA ROSE: Mm-hmm. FRED MASTRANGELO: Well, okay. LINDA ROSE: That's good. That's the end of the interview./AT/jf/el/ee

From nuclear weapons to terrorism, the United States and Iran clash on nearly even front. Yet, it has not always been this way. As recently as 1979, Norwich University, the oldest Senior Military College in the United States, played host to nearly eighty Iranian Midshipmen. Although Norwich's Iranian program was short-lived, it was one of the most successful cultural exchanges in the university's history. In the face of tremendous adversity, Norwich overcame all obstacles and successfully academically, militarily, and socially integrated the Iranian Midshipmen into the Corps of Cadets and the greater Norwich community. ; Winner of the 2022 Friends of the Kreitzberg Library Award for Outstanding Research in the University Archives category, honorable mention. ; Tribulation, Triumph, and Tragedy: Norwich University's Iranian Program (1976-1979) Joseph C. Chatterton History 249- Historical Methods Dr. Bennett 3, December 2021 Word Count: 3159 1 January 29, 2002, just five months after the most devastating terrorist attacks in American history, in his first State of the Union since the beginning of War on Terror President George W. Bush branded Iran as a member of the so-called Axis of Evil along with the likes of North Korea and Saddam Hussian's Iraq. In one line in particular, President Bush decried the Islamic Republic and made it clear that in his role as Commander and Chief, he regarded Iran as one of America's greatest geopolitical foes stating, "Iran aggressively pursues these weapons and exports terror, while an unelected few repress the Iranian people's hope for freedom."1 President Bush's remarks are unsurprising. After all, as recently as May of 2018, prominent Iranian politicians congregated in the hallowed halls of their Parliament to burn American flags and chant "Death to America."2 From nuclear weapons to terrorism, the United States and Iran clash on nearly even front. Yet, it has not always been this way. As recently as 1979, Norwich University, the oldest Senior Military College in the United States, played host to nearly eighty Iranian Midshipmen. Although Norwich's Iranian program was short-lived, it was one of the most successful cultural exchanges in the university's history. In the face of tremendous adversity, Norwich overcame all obstacles and successfully academically, militarily, and socially integrated the Iranian Midshipmen into the Corps of Cadets and the greater Norwich community. In the fifty years since the birth of Iran's Islamic Republic, scholars, historians, and government officials have devoted the vast majority of their analysis on the dramatic collapse of the Shah's regime, the ensuing hostage crisis, and the profound implications it had on American foreign policy. While the significance of this is undeniable, far less research has been done into 1 George W Bush, "2002 State of the Union ," National Archives and Records Administration (National Archives and Records Administration, January 29, 2002), https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/stateoftheunion/2002/. 2 "Iranian Politicians Set Fire to US Flag in Parliament," BBC News (BBC), accessed November 4, 2021, https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-middle-east-44055625. 2 academic links which bound the two nations, and the effects that the regime's collapse had on the vast number of Iranian students studying in the United States. Norwich's Iranian program was not the first of its kind, however it was the most successful. Similar programs were attempted at other military academies such as at The Virginia Military Institute (VMI) and the Citadel. However, both of these programs were plagued by difficulties. In 1976 Lieutenant Colonel Paul LaFond, the Deputy Commandant of Norwich's Corps of Cadets, visited VMI to observe VMI's Iranian program so that Norwich might draw lessons for the establishment of its own program. Following the trip Colonel LaFond compiled a detailed report. In the report, it becomes quickly evident that the VMI program consistently struggled to successfully integrate the Iranian students. Major flash point included the serving of Pork products during chow time and their "more relaxed idea of the honor code,"3 LaFond ends this memorandum with a section dedicated "Staff, Faculty and Cadre reaction to the Iranian Program." In this section it becomes evident that many prominent leaders of VMI had less than positive things to say about the program. One Cadet advisor remarked, "The Iranians have put a great strain on our system. The school has been weakened." he continued on dramatically stating, "If we had large numbers for very long it could destroy our system."4 Probably the gravest signal that VMI's Iran program was less than successful are the somber closing remarks of the schools highest ranking officials, the Commandant of Cadets: " You will have a severe problem. Are you ready to cope and is it worth it? There will be many problems with your own cadets."5 The first half of this quote is simple enough to analyze. Of course, there will be many general challenges with introducing a large contingent of foreign midshipmen into a military environment such as 3 Paul LaFond. Memorandum to Loring Hart, 7 May 1976. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. 4 Paul LaFond, Memorandum to Loring Hart. 5 Paul LaFond, Memorandum to Loring Hart. 3 VMI, yet it is the second part of this quote that really requires some unpacking. What exactly was the Commandant's intent when he stated, "There will be many problems with your own cadets."6 As mentioned previously VMI's Iranian program was notorious for its struggles to integrate the Iranian Midshipmen into their Corps of Cadets, one aspect of this often overlooked is the initial hostility between American Cadets and the Iranian Midshipmen. Earlier in the memorandum VMI's Commandant is quoted to have stated in subsection 5, Discipline and Control, "At first, the 'Old Cadets' harassed the Iranians, and were hard on them. A period of turbulence resulted," he goes on to articulate his point stating that he "cautions, to watch our martinets that they don't cause trouble and states that this type of cadet is particularly frustrated when working with Iranians."7 Although the wording in certain sections of this memorandum can be somewhat confusing for a twenty-first century perspective to comprehend, the general theme is clear, VMI's Iranian program was plagued with trials and tribulations, many of which remained unresolved at the time of its publication. In spite of this evident adversity, Norwich remained resolved to push forward and succeed where VMI failed. With this in mind one must question why Senior Military Colleges such as Norwich placed such an emphasis on creating relations with Iran? For thousands of years Iran has been a strategic regional power. Throughout antiquity the Persian Empire was one of the world's premier powers, and this prominence continued into the Middle Ages. In the 7th century CE, the nation played a vital role in helping to facilitate the spread of Islam from the Arabian peninsula to Central Asia.8 As time progressed the nation's strategic value only grew. During the age of European Imperialism, Iran held a vital role as a 6 Paul LaFond, Memorandum to Loring Hart. 7 Paul LaFond, Memorandum to Loring Hart. 8 Kathryn Babayan, "The Safavid Synthesis: From Qizilbash Islam to Imamite Shi'ism." Iranian Studies 27, no. 1/4 (1994): 135–61. 4 buffer between the British lion and the Russian bear.9 By 1879, Iran was a colony within the British Empire in all but name. The Iranian government was forced to grant monopolies on everything from "the construction of railways, canals and irrigation system,"10 to control of the nation's banking system.11 Yet the nation's greatest strategic value laid below its surface. In 1908, as oil was beginning to gradually replace coal as the key to industrialization, foreign interest in the country skyrocketed with the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company discovery of black gold beneath the waters of the Persian Gulf.12 Iran entered the Cold War in a very interesting position. Many of its institutions, and much wealth continued to be controlled by foreigners in London and by this point Washington. Understandably this angered many Iranians and many turned to socialist politicians like Egypt's Gamal Abdel Nassar, and in Iran's case Mohammad Mosaddegh. In the general election of 1951 Mosaddegh campaigned on the simple message that Iran must free itself from the British imperial yoke. He would win the Prime Ministership in a landslide, and upon assuming the highest office in the nation he set out to make good on his campaign promise. Symbolically on May Day in 1951, Mosaddegh announced the nationalization of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company. In October of that year he doubled down, expelling all British subjects from the nation. Yet the Western powers did not take kindly to being forcefully evicted from Iran, especially taking into consideration the ongoing Cold War, the nation's strategic geography, and its valuable resources. Thus, the British Intelligence service (MI6) in conjunction with the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), began planning for regime change. In August of 1953 Operation Ajax (alternatively known as Operation Boot) successfully ousted the democratically 9 Chris Paine and Erica Schoenberger, "Iranian Nationalism and the Great Powers: 1872-1954." MERIP Reports, no. 37 (1975): 3–28. 10 Paine, "Iranian Nationalism and the Great Powers. 1975. 11 Paine, "Iranian Nationalism and the Great Powers. 1975. 12 Paine, "Iranian Nationalism and the Great Powers. 1975. 5 elected Mosaddegh, and bestowed the on nation's monarch or Shah, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi near absolute power.13 The Shah's Iran played a vital role in the United States' middle eastern policy. As described in his journal article, American–Iranian Alliances: International Education, Modernization, and Human Rights during the Pahlavi Era, Dr. Mathew K. Shannon "The Shah's Iran provided to successive American administrations, with a toe hold in the Persian Gulf region … a bulwark against Soviet expansion… and guaranteed the westward flow of Iranian oil."14 With this in context it is understandable that the United States wished to do everything within its power to strengthen its strategic relationship with Iran. While on one hand this means providing Iran with military funds and equipment, it also means flexing the United States' soft power. The Oxford dictionary defines "soft power" as, "a way of dealing with other countries that involves using economic and cultural influence to persuade them to do things, rather than military power."15 In the 1970s the United States had many of the top universities in the world, as well as one of the most robust and modern educational systems. Thus, it seems only logical that the US utilizes its education system, as a bastion of strength. Dr. Joseph Nye, a well-established political scientist and the former Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs is quoted for stating, "The ideas and values that America exports in the minds of more than half a million foreign students who study every year in American universities and return to their home countries, tend to reach elites in power."16 Throughout the Cold War the United States would 13 Moyara de Moraes Ruehsen. "Operation 'Ajax' Revisited: Iran, 1953." Middle Eastern Studies 29, no. 3 (1993): 467–86. 14 Matthew K. Shannon, "American–Iranian Alliances: International Education, Modernization, and Human Rights during the Pahlavi Era" Diplomatic History 39, no. 4, (2015) 661. 15 "Soft Power,"Definition, pictures, pronunciation and usage notes, Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary. 16 Carol Atkinson, "Does Soft Power Matter? A Comparative Analysis of Student Exchange Programs 1980–2006" Foreign Policy Analysis 6 no. 1, (310) 2. 6 faithfully follow Dr. Nye's advice to further develop its relationship with the Shah's Iran. The previously mentioned Dr. Mathew Shannon notes the rapid and substantial growth of Iranian students in the United States stating, "The population grew from a mere five hundred in 1950, to upwards of fifty thousand in the late 1970, making them the largest national group of students in the United States."17 The significance of this cannot be understated. Upon graduating from American Universities these students returned to their homeland and played an active role in building the new modern Iran. It was on their shoulders that the "bulwark against Soviet expansion rested." It was the alumni of American universities that ran Iran's state oil company and made the plans for modernizing Iranian industry and infrastructure. These alumni would hold high positions in the nation's civil service, would serve as elected members of Iran's Majlis (Parliament), and crucial to Norwich as officers in the Iranian Military. While Iran benefited from this influx of a highly educated, professional class, the United States was able to stock the Iranian government with those sympathetic to the West. Norwich University first began accepting Iranian Midshipmen in the fall of 1976. President Loring Hart and his administration put a great deal of emphasis on naturalizing the Iranian Midshipmen to the University from the onset. Captain M. Ali Foroughizadeh an Iranian Imperial Navy officer stationed in Arlington, Virginia, would serve as the main point of contact between the University and the Iranian government, for much of the program's existence. The correspondences between Captain Foroughizadeh and President Hart provide unique insight into its early development. The process of integrating Iranian students into the Corps of Cadets and the greater University community did not begin in August with the traditional start of the school year, but rather in June of 1976. As detailed by William F. Beatty, the Executive Assistant to the 17 Shannon, American-Iranian Alliances, 662. 7 President, "Currently fifty-two Iranian midshipmen are undergoing an intensive English, Mathematics and Physical education study program at Norwich in preparation for their enrollment next September as members of the class of 1980."18 Clearly even from the onset of its program Norwich was taking the proactive? steps to fully integrate the Midshipmen firmly into the Corps. Although at times it can become easy to forget, at the end of day Norwich is not merely a remote outpost of the US military but is a university with a long and storied tradition of academic excellence. As such, the importance of academic integration for the Universities Iran students cannot be understated. One of the key takeaways from VMI's tumultuous Iranian program was that failure to integrate the Iranian students in the classroom could have disastrous consequences. Thus, Norwich's faculty and administration made every effort to thoroughly integrate the Iranian students academically into the University. Associate professor Dr. Hollis D. McBride of the Engineering Department described the climate in the classroom stating "Conflicts between Irani and Americans in class have been few." Dr. Hollis does briefly pause his praise to note that the Iranian students seemed more inclined to help each other than their fellow American students, and does advise that having fewer Iranians per class would "reduce their dependence on each other."19 Yet in spite of these challenges Dr. McBride makes it abundantly clear he believes that the presence of the Iranian midshipmen had a profound and positive impact on the education of all students of all nationalities. McBride's praise for the program goes as far as to state, "Never have I seen a class of students work as hard as both Irani and Americans." He goes on to state "I am convinced that the example of the Irani working 18 William F Beatty, Letter to CDR Abghari, 4 November 1976. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. 19 Hollis D McBride, Memorandum to Dr. Hart and Dr. Chevalier, 15 July 1977. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. 8 overcomes the more usual image of upperclassmen playing to encourage this premier academic effort I have witnessed in my ten years at Norwich."20 Great strides were also taken to properly integrate the Iranian midshipmen socially into the Norwich community. In one of his first memorandums regarding the arrival of Midshipmen, he encourages members of the staff to "host one or two Iranian students for an evening meal to socialize."21 The University also made a significant effort to integrate Iranian and American students within the barracks. The previously mentioned engineering professor, Dr. McBride makes a strong case for integration stating, "An American roommate is a plus, but even more important is an American roommate of the same major."22 The logic behind this is self-evident. Forcing American and Iranian students to live together in close quarters means they are far more likely to develop close cross-cultural bonds, which in turn are "beneficial to both the American and the Iranian."23 Having an American roommate also forced the Iranian Midshipmen to use English on a daily basis and forces them to not to rely solely on their fellow Iranians. Sports and extracurricular activities also played a role in assimilating the midshipmen into the campus community. Many of the Iranian midshipmen played soccer both competitively and recreationally for the school. President Hart remarks upon the Midshipmen in a memorandum he sent to Iranian Admiral Farzaneh regarding the filming of a promotional video stating, "we might arrange a game for the Iranian Cadets on the soccer team." 24 While it is easy to overlook such trivial events as American and Iranian athletes competing together, surely the connections and 20 Hollis McBride, Memorandum to Dr. Hart and Dr. Chevalier. 21 Loring E Hart , Memorandum to Distribution Lists I and II, 15 June 1976. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. 22 Hollis McBride, Memorandum to Dr. Hart and Dr. Chevalier. 23 Hollis McBride, Memorandum to Dr. Hart and Dr. Chevalier. 24 Hart, Loring E, Memorandum to Vadm D. Farzaneh, 11 December 1978. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. 9 comradery built on the playing field can overcome linguistic and cultural differences and help the Iranian students merge into the student body. Despite these successes, a shadow lurked over the entirety of the program. One with a limited knowledge of world history, might wonder why the program was so short lived if it was clearly so successful The simple answer: revolution. Despite the guise of modernization beneath Iran's surface, discontent was brewing against the Shah and his authoritarian regime. Chief among the dissenters' grievances were not only the brutal human rights violations committed by the secret police (SAVAK), but the perception of American imperialism, and backlash for the increasingly secular nature of Iranian society. By 1978, demonstrations against the Imperial government occurred across all the nation's major cities with riots targeting symbols of the West such as banks, cinemas, and restaurants.25 The nation's Shiite clergy also played a major role in the overthrow of the Imperial regime. With his health failing and the regime crumbling, the Shah and his family were forced to flee in exile in Egypt. Simultaneously the Ayatollah Khomeini, a leader of the Shiite clergy, and an outspoken critic of the government returned from exile just in time for revolutionary forces to capture Tehran.26 Meanwhile back in Northfield, President Hart's administration was doing everything within its power to look after the best interests of the Iranian Midshipmen. Initially it appeared that the situation was under control. As late as November 9th, 1979, the Institute of International Education wrote "Foreign students who are in this country to pursue an and who are lawfully engaged in that pursuit, properly enjoy the protection of the laws which allow them to enter the 25 Said Amir Arjomand, "The Causes and Significance of the Iranian Revolution." State, Culture, and Society 1, no. 3 (1985): 41–66. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20006816. 26 Said Amir, Arjomand,"The Causes and Significance of the Iranian Revolution." 10 country and permit them to remain."27 Five days later University Vice President James Galloway echoed similar sentiments, writing that the state department had advised him that "State and Defense were discussing Iranian students, but were oriented towards those Iranians holding student visas, not members of an organized program. Current guidance was the status quo, and to maintain a low profile."28 Unfortunately this good news would be short lived. November 4, 1979 saw the storming of the American embassy in Tehran and the capture of 52 American hostages, President Carter issued an executive order calling for all the review of all educational visas for Iranian students in the United States.29 The optimism that the program could survive evaporated Almost overnight. Less than a month later Vice President James Galloway was forced to send out a new memo with a far different tone. While the November addition spoke of maintaining the status quo, the updated version stated, "On the basis of official order from the Iranian government or the U.S government, the Norwich Naval Contingent is directed to terminate their school and depart or prepare to depart."30 Throughout the winter of 1980 the campus held its breath bracing for the inevitable. On April 7, this finally occurred when "The State Department severed diplomatic relations with Iran and ordered the deportation of "employees" and "officials of Iran by Friday April 11 at midnight."31 The next day on April 8, a glimmer of false hope set in, with 27 Hughes Jenkins, "Educational Exchange Agencies Urge Care in Coping with Iranian Students in U.S, 9 November 1979. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. 28 James V Galloway, Memorandum For Record, 14 November 1979. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. 29 Will Tiague, Hostages of the Crisis: Iranian Students in Arkansas, 1979-1981. The Arkansas Quarterly 77, no. 2 (2018): 113-130. 30 Harry A Buckley, Contingency Plan for the Iranian Crisis, 4 December 1979. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. 31 Philip R Marsilius, Sequence of Events, 7-14 April 1980. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. 11 the general feeling being that "the Iranian Cadets would be classified as students rather than as officials or employees, and would therefore be permitted to finish the semester."32 However, the next day such hopes would be shattered when the State department reversed its decision and labeled the Midshipmen as Officials of Iran. Two days later on April 10, President Hart briefed the Corps on the unfolding situation. In a testament to the successes of the program when Iranian Midshipmen " c/CPT Kazem Yahyapour bid farewell to the American students on behalf of the Iranians students, he received a standing ovation from the Corps. Faculty, and staff."33 On April 12, 1980 the Iranian program would officially die with the departure of 80 Iranian students and officials. The last communication upon touchdown in Tehran was simple and sober, "We received and are warm and ok."34 The Iranian program was over. Since that infamous date in 1980 the relation between the United States and the Islamic Republic of Iran have only grown worse. Today it would be unimaginable for Midshipmen from Iran to study at an American military college such as Norwich University. Yet only fifty years ago between 1976 and 1979 over 80 Iranian students were fully integrated, academically, socially, and militarily into the Norwich community. Although the program ended in tragedy, in a world where military cooperation continues to grow increasingly important, the story of success remains relevant and worth remembering. 32 Philip R Marsilius, Sequence of Events. 33Philip R Marsilius, Sequence of Events. 34 Philip R Marsilius, Sequence of Events. 12 Bibliography Primary Sources Beatty, William F. Letter to CDR Abghari, 4 November 1976. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. Galloway, James V. Memorandum For Record, 14 November 1979. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. Hart, Loring E. Memorandum to Distribution Lists I and II, 15 June 1976. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. Hart, Loring E. Memorandum to Vadm D. Farzaneh, 11 December 1978. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. LaFond, Paul. Memorandum to Loring Hart, 7 May 1976. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. Marsilius, Philip R, Sequence of Events, 7-14 April 1980. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. McBride, Hollis D. Memorandum to Dr. Hart and Dr. Chevalier, 15 July 1977. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. Jenkins, Hughes. "Educational Exchange Agencies Urge Care in Coping with Iranian Students in U.S, 9 November 1979. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. Secondary Sources Arjomand, Said Amir. "The Causes and Significance of the Iranian Revolution." State, Culture, and Society 1, no. 3 (1985): 41–66. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20006816. This article provided valuable information about the events of Iran's Islamic Revolution. It discusses the initial protests and the peoples major grievances against the secret police, the west, and the increasing secular nature of society. Babayan, Kathryn. "The Safavid Synthesis: From Qizilbash Islam to Imamite Shi'ism." Iranian Studies 27, no. 1/4 (1994): 135–61. 13 This article provides information on the history of Islam in Iran. Initially it was used to help inllistrate how historically Iran has been very stratiegic, but it also serves to introduce Islam, which would prove to be a very important factor in the 1979 Revolution. Carol Atkinson, "Does Soft Power Matter? A Comparative Analysis of Student Exchange Programs 1980–2006" Foreign Policy Analysis 6 no. 1, (310) 2. This article helps to illustrate the significance of soft power, particularly the use of student exchange programs to project American power across the globe. Clearly this is very relevant to Norwich's Iranian exchange program, and helps to explain its significance and one of its purposes. Bush, George W. "2002 State of the Union ," National Archives and Records Administration (National Archives and Records Administration, January 29, 2002), https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/stateoftheunion/2002/. Used in the introduction to help establish the very hostile relationship that that United States currently has with the Islam Republic of Iran. "Iranian Politicians Set Fire to US Flag in Parliament," BBC News (BBC), accessed November 4, 2021, https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-middle-east-44055625 Used in the introduction to help establish the very hostile relationship that that United States currently has with the Islam Republic of Iran. Shannon, Matthew K. "American–Iranian Alliances: International Education, Modernization, and Human Rights during the Pahlavi Era" Diplomatic History 39, no. 4, (2015) 661. Provides valuable background information into the nature of the Iranian state, and the Iranian education system during the Shah's reign. Key to Norwich, this article mentions exchange programs particularly those with the United States. Moyara de Moraes, Ruehsen. "Operation 'Ajax' Revisited: Iran, 1953." Middle Eastern Studies 29, no. 3 (1993): 467–86. Discussed the Anglo-American coup which overthrew Iran's democratically elected government, and handed the Shah absolute power. Played a vital role in creating the Iranian government which Norwich cooperated with, it is also key to understand the underlying factors behind the 1979 Revolution. Paine, Chris, and Erica Schoenberger. "Iranian Nationalism and the Great Powers: 1872-1954." MERIP Reports, no. 37 (1975): 3–28. Helps to establish the early history of Iran, and its history of Anglo-American domination. 14 "Soft Power,"Definition, pictures, pronunciation and usage notes, Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary. Provides a definition for soft power, to help illustrate its significance to the United States particularly in a strategic ally such as the Shah's Iran. Tiague, Will. Hostages of the Crisis: Iranian Students in Arkansas, 1979-1981. The Arkansas Quarterly 77, no. 2 (2018): 113-130. Provides context for the Iranian hostage crisis, President Carter's reaction, and the effects that it had on the vast number of Iranian students studying in the United States. Yarbrough, Tinsley E. Federal Alienage Doctrine and the Iranian Student Litigation. Human Rights Quarterly 4, no. 2 (1982): 243–60. Discusses the legal issues facing Iranian students facing deportation in the United States following the Islamic Revolution.

Bertrand Badie on the Trump Moment, the Science
of Suffering, and IR between Power and Weakness



Lire en français




IR retains a traditional focus on the
game of power between states as its defining characteristic. But what, so asks Bertrand
Badie, if this means that our discipline is based on a negation of our humanity?
A giant in Francophone IR, Badie has labored to instead place human suffering
at the center of analysis of the international, by letting loose sociological
insights on a truly global empirical reality. In this Talk, Badie—amongst others—challenges the centrality of the idea of
state power, which makes little sense in a world where most of the IR agenda is
defined by issues emanating from state weakness; argues for the centrality of
suffering to a more apt IR; and uses this to contextualize the Trump Moment.




Print version (pdf) of this Talk



What is (or should be), according to
you, the biggest challenge / principal debate in current International
Relations? What is your position or answer to this challenge / in this debate?



Unquestionably, it would be the matter of change. It is time to conceptualize,
and further than that, to theorize the change that is happening in the field of
International Relations (IR). Humans have always had the feeling that they are
living in a period of upheaval, but contemporary IR is really characterized by several
landmarks that illustrate the drastic extent of change. I see at least three of
them.



The first one concerns the inclusive nature of the international system.
For the first time in the history of mankind, the international system covers
nearly the whole humanity, while the Westphalian system was an exclusively European
dynamic in which the United States of America entered to turn it into a system,
that I would call, Euro-North-American.



The second element, around which publications abound (see notably Mary
Kaldor's work, Theory Talk #30), is the deep mutation of the nature of conflict. War used to be, in
the Westphalian model, a matter of competition between powers. Today we have
the feeling that weakness is replacing power, in that power cannot any longer
function as central explanatory term of conflictual situations, which are
rather manifestations of state weakness. Think of 'failing' or 'collapsing'
states, which refers to the coming apart of nations that have been built badly
as well as the deliquescence of social ties. This new form of conflictuality
completely turns the international environment upside down and constitutes a
second indicator of transformation.



The third aspect concerns mobility. Our international system used to be
fully based on the idea of territory and boundaries, on the idea that fixity
establishes the competences of States in a very precise way. In this
perspective, the state refers to territory—as the definition given by Max Weber
states very clearly—but today this territorial notion of politics is challenged
by a full range of mobilities, composed of international flows that can be
either material, informational, or human.



These are three indicators illustrating a deep transformation of the
inner nature of IR that encourage me to speak about 'intersocial relations'
rather than 'interstate relations'. The notion of interstate relations no
longer captures the entirety of the global game. Our whole theory of IR was
based on the Westphalian model as it came out of the peace of Westphalia, as it
was confirmed by the accomplishment of the nation-state construction process
and as it dominated the historical flow of international events until the fall
of the Berlin wall.



Until the fall of the wall, all that was not related to Europe or to the
United States of America, or more precisely North-America, was simply called 'periphery',
which says enough. Today, by contrast, the periphery is central at least
regarding conflictuality. We should therefore drop our Westphalian prism and
build up new analytical tools for IR that would take these mutations as their
point of departure. Doing away with our Westphalian approach to IR would mean
questioning both our classical IR theories and questioning the practical models
of action in international politics, which means the uses of diplomacy and
warfare.





How did you arrive at where you
currently are in your thinking about International Relations?



You know when we write, when we work, we are first of all influenced by
our dissatisfaction. The classical Westphalian approach to IR, as I said
earlier, did not satisfy me as I had the feeling that it was focusing on events
that no longer had the importance that we kept giving them—for instance the arms
race, great power politics, or the traditional diplomatic negotiations—while I
was seeing, maybe this was the trigger, that the greatest part of suffering in
the world was coming from places that IR theory was not really covering.



I have always told my students that IR is the science of human suffering.
This suffering exists of course where we are—in Europe, in North America, they
exist everywhere in the world—but the greatest part is outside of the
Westphalian area, so the classical approach to IR gives a marginal and
distorted image. Africa and the Middle East seen through the Westphalian prism are
a dull image, strongly different from the extraordinary wealth, both for good and
bad, that these areas of the world have. I've also always held that in a world
where 6 to 9 million people starve to death each year, the main foci of traditional
IR were derisory. Even terrorism, to which we collectively attribute so much
importance, hardly comes near how important a challenge food security is.



My three latest books take a stand against traditional IR theories. In Diplomacy of
Connivance (2012) I tried to
show that the great power game is really a game way that is much more
integrated than we usually say and that this game plays out in all multilateral
fora. There is indeed a club, and that is precisely what I wanted to describe,
a club of powers—one which results to the detriment of less powerful members in
the international system.



In Le Temps des humiliés ('the
era of the humiliated', 2014), I tried to crystallize what the classical theory
could not express, which is domination seen through the lens of the dominated,
humiliation as felt by the humiliated, violence as experienced by the
desperate. For instance, even if we look at powers as accomplished as China
today—sharing the first place with the USA in terms of GDP—we have to admit
that their historical experience of humiliation constitutes a huge source of inspiration
when it comes to the elaboration of its foreign policy.



And then, in my last book Nous ne
sommes plus seuls au monde ('we are no longer alone in the world', 2016), this
critique was even more explicit. We are writing an IR that encompasses only about
one billion of human beings, while forgetting all the others. Today it is
simply no longer true that these old powers are setting the international
agenda. Global politics today is written by the little, the weak, the dominated;
often with recourse to extreme forms of violence, but this needs to be analyzed
and understood, which would mean to totally change the IR theory.



We should not forget that in large part, IR theory was a given as the USA
triumphed in 1945. The well-known 'great power politics' that dominates
traditional IR theory, inaugurated by Morgenthau and supported by so many others,
described what was true at that time: the ability of American power to set us
free from the Nazi monster. Today the challenge is strongly different, and it
is by the way meaningful that two of the greatest American internationalist
political scientists, Robert Keohane (TheoryTalk #9) and Ned Lebow (Theory Talk #53),
have both written books that elude to the end of this global order
(respectively After Hegemony and Goodbye Hegemony). Well what interests
me is exactly to dig into what comes after hegemony.





What would a student
need to become a specialist in International Relations or understand the world
in a global way?



First of all, I would advise them to rename their science, as I said
earlier, and to call it intersocial relations. The future of what we call IR
comes down to the ability to understand the extremely rich, multiple and
diversified interactions that are happening among and across the world's
societies. It does not mean that we have to completely abandon the state-centric
perspective, but rather dethrone states from the middle of this multiplicity of
actors in order to realize how very often these states are powerless when faced
with these different actors. That would be my first advice.



My second advice would be to look
ahead and not back. Do not let yourself be dominated by the Westphalian model,
and to try to build up what we need—since almost nothing has been done yet
today to construct this post-Westphalian, meta-Westphalian model. Beyond power,
there are things that we still misidentify or overlook while they are the driving
forces of today's and tomorrow's IR. From this point of view, sociology could
prove particularly useful. I consider, for instance, that Émile Durkheim is a very important inspiration to understand the
world today. Here is an author to study and to apply to IR.



The third advice that I would give them would be to not forget that IR
or intersocial relations are indeed the sciences of human suffering. We should
be able to place suffering at the core of the thinking. We've lost far too much
time staring at power, now it is time to move on to place human suffering at
the center. Why? First of all because it is ethically better; maybe will we be
able to learn from it? But also because in today's actual international
politics suffering is more proactive than power, which is not necessarily
optimistic but if recognized, would allow us a better questioning of new forms
of conflictuality. Perhaps unfortunately, the international agenda is no longer
fixed with canons, but with tears. Maybe this is the key point on which we
should concentrate our reflection.



Your insistence on placing suffering at the center of
IR scholarship seems to place you firmly alongside those who recognize "grievance" ratherthan "greed" as a central logic of international politics. What do you make of this parallel?



You are right: the idea of grievance, of recrimination, is a structuring
logic of the international game today. We did not see it coming for two
reasons. First of all because our traditional analysis of international
politics presupposed a unity of time, as if the African time, the Chinese time,
the Indian time and the European time where all identical. Yet this is
completely wrong because we, in our European culture, have not understood that
before Westphalia there were
political models, political histories, that profoundly marked the people that would
then shape contemporary politics. Remember that China is 4000 years of empire,
remember that precolonial Africa was composed of kingdoms, empires,
civilizations, philosophies, arts... Remember that India also is multi-millenary.
The Westphalian time came to totally deny and crush this temporality, this
historicity, almost in a negationist way, which means that, in the spirit of
those who were defending the Westphalian model, only this model was associated
to the Renaissance; and that the age of enlightenment and reason with a big R
had a calling to reformat the world as if it were a hard drive. This was a
senseless bet, a bet for which our European ancestors who led it had excuses
because at that time we did not know all these histories, at that time we did
not have all the knowledge we today have of the other and thus we simply
resolved it, through the negation of alterity. Yet, IR ought on the contrary aspire
to the accomplishment of alterity. Inevitably, all those who saw themselves
denied their historicity, over several centuries and even several millenaries,
accumulated a feeling of recrimination, of particularly deep grievances.



The second element is that all of this happened in a context of
disequilibrium of power resources, linked to different factors that reflected
indeed the fact that at a given moment of time western powers were both
literally and figuratively better armed than other societies. Abovementioned negation
of alterity was mapped onto, and amplified, by the forceful imposition of a
multilateral system that turned into the worst situation, into a proclaimed
hierarchy of cultures; as a result and there were, as Jules Ferry put it in the France
of the 19th century, 'races'; as in, 'We have the obligation to
educate inferior races'. It is not the beginning of history, but it is the
beginning of a history of humiliation. And through subsequent waves of globalization,
this humiliation has turned into a central nerve running through international
life. A nerve that has been used by both the powerful, who made a tool out of
humiliating the others to better dominate them (think here of the opium wars, colonization)
and simultaneously a nerve that fed the reaction of mobilization in the extra-Westphalian
world by those that had to stand up against those who were humiliating them. So
you see how it truly lies at the basis of IR. In my mind, it became a forceful paradigm,
it explains everything, even though others factors continue to weigh in on
actual dynamics.



In order to appreciate all this, we need a sociological approach, which
has for me two aspects. Both these aspects must be considered together for the
approach to be well understood. The first one is a timeless aspect, which is to
consider that everywhere and in all eras politics is a social product. Politics
cannot be understood as somehow outside society. This I would say contradicts the
majority of IR scholars, who believe excessively in the autonomy of politics
and of the state—even if only for analytical purposes. The second element of
this sociological approach is the historical or temporal component. That is
what I was talking about earlier: with globalization the social fabric strongly
progressed compared to the political fabric, and considering that intersocial
relations grew, we need a sociological approach to understand them.





Do you think that the Trump period constitutes a
fundamental break with the conduct of IR?



Trump himself maybe not, but what he represents certainly. If we look at
the USA today we see, since the new millennium, three models succeeding each
other. After 11-09 there was a time of neo-conservatism where globalization was
considered by American leaders as a means or maybe a chance to universalize the
American model, willingly or not. By force, as was the case in Iraq in 2003.
This model failed.



This lead to a second model which I would describe as a liberal model,
neo-liberal, incarnated by Obama who learnt from the lessons of the failure of neo-conservatism,
and had the courage to question the hypothesis hitherto considered as indisputable
of American leadership in the world, and who considered that the USA could win
only through soft power or smart power or free-trade. That is the reason why
Obama was just a little bit interventionist and was counting a lot on the TTIP
and on all these transregional agreements.



With Trump we arrive at a third model, one that I would call
neo-nationalist, that looks at globalization in a different way. In his perspective,
globalization constitutes a chance to satisfy the national American interests. The
idea of the national comes back after a long interlude of a globalizing vision.
It does not mean that we are not interventionist anymore. What happened in
Syria proves it. It means that we will intervene not according to the needs of
globalization but rather to American interests. It is about sharing a strong
and powerful image of the USA on the one hand and on the other serving the
concrete interests of the American people and nation.



This neo-nationalist model is not defended only by Trump, that is the
reason why I was saying that we should not consider Trump individually. We find
it exactly the same way with Putin. We find it by many other world leaders,
such as Erdogan or Duterte or Victor Orbán—really different figures—or Marshal
Sissi in Egypt.



We find it as well in attitudes, for instance Brexit in Great Britain, in
right-wing neo-populism in Europe: Ms. Le Pen, Mr. Wilders...  or in a certain left-wing neo-populism as
Mélenchon in France. It is in the air, seeming almost a passing fad. But it
constitutes perhaps a double rupture within IR. First of all because since the
emergence of globalization, let's say around the 70's, the national interest as
a thought category was bit by bit replaced with approaches in terms of collective
goods. Today by contrast we witness the abandonment of this image of collective
goods for a return to the national interest. This is very clear in Trump's renouncing
of the COP21 of Paris. At the same time, second, this constitutes some form of the
rehabilitation of the idea of power, which again seeps into the language of IR.




You know the IR scholar is not a neutral person, we have to use our science
towards positive action and for the definition of sound public policies. Going
against the idea of collective goods, casting doubt on the ideas of human
security, environmental security, food security, and sanitary security is
extremely dangerous because the composition of national interests and egoism
will never converge to a globally coherent policy. It is the weak that will
suffer first.



And the same time that power is reinstated as a driving principle of IR
praxis, the paradox is that great powers are becoming more and more powerless. If
we look only since 1989, and ask, when did state power ever triumph in IR?
Where did the strongest ever find a battleship enabling him to resolve a
problem to his benefit and according to his goals? Never. Not in Somalia, not
in Afghanistan, not in Iraq, not in Syria, not in Palestine. Nowhere. Not in
Sahel, not in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Nowhere. So I am a little
worried, indeed, about this naive and old-fashioned rehabilitation of state
power.





Can we say that globalization, or rather the ambition of
integration at either the European or global scale, has failed? Can today be
considered a good moment to bury of the idea of integration?



I do not like burials, it is not an expression that I would use, but
your question is very pertinent. For around twenty years I have been saying and
teaching that regional integration constituted an intermediary and realistic
level of adaptation between the era of the nation state and that of globalization,
which means that I believed for a long time that regional integration was the
final step towards a global governance of the world.



I thought for a long time that what was not possible at the global
scale, a global government, was possible at the regional level and this would already
strongly simplify the world map and thus go in the way of this adhesion to the
collective dimension required by globalization. Nevertheless, not only Europe
suffers a setback, but all the regional constructions in the world are in a
similar situation. Mr. Trump openly shoves the NAFTA agreement, MERCOSUR is
down as every State that is composing it has recriminations against it, and we
could extend the list… All the forms of integration that have been set by
Chavez around his Bolivian ideal have ceased to exist; Africa progresses very
slowly in terms of regional integration; the Arab Maghreb Union, which is an
essential device, totally failed. Thus indeed the situation does not look good.



In the case of Europe there is a double phenomenon: on the one hand,
there is this really grave failure due to the secession of Great Britain from
Europe, and then there is a general malaise of the European model. Brexit is
really rare, if you look at the contemporary history of IR it is simply
unprecedented that a state shuts the door on a regional or global organization.
As far as I remember, it only happened a few times before, with Indonesia in
the UN in 1964, which lasted only 19 months. It happened with Morocco with the
African Union and Morocco is currently reintegrating in it. This British
situation came as a thunderbolt, worsened by the fact that paradoxically it is
not so much because of regional integration that the British voted against the
European Union. It was more from an anti-migration, xenophobic and nationalist
(in reference to that nationalism trend that I was earlier talking about)
perspective and what is dramatic is that we can clearly see that the
nationalist sentiment is really attacking the inner principles of regional
integration.



I was saying that in the European case there are internal problems which
run even deeper than the British defection, and I will underline at least two
of them. First of all there is a democratic deficit of Europe, meaning that
Europe was not able to match electoral spaces with the ones where decisions get
made; people still vote at the national level while the decisions are taken in
Brussels. In consequence, democratic control over these decisions is extremely
weak. How to resolve this equation? And here the breakdown is total since very
few people are coming up with suggestions. The other factor of this crisis is,
according to me, the fact that Europe has been built with success after World
War II in a progressive way around association and indeed, Durkheim proved it,
the integrative logic makes sense. Unity makes strength and it did make
strength once in Europe to prevent war, a third World War, and secondly to
encourage the reconstruction of European countries where economy was totally
collapsed. This time is now over and it is the fault of Europe to not have
known how to recontextualize itself, to react to the new contexts.



Paying one more time tribute to Durkheim who guessed it right, Durkheim
said that there are two ways of constructing social ties: around association
and around solidarity. I think that the time of association is now over, we
should enter in the time of solidarity, which does not consist in saying 'We
Germans are associated with Greece', but rather 'We Germans are joined together
with Greece because we know that if Greece collapses, in a long term
perspective, we will suffer the consequences'. Thus this idea of fundamental
unity is an idea that has been a little bit overlooked, abandoned by the
Europeans and now they find themselves in a complete paralysis.





Is the decolonization period still having an impact on
contemporary IR?



Oh totally, totally. I would first say because it is a major event in
the field of IR, which made the World switch from 51 sovereign States of the UN
in 1945 to 193 today but above all, a very aggravating circumstance, is that
this decolonization has been a complete failure and this failure weighs
enormously on international politics.



It has been a failure because decolonization assumed the format of copying
the western state model in countries that were accessing independence, while
this model was not necessarily adapted, which provoked a proliferation of
failed states, and these collapsed states had a terrible effect on IR.



Secondly because decolonization should have led to the enrichment and to
the substantial modification of multilateralism, by creating new institutions
able to take charge of new challenges resulting from decolonization. Yet,
except the creation of UNCTAD in 1964 and of
UNDP in 1965, there have been very little innovations in terms of global governance.
Thus global governance remains dominated by what I earlier called 'the club',
which means the great powers from the north, and this is very dysfunctional for
the management of contemporary crises. Then also because the ancient colonial
powers happen to find new forms of domination that did somehow complicate the
international game. Thus in fact decolonization is a daily aspect of the crisis
that the international system faces today.





In conclusion, which question should we have asked? In
other terms, which question have we forgot?



I found your questions very pertinent as it allowed the discussion of themes
that I consider essentials. Now, the big problem that makes me worry is the
great gap between the analysts and the actors in IR. I am not saying that the
analysts understood everything, far from it, but I think that IR theorists are
very conscious of some of these transformations I have mentioned. If you look
at some great authors such as James Rosenau, Ned Lebow or Robert Keohane, to
name just a few—there are way more—they all contributed to the reconstruction
of IR.



What truly strikes me is the autism of political actors, they think that
they are still at the time of the Congress of Vienna and that is an
extraordinary source of tension. Thus as long as this spirit of change does not
reach political actors, maybe Barack Obama was the first one to enter this game
and then the parenthesis was closed, as long as there will not be this move
towards the discovery of a new world, maybe as well through the inclusion in
our reflection about the international fabric such partners as China, it is not
normal that this very powerful China does not have any choice but to share the
paradigm and the model of action proper to occidental diplomacy, as long as we
would not have done this precise effort, well, we will remain in the negation
of the human, and that is the essential problem today, we are unable to
understand that at the end there is just one unity, which is the human being.



I had the chance to visit 105 countries and everywhere I met the same
men and the same women, with their pain, with their happiness, their hardship,
their joy, their sorrow, their needs that were everywhere identical. As long as
we will not understand that, well, we will be living in a world that is in total
contradiction with what it is truly and essentially. We will live in a world of
artifice and thus a world of violence.



