In the lowlands of Ethiopia, the traditionally pastoralist Afar and Somali Regions, multifaceted transformations and commodification processes have taken place. This thesis focuses on these transformations by addressing their fundamental societal, economic, and environmental developments. Three papers were written to clearly demonstrate how such environmental, political, social and economic processes have shaped and continue to alter and impact Afar and Somali communities in Eastern Ethiopia. The first paper, Pastoral livelihoods under pressure: Ecological, political and socioeconomic transitions in Afar (Ethiopia) by Matthias Schmidt (lead author) and Olivia Pearson (2016) and published by the Journal of Arid Environments 124, 22-30, will be referred to as "Pastoral livelihoods under pressure" from this point forward. It addresses the various ecological, political and socio-economic changes currently transforming the rangelands and natural resources of the Afar pastoralists' ancestral domain, changes which are driven by factors such as recurrent droughts, overgrazing, erosion processes, alien plant invasion and governmental land policies. To assess how these inter-related changes are impacting the Afar and their livelihoods, empirical research was conducted in four villages in western Afar, with the results showing that environmental, institutional and cultural changes have weakened the position of the pure pastoralist and strengthened the move away from pure pastoralism towards agro-pastoralism. As introduced natural resource management strategies driven by land privatization alter common property resources, traditional practices and institutions lose power. While research clearly shows that the influence and control of indigenous institutions and cultural practices have diminished, the subsequent impact on future generations and Afar identity remains unclear. The second paper, by Olivia Pearson (lead author) and Matthias Schmidt (2017) Repercussions of Governance Institutional Changes on Communication Practices in Afar, Ethiopia has been accepted by the Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography and will be referred to as "Governance Institutional Changes" from this point forward. By examining local communication practices, this paper investigates the transition from informal and traditional Afar institutions to formal institutions occurring in the Afar Region of Ethiopia. As the role and importance of traditional institutions diminishes and the strength of introduced formal federal and regional governmental institutions increases, pastoralist and agro-pastoralists in western Afar have altered how and with whom they communicate. The decrease in traditional ecological, political and socio-economic settings has led to the Afar adapting their communication practices in order to navigate these new environments. An analysis conducted from empirical research conducted in four Afar villages illustrates changes in resident preferences when reporting concerns. Concerns are now primarily reported to local formal institutional representatives or government agents; however, residents still find it beneficial to report certain problems and concerns to traditional institutions. This transition has had a positive impact on females, who now report concerns directly to government officials. Conversely, the transition has spatial disadvantages due to the typical location of government officials in village and town centers; as Afar is a vast and lowly populated region, those residing further from their government representative are at a disadvantage. The final paper, by Olivia Pearson (lead author) and Matthias Schmidt (2017) Commodity Individuation of Milk in the Somali Region, Ethiopia has been accepted by Area and will be referred to as "Milk Commodity Individuation" from this point forward. This paper analyses one of the changes to livestock commodification in the Somali region of Ethiopia – the extent and implications of altering the social and cultural role of milk. Traditionally, livestock is a central Somali commodity, with herds specifically chosen for their ability to reside within the arid to semi-arid region and sustain pastoralist livelihoods. Somalis sell livestock and consume their meat and milk, which is a fundamental requirement for a healthy life; milk provides sustenance in an environment where resources are scarce and is also a traditional medicine. The commodity individuation of milk means that it is now sold by Somalis as an income generating tool, defying cultural traditions that declared the sale of milk to be taboo. Milk has been separated from its traditional function and context and is no longer solely food for livestock and Somalis but now also a source of income that is primarily managed by females. Traditional milk boundaries have been stretched and altered, with the commodity now managed through the informal relationships between buyers and sellers. To investigate the correlations between the three papers, each of which has its own unique theoretical framework, this booklet uses the results of the conducted research as indicators to identify the prevalent transformations and commodification processes present in the lowlands of Ethiopia. Castree's (2003) six distinct and inter-related elements of capitalist commodification – Privatisation, Individuation, Alienability, Abstraction, Valuation, and Displacement – are used for the data analysis. The discussion is divided into three categories, the first being the transformation and commodification of clan structures to highlight the juxtaposed valuation and devaluation of these structures. As the clan as an institution is replaced by formal institutions, its control over environmental, societal, and cultural management weakens. This devaluation occurs in parallel with the valuation assimilation of clan leaders and elders into formal institutions and as the clan as a commodity faces displacement, in particular the clan leader. The transformation and commodification of gender highlights the shift in gendered roles for both sexes and the increase in female mobility, with the sale of milk and other income generating activities fundamental to this transition. A shift in control over household management from male to female has occurred and has been supported by perceived female altruism. The final section deals with natural resources and their management and focuses on the key related transition and commodification practice – the privatisation of land and its resulting environmental and societal consequences. In conclusion, it is important to note that while these areas have become increasingly integrated into global systems, leaving behind many traditional institutions, the mentioned transformations and commodification processes will continue to evolve. Findings suggest that the Somali and Afar Regions will become increasingly influenced by outside forces and institutions, which will drive further change in the lives and livelihood practices of the lowland residents of Ethiopia's arid and semi-arid regions.
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Lakkipur-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 342 ha in Gundlupet taluk of Chamarajanagar district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 734 mm, of which about 254 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 268 mm during the north-east and the remaining 212 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 89 per cent is covered by soils, 26 per cent by forest and 3 per cent by others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 11 soil series and 21 soil phases (management units) and 8 land management units. The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from the 3rd week of June to 3rd week of November. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing 27 major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. About 71 per cent area is suitable for agriculture. About 27 per cent of soils are shallow (25-50 cm), 26 per cent are moderately shallow (50-75 cm), 2 per cent of the soils are moderately deep (75-100 cm), 4 per cent of the soils are deep (100-150 cm) and 30 per cent are very deep (>150 cm). About 29 per cent of the area has clayey soils at the surface and 60 per cent area loamy soil. About 51 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils and 38 per cent gravelly soils (15-35 % gravel) soils. About 27 per cent has soils that are very low (200 mm/m) available water capacity. An area of about 59 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands, 12 per cent is gently sloping (3-5% slope), 9 per cent is moderately sloping (5-10%) and 9 per cent is strongly sloping (10-15% slope). An area of about 33 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 56 per cent soils are moderately eroded (e2). An area of about 14 per cent is strongly acid (pH 5.0-5.5), 16 per cent is moderately acid (pH 5.5-6.0), 23 per cent is slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5), 32 per cent has soils that are neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) and an area of about 3 per cent has soils that are slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8). The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are 0.75%) in organic carbon. About 17 per cent of soil are low (23 kg/ha), 36 per cent of the soils are medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 37 per cent are high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus. About 29 per cent are medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 60 per cent are high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium. About 3 per cent of the soils are low in available sulphur and 87 per cent are medium (10-20 ppm). Available boron is low (1.0 kg/ha). Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area of the microwatershed. Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 52 per cent. The land suitability for 27 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable(S1 ) Moderately suitable(S2 ) Highly suitable(S1 ) Moderately suitable(S2 ) Sorghum 103 (30) 56 (16) Sapota 46 (13) 20 (6) Maize 53 (15) 48 (14) Guava 60 (18) - Redgram 53 (15) 74 (22) Banana 33 (10) 78 (23) Horsegra m 53 (15) 115 (34) Jackfruit 46 (13) 14 (4) Field bean 33 (10) 126 (37) Jamun 46 (13) 14 (4) Groundnut 20 (6) 81 (24) Musambi 103 (30) 14 (4) Sunflower 25 (7) 86 (25) Lime 103 (30) 14 (4) Cotton 83 (24) 68 (20) Cashew 46 (13) - Onion 33 (10) 126 (37) Custard apple 118 (34) 145 (42) Potato 33 (10) 69 (20) Amla 118 (34) 153 (45) French Beans 33 (10) 126 (37) Tamarind 46 (13) 14 (4) Beetroot 33 (10) 68 (20) Marigold 53 (15) 106 (31) Turmeric 33 (10) 68 (20) Chrysanthemu m 33 (10) 126 (37) Mango 46 (13) 14 (4) - - - Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 8 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Lakkipur 1 micro-watershed (Gopalapur sub-watershed, Gundlupet taluk, Chamarajanagar district) is located in between 11044' – 11045' North latitudes and 76033' – 76035' East longitudes, covering an area of about 342 ha, bounded by Channamallipur, Maddinahalli and Lakkipur villages with a length of growing period LGP of 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and eco system services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Lakkipur 1 micro-watershed (Gopalapur sub-watershed, Gundlupet taluk, Chamarajanagar district) are presented here. Social Indicators; Male and female ratio is 47.1 to 52.9 per cent to the total sample population. Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 50.0 per cent to the total population. Literacy population is around 44.1 per cent. Social groups belong to scheduled caste (SC)/scheduled tribes (ST) were around 20.0 per cent. Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is the source of energy for a cooking among 80.0 per cent. About 40.0 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card. Majority of farm households (70.0 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employments. Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system of having all sample households. Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 40.0 per cent of sample households. Institutional participation is only 8.8 per cent of sample households. Women participation in decisions making are around 47.2 per cent of households were found. 2 Economic Indicators; The average land holding is 1.3 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to small and medium farmers. The dry land account for 67.7 % and irrigated land 32.3 % of total cultivated land area among the sample farmers. Agriculture is the main occupation among 6.3 per cent and agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 87.5 per cent of sample households. The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 11970 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication. The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 30383 per household, about 50 per cent of sample farmers own plough and sprayer (10 %). The average value of livestock is around Rs.19625 per household; about 50 per cent of household are having livestock. The average per capita food consumption is around 690.8 grams (1494.1 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 60 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation. The annual average income is around Rs.54221 per household. Thirty per cent of sample households on above poverty line. The per capita monthly average expenditure is around Rs.1269. