Suchergebnisse

The European Union (EU) relies on imports to feed livestock. In particular, protein self-sufficiency in EU for feed is not reached. Most of imported protein rich feed consist of soybean meals, which raises questions in terms of deforestation, consumer expectations for GMO-free products and security of supply. In this context, the 2014 CAP aims at improving protein self-sufficiency in EU for feed by developing production of protein-rich crops, such as legumes. Nevertheless, the development of legumes still faces economic and environmental challenges (Watson et al., 2017), such as lower annual gross margins per hectare than those of major crops and regulatory constraints which prohibit the spreading of animal manure on most legumes. The purpose of this paper is to implement an appropriate stylized framework to assess the impacts of increased protein self-sufficiency through legume development at the regional level. Both economic and environmental impacts have to be studied. Mathematical programming models offer a prospective analysis, which permits to assess agricultural practices even though they have not been introduced at large scale yet. Among mathematical programming, bio-economic models permits to assess both economic and environmental impacts. In the case of legume production, several bio-economic models have been conducted, at the field scale and at the farm scale (Schläfke et al., 2014). Such models are relevant because decision-making processes take place at the farm scale and because they help appraising farm's sustainability. However, they fail to give indicators at higher scales, while this may be useful to policy makers. Hybrid models (Britz et al., 2012) address this issue by aggregating results from the farm to the region. These models usually take into account the diversity of farms but they badly represent the heterogeneity of soil and climate conditions. In the case of legume production, conditions such as soil pH and water deficit have to be taken into account because they limit the possibilities of implanting legumes. Besides, one of the levers to increase the production of legumes has been very little studied: the complementarity of farms. On the one hand, livestock farms could export animal manure to crop farms, which are deficient in nitrogen for crop fertilization. On the other hand, crop farms could produce legumes and trade it in order to feed animals of livestock farms. Our hypothesis is that increasing protein self-sufficiency through legume exchanges between farms can have positive economic and environmental impacts. MATERIAL AND METHODS The bio-economic model SYNERGY proposed here is in direct line with these considerations. First, it is a hybrid model implemented at farm scale and then, aggregated at the regional level. Second, it takes into account various types of farm (crop farm, dairy farm, hog farm) as well as the heterogeneity of soil and climatic conditions. Third, the complementarity of farms is highlighted by accounting for exchanges of legumes and animal manure between farms. SYNERGY optimizes the sum of each farm's expected income at the regional level. It is composed of five modules: four modules describe farm activities (i.e., the cropping module, the fertilization module, the livestock module and the feeding module). Thanks to farm activities, farmers produce commodities (i) to self-supply needs for their management systems (e.g., a livestock farmer can use crops grown on its farm to feed his animals) and, (ii) to sell them on markets. Depending on the commodity, commodities can be exchanged on either local markets (i.e., to other farms of the region), on worldwide market or on both markets. The fifth module permits to assess environmental impacts through nitrogen-related indicators: SyNE (System Nitrogen Efficiency) and SyNB (System N Balance) based on (Godinot et al., 2014) have been integrated. SYNERGY is implemented on a stylized area inspired from a small region of western France where livestock farms are dominant. Three scenarios are simulated: the baseline scenario (B), which should reproduce the observed data; the scenario (SC1) where local exchanges between farms are made possible; the scenario (SC2) where, in addition to these local exchanges, a GMO-free certification is implemented for animal commodities for produced from legume-based rations instead of soybean-based rations. SYNERGY generates three types of outputs: (i) an assessment of protein self-sufficiency in animal feed, (ii) an economic assessment by calculating incomes and, (iii) an environmental assessment by calculating the nitrogen-related indicators SyNE and SyNB. All these assessments are done at the farm scale, and at the regional level through a scaling process. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION SYNERGY model currently incorporates limited and highly constrained technical alternatives (i.e., soybean-based ration vs legume-based). Thus, the first results can only be interpreted in relation to the trends they present. When local exchanges between farms are possible (scenario SC1), protein self-sufficiency rises at the regional level, as do incomes. However, this greater self-sufficiency is not associated with an increase in the legumes area, but only with local exchanges of cereals. Thus, protein self-sufficiency is not only linked with protein rich materials but must be seen in a more comprehensive way by taking into account all sources of proteins. When a GMO-free certification is added(scenario SC2), the legumes area increases significantly and exchanges of legumes between crop farm and livestock farms happen. Protein self-sufficiency is improved thanks to a substitution of soybean-based rations for legume-based rations. However, the self-sufficiency is not strengthened compared to scenario SC2. One of the reason is that the legume-based ration for pig is less effective than the soybean-based ration. Concerning the environmental assessment, in both SC1 and SC2 scenarios, SyNE indicator decreases and SyNB indicator increases in all types of farms. Thus, farms become less efficient in N and N losses become higher than in the baseline scenario (B). CONCLUSION The purpose of this paper was to implement an appropriate stylized framework to assess the impacts of increased protein self-sufficiency through legume development at the regional level. The results show that protein self-sufficiency can initially be strengthened at the regional level, thanks to local exchanges of cereals. It can also be enhanced to the same extent by the development and exchanges of legumes, when a market for differentiated feeds such as GMO-free animal products, exists. Thus, SYNERGY model highlights that the complementarity between livestock farms and crop farms is a relevant lever for improving regional protein self-sufficiency.

WOS: 000399244600001 ; PubMed: 28515663 ; Measurements of jet activity in top-quark pair events produced in proton-proton collisions are presented, using 3.2 fb of pp collision data at a centre-of-mass energy of 13 TeV collected by the ATLAS experiment at the Large Hadron Collider. Events are chosen by requiring an opposite-charge pair and two b-tagged jets in the final state. The normalised differential cross-sections of top-quark pair production are presented as functions of additional-jet multiplicity and transverse momentum, . The fraction of signal events that do not contain additional jet activity in a given rapidity region, the gap fraction, is measured as a function of the threshold for additional jets, and is also presented for different invariant mass regions of the system. All measurements are corrected for detector effects and presented as particle-level distributions compared to predictions with different theoretical approaches for QCD radiation. While the kinematics of the jets from top-quark decays are described well, the generators show differing levels of agreement with the measurements of observables that depend on the production of additional jets. ; ANPCyT, ArgentinaANPCyT; YerPhI, Armenia; ARC, AustraliaAustralian Research Council; BMWFW, Austria; FWF, AustriaAustrian Science Fund (FWF); ANAS, AzerbaijanAzerbaijan National Academy of Sciences (ANAS); SSTC, Belarus; CNPq, BrazilNational Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq); FAPESP, BrazilFundacao de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado de Sao Paulo (FAPESP); NSERC, CanadaNatural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada; NRC, Canada; CFI, CanadaCanada Foundation for Innovation; CERN; CONICYT, ChileComision Nacional de Investigacion Cientifica y Tecnologica (CONICYT); CAS, ChinaChinese Academy of Sciences; MOST, ChinaMinistry of Science and Technology, China; NSFC, ChinaNational Natural Science Foundation of China; COLCIENCIAS, ColombiaDepartamento Administrativo de Ciencia, Tecnologia e Innovacion Colciencias; MSMT CR, Czech RepublicMinistry of Education, Youth & Sports - Czech RepublicCzech Republic Government; MPO CR, Czech RepublicCzech Republic Government; VSC CR, Czech RepublicCzech Republic Government; DNRF, Denmark; DNSRC, DenmarkDanish