Related links  



Read Badie's
The Arab Spring: A starting point (SER
Études 2011) here
(pdf)



Print version (pdf) of this Talk

ERROR ANALYSIS OF SPOKEN RECOUNT TEXT MADE BY THE EIGHTH GRADERS OF BILINGUAL CLASS AT SMP NEGERI 1 BABAT Muhammad Anwar Habibi English Language Education, Language and Arts Faculty, Surabaya State University anwarhabibi@rocketmail.com Esti Kurniasih, S.Pd., M.Pd. English Language Education, Language and Arts Faculty, Surabaya State University Abstrak Kemampuan berbiara siswa merupakan kemampuan yang alami. Pada satu sisi, siswa mampu menggunakan ilmu kebahasaan mereka dengan berbciara. Pada sisi yang lain, celah dari ilmu kebahasaan yang rendah akan terlihat dari bahasa lisan mereka yang didefinisikan sebagai kesalahan siswa atau Error. Untuk itu, bahasa lisan siswa bisa dijadikan sebagi tolok ukur yang tepat dalam mengukur kemampuan berbahasa mereka. Analisa kesalahan berbahasa siswa adalah salah satu metode yang berarti untuk mengisi celah ilmu kebahasaan siswa. Selanjutnya melalui evaluasi kesalahan berbahasa yang suah mereka buat, mereka mampu meningkatkan kecakapan berbahasa mereka secara bertahap. Studi deskriptif kualitatif ini bertujuan untuk menganalisa dan menjelaskan sebab dari macam-macam error yang telah dibuat oleh subjek penelitian ini dalam teks lisan berbentuk recount. Peneliti menggunakan klasifikasi kesalahan yang diusulkan oleh Hendrickson (1983) dan sebab kesalahan dari James dalam Ellis (2005). Peneliti juga menggunakan teori analisa data kualitaif yang diusulkan oleh Ary et al (2010). Untuk memperoleh data, peneliti merekam dan menuliskan teks lisan siswa berbentuk recount. Dari keseluruhan teks lisan siswa berbentuk recount ditemukan banyak kesalahan yang pada umumnya terjadi pada morphology dan phonology. Peneliti juga menemukan kesalahan yang terjadi pada lexicon dan syntax namun jarang terjadi. Dari keseluruhan kesalahan dalam morphology kebanyakan terjadi pada tense markers dan plural markers. Misanalysis dalam tata bahasa dan kurangnya kesadaran siswa untuk menggunakan tata bahasa yang baik dan benar dalam bahasa lisan merupakan sebab utama dari kesalahan-kesalahan siswa dalam teks lisan berbentuk recount mereka. Kata Kunci: analisa kesalahan, ketrampilan berbicara, teks recount, kelas bilingual, siswa kelas 8. Abstract Students' spoken language is natural. On one hand, through the spoken language the students are going to be able to implement any language knowledge that they have learned. On the other hand, spoken language also provides the students' gaps concern with lack of language knowledge that is referred as an error. Therefore, the students' spoken language could be viewed as an exact object to measure their language ability. Analyzing the errors in learner's language is a significant method to fill the students' gaps. Then they are capable of enhancing their language aptitude through errors evaluation. This descriptive qualitative study is chiefly aimed to analyze the types and causes of errors that were made by the subject of this study on their spoken recount text. In this errors analysis of the students' spoken recount text, error classification by Hendrickson (1983) and causes of error by James in Ellis (2005) are implemented to analyze and describe the errors and their causes. The spoken language data bring the researcher into recording and transcribing the students' spoken recount text before analysis takes place to gain the data of this error analysis study. Theory of qualitative data proposed by Ary (2010) is implemented in analyzing the data of this study. The researcher found very many errors from the entire spoken recount texts. The errors are mostly occurred in morphology, then phonology. Lexicon and syntax are rarely occurred in the students' spoken recount text. Morphological errors mostly occur in tense and plural markers. Misanalysis of the structure rules and lack of consciousness of applying them in oral communication mostly caused those errors occurred. Key words: error analysis, speaking skill, recount text, bilingual class, eighth graders. INTRODUCTION The very heart of using foreign language is able to speak the foreign language (Luoma, 2004). English has been included into the Indonesian education curriculum and taught since Elementary School level and recently young learners are also introduced to English in early age such as in Preschool class. The spoken form has been regarded as the primary form of language (Vachek, 1973 in Hughes, 2002). In fact, oral or written language produced by learners (Ellis, 2005:4) has the same purpose that is as means of communication. In addition, the main point of producing a language is that the speakers or the writers can extend any information they want to share using the senses they have. Learning language and constructing learner strategies (Wenden et al, 1987) are executed by the children through the instruction of the teacher inside the classroom as the continuation of childhood developmental phase in constructing language. Language learners will be curious about the language they are learning (McKay, 2006), so they are willing to accept any feedback that will upgrade their language knowledge. Then they will get into the evaluation part of learning language and the students will be able to use words and phrases fluently without very much conscious thought (Harmer, 2007). It seems rather peculiar to evaluate the students' oral language by showing the errors they have made rather than the right one (Ellis, 1997). Students' oral language is produced by the students naturally as the language features they have learned. Showing the error then noticing the right one will help the students to revise the students' misunderstanding about a certain language feature then their language learning could develop gradually over the time. Yet, to show the students' errors should be extended by the teacher as wise as possible. Ellis (1997) defines the error as reflection of learner's knowledge and it occurs because the learner does not know the correct one. Lack of language knowledge such as pronunciation, accents, words use, vocabulary, and structure can be addressed to the students because of their error occurred. Therefore, they will learn this language knowledge gradually over the time. It means that the students will get their errors at the early moment of learning a new knowledge of a language lesson. Referring to the new lesson of the students in formal language learning level, recount and descriptive text are the new genres text for the 8th graders as in the Basic Competence of Junior High School students in speaking skill of the Badan Standar Nasional Pendidikan (BSNP), 2006. Giving information and sharing an account of what happened is the definition of the recount as the typical genre of Derewianka, 1992 in McKay, 2006. Giving and sharing an account of what happened to each of the students would be a fair topic of this error analysis study. Because, they will tell what in their mind using the represent words, phrase, and sentence rather than describing something because, they are going to have opportunities to cheat their friends' words and it will limit their language knowledge. The spoken recount will refer to one of the genre texts for the 8th graders of Junior High School but it will be extended in the form of oral language not in written form. Based on the Basic Competence of Junior High School students in speaking skill of the BSNP, 2006 recount text is one of the genre texts that should be learned by the 8th graders as a new lesson because it is oriented in the first semester and they do not learn this text at the previous grade. Therefore, the new thing for the students will turn up the error of producing oral language. Therefore, they will be able to evaluate and revise their errors by knowing the errors they have made which are going to be the main data of this spoken recount text analysis study. The students will learn such text in the next semester. Thus, it is important to strengthen their language feature of recount text as oral language foundation. Different skill was analyzed in this study than others that differentiate the following error analysis study. Related to error analysis study, Prastiwi (2013) conducted a written error analysis of the eight graders on the problems of students' competence in writing recount text in terms of its content and organization. In addition, the result of this study is that the content and organization of recount composition written by the 8th graders was categorized into average level. Therefore, this error analysis study is different from others error analysis studies that are mostly conducted in analyzing written language of the students. This error analysis study is chiefly aimed to analyze the errors and their causes that are found in spoken recount text made by the 8th graders of bilingual class at SMP Negeri 1 Babat. The students or the error maker will obtain more luck from this error analysis study because they will know and realize the error they have made when they are learning a new material. Being shown the error they have made sometimes will be brought up next to their mind so that they will be aware of having the similar errors. They will be noticeable about the language features as well and it will possibly help the students to self-correct the errors they have made (Ellis, 1997). Teacher is another one who will obtain the luck from this study; the errors known will be the reflection of some aspects of the teacher that they could be attributed to. For example, the teaching method, practice frequency, pronunciation, production, etc. He or she will know the measurement of the speaking skill mastered by the students from the errors they have made. The teacher will know which material should be emphasized in language teaching activity to cover the errors of the students in speaking skill particularly in spoken recount and recount text. METHOD In this study, the researcher used descriptive qualitative research. The researcher tried to describe and explain the students' spoken recount error objectively and naturally as it existed. The data which are described by the researcher were taken from the students' spoken recount text made by the 8th graders of bilingual class at SMP Negeri 1 Babat. The data of this study are in the form of words. Therefore, the researcher applied qualitative method where qualitative data are in the form of words or picture rather than numbers and statistics (Ary, 2010). The steps underwent by the researcher are collecting the students' spoken recount data then transcribing them into written words. After that, the researcher organized and analyzed the error made by the students. Finally, the researcher extended the error analysis study of the spoken recount in the form of words as the result of this study. In addition, there was no any treatment given to the subjects of this study. The subjects of this study are the 8th graders of bilingual class at SMP Negeri 1 Babat and the researcher chose the A cluster. The researcher chose the 8th graders because they are learning recount text particularly in the first semester and will be continued to the next semester so this grade is the appropriate one to be the subjects of this study. Therefore, the researcher would like to know the errors that usually occur in students' speaking. Ellis (2005) stated that the primary data of oral analysis are the recording of talk. The transcripts of the recording are not the data, but rather a representation of the data. However, the transcript and the recordings should be used together during the analysis. Data of this study are the errors which are found in the students' speaking performance and the motives of the students for doing those errors. In analyzing the students' spoken recount text, the researcher used the theory of Hendrickson (1983). The data source of this error analysis study is the spoken recount text performance made by the bilingual class of the 8th graders at SMP Negeri 1 Babat and the representation of the primary data are the transcript of the spoken recount text recording. The research instruments in this study were used to gain the answer of the research questions. In this study, the researcher used two instruments. The primary instrument used in qualitative research is the researcher himself (Ary, 2010). In fact, the researcher conducted the research, collected data until analyzed the data of the study by himself. So the researcher is the primary instrument of this study that is used to answer the first and second research question. To support the primary instrument gained the data, the researcher used a recording as a tool of instrument because the form of the primary data is in the form of audio recording. Audio recording is now widely used to show the language use occur naturally (Ellis et al, 2005). There are three principle methods of collecting sample, they are: (1). Pencil and paper; (2). Audio recording; (3). Video recording (Ellis et al, 2005). In this study, the researcher used the audio recording because the data of this study are in the form of spoken data. Therefore, the first step done by the researcher was recording the spoken recount text made by the bilingual class of the 8th graders at SMP Negeri 1 Babat. After recording the students' spoken recount text, the researcher transcribed the recording into written transcription to ease the researcher in analyzing the students' spoken recount text to find the type of errors. The recording perhaps eases an analysis to go back to the oral performance repeatedly. It helps to ensure that the transcription is detailed and accurate (Ellis et al, 2005). The next step is analyzing the students' spoken recount text through their transcription. The theory of Hendrickson (1983) was used to classify the students' errors found in their spoken performance. By classifying the categories of errors, the researcher will be able to construct the open questionnaire that was used to know the motives of the students for doing those errors. Then the researcher described the data systematically to get the best understanding based on the research questions. There are some theories which define the stages of qualitative data analysis, for instance, Cresswell (2007), Marshall and Roshman (2006), Maxwell (2005), Wolcott (1994), and Ary (2010). Moreover, they have different stages that should be done by the qualitative researcher in analyzing data. In this study, the researcher applied the theory of qualitative data analysis by Ary et al (2010) that consists of familiarizing-organizing, coding-reducing, and interpreting-representing. Familiarizing and organizing is the first stage of analyzing data of this study. In this study, the researcher familiarized himself with the data (Ary, 2010). Listening repeatedly is one way to familiarize with the data because the data of this study are in the form of spoken data. To ease the researcher, he made the transcription of the recording. After being familiar with the data, the researcher organized the data so that the researcher is capable of analyzing the data through the next stage. The second stage is coding and reducing. Coding itself is not to sum but to break apart the data (Ary, 2010). In this stage, the researcher coded the students' spoken recount transcriptions to separate the data based on the coding. In addition, this was used to ease the researcher in analyzing the error of each student's spoken transcription. After being coded and analyzed in detail based on the theory used, the data were then coded in larger coding. The large code is the part where the students' spoken transcription put into three codes based on the content and the errors found. Excellent, good, and poor are the codes used to divide the data into large group and each group will be represented by certain data to be presented in the finding and discussion part. In this stage, unfortunately the researcher did not reduce any data that had been collected because the researcher intentionally analyzed all the students' spoken recount text transcription. The last stage is interpreting and representing. Ary (2010) stated that interpretation is about emerging the meaning, telling whatever it exists, providing an explanation and developing the reasonable explanations. To interpret the data, the researcher used the theory of error analysis as the set of rule so that the researcher is able to interpret them in detail. In addition, this interpretation will be understandable by the availability of the visual representation of the data. The researcher used the table to explain the errors found in detail and chart to show the percentage of the error frequencies or amount. RESULT AND DISCUSSION After recording the spoken recount text then the researcher transcribed them into words with normal orthography supported with codes that are used to represent the data representation as it is existed. In analyzing the data, the researcher implemented familiarizing-organizing and coding-reducing theory of qualitative data analysis by Ari et al (2010). In this chapter, the researcher implemented the interpreting-representing stage of this theory. The entire errors that are found by the researcher occurred in each error linguistic proposed by Hendrickson (1983). After classifying the errors, the researcher found that the local errors found mostly occurred in morphology, phonology, syntax, and lexicon. While the global errors found by the researcher mostly occurred in lexicon, syntax, and morphology. In addition, the researcher did not find any global errors that occurred in phonology. Type of errors Number of local errors Number of global errors Lexicon 55 5 Syntax 63 2 Morphology 150 1 Phonology 95 - Total 363 8 Interlingual errors are caused by the mother tongue interference in learning either second or foreign language. This interference probably gives not only positive but also negative effects that is commonly called transfer. Ellis (1997) stated that facilitation given by the first language in learning second language is positive transfer. While negative transfer is the first language role as the source of errors. In this study, the researcher found so many negative transfer cases where most of the entire students' spoken recount texts were composed and spoken by applying the first language structure rather than the English structure. Interlingual errors in this study occurred in lexicon, syntax, morphology and phonology in particular as the speech of the language learner that contains the characteristic of transfer in its pronunciation and intonation pattern. The errors that were caused by interlingual are mostly occurred in morphology, phonology, syntax and lexicon. To be exact, the entire errors found in spoken recount text made by the subject of this study are assumed as interlingual errors. As Ellis (1997) stated that transfer is common in second language learners' speech. The second major in explaining errors is intralingual. This major reflects the universal process of learning strategy applied by the learners (Ellis, 1997). The intralingual consists of false analogy, misanalysis, incomplete rule application, exploiting redundancy, overlooking co-occurrence restriction, and system-simplification (James, 1998 in Ellis, 1997). Each error made by the students may have more than one cause (Tarone, 2009). Therefore, the researcher found some errors that have more than one cause that will increase the number of cause of error than the errors itself. The researcher found fewer errors that are caused by the intralingual errors than others that are caused by interlingual. These because of the phonological errors are completely caused by interlingual. An error made by the students that is caused by the system-simplification is rarely occurred among the whole of errors. The cause of this error occurs is when the students simplified the rule of the system in English to communicate rather than use the complete one. In false analogy or a kind of overgeneralization error that are caused by the students' false analogy is higher than system simplification. This false analogy mostly occurs in incorrect chosen words where the speaker or the subject thought it was correct. For example, the subject prefers to use long to show the distance rather than far. Literally, those words have different meaning, but the subject's analogy call it same or similar. The subjects also overgeneralized forms that they have found to be easy to learn and process (Ellis, 1997). The use of 'eated' in the place of 'ate', for instance. The errors of overlooking co-occurrence are in same level as the false analogy errors. The errors caused by overlooking occur in inappropriate words chosen who have similar meaning with others but have different collocation. For example, one of the subjects used 'fourteen p.m.' in place of 'two p.m.'. The researcher found higher errors that are caused by incomplete rule application than the previous ones. Incomplete rule application occurs in inappropriate rules applied by the students. They prefer to restructure the grammatical systems with their own as Ellis (1997) stated that restructuring grammatical rules is prevalent in second language acquisition. Word order errors are mostly caused by the incomplete rule application where the students mentioned the part of speech component of a sentence, but they arranged it in the wrong arrangement that trespassing the grammatical rules of English language in particular. From the entire errors caused by incomplete rule application are mostly occurred in word order. Errors that are caused by exploiting redundancy often occurred in students' spoken recount text. James in Ellis (1997) stated that exploiting redundancy is leaving the grammatical features that do not contribute to the meaning of an utterance, for example, omitting –s in verbs of third person singular. The same case also occurs in plural markers and possessive adjectives errors where most of the students leave the –s in plural markers and –'s in possessive adjective. Learners find difficulties of speaking in full sentences so they often leave the words. In second language acquisition, this case is called propositional simplification that happens in the early second language learner speech (Ellis, 1997). Most of errors found in students' spoken recount text are caused by misanalysis. The errors that are caused by misanalysis mostly occurred in verbs and tense markers. The presence, absence, and inappropriateness of verbs are the consideration of the verb errors that are caused by misanalysis. While inappropriate form of verbs is the consideration of the tense marker errors, for example, the use of present participle verb in past tense verb. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS Conclusion The researcher found that the entire bilingual students made errors in their spoken recount text. From entire spoken recount texts made by each student of bilingual class, the errors are mostly occurred in morphology, phonology, syntax, and lexicon. The errors of lexicon are mostly occurred in verbs, noun, and adverb. And errors of adjective are rarely occurred. Therefore, from the whole errors of lexicon are mostly occurred in preposition, possessive adjective, articles, word order. Moreover, errors in syntactic class, modals, conjunction, and demonstrative adjective are rarely occurred. The errors of phonology occurred in mispronunciation entirely. Moreover, most of errors found by the researcher occurred in morphology and tense markers are dominants than plural and negative markers. The causes of the errors made by the students were concerned in the second research question of this study. The researcher found that errors made by the bilingual students are dominantly caused by the interlingual errors or the mother tongue interference. The researcher also found fewer errors that are caused by the intralingual errors than interlingual. System simplification rarely caused the production of errors found in intralingual. False analogy and overlooking co-occurrence caused errors production more than system simplification. In addition, the entire errors are mostly caused by misanalysis, exploiting redundancy, and incomplete rule application. Based on the result of this error analysis on the spoken recount text made by the bilingual students, the researcher concluded that the students' speaking ability is weak. It is reflected from the number of errors found by the researcher. On one hand, the advanced number of errors that is caused by the interlingual errors is possible because English language in the students' point of view is a foreign language that is implemented as the medium language in teaching and learning activity in bilingual class. Moreover, they should be aware of the interlingual errors so that they are not in fossilization (Ellis, 1997). In fact, the descending of students' consciousness and awareness in implementing grammatical rules in spoken language to turn up the readers' comprehension toward the content of the spoken recount text affected the errors production in their spoken language. Suggestions After conducting an error analysis on the students' spoken recount text and resulting the finding as above, the researcher suggests not only the teacher but also the students. In fact, the students made very many errors in their spoken recount then the teacher should evaluate the errors found so that the students are able to learn from their errors. From the teacher's evaluation, the students will be able to develop their language capability gradually, especially in speaking ability. The teacher should also emphasize the material where the errors occurred, it could be in the form of review or discussion. Moreover, the teacher should motivate the students to be aware of the grammar rules in speaking and to have self-consciousness in practicing English. Meanwhile, the researcher suggests the students to be able to learn the errors that they have made so that they could enhance their own language ability gradually. Then they also should raise their awareness and consciousness in implementing grammar rules in communication as well to turn up the readers' comprehension, on behalf of bilingual class tittle that requires them so that they are able to use English and Bahasa as means of oral and written communication. REFERENCES Ary, D., Jacobs, L. C., & Sorensen, C. K. (2010). Introduction to Research inEducation (8 ed.). Wadsworth: Cengage Learning. Beeby, C. E. (1979). Indonesian Education, an Experiment in Assessment. Willington: Oxford University Press. Brown, G., & Yule, G. (1983). Teaching the Spoken Language. New York: Cambridge University Press. Brown, H. D. (2000). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching (4 ed.). White Plains: Longman. Ellis, R. (1997). Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ellis, R. (2008). The Study of Second Language Acquisition (2 ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. Ellis, R., & Barkhuizen, G. (2005). Analysing Learner Language. Chennai: Oxford University Press. Harashima, H. D. (2006). An Error Analysis of the Speech of an Experienced Japanase Learner of English. (6), 37-58. Harmer, J. (2007a). How to Teach English. Harlow: Pearson. Harmer, J. (2007b). The Practice of English Language Teaching (4 ed.). Harlow: Pearson. Hendrickson, J. (1983). Error Analysis and Error Correction in Language Teaching. Tanglin: Seamo Regional Language Center. Hughes, R. (2002). Teaching and Researching Speaking. Harlow: Pearson Education. James, C. (1998). Errors in Language Learning and Use Exploring Error Analysis. Harlow: Longman. Kemendiknas. (2006). Standar Isi Untuk Satuan Pendidikan Dasar dan Menengah. Jakarta: Badan Standar Nasional Pendidikan. Luoma, S. (2004). Assessing Speaking. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. McKay, P. (2006). Assessing Young Language Learners. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Prastiwi, A. (2013). A Study of Content and Organization Produced by the Eight Grade Students of SMP Negeri 1 Kudu Jombang in Writing Recount Text. Bachelor Degree, State University of Surabaya, Surabaya. Ramli, D. (2013). An Analysis on Students' Errors in Writing Recount Text. Research Journal. Richard, J. C. (1974). Error Analysis: perspective on second langauge acquisition. London: Longman. Santrock, W.J. (2008). Psikologi Pendidikan (2 ed.). Jakarta: Kencana. Schrampfer, A. B. (1991). Undertsanding and Using English Grammar (3 ed.). New York: Pearson Education. Secretariat, L. (2012). Engaging in and Exploring Recount Writing. Adelaide: Government of South Australia. Sobur, Alex. (2011). Psikologi Umum Dalam Lintasan Sejarah. Bandung: Pustaka Setia. Tarone, E., Swierzbin, B. (2009). Exploring Learner Language Oxford: Oxford University Press. Wenden, A., & Rubin, J. (1987). Learner Strategies in Language Learning. Hemel Hempstead: Prentice Hall International. Zakiah, N. (2012). Grammatical Error Analysis in Recount Text Made by the Eight Graders of SMP Negeri 1 Mojosari. Bachelor Degree, State University of Surabaya, Surabaya.

THE USE OF MIND MAPPING TECHNIQUE TO TEACH WRITING OF NARRATIVE TEXT TO THE ELEVENTH GRADE Enty Novilasari English Departement, Languages and Arts Faculty, State University of Surabaya ndtired@gmail.com Himmawan Adi Nugroho, S.Pd., M.Pd English Departement, Languages and Arts Faculty, State University of Surabaya himmawan_95@yahoo.co.id Abstrak Bahasa Inggris adalah salah satu bahasa penting di dunia ini . Ini adalah salah satu dari banyak alasan mengapa kita harus belajar bahasa Inggris dalam kehidupan sehari-hari kita adalah untuk mendapatkan pekerjaan yang baik karena banyak perusahaan raksasa berasal dari negara-negara asing . Ini berarti salah satu persyaratan untuk mendapatkan pekerjaan yang baik adalah menguasai bahasa Inggris yang dianggap sebagai bahasa internasional . Ada empat dasar-dasar keterampilan bagi kita untuk menguasai bahasa Inggris. Salah satu keterampilan penting adalah menulis. Menulis dianggap sebagai keterampilan yang sulit , terutama bagi siswa yang belajar bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa kedua. Hal ini didukung oleh Richard dan Renandya ( 2002) yang menyatakan bahwa menulis adalah keterampilan yang paling sulit bagi pembelajar bahasa kedua. Oleh karena itu guru harus memberikan teknik alternatif untuk membantu siswa dalam menulis. Karena kasus itu, teknik pemetaan pikiran dapat menjadi alat untuk membantu siswa mengatur ide-ide sebelum mereka melakukan proses penulisan mereka. Mind Mapping adalah sebuah organizer yang merupakan representasi visual dengan tema sentral dikelilingi oleh cabang , tema , gambar , gambar , pikiran , pola , dan ide-ide yang diambil dari informasi yang diberikan selama kuliah kelas ( Trevino , 2005). Dalam penulisan mengajar ada empat langkah yang digunakan dalam pelaksanaan pemetaan pikiran : penjelasan guru , memberikan topik ; membuat pemetaan pikiran ; dan proses menulis . Dan langkah-langkah yang diterapkan dalam kegiatan siswa selama proses belajar-mengajar . Penelitian ini dilakukan di MAN 2 Gresik . Subyek penelitian ini adalah 25 siswa kelas XI - A1 . Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian deskriptif kualitatif yang menggambarkan pelaksanaan pemetaan pikiran untuk mengajar menulis teks narasi Berdasarkan hasil penelitian ini , penggunaan teknik pemetaan pikiran adalah sebagai bantuan untuk mengatur ide-ide siswa sebelum melakukan proses penulisan . Guru menjelaskan bagaimana menggunakan pemetaan pikiran sebelum kegiatan . Para siswa menggunakannya dalam kelompok dan secara individu sebelum proses penulisan mereka . Guru telah mengingatkan siswa struktur generik dan fitur bahasa teks narasi tetapi tampak beberapa siswa lupa itu . Kemudian , ia mencoba menjelaskan lagi . Selama proses belajar-mengajar , para siswa tampak aktif dan antusias . Berdasarkan karya siswa , setelah peneliti menganalisis menggunakan Jacob Profil komposisi ESL . Hal ini diketahui bahwa sebagian besar siswa dalam kriteria baik . Ini berarti bahwa mereka dapat membuat se narasi dengan baik . Dengan demikian dapat disimpulkan bahwa pemetaan pikiran adalah efektif sebagai teknik untuk membantu siswa mengatur dan menghasilkan ide-ide mereka . Para guru masih harus memperhatikan kemampuan menulis siswa selama proses belajar-mengajar . Kata kunci : Menulis , Mind Mapping dan teks Narrative Abstract English is one of the important languages in this world. It is one of many reasons why we must learn English in our daily life is to get a good job because many giant companies come from foreign countries. It means one of requirements to get a good job is mastering English which is considered as an international language. There is four basics skills for us to master an English. One of the important skills is writing. Writing is considered as a difficult skill, especially for students who learn English as a second language. It is supported by Richard and Renandya (2002) who stated that writing is the most difficult skill for second language learners. Therefore the teacher should give an alternative technique to help students in their writing. Due to that case, mind mapping technique can be a tool to help students organize the ideas before they do their writing process. Mind Mapping is an organizer that is a visual representation with a central theme surrounded by branches, themes, images, pictures, thoughts, patterns, and ideas taken from information given during a class lecture (Trevino, 2005). In teaching writing there are four steps those are used in the implementation of mind mapping: teachers' explanation, giving the topic; making a mind mapping; and writing process. And those steps are implemented in the students' activities during the teaching-learning process. This research was conducted in MAN 2 Gresik. The subjects of this research were 25 students of class XI-A1. It was a descriptive qualitative research which described the implementation of mind mapping to teach writing of narrative text Based on the result of this research, the use of mind mapping technique is as a help to organize the students' ideas before doing the writing process. The teacher explained how to use mind mapping before the activity. The students using it in group and individually before their writing process. The teacher had reminded the students the generic structures and language feature of narrative text but seemed some of the students forgot it. Then, he tried to explain it again. During the teaching-learning process, the students looked active and enthusiastic. Based on the students' work, after the researcher analyzes using Jacob composition ESL Profile. It is known that most of students are in good criteria. It means that they can compose se narrative well. It can be concluded that a mind mapping was effective as a technique to help students organize and generate their ideas. The teachers still have to pay attention in students' writing ability during teaching-learning process. Keywords: Writing, Mind Mapping and Narrative text INTRODUCTION As we all know, in globalization era today, English is one of the important languages in this world. It can be seen from the great enthusiasm of Indonesian in learning English as a second language. One of the reasons why we must learn English in our daily life is to get a good job. Many giant companies come from foreign countries. It means one of requirements to get a good job is mastering English which is considered as an international language. Based on the explanation above, Indonesian government through the national education has determined that English must be taught from the elementary schools until senior high schools. By mastering English, it is easier for us to make a good relationship with other countries. In education context, English has function as a means to communicate in the daily communication, to get knowledge, to make interpersonal communication, to share information and to enjoy language lesson in English culture (Depdikbud, 2006). In Indonesia, English is taught in junior high school and senior high school, even in elementary school that is why studying English is not a new thing for the students of senior high school before. Although English is not the new thing for Senior high school students, in fact they still have many difficulties in studying English. In mastering a language, we have to pay attention to the important elements of the language. One of them is language skills including listening, speaking, reading, and writing. These four skills are really important. It can be concluded that in mastering English as a second language, we need these four skills in order to communicate by using this language. Based on the 2006 English standard competence, the purpose of English in literacy education is developing discourse competence. By improving four language skills (listening speaking, reading, and writing), students will be able to develop their discourse competence (Depdiknas, 2006). From the explanation above, writing is considered as one of language skills that has important role to help students develop their productive skill in English. Writing is a means of recording something, information, knowledge and history and express them in the form of written text. Writing is a personal act which writer draws on background knowledge and complex mental process in developing new insights (O' Malley, 1996:136). Writing is categorized as a productive skill because there is a process of creating something (Abbott et al, 1981: 143). From the explanation above we know that from this skill we get the product in the form of sentence, paragraph, and text. Productive skill consists of speaking and writing. Johnson (2001: 290), stated that writing and speaking are different. Everyone learns to speak but not everyone learns how to write. Writing is more organized and the reader cannot rely on repetition to clarify. Writing has an important role in human's activity. It creates ideas, information or something which can not be produced by spoken way. Writing also helps students to use language and to express what he wishes or needs to communicate. Furthermore, through writing ability, a student is guided to be an imaginative, creative and motivated person. In fact, writing is considered as the most difficult skill for students. It is supported by (Kroll, 1990) that writing in a second language is more complex, the act of writing in one's first language is not the same as the act of writing in one's second language. The difficulties come from the transformation of native language to foreign language. Bell and Burnabi (in Nunan,1991:6) stated that writing is an extremely complex cognitive activity that requires the writer to demonstrate control of several variables at once. At the sentences level, they include control of contents, format, sentence structure, the vocabulary, pronunciation, spelling, and letter formation. Beyond the sentence, the writer must be able to structure and integrate information into cohesive and coherent paragraphs and texts. From the explanation above, students have to think about many things in order to produce a good writing. They have to decide the ideas, vocabulary, and perhaps they worry about grammar and spelling. Those are problems that are faced by students in writing class. According to (Agustien, 2004) when the teachers teach English, their aim is to enable the students to create English sentence grammatically. It means that students who can arrangge sentence grammatically they will can create text in the english. As we know that there are many types of genres text. Agustien also added that every genre is characterized by orientation, complication and resolution. Therefore, when the teachers teach English, it is very important that they expose the learners to authentic English texts in the sense that the text contains grammatical sentences, acceptable expressions, and at the same time properly structured to serve the communicative purpose. The teachers also develop the learners' ability to write English texts in the way that is culturally acceptable in English culture. In spoken, there are also conversational moves that are common in English conversations. Those are reasons why the teachers need to address some English genres especially those that are often used in school contexts. Wells (1991) cited in Agustien (2004) explained that in teaching Senior High School students, the literacy target which is used is called informational level. It means that Senior High School graduates are expected to be able to access the accumulated knowledge because they are expected to communicate for academic purposes too. The learners are expected to be able to listen to short lectures, talk about serious matters, read popular and scientific texts, and write for different purposes. The kind of genre they learn should include those they are likely to encounter in their academic lives. According to NAEP (1987), the genre defines the style the writer will use and suggest choices about the language and structure of the composition. The text types (genre) which are taught to the Senior High School students are: recount, narrative, procedure, descriptive, news item, report, analytical exposition, hortatory exposition, spoof, explanation, discussion and review. Those texts are differentiated based on their communicative purposes, generic structures and linguistic features. In writing a purposive text or an essay, students will search their memory and recall their knowledge and experience. The knowledge divided into four types; knowledge of generating idea, knowledge of organizing the content, knowledge of discourse structures, and knowledge for integrating all other types of knowledge (O'Malley, 1996: 136- 137). Those areas of knowledge lead problems to the students especially in generating ideas and constructing the generic structure of a purposive text. According to them, getting started to write is the most difficult task in writing activity. They often do not know how to write and what to write about when faced with a topic and a blank piece of paper. This facts show that student dislike writing. According to (Farrugia, 2008) one major factor that shall be tackled to contribute to good writing skills is planning. When attempting any writing task, some people tend to start directly without planning their thoughts. The repercussions when adopting such a hapzard approach is that some ideas are left out and clarity is not achieved. Sorenson (2010) explained that usually, the pre writing activities help us to find a good topic, narrow topics that are too broad, and look at purpose. Listing, free writing, brainstorming, using graphic organizer or mapping and questioning are kinds of technique that used for pre writing activity (Gatz, 2004). Graphic organizers sometimes are also called as concept-maps, entity relationship charts, or mind maps. As Chan (2004) stated mind mapping as a pre writing technique or strategy goes by a variety of names : "mind-mapping", "clustering", "bubbling", "clumping" or "webbing". They refer to the same concept. Here the researcher uses the term mind mapping. Mind mapping will be implemented in teaching writing to the eleventh grade students. Because in the eleventh grade, the students are learned by many kinds of genre. This study will take narrative text to be applied to mind mapping. By using mind mapping, the students will easier to organize and generate their ideas for four english skills, especially writing. There were studies which conducted by (Umi nadifah, 2007) which analysed mind mapping as a technique to teach speaking and (Vibriyanida Musdalifah,2008) which use mind mapping to read report text. Mind mapping not only to help them well organized and generate their ideas, but also to help their brain more concentrate to structure and arrange the ideas into cohesive and coherent paragraph. Another reason why the researcher chooses narrative text is due to its subjective and objective details to tell or retell a story, while mind mapping is a technique of arranging and exploring ideas. By using mind mapping to narrative writing, the students are directed to tell or retell story in details systematically. From all of those reason above, the researcher is interested in conducting a study entitled "The use of mind mapping as a technique to teach writing of narrative text to the eleventh grade". The purpose of this study to know the implementation of mind mapping in teaching and learning process and analyze students' work after the application of mind mapping. The subject of this reaserch are the the teacher and eleventh Graders of Senior High School students especially Eleventh science 1. METHODOLOGY The research design that used in this study is descriptive qualitative. The data would be presented and analyzed qualitatively without using any statistical instruments because there was no control and treatment group as it is found in the experimental research. The data also be presented in the form of sentences. Thirsterson (2004:359) stated that the descriptive qualitative study is a research relying on the collection of qualitative data and non numerical data such as words and pictures. It means that collecting the information by using descriptive qualitative study were observing, recognizing and understanding what was happened in the classroom. Moreover, Huda (1999) explained that qualitative research is frequently associated with the technique of analyzing data and writing research report. Thus, this research was qualitative because this study focused on describing the implementation of the technique and analyzing the students' writing composition. The researcher acted as an observer during the teaching-learning process. She only observed, described, and then reported, everything she heared and saw during the class. She evaluated the teaching-learning process and took students' writing work when the test has held. The subject of the study were the teacher who involve in the teaching and learning process and the eleventh grader students of MAN 2 Gresik. which consist of four science classes and four social. The data of this study is in form of information through observation checklist. Observation checklist described the implementation of mind mapping as a technique in teaching writing narratve texts. Then, the source of data is teacher and students' activities which happened during the teaching and learning process in the classroom which reported by the researcher using observation checklist. The data of this study also is in form of students' writing work. They was collected to know the students' writing ability after they taught using Mind mapping. And The source of the data is the students' narrative text writing work which the teacher had given in the classroom to the students in the third meeting. Then, the resarcher will analyze the composition of students' narrative writing work which consist of content, organization, vocabulary, language use and mechanic using ESL Jacob Composition Profile. The instruments which were used in doing this study were observation checklist and students' work. Observation Checklist is used to describe the implementation of the media and what kind of activities which happened during the teaching learning process in the classroom. In this case, to support the data from the observation, the researcher also used observation checklist as a guidance to know all aspect in the use of mind mapping in teaching narrative text. The students' work was used by the researcher to conduct this study was the work that given to the students to write a narrative text after the implementation of mind mapping. It was considered as an essential instrument because by giving work to the students, the researcher would know the students narrative writing ability and how mind mapping motivate the students to produce a good narrative text. To collect the data in qualitative research, there are some commonly methods which are used. Wiersman (1991) explained the methods which are used to collect the data in qualitative research are interview, observation, and document collection. In this study, the researcher got the data from the observation by using observation checklist and collected students' work. After the researcher collected all the data through observation and students' work then the writer analyzed these data in descriptive way. The way to analyze the data, the data will be collected from the observation checklist which will be described and explained based on the data noted in indicator column with "yes/no" answer. Then, the researcher will analyze the data of the students' composition from the students' work. The writer will use Holly Jacobs' Composition Profile (1981: 91) to analyze the students' writing work. According to Holly Jacobs' Composition Profile, there are five aspects which will be analyzed by the researcher to answer the research questions of the study. They are content, organization, vocabulary, language use, and mechanic. The last, All of the data will be combined to make a conclusion and suggestion. The data which come from classroom observation will be analyzed by using descriptive analysis. Then, the researcher will analyze the students' writing work based on the rubric of ESL composition profile scoring by Jacob (1981). Finally, the researcher will describe the data by classifying them into parts based on the research questions. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS Based on the findings, the implementation of mind mapping was done in three meetings by the teacher. The use of mind mapping technique is as a help to organize the students' ideas before doing the writing process. The teacher explained how to use mind mapping before the activity. The students using it in group and individually before their writing process. The teacher had reminded the students the generic structures and language feature of narrative text but seemed some of the students forgot it. Then, he tried to explain it again During the teaching and learning process, the teacher used mind mapping as a technique to teach narrative text. The technique was given clear enough for students. In the first meeting, the teacher introduced mindmapping technique to the students. In the second and third meeting, the teacher asked students to compose narrative text using mind mapping in pre writing activity. There were three topics that were given by the teacher. They were Sangkuriang, Snow White and The 7 Dwarfs and Cinderella. In the process of writing, the teacher did not apply all the process, they are pre-writing, drafting, revising and editing. He just focused in pre writing which the implementation use mind mapping technique, Although all the process of writing were not applied, the students can compose narrative text well. Before the teacher asked students to compose narrative text, he asked them to complete mind mapping on the board which was given by the teacher, they were very active. Most of them very enthusiastic to participate complete it. It means the students understand how to use and apply mind mapping. Then, when they asked to compose narrative, they can compose well. It could be seen that by using mind mapping, it can help students to organize and generate their ideas and make them compose narrative well. This is in line with Davis (2003). He stated that mind mapping can be implemented during class to help students, individually or in groups, explore a concept or issue. Then, after the researcher analyzed the students' work. Most of students can organize and generate their ideas, so they can compose an narrative text well. But, although they could organize and generate their ideas into a narrative text, some of them still had some problems in writing activities. The researcher found the problems related the use of grammar, they had difficulties in constructing sentences to make their writing understandable. The grammar mistakes were in using simple past tense, articles, preposition and pronoun. Beside the grammar mistakes, the teacher also found the problem in choosing and using the words. Some of the students still confused to use appropriate words, so they used inappropriate words that sometimes made the reader difficult to understand the content of the story and there was content that had lack information. Some of them also could not developed well the conflict of the story, some of them also made errors of spelling and capitalization in their writing. However, after the teacher analysed the students' writing composition, most of students are good criteria in term of content (tells the idea that the writer want to share), organization (deals with the generic structure of the text), vocabulary (describes the students' knowledge in vocabulary mastery), language use (describes tenses,number, word order or function, articles and prepositions which are in supporting good writing) and mechanics (describes on spelling punctuation and capitalization of writing). It can be said that the mind mapping technique was an effective technique to teach writing narrative. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS Conclusion In conclusion, there were two things that were focused in this study. They were implementation of mind mapping to write a narrative text and the students' writing ability after being taught by using mind mapping. The implementation of mind mapping of narrative text has several steps; explanation of the technique, grouping and individual works. In each step, the students' are taught how to use mind mapping in pre-activity to help them organizing their ideas. After making mind mapping, there were students' works. The process of writing was not apllied completely by the teacher. He just focused in pre-writing activity. During the teaching-learning process, the students were very enthusiastic in making mind mapping. They also very active when the teacher asked them to complete the mind mapping on the board. It could be seen from their direct responses during the teaching-learning process. After analyzed the students' work, it is known that student's writing ability is good. Most of students are good in term of content, organization, vocabulary, language use and mechanics. It can be said that the mind mapping technique was an effective technique to teach writing narrative. It can help the students in organizing and generating their ideas in writing. So, they can compose a narrative text well Suggestions Here the researcher would like to propose some suggestions. In the process of teaching English, the teacher should be more creative and selective in choosing the technique which can help them to develop their English skills, especially writing. Mind mapping is one of the the technique. It is implemented in the pre writing activity to help the students to organize and explore their ideas also when they are lacking the ideas. On the other words, it can be said that the teacher should make variations and choose the appropriate and effective technique to teach English, such as by using Mind Mapping. By using this technique, it should encourage the students to be more active and creative and reflect students' interest, so that they can understand the lesson and get pleasure. Beside that, the teacher should understand the students's characteristic in order to make the situations of the teaching learning process more enjoyable and make them easier to understand. The teacher should asked the students to practice more using this technique in writing. It can develop their writing skill. For the further reading, the reasearcher believes that there are still many technique that can be used to teach writing narrative text which can make the students more understand the subject. Mind mapping technique is just one of the techniques that can be used to help the students to develop and explore their writing. However it also can be used to teach other skills, such as: speaking and reading. REFERENCES Abbot, et.al. 1981. The Teaching of English as an International Language; A Practical Guide. Great Britain: William Collins Sons and Co.Ltd. Buzan, Tony. (2001). Mind Map untuk meningkatkan kreativitas. Jakarta. PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama. Buzan, Tony. (2006). How to mind map. Jakarta: PT.Gramedia Pustaka Utama Departemen Pendidikan Nasional. 2006. Standart isi dan Standart Kompetensi Lulusan: Mata Pelajaran Bahasa Inggris. Jakarta: Depdiknas. Gebhard, Jerry Greer. 1996. Teaching English as a Foreign or Second Language. USA: The University of Michigan Press. Harmer, Jeremy. 1992. The Practice of English Language Teaching. England: Pearson Education Limited. Harmer, Jeremy. 2002. The Practice of English Language Teaching. New York: Longman Johnshon, Keith. 2001. An Introduction to Foreign Language Learning and Teaching. English: Pearson Education Limited. Kroll, Barbara. 1990. Consideration for Teaching an ESL/EFL Writing Course; Teaching English as A Second or Foreign Language. USA. Heinle and Heinle. Lado, Robert. 1977. Language Testing: The Construction and Use of Foreign Language Test. London: Longman Group, LTD. Langan, John. 2005. College Writing Skills, 6th Ed. New York: The McGraw-Hill,Inc. Lewin, L. 2003. Paving the way in reading and writing: Strategy to Support Struggling Students in Grade 6-12. San Frasisco. United of America Nunan, David.1991. Language Teaching Methodology: A Textbook for Teachers. Great Britain: Prentice Hall International Ltd. O'Malley, J. Michael. 1996. Authentic Assessment for English Language Learners. USA: Addison- Wesley Publishing Company. Richards, J.C and W.A Renandya. 2002. Methodology in Language Teaching: An Anthology of Current Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Loet Leydesdorff on the Triple Helix: How Synergies in University-Industry-Government Relations can Shape Innovation Systems





This is the sixth and last in a series of Talks dedicated to the technopolitics of International Relations, linked to the forthcoming double volume 'The Global Politics of Science and Technology' edited by Maximilian Mayer, Mariana Carpes, and Ruth Knoblich 







The relationship between technological innovation
processes and the nation state remains a challenge for the discipline of
International Relations. Non-linear and multi-directional
characteristics of knowledge production, and the diffusive nature of knowledge
itself, limit the general ability of governments to influence and steer
innovation processes. Loet Leydesdorff advances the framework of the "Triple
Helix" that disaggregates national innovation systems into
evolving university-industry-government eco-systems. In this Talk, amongst others, he shows that these eco-systems can be
expected to generate niches with synergy at all scales, and emphasizes that, though
politics are always involved, synergies develop unintentionally.




Print version of this Talk (pdf)




What is the most relevant aspect
of the dynamics of innovation for the discipline of International Relations?



The
main challenge is to endogenize the notions of technological progress and
technological development into theorizing about political economies and nation states.
The endogenization of technological innovation and technological development
was first placed on the research agenda of economics by evolutionary economists
like Nelson and Winter in the late 1970s and early 1980s. In this context, the
question was how to endogenize the dynamics of knowledge, organized knowledge,
science and technology into economic theorizing. However, one can equally well
formulate the problem of how to reflect on the global (sub)dynamics of
organized knowledge production in political theory and International Relations.



From
a longer-term perspective, one can consider that the nation states – the
national or political economies in Europe – were shaped in the 19th
century, somewhat later for Germany (after 1871), but for most countries it was
during the first half of the 19th century. This was after the French
and American Revolutions and in relation to industrialization. These nation
states were able to develop an institutional framework for organizing the
market as a wealth-generating mechanism, while the institutional framework
permitted them to retain wealth, to regulate market forces, and also to steer
them to a certain extent. However, the market is not only a local dynamics; it
is also a global phenomenon.



Nowadays,
another global dynamics is involved: science and technology add a dynamics different
from that of the market. The market is an equilibrium-seeking mechanism at each
moment of time. The evolutionary dynamics of science and technology nowadays
adds a non-equilibrium-seeking dynamics over time on top of that, and this puts
the nation state in a very different position. Combining an equilibrium-seeking
dynamics at each moment of time with a non-equilibrium seeking one over time
results in a complex adaptive dynamics, or an eco-dynamics, or however you want
to call it – these are different words for approximately the same thing.



For
the nation state, the question arises of how it relates to the global market
dynamics on the one side, and the global dynamics of knowledge and innovation on
the other. Thus, the nation state has to combine two tasks. I illustrated this
model of three subdynamics with a figure in my 2006 book entitled The Knowledge-Based Economy: Modeled,
measured, simulated (see image). The figure shows that first-order interactions
generate a knowledge-based economy as a next-order or global regime on top of
the localized trajectories of nation states and innovative firms. These complex
dynamics have first to be specified and then to be analyzed empirically.



For
example, the knowledge-based dynamics change the relation between government
and the economy; and they consequently change the position of the state in
relation to wealth-retaining mechanisms. How can the nation state be organized
in such a way as to retain wealth from knowledge locally, while knowledge (like
capital) tends to travel beyond boundaries? One can envisage the complex system
dynamics as a kind of cloud – a cloud
that touches the ground at certain places, as Harald Bathelt, for example,
formulated.



How
can national governments shape conditions for the cloud to touch and to remain
on the ground? The Triple Helix of University-Industry-Government Relations can
be considered as an eco-system of bi- and tri-lateral relations. The three
institutions and their interrelations can be expected to form a system carrying
the three functions of (i) novelty production, (ii) wealth generation, and
(iii) normative control. One tends to think of university-industry-government
relations first as neo-corporatist arrangements between these institutional
partners. However, I am interested in the ecosystem shaped through the tri- and
bilateral relationships.



This
ecosystem can be shaped at different levels. It can be a regional ecosystem or
a national ecosystem, for instance. One can ask whether there is a surplus of synergy
between the three (sub-)dynamics of university-industry-government relations
and where that synergy can generate wealth, knowledge, and control; in which
places, and along trajectories for which periods of time – that is, the same
synergy as meant by "a cloud touching the ground".



For
example, when studying Piedmont as a region in Northern Italy, it is
questionable whether the synergy in university-industry-government relations is
optimal at this regional level or should better be examined from a larger perspective
that includes Lombardy. On the one
hand, the administrative borders of nations and regions result from the
construction of political economies in the 19th century; but on the
other hand, the niches of synergy that can be expected in a knowledge-based
economy are bordered also; for example, in terms of metropolitan regions (e.g.,
Milan–Turin–Genoa).



Since
political dynamics are always involved, this has implications for International
Relations as a field of study. But the dynamic analysis is different from
comparative statics (that is, measurement at different moments of time). The
knowledge dynamics can travel and be "footloose" to use the words of Raymond
Vernon, although it leaves footprints behind. Grasping "wealth from knowledge"
(locally or regionally) requires taking a systems perspective. However, the
system is not "given"; the system remains under reconstruction and can thus be
articulated only as a theoretically informed hypothesis.



In
the social sciences, one can use the concept of a hypothesized system
heuristically. For example, when
analyzing the knowledge-based economy in Germany, one can ask whether more synergy
can be explained when looking at the level of the whole country (e.g., in terms
of the East-West or North-South divide) or at the level of Germany's Federal
States? What is the surplus of the nation or at the European level? How can one
provide political decision-making with the required variety to operate as a
control mechanism on the complex dynamics of these eco-systems?



A
complex system can be expected to generate niches with synergy at all scales,
but as unintended consequences. To what extent and for which time span can
these effects be anticipated and then perhaps be facilitated? At this point,
Luhmann's theory comes in because he has this notion of different codifications
of communication, which then, at a next-order level, begin to self-organize
when symbolically generalized.



Codes
are constructed bottom-up, but what is constructed bottom-up may thereafter
begin to control top-down. Thus, one should articulate reflexively the
selection mechanisms that are constructed from the bottom-up variation by
specifying the why as an hypothesis.
What are the selection mechanisms? Observable relations (such as
university-industry relations) are not neutral, but mean different things for
the economy and for the state; and this meaning of the observable relations can
be evaluated in terms of the codes of communication.



Against
Niklas Luhmann's model, I would argue that codes of communication can be
translated into one another since interhuman communications are not
operationally closed, as in the biological model of autopoiesis. One also needs a social-scientific perspective on the
fluidities ("overflows") and translations among functions, as emphasized, for
example, by French scholars such as Michel Callon and Bruno Latour. In
evolutionary economics, one distinguishes between market and non-market
selection environments, but not among selection environments that are
differently codified. Here, Luhmann's theory offers us a heuristic: The complex
system of communications tends to differentiate in terms of the symbolic
generalizations of codes of communication because this differentiation is
functional in allowing the system to process more complexity and thus to be
more innovative. The more orthogonal the codes, the more options for
translations among them. The synergy indicator measures these options as
redundancy. The selection environments, however, have to be specified historically
because these redundancies—other possibilities—are not given but rather constructed
over long periods of time.





How did you arrive where
you currently work on?


I
became interested in the relations between science, technology, and society as
an undergraduate (in biochemistry) which coincided with the time of the student
movement of the late 1960s. We began to study Jürgen Habermas in the framework
of the "critical university," and I decided to continue with a second degree in
philosophy. After the discussions between Luhmann and Habermas (1971), I
recognized the advantages of Luhmann's more empirically oriented systems approach
and I pursued my Ph.D. in the sociology of organization and labour.



In
the meantime, we got the opportunity to organize an interfaculty department for
Science and Technology Dynamics at the University of Amsterdam after a
competition for a large government grant. In the context of this department, I
became interested in methodology: how can one compare across case studies and
make inferences? Actually, my 1995 book The
Challenge of Scientometrics
had a kind of Triple-Helix model on the cover: How do cognitions, texts, and
authors exhibit different dynamics that influence one another?



For
example, when an author publishes a paper in a scholarly journal, this may add
to his reputation as an author, but the knowledge claimed in the text enters a
process of validation which can be much more global and anonymous. These
processes are mediated since they are based on communication. Thus, one can add
to the context of discovery (of authors) and the context of justification (of
knowledge contents) a context of mediation (in texts). The status of a journal,
for example, matters for the communication of the knowledge content in the article.
The contexts operate as selection environments upon one another.



In
evolutionary economics, one is used to distinguishing between market and
non-market selection environments, but not among more selection environments
that are differently codified. At this point, Luhmann's theory offers a new
perspective: The complex system of communications tends to differentiate in
terms of the symbolic generalization of codes of communication because this differentiation
among the codes of communication allows the system to process more complexity
and to be more innovative in terms of possible translations. The different
selection environments for communications, however, are not given but constructed
historically over long periods of time. The modern (standardized) format of the
citation, for example, was constructed at the end of the 19th
century, but it took until the 1950s before the idea of a citation index was
formulated (by Eugene Garfield). The use of citations in evaluative
bibliometrics is even more recent.



In
evolutionary economics, one distinguishes furthermore between (technological)
trajectories and regimes. Trajectories can result from "mutual shaping" between
two selection environments, for example, markets and technologies. Nations and
firms follow trajectories in a landscape. Regimes are global and require the
specification of three (or more) selection environments. When three (or more)
dynamics interact, symmetry can be broken and one can expect feed-forward and
feedback loops. Such a system can begin to flourish auto-catalytically when the
configuration is optimal.



From
such considerations, that is, a confluence of the neo-institutional program of
Henry Etzkowitz and my neo-evolutionary view, our Triple Helix model emerged in
1994: how do institutions and functions interrelate and change one another or,
in other words, provide options for innovation? Under what conditions
can university-industry-government relations lead to wealth generation and
organized knowledge production? The starting point was a workshop about Evolutionary Economics and Chaos Theory: New
directions for technology studies held in Amsterdam in 1993. Henry
suggested thereafter that we could collaborate further on university-industry
relations. I answered that I needed at least three (sub)dynamics from the
perspective of my research program, and then we agreed about "A Triple Helix of
University-Industry-Government Relations". Years later, however, we took our
two lines of research apart again, and in 2002 I began developing a
Triple-Helix indicator of synergy in a series of studies of national systems of
innovation.





What would you give as
advice to students who would like to get into the field of innovation and
global politics?



In
general, I would advise them to be both a specialist and broader than that.
Innovation involves crossing established borders. Learn at least two languages.
If your background is political science, then take a minor in science &
technology studies or in economics. One needs both the specialist profile and
the potential to reach out to other audiences by being aware of the need to
make translations between different frameworks. Learn to be reflexive about the
status of what one can say in one or the other framework.



For
example, I learned to avoid the formulation of grandiose statements such as
"modern economies are knowledge-based economies," and to say instead: "modern
economies can increasingly be considered as knowledge-based economies." The
latter formulation provides room for asking "to what extent," and thus one can
ask for further information, indicators, and results of the measurement.



In
the sociology of science, specialisms and paradigms are sometimes considered as
belief systems. It seems to me that by considering scholarly discourses as
systems of rationalized expectations one can make the distinction between
normative and cognitive learning. Normative learning (that is, in belief
systems) is slower than cognitive learning (in terms of theorized expectations)
because the cognitive mode provides us with more room for experimentation: One
can afford to make mistakes, since one's communication and knowledge claims
remain under discussion, and not one's status as a communicator. The cognitive
mode has advantages; it can be considered as the surplus that is further
developed during higher education. Normative learning is slower; it dominates
in the political sphere.





What
does the "Triple Helix" reveal about the fragmentation of "national innovation
systems"?



In
2003, colleagues from the Department of Economics and Management Studies at the
Erasmus University in Rotterdam offered me firm data from the Netherlands containing
these three dimensions: the economic, the geographical, and the technological dimensions
in data of more than a million Dutch firms. I presented the results at the
Schumpeter Society in Turin in 2004, and asked whether someone in the audience
had similar data for other countries. I expected Swedish or Israeli colleagues
to have this type of statistics, but someone from Germany stepped in, Michael
Fritsch, and so we did the analysis for Germany. These studies were first
published in Research Policy.
Thereafter, we did studies on Hungary, Norway, Sweden, and recently also China
and Russia.



Several
conclusions arise from these studies. Using entropy statistics, the data can be
decomposed along the three different dimensions. One can decompose national
systems geographically into regions, but one can also decompose them in terms
of the technologies involved (e.g., high-tech versus medium-tech). We were
mainly relying on national data. And of course, there are limitations to the
data collections. Actually, we now have international data, but this is
commercial data and therefore more difficult to use reliably than governmental
statistics.



For
the Netherlands, we obtained the picture that would more or less be expected:
Amsterdam, Rotterdam, and Eindhoven are the most knowledge-intensive and
knowledge-based regions. This is not surprising, although there was one surprise:
We know that in terms of knowledge bases, Amsterdam is connected to Utrecht and
then the geography goes a bit to the east in the direction of Wageningen. What
we did not know was that the niche also spreads to the north in the direction
of Zwolle. The highways to Amsterdam Airport (Schiphol) are probably the most
important.



In
the case of Germany, when we first analyzed the data at the level of the
"Laender" (Federal States), we could see the East-West divide still prevailing,
but when we repeated the analysis at the lower level of the "Regierungsbezirke"
we no longer found the East-West divide as dominant (using 2004 data). So, the
environment of Dresden for example was more synergetic in Triple-Helix terms
than that of Saarbruecken. And this was nice to see considering my idea that
the knowledge-based economy increasingly prevails since the fall of the Berlin
Wall and the demise of the Soviet Union. The discussion about two different
models for organizing the political economy—communism or liberal democracy—had
become obsolete after 1990.