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services; The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use. The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs.1078 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs.328649 per year for the total area of 342.0 ha. The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 50726/ ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in turmeric (Rs.132852) followed by cotton (Rs. 124561), garlic (Rs. 101751), onion (Rs. 63229), maize (Rs. 36649), cowpea (Rs. 35235), sunflower (Rs. 31093), horse gram (Rs. 18747), ragi (Rs. 14441), marigold (Rs.3179) and groundnut is negative returns. The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 2286/ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in groundnut (Rs.3952) followed by maize (Rs. 2653), cowpea (Rs.2506), ragi (Rs.1300) and horse gram (Rs. 1300). The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in cotton (Rs. 3 274528) followed by turmeric (Rs. 54978), maize (Rs. 54775), sunflower (Rs. 49884), horse gram (Rs. 31878), groundnut (Rs. 27486), onion (Rs. 16796), garlic (Rs. 15587), ragi (Rs. 13238) and cowpea (Rs. 12042). Economic Land Evaluation; The major cropping pattern is maize (27.5 %) followed by maize (27.5 %), horse gram (18.0 %), cowpea (8.4%), groundnut (8.4 %), onion (8.4 %), sunflower (8.4 %), turmeric (5.5 %), ragi (4.8 %), garlic (4.7 %), marigold (4.7 %) and cotton (1.2 %). In Lakkipur 1 micro-watershed, major soils are soil of alluvial landscape of Kallipura (KLP) series is having deep soil depth cover around 4.2% of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing garlic. Honnegaudanahalli (HGH) are also having very deep soil depth cover 6.0 % of area, the crops are cotton (7.4 %), maize (7.4 %), onion (51.0 %) and turmeric (34.2 %). Beemanabeedu (BMB) soil series having very deep soil depth cover around 17.2 % of areas, crops are maize. Hullipura (HPR) soil series having moderately shallow soil depth cover around 12.1 % of area, crops are cowpea (18.2 %), horse gram (31.8 %), maize (18.2 %) and sunflower (31.8 %). Magoonahalli (MGH) soil series are having moderately shallow soil depth cover around 11.9 % of area; the major crops grown are cowpea (37.9 %), groundnut (18.9 %) and horse gram (21.6 %). Shivapura (SPR) soil series are having very shallow soil depth covers around 14.7 % of area, the major crop grown is maize (64.1%) and marigold (35.9 %). The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for maize ranges between Rs.78831/ha in HGH soil (with BCR of 1.07) and Rs. 27873/ha in BMB soil (with BCR of 1.61). In horse gram the cost of cultivation range between Rs 27542/ha in MGH soil (with of 1.51) and Rs. 14192/ha in HPR soil (with BCR of 2.65). In cowpea the cost of cultivation ranges between Rs. 33083/ha in HPR soil (with BCR of 1.57) and Rs. 11497/ha in MGH soil (with BCR of 4.3). In cotton the cost of cultivation in MLR soil is Rs.202501/ha (with BCR of 1.62). In onion the cost of cultivation in HGH soil is Rs 60271/ha (with BCR of 2.05). In sunflower the cost of cultivation in HPR soil is Rs 28187/ha (with BCR of 2.1). In ragi the cost of cultivation in MGH soil is Rs 29976/ha (with BCR of 1.53). In garlic the cultivation in KLP soil is Rs.57035/ha (with BCR of 2.78) and turmeric cultivation in HGH soil is Rs.115992/ha (with BCR of 2.15). The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil 4 and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM. It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use More fertilizer applications are deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions; Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices. Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments. By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households. By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in maize (42.9 to76 %), cowpea (0 to 53.7%), cotton (26.5 %), ragi (90 %), garlic (71.1%) and turmeric (36.7%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kanekal-3 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 547 ha in Kanekal-3 microwatershed in Yadgir taluk of Yadgir district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 99 per cent is covered by soils, 1 per cent by rock outcrops and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 13 soil series and 18 soil phases (management units) and 7 land use classes. The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from the 1st week of June to 4th week of October. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. About 99 per cent area is suitable for agriculture and 1 per cent is not suitable for agriculture but well suited for forestry, pasture, agro-forestry, silvi-pasture, recreation, mining, installation of wind mills and as habitat for wildlife. About 150 cm) soils. About 72 per cent of the area has clayey soils, 18 per cent loamy soils and 9 per cent sandy soils at the surface. An area of about 84 per cent has non-gravelly and 15 per cent are gravelly. About 6 per cent of the area has soils that are very high (>200mm/m) in available water capacity, 15 per cent medium (100-150 mm/m) and about 78 per cent low (51-100 mm/m) to very low (0.75%) in organic carbon. An area of 21 per cent has soils that are low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus. About 5 per cent low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium. Available sulphur is low (1.0 ppm) in about 9 per cent area of the microwatershed. About 11 per cent area has soils that are deficient (4.5 ppm). Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed. Entire area of the microwatershed is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in available zinc. The land suitability for 26 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Kanekal-3 microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 97 (18) 259 (47) Sapota 35 (6) 185 (34) Maize 97 (18) 228 (42) Guava 35 (6) 185 (34) Red gram - 251(46) Pomegranate 35 (6) 216 (39) Bajra - 251(46) Jackfruit 31 (6) 168 (31) Ground nut 35 (6) 307 (56) Jamun 31 (6) 95 (17) Sunflower - 234 (43) Musambi 35 (6) 216 (39) Cotton 31 (6) 325 (59) Lime 35 (6) 216 (39) Bengalgram 31 (6) 325 (59) Cashew 35 (6) 121 (22) Chilli - 373 (68) Custard apple 132 (24) 224 (41) Tomato 97 (18) 245 (45) Amla 132 (24) 224 (41) Drumstick 35 (6) 216 (39) Tamarind 35 (6) 95 (17) Mulberry 35 (6) 168 (31) Marigold - 373 (68) Mango 35 (6) 47 (9) Chrysanthemum - 373 (68) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the seven identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops that helps in maintaining the ecological balance in the microwatershed Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges, that are edible, ecological and produce lot of biomass that helps to restore the ecological balance in the micro watershed. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: The Kanikal 3 micro-watershed in Yadgir taluk and district is located in between 16035' – 16036' North latitudes and 770 18' – 77020' East longitudes, covering an area of about 547.22 ha, bounded by Gudalagunta, Samabara, Kanikal and Balacheda villages. Agro Ecological Sub Region (AESR) 6.2: Central and Western Maharashtra Plateau and North Karnataka Plateau and North Western Telangana Plateau, hot moist semi-arid ESR with shallow and medium loamy to clayey black soil (medium and deep clayey Black soil as inclusion), medium to high AWC and LGP 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified for each watershed. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Kanikal 3 micro-watershed in Yadgir taluk and district are presented here. Social Indicators; Male and female ratio is 55.6 to 44.4 per cent to the total sample population. Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 55.7 per cent to the total population. Literacy population is around 39.8 per cent. Social groups belong to SC/ST is around 13.0 per cent. Wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 100 per cent. About 39.1per cent of households have a yashaswini health card. Majority of farm households (26.1 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employments. Dependence on ration cards through public distribution system is around 100 per cent. Swatch bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 17.4 per cent. Rural migration to unban centre for employment is prevalent among 2.3 per cent of farm households. Women participation is decisions making are around 39.2 per cent of were found. 2 Economic Indicators; The average land holding is 12.6 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to large farmers. The dry land account for 91.8 % and irrigated land 5.8 % of total cultivated land of sample farmers. Agriculture is the main occupation among 4.4 per cent and Agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is predominant subsidiary occupation for 91.3 per cent. The average value of domestic assets is around Rs.31009 per household. Mobile and television are mass popular mass communication media. The average farm assets a value is around Rs.72963 per household, about 36.1 per cent of sample farmers are owing plough. The average livestock value is around Rs.20721 per livestock; about 77.8 per cent of household are having livestock. The average per capita food consumption is around 891.9 grams (2030 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 60.9 per cent of sample farmers are consuming more than the NIN recommendation. The annual average income is around Rs 40315 per household. About 8.7 per cent of farm households are below poverty line. The per capita monthly expenditure is around Rs 2333.9 per household. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services; The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use. The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs 1768.9 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs.956979 per year for the total area of 547.2 ha. The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around (Rs 9011/ ha/year). Per hectare food production services is maximum in onion (Rs. 8287) followed by sorghum (Rs. 7408), redgram (Rs.6098), cotton (Rs. 5411), maize (Rs. 2465), green gram (Rs. 2258) and groundnut (Rs.1307). The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around (Rs 2961/ ha/year). Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in maize (Rs. 4482) followed by sorghum (Rs. 2964), groundnut (Rs.2477) and paddy (Rs.1919). The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum green gram (Rs.70127) followed by sorghum (Rs.56464), red gram (Rs.52576), cotton (Rs.42847), maize (Rs.32384) groundnut (Rs.29424), and onion (Rs.10078). 3 Economic Land Evaluation; The major cropping pattern is red gram (50.6%) followed by groundnut (15.5 %), cotton (7.9 %), maize (6.5 %), paddy (9.3 %), green gram (4.6 %), onion (1.8 %) and sorghum (3.7%). In Kanikal 3 micro watershed, major soil are soil of alluvial landscape of Badiyala (BDL) series are having shallow soil deep cover around 13.2 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing cotton (15.4%), maize (46.2 %), groundnut (23.1%) and red gram (15.4 %). Soil of granite and granite gneiss landscape of Sambara (SBR) series are having moderately shallow soil deep cover around 12.5 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing red gram (40.7 %), cotton (7.4 %), groundnut (29.6 %), paddy (14.8 %) and green gram (7.4 %). Baddeppalli (BDP) series are having moderately soil deep cover around 0.6 % of area. Yalleri (YLR) series are having moderately shallow soil deep cover around 8.9% of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing. Cotton (10.9 %), groundnut (14.5 %), paddy (7.2 %) and red gram (60.2 %), Pogalapur (PGP) series are having moderately deep soil deep cover around 17.7 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing paddy (25.9%) and red gram (22.2 %), groundnut (29.6 %). Yadgir (YDR) series are having Deep soil deep cover around 3.9 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing maize (28.6%) paddy (21.4%) and red gram (50.0 %). Bhimanahalli (BMN) series are having very deep soil deep cover around 5.7 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing red gram (70.0%) and sorghum (30.0 %) on Belagundi (BGD) series are having Deep soil deep cover around 0.3 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing cotton (42.9), paddy (28.6%) and red gram (28.6%). Balichakra (BCL) series are having moderately deep soil deep cover around 4.4 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing red gram, Bomraldoddi (BMD) series are having Very deep soil deep cover around 6.3 of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing green gram. Gundedagi (GDG) series are having moderately soil deep cover around 8.5 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing green gram. Vanakanahalli (VNK) series are having shallow soil deep cover around 3.9 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing groundnut (25.0 %) and redgram (75.0 %). Duppali (DPL) series are having moderately shallow soil deep cover around 14.1 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing groundnut (4.8%), onion (4.8 %), paddy (4.8%) and red gram (85.7%). The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for groundnut ranges between Rs.75191/ha in DPL soil (with BCR of 1.02) and Rs.25460ha in BDL soil (with BCR of 1.52). In cotton the cost of cultivation range between Rs 52541/ha in SBR soil (with of 1.06) and Rs.24517/ha in BGD soil (with BCR of 1.34). 4 In green gram the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 46066/ha in PGP soil (with BCR of 1.07) and Rs. 22949/ha in GDG and BMD soil (with BCR of 1.0). In maize cost of cultivation range between is Rs.53030/ha in YLR soil (with BCR of 1.14) and Rs.20504 in BDL soil (with BCR of 1.28). In red gram cost of cultivation range between is Rs 52680/ha in DRL soil (with BCR of 1.14) and Rs. 9514/ha in DPL soil (with BCR of 1.3). In paddy cost of cultivation in DPL soil is Rs.53387/ha (with BCR of 1.6) and PGP soil in Rs.30141/ha (with BCR of 1.29) and onion cultivation in DPL soil is Rs 62108/ha (with BCR of 1.13). The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of Farm Yard Manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM. It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. Fertilizer applications are deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions; Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices. Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments. By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households. By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in maize (34.8 to 72.8%), cotton (32.5to 66.3 %), red gram (2.4 to 79.8 %), groundnut (0 to 7.4 %), paddy (12 to 67.8%) and green gram (0 to 6.7 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Siddapura Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 493 ha in Gundlupet taluk of Chamarajanagar district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought prone with an average annual rainfall of 734 mm of which about 254 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 268 mm during north-east and the remaining 212 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 74 per cent is covered by soils, 25 per cent by forest and one per cent by others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 9 soil series and 24 soil phases (management units) and 9 land management units. The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from the 3rd week of June to 1st week of October. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. About 65 per cent area is suitable for agriculture and 8 per cent not suitable for agriculture. About 21 per cent of the soils are moderately deep (75-100 cm) to very deep (>150 cm) and 53 per cent are shallow to moderately shallow (25-75 cm). About 16 per cent of the area has clayey soils at the surface, 56 per cent loamy soils and two per cent area has sandy soils. About 51 per cent gravelly soils (15-35 % gravel) and 23 per cent has very gravelly (35- 60% gravel) soils. About 57 per cent has soils that are very low (200 mm/m) available water capacity. About 65 per cent area is very gently sloping (1-3% slope) to gently sloping (3- 5%) lands and moderately sloping (5-10%) lands. An area of about 41 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1), 24 per cent moderately eroded (e2) and 8 per cent soils are severely eroded (e3). An area of about 2 per cent has soils that are slightly acidic (pH 6.0-6.5); 14 per cent area has neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) and maximum area of about 80 per cent has soils that are slightly alkaline (pH 7.3 to 7.8) to strongly alkaline (pH 8.4 to 9.0). The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon. About 35 per cent of the soils are low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus. About 2 per cent of the soils are low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium. Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in a very small area of less than one per cent. Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 33 per cent area, medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) in 39 per cent area and high (>1.0 ppm) in less than one per cent area. Available iron is deficient in about 47 per cent area and sufficient in 27 per cent area. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed. Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in all the soils of the microwatershed. The land suitability for 27 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 78 (16) 115 (23) Sapota 88 (18) 14 (3) Maize 88 (18) 105 (21) Guava 88 (18) 14 (3) Redgram 88 (18) 65 (13) Banana 80 (16) 18 (4) Horsegram 88 (18) 120 (24) Jackfruit 88 (18) - Field bean 80 (16) 63 (13) Jamun 80 (16) 8 (2) Groundnut 208 (42) 155 (31) Musambi 88 (18) - Sunflower 70 (14) 18 (4) Lime 88 (18) - Cotton 70 (14) 113(23) Cashew 88 (18) 14 (3) Onion 80 (16) 113 (23) Custard apple 88 (18) 136 (27) Potato 80 (16) 113 (23) Amla 88 (18) 136(27) Beans 80 (16) 113 (23) Tamarind 80 (16) 8 (2) Beetroot 80 (16) 113 (23) Marigold 88 (18) 120 (24) Turmeric 80 (16) 113 (23) Chrysanthemum 80 (16) 113 (23) Mango 80 (16) 8 (2) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 9 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fiber and horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and sub-marginal lands and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS OF FARM HOUSEHOLDS Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Siddapura micro-watershed (Annurkeri sub-watershed, Gundlupet taluk, Chamarajanagar district) is located in between 11041' – 11043' North latitudes and 76039' – 76041' East longitudes, covering an area of about 584 ha. The micro-watershed is bounded by Maguvinahalli, Kebbepura, Hullepura, Kaligaudanahalli and Karle villages, with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Siddapura micro-watershed (Annurkeri subwatershed, Gundlupet taluk, Chamarajanagar district) are presented here. Social Indicators Male and female ratio is 47.7 to 52.3 per cent to the total sample population. Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 54.5 per cent to the total population. Literacy population is around 72.7 per cent. Social groups belong to scheduled caste (SC) is around 40.0 per cent. Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is the source of energy for a cooking among 90.0 per cent. About 50.0 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card. Majority of farm households (20.0 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employment. Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 90.0 per cent. Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 50.0 per cent of sample households. Institutional participation is only 18.3 per cent of sample households. Rural migration to unban centre for employment is prevalent among 2.3 per cent of farm households. Women participation in decisions making are around 30 per cent of households. 2 Economic Indicators The average land holding is 1.2 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to small and medium farmers. The dry land of 58.9 % and irrigated land 41.1 % of total cultivated land area among the sample farmers. Agriculture is the main occupation among 79.6 per cent and agriculture is the main and agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 15.9 per cent of sample households. The average value of domestic assets is around Rs.15613 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication. The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 6597 per household, about 50 per cent of sample farmers own plough. The average value of livestock is around Rs. 24550 per household; about 52.8 per cent of household are having livestock. The average per capita food consumption is around 610.5 grams (1319.5 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 64.1 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation. The annual average income is around Rs. 105779 per household. About 60.0 per cent of farm households are below poverty line. The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs.1374. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use. The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs.774 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs.280107 per year for the total area of 492.6 ha. The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs 30297/ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in onion (Rs. 97066) followed by turmeric (Rs. 92988), maize (Rs. 24497), groundnut (Rs. 18437), sunflower (Rs. 11174), ragi (Rs. 17365), cotton (Rs. 6712), horse gram (Rs. 2392) and sorghum (Rs. 2654). The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 1227/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in maize (Rs. 1885/ha) followed by sorghum (Rs. 1780), horse gram (Rs. 1086), groundnut (Rs. 741) and ragi (Rs. 642). The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water is maximum in cotton (Rs. 49758) followed by turmeric (Rs. 47298), maize (Rs. 46680), turmeric (Rs. 47298), 3 sunflower (Rs. 39492), onion (Rs. 26823), groundnut (Rs. 24050), horse gram (Rs. 21601) and ragi (Rs. 13066). Economic Land Evaluation The major cropping pattern is sunflower (10.5%), and cotton (5.2%), groundnut (5.2%), onion (6.1%), ragi (6.0%), safflower (0.9%), sorghum (14.2%), turmeric (23.2%), maize (18.6 %), sorghum (6.0%) and horse gram (10.1%). In Siddapura Microwatershed, major soil of Hindupura (HDR) series is having shallow soil depth cover around 20.36 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing horse gram (13.9 %), maize (36.6 %), sorghum (21.8 %) and sunflower (27.8%), Shivapura (SPR) are also having shallow soil depth cover around 7.81 % of area, the crops are onion (40.1%), and turmeric (59.9 %). Hallipura (HPR) soil series having moderately shallow soil depth cover around 10.09 % of areas, crops are cotton (50.0 %) and groundnut (50.0 %). Magoonahalli (MGH) soil series having moderately shallow soil cover around 5.46 % of area, crops are horse gram. Kallipura (KLP) soil series are having deep soil depth cover around 1.59 % of area. the major crops grown are turmeric. Kalligoudanahalli (KDH) soil series are having very deep soil depth covers around 11.63 % of area, the major crop grown is horse gram (3.8 %), maize (21.5 %), onion (10.7 %), ragi (24.8 %) and sorghum (24.8 %). The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for onion ranges between Rs.137827/ha in KDH soil (with BCR of 2.69) and Rs.8226/ha in SPR soil (with BCR of 1.08). In turmeric the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 11526/ha in SPR soil (with BCR of 1.33) and Rs.95749/ha in KLP soil (with BCR of 2.23). In horse gram the cost of cultivation range between Rs 36699/ha in KDH soil (with BCR of 1.02) and Rs.13355/ha in MGH soil (with BCR of 1.03). In maize the cost of cultivation range between Rs 45404/ha in HDR soil (with BCR of 1.30) and Rs.25557/ha in KDH soil (with BCR of 3.53). In sorghum the cost of cultivation in HDR soil is Rs.22877/ha (with BCR of 1.24). In sunflower the cost of cultivation in HDR soil is Rs.20053/ha (with BCR of 2.0). In cotton the cost of cultivation in HDR soil is Rs 38983/ha (with BCR of 1.17). In groundnut the cost of cultivation in HPR soil is Rs 23059/ha (with BCR 1.83) and ragi the cost of cultivation in HPR soil is Rs 14713/ha (with BCR of 2.22). The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM. 4 It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications are deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices. Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments. By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households. By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in onion (69.8 to 49.4 %), turmeric (14.0 %), horse gram (32.5 to 24.1 %), maize (55.9 to 40.5 %), sorghum (49.7 %), sunflower (31.7 %), cotton (27.7 %) and ragi (64.9 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
One hundred per cent of the natural units of analysis will continue to be negatively affected, with a concomitant decrease in natures contributions to people, given current trends (business as usual), though the magnitude and exact mechanism of the individual drivers will vary by driver and unit of analysis (established but incomplete){5.4}. For example, tropical moist and dry forest and coastal mangroves will continue to exhibit a decline due to land use change regardless of the scenarios considered, but different local factors (agriculturalization and urbanization, respectively) will be involved (well established) {5.4.1, 5.4.11}. Additionally, some drivers will affect units of analysis differently. Empirical evidence indicates differential effects of climate change: boreal forest is extending northward {5.4.2}, while tundra is diminishing in land area (established but incomplete) {5.4.3}. Thus, some drivers, and their relative roles, will need to be further refined on a local scale and with respect to their proximate factors.2. Multiple drivers will act in synergy and further produce biodiversity loss and impact nature?s contributions to people in most of the units of analysis for the Americas (established but incomplete){5.4}. Climate change, combined with other drivers, is predicted to account for an increasingly larger proportion of biodiversity loss in the future, in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems {5.3}. Forest fragmentation, climate change and industrial development increase risk of biodiversity and nature?s contributions to people loss i.e. dry forest unit of analysis {5.4.1.2}. Predictions on invasive species and climate change indicates an increase in habitable areas and their potential impacts on different units of analysis {5.3}.3. Changes in temperature, precipitation regime and extreme climate events are predicted to impact all units of analysis in the Americas (well established) {5.4}. Climate change and the potential impacts on tropical dry forests by changing the frequency of wildfires; change in forest structure and functional composition in the Amazon tropical moist forest; extreme drought events changing nature?s contributions to people in the Amazon region; insect outbreaks and changes in albedo are predicted to significantly impact temperate, boreal and tundra units of analysis, affecting society and indigenous communities and well-being {5.4}.4. Thresholds, or tipping points (conditions resulting in rapid and potentially irreversible changes) may have already been exceeded for some ecosystems and are likely for others (established but incomplete). For instance, it is considered more likely than not that such a threshold has already been passed in the cryosphere with respect to summer sea ice (established but incomplete) {5.4.12}. Model simulations indicate changes in forest structure and species distribution in the Amazon forest in response to global warming and change in precipitation patterns (forest die-back) (established but incomplete) {5.4.1}. So too, a 4oC increase in global temperatures is predicted to likely cause widespread die off of boreal forest due to greater susceptibility to disease {5.4.2} and global temperature increases may have already started persistent thawing of the permafrost {5.4.3}. Under 4°C warming, widespread coral reef mortality is expected with significant impacts on coral reef ecosystems {5.4.11}. Sea surface water temperature increase will cause a reduction of sea grass climatic niche: those populations under seawater surface temperature thresholds higher than the temperature ranges required by the species could become extinct by 2100 with concomitant loss of ecosystem services.IPBES/6/INF/4/Rev.15415. Changes in nature and nature?s contributions to people in most units of analysis are increasingly driven by causal interactions between distant places (i.e. telecouplings) (well established) {5.6.3}, thus scenarios and models that incorporate telecouplings will better inform future policy decisions. Nature and nature?s contributions to people in telecoupled systems can be affected negatively or positively by distant causal interactions. Provision of food and medicine from wild organisms in temperate and tropical grasslands, savannas and forests of South America is being dramatically reduced due to land-use changes driven by the demand of agricultural commodities (e.g. soybeans) mainly from Europe and China. Conservation of insectivorous migratory bats in Mexico benefits pest control in agroecosystems of North America, resulting in increased yields and reduced pesticide costs. Trade policies and international agreements will thus have an increasingly strong effect on environmental outcomes in telecoupled systems.6. Policy interventions have resulted in significant land use changes at the local and regional scales and will continue to do so through 2050. These policies have affected nature?s contributions to people both positively and negatively, and provide an opportunity to manage trade-offs among nature?s contributions to people (well established) {5.4}. Land use changes are now mainly driven by high crop demand, big hydropower plans, rapid urban growth and result in a continued loss of grasslands {5.4.4, 5.4.5}. However, strategies for establishing conservation units have helped in reducing deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon from the period of 2004 to 2011 (well established) {5.4.1}. Similarly, wetland protection policies and regulation have helped reduce the conversion of wetlands in North America {5.4.7}. Policies based on command and control measures may be limited in providing effective reduction in ecosystem loss and should be complemented with policies acknowledging multiple values {5.6.3}.7. Policy interventions at vastly differing scales (from national to local) lead to successful outcomes in mitigating impacts to biodiversity (established but incomplete){5.4}. For instance, long-established governmental protections of wetlands in North America have significantly slowed and may have stopped wetland loss based on acreage {5.4.7}. In South America, where mangrove loss continues at a rate of one to two per cent, different stakeholders such as local communities and/or governments have been