Natural Science Research Council; IN2P3-CNRS, FranceCentre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS); CEA-DSM/IRFU, France; GNSF, Georgia; BMBF, GermanyFederal Ministry of Education & Research (BMBF); HGF, Germany; MPG, GermanyMax Planck Society; GSRT, GreeceGreek Ministry of Development-GSRT; RGC, China; Hong Kong SAR, China; ISF, IsraelIsrael Science Foundation; I-CORE, Israel; Benoziyo Center, Israel; INFN, ItalyIstituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare; MEXT, JapanMinistry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan (MEXT); JSPS, JapanMinistry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan (MEXT)Japan Society for the Promotion of Science; CNRST, Morocco; FOM, NetherlandsFOM (The Netherlands)Netherlands Government; NWO, NetherlandsNetherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO)Netherlands Government; RCN, Norway; MNiSW, PolandMinistry of Science and Higher Education, Poland; NCN, Poland; FCT, PortugalPortuguese Foundation for Science and Technology; MNE/IFA, Romania; MES of Russia; NRC KI, Russian Federation; JINR; MESTD, Serbia; MSSR, Slovakia; ARRS, SloveniaSlovenian Research Agency - Slovenia; MIZS, Slovenia; DST/NRF, South Africa; MINECO, Spain; SRC, Sweden; Wallenberg Foundation, Sweden; SERI, Switzerland; SNSF, SwitzerlandSwiss National Science Foundation (SNSF); Canton of Bern, Switzerland; Canton of Geneva, Switzerland; MOST, TaiwanMinistry of Science and Technology, Taiwan; TAEK, TurkeyMinistry of Energy & Natural Resources - Turkey; STFC, United KingdomScience & Technology Facilities Council (STFC); DOE, United States of AmericaUnited States Department of Energy (DOE); NSF, United States of AmericaNational Science Foundation (NSF); BCKDF; BCKDF, Canada; Canada Council, Canada; CANARIE, Canada; CRC, Canada; Compute Canada, Canada; FQRNT, CanadaFQRNT; Ontario Innovation Trust, Canada; EPLANET, European UnionEuropean Union (EU); ERC, European UnionEuropean Union (EU)European Research Council (ERC); ERDF, European UnionEuropean Union (EU); FP7, European UnionEuropean Union (EU); Horizon, European Union; Marie Sklodowska-Curie Actions, European UnionEuropean Union (EU); Investissements d'Avenir Labex and Idex, FranceFrench National Research Agency (ANR); ANR, FranceFrench National Research Agency (ANR); Region Auvergne, FranceRegion Auvergne-Rhone-Alpes; Fondation Partager le Savoir, France; DFG, GermanyGerman Research Foundation (DFG); AvH Foundation, GermanyAlexander von Humboldt Foundation; Herakleitos programme - EU-ESF; Thales programme - EU-ESF; Aristeia programme - EU-ESF; Herakleitos programme - Greek NSRF; Thales programme Greek NSRF; Aristeia programme - Greek NSRF; BSF, IsraelUS-Israel Binational Science Foundation; GIF, IsraelGerman-Israeli Foundation for Scientific Research and Development; Minerva, Israel; BRF, Norway; CERCA Programme Generalitat de Catalunya, Spain; Generalitat Valenciana, SpainGeneralitat Valenciana; Royal Society , United KingdomRoyal Society of London; Leverhulme Trust, United KingdomLeverhulme Trust; ICREAICREA ; We thank CERN for the very successful operation of the LHC, as well as the support staff from our institutions without whom ATLAS could not be operated efficiently. We acknowledge the support of ANPCyT, Argentina; YerPhI, Armenia; ARC, Australia; BMWFW and FWF, Austria; ANAS, Azerbaijan; SSTC, Belarus; CNPq and FAPESP, Brazil; NSERC, NRC and CFI, Canada; CERN; CONICYT, Chile; CAS, MOST and NSFC, China; COLCIENCIAS, Colombia; MSMT CR, MPO CR and VSC CR, Czech Republic; DNRF and DNSRC, Denmark; IN2P3-CNRS, CEA-DSM/IRFU, France; GNSF, Georgia; BMBF, HGF, and MPG, Germany; GSRT, Greece; RGC, Hong Kong SAR, China; ISF, I-CORE and Benoziyo Center, Israel; INFN, Italy; MEXT and JSPS, Japan; CNRST, Morocco; FOM and NWO, Netherlands; RCN, Norway; MNiSW and NCN, Poland; FCT, Portugal; MNE/IFA, Romania; MES of Russia and NRC KI, Russian Federation; JINR; MESTD, Serbia; MSSR, Slovakia; ARRS and MIZS, Slovenia; DST/NRF, South Africa; MINECO, Spain; SRC and Wallenberg Foundation, Sweden; SERI, SNSF and Cantons of Bern and Geneva, Switzerland; MOST, Taiwan; TAEK, Turkey; STFC, United Kingdom; DOE and NSF, United States of America. In addition, individual groups and members have received support from BCKDF, the Canada Council, CANARIE, CRC, Compute Canada, FQRNT, and the Ontario Innovation Trust, Canada; EPLANET, ERC, ERDF, FP7, Horizon 2020 and Marie Sklodowska-Curie Actions, European Union; Investissements d'Avenir Labex and Idex, ANR, Region Auvergne and Fondation Partager le Savoir, France; DFG and AvH