After
studying Germany, I worked with Balázs Lengyel on Hungarian data. Originally,
we could not find any regularity in the Hungarian data, but then the idea arose
to analyze the Hungarian data as three different innovation systems: one around
Budapest, which is a metropolitan innovation system; one in the west of the
country, which has been incorporated into Western Europe; and one in the east
of the country, which has remained the old innovation system that is state-led
and dependent on subsidies. For the western part, one could say that Hungary
has been "europeanized" by Austria and Germany; it has become part of a
European system.



When
Hungary came into the position to create a national
innovation system, free from Russia and the Comecon, it was too late, as
Europeanization had already stepped in and national boundaries were no longer
as dominant. Accordingly, and this was a very nice result, assessing this
synergy indicator on Hungary as a nation, we did not find additional synergy at
the national (that is, above-regional) level. While we clearly found synergy at
the national level for the Netherlands and also found it in Germany, but at the
level of the Federal States, we could not find synergy at a national level for
Hungary. Hungary has probably developed too late to develop a nationally
controlled system of innovations.



A
similar phenomenon appeared when we studied Norway: my Norwegian colleague
(Øivind Strand) did most of our analysis there. To our surprise, the
knowledge-based economy was not generated where the universities are located (Oslo
and Trondheim), but on the West Coast, where the off-shore, marine and maritime
industries are most dominant. FDI (foreign direct investment) in the marine and
maritime industries leads to knowledge-based synergy in the regions on the West
Shore of Norway. Norway is still a national system, but the Norwegian
universities like Trondheim or Oslo are not so much involved in entrepreneurial
networks. These are traditional universities, which tend to keep their hands
off the economy.



Actually,
when we had discussions about these two cases, Norway and Hungary, which both
show that internationalization had become a major factor, either in the form of
Europeanization in the Hungarian case, or in the form of foreign-driven
investments (off-shore industry and oil companies) in the Norwegian case, I
became uncertain and asked myself whether we did not believe too much in our
indicators? Therefore, I proposed to Øivind to study Sweden, given the availability
of well-organized data of this national system.



We
expected to find synergy concentrated in the three regional systems of
Stockholm, Gothenburg, and Malmö/Lund. Indeed, 48.5 percent of the Swedish
synergy is created in these three regions. This is more than one would expect
on the basis of the literature. Some colleagues were upset, because they had
already started trying to work on new developments of the Triple Helix, for
example, in Linköping. But the Swedish economy is organized and centralized in
this geographical dimension. Perhaps that is why one talks so much about
"regionalization" in policy documents. Sweden is very much a national
innovation system, with additional synergy between the regions.





Can governments alter
historical trajectories of national, regional or local innovation systems?



Let
me mention the empirical results for China in order to illustrate the
implications of empirical conclusions for policy options. We had no Chinese
data set, but we obtained access to the database Orbis of the Bureau van Dijk
(an international company, which is Wall Street oriented, assembling data about
companies) that contains industry indicators such as names, addresses,
NACE-codes, types of technology, the sizes of each enterprise, etc. However,
this data can be very incomplete. Using this incomplete data for China, we said
that we were just going to show how one could do the analysis  if one had full data. We guess that the
National Bureau of Statistics of China has complete data.
I did the analysis with Ping Zhou, Professor at Zhejiang University.



We
analyzed China first at the provincial level, and as expected, the East Coast
emerged as much more knowledge intense than the rest of the country. After
that, we also looked at the next-lower level of the 339 prefectures of China.
From this analysis, four of them popped up as far more synergetic than the
others. These four municipalities were: Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin, and
Chongqing.



These
four municipalities became clearly visible as an order of magnitude more
synergetic than other regions. The special characteristic about them is that –as
against the others – these four municipalities are administered by the central
government. Actually, it came out of my data and I did not understand it; but
my Chinese colleague said that this result was very nice and specified this
relationship.



The
Chinese case thus illustrates that government control can make a difference. It
shows – and that is not surprising, as China runs on a different model – that
the government is able to organize the four municipalities in such a way as to
increase synergy. Of course, I do not know what is happening on the ground. We
know that the Chinese system is more complex than these three dimensions
suggest. I guess the government agencies may wish to consider the option of
extending the success of this development model, to Guangdong for example or to
other parts of China. Isn't it worrisome that all the other and less controlled
districts have not been as successful in generating synergy?



Referring
more generally to innovation policies, I would advise as a heuristics that
political discourse is able to signal a problem, but policy questions do not
enable us to analyze the issues. Regional development, for example, is an issue
in Sweden because the system is very centralized, more than in Norway, for
example. But there is nothing in our data that supports the claim that the
Swedish government is successful in decentralizing the knowledge-based economy
beyond the three metropolitan regions. We may be able to reach conclusions like
these serving as policy advice. One develops policies on the basis of intuitive
assumptions which a researcher is sometimes able to test.



As
noted, one can expect a complex system continuously to produce unintended
consequences, and thus it needs monitoring. The dynamics of the system are
different from the sum of the sub-dynamics because of the interaction effects
and feedback loops. Metaphors such as a Triple Helix, Mode-2, or the Risk
Society can be stimulating for the discourse, but these metaphors tend to develop
their own dynamics of proliferating discourses.



The
Triple Helix, for example, can first be considered as a call for collaboration
in networks of institutions. However, in an ecosystem of bi-lateral and
tri-lateral relations, one has a trade-off between local integration
(collaboration) and global differentiation (competition). The markets and the
sciences develop at the global level, above the level of specific relations. A
principal agent such as government may be locked into a suboptimum. Institutional
reform that frees the other two dynamics (markets and sciences) requires
translation of political legitimation into other codes of communication. Translations
among codes of communication provide the innovation engine.





Is there a connection
between infrastructures and the success of innovation processes?



One
of the conclusions, which pervades throughout all advanced economies, is that
knowledge intensive services (KIS) are
not synergetic locally because they can be disconnected – uncoupled – from the
location. For example, if one offers a knowledge-intensive service in Munich
and receives a phone call from Hamburg, the next step is to take a plane to
Hamburg, or to catch a train inside Germany perhaps. Thus, it does not matter
whether one is located in Munich or Hamburg as knowledge-intensive services
uncouple from the local economy. The main point is proximity to an airport or
train station.



This
is also the case for high-tech knowledge-based manufacturing. But it is
different for medium-tech manufacturing, because in this case the dynamics are
more embedded in the other parts of the economy. If one looks at Russia, the
knowledge-intensive services operate differently from the Western European
model, where the phenomenon of uncoupling takes place. In Russia, KIS
contribute to coupling, as knowledge-intensive services are related to state
apparatuses.



In
the Russian case, the knowledge-based economy is heavily concentrated in Moscow
and St. Petersburg. So, if one aims –as the Russian government proclaims – to create
not "wealth from knowledge" but "knowledge from wealth" – that is, oil revenues
–it might be wise to uncouple the knowledge-intensive services from the state
apparatuses. Of course, this is not easy to do in the Russian model because
traditionally, the center (Moscow) has never done this. Uncoupling
knowledge-intensive services, however, might give them a degree of freedom to
move around, from Tomsk to Minsk or vice
versa, steered by economic forces more than they currently are (via institutions
in Moscow).





Final question. What does path-dependency mean in the context of
innovation dynamics?



In
The Challenge of Scientometrics. The development, measurement, and
self-organization of scientific communications (1995), I used Shannon-type information theory to study
scientometric problems, as this methodology combines both static and dynamic
analyses. Connected to this theory I developed a measurement method for
path-dependency and critical transitions.



In
the case of a radio transmission, for example, you have a sender and a
receiver, and in between you may have an auxiliary station. For instance, the
sender is in New York and the receiver is in Bonn and the auxiliary station is
in Iceland. The signal emerges in New York and travels to Bonn, but it may be possible
to improve the reception by assuming the signal is from Iceland instead of
listening to New York. When Iceland provides a better signal, it is possible to
forget the history of the signal before it arrived in Island. It no longer
matters whether Iceland obtained the signal originally from New York or Boston.
One takes the signal from Iceland and the pre-history of the signal does not
matter anymore for a receiver.



Such
a configuration provides a path-dependency (on Iceland) in
information-theoretical terms, measurable in terms of bits of information. In a
certain sense you get negative bits of information, since the shortest path in
the normal triangle would be from New York to Bonn, and in this case the
shortest path is from New York via Iceland to Bonn. I called this at the time a
critical transition. In a scientific text for instance, a new terminology can
come up and if it overwrites the old terminology to the extent that one does
not have to listen to the old terminology anymore, one has a critical
transition that frees one from the path-dependencies at a previous moment of
time.



Thus,
my example is about radical and knowledge-based changes. As long as one has to
listen to the past, one does not make a critical transition. The knowledge-based
approach is always about creative destruction and about moving ahead,
incorporating possible new options in the future. The hypothesized future
states become more important than the past. The challenge, in my opinion, is to
make the notion of options operational and to bring these ideas into
measurement. The Triple-Helix indicator measures the number of possible options
as additional redundancy. This measurement has the additional advantage that one
becomes sensitive to uncertainty in the prediction.





Loet Leydesdorff is Professor Emeritus at the Amsterdam School of Communications Research (ASCoR) of the University of Amsterdam. He is Honorary Professor of the Science and Technology Policy Research Unit (SPRU) of the University of Sussex, Visiting Professor at the School of Management, Birkbeck, University of London, Visiting Professor of the Institute of Scientific and Technical Information of China (ISTIC) in Beijing, and Guest Professor at Zhejiang University in Hangzhou. He has published extensively in systems theory, social network analysis, scientometrics, and the sociology of innovation (see at http://www.leydesdorff.net/list.htm). With Henry Etzkowitz, he initiated a series of workshops, conferences, and special issues about the Triple Helix of University-Industry-Government Relations. He received the Derek de Solla Price Award for Scientometrics and Informetrics in 2003 and held "The City of Lausanne" Honor Chair at the School of Economics, Université de Lausanne, in 2005. In 2007, he was Vice-President of the 8th International Conference on Computing Anticipatory Systems (CASYS'07, Liège). In 2014, he was listed as a highly-cited author by Thomson Reuters. 





Literature and Related
links:



Science & Technology Dynamics,
University of Amsterdam / Amsterdam School of Communications
Research (ASCoR) 


Leydesdorff,
L. (2006). The Knowledge-Based Economy: Modeled, Measured, Simulated. Universal Publishers, Boca Raton, FL.


Leydesdorff, L. (2001). A Sociological Theory of Communication: The Self-Organization of the
Knowledge-Based Society. Universal Publishers, Boca Raton, FL.


Leydesdorff,
L. (1995). The Challenge of Scientometrics . The development, measurement, and
self-organization of scientific communications. Leiden, DSWO Press, Leiden University.


http://www.leydesdorff.net/





Print version of this Talk (pdf)



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Part two of an interview with Mrs. Kultti of Westminster, Massachusetts. Topics include: Her son and his education. After her husband passed away, she moved to Leominster, MA, to be closer to relatives. How she met her second husband, Mr. Kultti, and they moved to Westminster, MA. Her memories from the Depression. The different types of social activities she enjoys. Things she missed from Finland. Traditions she has kept. How life in the U.S. is different from life in Finland. How she feels about her life in the U.S. ; 1 MRS. KULTTI: He. he really liked the music. But he-he didn't think that he. well, he would. he had always been very good in science in-in-in high school. He had good marks. So, uh, well, after he had been in the army then for three, uh, for about a year, he was sick and tired of playing because he had to play every day and march into parades and-and they were flown all over the country every time some general came in or something. They had to be there to greet him. SPEAKER 1: Well, he got to travel. [Laughs] MRS. KULTTI: Yeah, he did get to travel. He didn't get overseas but he-he traveled. Sometimes he had breakfast in. he was stationed in Washington, D.C. in the Andrews Air Force Base. And. but they were flown into. "Sometimes, I had my breakfast in Washington and I had my lunch in Michigan." SPEAKER 1: Oh! [Laughs] MRS. KULTTI: Omaha, Nebraska, or some places like that. SPEAKER 1: So he probably didn't see much future in that either. MRS. KULTTI: No. No, so then. SPEAKER 1: So he got back to school? MRS. KULTTI: After he had been in the army for a year, he says, "No, I'm not going to be a musician. I'm going to go back. I'm going to go to college when I get out and I, uh, I want to be a doctor." He'd made up his mind. And then, uh, when he got out, it was in the middle of the winter around after Christmas. And there wasn't a. the schools that he tried to get in, the-their term started in the fall. So he would have lost a half a year. So he decided to go. we belong to the church in, uh, Flushing in Dutch Reformed Church. And they, uh. that minister helped him to get into, uh, into-to the church. I mean, to the college that was backed by the Dutch Reformed Church. That is in Holland, Michigan – Hope College. SPEAKER 1: Oh. So he went there. 2 MRS. KULTTI: So he went there. SPEAKER 1: For all the four years or.? Well, more than four years. MRS. KULTTI: Well, he made that up in three and a half. SPEAKER 1: Really? MRS. KULTTI: Yeah. And so he got up and then went into Tufts. SPEAKER 1: That's where he got his. MRS. KULTTI: Yeah, because I was living in Massachusetts then. SPEAKER 1: When did you move back? MRS. KULTTI: Well, I moved to Massachusetts after he had been. well, he didn't want to leave Flushing because that's where all his friends were, as he had grown up in there. And his father had died when he was 16. He was only halfway through the high school when his father died. And so he said, no, he don't want to go. Let's stay right here. Of course, I worked in a store that. and we stayed there. But then after a year being away and he used to come over from Washington to come home on the weekend and all his friends were going into the service as. you know, he couldn't find anybody when he came over on a weekend. There was. his friends were somewhere else and, you know, they're students of [Warsaw]. So he says, "Mother, I don't care. You can move to Massachusetts now. I don't have my." SPEAKER 1: Well, you had really been supporting. was he your only child? MRS. KULTTI: Yeah. SPEAKER 1: So you had really been supporting both of you, probably with your own pay and putting him through college and things like that? MRS. KULTTI: Well, of course, he got. I was his dependent so I get a small check from the army every month – because I saved all that money. I was working in the store. I worked as a. you know, I first started as an alteration woman. But then I graduated to be a saleslady. And it was just a small, exclusive shop in Flushing that I worked 3 in. But I was kind of alone. I didn't have no relatives there or anybody. SPEAKER 1: Your sister wasn't around anymore or.? MRS. KULTTI: No. One of my sisters was married then and living in New Jersey, and the other one was living in the Bronx but I don't know. You know, I was never close to my sisters and brothers because. that was because I was. SPEAKER 1: You were away for so long, I think. MRS. KULTTI: Away for so long, you know. So there didn't seem too much like relatives but I had my aunts and my cousins and I used to come here every summer on a vacation. So I really wanted to come back to Massachusetts. SPEAKER 1: Did you move back to Gardner though when you came? MRS. KULTTI: Yeah. well, no. I went to my youngest sister. She had a big house, lived in Leominster at the time, and she asked me to come over and live with them for a while until I got settled, got a job. For a while, the first winter I came back here, I had two jobs. I worked in a [unintelligible - 00:04:55] clothing in Fitchburg as a saleslady. That was in the end of the week – Thursday, Friday, and Saturday. The beginning of the week, I was working in the shirt factory, stitching. [Laughs] SPEAKER 1: Two jobs. MRS. KULTTI: Yeah. Well, I had to because then the pay wasn't very good and I had to support myself and try to put my son through school. SPEAKER 1: That was very difficult. MRS. KULTTI: Yeah. So I had worked hard all my life but then I met Mr. Kultti and. SPEAKER 1: In Leominster? MRS. KULTTI: Well, I met him at some Finnish club in Sima Halls and I can't remember exactly which. But anyway, his father had passed away a couple of years before and I have been alone for over four years. 4 SPEAKER 1: So when did you get married? MRS. KULTTI: We got married in Gardner and he had a home in Bates Road in Gardner and we got married in his home. And we've been married 25 years last Thanksgiving. SPEAKER 1: Really? What did he do for a job? MRS. KULTTI: He's an upholsterer. But he used to work in a factory then in Gardner, upholstering in South Gardner, had worked in there for 33 years. I encouraged him to start his own business. And he started taking. well, we had some chickens here when we first moved in. SPEAKER 1: You moved to Westminster some time? MRS. KULTTI: Yeah. He always wanted to come to Westminster. His first wife didn't want to come. She wanted to stay. But then we bought this place here and we had some chickens and. SPEAKER 1: Small farm. MRS. KULTTI: Yeah. But not very long because then he began to get so much of the upholstering work. He's a very good upholsterer. He does all this kind of fancy. SPEAKER 1: Really? Oh, this is beautiful. I didn't know he did that. MRS. KULTTI: Yes. He still does this. So, that's where we've been. SPEAKER 1: You mentioned how tough it was during the Depression. Do you remember much of anything? You must, you know, because you did have a son then. Do you remember the bread lines or.? Did you really feel pressed by it or.? MRS. KULTTI: Well, my husband, my son's father, he was one of those that he would never give up, you know. There was no jobs to be had but he went washing windows and he. oh, I remember the time that. one time, in the middle of the winter, it was icy and cold in there, he was washing people's windows, sitting on the outside, you know, of the window shelf. He got arthritis or something so he 5 had to stay in bed for two or three days and he couldn't move. So it wasn't easy. It was kind of tough. SPEAKER 1: But he tried to keep jobs and. MRS. KULTTI: Yeah. Then I got sick and that was in 1930. I got a bad cold and I got mastoiditis. I was in the hospital for. nearly dead for over a month that my head was in bandage for three months after that. SPEAKER 1: This was during the Depression? MRS. KULTTI: That was in 1930. Yes. SPEAKER 1: You must have had hospital bills that were, you know. They didn't have that much. MRS. KULTTI: You'd have to borrow money and then try to pay it back and – oh, it wasn't, it wasn't easy. SPEAKER 1: Yeah. When you came here, let's say like when you first came to Gardner, did you get involved very much in the social activities or church activities? MRS. KULTTI: Yes. My father. the whole family belonged to the Mission Street Church. SPEAKER 1: So you changed to the Dutch Reformed? MRS. KULTTI: Yeah. Well, when we were in Flushing, there wasn't any Finnish people around and there was no Finnish churches. And so, we joined the Dutch Reformed Church. That was close by and my son wanted to go there to Sunday school because all his friends were there and so. SPEAKER 1: How about social activities? You mentioned Sima Park before but when you first came to Gardner, did you get involved in anything? Did they have like Finnish dances? MRS. KULTTI: Yeah, they had Finnish dances we used to go to and. SPEAKER 1: Parties or.? MRS. KULTTI: Yeah. Fin parties or sometimes we would go to the Polish parties. We had a good time there at New Year's Eve. SPEAKER 1: Yeah. Did you get much. pardon? 6 MRS. KULTTI: We used to go to the dancing a lot. My husband liked to dance, too. But we haven't – now he's been [unintelligible - 00:10:03]. He had the operation on his leg and he had a stroke and everything. So he can't. SPEAKER 1: Well, the Finnish people seem to keep dancing though even well into their later years, it seems. MRS. KULTTI: And you know, the last 19 years, 19 times we've been to Florida. SPEAKER 1: Really? MRS. KULTTI: In the winter, we go down to Florida and there we belong to the Finnish Tourist Club and we are active members in there. But this winter, we weren't able to go and my husband wasn't well enough. He was under the doctor's care. SPEAKER 1: You mixed fairly well though even when you first came here. You got involved in social activities. Did you ever travel outside of Gardner? Did you take part in any activities like say. did you know about Sima Park? Was Sima Park around then? Because Fitchburg's a Finnish area. MRS. KULTTI: Yes. So we used to go to Sima Park a lot then they put on the plays. My husband was in some of the plays. I was never. And he sings, too, you know, in these social affairs. And so, I got to be with him all the time, you know, going into different places. And so, we had a fairly active life since. SPEAKER 1: That's good. MRS. KULTTI: Yeah, until now. SPEAKER 1: Because sometimes people. MRS. KULTTI: We're getting old and. SPEAKER 1: Well, some people, you know. you've had an active life. You can't really complain too much. It's good to know you could do that. How about some of the things that you missed most about your home, like food or customs or books even? Did you miss something?7 MRS. KULTTI: Well, there was always some books and things. You know, even when I was in New York, you know, at first when I couldn't read English and not enough to really enjoy reading, it's so. but there were some Finnish libraries there, too. There was a Finnish Hall on Fifth Avenue and 126th Street in Harlem. In those days, there weren't black people over there. There were white ones there. And I used to go in there and you could borrow books in there, Finnish books. But, well, it didn't take me too long before I learned how to read English. I first started with the funnies of the Sunday paper because that's where you would understand that because you see the pictures. I had stayed in there three years in that place, you know, worked as a chambermaid, and those kids used to explain it to me, you know, from the pictures and everything. And that's how I began. SPEAKER 1: That's the way they do teach a lot of younger children to read today is with comic books. It's like they want them to get interested in the subject and they might not like say be interested in history. They have history comic books so, you know, they can relate to the pictures and things like that. MRS. KULTTI: Those boys, their name was Thompson, and they used to bring me their books, you know, their school books. They were 9 years old. I think the other one was 7. Those two boys, they taught me an awful lot, you know. They brought me their books and wanted me to read for them. SPEAKER 1: That's a little more than a comic book. MRS. KULTTI: Yeah. SPEAKER 1: Yeah. MRS. KULTTI: And they said, "No. Don't say it like that. Say it like this." So they made me pronounce it so many times that I. SPEAKER 1: Well, they did a good job. MRS. KULTTI: Yeah. 8 SPEAKER 1: You said you missed the food, things like that, or it was different. MRS. KULTTI: Well. SPEAKER 1: You got used to it. MRS. KULTTI: I got used to that afterwards. It was just in the beginning. You know, I didn't think it was the right kind of food. SPEAKER 1: Do you cook Finnish food now or did you.? MRS. KULTTI: Well, I cook more like an American now. SPEAKER 1: You do? Yeah. MRS. KULTTI: Yes. Yeah. Well, of course, my husband was Danish and they cooked an awful lot of rich foods, you know. And he brought me the Danish cookbook and he read and translated it to me. And so I had to make some of the Danish foods, you know. My husband still can't understand. well, now, my son is not here anymore but I used to cook and make some of the foods and Mr. Kultti, "I don't know how you can eat this." He wasn't used to it. He used to love the Finnish food. And I would make it because my son would like it. He still likes the Danish foods that I cook like for Christmas. He wants this. let's see now, what would be. well, when we were in New York. over here, you can't even get a. well, for Christmas, it was always a geese that has to be cooked and then the red cabbage, sweet and sour red cabbage. And he still loves that. So boy. SPEAKER 1: [Unintelligible - 00:15:02]. MRS. KULTTI: Every time I have to cook him the red cabbage. SPEAKER 1: Really? MRS. KULTTI: And the apple cake, and. SPEAKER 1: The foodist had to probably get used to around here; the food is kind of bland, really. MRS. KULTTI: Of course, his wife doesn't cook things like that but the. and when I make that Finnish coffee bread, he loves that. He knows that I make a whole lot of it. Every time I make it, six lengths like 9 that when I make it, then I bring them two and I keep the four, put some in the freezer and then maybe a few days later, he'll come over and ask me, "Do you still have some? Can I buy another one?" [Laughter] SPEAKER 1: Well, I know you miss the people back over in Finland. Did you ever go back? MRS. KULTTI: No, I didn't. SPEAKER 1: The relatives are probably all. like you said, your grandparents have passed away. MRS. KULTTI: Yeah. I had no close relatives. I had a cousin there and he died. He passed away a few years ago. So there wasn't really. I have somebody down there that I correspond with, you know, maybe two or three times a year, some girl that I went to school with. And there was. SPEAKER 1: You kept that up? MRS. KULTTI: Yeah. SPEAKER 1: That's good. MRS. KULTTI: Yeah. SPEAKER 1: How about the customs? Like you said, they still had Finnish dances and things like that, but once you came here, did you forget a lot of them? Did you not practice them maybe? Were your weddings different or things like that? Maybe a Finnish wedding was elaborate. I'm not sure. MRS. KULTTI: Yes. In Finland, they had elaborate weddings that will last two or three days. SPEAKER 1: Oh, really? MRS. KULTTI: [Laughs] Yeah, a lot of eating and drinking, just like the Polish people. SPEAKER 1: Right. I was going to say it's something that the Polish. anything else you can think of about customs maybe? MRS. KULTTI: No. 10 SPEAKER 1: Like you said about that holiday on the 24th. MRS. KULTTI: The 24th of June is. they call it the. they still celebrate that. That's a midnight sun day, you know. SPEAKER 1: But as far as holidays around here, all the Finnish people don't seem to get together or anything to celebrate. MRS. KULTTI: No. But they used to. A few years back, they had some celebration on the 25th of June. 24th of June. But I don't hear much anymore. SPEAKER 1: What were some of the things that you enjoyed most about your new life? Were there any things in America that were like improvements over Finland? You must have had stuff like electricity and everything. MRS. KULTTI: Yeah. Well, of course, we had electricity. In my hometown, I remember, when we first had electric lights there, I was about six or seven years old. And from then on, I have used electricity. Of course, we didn't have all these appliances like they have over here but we had electric irons. And I remember one of my cousins had a husband who was in charge of the. what do you call this thing, you know, where all the electricity comes from? SPEAKER 1: The power plant? MRS. KULTTI: The power plant, yeah. And he got his wife an electric coffee pot, too and that was something. [Laughs] Because they could plug it in and it was automatic, so they could have their coffee boiling in the morning when they get up. Yeah, that was some piece. That's one thing I forgot to tell you about it, is the clothes. We had to make our own clothes, most of it like from. we had the sheep and we made it right from the beginning, you know. SPEAKER 1: Really? Wow! MRS. KULTTI: Really from the sheep's back right into our back, you know. We had to spin the thread and make winter clothes. And of course, in the summertime, we used the cotton clothes. I don't know where 11 they came from but we were able to buy this cotton threads, you know. But we weave them ourselves. We had these big looms, you know, and we did everything. We started right from the beginning and we had. SPEAKER 1: So once you got over here, you could just buy the stuff. MRS. KULTTI: Yeah. SPEAKER 1: That was. MRS. KULTTI: Yeah. SPEAKER 1: Things were a lot. more convenient. But maybe they weren't as well made or. well, you appreciate it a little more sometimes if you put your own work into it, I think. MRS. KULTTI: Yeah, I would. But I remember when I came into this country, I had clothes. Well, it was in the middle of the winter. So I had the woolen clothes, and woolen skirts and everything. And that was something that I had made right from the beginning myself. SPEAKER 1: I think that is really good to. MRS. KULTTI: Yeah. SPEAKER 1: How about. you said you had trouble at first learning English. So you didn't probably bother to read newspapers or magazines or things like that. MRS. KULTTI: Well, it didn't take me long. Maybe I had been in New York maybe a year and I used to read all the. SPEAKER 1: Did you have a Finnish radio program that you could listen to when you came here? MRS. KULTTI: No. SPEAKER 1: There must be one now though. Isn't there. or later on one came. MRS. KULTTI: Yes, later on, but not those days. SPEAKER 1: Did you ever get. I know there's a Finnish paper. A lot of people subscribed to it in Fitchburg. Did you ever.?12 MRS. KULTTI: Yeah. Well, we got it since I've been here. Of course, I didn't have it when I was in New York because my husband wasn't a Fin. So we only had an English paper. SPEAKER 1: But you could get hold of one so you could keep up with what was going on in Finland really, you know? MRS. KULTTI: No. SPEAKER 1: No? MRS. KULTTI: No. Not much. SPEAKER 1: It didn't have that much of a. MRS. KULTTI: As I said, we lived in Flushing, Long Island and there wasn't many Finnish people in there. I didn't know any Fins around there in my neighborhood. We lived in a big apartment house and I think there's 84 apartments but they were mostly Irish. SPEAKER 1: Irish? [Laughter] MRS. KULTTI: Yeah. SPEAKER 1: How about political preference? Do you have any? MRS. KULTTI: Well, we are Democrats. SPEAKER 1: Yeah. How did you get involved in – how did you choose that party? Do you remember? MRS. KULTTI: Well, I don't remember exactly how we chose it but we have always been Democrats. SPEAKER 1: A lot of women I talked to sometimes because their husband was a Democrat, maybe they would just, you know. Did you know that much about politics of the United States? Did you ever.? MRS. KULTTI: No, not until later. After a while, I began to take notice of everything. And we talked about it, my husband and I. Well, my husband was very ambitious, too. He learned how to speak. there was a neighbor of ours. He was a high school teacher; my husband, too. I think he was a principal of the Flushing High School. And my husband was a young fellow, you know, an ambitious one. So they got him into a school at night. He went to 13 school and learned engineering but he didn't graduate. But he did go there in the evenings. You know, he went and he got a job at the company who installed the oil burners into the house. He was an engineer. Because they helped him to. they liked him as a neighbor and they were friendly with us and they helped him to get. he would not get in there because. SPEAKER 1: Well, that's good that they did that for him. It makes, you know, your living situation probably a little easier. MRS. KULTTI: Yes, it made it a little easier. He didn't have to work so hard anymore and he worked. sometimes, he had to work in the night, too, you know, when somebody's oil burner will go out of order or something, but the. SPEAKER 1: Did you ever take any active part in politics or do you just most. like even now, do you just mostly vote but that's about it? MRS. KULTTI: Yeah, that's about all. I mean, we don't take any active parts in politics. SPEAKER 1: After you lived here for a while, you said you were corresponding with some people in Finland, those girls you went to school with. Did you ever try and encourage them to come over here? Did you.? MRS. KULTTI: No, no, I didn't because they had their comfortable homes and then I thought that they would. SPEAKER 1: They might have to sell it like you did. MRS. KULTTI: Yeah. And they were getting married and writing me about their getting married and they were satisfied. SPEAKER 1: So you wouldn't even probably consider going back because, you know, you were used to here and you probably didn't have all that much to go back to in Finland. MRS. KULTTI: No, I didn't because my home was sold and then, you know, so I didn't really have nothing to go back to anyway. 14 SPEAKER 1: You must have missed it though. I mean, as far as scenery and probably cleanliness. I've heard that Finland's a very clean country. MRS. KULTTI: Yeah. SPEAKER 1: Compared to the United States. MRS. KULTTI: That's one thing certainly. And the homes there, they're much more simple. You know, they have this big living room with the big fireplace in one corner and we all sit around in the evenings and. SPEAKER 1: More comfortable. MRS. KULTTI: Reading stories and singing and the men folks would be twiddling with the wood, you know, and making a. my grandfather used to make me a doll carriage as [unintelligible - 00:25:09] wood, you know, and wooden horses and dolls and. SPEAKER 1: It was more relaxed from. not so hectic as it is. MRS. KULTTI: No. SPEAKER 1: Well, I think it's still probably that way today. MRS. KULTTI: But we had to start working very early and, you know, and we had to help with everything, you know, taking care of the cows and sheeps and. SPEAKER 1: And each other. MRS. KULTTI: Fetch them home at nights, you know, when they wandered away too far. We used to run around in the woods, you know, calling them, and barefoot, and we went all summer. We never had a [unintelligible - 00:25:49] in the summertime. SPEAKER 1: Do you feel that life was worked out better for you here in this country than it might have been in Finland or.? MRS. KULTTI: It probably has worked out better because. well, of course, if I had to go to school, if I had gone to my uncle in Helsinki, he would've. but I never liked his wife because she used to force me around when I came over on a vacation, when I came up there. 15 SPEAKER 1: So it's really hard to judge what would have happened. MRS. KULTTI: Yeah. SPEAKER 1: Do you think that your son had a better chance of opportunity here in this country than he would've maybe in Finland? MRS. KULTTI: Oh, definitely. I don't think he would've had opportunity like he had. Of course, he never had a vacation while he was in school. SPEAKER 1: He just went right through all the time? MRS. KULTTI: Yeah. And when he was in medical school in Boston, he worked in the East Gardner as an attendant in there during the summer. He's been friendly and people around here tried to help him, too, like Mr. Chetney who worked in East Gardner. He's the one that does the hiring and firing there. SPEAKER 1: Oh, okay. MRS. KULTTI: And even after he was married and he was still in school, he had a vacation. Christmas Eve, you know, Christmas vacation, he would go. SPEAKER 1: Really? MRS. KULTTI: Well, I don't know. And I don't think I'm going to stay and do nothing on a Christmas vacation. Mr. Chetney lives over here on West Main Street. Mr. Chetney said to him, and he says, "Well, I don't think. I have no job for you," he says. When I sat and talked with him for a while, he says, "Oh, I'll make you a job." And he would go and work in the lab there and he can use the help for a while. And he worked in September. He worked as a… driving the [unintelligible - 00:27:57] drug. Boy, that's a tough one. He sent that drug, you know. it was a hot summer and he was not used to that, you know, pumping around there. His behind was also. yeah. SPEAKER 1: Did you have any special plans or any goals when you came to this country that you set for yourself that you didn't accomplish? MRS. KULTTI: No. 16 SPEAKER 1: I suppose. MRS. KULTTI: The only thing that I wanted to do, I wanted to learn how to speak English and I wanted to. I don't know. I always had a feeling like my sisters and brothers didn't think that I was quite as good as they are because of the fact that I was brought up in the other side, you know. SPEAKER 1: But you put your son through college and everything. Those were things that you really accomplished. MRS. KULTTI: Yeah. Well, I don't know. We've never been a close family. Of course, my brothers and sisters, every time they're around here. they're all over the United States. Only my youngest sister lives in Gardner. My oldest brother lives in Memphis, Tennessee and my oldest sister is in Atlantic City. They have a condominium in Fort Lauderdale in Florida. And one sister lives in Indianapolis, Indiana. SPEAKER 1: So they're all over the place. MRS. KULTTI: One had a florist. had nursery branches in New York but he's retired now and he lives in Arizona. SPEAKER 1: [Unintelligible - 00:29:36]. MRS. KULTTI: And the other one is in Lakehurst, New Jersey. SPEAKER 1: You keep in contact with most of them? MRS. KULTTI: Well, they come over during the summer when they're around here. They come over to see us, you know. SPEAKER 1: Do you feel you have any important advantage as a citizen of this country? MRS. KULTTI: Yeah, I think so. SPEAKER 1: Did you get more freedom or something than you would've in Finland or.? It's not to say. because Finland's a pretty liberal, free place. MRS. KULTTI: I don't know. I've been away from there so long. But I think they're pretty liberal. 17 SPEAKER 1: Are you happy as a citizen of this country? MRS. KULTTI: Yeah, I am happy here now. I certainly wouldn't want to go anyplace else. SPEAKER 1: Many times, you hear people say they long for the good, old days. When you think back what these times were like for you, how do you feel? Would you rather have the good old days or would you rather have now? MRS. KULTTI: No, I don't think I would want that, see. I don't know. There wasn't any really good old days. SPEAKER 1: Right. Times can be hard now but it's probably not as hard as the. MRS. KULTTI: No. SPEAKER 1: Well, thank you very much for helping me. MRS. KULTTI: Well, I don't know if that's going to help you but. SPEAKER 1: I'm sure it will. MRS. KULTTI: Yeah./AT/mb/ee