successful in protecting mangroves based on empowerment and shared interests in their preservation {5.4.11}.8. Pressures to nature are projected to increase by 2050, negatively affecting biodiversity as indicated by a potential reduction of the mean species abundance index. However, the magnitude of the pressures by 2050 are expected to be less under transition pathways to sustainability in comparison to the business as usual scenario (established but incomplete), {5.5}. The Global Biodiversity model projected that under the business as usual scenario mean species abundance had decreased in the Americas by approximately 30 per cent by 2010 compared to its values prior to European settlement of the New World, with historical losses primarily attributed to land transformation to agricultural uses. Using the Global Biodiversity model, there is an additional projected loss of 9.6 per cent by 2050, primarily attributed to some additional land use changes , and especially to climate change, which will steadily increase relative to other drivers considered in the model. However, under the transition pathways to sustainability of global technologies, decentralised solutions, and consumption change pathways, the projected losses are 6 per cent, 5 per cent, and 5 per cent, respectively,IPBES/6/INF/4/Rev.1542achieving a relative improvement of approximately 30 per cent to 50 per cent compared to the business as usual scenario. Under these pathways, climate change mitigation, the expansion of protected areas and the recovery of abandoned lands would significantly contribute to reducing biodiversity loss.9. Participative scenarios have proven to be a successful tool for envisioning potential futures and pathways and to embrace and integrate multiple and sometime conflicting values and their role in promoting bottom-up decision making in the face of futures uncertainties (well established) {5.3}. The use of participative approaches to develop scenarios has increased during recent years in the Americas. The inclusion of different stakeholders and their knowledges in the process of constructing potential futures has promoted a better understanding of the complexity of the social-ecological systems in which they are embedded. This has enhanced co-learning processes between all actors involved, even those normally under-represented in decision-making activities. As a result, several participative scenario exercises have motivated community-based solutions and local governance initiatives all pointing towards the development of adaptive management strategies {5.3}.10. Pathways that consider changes in societal options will lead to less pressure to nature (established but incomplete) {5.6.3}. An example is the indirect impact that shifts in urban dietary preferences have on agricultural production and expansion, and food options that are expected to continue growing into the future. Therefore, not only is there a strong connection between urbanization and economic growth, but also between affluence (and urban preferences) and the global displacement of land use particularly from high-income to low-income countries.11. Available local studies informing regional futures of nature and natures benefit to people do not allow scalability as of yet (well established) {5.3}. The challenge in expanding the findings from local studies resides in the fact that a number of comparable local studies are still not available. Information is scattered throughout the region by the use of different units, methods and scales, which prevents a local-to-regional generalization. The list of nature indicators used in studies at local scales is large and heterogeneous (well established). Even for the same indicator (e.g. biodiversity), different metrics are used (e.g. species-area curve, mean species abundance) {5.5}. In other cases, multiple indicators are used to describe different aspects of biodiversity and ecosystem services. In this latter case, synergies and trade-offs are explicitly mentioned with a clear pattern in which increasing the provision of some indicators result in the detriment of others {5.3}. For example, agriculture expansion leading to loss in biodiversity illustrates a common trend from local studies expected to continue into the future.12. There is a significant research gap in the development of models and scenarios that integrate drivers, nature, natures contributions to people and good quality of life (well established){5.3}. Models and scenarios can be powerful tools to integrate and synthesize the complex dynamics of coupled human and nature systems, and to project their plausible behaviors into the future. Most existing models and scenarios focus on the link between drivers and its impacts on nature. Few cases exist in which models or scenarios integrate the relationships between changes in nature and changes in natures contributions to people and good quality of life {5.3}. Inter-and trans-disciplinary modeling efforts will be required to address this research gap {5.3}. ; Fil: Klatt, Brian. Michigan State University; Estados Unidos ; Fil: Ometto, Jean Pierre. National Institute For Space Research; Brasil ; Fil: García Marquez, Jaime. Universität zu Berlin; Alemania ; Fil: Baptiste, María Piedad. Instituto Alexander Von Humboldt; Colombia ; Fil: Instituto Alexander von Humboldt. Independent Consultant; Canadá ; Fil: Acebey, Sandra Verónica. No especifíca; ; Fil: Guezala, María Claudia. Inter-american Institute For Global Change Research; Perú ; Fil: Mastrangelo, Matias Enrique. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; Argentina ; Fil: Pengue, Walter Alberto. Universidad Nacional de General Sarmiento; Argentina ; Fil: Blanco, Mariela Verónica. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Oficina de Coordinación Administrativa Saavedra 15. Centro de Estudios e Investigaciones Laborales; Argentina ; Fil: Gadda, Tatiana. Universidade Tecnológica Federal Do Paraná; Brasil ; Fil: Ramírez, Wilson. Instituto Alexander Von Humboldt; Colombia ; Fil: Agard, John. University Of West Indies; Trinidad y Tobago ; Fil: Valle, Mireia. Universidad Laica Eloy Alfaro de Manabí; Ecuador
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Sanabanahalli Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 462 ha in Gubbi taluk of Tumakuru district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought- prone with an average annual rainfall of 813 mm, of which about 466 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 196 mm during north-east and the remaining 151 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 97 per cent is covered by soils and three per cent by others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 7 soil series and 13 soil phases (management units) and 3 land use classes. The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from 3rd week of June to third week of November. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing 34 major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. About 97 per cent area is suitable for agriculture. About 97 per cent of the soils are deep (100-150 cm) to very deep (>150 cm). About 21 per cent of the area has clayey soils at the surface and 76 per cent loamy soils. About 81 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils and 16 per cent gravelly soils (15-35 % gravel). About 42 per cent has soils that are low (51-100 mm/m) in available water capacity, 32 per cent medium (101-150 mm/m) and 24 per cent has very high (>200 mm/m) available water capacity. About 89 per cent of the area has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and 8 per cent area has nearly level (0-1%) lands. An area of about 65 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 32 per cent moderately eroded (e2). An area of about 39 per cent has soils that are slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5), 31 per cent moderately acid (pH 5.5-6.0), 13 per cent strongly acid (pH 5.0-5.5) and 13 per cent area is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3). The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus. About 14 per cent of the soils are low (4.5 ppm) in 86 per cent area and deficient (0.6 ppm) in 16 per cent of soils of the microwatershed. The land suitability for 34 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (Class S1) and moderately suitable (Class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 205 (44) 85 (18) Guava 186 (40) 211 (46) Fodder Sorghum 205 (44) 85 (18) Pomegranate 205 (44) 85 (18) Maize 77(17) 164 (35) Banana 205 (44) 85 (18) Upland paddy 205 (44) 85 (18) Jackfruit 205 (44) 36(8) Finger millet 205 (44) 36(8) Jamun 199(43) 91 (20) Red gram 205 (44) 85 (18) Musambi 205 (44) 85 (18) Horse gram 205 (44) 241 (52) Lime 205 (44) 85 (18) Field bean 205 (44) 85 (18) Cashew 186 (15) 55 (12) Cowpea 205 (44) 85 (18) Custard apple 205 (44) 241(52) Groundnut 6 (1) 373 (81) Amla 205 (44) 241(52) Sunflower 205 (44) 85 (18) Tamarind 199(43) 91 (20) Onion 97 (21) 194 (42) Marigold 205 (44) 85 (18) Chilli 205 (44) 85 (18) Chrysanthemum 205 (44) 85 (18) Brinjal 205 (44) 85 (18) Jasmine 205 (44) 85 (18) Tomato 205 (44) 85 (18) Coconut 186 (40) 55 (12) Mango 199(43) 42 (9) Arecanut 186 (40) 55 (12) Sapota 205 (44) 36(8) Mulbery 6 (1) (2832) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 3 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges that would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass. This would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contributes to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Sanabanahalli microwatershed (Bangihalli sub-watershed, Gubbi taluk, Tumkur district) is located in between 13027' – 13028' North latitudes and 051'76054' East longitudes, covering an area of about 604.37 ha, bounded by Anthapura, Gadi Ankanahalli, Madhenahalli, Sanabanahalli and Thalekoppa villages with an length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Sanabanahalli micro-watershed (Bangihalli sub-watershed, Gubbi taluk, Tumkur district) presented here. Social Indicators; Male and female ratio is 40.3 to 59.7 per cent to the total sample population. Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 52 per cent to the total population. Literacy population is around 57.6 per cent. Social groups belong to other backward castes (OBC) is around 45.5 per cent. Wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 27.3 per cent. About 27.3 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card. Majority of farm households 45.5% per cent are having MGNREGA card for rural employment. Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 72.7 per cent. Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 72.7 per cent of sample households. Institutional participation is only 1.92 per cent of sample households. Economic Indicator: The average land holding is 0.5 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belongs to marginal and small farmers. The accounted for dry land of 54.7 per cent and irrigated land of 45.3 per cent to total cultivated land among sample households. 2 Agriculture is the main occupation among 10.5 per cent and agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 86.8 per cent of sample households. The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 67494 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication. The average value of livestock is around Rs. 27500 per household; about 66.7 per cent of household are having livestock. The average per capita food consumption is around 731.6 grams (1605.1 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 72.7 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation. The annual average income is around Rs.40810 per household. About 18.1 per cent of farm households are below poverty line. The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs.1194. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services; The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use. The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 463 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 207147 per year for the total area of 461.60 ha. The average value of ecosystem service for food production is around Rs. 18763/ ha/year. Per hectare food production services is maximum in coconut (Rs. 78340) followed by mango (Rs. 76674), ragi (Rs.10415), horse gram (Rs. 8039), cowpea (Rs. 6799), greengram (Rs. 2496) maize (Rs. 353), bajra and sorghum is negative returns. The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 10074/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in maize (Rs. 35568) followed by bajra (Rs. 6367), sorghum (Rs.5443), horse gram (Rs. 1547) and ragi (Rs. 1445). The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in coconut (Rs. 256015) followed maize (Rs. 72440), green gram (Rs. 48736), mango (Rs. 48121), bajra (Rs. 46641), sorghum (Rs. 45171), horse gram (Rs. 21379), ragi (Rs. 12914) and cowpea (Rs. 9306). Economic Land Evaluation; The major cropping pattern followed by bajra (1.0 %), coconut (12.7 %), cowpea (0.4 %), greengram (0.8 %), horse gram (16.9 %), maize (0.6 %), mango (12.6 %), ragi (35.0 %) and sorghum (20.1 %). 3 In Sanabanahalli Microwatershed, major soil is soil of Balapura (BPR) series is having deep soil depth cover around 33.9 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing horse gram (34.3 %) mango (31.2 %) ragi (34.3 %), Hallikere (HLK) are also having very deep depth cover 15.47 % of area, the crops are horse gram (26.7 %) mango (10.9 %), ragi (49.4 %), sorghum (12.8 %) and Kadagathur (KDT) soil series having very deep soil depth cover around 23.57 % of areas, crops are green gram (25.1 %) and maize (14.9 %) ragi (59.8 %). Thondigere (TDG) soil series having very deep soil depth cover around 10.66 % of area, crops are bajra, coconut, cowpea, horse gram, ragi and sorghum. The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for mango ranges between Rs. 57315/ha in HLK soil (with BCR of 3.04) and Rs. 29944/ha in BPR soil (with BCR of 1.65). In ragi the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 31318/ha in KDT soil (with BCR of 1.23) and Rs. 24711/ha in BPR soil (with BCR of 1.25). In sorghum the cost of cultivation ranges between Rs. 38190/ha in TDG soil (with BCR of 1.11) and Rs. 22068/ha in HLK soil (with BCR of 1.23). In horse gram the cost of cultivation range between is Rs.24611/ha in HLK soil (with BCR of 1.20) and Rs. 11655/ha in TDG soil (with BCR of 1.38). In maize the cost of cultivation in KDT soil is Rs. 106350/ha (with BCR of 1.34). In bajra the cost of cultivation in TDG soil is Rs.47903/ha (with BCR of 0.84) In coconut the cost of cultivation in TDG soil is Rs.26467/ha (with BCR of 2.73) and green gram the cost of cultivation in KDT soil is Rs.34200/ha (with BCR of 1.07). The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of live stock limiting application of FYM. It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions; Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices. Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments. 4 By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households. By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation there is scope to increase yield in mango (89.9 to 55.3 %), ragi (67.8 to 59.5 %), sorghum (56.0 to 42.8 %), hors egram (49.4 to 29.1 %), coconut (47.7 %) cowpea (39.3 %), bajra (28.8 %), maize (28.6 %) and greengram (17.4 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Shethalli-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 503 ha in Shethalli-2 microwatershed in Yadgir taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as droughtprone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 99 per cent is covered by soils, 1 per cent by rock lands, habitation and water bodies. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 13 soil series and 18 soil phases (management units) and 7 land use class. The length of crop growing period is 120-150 days starting from the 1st week of June to 4th week of October. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. Entire land area of the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture. About 150 cm) soils. About 85 per cent of the area has clayey soils, 8 per cent loamy soils and 6 per cent sandy soils at the surface. An area of about 93 per cent has non-gravelly and 6 per cent are gravelly soils. About 59 per cent of the area has soils that are very high (>200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 9.0) in soil reaction. The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon. An area of 36 per cent has soils that are low (57 kh/ha) in available phosphorus. About 67 per cent medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 32 per cent high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium. Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in about 12 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in about 13 per cent area of the microwatershed. About 30 per cent area has soils that are deficient (4.5 ppm). Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed. Entire area of the microwatershed is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in available zinc. The land suitability for 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Shethalli-2 microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 10 (2) 387 (77) Sapota - 27 (5) Maize 10 (2) 91 (18) Guava - 27 (5) Red gram - 313 (64) Pomegranate - 323 (64) Bajra 10 (2) 399 (80) Jackfruit - 27 (5) Ground nut - 113 (23) Jamun - 298 (59) Sunflower - 323 (64) Musambi - 323 (64) Cotton - 397 (79) Lime - 323 (64) Bengalgram - 397 (79) Cashew - 25 (5) Chilli - 397 (79) Custard apple 10 (2) 399 (80) Tomato 10 (2) 91 (18) Amla 10 (2) 399 (80) Drumstick - 336 (67) Tamarind - 298 (59) Mulberry - 40 (8) Marigold - 397 (79) Mango - 2 (<1) Chrysanthemum - 397 (79) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining the ecological balance in the microwatershed. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc. Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Shethalli-2 micro-watershed (Yadgir taluk and district) is located in between 18019' – 1807' North latitudes and 740 5' – 7409' East longitudes, covering an area of about 502.83 ha, bounded by Badehalli, Balacheda, Kadechoora and Sowrashtrahalli villages. with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analysed. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Shethalli-2 micro-watershed in Yadgiri taluk and district are presented here. Social Indicators; Male and female ratio is 57.6 to 42.4 per cent to the total sample population. Younger age group 18 to 50 of population is around 55.6 per cent to the total population. Literacy population is around 61.1 per cent. Social groups belong to other backward caste (OBC) are around 50 per cent. Fire wood is the source of energy for a cooking around 96.7 per cent sample households. About 43.3 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card. About 13.3 per cent farm households having MGNREGA card for rural employment. Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 90 per cent. Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities to around 40 per cent of sample households. Women participation in decisions making are around 77 per cent of households were found. Economic Indicators; The average land holding is 1.92 ha indicates that majority of farm households belong to small and medium farmers. They account for dry land of 57.7 ha among the total cultivated land among the sample households. 2 Agriculture as the main occupation is only 23.6 per cent and agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 43.8 per cent of sample households. The average value of domestic assets is around Rs.13109 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication. The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 184433 per household, about 20.0 per cent of sample farmers are owing plough. The average value of livestock is around Rs. 26552 per household; about 65.85 per cent of household are having livestock. The average per capita food consumption is around 1117.5 grams (2647.4 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition recommendation at 827 gram. Around 80 per cent of sample households are consuming more than the NIN recommendation. The annual average income is around Rs. 30126 per household. About 90 per cent of farm households are below poverty line. The per capita monthly average expenditure is around Rs.4224. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services; The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use. The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. Rs.4967 ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum cotton (Rs.10438) followed by redgram (Rs.9374), maize (Rs.6440), groundnut (Rs. 4861), sorghum (Rs.2070) and paddy is negative returns. The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs.2856/ ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum sorghum (Rs. 5207) followed by paddy (Rs.3705), maize (Rs.1482) and groundnut (Rs.1029). The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The value of per hectare water used and value of water was maximum in red gram (Rs.47212) followed by cotton (Rs.39025), maize (Rs.30183), paddy (Rs. 28926), groundnut (Rs.27916) and sorghum (Rs. 25511). Economic Land Evaluation; The major cropping pattern is redgram (50.71 %) followed by cotton (27.88 %), sorghum (10.32%), groundnut (9.63 %) and maize (1.46 %). The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for cotton ranges between Rs.40780/ha in marginal farmers (with BCR of 1.09) and Rs.17985/ha in medium farmers (with BCR of 1.37). 3 In redgram the costs of cultivation range between Rs.35897/ha in marginal farmers (with BCR of 1.04) and Rs25330/ha in medium farmers (with BCR of 1.11). In groundnut the cost of cultivation range between is Rs. 43673/ha in small farmers (with BCR of 1.21) and Rs. 18483 in semi medium farmers (with BCR of 1.20). In maize the cost of cultivation is Rs.42960/ha in small farmers (with BCR of 1.18). In paddy the cost of cultivation is Rs.32772/ha in small farmers (with BCR of 1.01). In sorghum the cost of cultivation range between is Rs. 21800/ha in small farmers (with BCR of 1.44) and Rs. 11725/ha in medium farmers (with BCR of 1.31). The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not practicing soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM. It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soils to maximize returns. Suggestions; Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthening institutional participation. The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices. Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments. By strengthening agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households. By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in cotton (29.4 to 71.1 %), redgram (22.5 to 42.2 %), groundnut (30.0 to 63.9 %), maize (70.2 %), paddy (70.5 %) and sorghum (58.0 to 82.4 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
This review focuses on the role of local institutions in adaptation to climate change. It does so under the belief that climate impacts will affect disadvantaged social groups more disproportionately, and that local institutions centrally influence how different social groups gain access to and are able to use assets and resources. It suggests that adaptation to climate change is inevitably local and that institutions influence adaptation and climate vulnerability in three critical ways: a) they structure impacts and vulnerability, b) they mediate between individual and collective responses to climate impacts and thereby shape outcomes of adaptation, and c) they act as the means of delivery of external resources to facilitate adaptation, and thus govern access to such resources. In focusing on local institutions, the review fills two glaring gaps in the existing understanding about institutions and climate change: the lack of middle-range theories of adaptation practices to help frame policy debates, and the absence of comparative empirical studies of adaptation to support policy interventions. To contribute to middle-range theoretical knowledge about climate change the review develops a conceptual framework to understand and classify the adaptation practices of the rural poor, view the institutional structuring of adaptation, and examine the types of external support interventions that local institutions inevitably channel. The review proposes a focus on different forms of mobility, storage, diversification, communal pooling, and market exchange in rural settings as the basic mechanisms through which households address riskiness of livelihoods. Using the familiar typology of public, private, and civil society institutions the review proposes an institutional linkages framework that highlights the role of institutional partnerships in facilitating adaptation and drawing from social network analysis it presents a conceptual toolkit to analyze institutional partnerships and their impacts on resource access of vulnerable social groups. In examining the role of institutions in channeling financial, information and technological, leadership, and policy interventions into rural areas, the review highlights that institutions are critical leverage points through which to determine the direction and magnitude of flows of resources to different social groups.
This book takes both a global as well as a local perspective in assessing the impacts of climate change on the economy, agricultural sector, and households in three of the MENA countries; Syria, Tunisia and Yemen. The major channels of impact for global climate change are through changing world food (and energy) prices, especially since all the countries under analysis are or have become net importers of oil and petroleum products and many food commodities in recent years. The impacts of local climate change decrease crop yields in the longer run and through them, productivity in the agricultu
Este proyecto tiene como objetivo solventar la problemática relacionada con la educación en Colombia, dándole respuesta a las necesidades de las poblaciones donde se presentan altas tasas de analfabetismo debido a las malas coberturas y escasa atención brindada por parte de las entidades gubernamentales, así como las difíciles condiciones a las cuales están sometidas los habitantes. Por esto, se requiere la intervención inmediata, para brindar una solución que satisfaga las necesidades de la población. A tal fin, se presentaron 3 alternativas cuyo fin es solventar este déficit de oferta en sectores críticos donde la propuesta de cara a la solución. La primera alternativa fue el C.E "Educación para todos" en San Zenón, Magdalena; como segunda alternativa se analizó el C.E "por los jóvenes del futuro" en la Guajira; y, por último, la alternativa el "Edificio multiproyectos juntos por la educación" en Clemencia, Bolívar. Al realizar el análisis de los indicadores expuestos con mayor impacto positivo, según la matriz DOFA, la mejor alternativa para cubrir los corregimientos de Santa Teresa, Guinea y Bermejal resultó ser el C.E "Educación para todos" en San Zenón. En este centro educativo se buscará garantizar ambientes a fin del desarrollo formativo y fomentar competencias para el trabajo y la prosperidad. Este proyecto contará con educación primaria y secundaria, así como zonas verdes, de recreación, alimentación, investigación, con sus respectivos laboratorios, y biblioteca. El proyecto cuenta con un área de 15.699 m2 y una edificación principal de 6.440 m2. Dicha edificación constará de cuatro (4) pisos a nivel del suelo, donde se distribuirán salones y baños, así como un (1) piso del subsuelo donde estarán los laboratorios y bodegas. El presupuesto total del proyecto será poco menos de dos (2) millones de dólares. Con el proyecto se aspira a mejorar el sector de la educación en estos corregimientos debido a su escasa infraestructura de centros educativos. ; This project aims to solve the problems related to education in Colombia, responding to populations with high illiteracy rates due to poor coverage and insufficient attention provided by government entities and the difficult conditions to which the inhabitants are subjected. Therefore, immediate intervention is required to provide a solution that meets the needs of the population. To this end, three alternatives were presented to solve this supply deficit in critical sectors where the proposal for the solution. The first alternative would be the "Educación para todos educational center" in San Zenón in the department of Magdalena; as a second alternative the "Study center por los jovenes del futuro" located in Uribia La Guajira; and finally the third alternative was the "Multi-project building juntos por la educacion" located in Clemencia Bolívar. The analysis of the indicators with the most significant positive impact and according to the SWOT matrix reveals that the best alternative was the educational center "Educacion para todos" to cover the villages of Santa Teresa, Guinea, and Bermejal where it will seek to ensure environments for the formative development of students and promote skills for work and prosperity. This project will include primary and secondary education and green areas, recreation areas, food, research with their respective laboratories and library. This project has an area of 15.699 m2 and a main building of 6.440 m2. This main building consists of four (4) floors at ground level, where classrooms and bathrooms will be distributed, and one (1) underground floor where the laboratories and warehouses will be located. The project's total budget will be a little less than two (2) million dollars. This project's principal goal is to improve the education sector in these districts due to their inadequate infrastructure of educational centers.