Foundation, Germany; Herakleitos, Thales and Aristeia programmes co-financed by EU-ESF and the Greek NSRF; BSF, GIF and Minerva, Israel; BRF, Norway; CERCA Programme Generalitat de Catalunya, Generalitat Valenciana, Spain; the Royal Society and Leverhulme Trust, United Kingdom. The crucial computing support from all WLCG partners is acknowledged gratefully, in particular from CERN, the ATLAS Tier-1 facilities at TRIUMF (Canada), NDGF (Denmark, Norway, Sweden), CC-IN2P3 (France), KIT/GridKA (Germany), INFN-CNAF (Italy), NL-T1 (Netherlands), PIC (Spain), ASGC (Taiwan), RAL (UK) and BNL (USA), the Tier-2 facilities worldwide and large non-WLCG resource providers. Major contributors of computing resources are listed in Ref. [60].

Zusammenfassung Ungarn ist ein postkommunistisches Land, in dem für lange Jahrzehnte Armut oder Erwerbslosigkeit, verursacht durch eine Behinderung, neben anderen unerwünschten sozialen Problemen, in der Politik dethematisiert oder weitgehend ignoriert und mehr oder weniger als ´selbstverschuldet´ angesehen wurden. Menschen mit Behinderung waren und sind heute noch in Ungarn immer wieder stigmatisiert und ausgegrenzt. Die fehlende Wahrnehmung dieser Problematik und die geringe staatliche Unterstützung für Menschen mit Behinderung sowie deren Segregation im Bereich der Bildungs- und in der Beschäftigungspolitik hat in Ungarn eine lange Tradition. Dies kann man besser nachvollziehen, wenn man bedenkt, dass für Menschen mit Behinderung erst seit der politischen Transformation (1989) und besonders durch die neue Regelung im Hochschulsystem (2002) ein Zugang zum Hochschulstudium ermöglicht wurde. In dieser biografietheoretischen Studie beschäftige ich mich mit einem bisher kaum erforschten Thema: die Lebensgeschichten und Lebenssituationen von Menschen mit einer oder mehreren körperlichen Behinderung/-en in Ungarn, die ihre Kindheit und besonders ihre Schullaufbahn vor den politischen Transformationsprozessen (1989) erlebten und denen, gerade durch das neue politische System und insbesondere durch die geänderten Bedingungen im Bildungssystem (2002), die Teilhabe an Bildung – in diesem Fall das Studieren – ermöglicht wurde. Die bisherige Schul- und Bildungsforschung, aber auch der gesellschaftliche Diskurs in Ungarn, befasste sich vorwiegend damit, den schulischen Misserfolg von Kindern mit geistigen aber auch mit körperlichen Behinderungen zu erklären. Diese neue Erscheinung – Studierende mit Behinderung –, bot sich für mich als ein neues und spannendes Forschungsfeld an. Interessant in diesem Zusammenhang ist, dass bei den Student/-innen als Defizit benannte niedrige Schulqualifikation und damit ein Grund mehr für die Stigmatisierung als ´leistungsschwache Menschen´ nicht vorhanden ist, trotzdem werden sie in Interaktionen auf ihre Behinderungen reduziert und weiterhin in der Gesellschaft diskriminiert; d. h. die Behinderung (Abweichung) bleibt als Stigma erhalten. Im Fokus der vorliegenden Studie standen also das Verstehen der Prozesse der Stigmatisierungen und Diskriminierungen auf der individuellen und auf der gesellschaftlichen Ebene, die Problematik der institutionellen Einschränkung der Teilhabe und deren Aus- und Wechselwirkungen auf die Einzelbiografie. Von zentraler Bedeutung sind in den rekonstruierten Lebensgeschichten dieser Studie die Diskriminierungs- und Stigmatisierungsprozesse aufgrund einer Behinderung im Kontext von Selbsteinschätzung und Fremdzuschreibung (Selbstbild–Fremdbild). Diese Prozesse sind durch eigene biografische Erfahrungen sowie auf der kollektiven Ebene u. a. durch die historischen und politischen Traditionen des Landes geprägt. Anhand der Ergebnisse der vorliegenden Studie lässt sich festhalten, dass Student/-innen mit Behinderung im Laufe ihres Lebens ein sehr großes Entwicklungs- und Handlungspotenzial zeigen. Die persönlichen Leistungen werden aber von ihnen selber kaum positiv erlebt oder als solche wahrgenommen. Dies resultiert aus der Diskrepanz zwischen der Selbsteinschätzung und der Fremdzuschreibung, die auf starken Diskriminierungen in der Gesellschaft fußen und mit den fehlenden Möglichkeiten an gesellschaftlicher Partizipation (Teilhabe) einhergehen. In dieser Studie wurde dementsprechend auch danach gefragt, welche Erfahrungen zu welcher Strategie der Bearbeitung von Stigmatisierungen und Diskriminierungen aufgrund einer körperlichen Behinderung geführt haben. Dabei konnten Erfahrungs- und Handlungsmuster im Kontext der Gesamtbiografie nachvollzogen werden. So konnten nicht nur die Stigmatisierungsprozesse in gegenwärtigen Situationen in Ungarn