Issue 16.6 of the Review for Religious, 1957. ; A. M. D. G. Review for Religious NOVEMBER 15, 1957 Current Spiritual Writing . Thomas G. O'Callaghan The Intellectual Life of Religious Sister Emily Joseph Survey of Roman Documents . R. I:. Smith Persevering in Prayer . Mother Marie Vandenbergh Book Reviews Communications Questions and Answers I:::or Your Information Index for 1957 VOLUME 16 NUMBER 6 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS \7o~,~.~E 16 NOVEMBER, 1957 NUMBER CONTENTS FOR YOUR INFORMATION . SOME BOOKS RECEIVED . OUR CONTRIBUTORS . CURRENT SPIRITUAL WRITING-- Thomas G. O'Callaghan, S.J . THE INTELLECTUAL LIFE OF THE RELIGIOUS: PRACTICAL ASPECTS--Sister Emily Joseph, c.s.J . FATHER GALLEN'S ABSENCE . BOUSCAREN-ELLIS . COMMUNICATIONS . SURVEY OF ROMAN DOCUMENTS--R. F. Smith, S.J . PERSEVERING IN PRAYER-- Mother Marie Vandenbergh, R.C . BOOK REVIEWS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS: Editor: Bernard A. Hausmann, S.J. West Baden College West Baden Springs, Indiana . QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS: 34. Simplification of the Habit . 35. Bibliography on Renovation and Adaptation . 36. Minimizing the Religious Exercises . 37. Anticipation of Perpetual Profession Not Permitted . 38. Using Personal Gifts for Masses . 39. Reciting the Formula of the Vows Collectively . INDEX FOR VOLUME 16 . 321 ¯323 323 324 337 341 341 342 343 350 366 375 377 378 379 ¯ 380 380 381 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, November, 1957. Vol. 16, No. 6. Published bi-monthly by The Queen's Work, 3115 South Grand Blvd., St. Louis 18, Mo. Edited by the Jesuit Fathers of St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas, with ecclesiastical approval. Second class mail privilege authorized at St. Louis, Mo. Editorial Board: Augustine G. Ellard, S.J.; Gerald Kelly, S.J., Henry Willmering, S.J. Literary Editor: Robert F. Weiss, S.J. Copyright, 1957, by The Queen's Work. Subscription price in U.S.A. and Canada: 3 dollars a year; 50 cents a copy. Printed in U.S.A. Please send all renewals and new subscriptions to: Review for Religious, 3115 South Grand Boulevard. St. Louis 18o Missouri. I:or Your Inl:ormat:ion Regarding Summer Sessions For many years we have been publishing announcements of sum-mer sessions. Our purpose in doing this is to help our readers to know where they may attend courses or institutes of special per-tinence to religious. Directors and deans of summer sessions who wish to avail themselves of this service should carefully observe the following points: 1) Only courses of special pertinence to religious should be listed. 2) The announcement should be limited to a single paragraph. The length of this paragraph is irrelevant, provided it contains only matters of special pertinence to religious. 3) The paragraph should be triple-spaced and prepared in such a manner that it can be sent to the printer without re-typing or editing. 4) There should be a reasonable minimum of capital letters, and no words should be typed entirely in capital letters. 5) The dates of the summer sessions or institutes should be clearly specified. 6) The best time for publishing these announcements is our March number. The deadline for this number is January 5. The next best time is the May number. The deadline for this number is March I. Plus XII on Self-love We receive many articles that refer to self-love as something opposed to love of God and love of neighbor, as something that must be stifled at all costs. No doubt, similar statements can be found in the writings of saints and in classical spiritual books. The basic mistake in such writings seems to be an unjustifiable identifica-tion of self-love with selfishness, or inordinate self-love. According to sound theology, self-love itself is good and a matter of divine precept. This was emphatically taught by Pope Plus XII in his address to psychotherapists (April 13, 1953), when he said: "From certain psychological explanations, the thesis is formulated that the unconditional extroversion of the ego constitutes the funda-mental law of congenital altruism and of its dynamic tendencies. This 321 FOR YOUR INFORMATION Review for Religious is a logical, psychological, and ethical error. There exists in fact a defense, an esteem, a love, and a service of one's personal self which is not only justified but demanded by psychology and morality. Nature makes this plain, and it is also a lesson of the Christian Faith. Our Lord taught, 'Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself.' Christ, then, proposes as the rule of love of neighbor, charity towards onself, not the contrary." The Religious Habit In our January number (pp. 3-9), we published an article by Father Lee Teufel, S.J., which gave the results of a questionnaire on adapting the religious garb of sisters. Our May number (pp. 176-79) contained a lengthy communication from a sister, who criticized the attitude of those religious who had answered Father Teufel's ques-tionnaire. This sister also expressed the fear that seculars who read this article would be shocked. We have received four more communications on the same topic. All these communications are from sisters. Two defend Father Teufel and those who answered his questionnaire; and two defend the view expressed in the May communication. We should like to publish ali these letters, but we cannot do so for two reasons: (1) the communications are too long; and (2) the letters on both sides manifest too many misunderstandings of others' views and actions. Unless all write about the same thing, and do so briefly, there seems to be little use in continuing the discussion. Although we cannot publish the communications themselves, we believe we should mention, and comment on, some of the points brought out in them. One sister, for instance, protests that we showed poor taste in publishing Father Teufel's article--in fact, she thinks the Communists should feel happy about it. We leave it to others to judge our taste. It seems appropriate, however, to call attention to the fact that one of our purposes in founding this magazine was to have a medium through which religious could discuss their common problems. And since the change of garb advocated by the Holy See has many aspects that are common to numerous religious in-stitutes, we think this an appropriate topic for discussion in our pages and that those who take part in such a discussion are not showing any disloyalty to their own institutes. Perhaps the basic difficulty is really expressed in the other letter against Father Teufel's article, as well as in the communication 322 November, 1957 FOR YOUR INFORMATION published in May: namely, the fear that public discussion of this topic will disedify seculars. On this point, we should like to inform our readers that we try to limit the circulation of this periodical to religious and diocesan priests. We do not encourage other sub-scriptions, and we have very few of them. It is true that in some institutions the REVIEW is placed in the library where it is available to students and others. We are not responsible for this custom, and we should like to have it changed. SOME BOOKS RECEIVED [Only books sent directly to the Book Review Editor, West Baden College, West Baden Springs, Indiana, are included in our Reviews and Announcements. The following books were sent to St. Marys.] Lutero en EspaF~a yen la Am6~rica espahola. By Ricardo V. Feliu. Protestant Founders, 15 Whitehall Street, New York 4, New York. 90 pesetas (paper cover). Priestly and Religious Formation. By Edmund T. Dunne, C.SS.R. Clonmore and Reynolds Ltd., 29 Kildare Street, Dublin. 18/-. The Art of Teaching Christian Doctrine. By Johannes Hofinger, S.J. University of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame, Indiana. $3.50. Ontologia. By Salvator Cuesta, S.J. Sal Terrae, Santander, Spain. 60 pesetas (paper cover~. People's Participation and Holy Week. Seventeenth North Ameri-can Liturgical Week, London, Canada, 1956. The Liturgical Confer-ence, Elsberry, Missouri. $2.08 (paper cover). The Image of God in Man According to Cyril of Alexandria. By Walter J. Burghardt, S.J. The Catholic University of America Press, 620 Michigan Avenue, N.E., Washington 17, D. C. $3.00 (paper cover). Praelectiones theologicoomorales Comillenses. Tomus IV. Trac-tatus de conscientia morali. Pars altera. Theoria de conscientia morali reflexa. By Lucius Rodrigo, S.a!. Sal Terrae, Santander, Spain. L'Apostolat. Probl~mes de la Religieuse d'aujourd'hui. Les edi-tions du cerf, 29, Bld de Latour-Maubourg, Paris. Memento canonique sur le noviciat et al profession religieuse. By Dom Pierre Minard, O.S.B. Editions Fides, 25 est, rue Saint-Jacques, Montreal 1, Canada. $2.60 (paper cover). OUR CONTRIBUTORS THOMAS G. O'CALLAGHAN is professor of ascetical and mystical theology at Weston College, Weston 93, Massachusetts. SISTER EMILY JOSEPH is head of the classics department at the College of St. Rose, Albany 3, New York. R.F. SMITH is a member of the faculty of St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas. MOTHER MARIE VANDENBERGH is guest mistress at the Cenacle Retreat House, Route 1, Box 97-A, Rosharon, Texas. 323 Current Spiritual Writ:ing Thomas ~. O'Calhgh~n~ S.J. Sacred Heart ON THE OCCASION of the first centenary of the extension to the universal Church of the feast of the Sacred Heart, Pope Pius XII issued the encyclical letter Haurietis aquas. The subject matter of this encyclical is devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus, its scriptural and traditional foundation, its true meaning and place in the Church. The Holy Father assured us that this devotion is not only the most complete profession of the Chris-tian religion, but that it is also of obligation for all the faithful. Because of this importance of the devotion to the Heart of the Incarnate Word, there is a real need for a clear understanding of its true meaning. To read, reread, and study carefully Haurietis aquas itself is of primary importance. It might be mentioned here that in re.ading it one of the points to be observed is the constant emphasis which the Holy Father places on the triple love which the Incarnate Word has for each of us. He loves us with a divine love, with a human spiritual love, and also--perhaps this has never been stressed so much before-- with a human sensible love. The adorable Heart of Christ is the symbol of this triple love. As a help to the study of this encyclical some of the follow-ing articles, which comment on Haurietis aquas, could be read: M. J. Donnelly, s.J., "Haurietis aquas and Devotion to the Sacred Heart," Theological Studies, XVIII ( 1957), 17-40; P. J. Hamell, "Devotion to the Sacred Heart: Encyclical Haurietis Aquas," The Irish Ecclesiastical Record, LXXXVI (1956), 217- 241; G. Dupont, S.J., "Pius XII on the Cult of the Sacred Heart," The Clergy Monthly, XX (1956), 248-260, and also "The Cult of the Sacred Heart," The Clergy Monthly, XXI (1957), 161-171; C. K. Riepe, "Some Thoughts on Devotion to the Sacred Heart," Worship, XXXI (1957), 328-333; F. 324 CURRENT SPIRITUAL WRITING Courtney, S.J., "Devotion to the Sacred Heart," The Clergy Review, XLII (1957), 332-342. The best and most scholarly of these articles is that of Father Donnelly. Two quotations from his article might be of interest. First, his statement of the purpose of the encyclical: "To elucidate the soul's journey back to God through the Sacred Heart, the heart of flesh, symbol of Christ's human (sensible and spiritual) love and of His divine love, and to show that such a path to God is deeply rooted in Scripture, tradition, and the liturgy of the Church--this is the purpose of the encyclical letter Haurietis aquas" (p. 39). The other quotation which we would like to cite from Father Donnelly is a commentary which he makes upon the following words of Haurietis aquas: Therefore the Heart of our Savior in a way expresses the image of the Divine Person of the Word and His two-fold nature, human and divine. In it we can contemplate not only the symbol, but also, as it were, the sum of the whole mystery of our redemption. When we adore the Sacred Heart of Jesus Christ, we adore in it and through it both the uncreated love of the Divine Word and His human love and other affections and virtues, because both loves moved our. Redeemer to sacrifice Himself for us and for the whole Church, His Spouse (N.C.W.C. translation). Commenting on this passage, Father Donnelly writes: . . this passage sets forth the whole theology of the devotion to the Sacred Heart, because any reader will at once see therein the following teaching. (1) There is question of the physical heart of the Savior. (2} This heart is in a certain sense an image of the Person of the Word and also of His twofold nature, human and divine. (3) We can see in this physical heart, not only a symbol, but, as it were, the epitome of the whole mystery of our Redemption. (4) We adore this physical heart. (5} In the very act of adoring the physical heart, we adore in and through this same physical heart (a) the uncreated love of the divine Word, (b) His human love (sensible and spiritual), and (c) all the other affections and virtues which the Incarnate Word possesses. (6) The reason for this is that His divine and human love alike moved Him to sacrifice Himself for us and the universal Church, His Spouse, that we might be redeemed from our sins. In the light of this passage, it is clear why the Holy Father calls the devotion the most perfect profession of the Christian religion (pp. 30-31). 325 THOMAS G. O'CALLAGHAN Review fo~ Religious The Saints Gregory tells us in his Book of Dialogues that a certain nun, on going into .the garden, saw a head of lettuce and desired it; and, forgetting to make the sign of the cross over it she greedily bit into it; but forthwith she fell to the ground possessed by a devil. When the blessed Equitius came to exorcize her, the devil began to cry out, saying, "What did I do? What did I do? I was just sitting here on the lettuce, and she came and bit me!''1 This is one of those humorous anecdotes which during the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance delighted the readers of the Golden Legend. This book is a collection of saints' lives, compiled during the latter half of the thirteenth century by the learned and saintly Dominican, Jacobus de Voragine. In the article from which we have cited the anecdote above--an article which makes for pleasant reading--William F. Manning points out that the distinguished Dominican hagiographer was not a simple and gullible soul. He was well aware that these accounts of the saints were a blend of fact, fiction, and humor. What Jacobus de Voragine was primarily concerned with was not the historical truth of these stories; he was much more interested in using them as examples--they were known as exempla during the Middle Ages--to illustrate pleasantly some moral or spiritual principle. His goal was not objective history, but to foster among the faithful a fervent love of, and devotion to, the saints and God. Considering the extraordinary influence which the Golden Legend has had in the history of spirituality, his work was a complete success. But books like the Golden Legend make the life of a modern hagiographer a very troubled one. In addition to the ordinary difficulties which any historian or biographer meets, the hagiographer has a few special ones of his own. These are discussed by Lancelot C. Sheppard in "Some Problems of a Hagiographer.'' If the biography of a saint is to be a true 1This quotation from the Golden Legend is cited by William F. Manning, "Humor in the Golden Legend," Cross and Cro,wn, IX (1957), 168. 2 The Li/e of the 8pirit, XI, 454-461. 326 November, 1957 CURRENT SPIRITUAL WRITING and living portrait, the first problem of a hagiographer is to remember that he is "dealing with a man or woman in the world" (p. 456), and thus he has to pay attention to the ordin-ary things of everyday life. Otherwise he will be presenting "an unnatural wooden figure of his saint . . . no example or help to the ordinary reader, but . . . a hindrance to the develop-ment of the Christian life in the souls of many" (p. 457). Another problem is that which is occasioned by the miracu-lous events which at times take place in the lives of the saints. If something miraculous occurs in the life of a saint, it should be historically verified, and then it should be treated as a miracle, and not as a normal and everyday occurrence. Closely allied to the question of miracles is that of those other extraordinary phenomena--stigmata, etc.--which sometimes occur. Since some of these phenomena can be explained at times by natural causes, a hagiographer should be very hesitant in assigning to them a divine cause. Some of these observations of Sheppard are very just, but I am sure that he would readily admit that these prob-lems are much more easily mentioned than solved. In the same issue of The Life of the Spirit there is an interesting article by Donald Attwater on the martyrs of the early Church.3 In the Christian Church the cultus of the saints began with the veneration of these early martyrs. In fact, one of the first definitions of sanctity was based on the idea of martyrdom: the perfect imitation of Christ even to the sacrifice of one's life; or, as Attwater says, a man is "never so Christlike as when he wil!ingly goes to death for his Saviour . . ." (p. 441). This article is a series of short sketches of some of the early saints and martyrs--th'ose who suffered in the early persecutions, up to 313, and whose accounts are based on reliable documenta-tion: Ignatius ot: Antioch, Polycarp, Justin, Blandina, Cyprian, Perpetua, Felicity, etc. Although these sketches are most brief, "They are enough to show these martyrs as men and women, "The Early Martyrs," pp. 441-454. 327 THOMAS G. O'CALLAGHAN Review for Religious not as puppets . . ." (p. 451). Indeed, they were men and women whose lives were centered, in a simple yet firm way, or~ God and Jesus Christ. They were ~fully conscious of being ~a chosen race, a kingly priesthood, a consecrated nation,' a society of which, in the words of St. Augustine, ~the king is Truth, the law is love and the duration is Eternity' " (p. 453). Why did Bruno of Hartenfaust leave the world and found the Carthusians? It was once piously believed that his decision, was occasioned by an event which took place during the funeral of a certain Canon Docr~s in Paris. The canon's only known failing was a worldly desire for literary fame, and yet he seems to have been damned for it. According to the legend, three times during the funeral the canon raised himself up; first, to announce that he had been accused; then, judged; and, finally, that he had been condemned to eternal damnation. Supposedly witnessing this, Bruno decided that the world was no place for him; so off: to the deserts of the Grande Chartreuse. All this is pious legend. The real reason and motive why Bruno sought the hidden life of solitude and rooted his order in contempt of the world is explained in a fine article by Dr. Borisz de Balla, a former Hungarian diplomat and at present an associate professor of history at Le Moyne College) Since the spirit of silent solitude with which the Carthusians have moved through the last nine centuries has kept them well hidden, an article such as this is most welcome. For in it Dr. de Balla uncovers the historical and psychological background of Bruno's vocation and clarifies the Carthusians' contempt for the world, which is merely a negative way of expressing their fervent love of God. The life of St. Thomas Aquinas was dedicated in an extra-ordinary degree to intellectual work. Since this was a most substantial part of his life, it must have been very closely linked with his sanctity. What was the connection between these two? In 4'~Contempt of the World," Cross and Crop, n, IX (1957), I1-23. 328 November, 1957 CURRENT SPIRITUAL WRITING a very penetrating article Father Thomas Deman, O.P., shows how closely St. Thomas's knowledge was tied to his sanctity.~ The connection between the Angelic Doctor's knowledge and sanctity is not merely that he studied with a pure intention, nor merely that his intellectual activity demanded great abnega-tion. These things manifest more the link between effort and sanctity rather than between knowledge and sanctity. The far more interesting problem is in establishing the relation between these latter two, for in the connection of these two, according to Father Deman, "lies the ultimate secret of St. Thomas' sanctity" (p. 404). To summarize Father Deman's solution to this prob-lem would be to do it an injustice; but to recommend the study of it, especially to seminarians and theologians, would be far from unjust. F~nelon, onetime archbishop of Cambrai, although not a saint, was certainly an outstanding personality. Derek Stanford gives us in a two-part article a general overall view of his life, doctrine, writing, and great appeal.6 Even those who met him through his written word were charmed by him. " 'If F~nelon were alive today you would be a Catholic,' Bernadin de St. Pierre once wagered Rousseau. 'Oh, if F~nelon were alive,' Rousseau replied,, his eyes moist with tears, 'I should try to become his lackey in order to deserve to be his valet' " (p. 15). Perhaps the part of F~nelon's life which was most im-portant in the history of spirituality, and best known for that reason, is his rather bitter dispute with Bossuet, his former friend and bishop of Meaux, over the quietistic doctrine of Mme. Guyon. This was settled only by a papal brief from Pope Innocent XII condemning twenty-three propositions taken from Fenelon's Maxims of the Saints. To this condemnation he com-pletely and humbly submitted. Stanford's articles are a fine summary of the life of this man who was a cultured scholar, distinguished prelate, and grand seigneur. 5"'Knowledge and Holiness and St. Thomas Aquinas," The Life of the Spirit, XI, 394-406. 6"A Word for F~nelon," The Cler#y Relieve, XLII (1957), 14-25, 76-84. 329 THOMAS G. O'CALLAGHAN Review for Religious Sin One of the basic needs in the spiritual life is to acquire a sincere detestation of sin, a real hatred of the evil which sin is. But what is sin? The Catholic faith has always considered sin as an offense against God. But what does it mean to offend God? Obviously sin cannot harm God himself; it cannot touch God or injure Him. The harm which is done by sin is done to man, not to God. Yet, how is this an offense against God? Father DeLetter, s.J., suggests a solution to this problem, a solution which in its full explanation depends upon the philo-sophical doctrine of relation.~ He writes: ¯ . . the sinner . . . by rejecting God's love, rejects the gift of that love, sanctifying grace. Accordingly, in this case, because of the relative character of grace . . . it is easy to see how the "malum hominis," loss of sanctifying grace, is at once "malum Dei," offence against God . The wilful destruction on the part of man of God's gift of grace is an offence against God . . . because grace is a relation to God, unites man to God; and so by refusing or rejecting grace man refuses or rejects God, to whom grace orientates and unites him (p. 338). It is basically this same problem which Father Lyonnet, S.J., tries to solve by studying the nature of sin in the Old Testament) Judging from the words used in the Old Testa-ment to designate sin, sin is not only an evil of man, malum horninis, but also malum Dei, insofar as it is against God, in opposition to God. "The sinner despises and contemns the commands of God, and therefore in some true sense God Him-self" (p. 78; translation ours). But going beyond the words used to designate sin and con-sidering sin in the whole context of the Old Testament, Father Lyonnet points out various ways of looking at sin as an offense against God. Sin offends God insofar as it harms man whom God loves and desires to protect as His very own. Sin is also 7"Offense against God," The Irish Ecclesiastical Record, LXXXVII (1957), 329-342. S"De natura peccati quid doceat V. T.," l~erburn Dornini, XXXV (1957), 75-88. 330 November, 1957 CURRENT SPIRITUAL WRITING described as an offense against God insofar as it breaks the bond of conjugal love between God and His people, His beloved spouse. Thus sin is likened to adultery, God being the offended spouse. (Based upon this idea, God is portrayed in the Old Testament as a husband who cannot live without his beloved spouse; and, even though she is unfaithful, he pursues her with his merciful and forgiving love until she returns to him.) But in any understanding of sin the divine transcendence must always be preserved; sin never takes from God anything divine. But it does snatch away from Him man, whom God loves as the very apple of His eye. The Liturgy Those who are actively engaged in pastoral work in a parish will find food for serious reflection in an article written by Father Josef Jungmann, s.J., one of the world's most outstanding schol-ars of the liturgy.'~ The main theme of his article may be stated in his own words: "In the concrete community of the Church, which normally appears in the form of the parish, the liturgy does not represent merely one set of tasks, however holy, among many others. The Sunday and holy day Eucharist constitutes nothing less than the goal and ultimate meaning of all pastoral work here on earth" (p. 67). There is a fine article in The Life of the Spirit on the active participation of the faithful in the sacrifice of the Mass.1° The primary purpose of the article is to explain why the people should be active at Mass. The answer to this is based upon the proper understanding of the nature of the Mass and the nature of the Christian people. The nature of the Mass is that, being the principal act of the Mystical Body, it is a social, community act, in which all the faithful have their part. As regards the Christian people, by baptism they were made members of the Mystical Body of Christ the Priest; and by the character im- '°"The Liturgy and the Parish," l#ors/~ila, XXXI (1957), 62-67. 10j. D. Crichton, "The Mass and the People," The Life of t/~e 8~irit, XI, 548-560. 331 THOMAS G. O'CALLAGHAN Review for Religiou.~ printed on their soul at baptism they share in the priesthood of their Head. These ideas are developed in the first part of this article, while a second part suggests ways of educating the faith-ful to take an active part in both the dialogue and high Mass. When Christ at the Last Supper said, ~This is My blood of the new covenant, which is being shed for many," what would the apostles understand by the words blood of the new covenant? Father Siegman, C.PP.S., the editor of the Catholic Biblical Quarterly, discusses this question and in so doing offers a few points which might be helpful in understanding better the Sacrifice of the Mass.11 He shows that the words blood of the covenant, spoken by our Lord at the Last Supper, ~'must have suggested to the Apostles the sacrificial character of the rite that Jesus was performing. Blood that was shed had to be offered to God in sacrifice, as acknowledgment of His absolute dominion" (pp. 171-172), and also as an atonement for sin. Further, the apostles must have understood that the covenant, the pact be-tween God and His people, was now fulfilled. ~What Jahweh had done on Mt. Sinai was a beginning, a first aspect of the perfect covenant-act to be realized in the future" (p. 172), when this covenant would be ratified not by '~the blood of goats and calves," but by the blood of Christ (Heb. 9:12). Finally, this fulfilled covenant would have meant "community of life"(p. 172), Christ the victim sharing His life with His apostles. A few months ago there was published in Worship the translation of an address which Father Athanasius Miller, O.S.B., secretary of the Pontifical Biblical Commission, gave last De-cember at the Biblical Institute in Rome.l~ His concern in the paper was to discuss the problem "whether or not a harmony can be established between the psalms on the one hand, and a Christian prayer and a Christian devotion to the psalms on the other" (p. 334). Since the book of the Psalms is pre-Christian, H"The Blood of the Covenant," 7"he American Ecclesiastical Re,view, CXXXVI (1957), 167-174. 1'-, "The Psalms from a Christian Viewpoint," l'Forship, XXXI (1957), 334-345. 332 November, 1957 CURRENT SPIRITUAL WRITING many priests or religious, whether in reading the Office or in using the Psalter for private prayer, have difficulty in giving the psalms a Christian character and interpretation. Their devotion suffers in attempting to make an Old Law prayerbook into a Christian prayerbook. Father Miller's answer to this problem may be summed up in his own words: Thus the psalter is for the Church of the martyrs a Christ-book. Its songs center around the Kyrios raised on the cross, whether she speaks of Him, or to Him, or He Himself speaks to the Father: "The psalm is a voice speaking of Christ; the psalm is the voice of the Church speaking to Christ; the psalm is the voice of Christ speaking to the Father." It was left to the ingenious hand of Augustine later to combine all these aspects into one: "The psalm is the voice of the whole Christ, Head and body": Psalmus vox totius Christi, capitis et corl~oris (p. 340). In an address, given May 1, 1955, to members of the Chris-tian Association of Italian Workers, the Holy Father instituted the feast of St. Joseph the Worker and he assigned it to the first day of May. This new feast took the place of the Solemnity of St. Joseph. In this exchange, however, nothing was really lost; in fact, much was gained. In order to show this, Father Francis J. Filas, S.J., an authority on the theology of St. Joseph, examines and comments very simply and intelligently on the text of the Mass and Office of the new feast.1:~ Of particular interest are the few remarks which he makes about "father Joseph" (p. 296). This com-mentary on the Mass and Office of St. Joseph could be used ior "points" for prayer by those who desire to "Go to Joseph." "In the providence of God, for the greater glory of God, to know Jesus and Mary better and to imitate St. Joseph more closely, may this new feast of St. Joseph the Worker be a promise of even greater liturgical honors to come" (p. 303). 13,'The Mass and Office of St. Joseph the Worker," The /lmerican Ecclesi-astical Re~ie~, CXXXVI, (1957), 289-303. 333 THOMAS G. O'CALLAGHAN Review fo~ Religious Priestly and Religious Vocation What is a vocation? How do I know if I have a vocation? The answer to these questions is given by Father Columba Ryan, O.P., in three helpful articles.14 A good part of the matter of these articles is a commentary on the important apostolic con-stitution Sedes Sap¯len¯tla15e. The Holy Father had written in this document: ". the divine vocation . . . consists of two essential elements, one divine and the other ecclesiastical." Father Ryan uses these words of the Pope both as a point of departure and also as a suggested division of the matter of his articles. The first article considers the divine element, the divine call, but looked at from the side of God, as God's signified will. The second article examines this same divine call, but insofar as it is a grace received in a man's soul. The final article treats the ecclesiastical element of a divine vocation, the ecclesiastical call, and that which is closely associated with it, the necessary qualities which ought to be found in the aspirant. In regard to the first element of a divine vocation, the invitation of the soul by God, this is so necessary that without it the foundation of the whole structure will be lacking. Whether it be a call to the priestly life, or the religious life, or both combined, the initiative must come from God; without it there is no vocation. Because of this Father Ryan reiterates and comments upon the strong warning of the Holy Father about forcing or alluring or admitting to the religious or priestly life those who do not show the true signs of a divine vocation. But if these signs are clear, if God's loving will for a man is that he be a priest or a religious, there arises a problem: What is the obligation of following this signified will of God? There is some obligation, says Father Ryan, but this obligation falls not so much upon the acceptance or rejection ot? the voca- 14Vocations and Their Recognition," The Life of the Spirit, XI, 217-223, 258-263, 517-527. 15 The English translation of this document may be found in gEVlEW FOg LIGIOUS, March, 1957, 88-101. 334 November, 1957 CURRENT SPIRITUAL WRITING tion as "upon the deliberations preceding . . . [the] decision . . an obligation in the line of the virtue of prudence" (p. 223). Let us observe that one should be careful about insisting upon this obligation with the young, since they could easily confuse what is of counsel and what is of obligation in this matter. In the second article Father Ryan takes up the problem of how we may know whether there is present in the soul the grace of a vocation. The most we can do is to "detect it by signs of its presence, by the outward effects which it produces" (p. 259). The signs which he indicates are: a conscious and felt attraction to religious or priestly life; an obscure drawing towards it, perhaps with a sense of duty attached, but without attraction; such a drawing, accompanied by positive repug-nance for the life in question; a calculation, from the recognition that a man may have from his whole providential setting, that he ought to follow such and such a life; the sense of the emptiness for him of any other life (p. 259). These signs are not a proof of a vocation; in fact, they are often counterfeited. Many of the observations which the author makes about these signs, their counterfeits, and the faulty motives behind the latter, are well worth careful study by those who are engaged in the work of vocational directing. Besides the divine call there must also be, in order to have a divine vocation, the ecclesiastical call, that is, being called by lawful ministers of the Church. No person with a genuinely divine vocation can fail to be received by legitimate superiors. This does not mean that every first refusal of ecclesiastical superiors proves the lack of a true vocation. But it does mean that against the refusal of a superior there can be "no ultimate appeal to some subjectively experienced call of God as a con-clusive proof" (p. 519) of a divine vocation. An ecclesiastical superior must determine whether a can-didate possesses the necessary qualities. What are these? Father Ryan classifies them under three headings: "first, qualities of health, physical and mental; secondly, general character and dis- 335 THOMAS G. 0'CALLAGHAN position; thirdly, talents appropriate to the special vocation undertaken" (p. 521). In commenting upon these Father Ryan makes some very solid observations about emotional maturity, general strength of character, intelligence, docility, and affability. These articles will well repay careful study. The question of fostering vocations, a very important ques-tion these days because of the growing need of priests and religious, is discussed by Father Baier.1' In the fostering of vocations, one point which is to be carefully noted is that which Pope Pius XI mentioned in Ad Catholici Sacerdotii. In the ordinary course of divine providence, he remarked in this encyclical, the %rst and most natural place" where the God-sown seeds of vocation "grow and bloom remains always the truly and deeply Christian family." Another point which Father Baier mentions is that young Catholics do not understand the real meaning and excellence of the religious life. Too much attention is given to the "externals." '~If we want more vocations, we must tell young people about the 'inside' story of God's call. Only the inner meaning and the full significance of a vocation can inspire the qualities of enthusiasm, self-sacrifice and heroism for Christ" (p. 3:23). l°"Toward More Vocations," The llomiletic and Pastoral Revie.w, LVII (1957), 320-324. 336 The Int:elled:ual Li e ot: t:he Religious: Prad:ical Aspect:s Sister Emily Joseph, C.S.J. THAT THIS ARTICLE may have a practical aspect in substance as well as in name, I have presumed to borrow heavily from a source that has directed the intellectual progress of many scholars. The advice here presented comes from a man who was the outstanding humanist of his day; a man of letters as well as of action who figured prominently in the political, ecclesiastical, and diplomatic affairs of his times; a man whose profound learning, both religious and secular, lent a brilliance and charm to his spoken and written word. This man was the twelfth-century scholar, John of Salisbury, secretary of St. Thomas of Canterbury, author, poet, ecclesiastic, diplomat, and an intellectual of the first order. Among John's writings we find an account of certain at-titudes prevalent in the educational circles of his day--a day which, we note with a smile, John calls these "modern times." He deplores the tendency to specialization, the immoderate tribute paid to cleverness, and the influence of a segment of educators who would over-emphasize the "practical" at the expense of the humanistic studies. Then, paying tribute to his revered old teacher, Bernard of Chartres, John quotes the pair of fluid Latin hexameters in which Bernard neatly packaged his recom-mendations for scholars-to-be. John himself called these the "Six Keys to True Learning." As a practical aspect of the intellectual life of the religious, I give you John's six keys) First: mens humilis--a humble mind. Recently I came upon this definition of humility in an article entitled "Vocation of the Intellectual; Its Requisites and Rewards.''~' "Humility is a per- 1 All references to John of Salisbury are from his Policraticus, VII, 13 (ed. C. J. Webb). Z Whalen, Reverend John P., "Vocation of the Intellectual; Its Requisites and Rewards," The Catholic Educational Re~ie~, LII (Dec. 1954), 597-601. 337 SISTER EMILY JOSEPH Review for Religious sonal evaluation without personal interest . It is observing ourselves as part of the creation of God with an unjaundiced eye, neither allowing our egoism to exaggerate our vision nor our insecurity to underestimate it." Such an attitude is funda-mental, not only for the acquisition of the moral virtues but for the intellectual ones as well. It is the guarantee of an objective approach to the search for knowledge; it precludes an interpreta-tion of research findings which accords with one'~ own prejudices or inclinations rather than with the objective evidence. Above all, it is a safeguard against one of the most pernicious spiritual ills to which man is subject--intellectual pride. The second key: studium quaerendi--the eager, questing spirit. The phrase carries a twofold implication: first, a steady, zealous, self-sacrificing devotion to the research entailed by scho-larship; secondly, it betokens the inquiring outlook which is the hallmark of a scholar. It implies, too, the proper attitude toward the intellectual life. With regret, we acknowledge that this attitude, latent in everyone who has consecrated his or her life to incarnate Wisdom, fails, in many cases, to develop and in-fluence the religious. Some hold intellectual efforts and attain-ments suspect. By their attitude of aloofness they try to cloak their own apathy where research is concerned. Others contend that the present need of the Church calls for concentration on a vigorous social apostolate. Still others avow their respect for intellectual activity but modestly place themselves outside its periphery. That all might acquire a correct attitude toward the importance, both for time and eternity, of personal intellectual growth we would strongly recommend two classic works: Cardinal Newman's Idea of a University and Cardinal Suhard's peerless pastoral letter, Groi~lh or Decline? The third key which John recommends is vita quieta--a life of tranquillity. John's own life as a scholar was interrupted by ecclesiastical responsibilities which plunged him into incessant activity. He crossed the continent of Europe ten t:.mes on diplo-matic missions and such extensive traveling in the twelfth century 338 November, ~957 THE INTELLECTUAL LIFE OF RELIGIOUS was only at the cost of much time and considerable inconvenience. Such a life is not compatible with the atmosphere that the scholar needs. His must be a well-ordered life---a life of dedication to intellectual pursuits. His energies must be concentrated upon this one end, not dissipated upon a multiplicity of activities, how-ever worthy each in itself may be. From his life all non-essentials must be (often painfully) pruned. One in whom secular tastes and worldly attitudes develop and foster a craving for recreation, for indulgence in entertainment provided by radio, television, or light reading, for needless travel and social contacts will find neither the inclination nor the time for intellectual growth. In a recent article in the NGEH Bulletin, Father Gustave Weigel, s.J., underlines the special responsibility of the college faculty, which he calls the "soul of the collegiate community," to foster the intellectual life. Exploring the meaning of the term, "intellectual life," Father Weigel contends that it is a life of contemplation. "The true intellectual," he says, "always seeks for essences and essences are not obvious . Hence the practi-tioner of the intellectual life is a contemplative." He maintains that "the intellectual life is the very essence of the college" and that contemplation is the essence of the intellectual life; and he intimates that there are dangerous attitudes, social and economic forces, that make incursions upon and destroy the vita quieta that is a sine qua non of scholarly pursuits? Closely allied to this third key is the fourth--scrutinium taciturn--a study room where silence reigns. Just as the silence of the chapel is most conducive to contempletion of God and His attributes, so for the scholar's contemplation there must be freedom from distractions, prolonged periods for undisturbed thinking. Here is a problem which superiors should acknowledge and try to solve. The religious whose teaching assignments, ex-tracurricular responsibilities, and community obligations exhaust 3 Weigel, Gustave, S.J., "Enriching the Intellectual Life of the Catholic Col-lege," NCE/I Bulletin, LII (May 1956), 7-21. 339 SISTER EMILY JOSEPH Review for Religious his or her physical powers and necessitate constant contact with students, institutional personnel, and externs cannot be expected to develop the intellectual life, regardless of personal inclination and intellectual endowment. Paupertas--poverty--is the fifth key in John's list. Our vocation, then, in which we are privileged to bind ourselves by vow to a life of poverty, ought to insure us this key without further worry. But does it? In the pursuit of higher education what is the end in view for the majority of religious who flock in such numbers to the universities? Is their goal those spiritual entities, knowledge and truth, toward which, like a shining beacon, they are willing to press on resolutely in spite of summer heat and winter snow, demanding professors and elusive research articles, frustrating language barriers and disappointing lab ex-periments? Or does a motive which is, at least in part, pragmatic and materialistic, namely, the determination to acquire a degree and thus satisfy certain educational standards and demands, com-mit them to a temporary and half-hearted educational episode which they dispatch with a minimum of research and a maximum of compensating recreation? All will acknowledge that the poverty of a monk or nun differs from the poverty of a derelict in the slums. How does the poverty of a scholar differ from the poverty of a religious? Or does it? Was John of Salisbury implying that this fifth key imposes upon the scholar a form of discipline and a degree of detachment that is unique and un-paralleled, which demands renunciations over and above those required by the vow of poverty? The last of John's six keys s~iows his penetrating wisdom: terra aliena. We might presume to interpret it rather freely to mean: ~Get away from home base." One of the most practical aspects of this question of intellectual growth is that of time. It is one of the limitations imposed upon us by our mortal state. Certain legitimate demands upon our time are inextricably associated with our observance of community life. Charity obliges even where temporary dispensations exempt. Religious 340 November, 1957 THE INTELLECTUAL LIFE OF RELIGIOUS superiors, then, should take this into consideration and, to the extent possible, assign students to graduate studies in universities where they will reside away from home. Financial and other practical considerations may render this difficult. Still, anyone who has attempted scholarly study or writing will insist that this sixth key is oi~ prime importance. These, then, are the six golden keys which John of Salis-bury left us nearly eight hundred years ago. I repeat them, as they are found in the seventh chapter of his work entitled Policraticus." ~Iens kurnilis, studiurn quaerendi, ~dta quieta, Scrutiniurn taciturn, paupertas, terra aliena. I rather suspect that, were John listening to me, he would repeat what he said, referring to Bernard's hexameters: "Though I am not taken by the smoothness of the meter, I approve the sense and I believe it should be faithfully impressed on the minds of those seeking true learning." FATHER GALLEN~S ABSENCE Father Gallen, who answers questions for the REVIEW, has been in Europe for several months; and we are not sure when he will return. This is the reason why answers to questions have been delayed. Since we have no other canonist on our staff, we suggest that those who have canonical problems requiring prompt answers send their questions to a canonist of their own diocese. BOUSCAREN-ELLIS It is a little more than ten years since Fathers T. Lincoln Bous-caren, S.J., and Adam C. Ellis, S.J., first published their Canon Law: A Text and Commentary. The third edition completely revised is now available. This edition incorporates papal decrees and decisions issued since 1951 and adds current literature to the bibliography fol-lowing each chapter. It includes new material on the alienation of property and on secular institutes. Father Ellis, it will be remembered, was one of the founders of REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS and was one of the active members of the editorial board until very recently. The book is published by the Bruce Publishing Company, 400 North Broadway, Milwaukee 1, Wisconsin. 980 pages. $10.50. 341 Com rnun icat:ions On Delayed Vocations Reverend Fathers: In accordance with the announcement in the May number of gEWEW FOg RELIGIOUS (p. 154), we are happy to send you the fol-lowing information. We are Dominican Sisters established for foreign mission work and for social and catechetical work in the United States. We are at present approved as a Pious Union by Cardinal Stritch. Our habit is the regular Dominican habit. We accept candidates between the ages of 20 and 40. We do accept widows or previously married women whose marriage was annulled or invalid, if they give signs of a true vocation. Mother M. Agatha, O.P. Missionary Servants of St. Dominic Rosary Mission House 656 West 44th Street Chicago 9, Illinois Reverend Fathers: In response to your note on Delayed Vocations, we wish to say that we would consider accepting the classes of persons mentioned in the announcement. Ours is a cloistered order. We have perpetual adoration. We accept candidates up to the age of 35, and even a little older if their health is good. If the spiritual directors who seek this information have possible candidates on the waiting list we would be glad to make their acquaintance. Mother Mary Edwina Franciscan Nuns of the Most Blessed Sacrament 2311 Timlin Hill Portsmouth, Ohio [EDITORS' NOTE: Regarding communications on the religious habit please see page 322.] 342 Survey.of Roman Document:s R. F. Smit:h, S.J. THE DOCUMENTS which appeared in the ~lcta ~lpos-tolicae Sedis (AAS) from June 1, 1957, to August 15, 1957, will be the subject matter of the present article. Page references to AAS in the course of the survey will accordingly refer to the 1957 AAS (volume 49). The Saints On May 16, 1957 (AAS, pp. 321-31), two days after the Pope had received in audience the recently liberated Car-dinal Wyszynski, His Holiness issued the encyclical, Invicti athletae Christi, in commemoration of the three hundreth anniversary of the death of the Polish martyr, St. Andrew Bobola. In the first section of the encyclical, Pius XII briefly sketches the life of the martyr. Born in 1591, Andrew entered the Society of Jesus at the age of 19. The future saint gave himself wholeheartedly to the conquest of Christian perfection, seeking only the glory of God. After his ordination to the priesthood, his life was devoted to the faith he professed. It was this love of his faith that led him to work in the eastern marches of his country where dissident churches strove to separate the faithful from the unity of the true Church. When the Cossack persecution of the Church broke out, it was this same love of the faith that prompted him to do everything in his power to keep Catholics from denying their faith and to reconcile those who under pressure of the persecutors had deserted their faith. It was, finally, the ~ame love of the faith that enkindled in him the courage to endure the fright-ful martyrdom which the Cossacks inflicted on him on the feast of the Ascension, May 16, 1657. In the second part of the encyclical, the Vicar of Christ urges the faithful to imitate in their own lives the faith and 343 R. F. SMITH Review for Religiou~ courage of Bobola. The need for similar faith, he notes, is especially great today, for materialism continues to grow and to seduce men by the mirage of an earthly happiness without God. No less necessary today is the courage of St. Andrew. Every Christian life must have something of the martyr in it; for a Christian gives testimony to his faith not only by shedding his blood for it, but also by a constant war against sin and by a complete consecration of himself and all he has to Him who is his Creator and Redeemer and who someday will be his eternal joy. The Holy Father concludes the encyclical with a special plea to the Polish nation that they of all men may imitate the faith and courage of their sainted compatriot so that Poland, today as yesterday, may be a rampart of Christianity. Three documents concern Mother Mary of Providence (1825-71), foundress of the Helpers of the Holy Souls. The first of these was a decree of the Sacred Congregation of Rites which was dated April 21, 1957 (AAS, pp. 374-76), and which stated that the beatification of the Venerable Servant of God could safely be proceeded with. On May 26, 1957 (AAS, pp. 339-44), Pius XII proclaimed her beatification and the day after (AAS, pp. 361-64) addressed a group of the Helpers of the Holy Souls who had come to Rome for the beatification of their foundress. In his allocution to them the Pontiff stressed the Blessed's devotion to Providence which led her to repay Provi-dence by rescuing souls from purgatory and by devoting herself to an active and universa! apostolate. The last document concerning the saints is a decree of the Sacred Congregation of Rites, issued on April 9, 1957 (AAS, pp. 424-25}, and ordering that henceforth a determined part of the consultors of the congregation shall have consultative vote with regard to the official scrutiny of the writings of persons whose causes of beatification are introduced. The Eucharist Three documents of the period surveyed are concerned with the Eucharist. On May 19, 1957 (AAS, pp. 364-68), His 344 November', 1957 ROMAN DOCUMENTS Holiness broadcast a message to the Eucharistic Congress of Spain, which was being held at Granada, telling the faithful assembled there that in the Eucharist is to be found the same Christ who is the way, the truth, and the life for all men. He also reminded them that in the Eucharist there is the highest manifestation of that greatest of all truths: God is love. On May 23, 1957 (AAS, p. 370), the Holy Office an-swered the following question with regard to the concelebration of Mass: Do several priests validly concelebrate Mass if only one of them utters the words "This is My Body" and "This is My Blood" over the bread and wine, while the rest do not pronounce the words, but, with the knowledge and the consent of the aforesaid celebrant, have and manifest the intention of making their own the words and actions of the same celebrant? The Holy Office answered the question in the negative, since, as it said, by the institution of Christ only he validly celebrates who pronounces the consecrating words. The Sacred Congregation of Rites issued a decree on June 1, 1957 (AAS, pp. 425-26), dealing with the tabernacle and the manner of conserving the Holy Eucharist. The decree states that the pertinent norms of canon law (canons 1268-69) should be carefully observed. Moreover, the tabernacle is to be so fixed to the altar that it is irremovable. Ordinarily the taber-nacles should be affixed to the main altar, unless in certain cir-cumstances the veneration of the Eucharist can be provided for better elsewhere. Such circumstances are ordinarily found in cathedral, collegiate, and conventual churches where choir func-tions are exercised. Similar extraordinary circumstances can sometimes be found, the decree continues, in larger devotional centers where, because of popular devotion to some venerated object, the veneration due the Blessed Sacrament might be over-shadowed. The decree goes on to state that Mass should be habitually celebrated at the altar where the Blessed Sacrament is kept; and, 345 R. F. SMITH Review .for Religious in churches where there is only one altar, this should not be so constructed that the priest celebrates Mass facing the people, for in the middle of such an altar there should be placed a tabernacle for keeping the Blessed Sacrament. The tabernacle should be strong and secure so that all danger of profanation is avoided. When the Blessed Sacrament is in it, the tabernacle should be covered with a veil and a light should always burn in front of it. The tabernacle should con-form to the style of the altar and the church and should not differ too much from the style of tabernacles already in use. The tabernacle should represent a true dwelling-place of God with men and should not be adorned with unusual or misleading symbols. Finally, the Sacred Congregation notes that tabernacles that are off and apart from altars are strictly forbidden. More-over, with regard to the way of keeping the Blessed Sacrament or with regard to the form of the tabernacle, there is no presump-tion in favor of contrary customs, unless the custom is centenary or immemorial. Social Questions Speaking on May 3, 1957 (AAS, pp. 351-55), to a group of Belgians, the Holy Father underlined the necessity of better housing for a large number of people. Ten to twenty per cent of the total population of European countries, he pointed out, live in subhuman circumstances where they can not live a decent and truly human life. Such circumstances not only weaken health and physical stamina but also induce extensive moral damage: immorality; juvenile delinquency; loss of the desire to work; and revolt against the society that allows such subhuman conditions to exist. On May 26, 1957 (AAS, pp. 403-14), the Vicar of Christ addressed a group of Italian Catholic lawyers on the right way of giving assistance to those in prison. The Holy Father began his allocution by studying the presuppositions of all effec- 346 November, 1957 ROMAN DOCUMENTS tive aid to prisoners. The first of these presuppositions is con-. cerned with the relationship that exists between the punishment and the crime committed. Only the conviction that the prisoner is culpable can furnish a sure basis for all consequent aid. It must be remembered, the Holy Father stated, that even in con-crete situations the great majority of men have the possibility of regulating their personal conduct and hence of contracting obli-gations and responsibilities. This is the reason why morality and law are correct when they assert that in a given case cessation of free will must be proved, not the presence of free will. The second presupposition to be borne in mind when work-ing for prisoners is concerned with the suffering that is necessarily included in the punishment. A prisoner, the Pontiff remarked, is not comparable to a sick person; since the latter has no obliga-tion to suffer, it is right to seek to lighten his sufferings as much as possible. The prisoner, however, deserves to suffer, hence the removal of all suffering cannot be desired in the case of prisoners. The third and final presupposition to be considered cen-ters around the meaning and purpose of the punishment that has been inflicted on the prisoner. Since human punishment should in its own way imitate divine punishment, the Holy Father turned to a consideration of the meaning and purpose of the punish-ments inflicted by God on sin. The primary and essential pur-pose of divine punishment, he observed, is the reestablishment of the order of things violated by sin. By sin, man prefers him-self to God; by imposing suffering on the sinner, God constrains him to submit himself to the divine will and hence to restore the order he has previously violated. This, however, is not the sole purpose of divine punishment as far as this world is concerned. Often the punishments willed by God in this life are rather medic-inal than vindictive. They are meant to reeducate the sinner, to lead him to repentance, and to turn him toward goodness and justice. All these aims of divine punishment should be striven for also by human punishment. 347 R. F. SMITH Review .for Religious His Holiness then took up the manner in which prisoners can best be aided. The first aid to be given to prisoners is to know them thoroughly: their origin, their formation, their life up to the present time. Secondly, one should attempt to con-vince them that through their detention they can efface the errors of their past and remake their lives. Finally, one must love the prisoner. It is not sufficient to approach him with correct ideas and notions; along with this must go a love that is as comprehensive and devoted as is maternal love. In conclu-sion the Holy Father advises his listeners to look on prisoners as God looks upon them: in a spirit of justice tempered with mercy. Miscellaneous Matters On June 2, 1957 (AAS, pp. 433-603), Pius XII issued the Motu Proprio Cleri sanctita¢i, promulgating a new section of the projected Code of Canon Law for the Oriental Churches. This new section contains 558 canons and corresponds roughly to the second book of the Code of Canon Law for the Latin Church. The section deals successively with the following points: the oriental rites; physical and moral persons; clerics in general; clerics in particular from patriarchs to assistant and substitute pastors; the laity. The prescriptions of these new canons will go into effect March 25, 1958. On May t9, 1957 (AAS, pp. 414-17), the Roman Pontiff delivered a radio message to the Third Portuguese Congress of the Apostleship of Prayer held at Braga. In the message the Pope expressed his great desire to see the Apostleship of Prayer propagated among all catagories of persons in the Church. The principal part of his message, however, is concerned with what he called the proper essence and the secret of the immense effectiveness of the Apostleship of Prayer. This is nothing else than the practice of the morning offering of all one's actions and sufferings of the coming day for the intentions of the Sacred Heart and of the Roman Pontiff. This practice, the Holy Father 348 Nove~ber, 1957 ROMAN DOCUMENTS noted, is an elementary and simple one, but when motivated by a conscientious desire to live it out completely, it can revolution-ize a life. On May 20, 1957 (AAS, pp. 355-61), the Holy Father gave an inaugural address for the week of astronomical studies held under the auspices of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences. The body of the address is devoted to a summary of recent findings with regard to the nature of the stars, in the course of which the Holy Father accepts five billion years as a reason-able estimate of the age of the universe. At the end of the allocution the Pope remarked that that man is fortunate who can read in the stars the message they carry, inviting man to rise to the knowledge of Him who gives truth and life and who estab-lishes His dwelling in the hearts of those who adore and love Him. On May 10, 1957 (AAS, pp. 427-29), the Sacred Peni-tentiary published the text of two prayers composed by His Holiness. The first is a prayer to our Lady of Lourdes; an indulgence of three years can be gained by the faithful each time they recite the prayer with contrite heart. The second prayer is a prayer to be recited by physicians; physicians can gain an indulgence of three years whenever they say the prayer with contrite heart. On June 4, 1957 (AAS, p. 429), the Sacred Penitentiary announced that a plenary indulgence could be gained in connec-tion with the practice of the twelve Sundays in honor of the infancy of our Lord. The conditions for the indulgence are the following: prayers and pious meditations in honor of the mysteries of Christ's infancy on twelve consecutive Sundays of one's own choosing; confession; Communion; visit to a church or public oratory with prayers there for the intention of the Holy Father. 349 Persevering in Prayer Mot:her Marie Vandenbergh, R.C. I. Introduction CONCERNING IGNATIAN spirituality less has been writ-ten perhaps than about some other schools of perfection; nevertheless, there are enough articles and books extant on the subject to make one pause before adding to their number. Especially if one's years in religion are not many, will the query arise, "What do you have to contribute?" The answer is, "Not very much." The best to be hoped for is that being relatively lately come to the field of interior combat might lend freshness to one's point of view. The re-cently won scars of battle might generate a more sympathetic and generally helpful approach to the problems confronting beginners about to enter the lists. There are, conceivably, certain advantages that derive from having traveled far enough along the road of the interior life to get some perspective, but not so far as to have forgotten what it felt like to be just start-ing out. Furthermore, and more importantly as a credential, the Cenacle, keynoted by its motto, "Perseverantes in oratione," has, throughout its brief history of less than two hundred years, upheld in its constitutions an ideal of high spiritual excellence. However large the discrepancy between these ideals of the con-gregation and one's personal attainments, it is surely nonetheless permissible to set forth this heritage and let it speak for itself, at least in regard to one or two problems of beginners in prayer. The Cenacle Religious have an Ignatian Rule and are devoted to the work of providing retreats for laywomen and teaching Christian doctrine. It is not, then, surprising that St. Ignatius's book, The Spiritual Exercises, figures largely in our novitiate training, as well as all through our religious life. 350 PERSEVERING IN PRAYER We are told early in our formation that a Cenacle Religious must learn to love "the solitude of the heart" and "live in prayer as in her proper element." As means toward this spiritual growth, we are given, to quote a superior general, both "meth-ods" and "liberty." The "liberty" is that inspired by the Holy Spirit; the "methods" are those suggested by St. Ignatius--his "Spiritual Exercises." If his directives applying to the special circumstances of retreat time are set aside, there remains a remarkable body of instruction for those who wish to learn the science of the saints and for those who are constituted their guides. In this article we shall prescind entirely from the retreat relationship and, using the Exercises as a manual of spirituality, concentrate on the part methodical meditation is meant to play in our spiritual lives. II. Pro's and Con's The ultimate purpose of any sort of meditation, formal or informal, is to bring a soul to give itself to God by a process of instruction, reasoning, and resolution resulting in the formation of religious convictions and in great purity of life. Training in the use of formal meditation methods often starts with ready-made outlines, developing into personally prepared meditation outlines. This has two principal advantages. First, it prevents waste of time and energy to have something definite in mind to do when you go to your meditation. Second, as a result of the first, it helps develop the habit of prayer. Unless a girl has been living a modified rule of life in the world, the likelihood is that she has been praying "when she felt like it." Entering religious life she must learn to pray at a set time--whether she feels like it or not. A knowledge of prayer technique, i.e., an outlined meditation, will help her get started on days when she doesn't feel like it. It will keep her busy and trying to pray at times when prayer is more or less distasteful. Furthermore, fidelity to the attempt to "contact God," espe-cially when sensible consolation dries up, is a sine qua non 351 MOTHER MARIE VANDENBERGH Re~iew for Religious of real progress. This fidelity is a fruit of habitual use of a method. St. Teresa of Avila :lays down two rules for the would-be saint: refuse God nothing and never abandon the practice of prayer. Use of meditation methods can keep a soul from idleness in prayer time and prevent its giving up from sheer boredom with itself in time of dryness. There are, however, dangers to be avoided in the use of a method: strain and slavish fidelity to mechanics. While bridging the gap between the free and easy ~pray when you please" of life in the world and the regular, disciplined ~pray when you ought" of religious life, it is of paramount importance to avoid undue strain. The spontaneity of the soul's response to God must be safeguarded. It is that element of sweet familiarity with God which, as far as God's grace allows, makes of prayer the personal relationship it is meant to be. Undue efforts such as straining for ~success" in meditation, in-sistence on completion of the full meditation outline, or self-induced fixation of the imagination are sure to result in a ~broken head." Some such form of tension becomes a danger wherever emphasis on high ideals is combined with strict discipline. Ex-aggerated fidelity is one of the occupational hazards of religious life. Especially in the atmosphere of a novitiate, a spirit of holy emulation can make it contagious. To such an extent is this true that over-eagerness can be suspected of spoiling more voca-tions than laxity; for tension, though combined with all the good will in the world, has a paralyzing effect. In certain cases it persists as a chronic ailment through the early years of professed life, sooner or later, let us hope, to be outgrown. In extreme cases, however, the victim may be spiritually crippled for life. The cause of the difficulty does not lie, needless to say, in the traditional methods of prayer. The trouble arises when, instead of the neophyte's mastering the method, the method masters the neophyte. What was intended as a help toward union 352 November, 1957 PERSEVERING IN PRAYER with God becomes an end instead of a means and acts as a hindrance to that very union. The exasperating part of it is that often the victim of this malady, if questioned, would reply glibly that, of course, a method is a means, not an end in itself--and then go right on clinging inordinately to his little shell of prayer technique. In his mind, though he does not realize it, prayer formality has become an indispensible means to union with God; whereas authors and advocates of prepared methods intend them to be used tantum-quantum, just insofar as they help to attain this union. An inexperienced soul can become more attached to its method than to its God. It makes him feel so secure. If ever doubts as to his fidelity to prayer arise, he has only to point to his daily "two preludes, three points, and a colloquy." There, he feels, is concrete evidence that he has not been wasting his prayer time. He does not realize until much later, perhaps, that he has been slowly strangling his spiritual life. Retreat masters have dealt with this difficulty, books have been written about it; but still it can happen that a suffering soul will not recognize itself to be a victim of prayer-tension until the sterility of its meditation and its self-imposed rigidity threaten to kill its religious life entirely. Sheer starvation of soul is its inevitable result. In order to forestall this turn of events if possible, those in charge of the spiritual formation of young people exercise a great deal of vigilance. "I watched my young men like a hawk," said one novice master, "to detect signs of strain." As soon as they began to pray spontaneously and to speak familiarly with God, they were instructed to leave their prepared meditation outline for as long as they could pray without reference to it. "Be relaxed in the presence of God," was the advice they were given. There is a possible hazard, too, for people with a studious turn of mind. They, more easily than others, can be tempted to make a purely mental exercise of their meditation and never 353 MOTHER MARIE VANDENBERGH Review for Religious really pray. There is no real "contact" with God at all. This makes of meditation nothing but a sterile academic study instead of an affair of the heart that leads them to fall in love with their Lord Christ. III. Liberty of Spirit Besides these rather obvious dangers to be avoided in the use of meditation methods, there is a further point it might be well to discuss here. The principal charge leveled against tech-niques of prayer is that slavish fidelity to "two preludes, three points, and a colloquy" hinders a soul's progress toward God in the more simplified forms of prayer. The Spiritual ercises of St. Ignatius are often called upon to bear the brunt of such criticism. For some reason it has been difficult to convince the praying public that to advocate methods of prayer is not the same as to advocate slavish fidelity to them. St. Ignatius of Loyola, himself a contemplative and even a mystic, could hardly have recommended a spirituality which excluded such graces a priori. Anyone thoroughly grounded in Ignatian spirituality knows well enough that there is in it wide margin for originality and freedom. In the beginning of the life of prayer, however, the method is more in evidence than the freedom. The same is true of playing the piano. You learn the scales before you improvise. Benson, in his The Friendship o.f Christ, and Boylan, in This Tremendous Lover, point out that one's prayer life develops along the same lines as human friendship. In the early stages of mere "bowing acquaintance," formalities and conven-tional conversation topics like politics and the weather make up the larger part of the relationship. As the acquaintance deepens, there is growing mutual self-revelation, a sharing of tastes, of personal history, of hopes and fears. There is mutual interest in and support of one another's projects and plans. Should friend-ship ripen to the point of falling in love, the amount of con-versation is reduced to a minimum, and the silent language of 354 November, 1957 PERSEVERING IN PRAYER love takes its place. There is a ~honeymoon" stage, followed by inevitable trials and tests which strengthen and mature the soul. The maturing of married love has frequently been de-scribed as a process of transition from eros to agape, from selfish to unselfish love. A similar process goes on in the prayer life. Eventually prayer comes to the point where it lives by a continuous, silent sacrifice of self for the sake of the Beloved. Such prayer is a life of love and is consonant with a great deal of suffering and self-forgetfulness. Married couples who have lived and loved together for many years have no great need of words; they are content to share each other's silent company. Even so does the soul's happiness come to consist of being silent together with God. In human love this silent togetherness can be such a dear and deep and precious thing that when one partner dies, the other does not linger on much longer. The whole reason for living has disappeared. So in prayer one's whole self can come to be lost in God who is one's only reason for living, moving, being. IV. Variety of Method Although all comparisons limp, at least it should be obvious that in our friendship with the most wonderful Person in the universe we should expect growth and development and change. The purpose of the variety of methods provided by St. Ignatius is to allow for this most desirable adaptability to the attractions of grace. Furthermore, the key to this adaptation is St. Ignatius's direction, "In that point in which I find what I desire, there I will rest, without being anxious to proceed . . . until I have satisfied myself" (Addition IV). This varying of meditation methods to suit one's need of the moment is sometimes a matter wherein a well-meaning young person is too timid. Wisely reluctant to trust her own instincts unless they receive the approval of authority, a beginner must still remember that obedience is controlled initiative. With cer-tain personalities the emphasis must be on the control; with 355 MOTHER ~ARIE VANDENBERGH .Review for Religious others, on the initiative. During the years of religious formation especially, there should be the control of reporting to the novice mistress or superior on how one's time of prayer was spent-- this at intervals of at least two weeks--together with submission to her judgment as to one's success or failure. However, the temptation to cling to a method already approved simply for fear that any other will not receive a similar approval is a kind of human respect. Reduced to its ultimate form, this is hoping to please men at the price of failing to please God. God looks for our initiatives; indeed, if they are good, it is He who inspires them. The novice will do well to remember that she is being led by the hand in order to learn to travel the road alone. Over-dependence on the novice mistress is at least equally as bad as failure to have sufficient recourse to her guidance. Like a good physician, the novice mistress aims at making her ministrations unnecessary. Second year novices, other things being equal, should expect to need less counseling than in their first year, etc. It should not take long for a reasonably intelligent person to acquire enough facility in the use of prayer techniques to begin a little experimentation in method variations. The more personal and familiar our prayer becomes, the better it accomplishes its purpose of uniting us to our Lord and transforming us into His likeness. Of course, if we fall as it were naturally into one or other method, there is no great need to force ourselves to vary our approach--except occasionally to counteract monotony, weariness, boredom; in general, to avoid getting into an unthinking rut. Some people more easily think their way to God, and their meditations reflect this trait. Others lead with their heart. Some can study our Lord in the gospel text with a ready, but quiet, imagination. Some whose imagination tends to run riot, stirring up over-strong emotions, pray best by a loving attention to the presence of God--a simple, peaceful, wordless gaze of the soul focused upon its invisible Guest. 356 Novembe~, 1957 PERSEYERING IN PRAYER Sometimes our prayer is a kind of seeking, searching, asking, wanting. It is a quest for God, a thirst for God, a need for more and more of Him and His love and peace. This is another form of wordless prayer. We may come away from it with no specific resolution, with just an increased consciousness of our need for God, God alone, God first and foremost. It would still be a very good prayer. Some are able to speak familiarly with God, telling Him all the events and hopes and needs of their daily life. So long as there are moments of pause when we can listen to Him, this is a very helpful prayer. It should, however, be a conversation, not a monologue. Too many words can be a barricade between the soul and God. In our daily mental prayer one of these methods may pre-dominate or we may use a combination. On certain days, at certain times in our lives, our prayer methods will almost auto-matically take on certain changes of pattern, simply from neces-sity. As Father R. H. J. Steuart liked to say, the level of our prayer is the level of our lives. Chameleon-like, our prayer adapts to our presefit state of soul, of emotion, or of physical well-being. A real effort to pray when we are in a state of high excitement or deep depression will have a tranquilizing, stabilizing effect. When we are very tired, just to remain numbly in the presence of God is an appropriate prayer. Just to be with Him suffices for us then. The very sick can sometimes unite themselves to God only by the loving contemplation of a crucifix; sometimes even that is beyond them. A weak grip on a crucifix or rosary can symbolize their intention to pray, becoming an outward sign of the inward turning heavenward. When a person is in a state of dryness, interior trial, or is interiorly agitated by a difficulty from without, his prayer is a prayer of spiritual pain. The soul suffers; suffers, it may be, with little hope of respite, with no alleviating sense of vitality as sometimes accompanies a beginner's cross. Father Caussade 357 MOTHER MARIE VANDENBERGH Review for Religious considers it a great grace thus to "suffer weakly," unable to find satisfaction in the thought that one is bearing up nobly under one's cross. This state of pure suffering is extremely pleasing to God and highly profitable to the soul. A person's prayer in this state may be a continual interior Miserere, springing from a great sense of unworthiness and guilt, and in spite of having no specific blemish of conscience to which it may be attributed. Later on, depending upon the degree of purification already accomplished by this state, one's prayer may be an inner attitude of oblation, willingly offering one's suffering self in sacrifice to God. "Take, O Lord, and receive all that I am and all that I have." Lastly, when the purgation of suffering has nearly run its course, an attitude of adoration, of God-regarding prostration of soul, may begin to predominate. These are all methods of prayer which, explicitly or im-plicity, can be found in St. Ignatius's book, The F~xercises. In his very first annotation St. Ignatius gives the title of "spiritual exercises" to "all methods of preparing and disposing the soul ¯ . . to seek and to find the divine will," adding a little later on that "in these spiritual exercises it is more fitting and much better, in seeking the divine will, that the Creator and Lord Himself should communicate Himself to the devout soul . . ." (Annota-tion XV). As Father Peeters has pointed out, "The Exercises in their entirety are presented to us as a means of entering into con-tact with God." V. Discursive Prayer a Preparation for Contemplation Used properly and suitably adapted to the individual, these techniques of prayer are calculated to leave the door open for the divine initiatives by which God leads a soul through darkness into light. Fruitful meditations result in a generosity and purity of soul which dispose a person, insofar as it depends on him, to receive the graces of infused contemplation. In this "gift of prayer," as it is sometimes called, God's action, though imper-ceptible in itself, is powerful in its effects and may temporarily 358 November, 1957 PERSE~CERING IN PRAYER put an end to our ability to meditate discursively. The soul is reduced to a state which seems to be one of comparative inaction, weakness, and passivity. This is because God is taking the lead and the soul is willingly following Him. St. John of the Cross gives three signs by which the director may recognize the beginnings of passive union: impossibility of meditation, painful anxiety as to fervor, and dryness, wi~out consolation in God or in creatures. A soul accustomed to discursive prayer finds a most dis-concerting adaptation necessary when it arrives at the threshold of contemplative prayer. The main reason for the element of surprise is that we cannot possibly imagine ahead of time what the direct action of God will be like or what precise form the purification will take. Secondly, it is a fairly common, though unwarranted, assumption that the habit of prayer increases ac-cording to the familiar pattern of a purely natural habit. But there is this remarkable difference between the habit of prayer and, say, the habit of playing the piano. In the latter case, repetition breeds facility, the habit increasing in kind; whereas the unpredictable element of the supernatural in the habit of prayer allows for an otherwise unaccountable psychological phenomenon. Dom Chapman in one of his letters puts it most clearly: "Progress in prayer is not (1) from troublesome discursive meditation to easy contemplation of a beautiful thought; and from weak affections to fervent and strong affections, but (2) from easy discursive meditations to the impossibility of medi-tating at all (except by ceasing to pray), and from easily warmed affections to no affections at all--to aridity, that is, and to 'night.'" The paradoxical fact about meditation is that we expect it to become easier and easier~'and instead it becomes harder and harder, then "nauseous or impossible." Dom Chapman says in another letter, "Meditation is usually necessary in order to induce souls to love God and to give them-selves to Him. But at that point--when it begins to be reached 359 MOTHER MARIE VANDENBERGH Review for Religious --the power of meditation usually stops and something better begins." It is not our purpose here to analyze the ~something better," but to indicate the point at which there must be a radical change in our technique of prayer. That St. Ignatius envisaged the possiblity of such a transi-tion is evident in his F~xerc[s~s, pronouncedly in the contrast between Annotations IX and X. He presupposes knowledge of the different phases of prayer in his instructions to the director, though he includes nothing specific in regard to passive prayer in his instructions for the retreatant. The reason for this is primarily historical, for the Jesuit founder had been called up before the Spanish inquisitors two and three times to have his writings examined for teaching a false mysticism. In such cir-cumstances it was better not to put everything he knew into print. Secondarily, there is a reason for his reticence that to some extent still applies. This is simply that it is almighty God who decides when and if a soul is to enter upon the way of contempla-tion, and it is the director who decides whether or not this has actually been the case. St. Ignatius allows for the possibility of a soul's discontinuing discursive prayer in his instruction that it rests where it finds satisfaction. He expects the director to do the further instruction when the need arises. Naturally, a soul is not incapable of recognizing in itself the symptoms mentioned by St. John of the Cross. But no man is a good judge in his own case, and far too often wishful thinkers in the spiritual life have attributed to almighty God phenomena that were actually the natural products of their own faculties and pas-sions, the result, say, of insomnia or indigestion, or in some cases the work of the devil. Hence the need for solid guidance. In the text of the F~xercises, St. Ignatius divides the retreat into four ~weeks" which correspond roughly to the purgative (first week), illuminative (second and third weeks), and unitive (fourth week) ways so often mentioned by spiritual writers. He 360 November, 1957 PERSEYERING IN PRAYER makes a noteworthy distinction between the treatment to be ac-corded souls suited only for the meditations on the purpose of life, on sin, and on repentance customary in the first "week" and the treatment of souls capable of the greater service of God asked of them in the ensuing "weeks." He has two sets of "Rules for the Discernment of Spirits," applying to the age-old principles whereby the director decides if a soul is being influenced by the good or the evil spirit or by its own self. The rules for souls of the first-week category are rules for beginners in the spiritual life, i.e., either souls struggling to break with habits of mortal sin or innocent souls just learn-ing how to meditate. (Discursive meditation is good for both alike.) The rules for the second week are for the more pro-ficient. Their application extends indefinitely onward into the heights of union with God. This marked difference between the advice St. Ignatius would give beginners and the advice suitable to the more advanced shows plainly that the author of the Exercises took it for granted that the time would come when a radical change would take place in the soul's activity. In other words, he allows for the fact that discursive meditation in many cases develops into something very different, while taking into con-sideration the instances where it does not. "If Ithe retreatant] be a person who has been little versed in spiritual matters and . . if he betrays impediments to making further progress in the service of God our Lord . . . , then let not the person giving the Exercises converse with him upon the rules of the second week for discerning various spirits, because in the pro-portion that those of the first week will benefit him, those of the second will do him harm, because they contain matter too subtle and too high for him to understand" (Annotation IX). St. Ignatius never intended his methods to be set above the valid inspirations of grace, though some of his devotees have at times given that impression. His admonition, "It is 361 MOTHF~R MARIE VANDENBERGH Review for Religious not to know much, but to savor the matter interiorly that fills and satisfies the soul," certainly shows that he meant meditation to be used in such a manner as to pave the way for the simpli-fying process God so often undertakes in the prayer of the generous. A person who remembers this advice will find Igna-tian spirituality an excellent preparation for "the gift of prayer." By way of further example we might point out that a soul formed by the asceticism of St. Ignatius is told, when prayer is dry and disgusting, to prolong it somewhat beyond the usual space of time; when prayer is sweet and easy, to resist the temptation to linger longer. This discipline breeds the detach-ment from even spiritual delights and the perseverance through times of desolate prayer that are the necessary preparation for higher gifts of God. This teaching trains a soul not to give up when ~he going gets tough and, contrariwise, not to make sweetness or facility the criterion of its success in prayer, safely guiding it between the Scylla and Charybdis of its spiritual Odyssey. VI. Adapting the Exercises to the More Proficient Throughout the Exercises there is a noticeable progres-sion of thought, an ascending scale of higher and higher moti-vation, designed to overtake a soul at whatever point it has reached in its journey toward God and guide it further, as far as the grace of God permits. St. Ignatius, though unwilling to speak to beginners about the conduct of the more advanced, did not believe that an earnest soul who has made some progress should be allowed to think that there is no other sort of prayer possible except discursive meditation for "ordinary" Christians and mystical phe-nomena for the saints. This is a common misconception castigated by Father M. Eugene Boylan, O.C.S.C., in his practical little vol-ume, Difficulties in ~ental Prayer. Although St. Ignatius in Annotation XI exhorts the retreatant "so to toil in the first week as if he did not hope to obtain anything in the second," 362 November, 1957 PERSEVER,ING IN PRAYER he does not intend this to mean that a soul should be kept in ignorance of the fact that there is something further to attain, especially if he is generous in striving to correct his defects and to remove the obstacles to his further progress. The sign St. Ignatius gives as an indication to the director that it is safe to instruct a soul in the ways of more advanced spirituality is the discovery that the soul ~is assaulted and tempted under the semblance of good," because this is characteristic of a per-son who ~is exercising himself in the illuminative way" (Anno-tation X). Sometimes in the providence of God it is not very long before the neophyte needs to know what lies ahead for him. When a soul, then, has reached the degree of purity of life where its temptations are not of a ~gross and sensual nature," or when discursive meditation is ceasing for some legitimate reason to be profitable, it is time for him to learn what the future may hold in store. Then, if his prayer begins to dry up, there will be less danger that he will do himself harm by violent efforts to ~pray as I used to," not realizing that there can come a time when a person who says, ~I can no longer meditate," must learn to pray another way. What is the part to be played by methodical meditation during the confusing transition period when the soul is not as yet accustomed to its new role as patient rather than agent? Dom Chapman's advice at this point was always, ~Pray as you can and don't try to pray as you can't,t'' With some persons, the transition between discursive prayer and passive prayer is' abrupt. With others it is gradual, periods of passivity being interspersed with times when meditation is possible to some degree. There is likely to be danger of illusion in refusing to meditate when it becomes possible, even as there is danger in making violent efforts to meditate when it is not possible. Here one's early training in outlined meditation becomes very useful, for the safe course seems to be to make an initial try at medi-tation when beginning the time of prayer, but to rest content if the trial proves a failure. The habit of turning to a preo 363 MOTHER MARIE VANDENBERGH Review for Religious pared outline is a safeguard, in spite of the fact that more and more the method of "doing something" must be replaced by a method of ~doing nothing," of learning to take one's cues from God, God working within the sanctuary of the soul. Sometimes a soul finds it helpful to pray, as it were, by means of an attitude of soul, of humility, supplication, and self-oblation. For such a soul has received ~the call of the King," inviting those who wish to distinguish themselves ir~ God's service to follow their Lord in poverty and suffering. If a person cannot make the offering of himself and all he posses-ses to serve the kingdom of Christ, he obviously has neither the grace nor the capacity for the sacrifices necessary for further progress in the prayer life. If he has made the offering, he must be prepared to fulfill it literally; for, stripped of even the spiritual armor in which he trusted, he will suffer unbearably in the experience of his poverty in the sight of God. This, however, is the way God must treat a soul in order to make it pliant in His hands. When a person has learned how to remain tranquil under the direct action of God, he has learned how to pull in the oars of meditation-technique and let ,:he breath of the Spirit fill his sails. He has learned how to launch out into the deep. Let it be noted, though, that, if the soul may ~pull in the oars," it does not throw them away. As Father 1~. H. J. Steuart put it, "You don't tear down the staircase just because you have arrived at the top." Father Boylan makes the sage re-mark that we must have "the humility" to return to discursive prayer when the facility for it is restored. In many an instance the course grace takes after passive stages have done their work is to restore the discursive ability in combination with the infused contemplation that is the fruit of the purification the soul has undergone. It would be a tempting digression to go more into detail in regard to the rules for discerning spirits, but that would be beyond the scope of this article which set out to be no 364 November, 1957 PERSEVERING IN PRAYER more than a general survey. The point we have tried to em-phasize is that in the text of the Exercises can be found the evidence that St. Ignatius, though he teaches methodical prayer, by no means intended to limit souls to it if they were drawn by God to something simpler. He definitely planned the F~xercises to prepare and dispose a soul to find more quickly the will of God in its own regard--and devotion to the will of God is one of the marks of a contemplative soul. There are references in rules 2 and 8 of the second week to "consolation without any preceding cause" as being the work of God par excellence in the soul. There follow warn-ings against pseudo-consolation inspired by the devil and the illusions of auto-suggestion apt to follow upon actual and God-sent "consolation." These show how familiar St. Ignatius was--and how familiar he expected the director to be--with the hazards attendant upon even the most legitimate graces of infused prayer. Without doubt, Ignatian spirituality, rightly understood, is designed to prepare a soul for God's direct action, protect it during the dangers of the transition period, and safeguard it from illusion when it has accustomed itself to surrender to the will of God. Mother Marie Aimee Lautier, superior general of the Cenacle for nearly fifty years, stressed the function of prayer in our "mixed" vocation as "contemplative in action." "Masters of the spiritual life," she wrote, "teach that the soul called to perfection, after being exercised in the exterior practice of charity, is drawn by the contemplation of divine things to an interior conversion and purification, so that being wholly en-kindled and burning with divine love, it is impelled anew by the strength of this love towards creatures in order to give them of its fullness: 'The love of Christ impels us' (II Cor. 5:14). "Its charity, then, is quite different from what it was at the beginning; and its zeal which at first was the auxiliary of natural activity now becomes the disinterested fruit of love." 365 BOOK REVIEWS Review for Religious This same holy religious exhorted her daughters, "Ask for this precious gift [of prayer]; we must prepare ourselves to receive it, and we must await it with confidence. It is the gift par excellence of our vocation." Of course, the Cenacle tlas no monopoly on it. We are grateful, though, to have the strong guidance of St. Ignatius to help us achieve our goal. Book Reviews [Material for this department should be sent to Book Review Editor, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, West Baden College, West Baden Springs, Indiana.] THE FIRST JESUIT, ST. IGNATIUS LOYOLA. By Mary Purcell. Pp. 417. The Newman Press, Westminster, Maryland. 1957. 5.oo. In her preface to this delightful life of St. Ignatius, Miss Purcell says that if he were better known, he would be better loved and oftener invoked. Her own efforts are no small contribution to this happy con-summation. Too often St. Ignatius has been presented to us in the guise of what Father La Farge, in his forward, calls "a glorified efficiency expert," with the result that the lovable qualities of the saint are frequently overlooked, thus leaving him in these later days a figure more feared and admired than loved. "It is interesting to note," writes Miss Purcell, "how many people in so many different walks of life 'become fond of Inigo.' He seems to have had an easy and spontaneous manner, a nature that led him to make friends quickly. In the places where he lived, people soon got to know of him . He had an extraordinary flair for knowing exactly which ap-proach would win the heart of the particular individual or group he was contacting at any given time. And 'When he gazed at one,' writes a contemporary, 'while his conversation was benign, his eyes seemed to pierce the heart, to see all; conversing with him only once, you felt that he knew you through and through.' " It would seem that the reaction has well begun; and future biographers, taking their cue from writers like PSre Dudon, Father Brodrick, and Miss Purcell, will in the future give us an Ignatius 366 November, 1957 BOOK REVIEWS who, besides being a founder and a general, is also a fellow-pilgrim and a father. A preliminary glance at the bibliography might suggest that Miss Purcell has undertaken to write something more than a merely popular life of St. Ignatius, and the reader will not have gone very far before he realizes that there is a great deal of scholarship to it; and once he gets himself tangled up in the notes at the end of the volume, he won't have any doubt about it. Miss Purcell has gone to original sources, some of which may have been within easy reach, like the seventy-seven volumes of the ~lonumenta llistorica Societatis Jesu. But others must have been farther removed, like the diaries of the pilgrims who accompanied Inigo on his pilgrimage to Jeru-salem or about his time made pilgrimages of their own. There is a very thorough treatment of the Irish mission of Fathers Broet and Salmeron, but this reviewer feels that Miss Purcell is too sweeping when she calls it the only complete failure in the life of Ignatius. After all, they were not missionaries bent on the conversion of a pagan land. They were papal nuncios. They came, they saw, they returned. Uoila! Since they were papal nuncios, we might have wished that their visitation had been carried on with a little more leisure and something of the ceremonial becoming their exalted rank. But they knew they were putting their heads into the lion's mouth, even if St. Ignatius thought that Ireland was another Guipuzcoa when in fact it was what we should call today hardly more than a satellite state. The very fact that they survived, surveyed conditions, and escaped with their lives to make their report is by itself a considerable achievement and deserves to be regarded as some measure of success. Some readers will be very sceptical about accepting one or other of Miss Purcell's conclusions, for instance, that Inigo was "barely five feet tall" and that he was "red-headed." Consulting the sources given I can find none that warrants such a conclusion. He is described as being of "medium height" or "a little below medium." Barely five feet would place him in the under-sized class completely. One wonders how a man of such small proportions (even remember-ing Napoleon) could hope for any notable success in the use of arms on battlefield or jousting court, or expect to play Amadis to any Oriana. Yet we know that Inigo, the caballero, made no bones about aiming at glorious successes in both instances. 367 BOOK REVIEWS Review for Religious There is a text in the Monumenta which refers to the caput aereum, and although the term occurs twice in the same paragraph, the editors of the hlonumenta seem to be convinced that aereunt should be cor-rected to cereum, since it evidently refers to the wax effigy which was taken from the death-mask. His complexion seems to have been what we should today call blond verging on ruddy. Juan Pascual, who described him as he remembered meeting him on his way down from Montserrat, wrote of him as being "'no molt alt, pero blanc j ros, j de molt bona cara" (p. 83), which is the Catalan for "medium height, fair complexion, and handsome." Occasionally Miss Purcell is a bit unguarded and leaves herself open to misinterpretation, as when she says: "One cannot think of Ignatius of Loyola limping a little at times as he trudges from Rome out to Monte Cassino to give the Exercises to Dr. Ortiz and back again to see how Cardinal Contarini is faring in his contemplations, without recalling a veritable litany of great names . " The reader is not always ready to interpose a month or more between these two excursions; and, while Miss Purcell of course knows better, this sentence can easily give the the untraveled reader the impression that Monte Cassino is one of the outlying hills of Rome and that St. Ignatius was giving the Exercises simultaneously, but separately, to these two veritably great men, Pedro Ortiz and Cardinal Contarini. We do know that once he had three exercitants in retreat simul-taneously in different parts of Rome, a task which obliged him daily to trudge practically the periphery of the city, "limping a little," not only at times, but every step of the way. Limitations of space may be responsible for other false impres-sions as that in St. Ignatius's dealing with Father Simon Rodrigues, whom he did not threaten with "excommunication," or even dismissal, although he was fully prepared to proceed to this latter extreme if Rodrigues persisted in his refusal to leave Portugal and come to Rome, as his Father General had begged him to do in letter after letter. But, then, Miss Purcell did not write this book for specialists. She has given us a delightful picture of St. Ignatius, but an in-complete one. In fact, who would ever think of making it complete? For what she has given us we should be deeply grateful. The points here adversely touched upon are minor indeed and do not in the least impair the picture that is actually presented. The reader is 368 November, 1957 ~OOK REVIEWS given a fair and unbroken page to examine, typographically speaking; but he pays for this satisfaction in the added labor of tracking down references. But Miss Purcell's publisher is to blame for that; and, after all, it is for the most part only rugged reviewers or determined researchers who will have to bear that burden. Their growling should not be taken as an attempt to bite.--WH,LI,.\.x~ J. Youxc,, S.J. A WOMAN OF UNITY. By Sister Mary Celine, S.A. Pp 357. Franciscan Sisters of the Atonement, Graymoor, Garrison, New York. 1956. $4.50. A Woman of Unity tells the story of Mother Lurana of Gray-moor. The career of this "remarkable woman" is traced through her childhood, her searchings as a young woman for a life of perfect poverty in Anglican communities, her founding of Graymoor with Father Paul Francis, her reception into the Church with her com-munity in 1909, and her direction of the Society of the Atonement in her mature years. Mother Lurana is an inspiring personality; and in these days, when church unity is talked of more seriously than at any time since the Protestant Revolt, her life and vocation are of especial significance. It is most interesting to read of the humble beginnings of the Chair of Unity Octave at Graymoor during Mother Lurana's Anglican days and also to know of her dissatisfaction even then with the Anglican position on the unity and leadership of the Church: "In legislative bodies not so much as a committee of three can discharge its functions, unless one of the three presides in the chair of unity. It is a futile dream to contemplate a united Church on earth without a visible head. If every parish must have its rector, and every diocese its bishop, and every province its archbishop, how could the whole Catholic Church throughout the world exist as one fold without having one supreme or chief shepherd over all?" Mother Lurana conceived her life's task and the task of her society to be that of "repairer of the breach," to use one of her favorite ways of expressing her vocation to work for church unity. Sister Mary Celine, a member of Mother Lurana's community who knew her personally, has faithfully reconstructed her story from letters, official documents, and personal recollections. The biography proceeds in clear and chronogical sequences, and Mother Lurana is given ample opportunity to speak for herself in letters and exhorta-tations to the community. Sister Mary Celine brings the reader into the Graymoor community to share the joys and sorrows of the mother 369 BOOK REVIEWS Review for Religious foundress and the pioneer nuns. The book, however, has a tone reminiscent of the sweet and moralizing hagiography popular in an earlier day, a tone to this reviewer somewhat distasteful, and abounds in phrases and reflections which seem a little worn. On the other hand, even though in the pages of A Woman of Unity Mother Lurana loses a trifle of the vibrant humanity which must have been hers, she clearly has aroused in her biographer and all her religious daughters an admiration which is at once warm and contagious. As a matter of fact, it is difficult to see how anyone who knew her could help but admire the courage and spirit of this woman who braved all in order to lead others to the Chair of Unity. --JOHN W. O'~IALLEY, THE WORD OF SALVATION. Translation and Explanation of I. The Gospel According to St. Matthew by Alfred Durand, S.J., and II. The Gospel According to St. Mark by Joseph Huby, S.J. Translated into English by John J. Heenan, S.J. Pp. 937. The Bruce Publishing Company, Milwaukee 1, Wis. consin. 1957. $12.50. A translation of the famous Verbum Salutis series has been long overdue. Father Heenan is to be congratulated for making two of the volumes of this popular commentary available to English-speak-ing Catholics. The English version of both text and commentary is fortunately unabridged, and the translator has thoughtfully added a handy index for each Gospel. Father Heenan has preferred to reproduce the text of the Gospels with an eye to the French rather than to follow strictly any one of the standard English versions. But the words of the Gospel flow at least as smoothly as they do in the Confra-ternity edition, and to many they will have a more familiar ring. Some may be disconcerted by the alternation of you and thou in the text. However, the former is used consistently for the plural; and it seems that Father Heenan wisely opted for accuracy in this instance as in all other respects, since the main feature of the book is the commentary which closely follows the translation of the gospel text. The style of the English commentary follows the French quite well: simple, direct, concise, with occasional fluent passages. As for content, technical discussions are limited to a bit more than the minimum 370 November, 1957 ]lOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS claimed by the authors, but will prove to be of interest even to the layman in biblical studies. It should be noted that these few learned asides are written in non-technical language and can easily be handled by the average intelligent reader. They serve, too, to undergird what might otherwise be considered a pious commentary with little basis in historical fact. One cannot ignore history if one seeks a fuller understanding of the words of Christ. The Savior became incarnate for all men, but taught and toiled primarily for the lost sheep of the House of Israel. It was in their language, thought-patterns, and history that He voiced the Word of Salvation. This volume will go far to re-create for the preacher, student, and religious the atmosphere of the Gospel and its interpretation throughout the course of Christian tradition. It will be quite help-ful to those who prefer spiritual reading and meditation material which is more directly in touch with the words of the Gospel than is usually the case in a "life of Christ." The text and commentary are neatly divided into sections averaging about six pages of com-mentary for every five of ten verses of text. The apologetic value of the work should not be overlooked by teachers of high school and college. Father Smith Instructs Jackson, for all its merits, is often completely unacceptable to the college student or to the prospective convert whose chief difficulties lie in understanding the paradoxical words of Christ Himself. In this connection, Sodality study clubs (at least on the high school senior level) might use the Word of Salva-tion with much profit. May this excellent work see even more editions than its French original. It is to be hoped that the companion volume (Luke and John) will appear shortly.--CH.~RI, ES H. (~J~L~X', S.J. 8OOK ANNOUNCI:MI:NT$ THE BRUCE PUBLISHING COMPANY, 400 North Broadway, Milwaukee 1, Wisconsin. De Ordine. Tom. I. De Institutione. By Emmanuel Doronzo, O.M.I. Priests and seminarians will certainly want to read this monumental Latin work on the sacrament of orders. This first volume of more than a thousand large, closely printed pages begins with an eighty-two page introduction to the whole treatise which is to consist of seven chapters. The introduction is followed by the first chapter 371 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS Review for Religious which takes up all the remaining pages. This chapter is divided into three articles: the first on the existence of orders; the second on the sacramental nature of orders; and the last on the three grades of orders. There are exceptionally complete bibliographies and indices. The work gives promise in this first volume of being even more exhaustive than the author's justly renowned work on the sacrament of penance. Pp. 962 ~- 41. $19.00. Canon Law Digest. Annual Supplement Through 1956. By Lincoln T. Bouscaran, S.J., and James I. O'Connor, S.J. $1.75. CARMELITE SISTERS, Santa Teresita Hospital, Duarte, Calif. The Doctor's Widow. By William M. Queen. This is the first biography of Mother Maria Luisa Josefa of the Most Blessed Sacra-ment, foundress of the Discalced Carmelite Sisters of the Third Order. This congregation was born at the turn of the century and has two provinces, one in Mexico, the land of its birth, the other in California. Its expansion to California was one of God's ways of drawing good out of the evil of the persecution of the Church in Mexico. This inspiring book will be of interest to both religious and lay women since Mother Josefa was an exemplary wife before she became a religious. Pp 127. Cloth $1.00. The Soul's Elevation, by a Discalced Carmelite Father, a master of novices, is a meditation book for religious. In the introduction we find an explanation of meditation in which the author outlines both the Ignatian and the Sulpician methods. There is also a brief outline of prayer in general. In Part I there are eight meditations on the four last things. Part II contains nine meditations on the gifts of God to man. Part III devotes eight meditations to the Passion of our Lord. Part IV consists of three considerations on Holy Communion. There is also an appendix which contains "Mirror of the Good Religious" and meditations for the day of investiture, of first vows, of final vows, and of jubilee. Pp. 94. Paper $1.00. GRAIL PUBLICATIONS, St. Meinrad,Indiana. Follow Christ. No 18. This largepamphlet on vocation to the priesthood and the religious life, profusely illustrated with excellent photographs, deserves wide distribution. In it the questions which eighth grade boys and girls of today are actually asking about the important topic of vocation are answered by experts. It 372 November, 1957 [~OOK ANNOUNCEMENTS contains much information about seminaries and many religious orders and congregations for both men and women. Pp. 134. $0.75. SHEED AND WARD, 840 Broadway, New York 3, New York. Terrible Farmer Timson and Other Stories. By Caryll House-lander. Pictures by Renee George. Here are twelve stories for children which first appeared in The Children's Messenger of Lon-don, England. Children will be pleased with them and learn 'some very profitable truths without pain or effort. Pp. 152. $2.50. Soeur Angele and the Bell Ringer's Niece. By Henri Catalan. This is the third detective story by the author in which a Sister of Charity appears in the role of detective, and she does so without derogating in any way from her role as religious. The setting and characters are typically French. Pp. 179. $2.50. SISTERS OF ST. FRANCIS, Mount Alvernia, Pittsburgh 9, Penn-sylvania. As a Living Oak. Biography of Mother Baptista Etzel, O.S.F. By Sister Mary Aurelia Arenth, O.S.F. There should be more, many more biographies of the men and women who have rendered out-standing service to God and religion. Such biographies would extend the sphere of influence for good which they exercised while living to the men and women of ~he present generation. We have the material; what seems to be lacking are authors to put it to good use. Hence we welcome the present biography with a great deal of satisfaction. It is the biography of Mother Baptista who was one of the pioneers of the Franciscan Sisters in Pennsylvania, and their third mother superior. That so many of the hardships of the pioneer days are now a matter of history for this congregation and that their sphere of influence has been so greatly enlarged is due very largely to her courage, vision, and fortitude. May this biography inspire many more souls to follow where she led; may it also inspire authors to gather material from the same fertile field, the pioneer religious in the United States. Pp. 133. $3.00. SISTERS OF THE GOOD SAMARITAN, St. Scholastica's, Glebe Point, Australia. The Wheeling Years. The Sisters of the Good Samaritan. 1857. 1957. Faith and reason prove the providence of God for His crea-tion. History illustrates it for the discerning reader. In The Wheel- 373 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS ing Years we have such an illustration. The book, made more graphic with drawings and many photographs, recounts the story of the foundation in Sydney, Australia, of the Sisters of the Good Samaritan just one hundred years ago. It tells the story of the first difficult years and their subsequent growth. Houses of the congregation are now found in the whole length and breadth of the island continent. This new congregation adapted the rule of St. Benedict to the needs and requirements of life on a continent at that time rapidly growing to the stature of a new nation. In this centenary publication we also find an account of their spirit, the training imparted to their members, and the work that they do for the glory of God and the salvation of souls. Despite the many demands made on them at home, they have not been deaf to the call of the missions and have two foundations in Japan. We join with these sisters in thanking God for the innumerable graces of the past one hundred years. SOCIETY OF ST. PAUL, 2187 Victory Boulevard, Staten Island 14, New York. Holy Mass and Life. By Aloysius Biskupek, S.V.D. "The more the significance of the Mass is understood, and the more its power is used for the realization of the ideal Christian living, the more holiness there will be among the faithful." With these words the author sums up his book in the final chapter titled Conclusion. To offer adequate means to the faithful to attain this end was the motive which guided his pen. His explanations are clear, his exhortations persuasive, and his meditations on the unchanging prayers of the Mass even priests who have said Mass for many years would find helpful. There are twenty-three full page photographs of a priest at various parts of the Mass. Pp. 189. $2.50. 374 ( uestdons and Answers [The following answers are given by Father Joseph F. Gallen, S.J., professor of canon law at Woodstock College, Woodstock, Maryland.] Why has the REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS emphasized so frequently the simplification of the habit of religious women? The articles and statements in the R.EVIEW have been mere ex-planations of the principles of Plus XII and the Roman congregations. They have been relatively conservative, as may be seen from some of the following quotations. "The first is that of particular observances. Each of these, even the most material, should bear at least indirectly on the sanctification of the religious. We find a characteristic example in the habit. It is certain that in itself, especially as regards form or color, it contributes very little to the perfection of charity. Nevertheless, it places the re: ligious in a state of separation which is visible to the world and sym-bolizes and favors that interior separation which is the first step of the soul in search of God" (Dora Basset, O.S.B., Religious Sisters. 87). "When the different religious habits were adopted by the founders, they resembled the dress of the poor people of the period. Today a habit is required that helps the body, not one that embarrasses it; it should be practical, simple. A long habit and a simple veil are always graceful and becoming. They offer many practical advantages and are in perfect keeping with modesty and with religious consecration. In order that in our day the religious habit may keep its aesthetic appeal and its character of poverty together with its attractive symbolism of consecration, it would suffice to simplify it. It would thus become more practical, fewer pleats, narrower sleeves, less pretentious coifs and cornettes" (Reverend Victor de la Vierge, O.C.D., ibid., 272-73). "The choice of religious habits for each order was not necessarily motivated by rules of hygiene but frequently by contemporary usage and certain principles of mortification and decency. In recent years a number of religious habits have undergone simplification and a wholesome process of alleviation. Still, it must be recognized that many remain far from healthy either on account of weight (some 375 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Review for Religion, s weigh as much as fifteen pounds), or of difficulty of washing, or of headdresses and winged coifs worn tightly around the head and fore-head" (Sister Germaine Marie, Ckastity, 252). "It is simply not permissible that religious should pay more for their clothing than people of the world. There are habits that have become simply impossible with regard to both health and work, and some have become ridiculous and endanger the acceptance of a voca-tion" lMost Reverend A. Ancel, deta et Documenta (~'on.qressus (;en-eralis de Statibus Perfectionis, I, 381). '~In general, the people approve simplicity and practicality. In those consecrated to God, they desire a habit that is serious, but not eccentric, clean but not ostentatious. Therefore they cannot compre-hend today some religious habits, for example, of some sisters. The eccentricity and at times the awkwardness of their headdress is really incomprehensible. One cannot grasp the purpose of those yards of material in folds and pleats, of the starched cloth that makes the imprisoned face look like a mask, of an obstructive and ridiculous headcovering" (Reverend G. Amorth, S.S.P., ibid., I, 308-09). "Dear Father, many, very many of us are one hundred per cent in agreement with you. Please keep pushing, pushing, pushing and talking, talking, talking until results are obtained. It isn't our fault that we must wear the ridiculously conspicuous and unsuitable out-tits we do. We would be eternally grateful to you if you could do anything to hasten our release from these swaddling bands, this en-casement of the face, the starch, ruffles, pleats, quantity of cloth, number of articles of clothing, the many pins which relentlessly stick our fingers and neck, the dangling, rustling rosary which catches into everything, gets caught in train and bus seats, and is forever break-ing into a dozen pieces and constantly in the repair shop. The Blessed Mother did not make herself conspicuous by adopting a singular mode of dress; she conformed to the style of her day. Religious men when working wear suitable clothes, and neither do they have their heads all bundled up. Give me a habit which is extremely simple, suitable in color and for work, and something that can be thrown into a wash-ing machine and washed at least once a week the way common sense and decency demand. Deliver me from this intricate and unwieldy headdress whose weight and pressure cause so many headaches, eye troubles, sinus troubles, and many nervous troubles as well as adverse comments" (,1 communication from a sister on the missions). 376 Nove~nber, 1957 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 35- Will you please give a bibliography on renovation and adaptation? The primary sources are the statements of Pope Pius XII and the Roman congregations. These were given in the REV[E\V FOR RF.LI(;IOUS, 14-1955-3-11; 85-92; 123-38; 15-1956-309-27. The acts and documents of the first general congress on the states of perfection, held in Rome in 1950, are next in importance. They have been published in four volumes by the Edizioni Paoline under the title of Acta et Documenta Congressus Generalis de Statibus Per-fectionis. Many of the articles of these volumes are in Latin, French, Italian, other modern languages, but very few in English. The next place must be given to other Roman meetings, which can be found in the following works: Acta et Documenta Congressus Internationalis Superiorissarum Generalium; Atti e Documenti del Primo Convegno Internazionale delle Religiose Educatrici; Atti e Documenti del Primo Convegno delle Religiose Rieducatrici, all pub-lished by Edizioni Paoline. In the fourth place are the acts and documents of the various na-tional congresses, e. g., that held for the United States at the University of Notre Dame and published by the Paulist Press in separate volumes for the sisters' and men's sections under the title, Religious Community Life in the United States. The English congress has been published by the Salesian Press under the title, Religious Life Today. In the order of practicality, the next place must be given to the Religious Life Series. These are translations from the French published by the Newman Press and Blackfriars. The volumes that have been translated and published are Religious Sisters, Vocation, Poverty, Chas-tity, Obedience, Doctrinal Instruction of Religious Sisters, and The Direction of Nuns. The volume on common life, La Vie Commune, published in French by Les Editions du Cerf, has not as yet been translated. Again in the order of practicality, the next place is given to Eng-lish works and articles, e. g., The Mind of the Church in the Forma-tion of Sisters, published by Fordham University Press; the Sister Formation Bulletin, published at Marycrest College, Davenport, Iowa; and articles in the l~EVl~.W FOR REL[C, mUS, e. g., 8-1949-86-96; 9-1950- 131-39; 10-1951-75-81; 12-1953-252-72;12-1953-285-90; 12-1953-291-304; 13-1954-13-27; 13-1954-87-92; 13-1954-125-37; 13-1954-169-78; 14-1955- 205-15; 14-1955-293-318; 16-1957-3-9. 377 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Review for Religious A really great source in quantity and quality of thoughts on reno-vation and adaptation will be found in the French periodical, La Vie Spirituelle and its Supplement, from 1946. Many modern spiritual books, especially in French, are affected by the movement and contribute to it. Our work the essentials, included, why the customary is a prayer. Therefore, why not get along with just Mass and Holy Communion? If meditation must be not make a good fifteen-minute meditation rather than one of a half hour? Work is not infallibly nor by any means always a prayer, and it is rarely a prayer in those who do not give sufficient time to formal prayer. The regime of prayer you favor is that of a devout person of the world, not of a religious who professes to be striving for sanctity. The prayer in the religious life must be of a duration and quality sufficient and capable of inspiring and developing a really saintly life. Some words of Plus XII can also be pondered. "However, We cannot refrain from giving utterance to Our solici-tude and anxiety for those who, because of the special circumstances of the times, have lost themselves so completely in a maze of external activities that they have forgotten the first duty of priests, namely, that of securing their own personal sanctification. We have already publicly proclaimed that those so rash as to hold that salvation can be brougl'~t to men by what has been aptly termed the 'heresy of activity' are to be brought back to the right path. We refer to that kind of activity which is not based on divine grace and does not make constant use of the aids provided by Jesus Christ for the attainment of holiness." "With the growth of devotion to exterior works therefore, let there shine forth a corresponding increase in faith, in the life of prayer, in zealous consecration of self and talents to God, in spotless purity of conscience, in obedience, in patient endurance of hardship, and in active charity tirelessly expended for God and one's neighbor. The Church insistently demands of you that your external wor