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Dadal microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 568 ha in Dadal microwatershed in Yadgir taluk of Yadgir district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as droughtprone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 96 per cent is covered by soils, four per cent by waterbodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 9 soil series and 15 soil phases (management units) and 4 land use classes. The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from the 1st week of June to 4th week of October. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. About 96 per cent area is suitable for agriculture and 4 per cent is not suitable for agriculture but well suited for forestry, pasture, agro forestry, silvi-pasture, recreation, installation of wind mills and as habitat for wildlife. About 11 per cent of the soils are moderately deep (75-100cm), about 69 per cent deep (100-150cm) to very deep (>150 cm) and 17 per cent are shallow to moderately shallow (25-75 cm) soils. About 81 per cent of the area has clayey soils and 15 per cent loamy soils at the surface. About 89 per cent of the area has non-gravelly and 7 per cent gravelly soils (15-35 % gravel). About 69 per cent of the area has soils that are very high (>200mm/m) in available water capacity, 17 per cent medium (100-150 mm/m) and about 11 per cent low (51-100 mm/m) to very low (9.0) in soil reaction. The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon. An area of 22 per cent has soils that are low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus. About 49 per cent medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 47 per cent high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium. Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in about 2 per cent area. Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in about 35 per cent. About 14 per cent area has soils that are deficient (4.5 ppm). Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils. Available zinc is deficient in all the soils. The land suitability for 27 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Dadal microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 503 (89) Guava - - Maize - 16 (3) Pomegranate - 450 (79) Red gram - 450 (79) Jackfruit - - Bajra - 503 (89) Jamun - 390(69) Ground nut - 16 (3) Musambi - 450 (79) Sunflower - 450 (79) Lime - 450 (79) Cotton - 503 (89) Cashew - - Bengalgram - 503 (89) Custard apple 503 (89) Chilli - 503 (89) Amla - 503 (89) Tomato - 16 (3) Tamarind - 390(69) Drumstick - 450 (79) Marigold - 503 (89) Mulberry - - Chrysanthemum - 503 (89) Mango - - Sapota - - Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fibre and horticulture crops that helps in maintaining the ecological balance in the microwatershed Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS OF FARM HOUSEHOLDS Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: The Dadal micro-watershed (Yadgir taluk and district) is located in between 16031' – 16033' North latitudes and 77016' – 77019' East longitudes, covering an area of about 567.79 ha, bounded by Balacheda, Daddala, Kadechoora, Rachanallii and Shettilli villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Dadal micro-watershed in Yadgir taluk and district are presented here. Social Indicators; Male and female ratio is 65.3 to 34.7 per cent to the total sample population. Younger age group 18 to 50 of population is around 60.56 per cent to the total population. Literacy population is around 59.6 per cent. Social groups belong to other backward caste (OBC) are around 70 per cent. Fire wood is the source of energy for a cooking among all sample households. About 44.2 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card. About 9.3 per cent farm households having MGNREGA card for rural employment. Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 95.3 per cent. Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 37.2 per cent of sample households. Women participation in decisions making are around 95 per cent of households were found. Economic Indicators; The average land holding is 1.39 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. The account for dry land of 59.9 ha among the total cultivated land among the sample households. 2 Agriculture is the main occupation is only 17.4 per cent and agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 51.2 per cent of sample households. The average value of domestic assets is around Rs.11109 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication. The average value of farm assets is around Rs.207653 per household, about 25.58 per cent of sample farmers are owing plough. The average value of livestock is around Rs.23165 per household; about 79.17 per cent of household are having livestock. The average per capita food consumption is around 1131.2 grams (2651.2 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition recommendation at 827 gram. Around 47 per cent of sample households are consuming more than the NIN recommendation. The annual average income is around Rs. 57157 per household. About 100 per cent of farm households are below poverty line. The per capita monthly average expenditure is around Rs.3546. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services; The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use. The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. Rs.16379/ ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in cotton (Rs.27737) followed by paddy (Rs.21084), maize (Rs.16045), green gram (Rs. 13626), red gram (Rs. 11567) and groundnut (Rs. 10212). The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs.1413/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in maize (Rs. 2223) followed by groundnut (Rs.1029), and paddy (Rs.988). The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The value of per hectare water used and value of water was maximum in red gram (Rs.47632) followed by cotton (Rs.46455), green gram (Rs.42645), paddy (Rs. 42471), groundnut (Rs. 27916) and maize (Rs. 26410). Economic Land Evaluation; The major cropping pattern is redgram (41.6 %) followed by cotton (37.6 %), groundnut (9 %), paddy (4.7 %), green gram (4.1 %) and maize (2.7 %). In Dadal micro watershed, major soils are Soil of Granite and Granite Gneiss Landscape of Hegganakera (HGN) series are having very deep soil deep cover around 42.03 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing cotton (81.7 %) and redgram (18.3 %). Kudlura (KDR) and Sowrashtrahalli (SWR) are having deep soil depth cover around 14.02 % and 12.64 % of areas, respectively the 3 crops are cotton, groundnut, paddy, red gram, and green gram. Rachanalli (RHN) soil is having moderately deep soil depth cover around 10.59 % of area; crops are cotton and red gram. Balched (BLD) and Yalleri (YLR) are having moderately shallow soil depth cover around 6.48 % and 0.25 % of areas, respectively; crops are groundnut, red gram, cotton and maize. The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for cotton ranges between Rs.41969/ha in BLD soil (with BCR of 1.41) and Rs.19813/ha in SWR soil (with BCR of 3.62). In green gram the cost of cultivation is Rs.14162/ha in SWR soil (with BCR of 1.96). In groundnut the costs of cultivation range between Rs.28742/ha in YLR soil (with BCR of 1.68) and Rs.28009/ha in KDR soil (with BCR of 1.27). In maize the cost of cultivation is Rs.35825/ha in BLD soil (with BCR of 1.48). In paddy the cost of cultivation range between is Rs. 31583/ha in SWR soil (with BCR of 1.61) and Rs. 28742 in KDR soil (with BCR of 1.70). In red gram the cost of cultivation range between is Rs. 30294/ha in HGN soil (with BCR of 1.28) and Rs. 15964/ha in YLR soil (with BCR of 2.01). The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM. It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soils to maximize returns. Suggestions; Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices. Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments. By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households. By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in cotton (19 to 66.3 %), maize (62 %), paddy (54.2 to 56 %), and red gram (27.3 to 47.6) ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kanekal-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 483 ha in Kanekal-2 microwatershed in Yadgir taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as droughtprone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 94 per cent is covered by soils, 6 per cent by habitation and water bodies. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 10 soil series and 12 soil phases (management units) and 6 Land Management Units. The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from the 1st week of June to 4th week of October. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. Entire land area of the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture. About 38 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50-75 cm), 6 per cent of the soils are moderately deep (75-100cm) and about 51 per cent soils are deep (100-150cm) to very deep (>150 cm) soils. About 49 per cent of the area has clayey soils, 42 per cent loamy soils and 3 per cent sandy soils at the surface. An area of about 88 per cent has non-gravelly and 7 per cent are gravelly. About 47 per cent of the area has soils that are very high (>200mm/m) in available water capacity, 32 per cent low (51-100mm/m) and about 15 per cent very low (0.75%) in organic carbon. An area of 3 per cent has soils that are low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium. Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in about 5 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in about 49 per cent area of the microwatershed. About 4 per cent area has soils that are deficient (4.5 ppm). Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed. Entire area of the microwatershed is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in available zinc. The land suitability for 26 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Kanekal-2 microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 27 (6) 337 (70) Sapota - 46 (9) Maize 27 (6) 110 (23) Guava - 46 (9) Red gram - 273(56) Pomegranate - 273 (56) Bajra 27(6) 356 (74) Jackfruit - 27 (6) Ground nut - 144 (30) Jamun - 246(51) Sunflower - 254 (53) Musambi - 273 (56) Cotton 75 (16) 289 (60) Lime - 273 (56) Bengalgram 75 (16) 289 (60) Cashew - 27 (6) Chilli - 357(74) Custard apple 27 (6) 337 (70) Tomato 27 (6) 129 (27) Amla 27 (6) 337 (70) Drumstick - 273 (56) Tamarind - 246 (51) Mulberry - 27 (6) Marigold - 383 (79) Mango - 47(10) Chrysanthemum - 383 (79) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 6 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops that helps in maintaining the ecological balance in the microwatershed Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges, that are edible, ecological and produce lot of biomass that helps to restore the ecological balance in the micro watershed. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: The Kanikal-2 Microwatershed (Yadgir taluk and district) is located in between 16036' – 16038' North latitudes and 770 17' – 76019' East longitudes, covering an area of about 482.51 ha, bounded by Kanikal, Neelahalli & Gudalagunta villages. Agro Ecological Sub Region (AESR) 6.2: Central and Western Maharashtra Plateau and North Karnataka Plateau and North Western Telangana Plateau, hot moist semi-arid ESR with shallow and medium loamy to clayey Black soil (medium and deep clayey Black soil as inclusion), medium to high AWC and LGP 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified for each watershed. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Kanikal-2 Microwatershed in Yadgir taluk and district are presented here. Social Indicators; Male and female ratio is 56.7 to 43.3 per cent to the total sample population. Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 58.0 per cent to the total population. Literacy population is around 33.6 per cent. Social groups belong to SC/ST is around 15.4 per cent. Wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 100 per cent. About 53.8 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card. Majority of farm households (23.8 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employments. Dependence on ration cards through public distribution system is around 84.6 per cent Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 23.0 per cent of sample households. Women participation is decisions making are around 53.8 per cent of households were found. Economic Indicators; The average land holding is 3.1 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and semi-medium farmers. The dry land account 60.8 % and irrigated land is 23 % of total cultivated land among the sample farmers. 2 Agriculture is the main occupation among 17.3 per cent and Agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is predominant subsidiary occupation for 65.4 per cent. The average value of domestic assets is around Rs.12632 per household. Mobile and television are mass popular mass communication media. The average farm assets a value is around Rs.10594 per household, about 69.2 per cent of sample farmers are owing plough. The average livestock value is around Rs.24722 per livestock; about 69 per cent of household are having livestock. The average per capita food consumption is around 1018.8 grams (2232.1 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 15.3 per cent of sample farmers are consuming less than the NIN recommendation. The annual average income is around Rs.30999 per household. The per capita monthly expenditure is around Rs.3097 per household. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services; The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use. The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs.1328.92 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs.786723 per year for the total area of 482.5 ha. The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs 12599/ ha/year (Table 21 and Figure 11). Per hectare food production services is maximum in redgram (Rs.9415) followed by wheat (Rs.4139), groundnut (Rs.4070) and cotton (Rs.1842) The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs.1662/ ha/year (Table 23). Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in paddy (Rs.1482) followed by groundnut (Rs.1142). The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum (Table 22 and Figure 12) in wheat (Rs.53720) followed by redgram (Rs.51938), groundnut (Rs.32067) and cotton (Rs.31513). Economic Land Evaluation; The major cropping pattern is red gram (37.4 %) followed by cotton (28.0 %), groundnut (23.5 %), wheat (5.5 %), maize (2.8 %) and paddy (2.8%). In Kanikal-2 micro-watershed, major soils are soils of alluvial landscape of Sambara (SBR) series are having moderately shallow soil deep cover around 15.1 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing redgram (100 %). Soil of 3 Yalleri (YLR) is also having moderately shallow soil deep cover around 7.5 % of area; the crops are paddy (14.3 %) and redgram was 85.7 % each. Nagalapur (NGP) soil series having deep soil depth cover around 5.4 % of areas, crops are redgram (100%). Mundargi (MDG) soil series are having deep soil depth cover around 9.7% of area; crops are groundnut (25.0%) and red gram (75.0%). Bhimanahalli (BMN) soil series are having Very deep soil depth cover around 0.5 % of area, respectively. The major crops grown are cotton (22.2 %) and redgram (77.8%). Duppali (DPL) soil series are having moderately shallow soil depth covers around 12.31 % of area, the major crop grown is cotton (46.2%), groundnut (38.5%) and wheat (15.4). Madhwara (MDR) soil series having very deep soil depth cover 31.6 % of areas respectively; crops are cotton. The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for red gram ranges between Rs.44678/ha in SBR soil (with BCR of 1.22) and Rs.16439/ha in NGP soil (with BCR of 1.35). In cotton the cost of cultivation range between Rs 39247/ha in DPL soil (with BCR of 1.06) and Rs.28259/ha in BMN soil (with BCR of 1.09). In groundnut the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 63430/ha in DPL soil (with BCR of 1.07) and Rs. 45749/ha in MDG soil (with BCR of 1.1). In wheat cost of cultivation in DPL soil is Rs.49805/ha in (with BCR of 1.08). The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of Farm Yard Manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM. It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. Fertilizer applications are deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions; Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices. Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments. By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households. By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in red gram (3 to 66.3 %), cotton (0 to 63.6 %), groundnut (0 to 52.8 %), wheat is negative return. ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kanekal-4 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 494 ha in Kanekal-4 microwatershed in Yadgir taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as droughtprone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 99 per cent is covered by soils, 1 per cent by rock outcrops and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 13 soil series and 17 soil phases (management units) and 7 land use classes. The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from the 1st week of June to 4th week of October. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. Entire land area of the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture. Small area of less than 1 per cent are shallow (25-50 cm), 24 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50-75 cm), 18 per cent of the soils are moderately deep (75-100cm) and about 57 per cent soils are deep (100-150cm) to very deep (>150 cm) soils. About 58 per cent of the area has clayey soils, 39 per cent loamy soils and 2 per cent sandy soils at the surface. An area of about 77 per cent has non-gravelly and 22 per cent are gravelly. About 56 per cent of the area has soils that are very high (>200mm/m) in available water capacity, 6 per cent is medium (101-150 mm/m), 16 per cent low (51-100mm/m) and about 20 per cent very low (0.75%) in organic carbon. An area of 13 per cent has soils that are low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus. About 97 per cent medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 2 per cent high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium. Available sulphur is low (1.0 ppm) in about 3 per cent area of the microwatershed. About 15 per cent area has soils that are deficient (4.5 ppm). Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed. Entire area of the microwatershed is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in available zinc. The land suitability for 26 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Kanekal-4 microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 385 (78) Sapota - 50 (10) Maize - 12 (2) Guava - 50 (10) Red gram - 370 (75) Pomegranate - 370 (75) Bajra - 381 (77) Jackfruit - 47 (9) Ground nut - 62 (12) Jamun - 301(61) Sunflower - 62 (12) Musambi - 370 (75) Cotton 219 (44) 120 (24) Lime - 369 (75) Bengalgram 238 (48) 100 (20) Cashew - - Chilli - 216 (44) Custard apple - 385 (78) Tomato - 62 (12) Amla - 386 (78) Drumstick - 370 (75) Tamarind - 301 (61) Mulberry - 47 (9) Marigold - 389 (79) Mango - 53(11) Chrysanthemum - 389 (79) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining the ecological balance in the microwatershed Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges, that are edible and produce lot of biomass that helps to restore the ecological balance in the microwatershed. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Kanikal-4 micro-watershed (Yadgir taluk and district) is located in between 16035' – 16036' North latitudes and 770 15' – 76016' East longitudes, covering an area of about 494.19 ha, bounded by Kanikal, Rampura, Sydhapura, Neelahalli and Kudlura villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Kanikal-4 micro-watershed in Yadgir taluk and district are presented here. Social Indicators; Male and female ratio is 61.2 to 38.8 per cent to the total sample population. Younger age group 18 to 50 of population is around 51.8 per cent to the total population. Literacy population is around 61.2 per cent. Social groups belong to scheduled caste / scheduled tribes are around 47.1 per cent Wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 88.2 per cent. About 29.4 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card. About 11.8 per cent farm households having MGNREGA card for rural employments. Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 94.1 per cent Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 31.2 per cent of sample households. Rural migration to unban centre for employment is prevalent among 23.5 per cent of farm households. Women participation in decisions making are around 47.1 per cent of households were found. Economic Indicators; The average land holding is 2.4 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. The account for 80.3 per cent of dry land 2 and 19.7 per cent of irrigated land of total cultivated land among the sample households. Agriculture is the main occupation among 17.6 per cent and agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 51.8 per cent of sample households. The average value of domestic assets is around Rs.184954 per household. Mobile and television are mass popular mass communication media. The average farm assets a value is around Rs.115647 per household, about 28 per cent of sample farmers are owing plough. The average livestock value is around Rs.32666 per household; about 64 per cent of household are having livestock. The average per capita food consumption is around 1081.2 grams (2483.9 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition recommendation at 827 gram. Around 23.5 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation. The annual average income is around Rs. 37155 per household. About 29.4 per cent of farm households are below poverty line. The per capita monthly expenditure is around Rs. 2816. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services; The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use. The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs 2236.2 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs 1093504 per year for the total area of 494.2 ha. The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 8645/ ha/year. Per hector food production services is maximum in bajra (Rs. 25693) followed by maize (Rs. 5267), redgram (Rs. 5048), greengram (Rs. 5032), groundnut (Rs. 4863) and cotton (Rs. 3792). The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs.1555/ ha/year. Per hector fodder production services is maximum in bajra (Rs 2717) followed by paddy (Rs 2083), groundnut (Rs.1049) and maize (Rs 370). The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in bajra (Rs. 110557) followed by greengram (Rs. 51173), red gram (Rs. 33808), cotton (Rs. 31928), maize (Rs. 20751) and groundnut (Rs.18037). Economic Land Evaluation; The major cropping pattern is redgram (47.2 %) followed by cotton (17.6 %), groundnut (16.0 %), greengram (4.8 %), maize (4.8 %), paddy (8.0 %), and bajra (1.6 %) 3 In Kanikal-4 micro watershed, major soils are soil of alluvial landscape of Sambara (SBR) series are having moderately shallow soil deep cover around 25.57 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing cotton (56.2 %), maize (25.0 %) paddy (6.2 %), and redgram (12.5 %). Soil of granite and granite gneiss landscape of Nagalapur (NGP) are also having deep soil deep cover around 0.97 % of area, the crops are paddy (11.1 %), and redgram (88.9 %). Madhwara (MDR) soil series having very deep soil depth cover around 23.42 % of areas, crops are redgram (100 %). Hosalli (HSL) soil series are having moderately deep soil depth cover around 15.53 per cent of area, respectively. The major crops grown are paddy (16.7 %) and redgram (83.3 %). Kadechoor (KDH) soil series are having moderately deep soil depth covers around 3.31 % of area, the major crop grown is bajra (8.3 %), cotton (12.5 %), greengram (16.7 %), groundnut (45.8 %) and redgram (16.7 %). Mylapura (MYP) and Rachanalli (RHN) soil series having very deep and moderately deep soil depth cover 1.54 % and 0.41 % of areas respectively; crops are cotton, greengram, maize, redgram, groundnut and paddy. The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for cotton ranges between Rs.35018/ha in MYP soil (with BCR of 1.18) and Rs.25702/ha in SBR soil (with BCR of 1.07). In maize the cost of cultivation range between Rs 35615/ha in MYP soil (with BCR of 1.14) and Rs.16683/ha in SBR soil (with BCR of 1.48). In paddy the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 74662/ha in SBR soil (with BCR of 1.51) and Rs. 20967/ha in RHN soil (with BCR of 1.06). In redgram cost of cultivation range between is Rs. 29997/ha in SBR soil (with BCR of 1.48) and Rs 8160 in NGP soil (with BCR of 1.02). In groundnut the cost of cultivation range between is Rs 23485/ha in KDH soil (with BCR of 1.22) and Rs.13831/ha in RHN soil (with BCR of 1.63). In greengram the cost of cultivation in MYP soil is Rs.33499/ha (with BCR of 1.24). In bajra the cost of cultivation in KDH soil is Rs.66931/ha (with BCR of 1.43). The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM. It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soils to maximize returns. 4 Suggestions; Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices. Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments. By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households. By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in cotton (46 to 64.6 %), maize (67.4 % to 72 %), paddy (34% to 78 %), red gram (27.3 % to 86.4 %), groundnut (26.6 % to 30.6 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kallupalya Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 402 ha in Gubbi taluk of Tumakuru district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drough-prone with an average annual rainfall of 813 mm, of which about 466 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 196 mm during north-east and the remaining 151 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 88 per cent is covered by soils and 12 per cent by others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 9 soil series and 18 soil phases (management units) and 6 land use classes. The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from 3rd week of June to third week of November. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing 33 major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. About 87 per cent area is suitable for agriculture and 13 per cent is not suitable for agriculture About 84 per cent of the soils are moderately deep (75-100 cm) to very deep (>150 cm) and 4 per cent of the soils are moderately shallow. About 6 per cent of the area has clayey soils at the surface and 82 per cent loamy soils. About 39 per cent of the soils are non gravelly, 19 per cent of the soils are gravelly (200 mm/m) available water capacity. About 81 per cent of the area has nearly level (0-1%) to very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and about 7 per cent of the area is gently sloping (3-5%). An area of about 52 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 29 per cent moderately eroded (e2). A very small area of about 7 per cent is severely eroded. Maximum area of about 57 per cent has soils that are strongly acid to moderately acid and slightly acid (pH 5.0-6.5) and 31 per cent neutral (pH 6.5-7.3). The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus and 1 per cent area is medium (23-57 kg/ha). About 23 per cent of the soils are low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium. Available sulphur is medium (10 -20 ppm) in an area of about 4 per cent and high (>20 ppm) in an area of 83 per cent. Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in maximum area about 77 per cent area and medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) in 11 per cent area. Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in the entire microwatershed area. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed. Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 36 per cent of soils of the microwatershed. The land suitability for 34 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 74 (16) 62(13) Guava 74 (16) 185(40) Fodder Sorghum 74 (16) 62(13) Pomegranate 74 (16) 45(10) Maize 43 (9) 93(20) Banana 74 (16) 45(10) Upland paddy 74 (16) 140(30) Jackfruit 74 (16) 45(10) Finger millet 74 (16) 119(26) Jamun 74 (16) 45(10) Redgram 74 (16) 62(13) Musambi 74 (16) 45(10) Horse gram 91(20) 272(59) Lime 74 (16) 45(10) Field bean 74 (16) 62(13) Cashew 74 (16) 105(23) Cowpea 74 (16) 62(13) Custard apple 74 (16) 119(43) Groundnut 12(3) 276(60) Amla 74 (16) 197(43) Sunflower 74 (16) 45(10) Tamarind 74 (16) 45(10) Onion 43 (9) 93(20) Marigold 74 (16) 83(18) Chilli 74 (16) 62(13) Chrysanthemum 74 (16) 83(18) Brinjal 74 (16) 62(13) Jasmine 74 (16) 83(18) Tomato 74 (16) 62(13) Coconut 74 (16) 45(10) Mango 74 (16) 45(10) Arecanut 74 (16) 45(10) Sapota 74 (16) 45(10) Mulberry 12(3) 300(65) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 6 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges that would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass. This would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contributes to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Kallupalya micro-watershed (Tyagatur sub-watershed, Gubbi taluk, Tumkur district) is located in between 13026' – 13028' North latitudes and 76049' – 76052' East longitudes, covering an area of about 462.13 ha, bounded by Pinnenahalli, Unaganala, Hosakere, Maddinahalli and Harehalli villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Kallupalya micro-watershed (Tyagatur subwatershed, Gubbi taluk, Tumkur district) are presented here. Social Indicators; Male and female ratio is 54.8 to 45.2 per cent to the total sample population. Younger age group of 18 to 30 populations is around 57.1 per cent to the total population. Literacy population is around 81.0 per cent. Social groups belong to general caste is around 90.0 per cent Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is the major source of energy for a cooking around 90.0 per cent. About 60.0 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card. About 70.0 percent of farm households are having MGNREGA card for rural employment. Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system among the all sample households. Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 70.0 per cent of sample households. Institutional participation is only 12.0 per cent of sample households. Women participation in decisions making are around 40.0 per cent of households were found. 2 Economic Indicators; The average land holding is 0.7 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. The dry land account for 32.7 per cent and irrigated land of 68.3 per cent of total cultivable land among the sample households. Agriculture is the main occupation among 87.8 per cent and agriculture is the main and private service is subsidiary occupation for 6.1 per cent of sample households. The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 14223 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication. The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 11271 per household, about 40 per cent of sample farmers are owing plough. The average value of livestock is around Rs. 42692 per household; about 92.9 per cent of household are having livestock. The average per capita food consumption is around 634.4 grams (1402.2 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition recommendation at 827 gram. Among all sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation. The annual average income is around Rs. 92384 per household. About 70.0 per cent of farm households are above poverty line. The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs. 1151. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services; The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use. The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 639 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 258190 per year for the total area of 462.1 ha. The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs 40996/ ha/year. Per hectare food grains production services is maximum in areca nut (Rs. 221324) followed by coconut (Rs. 76700), red gram (Rs. 36621), maize (Rs. 29025), aware (Rs. 28750), chillies (Rs. 14048), cowpea (Rs. 8223) and ragi, horse gram and sorghum is negative return. The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 3681/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in sorghum (Rs. 6893) followed by horse gram (Rs. 5434), ragi (Rs. 3605), cowpea (Rs. 2100) and maize (Rs. 371). The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in coconut (Rs. 3 324418) followed by aware (Rs 67233), maize (Rs. 60367), red gram (Rs. 53787), sorghum (Rs. 35017), chillies (Rs. 23218), horse gram (Rs. 22808), ragi (Rs. 9104), areca nut (Rs. 8896), and cowpea (Rs. 6205). Economic Land Evaluation; The major cropping pattern is coconut (34.4 %) followed by sorghum (17.3 %) maize (16.5 %), horse gram (16.5%), chillies (8.6 %), areca nut (8.2 %), ragi (6.1 %), aware (4.5 %), red gram (4.1 %), sorghum (0.5 %) and cowpea (0.5 %). In Kallupalya micro watershed, major soils are soil of alluvial landscape of Bidanagere (BDG) series are moderately deep soil depth cover around 12.4 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing chilies (45.9 %), coconut (27.1 %) and ragi (27.1 %). Soil of granite and granite gneiss landscape of Balapur (BPR) are also having deep soil deep cover around 25.6 % of area, the crops are areca nut (55.4 %) and coconut (44.6 %). Kadagathur (KDT) soil series having very deep soil depth cover around 6.6 % of areas, crops cowpea (16.3 %), horse gram (16.3 %), maize (65.3 %), and sorghum (2.1 %). Muradi (MRD) soil series are having very deep soil depth cover around 11.2 % per cent of area, respectively. The major crops grown are aware (16.4%), coconut (34.4%), ragi (32.8 %) and redgram (16.4 %). Thimmasandra (TSD) soil series are having very deep soil depth covers around 9.7 % of area, the major crop grown is coconut. The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for cotton ranges between Rs. 134524/ha in BPR soil (with BCR of 1.21) and Rs. 46521/ha in TSD soil (with BCR of 4.58). In ragi the cost of cultivation range between Rs 32802/ha in BDG soil (with BCR of 1.12) and Rs. 11034/ha in MRD soil (with BCR of 1.25). In chillies the cost of cultivation in BDG soil is Rs.91809//ha (with BCR of 1.15). In areca nut the cost of cultivation in BPR soil is Rs 57547/ha (with BCR of 4.85). In maize the cost of cultivation in KDT soil is Rs 30255/ha (with BCR of 1.97). In sorghum the cost of cultivation in KDT soil is Rs 34985/ha (with BCR of 1.12). In horse gram the cost of cultivation in KDT soil is Rs 34569/ha (with BCR of 1.12) and aware the cost of cultivation in MRD soil is Rs 26825/ha (with BCR of 2.07). The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM. It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soil to maximize returns. 4 Suggestions; Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices. Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments. By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households. By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in cotton (18.7 to 87.3 %), ragi (19 to 67.4 %), horse gram (24.1 %), maize (40.5%), sorghum (59.1%), cowpea (59.5%) and aware (48.4%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Sambar-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 530 ha in Sambar-2 microwatershed in Yadgir taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as droughtprone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 99 per cent is covered by soils and less than one per cent by others (water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 10 soil series and 12 soil phases (management units) and 7 land management units. The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from the 1st week of June to 4th week of October. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. Entire land area of the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture. An area of about 12 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50-75 cm), 15 per cent of the soils are moderately deep (75-100cm) and about 73 per cent soils are deep (100-150cm) to very deep (>150 cm) soils. About 20 per cent of the area has clayey soils, 44 per cent loamy soils and 36 per cent sandy soils at the surface. An area of about 99 per cent has non-gravelly and 200mm/m) in available water capacity, 50 per cent is medium (101-150 mm/m), 15 per cent low (51-100mm/m) and about 5 per cent very low (0.75%) in organic carbon. An area of 44 per cent has soils that are low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus. About 12 per cent is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium. Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 4 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in about 14 per cent area of the microwatershed. About 1 per cent area has soils that are deficient (4.5 ppm). Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed. Entire area of the microwatershed is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in available zinc. The land suitability for 26 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Sambar-2 microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 396 (75) Sapota - 164(31) Maize - 161 (30) Guava - 164 (31) Red gram - 399(75) Pomegranate - 399 (75) Bajra - 505 (95) Jackfruit - 123 (23) Ground nut - 202 (38) Jamun - 322(61) Sunflower - 359 (68) Musambi - 400 (75) Cotton 64 (12) 332(63) Lime - 400 (75) Bengalgram 64 (12) 333 (63) Cashew - - Chilli - 374(70) Custard apple - 397 (75) Tomato - 202 (38) Amla - 396 (75) Drumstick - 399 (75) Tamarind - 322 (31) Mulberry - 123 (23) Marigold - 437 (82) Mango - 123(23) Chrysanthemum - 437 (82) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops that helps in maintaining the ecological balance in the microwatershed. Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges, that are edible and produce lot of biomass that helps to restore the ecological balance in the micro watershed.Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Sambar-2 micro-watershed (Yadgir taluk and district) is located in between 16034' – 16037' North latitudes and 77020' – 77022' East longitudes, covering an area of about 530.44 ha, bounded by Sambara and Vankasambara villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Sambar-2 micro-watershed in Yadgir taluk and district are presented here. Social Indicators; Male and female ratio is 57.5 to 42.5 per cent to the total sample population. Younger age group 18 to 50 of population is around 57.7 per cent to the total population. Literacy population is around 56 per cent. Social groups belong to other backward caste (OBC) are around 40 per cent. Fire wood is the source of energy for a cooking among all sample households. About 11 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card. About 20 per cent farm households having MGNREGA card for rural employment. Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 91 per cent. Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 20 per cent of sample households. Women participation in decisions making are around 14 per cent of households were found. Economic Indicators; The average land holding is 2.66 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to small and medium farmers. The account for dry land of 76.3 per cent and irrigated land of 23.7 per cent among the total cultivated land among the sample households. 2 Agriculture is the main occupation is only 0.5 per cent and agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 38.9 per cent of sample households. The average value of domestic assets is around Rs.151977 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication. The average value of farm assets is around Rs.149522 per household, about 25.7 per cent of sample farmers are owing plough. The average value of livestock is around Rs.21092 per household; about 68.9 per cent of household are having livestock. The average per capita food consumption is around 750.2 grams (1841 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition recommendation at 827 gram. Around 83 per cent of sample households are consuming more than the NIN recommendation. The annual average income is around Rs. 27779 per household. About 100 per cent of farm households are below poverty line. The per capita monthly average expenditure is around Rs.2078. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services; The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use. The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 8799/ ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in groundnut (Rs.13614) followed by paddy (Rs.13217), cotton (Rs.12066), maize (Rs. 10669), redgram (Rs. 6185), onion (Rs. 5440), green gram (Rs. 5066) and bengal gram (Rs. 4132). The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs.1175/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in greengram (Rs.78656) followed by bengal gram (Rs.68231), red gram (Rs.44490), groundnut (Rs. 23413) and onion (Rs.8398). The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The value of per hectare water used and value of water was maximum in greengram (Rs. 75812) followed by redgram (Rs. 47218), cotton (Rs. 39009) and groundnut (Rs. 22905). Economic Land Evaluation; The major cropping pattern is redgram (45 %) followed by paddy (17.4 %), cotton (15.0 %), groundnut (9.3 %), maize (6.0 %), green gram (5.1%), onion (1.3 %) and bengal gram (0.8 %). In Sambar-2 micro watershed, major soils are Soil of Granite and Granite Gneiss Landscape of Yalleri (YLR) series are having moderately shallow soil deep cover 3 around 14.5 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing cotton (9.9 %), green gram (24.4%), maize (6 %), paddy (24.7 %) and redgram (34.7 %). Gondedagi (GDG) is also having deep soil depth cover around 23.17 % of area; the crops are cotton (18.2 %), green gram (4.5 %), groundnut (9.1%), maize (4.5%), paddy (18.2%) and redgram (45.5 %). Nagalapur (NGP) and Belagundi (BGD) soil series having very deep soil depth cover around 12.03 % and 12.67 % of areas, respectively, crops are cotton, maize, paddy, green gram, onion and red gram. Sambra (SBR) and Duppali (DPL) soil series are having moderately shallow soil depth cover around 4.54 % and 7.19 % of area, respectively. The major crops grown are cotton, green gram, maize, onion, red gram and groundnut. Gowdagera (GWD) soil series are having moderately deep soil depth covers around 14.5 % of area, the major crop grown is green gram (2.3 %), groundnut (4.5 %), maize (4.5 %), paddy (25 %) and Red gram (63.6 %). Bomraldoddi (MDR) and low land soil of Thumakur (TMK) soil series are having very deep soil depth covers around 11.98 % and 0.84 % of area, the major crop grown is redgram, cotton, maize, bengal gram, groundnut. The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for cotton ranges between Rs.46021/ha in YDR soil (with BCR of 1.37) and Rs.23343/ha in SBR soil (with BCR of 1.11). In green gram the costs of cultivation range between Rs.57826/ha in GDG soil (with BCR of 1.05) and Rs.20043/ha in YDR soil (with BCR of 1.08). In groundnut the cost of cultivation range between Rs.35102/ha in BGD soil (with BCR of 1.15) and Rs.22500/ha in SBR soil (with BCR of 1.29). In maize the cost of cultivation range between is Rs.80687/ha in NGP soil (with BCR of 1.07) and Rs. 18949/ha in BGD soil series (with BCR of 1.17). In onion the cost of cultivation is range between is Rs. 57562/ha in DPL soil (with BCR of 1.16) and Rs. 33445 in BGD soil (with BCR of 1.11). In paddy the cost of cultivation range between is Rs. 34899/ha in NGP soil (with BCR of 1.84) and Rs. 22364/ha in YDR soil (with BCR of 1.06). In red gram the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 52593.7/ha in DPL soil (with BCR of 1.13) and Rs. 19131/ha in GWD soil (with BCR of 1.2) In bengal gram the cost of cultivation in MDR soil is Rs.35388/ha (with BCR of 1.12). The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM. It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soils to maximize returns. 4 Suggestions; Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices. Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments. By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households. By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in redgram (9.1 to 61 %), cotton (35.2 % to 50.5 %), paddy (9.1 %) and groundnut (7.4 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