analysiert werden, sondern auch, wie sich das Stigma-Management im Laufe des Lebens, aber auch durch die politischen und gesellschaftlichen Transformationsprozesse veränderte. Auf diese Fragen liefert die empirisch fundierte Typenbildung der vorliegenden Studie unterschiedliche Antworten. Bei den von mir konstruierten Typen der Bearbeitung der Behinderung – genauer gesagt, der Bearbeitung von Stigmatisierungen und Diskriminierungen – wird vom Einzelfall auf gleichartige Fälle geschlossen, die nach ähnlichen Regeln funktionieren. Dabei werden die Verallgemeinerungen nicht im numerischen, sondern theoretischen Sinne vorgenommen. Gerade die historische und politische Gegebenheit Ungarns verstärkte und vertiefte die Diskriminierungsprozesse gegenüber Menschen mit Behinderung, wobei die Auswirkungen der politischen und gesellschaftlichen Transformationsprozesse erst durch die Ergebnisse dieser interpretativen Studie näher betrachtet und in ihrer Komplexität besser verstanden werden können. Die Analyse beinhaltet also sowohl die Rekonstruktion des biografischen Verlaufs im persönlichen Umgang mit einer körperlichen Behinderung bzw. mit den Stigmatisierungen aufgrund einer körperlichen Behinderung; sie bezieht aber auch den gesellschaftlichen Umgang mit Behinderungen und dessen Wandel mit ein. Gesellschaft und Individuum werden dabei nicht als dualistische Gegensätze betrachtet, sondern in ihrem Wechselverhältnis und ihrer gegenseitigen Bedingtheit untersucht. ; Summary Hungary is a post-communist country where for long decades poverty or unemployment caused by disability, among other undesired social problems, was not made a subject of discussion or was ignored and considered self-inflicted. In Hungary people with disabilities were, and still are, repeatedly stigmatized and excluded. The lack of awareness of this problem and the low state support for people with disabilities, as well as their segregation in the field of educational and employment policies have a long tradition in Hungary. The situation is better understood when one considers that access to higher education for disabled people was first facilitated after the political changes in 1989, in particular through the new regulations of the higher education system in 2002. In this biographic-theoretical study I concern myself with a topic hardly researched to date: the life stories and situations of people in Hungary with one or more disabilites, who were brought up and in particular educated before the political transformation of 1989, and for whom, exactly through the new political system and specifically through the changed circumstances in the educational system (2002), participation in education – in this case studying – was made possible. Previous school and educational research, but also social discourse in Hungary addressed predominantly the issue of explaining the failure of children with mental or physical disabilities in school. This new phenomenon – students with disabilities – offered a new and exciting research field for me. What is interesting in this context is that these students are still reduced to their disabilities in interactions and continuously discriminated in society, although they are in fact not low-qualified, a label of deficiency that provides yet another reason for their stigmatization as "low-achieving people"; i.e. the disability (deviation) remains a stigma. This study focusses therefore on the understanding of the process of stigmatization and discrimination at an individual and social level, the problem of institutional restrictions of participation and their impact on and interaction with individual biographies. In the reconstructed life stories of this study central importance is given to the processes of discrimination and stigmatization based on disability in the context of self-assessment and assessment by others (how you see yourself – how others see you). These processes are shaped by own biographical experience, as well as on a collective level, e.g. through the historical and political traditions of the country. On the basis of the results of this study we can establish that disabled students show great potential for development and action in the course of their lives. However, they themselves rarely experience or perceive their achievements as positive. This is a result of the discrepancy between their self-image and the image of others, which are based on strong discrimination in society and are accompanied by the lack of opportunity for social participation. It was also investigated in this study what kind of