Issue 6.2 of the Review for Religious, 1947. ; ¯ Revi ew for Religious MARCH 15, 194Y Gifts to Reficjious--I ¯ ¯ ¯ ~. . Adam C. Ellis The Rosary and th~ Will of God . T. N. ~Jorge.se. Effects of Holy Communion on the Body c.A. Herb~st Difficulties in Meditation--Ii . G. Augustine Ellard Subjective Sin . . . Gerald Kelly Communicatioris Book Reviews Questions Answered Decisions of the Holy See VOLU~E VI ' ~ NUMBER '2 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS VOLUME VI MARCH, 1947 NUMBER 2 ' "¢ ' CONTENTS GIFTS TO RELIGIO.US--I. THE SIMPLE VOW OF POVERTY-- Adam C. Ellis, S.J . , 65 DECISIONS OF THE ~tOLYSEE' . 80 THE ROSARY AND THE WILL OF GOD--T. N. Jorgensen, S.J. 81 PAMPHLETS AND BOOKLETS . 88" THE EFFECTS OF HOLY COMMUNION ON THE BODY-- C. A, He_rbst, S.J . ; . 89 OUR CONTRIBUTORS . ' . 9~7 ¯ DIFFICULTIES IN MEDITATION---II~. Augustine Ellard, S.J . 98 ~ COMMUNICATIONS . 10 9 SUBJECTIVE SIN~erald Kelly, S.J . 114 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 8. Authority to Change Rule or Custom and to Refuse Visiting Per-missions . , 1,20 9. Workingmen's Indult Applied to Lay Brothers . 121 10. Tipping Pullman and Dining Car Attendants . ¯ ~12i BOOK REVIEWS~ Speaking of Angels; Send Forth Thy Light; Christianity; The Fair Flower of Eden; Our Lady of Sorrows; Ursuline Method of Education 12Y BOOK NOTICES . 127 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, March, .1947. Vol. VI, No. 2. Published bi-monthly: January, March, May, July, September, and November at the College Press, 606 Harrison Street, Topeka, Kansas, by St. Mary's COllege, St. Marys, Kansas, with ecclesiastical approbation. Entered as second class mat[er January 15, 1942, at the Post Office, Topeka, Kansas, under the act of March 3, 1879. Editorial Board: Adam C. Ellis, S.J., G. Augustine Ellard, S.J., Gerald Kelly, S.J. Editorial Secretary: Alfred F. Schneider, S.J. Copyright, 1947, by Adam C. Ellis. Permission is hereby granted for quotations of reasonable length, provided due~ credit be given this review and the author. \ Subscription price: 2 dollars a year. Printed in U. S. A. Before writing to us, please consult notice on inside back cover. if s' toReligious Ad~im C. Ellis I. The Simple Vow of Poverfy [EDITORS' NOTE: Gifts to religious have/~presented rfiany problems froth to supe-riors and t,,o, subjects, as is evident from the numerous questions we have-received. Hence it was tho~ight desirable to give our readers a statement of sound practical principles ~,hich will help both superiors and subjects to solve such problems as they arise. Before establishing practical p~inciples it will be useful if not necessary0 to havea clear understanding of the obligations which are binding upon religious when t, here is question of the acceptance and~use of gifts. Articles. therefore_, will be published on t~he following ,sabjects: I. The~simple vow of poverty: II. Com.- moil life and peculium: III. Practical principles regarding' gifts to religious. ] Distinction obet~een the ,Simplq and the "Solemn Vow of Poverty. IN GENERAL, the difference between a s61emn vow and a simple vow is one which arises entirely from the will 6f the Church; ~for there is nothing intrinsic in the notion of a vow to warrant such a distinction. Two facts ~stablished by th, e la~of the ffhurch explain thisdistinction as it now exists: (1) ,A religious who has-taken a solemn vow 6t: poverty loses:his-right to, own property, and hence cannot acquire property after he:: has, taken, the solemn, vow; whereas,~he religious who has t~i'ken a simple vow of pov-erty retains hih right to the ownership o,f propetty already possessed at the time of his.profession, as well as the right to acquire more personal property ~ifter profession, (c: 580; ~,§~1). (2) The solemn vow of poverty makes-all contrary" acts invalid, whereas the simple vow of poverty general1)" makes cdntrary acts illicit but not invalid (c. 5 .79.). A religious who h~s taken a solemfl vow of poverty is no 19nger c~pable of acquiring anything for himself; hence everything that comes to him even by way of persor~al gift he acquires for his o~der (canon 582). Hence there will be 65 ADAM C. ELIolS Review for Religious no problem aris~ing from the vow in regard to per~sonai gifts to~' the: rellglous wlt~ a solemn vow 0f poverty. They are simply turned ~ver to his order. In this exp6sitign, there-for~, we shall confine ourselves to the simpl~ vow. of poo-ertti. The Simple Vow of Povertti ~, ,Although it is true, a~ stated above, that a rtligious kvho has taken a simple vow of poverty retains' his right toown-erihii~ of propdrty possess.e,d at.the time, and also retains the capacity tO acquire more pe, rsonal property,, still he restrict~ed in the use and disposition o'~fsuch pi0pe~rtyl~he vb~2 he has taken, as well as by the laws of the Church enacted to_ safeguard°thiS ;cow.° .Both the vow.itself and the laws of the. Church made to'safeguard it must be considered ih order to have a fomplete, picture of the o~imple vo~ of. poverty. Definition.of thb Simple Vow (~ne hundred years ago Popd Pius IX defined the obliga-tion involved in the simple ,vow of poverty' of religious'as follows: "'The vow of povertg which- the Sisters,take con- ~ists in this that the~ are deprived of the right;to freelti~ d~s'- pose of antithing'~" (Apostolic Letter; Quam ~maxima, No-vember 13,, 18~y') ~., ~his ~definition has.bedn" retained and. consistently adhered to by t~e S. Congregation in approving" cons'titutions"shbmi__tted to the Holy See. °Th~S in the N6rmae of 1901 undei art: 1i3, ,we read: "'Bti the'simple vow of pover~ti th~ "Sisters renounce the right tO' tawfutlti dispose of anti t, emporal thing without th~ ~.permissibh of the lawful s--uperioL'; We, shall come'back to a study of the definition of the simple vow of pove.r~y after~, we have con-sidered ,the legislation o.f the Church on th.e ,s~ubjeq,t, since-such legislation throws.much light on the m.e.a__ning of ~this 66 March, 1947' ~ THE SIMPLE Vow oF POVERTY ~,:~ O?igin of Congreg.ations with Simple, Vbws~ ~ Fob many c~nturies the Church considered solemn Vows .as a requisite for the religious life., "Time an~ again¯ the Popes insisted that all thffse p~rsgns who ~with the permis-sion of, the local ~rd~nary ~had joined togetherto live~a life in common with simple vows must either, take solemn vows ~nd Observe p~apal effclosure or cease to receive n6vice~, and t~us die but. Howe~er; frffm the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries certai~n popes~appyoved a number of,institutes of religio~ men ~who h~d only simple vows. The obligations arising from these vows were determined by private legisla~ tion fg~r each particula~ institute~ ~ ~ .- ".During'~ the- eighteenth century, ,the Popes. gradually began to tolerate (in, the technical se'nse), a~d then finally approoe~congregations of~religious, wo~en with simple vo~s. ~hese simple vows also-were, regul~ted~.by private legislayion for each respecfige institute. The~e. was~ no. gen-eral: legislation: for the simple vo~ 'o~ povert~ ~ that time. The only legislation of a papal character, that gpplied, to the simple vow of poverty was contained in an occasional rescript given to one or.a~0th~r of t~e approve~ institfites. ,. ~Legf~(~tiOn Regafdmg the Simple Vo~ . On March 19, 1857, by the encyclical, letter Ne~inem latet of the recently gstablisbed S. Congregation regarding the State of Regulars, Pius IX pr¢scribed that in all orders of men all novices should take simple vows for a period of at least three years, before being admitted ,tOsolemfi vows, A year-later the same" S. Congregation issued~ declaration regarding these simple vo~s. Though given~ origiffally to the Master General 6f the Order of Pr~acher~ in answerto a number of questions proposed, this declaration, dated June 12, 1858, was soon extended to other religious orders on request and becam~ the established policy of the Holy See 67 ADAM C. ELLIS. Review [o~ Religious reg~irding simple vows taken as a preparation for the solemn. vows. The.part of the text pertinent to thd. simple.vow of poverty runs ~s follows: Document I IX. (l)! The professed of ~simple Vows may retain the bate ownership (dom, inium radicale) as it is called, of their_property, but the administration, spqnding ofincome, and use of their property is absolutely_forbidden to them. (2) Hence, before tl~e profession Of their .simple vows, they.anust, for the entire time during.which they Will be bound by siinple vows, cede the-administration, the usufruct, and use to whomsoever' they please, even to their order,, should they freely choose to do so . The Council of Trent had required that a novice was. to give away all Bis property before taking solemn vows. This was to be done only within tw~ months of the solemn profession. With the~introdt~ction of .simple vows as a preparation.for~olemn vows, the question arose as to when _,this ~enunciation was'to be made. The S. Congre.gation ~egardinl~ the State "of Regulars answere~l the .question on August 1, 1862, as follows: Document II In an audlence hdd August 1, 1862, His Holiness stated and determined by his apostolic authority that the renunciation referred to in chapter" 1-6, session 25 of the Council of Trent, should take place on the part of the ~rofess~d of simple vows within two m6nths, ~receding the profession of'solemn vows, all thin'gs to the contrary notwithstanding. The above formulae applied onlyto orders ot: then. A formula similar to Document I above was introduced into ~the constitutions of congregations of both men and' womem with simp(e vows only: and Since Msgr. Andrew Bizzarri (later Cardinal) was secretary of,the .Congregation" at the~ time and was considered to be the author of this particular legislation, it ~ame to be known as.the/:orroula~Bizzarriana. Htali(s as well as divisional numbers used in these documents are the author's. 68 March,J94.7 ~ , THE SIMPLE VOW OF POVERTY We'shall hereafter call it "Bizzarri's formulary." Here is a g~pical copy "of its text, taken from a set oOcof n;s 'tl t"u t'lons appr6ved by~ t~e SI ,Congregation of Bishops and Regular~ 6n3uly 12, 1861: -. " " ~ Docum;nt III, ,Animadversions: N. 8. Regarding the vow of p0v~rty the fol~ lowing &sposltmn has been prescribed by the Holy See .for some.of these institutes- (of simple vows) : . .(1) The professed may retain the.bare ownership, as ~t ~s called: of their .p'rdp'ert~; but~ the~ administration!~ spending of~ income, and i~se'~of 4hei~ ~prop~ert~ , i~,~,absolutelg forbidden-to them as long as.they rehaaifi in,the institute. (2) Hefi~e, ~before profession they must cede. even privately, the administration, and use to whomsoever they please, even~to their own institute should they. freely choose to do so.~ (3) This cession, however,, will no longer have'any force in case they leave the institute. (4) A condition may~ be attached stating that th'ecessioh.is revocableat.any time even though.they per-severe in the institute:; but as long as :they,h're bound by vows the professed~0may not in.conscience u.~e .this "right of revocation without the permission of the Holy See. (5) They may, however,~dispo.se of their ownership eithey by way of last will and testament, qr, with .the superi.gr gen.eral's~ permission, b~ absolute gift ,(pdr actus inter uiuos~). (6) Nor are they forbidden to~ place s.uch acts as are pre-scribed by the law, but with the p.e.rmission of the same ~uperior general. , Bizzart:i's for,rnulary c~fftinued to be used ~n individual se~s ofconst~tutmns apprbved by the S. Co.ngregation of ¯ Bishops and ~eg~il~rs from 1860 onwards. On December 30, 1882, .the S. Congregation presCribed'an-officml formula containing, thd same prgvisions in almost the same words, with a fev~ rn'odifications and some additions, to'be inserted henceforth in all constitul~ions to be approv, ed by. it. ,Here ~sthe text of-this, official formula: Docdment IV The~foll0wing rules concerning the simple vow of pov~rty'have been adopted b~' the S. Congregation of Bishops and Regulars, and it ,is customary to prescribe that they be inserted in constitutions WhiCh 69 Reuieto~6r Reti~idds ~ , i (~1) Th~.p'~ofesse~d~may, ~etain tl~e;bare own~rship,oas,it is~called, pf. their .pr0peity ;~butlthe.~ administration~ ~sp.endin'9 of ~'~com~,-~d use of tbdw prope?tg ~s absolutelg [orbrdden to~,tbem. ~ (2) before profession they must cede~ even "privately, ~h~ ad~in~t~ti~ usufruct, and use to whomsoege~ .they please, even to their own insti- ~u~e,.s~ould t~ey fr~dy~ch~pse to dq~so. '~(~ A,qgngi£~on ~gY be attached to this~cession stating that it is'revocable, at aKy time: but the professed may not in conscience use this rig~t~refv,ocation ~ ~ithout ~-~ ~s~ (4,~),,~,~he same ~disvo~ition is to be, made. of~any- goods,~hich~ may. come ~to.the~profess~d, after~theix~prQfessio~,~*under,tifie~o~ inheritances. ~ (5) ~:The~ may~. hbw~v~r,~dispbse 6f theii owners~ip,.either,.by Wa~.of last will and~test~ment, with~the~permission'~of the superior-ok'the superiore~ ,general, b#. b~ Way of absolute,gift (~c actus dioos). In,the latter casd the cession of ad~inistration:~ihfruct, and ase's~all cease, unlessthey wish these latter'to remain nnChanged for a definiidy stated time i~spite of:th~cession .of ownership: ,- "" ~'(6)? They ~re not forbidden to place such acts as ard~prescribed b~-the~law,, bu~ they 'mu~t first have~ the" permission of the-S6#erior or supeiioresL . ~ -~. ,.~ (7) Wha~ever~hep ~r6fess"e"d "r e" h"g~ous have acquired b~ their'own ,ndustry, or for t5ear socaetyithey must not'ascribe or reserve'to~them-selves,~ but alFsuch things must*be added to the~commumty funds for the common benefit of the society. ~ ~ ~ " By, is constitutiqn,, onditae a Cfiristo, dated De&m ~'~*~,X~;~ '~ i~ k~r~ ~",;~ ,. : ~ii *,~.~ ,~ ~.~ ~ ~,~ - per ~,~Lyov, t=ope ~eo,,A~t~ puDnc~y acgnow~geO congre-gations ~tn s~m~le vows to ~ a part ot t~e economy -th s consmutxon he defined the &fference between d ocesan anO Rapalt~ approved congregatxons and la~O down~ general regulations tot ~ne goyernment ot both. Ires constitution ~s,~nOeea t~e Magng ~arta otrel~g~ous congre~tx0ns s~mple vows. ~ Leo s~legxslatton gave a new impulse to ,man:g &ocesan congregatibn~g~ to~ seek, .papal ~ approval.~, Meanwhile the S+tCong, regation ofl~ishops and ,,Regul~rs,~: 70 March, !,9~7 THE SIMPLE VOW OF POVERT': experience in'dealing with these congregations had provided much of the material for the Cor~clitae a Christo, drew up for itself, a new-set of rulesto be~follow~d henceforth in the . . approyal of institutes with simple vovc~,as well as in the approval of the constitutions of such institutes. These Norrnae,.as they were called, did not have ~the force of law, since they~remained a private guide for the use of the S. Con-gregation and .were never published (it w~is~forbidd~'n¯ to ~reprint th~in). However, their became t~ liv'iiag mind of .the C14urcfi with regard to cor~gregatiofis o~ religious with simple vows, and much of their content was embodied in the Code of Canon Law. It will'be useful for our present sttidy, therefore, to give those articles of-the Norrnae ,of 3une 28, 1901, which dealt with the matter of~ the. simple vow, of poverty. " Docur~ent V Nbrms which the S. Congregation of~Bishops and 'Regulars is accustomed to follow-in ~approving new institutes with simpl~ vowsl 113. By the simple vow of poverty the Sisters~ renounce the right to dispose licitly of anything having a temporal value, except with the permission of~the legitimate superiorS. t.14. The Sisters are forbidden to retain the personal ad~ninis-tration of any of their personal goods. 1 15. Therefore, before the first profession of vows. they must dispose of the use °~nd '~sufruct of their income, or of the fruits ot~" their goods in the manner which pleases them, even infavo~ of their _ institute, if they~ freely choose to do so. They must also, before their first vows, transfer the administration of their goods to any person or persons the~y~°cho'ose; and, if they freely choose, even to their own institute, provided the.latter is informed and accepts the trust. °- 116. This cession of administration, use, and usufruct will cease to h~ve for~e in case the religious leaves the institute: nay more, a condition may be placed, stating that it is revocable at any time. 117. Such_a revocation, however, as well as. any chang~ in the acts of cession, miay not be made lawfully ~luring [the time they are '~Fhough Sisters are specifically mentioned, the Norraae were intended to be applied to ,congregations of religious men also unless the contrary was stated. 71 ADAM C. ELLIS' boi~nd by~] their vows, except with the permission of the superior general. ~ 118. The dispo~sition of the use andusufruct and the designation of the admlnistrator mentioned above may be.made either by pub!ic or by private act. 119. The p'rbf~ssed retain the bare owner'sh!p (dorai'nia~ radica[e) of'-their goods, and t1~y are forbidden to abdicate .their ownership~ by an .absolute. gift (per actas~inter uivos) before their profession~ of perpetual vows. 12"0. It is redommended (cor~uer~it) that all freely dispose of all their good~, pre~ent and future, by last will and testament,lbefbre taking their first vows. ° ' 12 I. Sisters professed of perpetual Vows nded the ~permi~sion of the Holy See in order to give away the ownership~of all their goods~ 122. Professed Sisters need the permission of theoHoly-See'both to make or to change their Will: but ~ truly urgent cases the permis-sion of the~ ordinary or bf the superior general will suffice, or even that of the local superior if it cannot .be done otherwise. 123. The Sisters are not forbidden to place acts of ownership which may be requiied by law: but t~ey must first.oStain permission of the.superior general or, in cases of urgency~ of the. local superior. 124; Regarding goods which shall, com~ to theSisters by any legitimate tide after they have taken their vows, they must or may,. respe.ctively, dis1~oie of them according to the norms given above con-cerning the goods they had before first profession. ¯ Thus far we have seen the devel0prnei~t of legisbition regardir~g'the s!mple, vbw of poverty for orders of .religious rnen and foi congregations of both men andw0rnen. During all.'~his time nuns in tl~e strict sense c6ntinued to take solemn vows. irnrnediately-after the one year of novitiate .prescribed b~r the Council of Tten~. ,By the decree Perpens.is,, dated May~3, 1902, and issued in the narne of Pope Pius.~X by-the S. Congregation of Bishops and Regulars, all novices in orders of religi6us women were obliged to take Simple vows for at least three years in preparation for the solemn vows -later on. The detailed legislation regarding the s~mple vow. of poverty" repeated almdst literally. ~_sirnilar provis~ioh~ 72 March, 194Z THE SIMPLE VOW~OF POVERTY which had been made for-orders of religious men in 1858 (see above). Here is the pertinent text bf the Perpensis: ~ Document VI N. 1 1. (1) The Sisters professed of .simple vows retain the bare --ownership (.dominium radicale) of all their goods, (,2) arid they cannot definitively dispose of it except withih two months immedi-ately preceding their solemn profession, ,according to the Sacred Council of Trent. . . (3) The administration, spending of income, and rise of their. goods is absolutely forbidden to them." (4) Hence before the pro-fession of simple vows, they must, for the time during which they will be bound by simp.le vows, cede the administration, usufruct, and use to whomsoever they please, even to their own order or monastery, provid.ed t~a~t.~hey freely consider this opportune, and prov!ded that the order or monastery has no objections. (5) If, during the period of sire, ple vows, other goods come to them by legitimate title, they acquire the oVcnership of them; but they must transfer the administration, usufruct, and us+ as above,as soon as possibIq; ol~serving also the law_,~0f not renouncing their ownership ,until within two months before their ~ole'mn profession. Such v~as th~ development-of legislation.and practice , on the part of the Holy See with regard to the simple vow. of poverty up ,.to the promulgation of the Code of Canon Law.on May 27," 1917.~ While adop~ing,th~ terse form introduced b~r the Normae of 1901, the Code re_rained sub-stantial. l~i thebld 1.egislation as di~velope~ in the documents previously qdoted (I, II, III, IV" and VI)', wl~ich, witl~ the exception of Bizzarr~'s formulary (III) are listed among l~he sources of the canons on.poverty. - . After the i~ublication of the Code, all religious institutes were obliged to revise their rules .and constitutions so as to b~ing them into conformity with the Code. Contrary privileges granted by the Holy See were safeguarded.by canon 4 and could be retained unless explicitly revoked by some canon of the Code. All other rules and particular constitu.tions of individual religious institutes which were ~)AM C. ELLIS cont*rary to the:canons of the Code were~ abrogated (cahon 489) " -, " ~ " , ' Since most'constitutions of:m~odern congregations now contain ~the pr~escripti6ns of the Code without chan, ge !n the matter.of the simple vow of poyerty, we think it helpful to give the-tex-t of the'canons involuted in our stui:ly_before going on t6 comment UlSOn"them: Canon 568. If, during the novitiate,, the novice in any ~vay whate'v.er renounces his benefices or his property or encumbers them, such a renti~ciation or encumbrance is not only illicit but also null and void. " Can0fi 56~, § 1. Before the profess!on o.f si,rnple vows,., wrieil~e; temporary or perpetu,,al, i~he novice '~must cede, for the ~rhole° period during whl~h he will be bound by simple vows', "~he ~dm~nistration of ¯ his property to whomsoever, he wishes, and dispos~ of its use an~t usdfruct, except the,constitutions determine otherwise. . § 2. If.the nox;ice, because he possessed no property, omil~ted to m~ake this cession, and if ~s~bsequently propertycome into his posses-sion, or if, after making the provision, he becomes finder whatever title the .possessor of other property, he must make provision~ according to the regula.tions ~f § 1, for the newiy acq~iired pibperty, even if he hhs already made ~imple piof~ssion. § 3.~ In every religious Congregation the novice, before ma.king profession of,~tempprary, vows, shall freely~'di~pose by "will of all the property he actually' possesses or. may subseque.ntly,' possess . ~Canon~ 5~.9.,. -Simple~ pr~p~fession, ~heth,er t.empo~ary~or pe~ petual, rendeis acts contrar2y, t? the vows illicit; but not invalid, unless it°be Otherwise formally expressed; while s61(mff professton rehd~is Such acts ev~a invalid, if they can be nullified. Canon 580, § i. All those who have inade professio~i-of simp1~ yows, whether i~erpe~ual or temporary, except the constifutions declare otherwise, retain the proprietorship of their property and~the capadty to acquire other property, while safegu.arding the presc.rip-tions o~ canon 569. . § 2. Bul~ whatever "the religious acquires by his o~r~ indhstry or in respect 6f his:'Inst!tute, .~elongs to the Institute. § 3. AS r~gards :the cession or disp0'siti0n of pr6pdrty trea~ed Of in canon 569, § -2, the professed religious can modif¢ t.he"arran~e- March; 1947 THE SIMPLE VOW OF POVERTY ment,, nbt ho~wev~ei of his own free cho_'ice.except, the; constitutions ~ allow it, but with ~t.he p~ermission of the Superior-General or, in the 0 cause.of nu~s, Of the lo,cal ordinary, as well'as with that 0i~ the R~ular S~perior if them ~o "n'a;s~t_e r"y be s: u~B" J"e 'c't .t.o. .R.e.gulars; the modification, however, must not be ~ade, at least for a'n0tabl~ pa~[-of" the ~rop? drty, in favgr of the Institute; :in the~,case of withdrawal from~ the Institute, this cession and dispositidn ceases, to have effect. ~. ,Canon 58~. Those who have made profession of ~imple vows in.any religious ~ongregation: 1° May. not abdicate. ,gratuitously the dominion-~ver their propert~ by a voluntary deed of conveyance (~er ~tum inter oibos).: ~ *Eet us now analyze:the~on~e~ts coataified in these canons iffthe light off,past legislation given imour pregious db~uhefit~, putting them in logicaborder,, with ,a word" of cOmment/upon ea~h.,, ~. -- ~- . '-., . " " The Si~pl~ Vdw,of Pove?ly,:i6 P?acti'ce , 1. A~ nootce ts ~orbtdden to give away ~hts property during the~ time o~ nootttate,~under the pare of nulhty (eanp~ 568). This is the legislatioh of Trent forno#ices ~n,an order. Amcle 8# of thg ~ormae of 190,1~d~a~proved " o~ 4onat~on~ made, to ~ir 1~)~stitu~e Con~egdti~n.'; N0~h~fi~ was~sald ab~ug d~nhfi~ns toga thi~ - ~af~y~duriEg t~e.ti,me q~nov~tiate. ~N0r wa~ a d~gafion- ~de~to the. institute in~ii~ ._ " . :~ ~ 2~ Shortt~ before. Oronoenc~ng his grst~.simpld a noqice mus~ appoint an.;administrato~,:to take ,care ~of his p)rsonal~p~opert.y;during the, entire time during.which -:will be bound by simple vows ~canon~ 569, ~ ~&;_ Docu~ ments:.I, 2; HI, 2;~Ig, 2; V, Normae, art. 115; VI; 4). "" In a congregation, this time will be for the lifetime of the religious; in an order, it will be for the time preceding sol-emn. profession., Strictly speaking; .the persopal Xd~inis-trati0n of his own property by a religious is not contrary to his few ofp0verty as defined b~ Pius IX b~cause it is not 75 ADAM C. ELLIS~ ~ " Revieto FOr Religious a disposa~l of proper.ty., Still, from t858 to the~ Codq inclusive, such administration has been forbidden by'the positive law of the Church to 'all religious'~with simple vows. ~ Hence, no superior can gi~e a s~ubJect permission to "administer his own-private property after he has made his . first profession of vows. Only the Holy See can do so.- 3. Before takin9 hi's [~rst vows, a novice must gioe. away, to whomsoever he pleases, the use and incomd of his personal property (canon 569, § 1; Doc'um~ents: I, 2; .III., 2; IV, 2; V, Normae, a~t. 115~; VI, 4). This dispositionl once made, holds good for the entire time that he will be bound by simple vows, and he may not change it without the permission of the superior general (canon. 580, § 3). Legislation prior to the Code required the' permissibn of the Holy S.ee (Documents: Iii, 4; IV, 3; V, Normae, art. 117). With regard to this disposi~:ion" of the use and income of his property', canon 569, § 1 makes allowances for contrary provisions Of the' constitutions. Whu'sln some older congregations 6f men, approved before 1860, the reli-gious must give~ the use and.ir~come of his property .to ~i~ela-tires ffho ~ire within-the foiirth ~degree of kir~slhip; or in 0thers~ he must g~ive, a phr~ of the iricbme to his institute, the r~ai~der to his relatives!' or aga~in in other~ tl~ ~onstitU-tions oblige the novice to give all his income to pious ~and charitable causes exclusive of his relatives and of ~his ~own institute. ~.Suc.h. con~rary provisions Will hafdly~'be found in congiegations whose constitutions ha~e been ,~approved" by the Holy See'since 1860. 4. A r~ligious with a simple°v~w of poueriy may not use 6r~ "spend the income of his property for l~imsetf (Docu-. ments:.I,.1; III, 1'; IV, 1; VI, 3). Canon 569 does,,not state this negative precept, explicitly, l~ut ~its positive precept obliging the religious with simple vows-to give away the use and usufrtict bf l~s personal property indicates quite 76 ~March, 1947 THE SIMPLE VOW OF POVERTY clearly that he may not use it himself,;nor,~p_end~h_i_s oin.come On himself.,- Thi~s~is confirmed, in the writer:s judgment, by the fact that the documents, referred to all state this explic-itly, and are listed as sources of canon 569 in the Code. 5. The same provisions regarding the administration, use; and income are tom be applied to any other persona1 property whiCh may come toga religious at:ter he has made prot:ession oh simple vows (canon 569, ,§ 2: Documents: IV,'4; V, Normae, art., !24; VI,~5). 6. Mag a religious give awag his personal propertg? In answering this que.stion we must distinguish h~tween the religious wit_h~simple vowsdn an order,~ and a ~religious with" ~imple vows in a "cong, regation.: ~ (a) In an order, the religious with simple vows is abso!utely forbidden_to give awa~:y .his property ,under pain of'invalidity. However, since h.e will lose his right to"o.wn-ership v~hen he takes his solemn~ vows, he is qbliged by.law to ' freely . give ~ all his property to whomsoever,he wishes wi~thin si}ty day_s preceding his s-ol,emn profession. This renun~'at_ion;as it is_ technically.called,., is subject~ to the c.on-dition that his solemn profession will follow (canon-581, § 1 ;. Documents'.' II; VI, 5). (b) In a congregqtion~,.~every religious, whether with temporary or perpetual vows, is forbidden to give away his property during his lifetime. (c. 583, 1 °); . Should h4 do So, howgver, the act would be valid but unlawfu!'(c. 57,9). In this m.atter the Code,.is stricter,than, .the preceding legisla5 tion, which,is not referred to in the sources of canon 583, 1 °. Hence it seems reasonable to conclude that this canon is to be interpreted at its face value, and not in the light of preceding legislation. Let us .consider the problem in detail. As we have seen, up to 1860 there were no uniform~ regulations regarding the simple:vow of poverty in a con- 77 ADAM~ C. ELLIS Review forReligiov.s greg~tion[ Bizzarri's formulafry~of 18 61.i:as~well ~is ',the~ru, les ~Of th~ S. ~dng~e~afion sf Bishops and ~Reghlam~-of~q*8 8 (s~D0cUme~ts:~I~II, 5~; IV~ 5),. gave t~e r~ligious with a simple ~vow,~-of, poverty the choic~.of-~exther kee~ing ~his pr6per~g~'an~d making.a last~ wilt~.ahd testament~ to 'determine Who~was t~ inherit Jrafter his death, or ih either':, case witb;the,permiss~on~ of the-~supe~ior general~ of 1901 ~hmtted this right in two ~hys: Art. 119 forbade the religious~ith temporarg ~ows ~to -give .away ~ang~'of ,his propertyo;~., art. 1~ L forbad~ ,the' reli-gioUs wit~ p~rp~tual :vows to give away all ?~is property witho~t, t~e~ per~issi0n of the~ Holy ,See: "~So~e congrega-tions had the following ~rticle. ifl their donsti[utions - ~pproVed by~ the H01y See: ~ "~he~permissiofi~o~ the Hol~. S~e is-required in 6fder that~ a~ r~ligious ~ith~p~pet~al vows pf6perty;~'.:but the ~wntten permass~on of the superior gen-eral su~ces to give away a'part of it." This latter pro~ision,~ based on art.121~ ~f the~Normd~, was interpreted t6 mean tha~ a religious ~wi'thV~imolg p~- petuat vows .coul& g~ve away a~ part~ of his proffe~ty,~i~h the permission of the superior general, ,prowded'~t was not ~'~Otabte~ p~a?t, that As, ~not~ble in pro~bftiO~, tb~th(~entire . of the'r~ligi6u~ ence m th~s.ma~ter betw(en, t~m~brary and perpetual vows. Wiih)o~t,fi{stinghishing.between', ffo~de c~n~nists of.rank a~d~:iMobrtance' who'b01d-that a .rehgxous,,w~tH a 7,8 TIlE SIMPLE VOW OF POVERTY perpetual. ~imple, vbw ~of poverty may still,follow-the pro; vision of the Norraae. In other words~ th'ese' ~iuthbrs ~hold that~ with the p~rniission ofothe .stiperior general, ,the~reli-giousmay give away' even. a large sum, provided this sum is. no't a: notable parffof his. entire patrimony. -They~ agree more or/less ~that~anything ~ore ~than a [ifth~ of ~:the who!e~ patrimong would be .such~ a notable-part; .and 'they-.point out,,, that shah a:gift could be.made onlg once. It' is the present'~writer'.s firm con:viction that this liberal 61~ihion concerning Jarge~ gifts 'does n~ot ,sqtiare ~ith~ the~ wbrds ~ off'the' Code, and.that."the Code designedly. :dhanged the Normaefin thi~ matter: I.n, l~is.op~nion,~.therefore,:e~ren the~superior general~-can, not ~give--permissi0n .f0r sfl~h, large gifts, ounle.s~s the' coffstitutions,~,approved ~ by~,~th~, Holy~ ~ See aft~ero,she,.Code stil,1 contain a clause to!that effect. _~ v . _ ~- The~case'Js"tlui~e~diffe~ent ~ith~,regard to very~small gifts:. Almost, alkafithorsallow the applicati6n~of~the prin- ~ciple, "'parum pro', nibilo~reputa.tur;"" _to~ small~'~donadons fr9m their patrimony made .even b~ novices, and a fortiori by professed religious.~, For example, a religious would be allowed to use;a;part ~f, fi~s own.money'.to l~av, e_some Masses said. fpr ~ deceased pare.nt, relative, or benefactor, or .to. con-t. ribute a small alms to some;.,~worthy cause inowhich he is interested. It. should be, noted that the "smallness',' in, this chse is absolute, ,and is not to be estimated'~with teferenee .to the ~en tird'patrimony; 'also, "that such' ~mfill gifts" are: n'o. t, to be freqfient, lest the~r.gr&duaUy amount tba large S,~um and ~hus Ynake a~ockery of, the~v~ery" principle on ~hich t,hey are,'allowed, ',,'a~ little bit_ may be, considered as nothing.',' Conclusion Such is ~the' doctrine reg'ardihg the simi~le ~vow of~,pOv-erty which hadst be k~,t in iriifid in ~ulra t~er' d-~scuss~on o~fi "gi'f~s to religious." We may~call attention l~ere to the 79 DECISIONS .OF THE HOLY, SEE ".main points d~duced from this survey which will have spe~ cial application later:~ -, 1. :The personal administration of his property by~'.a _religious' is ~r~ot forbidden by the simple vow of poverty, since administration does not come under the term "to dis- "pose" which is used. in the definition~of Plus IX; but such administration is forbidden by pos*itive law. 2. A religious may not spend the inco~ne of his property on'. himself,-nor_mayohe use his .personal property. As far as the vow of poverty alone is ~c0ncerned, either could be done with the permission of the superior. But positive legis-lation reserves such a permissior~ to the Holy See. " 3. For the rest, a religious with a simple vow ofpove~rty. may not dispose qf anything whatsoever haying a mone-tary value (whether it be his personal property; or th.at of the community, or that of any third party) without the permission of his superior. These permissions willbe regu-lated by~ the constitutions of each institute. DecisiOns o{ Holy See Current n~ws reports fr6m VatiCan City announce 'the dates for solemn canonizations'and"beatificati6ns: April 13: Beatification of Venerable Contardo Ferrini, I~alian jurist 9~d university professor at Modena and Messina, who qied' in 1'90.3. April 27: Beatification of Venerable. Maria Goretti of Anzio, who in 1902 at ihe age of twelve died a ma[tyr's death in defense of her Vir-ginity. May 4Z Beatificatibn of Venerable Marie Therese :(Alexia Le Clerc); f0Undress of th'e C~nonesses of St. Augustine of the Congre-gation df Our Lady. May ~5:°Canonization of Blessed Nicholas 0f Flue, hermit and national hero of Switzerland. duns 22: Canffniza-ti0n of Blessed 3oseph Cafasso, onetime rector of the papal University of ,Turin; of Blessed aohn de Britto, Portuguese 3esuit and martyr; of. Blessed~Bern~rd~ Realin0, Italian 3esuit and home missionary. July 6: Canomzat~on of Blessed Joanne Ehzabeth B~ch~er des' Ages, (Continued on p. 128) 80 /he i<~.sar~y; ano OD became.~.ma, n, not.,.~ .,0~lyl.t~. ._ redaeenmd, tuos ,.t.e ,a ~c h.,.u .s His Ipvable.ness,~but alsq,~o be an. ~exampl.e ~nd. :for us ~on our 'peri,l.ous way.to heaven. Spiritua.1 writers agre¢~ tha.5 the m~ost, i~mp0rtan~ !~sson. His. iif,eo us,, the most, impor,t~nt girt~e !~n .our, life as .well as in His,.is .t~at~ of~liumb, le submi_.s~sion to .the will of.the Father. ~: God's.inLention in creatin~g ,,us is. ~hat .we may, i become members of,His 0wn.~,~awily, Jivi~g eterna!iy:~ith,;Him~.:ion , l~e~iven, a~ .ii~ our own h,,gme. Only ~ove can° secure'this desired un.ion, h uriion ~bringing,g!o~E to G0~ and h.app~in~ e,ss t6-us. This love, thi,s.~:unign, .lies ,i,.n our. will ,"He.whb k,eeps my~.comma, ndmepts, ,he it is who loves.m~:, Christ." For us in this life .s~iritual perfection is prin_ci: pally not in our intellect or emo.tion but in our will. if we would be perfect, if we would love God,. if we wguld Be one with Him, we must conform our will to His: This union is- the purpose of o~ur cre~tioi~, the core of our spir-itual growth, the one thing-God-desires. - Those who pri~e themselves on power, wealth, talents, and so forth forget tha~t with a passing wish.God could give everyone ~in intelligence quotient of two ~hundred. or two , thousand, could give every0ne~ a million d611ars 6r a bil~lion. ¯ In his eagerness to save~sou!s, God humbled' Himself exceed-ingly, suffered exceedingly. Surely He would make th~ - ,wish which would_ lavish Wealth and talent 6f eve.ry,, ki~id upon His. followers if that would help sprea&Nis kingdom ,up~gn.~earth:~,~: T.hings hke:~that He~, can handle:,qtfite, adea ~q~.ately ~i.thou_t any ~helR 4tom Us': ~; Tile one;thing,,~hicli; . T. N, ,~ORGENSEN ~e~oW for ~ligious \ ¯~y its,.ver~ nature, is beyond God's force is the free submis-s, on~ of ~our wills.~ Th~s free return t~each_i n~g-s ;~ 't_ ~ ~s. "th ~e. ~s ~m ~l t" of our perfection. God's will and ours must agree if-we would, live ~Ogeth~r ifi ~ace~ ~But His will cannot be perverted and circumscribed anti whittled down to harmonize with ours: Ours;'therefore, ~ust be molded ahd e~pa~ded~o~become one~itb ~is. ~ ~is ~omplete sdrrefider of~ our wilis[~t6 God'~ is not" too hard.' God'~i~ Wisdom hnd 'knows best" ~h~t course we ShoUld take in ~very action big-or Small. God is Lo~e and has a deep, abiding, personal, loving inte~.- est in our every~concern. Surely His will is just th~ thing we Wduld naturally choose if we were ,wis~, even if it ~ere hot commanded. If we were Commanded td d0something ~bicb God saw ~as Unwise, something out of harmony With His planS' and love--that wofild be hard ifideed. But to be commanded to do the very things which"are be~t for us in every way, that is an easy and attractive road to fol-low on our ~ay to perfecyio~. ~ The Rosary, which is one of the best methods of learning the lessons of the Incarfiation, should teach us with exact emphasis all the important lessons of our growth in grace. It should, therefore, teach us with unusual force the lesson of'humble obedience, of surrendering our will 'to God. And it does. In the Annunciation Mary gives us.a splendid exfimple of humble conformity to the will of God. When the angel has finished explaining to her just what God wi~hes and how He wishes it, Mary ans&ers, "Behold the handmaid of the Lord. Be it done unto me according to thy word." She has no thought of her own honor, rio fears ~f her 0wh grave responsibility, no anxiety even though the message changes her whole life making her a mother and a martyr, the mother of all the living-and,queeh of all martyrs: She 82 March, 1,9_47 . ,,'~ THE ROSARY'AND'GOD'S WILL ~lbes~nol~ h~itate0-a~ mbment ;in, spite of: ~ill tb(s~# great ~-gj~ts and,~gia~es and ~sfifferiff~s[and ~.duti~s,~ ~Sh~' does~not .e~en dwelkon the~ l~fi~erkthhn- it,-t~kes~to,anderstan~them.-,Sbt is so filled with desire to know and to do God~stwill~that'sbe bas.ng~fob~,~eft~in,~er~soul~ f0r _~anity b~fe~:~,~ ~his~ispo-sition~ of ~co~lete ~ubmissi6n tO ~God'~s .will~ leads~tarpoise and p~ace;afid ~p~iness inehny situation:that ~l~ife can bff~r~ Surely_ this~first Ros~ry:~yst~ry ~gi~u~:a p'0werf~l~r~e ,to ,pra~tice.,hu~ble,~gb~dience." ~Ma~y,;s-exam~le d~a~s us,~itb tendgr strength gg~.~oin her~ in saying?in:M1 ,the, tests?of~:offr life~,/,)Bqhold,O~,Lord, ~Your h~ndmaiden, ~our~ready, ser~ va,fit, ~Nour trusting child;, ~Be it~ donff~unt~me;~a¢cOrding ; ~:~,~herVisttatlon~,rehF~s the lesson~./Li.ke al.1 great,souls~ Mar.~ l~as ;of~ X,~reflectiy~ trend. of mind:~ th¢ gospel~.tha.t ~it~,~as-~ber ~habit~ to .~.ponder, ~n.,her ~hea.rtv~ thel ~ords:o£,othefs ,7.~Euke. 2~:d.9,f~:2:~:5~l,)~. ~e knoW~t06; Lha.t,,"Mary's ~,l~ove ~ifor,, ,,God ,~as .~ great,; -h~r,-~sire for~ the coming, ofbthe, Messiah~as dntense.° :~hen"ithe ahgel left her~,~therefore,~it Would hav~,,been pleasant, ind~'ed to reflect leiso;~ely.~up~n :his,,~ gl6ri0u~ ~message, ~,to~ meditate, ~on,, the unique love and tru~tiGod,had~shown her, to?adore in(the silenc~ of h~r_own oroom :the. God-man who~had~ just come :tolife Githin~her, womb~ B'ut ~he kne~th~t Eliza'beth,and 3ohn the Baptist needed her. "And she arose and went. in hast~ into, the hill country to~visit her cousin.~ ~This prompt .response,to the slightest suggestion:of God'~ d~si~e. couple~ W, ith, the~ever-presefit hffmility ~hich .urges her .(the Mother of God) to go forth.doing good ,instead 6f waiting for Others to ~ome in. service to h~t~this again is, a togent Aesson to, us of humbleobedience. The happy maiden in 5he:springtime of¯ l'[fe, jub~!ant ~in Go'd's~,love as,,she has_tens over ~the~hills,xsh~ws.,us thavobedience~is;n~t~a sad~or .sober thing:f0r ~I1 of its yseri~sness; ~God ~gi~es Mary to T. N. JORGENSEN Review ~or Religious as an example. , If we surrender~ to His gra,ce, His love will~ bless us and Christ will truly abide ~nd grow within Us. Our gay journey over the hills of life-will end in our own joyous Magnificat~ Thethird joyful m~rstery pictur,es the happy, Mary- and Joseph in a cave, 'the shepherds running to join them, the Magi coming frorfi afar with their symbolic gifts. It was through 'humble obedience that all these arrived at this. haven of joy.- ~Mary and Joseph humbly made the trip to Jerusalem in obedienc~ tothe census-t, aking edict of AUgus~- tus Chesar, their civil ,superior. They might have consid-ered themselves excused under the circumstances, ,but they did not, arid their obedience led to the fulfillment of the prophecies and to the joy of the shepherds and of the Magi and of all Christians. The shepherds believed and acted upon the almost'unbelievable words of the angels that they .- should find God wrapped in swaddling '~lothes and laid in a manger. They belie,veal and followed' humbly and, found happiness. The Magi were obe~tient to an impulse of grace and to the light of a st~r, traveling great distances on what; no doubt, their friends called a wild,goose chase. They also found God and happiness~ All~ these were humble enough to see God in a helpless Babe and obedient enough to come in search of Him and adore Him. ,Thus they found joy,andpeace. The Presentationfifids Joseph and Mary offering Christ in tile ~emple in respons~ to the command of the Jewish law/"Every male~ opening the womb shall be called holy to the Lord" (Luke 2:23). Again Mary might have held herself exempt, for the virgin birth kept her from coming directly under the law. But Christ was her first-born,'anit so she complied even though her virginity wasuntouched. H:id she failed to comply, her neighbors, who did not kno~ of the miraculous nature of the birth, would have be~n 84 Marcb,'1947. ,~ THE ROSARY AND GOD'S WILL scandalized. Because she did comply, some people have doubted her virginity. Mary chose the second'~horn of this dilemma. Whatever Mary may have foreknown, God cer-tainly foresa.w that heretics would use this obedience of Mary's as an argument against her perpetual virginity'. God is most zealous.of Mary's honor; ye~ He inspired her to fulfill the law. For "obedience is better than sacrifice," because by obedience the whole man body, mind, and will is given entirely to God. On another occaslon, too, God taught.obedience at the risk of some people's misunder-s~ tanding Mary's glory. Christ, while speaking to a crowd. was told that His mother and brethren stood outside seeking t9 speak to Him; and'pointing to His-f011owers about Him He said, "Behold my mother and my brethren. Forwho~ soever shall do the will of my Father is my brother and sister and mother.'.' (Matthew 12:50.) And again .when the woman in. the drowd cried out blessing His~ mother, Christ answered, "Yea, rather~ blessed are~ they who hear the word of God ~ind keep it" (Luke 11:28). ,We know tha~,.the true understanding of these passages gives Mary praise; but nevertheless they urge us to praise her more. l~ecause her will is one With His than because she is mother. ' The Findin~ in the Temple orecalls these words of Christ,-"Did you not know that I must be about my Father's business?" (Luke.2:49.) Mary's question had u~ed the word "Father" in reference to Josdph;-Christ used it in reference to God the Fathers"from whom comes a11 paternity" and all authority. Doing His Father's business was, of course, submitting Himself to His Father's-will, was being obedient. These are the first words of Christ recorded in Scripture. His first lesson is a lesson of obedi-ence. His last lesson is the same, for "He,was obedient unto death, even unto the death Of the cross." 85 T. N. JORGEN~EN \ Revieu~ for Religious ~ In foretelling the characteristics of Christ, .the Psalmist says in His name, '~Sacrifice and oblation. ~ burnt offering and sin offering thou didst not require~ Then said I, 't3ehold t~c~me: In the h~ad of the book it is written of.me that I should do thy' will. O my God, I have desired it, and thy law is in the depth of my h~ar't.' " (Psalms 39:8ff.). A,fter ° the finding.in the Temple, "3esus went down into. Nazareth With Mary and 3oseph and.,was subject tothem." His thirty years of life in Nazareth give, in. point of time at least; ~a tenfold emphasis upon obedience over all the l~ssons which He crowded into'the three .years of public'miniStry! " The Sorrowful Mysteries carry on 'the lesson of humble obedience.- A.week before the Passion, Christ said to His - protesting apostles; "Shall I not drink the chalice which my Father has prepared for Me?" Looked upon as medicine which the perfect Doctor has carefully prepared,, sufferings become endurable, even most desirable. And they are jus.t that--the best of medicine. We' never have faced and never will face any suffering which God has not,prepared or per-- mitted for a very definite good in our spiritual life. ._ At the beginning of His Passion Christ spent hours in the agony in the garden praying over and over again~ "If it ¯ be possible let this chalice pass from me, howev~er,, not my ~ill but Thine be done.~" Not my will but Thine be donee-how perfectly these words of the first sorrowful mystery echo Mary's words of the first joyful mystery, "'Be it done unto me-according to thy word."-With this prayer to strengtl~en Him, Christ overcame His fear' and went forth bravely with unwavering poise to endure the worst that man and devil could devise. All that He endured, He looked upon a~ providential, the fulfilling of the prophecies;., the sanctifying, of the human race, the chalice prepared by His loving Father. Even when manifested only indirectly tlSrough civil authority, the will o~ God was His "meat / 86 Marcl~o i ~ ~ 7 'THE 'ROSARY AND GOD'S.XX~IKL indeed." Like P~ter He was subj~ct to human authority "for God's sake." Like Paul He taught that "there is no power butofrom God and. those that are ordained by God: therefore he that resists lawful superiors, resists God" (.Ro-mans 13 : 1 ). -The Glorious Mysteries take, up where the sorrowful ones leave off, fob they picture the reward which Christ gained by His Passion. "He humbled himself becoming obedient unto death, .even to the death of the cross. For which cause. God has exalted'Him and has given Him a name" which is above all other names, that in the name 6f 3esus-every knee should bow of those that are in Heaven, on earthl and under the.earth, and that eyery_tongue should confess that the Lord ,Jesus Christ.is in the glory of,Ggd the Father."- (Ph!lippians 2:8ft.) The reward which ,we meditate upon in the glorious mysteries, Christ's and Ma~y's and the saints', is the pledge and protot~rpe, the promise and the pattern, of.the glory that c6hae~ to all who through. humble obedience gain gl0ridus triumph. "The obedient man shrill speak of Victory" (Proverbs 21:28): Runqir~g ~tfirough .all the mysteries~-joyfgl, sorrowful, and glori6us--we have the "Thy will .be. d6ne on earth ;is. it is in Heavefa" of the Our Father. Virtue means being like.the blessed in heaven; their'ob~dience is c~mplete and therefore their freedom and.happiness are perfect. This/ prayer.at the beginning of each decade keeps reminding us,. in .our subconscious mind at least if not in ou~ conscious thoughts, that the road to peace and joy and triumph is identical with the road to the fulJ surrender of ou,r will to Gbd. At times it may. not seem so to us, of course, because oub ignorance and emotion may blind us to a great degree. We are like men walking a straight and well-marked road in a fo~ or darkness which gives, it a strange and d~u.btf, ul appearance, It is just b~cause of this deception that we, x - T. N. JORGENSEN \ ~must renew and enliven our faith with frequent Rosaries.' All of the foregoing shows us how the vital lesson of_ humble obedience is taught, and taught with the great insistence it deserves, in the Rosary. _It would be an inter-esting and a highly profitable exercise to see how other import,ant lessons and virtues ruin through the fiifteen mys-teries. They a, re there.~ All that we need is there, for ~the Rosary is the story of the Incarnation, and the Incarnation is God's answer to original sin, God's o;,vn wonderful'plan for our perfection and salvation. " PAMPHLETS AND BOOKLETS~ Some time ago we announced that we could not accept pamphlets for review. Up to this time we have tried to print at least an occasional list of pamphlets received: but even this is becoming increasingly difficult. The present list includes most.of the pamphlet literature we have received in recent months. With the pub-lication of this list. we cease all listing of pamphlets except those 'which might have , a verg special pertinence to our readers. ¯ ~ I. From the Radio Replies Press, St. Paul 1, Minnesota: First Fridays, 15 cents: Wh~t A Mission $ister,~15 cents:The Three Hours and All Fridags of the Year, 35 cents: The Music of~th~ ~Mass. 25 cents: Jesus in the Blessed Sacrament, 15 cents; The Blessed Virgin and the Jews, I0 cents: General Devotions to the Blessed Virgin, 15 cents: The Paraclete Novenas to the Holy Spirit, 15 cents; What is the CarBolic Faith, Anyway? 20 cents:~Way of the Cross for Chddreno 15 cents: Qmzzes on Christian 8ciencei 15 cents: T, be Death of Christ the Warrior, 50 cents; Forty Hours for'Priests and People, 35 cents. II. From The Grail, St. Meinrad, Indiana: Christ and the Soul, 10 cents; The Role of the Priest in tbe Apostolate of Reading, 10"cents: What is the Answer? 10 cents: Imitate Your Blessed Mother, 25 cents; Fruitful Days, 25 cents; This,is Jesus,~ 15 cents: Way,of the Cross for Religious, 10 cents:. Manual of the 8errant of Mar~ , 25 'cents; Digest of the Liturgi-cal Seasons, 25 cents; Liturgical Essays, 25 cents:~,Rouse Tby Might, 25 cents: The Ma~s Year, 30 cents (4 copies. $1.00; 50 copies, $10.00);_Newness of Life, 25 cents; A More Exce, llent Way, 15 cents: Polnt~ for Meditation, 15 cents; Some Hints on Prayer, 15 cents: The Charity of Jesus Christ, 15 cents: T~ Seek ¯ God, 10 cents (vo'cationabl o~oklet. otnhe life ofa Benedictine Sister); Come and See, 25 cents (an insight into the life of the Benedictine monk): Follow Christ, 25 cents (the'vocation numbers for 1945. 194'6, 1947): Christ ~alls,~25.cents (vocation guidebook for use of'teachers). - ~ III. Various publishers: Attention Miss Ares?ira. A vocational booklet pub~lished 'by the DominiCan Sisters, Immaculate Conception Convent, Great Bend, Kansas¯ ~ (Continued on p. 97) 88 The I:fl:ects o1: Holy Communion on the Body C. A. Herbst, S.J. THE effects of Holy Communion are wrought primarily in the soul. By a most intimate union through~char-ity, Christ taken as food sustgins and nourishes the soul, causes it to grow in grace, builds up the ravages wrought by sin, .and brings delight. But it would be strange indeed if Holy Communion "had no effect on-the body. We consider holy .the altar on which the body and blood of Christ is Offered; afad the tabernacle in which He rests, a sacred place. Ought not our bo'dies, into whic~ He has entered so often,-be sacred too? During His lifetiine here on earth, great healing power. wentout from the mortal body.of Christ.~. "And all the multitude sought to touch him, for virtue went out from him, and healed a11" (Luke 6:19). These wonders were worked by a mere paS~ing contact. Now that the body of Christ is glorified, what wonders ought we not to expect from His coming into ofir very bodies? "For no man hateth his own flesh: but--nourisheth and-cheris'he'th it, a.~' algo Christ doth the church: because we are members of his body, of his flesh, and of ~is bones~' (Ephes.ians 5:29, 30). Man is composed of two elements, a body and a soul. These twoare most ihtimately joined and greatly influence each other. This is well illustrated by the transmission of original sin. ~ " If the. flesh of the first man made poisonous and° mortal com-municates death to the soul, shall not the Flesh of Christ. wbich is l~ealthful 'and life-giving, bestow upon it life and safetg? Therefore as the soul contracts all its ills by flesh, it ought by flesh to receive all its benefit. If it is to be freed from the evil which came to it by the / 89 C. A. HERBST Review for R~tigious 'flesh of the first man, it must'have society" and union witl~ the Flesh of Christ, the Sec0hd Man. And as by the single flesh of the first' man all souls are infected and destroyed, so are all souls washed, .cleansed and quickened b~ the Flesh of Christ. As the flesh of" the first man is the storehouse of all vices, sins and crimes, so ali virtues. al~ spiritual treasures and all blessings ale stored up in the,Flesh of Christ. As the former flesh separates the soul from God and unites it wi'th Satan, so the Flesh of Christ separates it from Satan and uniters. it to God. For as Satan lurks in the flesh of the firs~ man, so the Godhead abides in the flesh of the Second'Man. (Catholic Faith in the Holy Eucharist, edited by C. Lattey, S.J., p. 191.) --- Because of the intimate union between the body and. the sob1 and because of the intimate union of Christ with both the body and the soul in Hbly Corrimunon, this .sacrament sanctifies both. St. Clement of A1exandkia says: And the mixture 6f b6th--of the drink and of the Word.---is Call~d Eucharist, renowned.and glorious grace: and they who by faith p~rtake of-It are sanctified both in body and in soul. For the divine mixture, man, the Father's will has rhystically compounde~d bY the, Spirit and. the Word. For, in. truth, the Spirit is joined to.the soul, which is inspired by It: and the flesh, by reason of whichthe Word. became flesh, to the-Word. (Paedogog., 1.2, c.2.) B~r reason of the uriion of the body of Christ with our bodies in,Holy Communion, a sort of relationship arises between our bodies and His. There is a certain affinity, of c0~ncorpo~ration everi,, between our bodies and His. The Fathers of the Chu, rch speak of_this not merely as of a passing state existing only--as 10ng as the sacred- species remain with us, but as of a permanent effect in-our bodies, setting up something of a blood relationship with Christ. He considers our bodies as somethihg of His own and sur-rounds 'them with a special" protection. According to the promise of Christ and the declaration~ of the Fathers it seems that we must say that Christ the Lord considers the very flesh,of tho~'e who_worthily receive the sacrament as I~is own flesh b~t special a~nitg, as though consecrated by contact with His. most sacred flesh . This mystical 9O 2 EFFECTS OF HOLY COMMUNION union of our flesh with the flesh of Christ receives its fuller consum-mation and as it were sacramental consecration through, conjunction of His glorified body and blood with our own b6dies. In thi~, union ire celebrated th~ nuptials of the Lamb with His Spouse the Church still pilgrimaging in the single members; which will be celebrated more happily and in more complete union only in our heavenly l~ome. (Franzelin, De 85. Each., c. 19.) Holy Communion" restores to .us something of our 6riginal integrity. St. Gregory o'f Nyssa says: Since we have tasted (of the forbidden tree) which has wounded our nhture, we must have something that will "heal what has been wounded . ~Now what is this? Nothing other than. that body that has showed itself stronger than death and was_the source of our life. For'as a little leaven, as the Apostle says, fermenteth the-whole mass, so the body give~ over by God to death thoroughly changes us into itself when itis within us. (Patrologia Graeca, 45, 94.) Thii does not mean, of course, that. concupiscer~ce is .completely extinguished by receiving the Holy Eucharist. But by means of the Sl~eciaI abundance of grace the sacra-ment ,brings to the soul, it is much easier to overcome the temptations o'f the flesh and the devil. (~oi~cupiscence is gre~itly restrained arid we are able to dominate ~it more easily. Such chanriels of grace are opened in the soul that they overflow, so to speak, to the Body whidh is so inti- ~atelyJconnected with it. But there is an even more immediate effect upon ~he body:Z Sometimes the presence df Christ in us weakens our propehsity~to be aroused by carnal excitations. By a cer-tain preternatural tempering of the bodily dispositions, it restrains,our natural incliiiation t0ward-things.6f the flesh. Although this is not certain, it dods seem that at times Christ has almost fettered concupiscence in the bodies of His saints, This would seem more .proBable since the sacrament of extreme unction affects the body when God sees fit. We ,must also take into consideration the fact that God can exercise His special providence in this regard by 91 C. A. HERBST Review for Religious removing external occasions that are the cause of sinf~l movements in man and by exciting in him thoughts and affectibns that lead to t.emlSerance. De Lugo explains that the Eucharist affects the body di/ectly and immediately "b~ro diminishing the intensity of the fire of_ concupiscence,' partly by putting the demons to flight so that they will not present images of sinful objects, partly by quieting and'sup-pressing the activi.ty of the humors, lessening their inten-sit, y, and so" forth" (De Sac. Each., 12, 5). The effect of Holy Communion on the body most dwelt upon in Christian tradition is that indicated by Christ in John 6, 55: "He that eateth my flesh, _and drinketh' my blood, hatheverlasting life: and I will raise him up in the last ~tay." Although it is decreed for every man once to die and for his body to return to the earth from whence it was taken, there results from the reception of this sacrament some beginning of incorruptibility and immortality already in this life. St. Ignatius speaks of "breaking one and_the same bread, which is the medicine of immortality, and the antidote to prevent us from dying, but (which causes) that we .should live forever in Jesus Christ" (Eph., 20). St. Irenaeus says: "Thus also our bodies, receiving the Eucharist, are no longer corrut~tible, having the hope of-tl~e ~esurrection"; and "How do they deny the flesh to be "capable of the gift of'God, which is eternal life, Which is nurtured by the body and blood of Christ, and is a member of rus. (Patroloqia Graeca, 7, 1029; 1126.) St. Cyril of Alexandria comments thus on John 6, 55: I, He says, being in him that is, by My flesh will raise him who eats up again, even on the last day. For, of course, it cannot be that He who accordihg to nature is life shoul'd not prevail over cor-ruption and vanquish de~th. So although death, which has taken hold of us by the Fall, has reduced the human body to the necessity of corruption, still, because Christ by His flesh is in us, ~e shall cer-tainly rise a~gain. For it is unthinkable, quite impossible even, that March, 1947 EFFECTS 0~- HOLY COMMUNION the Life should not restore life to those in whom He dwelt. For as we put a spark in a heap of straw that the seed.of the fire may~be preserved, sb also Our Lord Jesus Christ through His flesh enkindles life in us and, as it were, sows in us the seed of immortality which removes.all the corruptio.n that is in us. (Patrologia Graeca, 73,582.) In the dogmatic teaching of ~he ChurCh, one finds little about the effects of Holy Communion on the body; but .tra.dition-is heavy with it. Perhaps no better indication of its burden can be given than is contained in these words Of St.~ Irenaeus: ~ ~ 'Wherefore,also the Blessed Paul says in the Epistle to the Ephe: sians: "For we are members of his body, of his flesh and of his bones" (Epl~esians 5:30): not of some spiritual orinvisible ~an s~ying this :. "for a spirit has neither bones' nor-flesh" (Luke 24: 39) ~ but Of that disposition which is of a true man, which consists of flesh and nerves and bones. (Patrologia Graeca, 7, 1126~.) As indicated, modeln theologians have als0 made~m~fch of it. About ali that can be~said on the_whole matte~ has been summarized masterfully by qne of.the greatest of them. ~ W.hen Christ' is worthily received.,He is .r~eally joined ,witia the recipient, because He is truly and properly within him~ and as it were ~aken in a. bodily embrace. From this it follows that, as 10rig as Christ is present, in so far as it is from His sacramental power, He excites the recipient, to love, and in affection also embraces him cor-porally, who has Him corpora.11y within himself. Then again, from the same bodily reception and.as it were commingling, as the s~ints say, there remains,'~ven after the real presence of Christ is gone, a. certain relationship between Christ and the recipient. For by reason of that cont.act, by special title this one is considered something of Christ. Christ has special care not only~of his soul, but even of his bod~. He sanctifies it. He makes it partaker of His glory." (Suarez, .93 News Views Summer Sessions Two years ago-we volunteered~to publish information on summer sessions for (eligious, if the deans would send us the information. Since the experiment was not entirely sati~sfactory from our point of view, we decided to discontinue' it. It seemed, as the old saying goes, "more bother than it was worth." - However, some deans have shown su~fficient interest in the plan.to send information spontaneously;and we are quite willing to co-operate with them b~, publishing the" fol-lowing ann.ouncements. The University of Detroit will offer four institutes during the 1947 summer session, in addition to.a serie's of four lectures on Mental Hygiene in the Religious Life, and over a hundred different credit courses in nineteen departments. Doctor Francis J. Donohue, Direc-tor of the Summer Session, describes the Detroit program for. religious . as follows: ¯ "Rev."T. L. Bouscaren, S.J.', Profe.~sor of Canon Law at the Jesuit House of Theological Studies at West Baden Springs, Indiana, ~'- will give from July 7thto July 18ththe second of a series of'~hree Institutes on Canot~ Law. The Instituie for 1947- will consider problems concerning the confessions of religious women, religious services, obligations of Religious, the cloister and dismissal. During .the" same two-week period ihe Rev. Robert B. Eiten, S.,I., author of The Apostolate of Su~ering, will offer an Institute on the Proper Concept of the Religious Life, devoted to the practical application of the principles of Asceticism in the religious life. "During the next two-week period the University will-present an Institute on Hoipital Ethics, .given by the Rev. EdwiaF. Healy, S.~I., Professor of Moral Theology a~ West Baden College, and an Institute on Palochial Elementary School Curriculum directed by Sister Mary Edana, Ph.D., of Mercyhurst College, Erie, Pa. This secbnd series of Institutes will run from duly 21st to August 1st. "The daily schedule of the Institutes is so arranged that a student could take both Institutes if desired, or could take one'Institut~ and at least one course for either undergraduate~qr graduate credit. "In addition to tlX Institutes, the Rev. H. P. O'Neill, S.,I., will, present a series of four lectures on.Mental Hygiene in the Religious 94 NEWS AND VIEWS .I~ife, from'July 21st through July 24th. Father O'Neill's lectures will be open only to local superiors and to responsible officials of the various~ Motherhouses and have be~n scheduled so as not to conflict " in time with either of the two Institutes offered during the same week. "Religious who desire further informa~tion-are invited to com-munciate with Dr. Franci~ J. Donohue at the University of Detroit, Detroit 21, Michigan." . Father Adam C. Ellis, a member of our own editorial board, _will. conduct an Institute in Can6n Law-for Religious at St. Louis Uni-versity, June 23 to July 5, ificlusive (twelve day~). 'The institute is open to all religious; but it is intended particularly for superiors, mas-ters and mistresses of novices, bursars, find others charged with some - direction, of religious communities. For further informationJ on this . and other_courses of special value to religious, v~rite to the Dean of the Summer SeSsion, St. Louis University, St. Louis 3, Mo. "The theological .faculty of the Jesuit Seminary, Toronto, will conduct two summer schools for religious in July. Courses i'n Canon .Law and Fundamental Moral Theol09~ will be given at Mount St. Vincent, HalifaX;. July 21 to August 2. Cot~rses in Dogma, Scripture, and Ascetical Theolo~l~ will be given at Rosary Hall, Toronto, July.7 to 19. For further information write to the Dean of Summer School, 403~ Wellington St., West, Toronto, Ontario.° Conce~rnlng Pamphlets As we mention elsewhere in this number,-it would be impossible for us to review all the pamphlets sent to us; One reason is that we simply have not-time to read them; and a second reason is that, even if'we could read them all, we should not have sufficient space for the reviews. In fact, in a magazine the Size of ours, even, book reviews -present a serious problem. Our original idea was to confine our reviews to books of kpecial interest or value to religious. We still hope to achieve this~but hardly in the immediate future. As for the pamphlets, it seems only fair to call attention~to some of those listed in our present number. For instance, it might be noted' that The.Grail now publishe~ the pamphlets'of. Archbishop Goodier: Hints on Pra~/er: The C.hari~t~l o~ Jesus Christ; Points /~or Medita-tion; and ~1 More Excellent VCa~t. We had read these before, and we can recommend them all, especially the last-named. Our reading knowledge of the pamphlets received is limited to those four. However, if a scanning of, the'~contents is reliable, .95 o : NEWS AND VIEWS Review for Religious. 'think we might recommend two other Grail bool~lets (This, is desus, by the Ver, y"Rev. Emil Neubert. S.M.; ,and Imitate Your Blessed Mother, by Peter A. Resch, S.M.) because they seem to contain good" meditation matter. The Grail list also includes a set of booklets on the liturgy that might be aids to meditation. Reflections on the Introits are found in Newness,of Life; on the Collects, ,in Rouse Thy Might; on the Gospels, in The Mass Year; and on the Communion in Eruifful Days . Radio Replies Press is another publishing house that has .favored us with an abundance 6f pamphlets and booklets. ,Among those listed, the folIowing seem to be of special value for religious: First Friday¯ and June Devotions; Jesus in the Blessed Sacrament'; and Gen-eral Devotions to the Blessed Virgin because these booklets contain splendid collections of indulgenced prayers that can be used in public and private',dev0tions. Forty Hours for Priests and People offers complete explanation of this devotion, and gives the Latin of the three ,Votive Masses, with English translation, and explanation of the ceremonies. The Three Hours contains prayers for priest,~ and people to be used during the Tre-Ore, and a very brief Way of.the Cross, With the prayers arranged under the fourteen ~tchings of the Holy. Face by Hippolyte Lazerges. Way of the Cross for Childreff also include~ these etchings. The'Paraclete contains novenas illustrating the-gifts and, fruits'of the Holy Spirit. Religious might find much material for meditation in tlsis booklet. New Lay Apostolate ~ Before we leave °the subject of publications, we must say a ~word about a rather recent and°truly gigantic apostolic enterprise of one Cathohc family.- This is a hturg~cal calendar ent,tled Saints_ and Devotions. It covers the whole liturgical year, from Advdnt to. Advent, gives the Ma~s of eacfi day, a brief sketch of each of~tl'ie principal saints, an app~ropriate indulgenced aspiration, information concerning special novenas and indulgences, and so forth. In fact, the amount of helpful and. inspiring information woven into this artistic calendar is scarcely short of marvelous. You ha% to see it to believe it. The,present number of Saints and Devotions covers the liturgical ye, ar beginning with~Advent, 1946. We regret that we are sg.tardy in calling it to the attenti0n.of our readers. But we trust that the project :will go on through many years; hence, even if~ we are too l.ate March, 1947 NEWS AND VIEWS for the current year, we hope that by mentioning it now we shakl encourage our readers to write for, in~Ormi~tion ,and° thu_s.~be .,pre: pared for the years ahead. For the desired information, write to:, La Verna Publishing Company, Stowe, Vermont, ~ PAMPHLET~ .AND BOOKLETS .- o. , (Continued from p., 88) ¯ " Arise,. My Love. and Comet At vocational booklet published, by. the Sisters of Mercy ~'the Union, Scrant~t Province. (Mother of Mercy Novitiate; Dallas, Pennsylvanla.)~ Vocational Digest--Parents" Edition, 1946. Published ,by the Holy~ ~Cross Fathers. (The Director of Vocations, "Holy Cross seminary, Notre Dame, Indi-ana.) ' - TheoWorld We XVant. 35 refits. .(The Catechetical Guild, 128 E Tenth,. St. Paul 1, Minn.) Bits of Information for Sacristans, 15 cents: with proportionate rates on quantity orders. Bertha Baumann, the Little Guardian Angel of the Priest's Sat-urday. '(The Salvatonan Fathe'rs, Publishing'l~epartment~ St. Nazianz, Wisconsin.) The_~ Wron'9 Tar9et-lChats on Chatting. 10 cents. Words of Eternal Life, (The Pallottine Fa.thers, 5424 W. Blue Mound Road, .Mil.wauke~ 13, Wis.) ¯How to Pray the "Mass. - I/. (The Mercier Press, Cork.) ~$ister Annunziata's First Communion Catechism.20 cents. (Benziger Brothers, Inc., 26 Park Place, New Yor~.) Unifging the Teachim2 of Catechism and' the Spiritual Life. (Pontifical Col-le~ e Jose[ahinum, Worthington, Ohio.),~ Racial Myths. Single copies. 25 cents:~25 copies, $5.00:50 c~pies, $9.00: IO0 copies, $16.00. (Rosary-Col'lege Bookstore. Rosar~ C611e'ge, River Forest, Manual of the Reparation 8ociery of the Immaculate Heart of Marq~ (The Reparation~ Society,720 North Calvert St., Baltimore 2, Md.) ,Our Neighbors the Koreans. - 35 cents, (Field Afar Press, 121 East~39th St., New York, N.Y.) Brie~ Commentary on the Texts of Matins and Lauds of the Romai~ Breviary for .the 'Sundays of Passiontide. Mimeographed, 50 cents. (Rev. Michael A. Mathis, C.S.C., St. Joseph's Hospital; South Bend 17, Ind.) OUR CONTRIBUTORS C. '~A. HERBST is Director of Scholastics at St. Mary's College, Saint Marys. Kansas. T. N. JORGENSEN is a Professor of~ English at Creighton UnivCrsity, Omaha, Nebraska. ADAM C.ELLIS, G. AUGUSTINE ELLARD, and GERALD KELLY are the Editors of REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS. 97 Dit:l:icuit:ies G~ Augustine Ellard, S.3. IN A "PREVIOUS.ARTICLE an effort ivas made to point , out the facts Of .the.difficultie~ pe.ople experience in medi-tation and their causes. Then two remedies were sug.- ~e-sted: namely, (I) to remove the obstacles thht'could be got rid of; and (II) constructively to develop interest both in the truths of faith and in mental prayer !tself. Positive cultivation of interest is by all means the great means-to .- progress in prayer. Now it is proposed to add some other III. A third way to vitalize meditation i,s clearly to conceive the end or purpose of it and. then to feel quite free to choose any means that are suitable. Different persons -~ would express the aim of meditation differently, but/,11 such ¯ formulations should eventually .come to ~omething like- .these: namely, to ady_ance in the knowledge/, love, and work of God; or, to achieve wholehearted love of God, both affective and effective; or, intelligently and "earnestly to- - accomplish the divine plan for one. More particularly and more proximately mental prayer should give one a keener kno~-wled~e and a more. nearly adequate appreciaf!.on Of divine realities and ~v, alues, and thus greater good will," indeliberate and deliberate. To this end, clea.rly and s.teadily held before the mind, all contributive means are legitimate. Herein lies one of the great differences ~etween vocal and mental prayer. In. reciting the Office, for example, one has rio freedom; all that one can do is pre-cisely that which has been prescribed. In mdntal prayer one c~n follow any good-idea or"affecti0n or discuss any- -thing with God. God's own infinite_ magn.itude is an 98 DIFFICULTIES IN MEDITATION~II unlimited field to be explored and talked over with,Him. His whole universe, so far-reaching in space and time and scope, all conducive in some way or other to our supernat-ural d.estiny, is also appropriate matter for consideration with Him. Naturally an~ laudably in any particular.hour of prayer a person would have a specific purpose; but if ,he finds it too difficult to pursue that, he can always fall back upon. the general end of prayer. This is always available, and alway~s al~o great and inspiring. ¯ If one should find that he has nothing tO think about or nothing to say to God, he cofild prayerfully consider jhst this problem with God. He .might find exci~l.lent material °for humiliation and shame; and an advance in humility is one of the best .things possible in the spiritual life. ".In fact it would seem that in whatever situation or predicament a man can find hiinself, he could have a little conference about it with his heavenly Father a'nd turn it to 'good account. He could help verify the principle that to those who love God and-see their opportunities everythifig Works out for the best. IV. It has just been pointed out that in mental prayer one is free to do anything that promotes one's purpose. The intelligent ,6se of method enables one to make the most this freedom. Method may be necessary, in the beginning esp~ecially, and it may be most useful, but it is' not to be fol-lowed for its own sake. Like other means, to .which it assigns order and measure, it should be used when it con-tributes to the result sought: otherwise one should, feel at perfect'liberty,to abandi~n it. If.prayer comes naturally and spontaneously; so mudh the better. If it has to be kept going by deliberate effort, method may be a i~owerfut aid. ~If one comes to a dead stop and sees no way Qf gettin~ .started.again, it is method that may.do one that service: ;A" - priest 'reading his breviary never comes to "a dead stop; th~ G,AUGUSTINE ELLARD Review for Religious rubrics are there to tell him what to do next. If he.dbes not understand them at once,.he investigates, decides as wdl~ as he can, and then proceeds. He is never at a complete loss for something to do. Similarly in meditation method indi-cates What'is~ to .be done next when Sl3ontaneity fails. It will be an aid, not a burden, if it be used intelligently.and rightly. . To help different people or the same person at different times, there are at least eleven methods of meditation that are more or less ~ell. known. As listed by, zimmermann- Ha.gge.ncy in Grundriss der Aszetik (pp. 86 ff.),.th~y are as'follows: (1) The fundamental 6r three-faculty~method; ('2) the same simplified and reduced~to a few, le~ding ques-tions; (3) contemplation in the Ignatian sense (persons, 'words, actions): (4) application of~ the senses;~ (5) port, dering a serie~,: for example; the seven capital sins, ithe. eight beatitudesLand so~ forth; (6) rumination on the successive wof'ds or phrases 6t; a vocal prayer,~ like the Our Father.; (7)"meditative reading; (8) °method of. St. Peter of Alcari-tara (concentration on the~idea of beiaefits received and thanksgiving for them),; (9,) the. method of St. Francis de Sales (considerations, affections, resolutions, thanksgiving, offerings, petitions) ; ,(10) the method of.St. Alpho~nsus ISiguori (prayer of petition emphasized);' (11)~ the~, Sul-pician method (a.~6ratiqn, communion, c0-operation. doubt there are many persons sufficiently .intelligent and interested who could in the light of one or more of these sys-te. ms devise still another one peculiarly'suited to their own indi~cidual mentalities.' In any case one can hardly com-plain that there is not enough variety, or that meth6d, if properly used, weighs the soul down, ~ In addition to these formularies it could be an aid to some people to have ready-made lists of the affections and also of the motives to which they could turn for~suggestion I00 ' March, 1947 DIFFICULTIES IN MEDITATION II. in times of need. Such schemes could be of great assistance in moments of temptation as well. as during the hour~ of meditation. To illustrate what is meant, an example or t,wo may be given. When in the course of one's mental prayer it is appropriate that one should feel moved and still one is ~o torpid that no emotion arises.spohtaneously, one could ask : ','Which of these affections should I feel ?- Love, hatred; desire, aversion; joy,~ sorrow; hope, despair:~cour-age,', fear; anger?" If a man has been thinking of some good person, or thing, perhaps he should feel moved to compla-cence, admiration, awe, a sense of sublimity,, reverence, desire, hope, confidence, courage; love, joy, gratitude, zeal, loyalty, emulation. , An evil object might call forth displeasure, hatred, aversion, horror, disgust, pity, fear;- grief, shame, humiliation, confusion, contrition, and so forth. To move or stren.gthen the will, one might consider such motives as these schemes propose: ~ ~x 1. Holy happy they~are who carry ou~ the divine plan; nega,- tively, positively.--Hqw lovely, God is! 2. The consequences, good or bad7 of.possible courses of action; for self, for God, for others; in time, in eternity.---Their intrinsic.~ - values; the pleasant or unpleasant features about them: their proprie-ties or improprieties. " ¯ ~ 3. Necessity, (possibility), facility,uPleasure, utility, .nobility. 4. Truth, goodness, beauty.--Accomplishment, joy, peace: b~atitude, imperfect in time, perfect in eternity. " V. Lindworsky "in his book, The Psychology o[ Asceti-cism (pp. 58 ft.), makes an.effort to point out how in the ~Iight of modern psychology meditation m, ay be facilitated, ¯ The follow.ing is a very brief summary. When first learning to meditate, try what is reall~, a combination of vocal and ~nental\prayer. Take a formula, for example, the ten commandments, recite a few words, pause, reflect, app.ly the ~matter to yourself~ be sorry for past failures, 101 G. ,AUGUSTINE EI~LAI~D Review [or Religious renew your good will for the future~ ask God's assistance: then go on to the next few words, trea~ them shni!arly; and thu~ proc~ed through the whole forrdula, XVhen medi-tating upon some abstract truth or some scene fro~ the ¯ Gospel, expect to go over old ideas that you have learned rather than toexcogitat'e new ones of your own. There are. not many .minds that can do much origir~al thinking. Then to"evoke and guide thought, have some "anticipating scheme," such as the familiar questions, "Who?'~ What? When?. Why?" and so fbrth. Try to develop imagery that-is- rich and realistic. Do. not expect the process of repro-ducing ideas to b~come much easier by repetition. When One is contemplating something that. is or was visible, for example, an incident in the life Of Christ, it is advisable to visualize it, that is, to reconstruct it as fully as possible before the e~es of the.imagination. Then, also one should .cultivate empathy/, that is, feel oneself, as it were, into the situation of those who a~tu~lly' took part in the historical occurrence; how, for instance, should I '.have felt if I had been one of the spectators at the-resurrection of Lazarus? Finally, in all mental prayer one. should keep in mind and be guided in the first place by the though~ of one's ~rocation, its purpose, its requirements, values, and so ¯forth. .VI. Amgng other aids to meditation the-following deserve mention or further consideration: 1. Pra~lerful and reflective reading is perhaps the' most obvious help and one that hardly any.literate person could normally 'excuse himself fr6m. It is not at all equal in commendability to m'ental prayer, but is a very excellent means of prayer and sanctification, andincomparably better than, say, sleeping. Nor is .it so lowly and mean as may at first appear. For many years no less a mystic tfaan the great St.Theresa needed a book to pray over. Of course the ,book Chosen should be suitable for the purpose, rich, mdaty, March, 1947 ' DIFFICULTIES IN MEDITATION II suggestive., ~. From rime'to time one sl~ould pause;, reflect, apply the ideas-to oneself; and confer with God. Medi-tative reading would,seem to be the absolute minimum to, be exPecte~ from an intelligent and earnest-person. 2. Thoughtful vocal prayer can also be.a great.~help,. In prayers of one'sown choice it is not the ~aumber of words that counts, but the disposition of mind, of .feeling, and of --will with which they, are said. Hence the de~ir~ibility of imp[oving these qualities. To recite one's prayers slowly, deliberately, emphasizing appropriate phrases or repeating them, and to throw as much heart and spirit ,,as possible into them, are so many ways~0f augmenting the efficacy of. therri. One of St. Teresa's nuns could not pray except vocally : .but in this case it was discovered that the recitation was accompanigd by a high form of mystical contempla-tion (The Way of ,Perfection, chap., ,41). Very -probably the best way to recite the Divine Office--I do not _say tile easiest or the fastest-~--would be to try to accompany it with a ~entle sort of diffuse contemplation. This way-,would .als0 be felt as .less burdensome-than some others. For St. Ignatius in-his last years, the breviary was so potent a stimulus to contemplation that he could not get on with-saying it andhad to be dispensed from the obligation. 3. All°~uthorities on prayer are agreed that for success in it'a minimum measure of morti~cation is ,required. It would not be possible except for a short time since'rely and earnestly to strive during° meditation to prefer the better things and ask God to help one unless at other times one tried, and to some extent successfully, to forego the worse ~hings. Bodily mortification is one of the first means to spiritual iidvankement and a person could not neglect it altogether, and then decently and wholeheartedly beseech God for His graces. Interior mortification, or self-coxitrol, rn'astery of~one's emotions, is even more ~learly and closely 103 G. AUGUSTINE ELLARD Review for. Religiot2s connected with prayer and imperatively demanded by it. Mental prayer is" almost synonymous with cultivating a good moral disposition, and this in .turn is almost synony-mous with holding one's inferior ificlinations in check. -Nobody who complains of too much difficulty or of failure in meditation need fe~l discouraged until he has given mor-tification, one of the standard means, a fair trial. Pro-ficiency in mental prayer is not one of thOse good things. that one can get for nothing. 4. Distractiot~S are a teasing and perennial prbblem-. We can hardly hope for a complete victory over them. But even when involuntary and inculpable they involve a real loss of precious,graces, and. to reduce this it is all the more necessary to make our conquest of them as nearly complete as possible.1 How close to perfect victory it c~in come is shown b'y the records of ~ome of the saints, notably of St. Aloysius. There is no simple remed~ for distractions. ~Tbe saints seem to have combated thein with a multiplicity _ o~:weapons. Each one must find out for himself what com-bination of means is most effective foi him. A little knowledge of t~he psychology of a~ttention will make one's effort more ,intelligent. We may distinguish three stages in the development of attention. In the first it is instinctive or exploratory and depends upon native or acquired interests. With this, for instance, a teacher of small children mus~.begin. Then for a time attention.may be forced; tb~at is, it m, ay need to be supported'by extraneous motives. The. old-fashioned teacher's hickory, stick may exemplify thi~ phase, or a college student toiling for credits. 1The statement in the text to the effect that even involuntary distractions involve a loss of precious graces may sound startling to some. However, it should be kept in mind that strictly mental prayer is incompatible with distractions, whether volun-tary or involuntary. A distraction really brings mental prayer to a dead stop; and thus the fruits that belqng precisely to the mental prdyer itself are lost. It is true, 0f course, that the effort made to avoid distractions is highly pleasing to God: and it may well be that God rewards this effort with graces that equal or even sutpass the fruits that would be obtained from a prayer made without distractions. ED. 104 March, 1947 DIFFICULTIES IN MEDITATION--II Finally, wheri the matter is fit to excite and' hol._d interest and one has,got sufficiehtly far into-it to see and feel that fact, attention becomes spontaneous. This of-cot~rse is the Kind that is desirable .and to be aimed at. Determinants .o~ attention, as enumerated by psy-chologis, ts, may be either external (objective) or internal (subjective). In the case of meditation the.external factors are likely to be sources of, trouble. Change attracts notice; witness lights that flicker on and off. Loud noises and bright colors are more apt to get attention. The larger,a ~hingis, the more probably, other.things being equal,, it will be remarked. .R_epetition makes for attention in many cases; thinl~ of certain advertisements or slogans. Nov~etty of any kind or unusualness is one of the .very best stimu-- Iantsof attention. Position may give an object a b~tter chance for notice, for instance, if it is nearer the observer or in the center, say, of a picture or display. Lastly, and mostly, significance br meaningfulness is a. potent .cause of attention; for a soldiel on guard in the combat zone the slightest noise or movement may be mo~t important and get his ,rapt consideration. These external stlmull,-are in general .just what one who is trying to pray without dis-tractions must as far as possible avoid. ., Tl~e internal, subjective factors are much more rele-vant to our l~urpose. It is easy and natural for us to aitend to whatever is in accord with our fundamental instinctive inclinations; an example would be anything that touches our pride or inherent tendency to pleasure. The same is true of the leading emotional "tendencies that we have admit'ted into our lives or deliberately built up therein. A strong and long fostered zeal for the foreignmissions would make one attentive~to anything that concerns th, em. Our moods have a similar effect. When we are glad we are inclined to notice what makes us more glad and w.hen we !05 G. AUGUSTINE ELEARD ~ Retffeu).for Religious are- d~pfessed we-are only too ~apt to concentrate on any-- thing that fits in Wi~h our melancholy humor. Habitual attitudes are another determinant. "A kindly ~lispo~ed per--. son will attend to. th~ better-things in others, a'rfd a con-firmed fault-finder will rather see~ their weaknesses. Edu-cation and training prepare us to attend to special fields.: Think of the differences in this respect between, say. teaching nuns, hospital workers, and'_cloistered contempl.a-tires. Of all these interior conditions pertinent to atten-. tion.and it~ opposite, distraction, perhaps ~he most i.mp~)r-. rant for those who are cultivating mental prayer is one's °purpgse, whether it. be passing' or permanent. Ifi for e~ample, a man's aim be to make a particular sale or to amass millions of. dollars before he dies, it will .be natural for him to .give his attention tO Whatever seems to conduc~ to that.purpose or to interfere with iL One wh~ is seeking fame and. honor is~ sensitive to_. all that pertains to if'and indiffereni: to other~ things. A saint is alert and resporisive to whatever'makes for progress in the love. and service of God,', an~ apostle_to anything that appears to promise help ifi sanctifying souls. Henc~ the, supreme importance and necessity of knowing, with the, ~utmost clarity, w15at ,we should want, of appreciating its value ~.fully, and then of really ~and earnestly. ~anting it. ~Naturally enough we attend to what we really want. ~ In r.addition to ,knowing and respecting the psycho-logical law~ that govern attention and: diversibn of it, one's. effort to ~ivoid distractions might well include o'the~ "fol-lowing: to acknowledge, with the proper, sense of humili-ation, that the force of distractions is greater for one,than the .attrac,tion~of God or of union with Him; to feel and appreciate as realistically as possible wha~ great.priv~ation~a in the spiritual order distractions cause for us, foroGod, and for souls: to understand that abi!ity to concentrate is One 106 March, 1947 DIFFICULTIES IN MEDI~FATION--II" 6f the most elementary desirable t?aits ii'n a p,ersonality, and that~ it is moie or less necessary for any kind of success. (nobody would expect much from a scatterbrained crea, tute.); and, ~finally, when distrac'tions do Occur and are noti.ced, to turn them to good account by a-vigorous recall of attention~ by hu,mbling oneself, by deploring the losses suffered, by talking the matter over with Gqd from differ, ent~ points of view, andby begging grace to profit even f, ro~ bne's weakneises. 5. An aid:to progress-in meditation that is especia11~ in place for American religious and priests of the twentieth century is rnoderatibnin external activities. For some~there always was the danger of.neglecting one's own interior 'life and giving oneself e~cessively to works of zeal for others, Various r~asons now seem to make this danger greater than ever before, In any man, thought.should, hold h certain primacy overaction, and above all in one who profes, ses to specialize, in the spiritual life. Overabsorption in wprk, even if it be the best possible kind of work, leaves one too tired physically for mental prayer, unbalances one's intdr- f._ :. ests and preoc~cupations, and, perhaps worst bf all, involves a certain necessity of being more or less distracted while attempting to deal with God and one's own soul. ~ 6. One of the. best means to progress iri Virtue and in prayer-is what ~e may call the general discipline of one's imagination., and emotions. It is about .the same as interior mortification or, what is more pertinent now, recollection. It is both an effect of prayer and a condition of success in subsequent prayer. If a man leave his imagination and emotions free to drift fo_r'themselves, at the very leasth~ will squander much of his energy and time, accomplish l~ss for himself and for souls, give God so much less glory, and be less happy in heaven for eternity. But it is hardly pos-sible that such a man's losses should he"merely negative. :107 G. A~GUSTINE ELLARD ~ Re~iew for Religiot~s Sooner or later he will also com~it more s~in andothus incur positive penalties. So much for the effect upon his moral ,status in general. As for prayer, he will come to it less well prepared, with less taste for it, ,with greater tendencies to all that is contrary to it, and naturally therefore with less facility in it. ~ Provin~ ~he good will protested to God in this morning's meditation will keep one better recollected during the day, better disposed in every way to avoid, evil and do good,~and betterfitted to deepen that good will in tomorrow morning's prayer. 7. Bodily posture ,is a factor of success or failt~re in prayer. Those who are free should find out by experiment what position helps them most at the time of meditation. It could.hardly be the one whichis also the most conducive to sleep. In any case it must be reverent. 'At °different times or in different states of mind or of nerves, various positions may be best. During an hour both kneeling and standing might be used., Gentle walking back and forth in some suitabl~ place is a distinct aid to some people. "One possible advantage about it is that it helps to keep away drowsiness. 8. If the aim be prayer, rather than something else, there dhould-be intelligent choice or: subject matter. The needs, capacities, graces, and so on, of all the individual members in a community are not just the same; still less are t,hey the same on, say, the fifteenth of March every year for a lifetime. Therefore, from the pqint of view of prayer it is not desirable, generally speaking, that points be read to a whole community, especially from the same book, year after year. Here again th~ guiding principle should be, "Know your objectiye and select the most suitable means!" Often-times, for instance, subjects taken for meditati6nshould be such as will reinforce one's efforts in the particular examen. T6 those whb are in earnest the Holy- Spirit may suggest at, the oddest moments lights that would make excellent 108 Ma~cb, 19,17 ~ COMMUNIGATIONS starting points for meditation. 9. Finally, it would.be a distinct aid to proficiency, in mental prayer to read, say. every fe.w years, one after another of the great classical works on prayer. As weil known and fairly recent works dn prayer one might men-tion ~the following :-R. De Maumigny, S.3., The Practic~ of Mental Pra~/er (two volumes, one on ordinary, the Other 6n extraordinary, prayer; 1905) ; Vital Lehbdey, O.Cist., .W a s of Mental Pra~]e~" (1908): E. Leen, C.S.Sp., ~ress Through' Mental ~Prayer,~ (!935); R. Garrigou- " Lagrange, O.P., .C~hristian Contemplation and Perfection "-" ,(!923), or bett~er xlow:~ The. Three Age£ of the lntertor Life (two volume.s;' 1938) ~, " ~. _ ' To conclude our~.whole study, it seems,upon analysis of the facts .and-comparison with other pertinent activities that the great difficulty in meditation is neither more nor less than lach of interest, "Whence the solution suggests itself: Read, reflect, andpray over these three questions: W/~ should I be interested? Wha¢ difference does it make? What can Ido to become interested? ~ ° ~ Reverend Fathers5 ¢ In my opinion, much of the prevailing difficulty that exists for religious in the exercise .of mental prayer is owing to the fact that so -little is known by religious of a'nything beyond the discursive method of prayer (cofisiderations, affections, resolutions). Many guides of souls (particularly in novitiates and houses of formation) la~y little or no stresson the continuity that exists between the ascetical and the mystical life, between the discursive meditation of the beginner and trheseu vlta mrioanuys ~s traegliegsi ooufs a, cwqhueirne din c tohnetierm sppilraittiuoanl odfe vthyel gpprmofeicnite"n tth: eAys't iaave 109 ÷ COMMUNICA~fIONS Review "out~rown" d~scurs~ve medhafion~and~ ~thet¢~ is .reasontto~el~e aft r a weII-~mded nowtmte~, many~reh~xous are alread~ .~r~pe~ for a~ect~ve prayer) are left to sh~tt, tot themselves. ~ed~tat~on ~tscu~s~ve variety) -becomes ~cult,. eveK ~mposmble"~ ~ut thert ~s no gulaance~as to~w~ere to'go next.~ e ~'~ %~ ~ ¯ ~ - ~Perso~hlly ~ h feeb that at: .the~ very startsof, religi6Us'dife ~every ~ovi~e at mental~ pra~er ought ~to:b~, made acquainted ~ith t~e short ~t£eatise of~ Bossuet entitled "A Short,and Easy Me~hbd¢of~Making the~Prayer oLFaitb~and of. the Sim~le Presence of God." An Eng-lish vermon ot t~s will be round ~n t~e~ ~ppenfl~x o~rogress ~fo~ef~ a'~transiat~on +or t~e lnstr~ct[ons~splflt~e~les or ~ere ~aus-s~ de,'STd.~ (pu~i~sh~d by H~rder, 190~). . ~Ee methoffrecommen~ed~ , ~by. Bossuef will" be of hel~ to'every &age.df'spiri~ual' developmen~/, bu~ ~speci~Ily to~the ~eligi~us wh6 has ~be~un ~o-find~ djsquCsiye meditation di~cult or impossible. "I might also,recommend P~re Caussade~s ~work Abandonment to Divine~Provfaenqe, with the many practical h~nts on prayer;~n'~m~letters of dxrect~on to S~sters. .~Rega~di~g.~di~c~ti~s in.m~nt~l ptayer:~ABBot'J~hn chapman givts~a~simple~rule: .~'Pray as you can~ and d6 not try to, pray,as y6u can't.;' ~vtry to~keep~,to.~d~scurmye.+med~tat~on whenz~that longer su{ts one's needs is harmful to spiritual growth. ~ But at same ttme ~bbot ~napman tnststs t~at prayer, tn the sense ~t umon w~th God, ts the most crucifying thing there is.+ One must do tt God's-+ake:+but one will not get+any s~tisfacmt'~on+ out ~f+'it+, :ih' the sense of feeling 'I am good at prayer,' 'I have an infallible method." That would be disast+ous, sine+ what we want to lear+ is precisely ou~own weakness, powerlessness, unworthiness . And one should wish for no prayer, eg~ept pr~isely the prayer that God gi~e+ probably+very di+trac+ed-and ~unsatisfactory in every wayt" (The Spiritual Letters of+"Dom John Chapman, Sheed ~ ~ard, N. Y., 1935 unfortunately out of print.) Finally,, I,should~like t6 ,list a few books that I 'have found very helpful,_in :unraVeling my own di~culties in prayer: Mental according to the teaching of~Saiht ~h~mas Aquinas, by Rev. +Denis Fahey,,~.s.sp. (D~blih: Gill ~ ~Sbn, 1927),: Tbe Practice oUtbe Presence~ o£G0d ~(the spiritual teachings of ,Brother ~awrence of:~the Resurrection), (Newman Bookshop, Wt~tminster, Md., 1945); Cbristiaff, Perfection -and,; Contemplation,,,~,:by Garrigou-k~grange (H~rder;.1;9.37)'~. ~Add to:these., of, sourse, ~the. wor~ by t Caussade and~Ch~pman mehti~ne~ab6ve. . +~ +. q~l 0 Maixb,:l 9 4 7" COMMUNICATIONS ~ 'Before ~losin-g I should like' to comment .on one: remark of Abl~ot Chapman ,quoted. above: "One ih0uld~ wish"for" no prayer;.exc~pt precisely theprayer that God gives"us. ':." Prfiyer is precisely,that-L-a gift of G6d: the effect'of His grace in our s6uls.,. Perhaps if is, f6r-getfulness of thi~ point°ithat occa.~ions so much preoccupation .with following partidular mefhods, in prayer: ,.Tbe,:perfectidn of otir spiritual "life :(hence 6f out'prayer, life) cbnsists in ufiion ,with' God; a'~d ,the greater the. simplicity in our prayer, th[~ more perfect ,'~our union".'. "Any way~ that:we have of praying that succeeds in ,bringing usdoser to God is a~'good way for us individtially---, it is 'disasirou~ to "regulate" inethods of

Inhaltsangabe:Introduction: In the past two decades backpacker tourism has grown vastly throughout both developed and developing world. Particularly to south and Southeast Asian countries the phenomenon of backpacking is not new, so to India, where it dates back to the 60's and 70's hippy drifters, to which backpacking is often associated. It has been since the publication of the Lonely Planet's 'Yellow Bible' ('Southeast Asia on a Shoestring') in 1975 that backpacking has gradually emerged as a mass travel style. Today popular travel-yourself literature cover almost every corner of the globe, serving a steady demand for 'off the beaten path' travel. Thereby to backpackers the developmental background of a destination plays a lesser role than to the mainstream tourist, who is demanding certain infrastructural arrangements. As a result backpackers are found in utmost remote and low developed locations that other tourists never reach. Thus backpacker enclaves have emerged in many places throughout the world, and not without effects on their hosting environments. While social impacts often carry negative connotations, hosting communities do usually appreciate backpackers for their economic contributions. Objectives and Scope of this paper: In recent years backpacker tourism has profoundly been studied in developed contexts, particularly Australia and New Zealand are to be seen the pioneering regions of independent travel research, having undertaken strenuous efforts to study the same within the past two decades. As a consequence both destinations have recognized the economic value of low budget travel to their countries and established backpacker tourism as high yielding segments within their national tourism markets. In both countries backpacking has since undergone shift from de-marketing to a marketing label. Though in recent years international research has made numerous successful attempts to study backpacker tourism in less developed contexts, many tourism officials in third world destinations as yet refuse to accept the economic reach coming along with low-budget travel. Instead a majority of administrative instances promote upscale- and regulated forms of tourism to be the way forward, neglecting any concerns with regard to necessary infrastructure or initial investments. Though only a fraction of developing nations do actively restrict independent travel to their territories (e.g. Maldives, Bhutan), a majority at best tacitly ignores the phenomenon. Other cases have proven forceful discouragement from local authorities and government bodies. India is an example, though having a long tradition as a backpacker destination and as yet well reputing among international travellers, there are strong indications that tourism planners and authorities follow the common misbelieve that low budget equals low revenue tourism and begin displacing backpacker tourism, in particular from designated tourism priority zones. At this point the present paper starts to assume relevance. It aims at proving the economic significance of international backpacker tourism in a third world context, particularly the economic development impacts coming along with this form of travel. Beside setting up an explorative backpacker profile of independent travellers in India it examines the case of a remote Indian traveller enclave including the local and regional economic developments directly and indirectly resulting from budget travel. Basing on empirical research firstly a backpacker profile is being created, providing fundamental quantitative data on travellers in India and the study area itself. A second aim of this paper is to place the backpacker in India into an international context and identify similarities and differences to his counterpart in other regions of the world. Furthermore it follows the question of the existence of different types of backpackers in India. Hence, survey findings are being contrasted with data from other, international backpacker markets, as well as theoretic defining and distinction criteria. The identification of parallels farther allows an application of economic development criteria from other destinations onto the Indian context. The section therewith sheds light onto the demand side of India's contemporary budget travel market. A qualitative approach has been chosen to run down on backpacker economic development impacts on Havelock in the Andaman Islands, representing the study area of this paper. Substantiated by data from the backpacker profile this second section portrays the case of a remote islands enclave, and how backpacker tourism impacts on its local economy. Again findings are being contrasted with a number of theoretic criteria, in order to emphasize their significance to the region. Farther the evolutionary path of backpacker enclaves is being followed and the question whether or not independent travel spearheads organized forms of tourism. This section particularly approaches the supply side of independent travel in India and the area of focus. Finally the paper aims at identifying factors for success of backpacker travel in India and the Andaman Islands.Inhaltsverzeichnis:Table of Contents: 1.INTRODUCTION1 1.1Objectives and Scope1 1.2Structure3 1.3Overall Methodology4 THEORETICAL CONTEXT 2.INTRODUCTION TO THE DESTINATION6 2.1Destination India6 2.1.1India's developmental situation6 2.1.2Geography and climate7 2.1.3Politics and economy7 2.1.4Tourism in India8 2.2Destination Andaman Islands13 2.2.1Geographic facts13 2.2.2Brief historical review14 2.2.3Population14 2.2.4Economy and industry14 2.2.5AN Islands tourism15 2.3Destination Havelock Island16 2.3.1Location16 2.3.2Population16 2.3.3Landscape and infrastructure16 3.BACKPACKER DEFINING CRITERIA TYPOLOGIES17 3.1Cohen's tourist typology17 3.1.1The Organized Mass Tourist17 3.1.2The Individual Mass Tourist18 3.1.3The Explorer18 3.1.4The Drifter18 3.2Riley's defining criteria of independent travellers (1988)19 3.3Defining criteria of contemporary backpackers20 3.3.1Pearce's defining criteria of backpackers (1990)20 3.3.2Ateljevic Doorne's defining criteria of backpackers (2000)22 3.3.3Contrasting Ateljevic Doorne's backpacker types with24 4.DEFINING CRITERIA WITH REGARD TO THE STUDY AREA25 4.1The backpacker enclave25 4.2Forms and types of backpacker enclaves26 4.2.3Urban and Rural Enclaves26 4.2.4Functional and Destinational Enclaves26 4.2.5Concentrated and Dispersed Enclaves26 4.3The evolutionary paths of backpacker enclaves27 4.3.1Butler's Tourist Area Life Cycle (TALC) Model27 4.3.2Papatheodorou's advanced evolutionary approach30 5.BACKPACKER TOURISM ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT CRITERIA31 5.1Scheyven's Economic Development Criteria of Budget Tourism32 STUDY RESULTS 6.THE QUANTITATIVE SURVEY – PROFILING THE BACKPACKER34 6.1Methodology of the quantitative survey34 6.1.1Conceptualisation of the survey34 6.1.2Survey execution37 6.1.3Evaluation of data39 6.2Survey findings and discussion42 6.2.1Socioeconomic aspects - who is travelling?44 6.2.2Travel company, itinerary and trip length50 6.2.3Travel motivations56 6.2.4Use of infrastructure61 6.2.5Budgeting and expenses69 6.2.6Organized activities on Havelock Island74 6.2.7Statements to rate regarding India as a destination76 6.3Summary of survey findings78 6.3.1Demographics78 6.3.2Travel company78 6.3.3Travel motives78 6.3.4Itinerary79 6.3.5Use of infrastructure80 6.3.6Spending81 6.4Contrasting study findings with defining criteria of Pearce, Ateljevic Doorne82 6.4.1Comparison of survey findings with defining criteria of Pearce82 6.4.2Comparison of survey findings with Ateljevic Doorne's advanced defining criteria84 7.THE QUALITATIVE SURVEY – ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IMPACTS ON HAVELOCK ISLAND86 7.1Methodology of qualitative interviews86 7.2Study findings and discussion87 7.2.1A temporal review of Havelock's budget tourism development88 7.2.2Economic development impacts on Havelock91 7.2.3The case of Shri Dhananjoy Mondal and family97 7.4Summary of local economic development impacts on Havelock99 7.5Contrasting Havelock's status with Scheyven's defining criteria101 8.DEFINING HAVELOCK'S CURRENT STATUS AS A BACKPACKER ENCLAVE104 8.1Classification of Havelock's status according to Cohen and Howard104 8.2Classification of Havelock's evolutionary status according to Butler Papatheodorou105 8.3Do backpackers spearhead mass tourism?108 9.SUCCEEDING FACTORS FOR BPT DEVELOPMENT110 9.1Resources beneficial to tourism development110 9.2Surrounding conditions beneficial to independent travel development113 9.3Success factors for backpacker travel development in brief118 10.CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDED COURSE OF ACTION119 11.REFERENCES123 12.ANNEX130Textprobe:Text Sample: Chapter 6.3.1, Demographics: The backpacker found to be travelling in India is young, commonly under the age of 30. Males and females are equally distributed and the majority originates a western background (Europe and North America). Remarkable are a very high percentage of young Israeli travellers, constituting the strongest source nation of the sample, was found to be travelling in Andaman Islands. Israeli travellers in particular are young, with a large majority under the age of 25. Age composition of backpackers matches findings from previous surveys. Independent travellers in India are very well educated, either already having a university degree, or still studying for one. Only a fraction of the sample is full time employed, a larger proportion was found to be in an undetermined status - e.g. between two major phases in life - hence 'travelling' best suited their current occupation. Again present findings coincide with findings from earlier studies, from other parts of the world. 6.3.2, Travel company: The minority of backpackers in India travel on their own, the majority seek company of partner, friend(s) or fellow travellers. The result opposes findings from developed destinations, where a majority is found to be travelling alone. The assumption was substantiated, that independent travellers in third world destinations strongly tend to seek travel company. Increased hardship of travel and strangeness of host culture were named to be the most reasonable explanations. 6.3.3, Travel motives: The traveller to India is attracted by a composition of motives, commonly aspects of exploration, excitement and relaxation. A basic drive for the backpacker is a thirst for experience of India's natural, historical and cultural assets. Farther, sun and beach ranks as a top pull drive, as well as India's low overall cost of living and travelling. Rather specific for India is the 'spiritual traveller' who visits holy places and partly participates in meditation or Yoga. A majority of 'spiritual' travellers is of Israeli origin, many of those are involved in drug consumption. The assumption was made that the low living expenses in India strongly promote it to backpackers as a travel destination. At the same time - though being value for money - India does not appeal as a country for shopping. Rather there are indications that India receives recognition as a country for temporary tertiary education. The survey uncovered 3 'study backpackers', a fairly recent phenomenon which had already been reported from Australia. When it comes to Andaman Islands the relaxational aspect of pull factors comes to the fore. Travellers to Andaman Islands seek both, to actively and/or passively relax from strains of travel while exploring tropical beaches. The backpacker to Andaman Islands often follows recommendations from previous visitors (friends, relatives other travellers) and seeks thrill in adventuresome eco-activities. Snorkelling and SCUBA-diving are the most popular ventures backpackers opt for. 6.3.4, Itinerary: Most backpackers visit India for the first time and travel the country as part of a longer trip. Popular countries (intended to be) visited apart from India are Nepal, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam and Cambodia. Multiple destination travellers are heading from west to east. The overall trip length averages little above 20 weeks whereof 13 weeks are spent in India. Israeli backpackers commonly travel longer than the average, as they do stay in India. Trip lengths drawn from comparative studies commonly vary. Assumptions were made that the ultimate duration of stay is country specific and strongly depending on framework conditions. Available types of Visa, cost of living and incidental work opportunities would account as such. The backpacker to the Andaman Islands is a first time visitor, substantiating the island's status as a virgin destination. The average sojourn time in the archipelago is three weeks, whereof two weeks are spent on Havelock Island. This supports Havelock's reputation as a backpacker enclave and destination of choice for backpackers. 6.3.5, Use of infrastructure: The backpacker to India commonly travels on budget public transport systems. When compared to other destinations, Indian railway outweighs road based transport (bus). This was said to be due to Indian trains' excelling comfort when compared to (rough) road bound modes, while being value for money at the same time. Remarkably the backpacker to India air travels within the boarders of India at least on occasion. On one hand this was found to be a result of the study's realization on a remote island archipelago, involving a vast majority of the surveyed' in some sort of aviation. On the other hand the existence of hub- and overland backpackers has been substantiated, as well as the triumph of India's low cost air carriers (LCC). Compared to developed destinations rented self drive is only popular in/around enclaves. Travellers on Havelock opt for bicycle and/or scooter. Purchased self drive (e.g. campervan) as common in Australia does hardly exist in India. This has been identified a result of legal obstacles as well as distinct traffic and road conditions. When travelling to Andaman Islands backpackers choose to fly. Again the overall preference for budget housing has been substantiated. Travellers in India tend to stay in private guesthouses, farther quality local hotels or beach shack-type/ bamboo hut housing. Israeli travellers tend to be more rigorous when it comes to accommodation, a large proportion chooses ultra budget staying over comfort where available. Backpacker hostels as found in other destinations do not exist in India, nor do camping facilities or youth hostels. Travellers in India share their counterparts disfavour for upscale housing, as comparison with other studies reveals. Backpackers on Havelock exclusively stay in bamboo huts. This is due to inexistent alternatives in the budget sector, and the prevalent nature of this traditional type of housing. The traveller in India commonly chooses 'authentic' facilities to eat. Of highest popularity are small local restaurants, offering host culture interaction. To buy food from local shops and markets appeals as an option to most travellers. Price consciousness plays an important role and commonly outweighs the setting of a place. Fastfood chains, though increasing in numbers are commonly disregarded. Upscale and A/C restaurants are only being frequented on occasion. Backpackers in India use guidebooks to draw travel information, as they rely on reports from fellow travellers. The assumption was made that third world backpackers rely on information from word of mouth far more often than their counterparts in developed destinations. This has been explained with lacking reliable alternatives. In contrast to other destinations the internet is not as popular, though still used at least on occasion. India's infant stage of web based, travel-related information platforms was identified a possible explanation. 6.3.6, Spending: Despite a low daily budget of only EUR 12,5 backpackers in India each spend a total of EUR 2300 in the country. This was found to be less than in Australia but far more than contributions of average tourists (cf. Section 2.1.4). The largest proportion of the backpacker's daily spending account for basic needs, namely food, beverages and accommodation. In contrast to travellers in Australia those in India clearly do not spend money on shopping and souvenirs. This is outbalanced by those enrolling in organized activities. The backpacker in Andaman Islands does spend a multiple of his average daily spending on exceptional eco- and adventuresome activities (SCUBA diving/ snorkelling excursions). Similar results have been found for Australia and New Zealand.