a strategy of handling stigmatization and discrimination on the basis of a disability was induced by which experience, and that allowed the understanding of patterns of experience and action in the context of the full biography. Not only the stigmatization processes in current situations in Hungary could be thus analysed, but also how stigma management in the course of life, and also through the political and social transformation has changed. The empirically based typification of this study provides different answers to these questions. By the types I constructed for handling disability – to be more exact handling stigmatization and discrimination – conclusions were made from individual cases to similar cases working according to similar rules. Thereby, generalizations were made not to a numerical, but to a theoretical effect. Hungary's historical and political circumstances directly intensified and deepened the processes of discrimination against disabled people. However, only through the results of this interpretative study can the impacts of the political and social transformation really be examined and in their complexity better understood. The analysis includes therefore not only the reconstruction of the biographical course of a personal handling of physical disability, and accordingly of stigmatization on the basis of a physical disability; but also society's behaviour towards disabilities and its changes. Society and individuals are thereby not regarded as dualistic opposites, but are examined in their interaction and their interdependence.

В публікації висвітлено результати опитування студентів щодо сили прояву окремих детермінант якості вищої освіти. За результатами аналізу відповідей респондентів було встановлено факт домінування тих з складових змісту феномену якості вищої освіти, які пов'язані з формуванням конкурентних переваг фахівця та його здатністю до отримання більшого рівня заробітної плати. Найменша за силою прояву значущість у формуванні категоріального змісту якості вищої освіти на думку студентів відведена детермінантам можливості людини здійснювати особистісний розвиток та розуміти зміст подій навколо себе. В статті обґрунтовано напрями вдосконалення змісту та практики використання нормативно-правового механізму державного управління забезпеченням якості вищої освіти та подано пропозиції щодо зміни фокусу уваги у тлумаченні змісту відповідної категорії. ; Problem setting. A programme about the activity of Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine which was recently approved with Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine determines the issues related with providing training for competitive specialists in the system of universities of higher education on the level of one of the most priority objectives of the Government for the next five years. Such level of attention to the higher education quality is due to the fact that only 25% of employers are satisfied with the level of training of specialists in the system of higher education. The complexity of the Government's programme task is related to the diversity of manifestations of the content of the higher education quality phenomenon and inequality of stakeholders thoughts about the strength of the manifestations of its determinants. Solving the problem connected with the importance of the determinants of the higher education quality in its final content will lead to improving of the effectiveness of the implementation of state policy in the field of higher education. Recent research and publications analysis. The problematics of higher education quality, as well as the issue of its providing, always remain in the focus of the scientific attention of researchers. Among the latest publications of the relevant sphere we should pay attention to those which were published by V. P. Andrushhenko, V. P. Andrushchenko, Yu.V. Bekh, Ye. I. Pinchuk, N. G. Batechko, G. P. Klimova, V. I. Lugovy`j, Zh. V.Talanova, S. V. Mudra, O. G. Romanovs`ky, V. P. Sadkovyi and other scientists. We should pay attention to the works of A. Craft, R. Dicker, M. Garcia, A. Kelly, H. Mulrooney, B. Ruben and other foreign researchers. Despite the a sufficient level of scientific study of the problematics of the higher education quality, some areas of its positioning in the framework of scientific knowledge are still open to further scientific research. Paper objective. Basing on the results of the analysis of the students' point of view as for the level of manifestation of some of the determinants of the higher education quality phenomenon, to substantiate the ways to improve some of the mechanisms of public administration over providing of the higher education quality on both the University and state levels. Paper main body. As a tool for obtaining information from students about the level of the manifestation of individual determinants of the higher education quality, the survey method in the form of interviews and questionnaires was chosen. With the help of the interview method, the wording of the questionnaire questions was clarified, as well as the variants of possible variants of answers were determined. 