 This post is illustrated by some of the promo work I have done for the bookI have commented before, more than once even, that the intersection of Spinoza and Marx is less a position, something like Spinozist Marxism, than a field of intersecting problems and questions. In some sense it is possible to even map out the way in which different Marxists draw from different elements of Marx (and Spinoza) creating different articulations of the relations which intersect with different problems in the critique of capitalism. For Louis Althusser the important parts of Spinoza are the critique of the imagination (found in the Appendix to Part One of the Ethics), the theory of the different types of knowledge (IIP40Schol), as well as "God is the immanent, not the transitive cause of all things" (IIP18). Of course such a list begins to reflect divisions and tensions in Althusser's writing: the imagination is integral to his theory of ideology, immanent causality to his understanding of structure and the mode of production, while the different types of knowledge persists throughout Althusser's writing as a kind of philosophy of philosophical practice. While for Frédéric Lordon the central thesis of Spinoza is less epistemological or ontological than it is anthropological. It is the centrality of desire, "as the very essence of man, insofar as it is determined from any affection, to do something," coupled with the fundamental misrecognition of that desire, the fundamental illusion of a free choice which leads the infant to believe it freely wants milk, and more to the point, the worker to believe that he or she freely wants to work. For Etienne Balibar the central thesis is perhaps Proposition 37 of Part IV of the Ethics, and more importantly its two demonstrations which map out the constitution of a real, or rational, and imagined, or affective basis of sociality.  We could also flip this formulation, asking not what aspect, or proposition from Spinoza plays a central role, but what problem from Marx. Ideology can already be seen to be the answer in the case of Althusser (and a different way in Lordon and Balibar), while for Antonio Negri the connection passes through production, through the question of what does it mean to think of history and society as something that is produced and reproduced through our action and lives. A different focus on labor, or praxis can be found in André Tosel, whose work is an attempt to think through what it means to think of praxis as poeisis and poeisis as praxis, making as doing and doing as making. This Marxist problem if fundamentally informed by the Spinozist idea that every finite thing, every mode, acts, or rather operates in and through other modes.The list goes on, and one could map out a whole set of definitions of Spinozist Marxism which would be different intersections of propositions and problems from each.  The question I have been thinking about is given this field in which every position has already in some sense been occupied how is it possible to make a new intervention. Or put differently what particular proposition and what particular problem does The Double Shift: Spinoza and Marx on the Politics of Work articulate, or think together. If I had to pick one I would say that it is the famous, or infamous Proposition 7 from Part Two, "The the order and connection of ideas is the same as the order and connection of things." Of course this claim is something that every interpretation of Spinoza must ultimately wrestle with, and one could chart out the various neo-Spinozisms in terms of how they make sense of the identity and difference of things and ideas, bodies and minds. To be more specific I would say that it is a matter of thinking this as a formulation of ideology. As I write in the book,  "...Grasped in terms of a post-Spinozist social theory, it is possible to argue that Spinoza's formulation can productively paired with Marx's assertion of the identity of consciousness and life. Ideas and the imagination, like bodies and desires, must be grasped in terms of both of their internal striving, their consistency, and of their finitude, their determination. Contrary to a long-standing bias in the history of philosophy to treat ideas and things as two fundamentally different orders of reality, Spinoza posits a fundamental identity of thought and existence—, an identity that, paradoxically, makes it possible to grasp their points of divergence and intersection. Of course, as I have already argued, the very idea of ideology necessarily presupposes a difference as well as an identity; in order to be the ruling ideas, the concepts and narratives that rule ideas must be different from the experience and conditions they rule over in order to be the ruling ideas, but, at the same time, they must be produced by those conditions. There is a limited efficacy of true ideas insofar as they are true; ideas do not have effects on their own, but require conditions in order to exist and be disseminated. Spinoza's assertion regarding true ideas can be understood as a mirror image of Marx's claim regarding ideology. As Étienne Balibar describes the structure of ideology in The German Ideology,"The ideological mechanism, which can equally be read as a social process, will come to be seen as an astonishing conversion of impotence into domination: the abstraction of consciousness, which is an expression of consciousness's incapacity to act in reality … becomes the source of power precisely because it is "'autonomized." Contrary to his critical contemporaries, such as Feuerbach and Stirner, who believed in the power of ideas, and thus the weapon of criticism, Marx underscores that ideas only have power, only have effects, under particular material conditions that give some no time to think and others the means to spread and disseminate their ideas. Ideas have a causality that is not derived not from them as ideas, but from the social relations that produce and circulate them."First this has to be thought of in terms of identity, ideas are nothing other than the existing relation between things, the different material relations expressed differently. In other words, to quickly allude to something that the book develops over a few pages, the idea that there is ethical and moral worth to work, that have "grind" mindset, are the key to not only material success but spiritual worth as well, is nothing other than the material conditions, precarity, gig economy, and so on, rendered in ideal or conceptual forms. A person who feels that their self value and self worth can be measured in terms of how much they work is nothing other than the consciousness of labor power itself. In other words, the order and connection of ideology is the same as the order and connection of exploitation. Just as Spinoza argues that desire is nothing other than an idea of our appetite, the body's needs in mental form, our ideas about work, which make it the key to worth and self-value, are nothing other than our position within the economy in material form. (This is something central to another Marxist/Spinozist thinker, Franck Fischbach, who has argued that the conditions of intellectual life are the same as that of material life. As Fischbach writes, "If it is true that 'the production of ideas, of ideas, representations and consciousness (...) is the language of real life" then the production of ideologies, of inadequate representations, is the language of life incomplete, inadequate, and mutilated." Mind and body are two different ways of grasping the same thing. 

Such a formulation seems crude, deterministic, and in some sense more vulgar than the most vulgar of materialisms; it posits us all as spiritual automatons whose thoughts and ideas do nothing more than express, in a different attribute, what is already given in our material condition, in the relations of bodies. Things are complicated quite a bit by subsequent propositions which assert that only a body can affect or determine a body and only an idea can affect or determine an idea. The assertion of identity, ideas and things, mind and body, as two different ways of looking at the same thing, has as it paradoxical corollary the assertion of difference, mind and body as two fundamentally different ways of acting and reacting, each with their own causal orders and connections that are entirely independent. This is a particular dense metaphysical knot of identity and difference, but I am more interested in how it plays out practically, politically, as a way of thinking about ideas and bodies, base and superstructure Much could be said about the way this plays out in Spinoza's text, especially in Part IV of the Ethics, to underscore the limited efficacy of the true insofar as it is true, of the way in which ideas cannot change the world without becoming lived in bodies. As I argue in the book (following Tosel) Spinoza's formulation makes it possible to think of the particular double determination of ideas and bodies. That each are in some sense determined by being reflections of the same thing, the same relations, but are also determined in a particular manner by other ideas or other bodies. In other words, returning to the problem of the book, as much as the centrality of work as that which give people meaning and value can be understood to be just capitalism rendered into an idea it is also an effect of a long series of transformations within the realm of ideas from the protestant revolution onward. To put it bluntly the response to the long debate between Marx and Weber, between material determination and cultural history, is quite simply, "Why Not Both." Although to be honest I am more interested in the way this makes it possible to understand the present than debates in intellectual history. "via GIPHYTo quote The Double Shift again: "As I have argued, these two aspects are, in some sense, two different ways of looking at the same thing, the same social relation, grasped in terms of bodies and their coordination and minds and their automation. However, they also function in different ways of understanding the orientation of desire. In the first, it is imposed through necessity; as selling one's labor power becomes the only condition of survival, living is aligned with making a living through wage labor. Wage labor appears to be the only way to make a living because all other ways are effaced. The constraints of society appear less as particular institutions, regimes of accumulation, and social relations, but as the way things must be; their historicity and contingency are effaced in the present order. This structural condition is supplemented by an ideological dimension insisting that not only that one must one identify with their job, find their passion in their labor, but that such a condition is also to be actively desired. Having to work, to dedicate oneself entirely to work, is presented twice, as it were—once as a necessary condition for survival and the second time as aspiration integral to one's identity. To frame it according to the division of work and action, we could argue that work is defined as both production and action, both as the constraint of necessity tied to survival and something freely undertaken to identify and distinguish oneself. The particular double determination in capitalist society is one in which work vacillates between a necessary fact of life to an object of desire, from making a living to finding meaning. The often-asked question,  "What do you do for a living?" vacillates between these two senses; at once,, it indicates something of necessity, of one's economic situation, and freedom, one's supposedly chosen path in life. It is both what one has to do and who one is. Work as necessity and work as subjectivity, as body and as mind, do not just coexist as two different ways of grasping the same thing, but are subject to their own logic of alternation as material necessity and ideological meaning reinforce and also undermine each other." Double determination makes it possible to think at once of our particular "bondage," to use Spinoza's term, caught both in a set of material relations, namely capitalism, that reduce us to labor power, and intellectual traditions which express the same conditions through the ideological terms of morality, responsibility, and individuality. Transformation entails transforming each. There is a limited efficacy of criticism so long as it just remains criticism (of course the corollary is that there a limited efficacy of practice as practice). It is a matter of linking together the transformation of material conditions and intellectual concepts, or, what people used to call Praxis. Updated 6/16/24

2023 was a year marked by devastating conflicts from Russia's ongoing invasion of Ukraine to Hamas's horrific terror attacks on Israel, from that country's indiscriminate mass slaughter in Gaza to a devastating civil war in Sudan. And there's a distinct risk of even worse to come this year. Still, there was one clear winner in this avalanche of violence, suffering, and war: the U.S. military-industrial complex.In December, President Biden signed a record authorization of $886 billion in "national defense" spending for 2024, including funds for the Pentagon proper and work on nuclear weapons at the Department of Energy. Add to that tens of billions of dollars more in likely emergency military aid for Ukraine and Israel, and such spending could well top $900 billion for the first time this year.Meanwhile, the administration's $100-billion-plus emergency military aid package that failed to pass Congress last month is likely to slip by in some form this year, while the House and Senate are almost guaranteed to add tens of billions more for "national defense" projects in specific states and districts, as happened in two of the last three years.Of course, before the money actually starts flowing, Congress needs to pass an appropriations bill for Fiscal Year 2024, clearing the way for that money to be spent. As of this writing, the House and Senate had indeed agreed to a tentative deal to sign onto the $886 billion that was authorized in December. A trillion-dollar version of such funding could be just around the corner. (If past practice is any guide, more than half of that sum could go directly to corporations, large and small.)A trillion dollars is a hard figure to process. In the 1960s, when the federal budget was a fraction of what it is now, Republican Senator Everett Dirksen allegedly said, "A billion here, a billion there, and pretty soon you're talking real money." Whether he did or not, that quote neatly captures how congressional attitudes toward federal spending have changed. After all, today, a billion dollars is less than a rounding error at the Pentagon. The department's budget is now hundreds of billions of dollars more than at the height of the Vietnam War and over twice what it was when President Eisenhower warned of the "unwarranted influence" wielded by what he called "the military-industrial complex."To offer just a few comparisons: annual spending on the costly, dysfunctional F-35 combat aircraft alone is greater than the entire budget of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. In 2020, Lockheed Martin's contracts with the Pentagon were worth more than the budgets of the State Department and the Agency for International Development combined, and its arms-related revenues continue to rival the government's entire investment in diplomacy. One $13 billion aircraft carrier costs more than the annual budget of the Environmental Protection Agency. Overall, more than half of the discretionary budget Congress approves every year — basically everything the federal government spends other than on mandatory programs like Medicare and Social Security — goes to the Pentagon.It would, I suppose, be one thing if such huge expenditures were truly needed to protect the country or make the world a safer place. However, they have more to do with pork-barrel politics and a misguided "cover the globe" military strategy than a careful consideration of what might be needed for actual "defense."Congressional FolliesThe road to an $886-billion military budget authorization began early last year with a debt-ceiling deal negotiated by President Biden and then-House Speaker Kevin McCarthy. That rolled back domestic spending levels, while preserving the administration's proposal for the Pentagon intact. McCarthy, since ousted as speaker, had been pressed by members of the right-wing "Freedom Caucus" and their fellow travelers for just such spending cuts. (He had little choice but to agree, since that group proved to be his margin of victory in a speaker's race that ran to 15 ballots.)There was a brief glimmer of hope that the budget cutters in the Freedom Caucus might also go after the bloated Pentagon budget rather than inflict all the fiscal pain on domestic programs. Prominent right-wing Republicans like Representative Jim Jordan (R-OH) pledged to put Pentagon spending reductions "on the table," but then only went after the military's alleged "woke agenda," which boiled down to cutting a few billion dollars slated for fighting racism and sexual harassment while supporting reproductive freedom within the armed forces. Oh wait, Jordan also went after spending on the development of alternative energy sources as "woke." In any case, he focused on just a minuscule share of the department's overall budget.Prominent Republicans outside Congress expressed stronger views about bringing the Pentagon to heel, but their perspectives got no traction on Capitol Hill. For instance, Kevin Roberts, the head of the Heritage Foundation, perhaps America's most influential conservative think tank, made the case for reining in the Pentagon at American Conservative magazine:"In the past, Congress accepted the D.C. canard that a bigger budget alone equals a stronger military. But now, facing down a record debt to the tune of $242,000 per household, conservatives are ready to tackle an entrenched problem and confront the political establishment, unaccountable federal bureaucrats, and well-connected defense contractors all at once in order to keep the nation both solvent and secure."Even more surprising, former Trump Secretary of Defense Christopher Miller released a memoir in which he called for a dramatic slashing of the Pentagon budget. "We could," he argued, "cut our defense budget in half and it would still be twice as big as China's."Ultimately, however, such critiques had zero influence over the Pentagon budget debate in the House, which quickly degenerated into a fight about a series of toxic amendments attacking reproductive freedom and LGTBQ and transgender rights in the military. Representative Colin Allred (D-TX) rightly denounced such amendments as a "shameful display of extremism" and across-the-board opposition by Democrats ensured that the first iteration of the National Defense Authorization Act for fiscal year 2024 would be defeated and some of the most egregious Republican proposals eliminated later in the year. In the meantime, virtually all mainstream press coverage and most congressional debate focused on those culture war battles rather than why this country was poised to shove so much money at the Pentagon in the first place.Threat Inflation and the "Arsenal of Democracy"Perhaps you won't be surprised to learn that the strategic rationales put forward for the flood of new Pentagon outlays don't faintly hold up to scrutiny. First and foremost in the Pentagon's argument for virtually unlimited access to the Treasury is the alleged military threat posed by China. But as Dan Grazier of the Project on Government Oversight has pointed out, that country's military strategy is "inherently defensive":"[T]he investments being made [by China] are not suited for foreign adventurism but are instead designed to use relatively low-cost weapons to defend against massively expensive American weapons. The nation's primary military strategy is to keep foreign powers, and especially the United States, as far away from its shores as possible in a policy the Chinese government calls 'active defense.'"The greatest point of potential conflict between the U.S. and China is, of course, Taiwan. But a war over that island would come at a staggering cost for all concerned and might even escalate into a nuclear confrontation. A series of war games conducted by the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) found that, while the United States could indeed "win" a war defending Taiwan from a Chinese amphibious assault, it would be a Pyrrhic victory. "The United States and its allies lost dozens of ships, hundreds of aircraft, and tens of thousands of servicemembers," it reported. "Taiwan saw its economy devastated. Further, the high losses damaged the U.S. global position for many years." And a nuclear confrontation between China and the United States, which CSIS didn't include in its assessment, would be a first-class catastrophe of almost unimaginable proportions.The best route to preventing a future Chinese invasion of Taiwan would be to revive Washington's "One China" policy that calls for China to commit itself to a peaceful resolution of Taiwan's status and for the U.S. to forswear support for that island's formal independence. In other words, diplomacy, rather than increasing the Pentagon budget to "win" such a war, would be the way to go.The second major driver of higher Pentagon budgets is allegedly the strain on this country's arms manufacturing base caused by supplying tens of billions of dollars of weaponry to Ukraine, including artillery shells and missiles that are running short in American stockpiles. The answer, according to the Pentagon and the arms industry, is to further supersize this country's already humongous military-industrial complex to produce enough weaponry to supply Ukraine (and now Israel, too), while acquiring sufficient weapons systems for a future war with China.There are two problems with such arguments. First, supplying Ukraine doesn't justify a permanent expansion of the U.S. arms industry. In fact, such aid to Kyiv needs to be accompanied by a now-missing diplomatic strategy designed to head off an even longer, ever more grinding war.Second, the kinds of weapons needed for a war with China would, for the most part, be different from those relevant to a land war in Ukraine, so weaponry sent to Ukraine would have little relevance to readiness for a potential war with China (which Washington should, in any case, be working to prevent, not preparing for). The Disastrous Costs of a Militarized Foreign PolicyBefore investing ever more tax dollars in building an ever-expanding garrison state, the military strategy of the United States in the current global environment should be seriously debated. Just buying ever more bombs, missiles, drones, and next-generation artificial intelligence-driven weaponry is not, in fact, a strategy, though it is a boon to the military-industrial complex and an invitation to a destabilizing new arms race.Unfortunately, neither Congress nor the Biden administration seems inclined to seriously consider an approach that would emphasize investing in diplomatic and economic tools over force or the threat of force. Given this country's staggeringly expensive failures in its wars in Iraq and Afghanistan in this century (which cost trillions of dollars), resulting in hundreds of thousands of civilian casualties, and leaving staggering numbers of American veterans with physical and psychological injuries (as extensively documented by the Costs of War Project at Brown University), you might think a different approach to the use of your tax dollars was in order, but no such luck.There are indeed a few voices in Congress advocating restraint at the Pentagon, including Representatives Mark Pocan (D-WI) and Barbara Lee (D-CA), who have proposed a $100 billion reduction in that department's budget as a first step toward a more balanced national security policy. Such efforts, however, must overcome an inhospitable political environment created by the endlessly exaggerated military threats facing this country and the political power of the arms industry, as well as its allies in Washington. Those allies, of course, include President Biden, who has labeled the U.S. an "arsenal of democracy" in his efforts to promote a new round of weapons aid to Ukraine. Not unlike his predecessor, he is touting the potential benefits of arms-production investments in companies in electoral swing states.Sadly, throwing more money at the arms industry sacrifices future needs for short-term economic gains that are modest indeed. Were that money going into producing green jobs, a more resilient infrastructure, improved scientific and technical education, and a more robust public health system, we would find ourselves in a different world. Those should be the pillars of any American economic revival rather than the all-too-modest side effects of weapons development in fueling economic growth. Despite huge increases in funding since the 1980s, actual jobs in the arms manufacturing industry have, in fact, plummeted from three million to 1.1 million — and, mind you, those figures come from the arms industry's largest trade association. The United Auto Workers, one of the unions with the most members working in the arms industry, has recognized this reality and formed a Just Transition Committee. As noted by Spencer Ackerman at the Nation, it's designed to "examine the size, scope, and impact of the U.S. military-industrial complex that employs thousands of UAW members and dominates the global arms trade." According to Brandon Mancilla, director of the UAW's Region 9A, which represents 50,000 active and retired workers in New York, New England, and Puerto Rico, the committee will "think about what it would mean to actually have a just transition, what used to be called a 'peace conversion,' of folks who work in the weapons and defense industry into something else."The UAW initiative parallels a sharp drop in unionization rates at major weapons makers (as documented by journalist Taylor Barnes). To cite two examples: in 1971, 69% of Lockheed Martin workers were unionized, while in 2022 that number was 19%; at Northrop Grumman today, a mere 4% of its employees are unionized, a dip that reflects a conscious strategy of the big weapons-making firms to outsource work to non-union subcontractors and states with anti-union "right to work" laws, while exporting tens of thousands of jobs overseas as part of multinational projects like the F-35 program. So much for the myth that defense industry jobs are more secure or have better pay and benefits than jobs in other parts of the economy.A serious national conversation is needed on what a genuine defense strategy would look like, rather than one based on fantasies of global military dominance. Otherwise, the overly militarized approach to foreign and economic policy that has become the essence of Washington budget-making could be extended endlessly and disastrously into the future, something this country literally can't afford to let happen.This story was republished, with permission, from Tom Dispatch

Quotes from Josep Colomer:Constitutional Polarization. A Critical Review of the U.S. Political SystemRoutledge, 2023.  CLICK to purchaseA collection of 6 posts. 1 - Why a Federation? The aim of the Convention in Philadelphia was not to experiment with democracy in a large territory, but to create a "stronger", "firmer" government able to defend the new independent states from the British and other foreign troops still over the continent. The priority was to create a standing army, to pay the debt for the War for Independence, and to introduce the subsequent federal taxes. The basic institutions were the states-appointed Senate and the mighty President with war powers.Some delegates warned that in the new and independent United States, people would not accept, again, taxation without representation. That's why the House of Representatives was embodied as the democratic component of the government. Then, the delegates responded to its perils by designing a series of "filters" and "checks" to prevent the House from prevailing over the other components. The separation of powers and their institutional checks were a cap, intended to tame and temper democracy. NOT A DEMOCRACYMadison warned against "the amazing violence and turbulence of the democratic spirit," and stated, "democratic communities may be unsteady, and be led to action by the impulse of the moment." Later, in the campaign to ratify the Constitution in New York, he would hold that, in the past, democracies "have ever been found spectacles of turbulence and contention … and as short in their lives as they have been violent in their deaths."Alexander Hamilton would allege that "the zeal for the rights of the people has been a much more certain road to the introduction of despotism than the zeal for the firmness and efficiency of government." In his view, democracies are manipulated by people who "commence as demagogues and end being tyrants."Gouverneur Morris was an influential delegate from Pennsylvania who is credited as the main redactor of the final text of the Constitution. He also cautioned against "the turbulence, the precipitation, changeableness, and excess" of democratic assemblies.Other delegates in the Convention referred to "the fury" and "the folly" of democracy. One confessed, "It's the anarchy, or rather worse than anarchy of a pure democracy, which I fear." Another simply stated, "democracy, the worst of all political evils." DIVINE HANDAbout the divine hand guiding the constituents, see, for example:     "America felt that the hand of providence was on the young republic … There can be little question that the hand of providence has been on a nation which finds a Washington, a Lincoln or a Roosevelt when it needs him," Seymour M. Lipset, American Exceptionalism, W. W. Norton, 1997, pp. 13–14.    "I can't wait to go to Heaven and meet the Framers and tell them the work that you did in putting together our Constitution is a work of genius. Thank you. It was divinely inspired," Mike Pence, Vice-President of the United States in December 2020. Reported by Gregory Jacob, Counselor of the Vice-President, to the Select Committee to Investigate the January 6 Attack on the United States Capitol, June 16, 2022. 2- An elected MonarchyMONTESQUIEUIn the imaginary Constitution of England described by Montesquieu, the powers of the three institutions were so challenged and limited by mutual checks that the most likely result would be governmental paralysis. He held that in order to prevent abuses, "Power should stop ["arrête" in French] power"; brake, not just "check" as it was sloppily translated. In Montesquieu's words, with these rules, "these three powers should naturally form a state of repose or inaction." In the perhaps unlikely or infrequent case that public affairs required some action, he conceded that the three powers should be "forced to move, but still in concert." Madison would only ambiguously paraphrase, "Ambition must be made to counteract ambition."   There was a problem: Montesquieu had misunderstood how the British system actually worked. What he described was closer to an old-fashioned, outdated model that, in the best of cases, could be identified with a transitory, provisional past period in England's history. It did not correspond with the political system in motion when he visited London, and even less with practices contemporary to the Framers gathered in Philadelphia several decades later. By following Montesquieu's obsolete account, the authors of the US Constitution misunderstood the source.MONARCHYThe monarchical proposal was most explicitly presented by Alexander Hamilton. He did not attend most of the Convention sessions, but on June 18, he showed up, took the floor, and delivered a prepared speech for more than five hours, no break for lunch, that left the delegates flabbergasted. Hamilton proposed a president that would be chosen by electors and serve for life. Such an "elective Monarch" would appoint the state governors and could veto state laws. At the federal level, the president would also be the arbiter for expected regular conflict between the Senate also appointed for life and the popular House: "This check is a Monarch," he suggested, "capable of resisting the popular current." The president, with absolute veto over congressional legislation, would be "a salutary check upon the legislative body." According to Ron Chernow, his biographer, Hamilton had written in his personal notes for his Convention speech that the president would not only be appointed for life but also "ought to be hereditary and to have so much power that it will not be his interest to risk much to acquire more." Yet, probably sensing the audience's reluctance to his already delivered proposals, he skipped that part.    Adams, who would become the US' first vice president and the second president, was suspected of having monarchist leanings. He would propose calling George Washington "His Majesty the President," thought hereditary rule inevitable, and, after Washington's childless tenure prevented it, he would be the first to make his son run for president.3-The Founders' Portraits in WashingtonWhat one can see and guess about these characters by looking at eight portraits,  the first five by Gilbert Stuart and the next two by John Trumbull at the National Gallery of Art, and the eighth by Joseph Siffred Duplessis at the National Portrait Gallery.             4- How the System Actually Works CHECKS AND GRIEVANCESAlexander Hamilton clearly lay on the side of scant congressional legislation. He said, "The injury that may possibly be done by defecting a few good laws will be amply compensated by the advantages of preventing a number of bad ones." It was like fasting for the sake of not being poisoned; the result is anemia, not good political health.In practice, there are checks but no balances. The existing blockingmechanisms in the US constitutional system do not produce balances in favor of a few good laws. They are largely unbalanced in favor of the Presidency and its powers, which is aggravated by the biases of the presidential elections.The US constitutional plan, instead of relying upon positive institutionalincentives, such as the expectation of sharing power in the Cabinet, countedon politicians' virtuous behavior. Yet, absent our better angels' motivations, the system of negative checks becomes a machine for sustained conflict. PRESIDENTIALISMThe greatest increase in presidential power has derived from wars. From General George Washington, leader of the Revolutionary War for Independence, through Theodore Roosevelt, a high-level combatant in the Spanish-American War in the Caribbean, eleven of the first twenty-five presidents were war men. Whether as generals, national heroes, or upper-echelon military officers, Andrew Jackson, William Harrison, Zachary Taylor, Franklin Pierce, Ulysses Grant, Rutherford Hayes, James Garfield, Benjamin Harrison, and William McKinley fought in the wars against the British, the Indians, the Mexicans, or, in the Civil War, other Americans, and their military feats helped them to be elected.Alexander Hamilton had already identified the management of foreign affairs as the main way to expand executive powers: "It is of the nature of war to increase the executive, at the expense of the legislative authority." Discussing rates of presidents, historian Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. observed that war "made it easier for a president to achieve greatness.            5- No Parties, But PolarizationNO PARTIESThe Framers were confident about the future of the republic because they miscalculated that in a great, expanding, and diverse Union with multiple institutional checks, it would be unlikely that nationwide parties could be created. They expected that the best individuals with "enlightened views and virtuous sentiments" would lead the new politics against "the pestilential influence of party animosities" and "the pestilential breath of faction," as scorned by both James Madison and Alexander Hamilton, respectively. Currently, the two major political parties in the US encompass a range of policy proposals and ideological orientations comparable to the typical European system with multiple parties: There are liberals and socialists within the Democratic Party, and conservatives and populists within the Republican Party, with the minor Greens and Libertarians flanking each side. However, the political competition is polarized by two parties or candidates because of the electoral system and the election of the president.POLITICAL, NO SOCIAL POLARIZATION The polarization of parties and candidates is more politically consequential than the polarization of voters. Generally, parties can lead and carry voters in their direction, either to closeness or to distance from each other, but to a limited extent. That is because it is less difficult to coordinate and mobilize a few thousand politicians than millions of voters. If parties and political leaders move to radicalize their positions and provoke polarization, voters may follow and become more polarized in their preferences, but usually less than the politicians and parties come to be. If, conversely, parties moderate and converge in their positions, voters may also moderate themselves but less than the partisan politicians do.FEAR AND NATIONAL FERVOR During the Cold War, many citizens developed a sense of unity, love of patriotic values, and pride in the American way of life. They trusted the rulers, who appeared as their protectors and providers of security. Challenging the government in the middle of a war would have been regarded as treason. In parallel, the ruling officials were able to keep many state secrets, their policy performances were not seriously evaluated, they enjoyed discrete privacy from the media, and gained support and devotion from the public.After the Cold War, without the threat of a nuclear war, the public lost their fear. There was a new openness to indiscretion and transgression. The new political atmosphere became the opposite of the previous period: a general mistrust of government, close scrutiny of corrupt practices, leaks of confidential plans and messages, frequent scandals about politicians' business or private affairs, and loud calls for more transparency and accountability. After the Cold War with the Soviet Union, the "peace dividend" that appeared to be a potential source of domestic progress led instead to domestic mayhem. With just a little exaggeration, one could say that, over the years, the international Cold War was replaced with a domestic cold war.          6- Towards the 2024 ElectionPRIMARIESThe primaries mechanism is a substitute for the formation of multiple parties. To build a majority, in Europe and other democracies, a coalition of multiple parties must be formed after the election; in the US, a coalition of multiple factions within a party must be formed before the election. In European parliamentary systems with multiple parties, the mess comes after the election; sometimes, the formation of a coalition in parliament for the choice of a prime minister takes months. In the US, the mess is before the election; the process of simplifying the pluralistic setting to only two major presidential candidates starts more than a year before Election Day. These alternative experiences both confirm that, in the absence of a traditional monarch, simplifying a complex society to one single executive leader is always a challenging endeavor.The main drawback of the system of partisan primaries is that it may not produce a majority in support for the winning candidate but it can result in the nomination of an extreme or unqualified demagogue who would be rejected by a majority of voters.The turnout in the presidential primaries has increased to nearly 50% of the party voters in the general election since the 2010s. However, the number of primary candidates within each party has also increased, up to double digits in recent seasons, which reduced the support for the winner. In 2016, Donald Trump was voted in the primaries by only 22% of his voters in the general election; Hillary Clinton, by 26% of her votes in the general election; and in 2020, Joe Biden by only 23%.SPLITTING CANDIDATESIf popular participation increases, partisanship becomes more compact, and the potential political pluralism of the country is not well articulated by the party system, third and further candidates reappear. They indirectly made a winner by splitting partisan support in at least four of the first eight presidential elections after the Cold War. The independent Ross Perot split Republican voters twice, in 1992 and 1996, and twice produced a Democratic winner with a minority of popular votes. The other way around, the Green Party's Ralph Nader split Democratic voters in 2000 and produced a Republican winner with a minority of popular votes. Also, the Greens and other candidacies absorbed potential Democratic voters in 2016 and helped make a Republican candidate the winner with a minority of popular votes.CAN TRUMP RETURN?There are also precedents of traitors who persisted in politics, ran for office, were elected, and provoked further turmoil. At least two former presidents joined the Confederacy during the Civil War. Former Whig President John Tyler, who had replaced William Harrison at his death one month after entering office, was first elected to and chaired the Virginia Secession Convention, and during the Civil War, he was elected first to the Provisional Confederation Congress and then to the Confederate House of Representatives. Former Democratic President Franklin Pierce collaborated closely with Confederacy President Jefferson Davis. Also, former President Andrew Johnson was elected senator on an anti-Reconstruction platform.Collection:1- Why a Federation2- An Elected Monarchy3- Psychological Portraits of the Founders and Framers4– How the System Actually Works5- No Parties, But Polarization6- Towards the 2024 Election

Two attacks, and one defense, of classical liberal ideas appeared over the weekend. "War and Pandemic Highlight Shortcomings of the Free-Market Consensus" announces Patricia Cohen on p.1 of the New York Times news section.  As if the Times had ever been part of such a "consensus." And Deirdre McCloskey reviews Simon Johnson and Daron Acemoglu's "Power and Progress," whose central argument is, per Deirdre, "The state, they argue, can do a better job than the market of selecting technologies and making investments to implement them." (I have not yet read the book. This is a review of the review only.) I'll give away the punchline. The case for free markets never was their perfection. The case for free markets always was centuries of experience with the failures of the only alternative, state control. Free markets are, as the saying goes, the worst system; except for all the others. In this sense the classic teaching of economics does  a disservice. We start with the theorem that free competitive markets can equal -- only equal -- the allocation of an omniscient benevolent planner. But then from week 2 on we study market imperfections -- externalities, increasing returns, asymmetric information -- under which markets are imperfect, and the hypothetical planner can do better. Regulate, it follows. Except econ 101 spends zero time on our extensive experience with just how well -- how badly -- actual planners and regulators do. That messy experience underlies our prosperity, and prospects for its continuance. Starting with Ms. Cohen at the Times, The economic conventions that policymakers had relied on since the Berlin Wall fell more than 30 years ago — the unfailing superiority of open markets, liberalized trade and maximum efficiency — look to be running off the rails.During the Covid-19 pandemic, the ceaseless drive to integrate the global economy and reduce costs left health care workers without face masks and medical gloves, carmakers without semiconductors, sawmills without lumber and sneaker buyers without Nikes.That there ever was a "consensus" in favor of "the unfailing superiority of open markets, liberalized trade and maximum efficiency" seems a mighty strange memory. But if the Times wants to think now that's what they thought then, I'm happy to rewrite a little history. Face masks? The face mask snafu in the pandemic is now, in the Times' rather hilarious memory, the prime example of how a free and unfettered market fails. It was  a result of "the ceaseless drive to integrate the global economy and reduce costs?" (Here, I have a second complaint -- the ceaseless drive to remove subjects from sentences. Who is doing this "ceaseless drive?" Where is the great conspiracy, the secret meeting of old white men "driving" the economy? Nowhere. That's the point of free markets.)The free market has a plan, imperfect as it might be, for masks in a pandemic. Prices rise. People who really want and need masks -- doctors, nurses, police -- pay what it takes to get them. People who don't really need them -- nursery schools -- look at the price, think about the benefit, and say, "maybe not," or take other measures. People reuse masks. Producers, seeing high prices, work day and night to produce more masks. Others, knowing that every 10 years there is a spike in prices, pay the costs of storing masks to make great profits when the time comes. The actual story of masks in the pandemic is the exact opposite. Price controls, of course. Instantly, governments started prosecuting businesses for "price gouging" who dared to raise the price of toilet paper. Governments redistribute income; markets allocate resources efficiently. As usual, the desire to redistribute tiny amounts of income to those willing to stand in line to get toilet paper won out. An entrepreneur tried to start producing masks. The FDA shut him down. (I hope I recall that story right, send comments if not.) China wanted to ship us masks. Yes, China the new villain of globalization gone mad. But their masks were certified and labeled by EU rules, not US rules, so like baby formula they couldn't be imported and sold. More deeply, even I, devoted free-marketer; even at the late night beer sessions at the CATO institute, nobody puts mask distribution in a pandemic as the first job of free markets. There is supposed to be a public health function of government; infectuous diseases are something of an externality; safety protocols in government labs doing government funded research are not a free-market function. As we look at the covid catastrophe, do we not see failures of government all over the place, not failures of some hypothetical free market? California even had mobile hospitals after H1N1. Governor Brown shut them down to save money for his high speed train. We might as well blame free markets for the lines at the DMV.  The idea that trade and shared economic interests would prevent military conflicts was trampled last year under the boots of Russian soldiers in Ukraine.Does anyone think a prime function of free market economics is to stops wars, usually prosecuted by, eh, governments? The standard history of WWI is enough. We do allege that free markets, and free markets alone, make a country wealthy enough to fight and win wars, if the country has the will and desire to do so. The US and NATO military budget vs. Russia's, larger by a factor of 10 at least, seems to bear that out, along with the much greater quality of our weapons.  Heaven help us militarily once the protectionists lead us to state-directed penury. inflation, thought to be safely stored away with disco album collections, returned with a vengeance.Did anyone every vaguely hint that inflation control is a function of free markets? Inflation comes from government monetary and fiscal policy.  And increasing bouts of extreme weather that destroyed crops, forced migrations and halted power plants has illustrated that the market's invisible hand was not protecting the planet.Doe the Times even vaguely think of news as fact not narrative? There have been a lot of migrations. "Forced?" Many due to violence, poverty, ill government. None due to temperature. Halted power plants (more passive voice)? Yes, it was that pesky unfettered free market that shut down power plants... The favored economic road map helped produce fabulous wealth, lift hundreds of millions of people out of poverty and spur wondrous technological advances.Well, a peek of sunlight, an actual correct fact! But there were stunning failures as well. Globalization hastened climate change and deepened inequalities. More fact free narrative spinning. How are "inequalities" plural? Globalization brought the sharpest decline in global inequality in the history of our species. Perhaps it "hastened climate change" in that if China had stayed desperately poor they wouldn't be building a new coal fired power plant a week. US emissions went down because of... choose 1: enlightened policy 2: fracking, a shift to natural gas made only possible by the curious US property rights system absent in Europe, and pretty much over the dead body of the entire energy regulatory apparatus. ***Meanwhile over at WSJ, Deirdre is in classic form. (Again, I have not read the book, so this is Deirdre coverage.) The paragraph that caught my attention and demanded a blog post: We need [according to Acemoglu and Johnson] ... the legislation currently being pushed by left and right to try again the policies of antitrust, trade protection, minimum wage and, above all, subsidy for certain technologies. Messrs. Acemoglu and Johnson are especially eager to regulate digital technologies such as artificial intelligence. "Technology should be steered in a direction that best uses a workforce's skills," they write, "and education should . . . adapt to new skill requirements." How the administrators of the Economic Development Administration at the Department of Commerce would know the new direction to steer, or the new skills required, remains a sacred mystery."Technology should be steered." There it is, the full glory of the regulatory passive voice. Steered by who? Deirdre answers the question with that gem of rhetoric, specificity.  "Administrators of the Economic Development Administration at the Department of Commerce" for example. The theme uniting the two essays: If there is one lesson of the last 20 years it is this: The catastrophic failure of our government institutions. From bungled wars, a snafu of financial regulation in 2008 just now repeated in FTX, SVB, and inflation the evident collapse of the FDA CDC and plain commonsense in the pandemic, the free market is bravely forestalling a collapse of government (and associated, i.e. universities) institutions. we need the state to use its powers "to induce the private sector to move away from excessive automation and surveillance, and toward more worker-friendly technologies." Fear of surveillance is a major theme of the book; therefore "antitrust should be considered as a complementary tool to the more fundamental aim of redirecting technology away from automation, surveillance, data collection, and digital advertising."The question what institution has the technical competence to do this seems to be begging.  "Government subsidies for developing more socially beneficial technologies," the authors declare, "are one of the most powerful means of redirecting technology in a market economy." Well, interpreting the sentence literally,  you have to give it to them. Government subsidies are powerful means of "redirecting technology." Usually to ratholes. Messrs. Acemoglu and Johnson warmly admire the U.S. Progressive Movement of the late 19th century as a model for their statism: experts taking child-citizens in hand.Their chapters then skip briskly through history...seeking to show how at each turn new innovations tended to empower certain sections of society at the expense of others. The "power" that concerns them, in other words, is private power.This is, in fact, the central question dividing free-marketers and others. Private power being subject to competition, we worry more about state power. The essence of state power is monopoly, and a monopoly of coercion, fundamentally violence.  The heart of the book is that technological gains create winners and losers, and Acemoglu and Johnson want that directed by a nebulous bureaucracy. Which will somehow never be infected by, oh, Republicans, or turn in to the endless stagnation of most of the last millennium which actually did pursue policies that forbade technological improvement in order to sustain the incomes of incumbents. Deirdre, who coined the lovely phrase "trade tested betterment" takes it on.  During the past two centuries, the world has become radically better off, by fully 3,000% inflation adjusted. Even over the past two decades the lives of the poor have improved. The "great enrichment" after 1800 and its resulting superabundance has brought us out of misery. Even the poor workers who did not benefit in the short run have done so enormously in the long run. In 1960, 4 billion of the 5 billion people on the planet lived on $2 a day. Now it's fallen to 1 billion out of 8, and the income average is $50 a day. The state didn't do it, and forcing short-run egalitarianism or handing power to the Office of Economic Development can kill it, as it regularly has. Messrs. Acemoglu and Johnson see great imperfections in the overwhelmingly private sources of the enrichment. With such imperfections, who needs perfection?Another way to see the problem is to remember the common sense, refined in Economics 101 and Biology 101, of entry at the smell of profit. ...The great fortunes they deprecate have the economic function of encouraging entry into the economy by other entrepreneurs who want to get rich. This competition cheapens goods and services, which then accrues to the poor as immense increases in real income.Many fortunes, for instance, were made by the invention of the downtown department store. The profit attracted suburban competitors, and at the mall the department-store model began to fail. Jeff Bezos reinvented the mail-order catalog. He is imitated, and the fortunes are dissipated in enormous benefit to consumers called workers. .... It's what happened and happens in a liberal economy.The book uses a lot of history, surveyed by McCloskey. As before, it's criticized a bit as history lite. The history Deirdre covers has the usual imperfections of the free market. I wonder if the book has any history of success of this plan, of governments successfully guiding technological transformations to protect the rights and incomes of incumbents, without in the process killing technical change.  Governments habitually screw up basics like rent control. Figuring out what new technology will do is pretty much beyond the capacity of private investors and book-writing economists. The  idea that bureaucracy has the capacity to figure out not just what new technology will work, but to guide its social and distributional consequences seems... far beyond the historical record of bureaucratic accomplishment. But I am straying beyond my promise to review the review, not the book, before reading the latter. ****I recognize the desire on both sides. Partisan politics needs "new" ideas and a "new" propaganda. In particular, the right is aching for something shiny and new that it can sell to voters, which it regards with the same sort of noblesse-oblige intellectual disdain as the left does. Mind the store, mend the institutions, freedom, rights, opportunity and make your own prosperity are, apparently, not sexy enough. So both sides need new initiatives, expanded governments, to excite the rabble. But we're not here to supply that demand, merely to meditate on actual cause-and-effect truth of what works. Beware the temptation. Update:  In retrospect, perhaps the issue is much simpler. The bulk of economic regulation serves exactly the purpose McCloskey basically alleges of Acemoglu and Johnson: Preserve rents of incumbents against the threats of technological improvements. From medieval guilds to trade protection to taxis vs. Ubers, that is really its main function. So we have an extensive bureaucracy that is very good at it, and extensive experience of just how well it works. Which is, very well, at protecting rents and stifling growth.  

 Alligator has to be the best University Mascot"What is happening in Florida will not stay in Florida." From the AAUP's Report on FloridaThere is no shortage of critical responses to what is happening to higher education in Florida. There is the report from the AAUP cited above, and the podcast I co-host even dedicated an episode to it. In many, but not all of these cases, these responses have dovetailed with DeSantis' political career, focusing on the person, the policy, and the overall strategy. See for the example the great episode of Know Your Enemy. While there is much to be said about that, I watched the following clip below and was struck by its ability to mobilize and tap into existing frustrations against higher education.Leaving aside, at least for a moment, the attack on DEI, There are three prongs to this attack. The first is on tenure. The attack on tenure can be understood as a kind of negative solidarity, in that job security and protection can seem like an egregious excess for an elite class when so many, even those within academia, are subject to absolute precarity and instability. I have been talking about "negative solidarity" for a long time, ten years (and I did not even coin the term), and one of the things that I focus on in my forthcoming book is that negative solidarity has to be understood as a kind of affective constitution of politics. To cite a passage from that book:  "Negative solidarity can be understood as a particular affect, indignation at those who are perceived to not work hard enough, are not engaged in real work, or who rely on political power or corruption (these two things are seen as more or less synonymous) to keep their jobs. This affect, this anger, aimed at everyone from those who benefit from the last remnants of social protection to those public employees who still have union protections, has to be seen as both an exclusion and an inclusion. As much as it excludes those who do not work or who are not perceived as working, it does so in the name of a loose collectivity A popular bumper sticker in the US reads, "Keep Working: Millions of Welfare Depend Upon You," defining a particular kind of indignation. The person affixing such a bumper sticker car is not just angry at the person who is supposedly living off of their labor, but, as it addresses, or interpellates, its imagined audience, it draws them together in shared indignation. There is a sense of a "we," a collectivity of "real" workers, "real Americans," an imagined universality albeit a weak one defined by both work and its ethical norm that is being harmed. This is what puts the solidarity in negative solidarity. There is a unity, a community, albeit loosely defined in and through their shared engagement in work, in productive work. Work that is defined through both its physical difficulty, or at least the stoic fortitude it takes to endure it; its economic centrality, or perceived economic centrality; and ethic of individual commitment, rather than collective protections. The solidarity is negative in the sense it both eschews any collectivity, unions are seen as the deviation rather than the expression of this collectivity precisely because they undermine the shared commitment to work that defines it, and in the way that it functions as a strategy. Negative solidarity can only see any improvement, collective bargaining, protection of employment, and so on, as not only partial, and thus some sense corrupt, but also as a deviation of the fundamental ethical basis of work itself, which demands individual strength and fortitude. As much as negative solidarity is aimed at others, at those who are perceived not to work, seeking to discipline those who rely on state spending or those who are protected by union agreements, it ultimately further the attenuation of class struggle, obscuring actual divisions with imagined ones. The attachment to work and independence ultimately undermines its own status in the world, as individual workers are left to fend for themselves."Tenure, the idea of job security supposedly independent of effort seems absolutely antithetical to a world where effort, hard work is supposed, to be the basis of not only continued employment, but one's very existence and worth as a person. There is nothing more out of sync with the contemporary regime of work subject to constant surveillance, evaluation, and examination than the idea of someone continuing to work with no other motivation than their own particular passion and interest. One important difference between the tenured academic and the other figures of the negative solidarity imaginary, such as the welfare queen and lazy school teacher, is that there is an actual injustice here. It is not the one that DeSantis imagines, of tenured faculty as deadweight (although I am sure that happens as well), but the fact that people doing the same job, and probably even more work, are doing it for a fraction of the salary and with no job security or stability. This is worth imagining because the attack on tenure that is starting in Florida, Texas, and other states is an attack on an already divided and demoralized labor force. I cannot really imagine the thousands of adjunct faculty rallying to defend tenure when it already has been effectively eroded for so many (often with tenured faculty doing little to stop this transformation). Moreover, while some people have responded to the attack on tenure in Florida to argue that this will make it difficult to attract talented teachers and researchers, making it ultimately self defeating. I would argue that such an argument overlooks the truly desperate and demoralized state of the academic job market. Many talented researches and teachers are already working for poverty wages at multiple institutions. Some of these people would gladly take jobs in Florida even without the prospect of tenure if those jobs would at least pay for rent, food, and maybe even insurance. Negative solidarity is at its strongest when it is able to mobilize actual grievances and frustrations, attaching them to illusory objects and fictitious goals. The "Keep Working" bumper sticker referenced above is fueled by an actual frustration, the experience of working hard with no real improvement of one's life. It is this sense that something has gone wrong with work that fuels its indignation. It imagines the cause of this condition to be the welfare queen rather than say the CEO, to put it simply, or, more accurately, the structure of capital. It is an inadequate idea in Spinoza's use of the term, reflecting more the imagination and bias of the one using it than anything about the world. Its inadequacy in terms of a grasp of the world does not diffuse its hold on the imagination, and one could argue it is all the more convincing in that it refers to imaginary causes and less to the actual causes and conditions of the world. This becomes even more the case as these figures, the welfare queen, the radical professor corrupting the youth, the lazy school teacher become part of a powerful mythology circulated though pundits and the media. This is what Yves Citton refers to as a mythocracy and, as he argues, these myths and some sense function by acting on and channeling existing frustrations, anger, and indignation. The more these myths circulate, the more they become the common sense that we grasp the world. Case in point people still believe in the "welfare queen" in millions living off of welfare long after the program has become gutted and subject to disciplinary work regimes. Beneath the Boardwalk, The Gators All of this is a rather long preamble to discussing the video above. Two things strike me in DeSantis discussion of his crackdown on higher education: the increasing cost of higher education and its inability to deliver a better job to those who graduate. These are real sources of frustration. Of course neither of these things have much to do with what DeSantis is proposing, but, as with the idea of the "Millions on Welfare" the important matter is how DeSantis is mobilizing actual frustrations towards imaginary targets. Eliminating majors in things like Women and Gender Studies, Black History, or other sorts of Ethnic studies will do little to reduce the cost of tuition. DeSantis invokes the figure of the taxpayer, arguing that the taxpayer should not bear the costs of such niche and unmarketable majors. The taxpayer could be understood as a kind of stand in for the the citizen, but, as theorists such as Wendy Brown have noted, the shift from the political to the economic has a fundamentally anti-democratic function. The taxpayer is a figure of both individual sovereignty and mass conformity. With respect to the former, it is more akin to a consumer than a citizen, as in the often repeated phrase uttered at school boards, teachers, and city halls, "I pay your salary." The citizen gives consent, elects officials and passes laws, but the taxpayer pays the bills and always reserves the right to get its money back. The taxpayer never alienates some of its liberties or claims in exchange for rights, as in a social contract, but demands to be treated as a customer, and the customer is always right. At the same time, however, the taxpayer is a figure of the majority. The taxpayer is a figure of a kind of silent majority, taxpayers only pay for the general good and, in our society, the general good can only take one form, jobs: it can only be private self interest. This is the second claim of DeSantis speech, that such majors are not well positioned to be employable. We could argue about the employability of majors in women studies, ethnic studies, philosophy, etc., Or we could even talk about the fact that the university's role is to prepare people for more than just work, preparing them for political and cultural life. However, both responses miss the point that the university has, at least in the US, been touted for decades as the only solution to declining wages, automation, and globalization, replacing unions, collective action, and legal protections as the path to a "good job." The solution to every problem with work has been "go to college; get a good job." There are many faults to such a slogan. It overlooks the many "good jobs" that do not involve college, as well as the inherent limitations of such an individual solution to getting, acquiring, and protecting good jobs--leaving everyone to compete with everyone else in getting classes, credentials, and other investments in human capital. It also seems wholly inadequate to the changes of work in recent decades. Education cannot contend with the structural forces of deskilling, offshoring, and casualization that have made work more precarious, less financially rewarding, and just worse. Many students work through college only to return to the same service jobs when they graduate; or, as Communique from an Absent Future put it, "We work and we borrow in order to work and to borrow.  And the jobs
we work toward are the jobs we already have." All of which is to say that DeSantis is drawing on existing frustration and indignation with the university. Rising tuition combined with failures to deliver on social mobility have made many people frustrated at the university system. What DeSantis is offering is targets and directions for that frustration; it does not matter that these targets have little to do with the real problems with the university. In fact one could argue that the targets he picks are all the more effective in that they tap into existing myths about race, professors, and universities. The imagined nature of the targets should not overlook the real problems. College cost and with it college debt have been increasing at exponential rates. Students find themselves massively in debt upon graduation only to go into jobs that might require college degrees, as it becomes the new high school diploma, but do not offer the same class mobility. Thus it would foolish to respond to DeSantis by simply defending the university as it is, defending academic freedom, tenure, and so on. Any defense of the university has to be against both the assaults on freedom and the neoliberal university that makes those assaults possible. What I hear when I listen to speeches like the one above is the beginning of a larger assault on the university that will come to every state not because DeSantis will be President, but because it is fueled by real frustrations, college costs, jobs, uneven labor protections, and imaginary enemies. (In retrospect I should have called this post De te Fabula Narratur part two, emphasizing less the exceptional state of Florida and more the general condition). As this struggle spreads from state to state  I fear that a rearguard defense of the university as it exists is just not going to be enough. Any attempt to confront the right's attack on the university is going to have to take on rising costs and also address head on the university's role in the meritocratic mythocracy which claims that the solution to the collective condition of work is individual education and advancement. I realize that these two propositions are nothing less than revolutionary, but it appears that we are living though, once again, the lesson that revolutionary change is the most effective opposition to fascist creep (and fascist creeps). I decided to illustrate this post with pictures of Alligators from my recent trip to Florida