585 respondents aged 18 to 35 years from Kharkiv, Poltava, Sumy, as well as controlled by Ukraine parts of Donetsk and Lugansk regions took part in the survey, out of which 43 people acted as interviewees, and 542 students as respondents in the questionnaire procedure. Due to the results of analysis obtained from the respondents of the questionnaires there were identified such a significance of the determinants of the higher education quality forming its final content: to be more competitive in the labour market – 30%; the ability to receive higher wages – 30%; the ability to ensure their positioning within a particular social group – 20%; the ability to obtain the full development of their personality –12%; the ability to understand the nature and content of the surrounding events – 8%. The held research revealed the students' concentration on the material and career components of the content of the higher education quality phenomenon, as well as on the gradual loss of significance (weight) in the so-called humanitarian determinants. So, we have to state the contradiction to the provided in the law of Ukraine "on higher education" content of the category of the higher education quality (theoretical aspect) with its real actualization in the system of value orientations of students (practical aspect). Conclusions of the research. Taking into account the results of the survey we can make such conclusions. First of all, we propose to strengthen the block of social and humanitarian disciplines, especially in the framework of teaching of natural Sciences and mathematics, technology, sports and profile with the aim to ensure the compliance of practical activities which holds University of Higher Education about giving real meaning to the phenomenon of higher education quality defined in regulatory documents of Ukraine to the standards. We also propose you to consider an opportunity to supplement the content of general competency standards for higher education, regardless of their industry sphere, regulations regarding the ability of the graduate to understand the content of social and humanitarian development of a social object. Moreover, we propose to change the content of the criteria for assessing the educational program quality with the help of focusing on the attention of competencies' importance not only for the professional activity of the future specialist, but also for the realisation of the citizen's rights and duties. Secondly, we propose to consider the possibility of government establishing free for access and qualitative in its content of massive online courses and the so-called open universities with the aim to compensate the loss society and the state gets from the objective process of reducing the number of Institutions of Higher Education and increasing the minimum amount (total) of test points of the External independent evaluation of a particular subject within the admission to an educational programme, as, nowadays, it is the vector regarding at the level of one of the possible ways to improve the quality of higher education. The creation of a network of relevant institutions will not only partially compensate for the inevitable reduction in the number of Universities of higher education lose state's human capital, but also create conditions for the full development of the individual outside the University. In addition, the use with the person of the opportunities allowing an individual development, which are offered online courses and open universities, on the one hand, can allow person to increase the level of their professional knowledge in the specialty, and on the other – actualizes the possibility of stratification transition from the one social group to another one without training in the traditional University of Higher Education.

El cultivo de olivar se extiende por todo el territorio de Túnez. En este país, la producción olivarera para la elaboración de aceite de oliva es la actividad agraria más importante por su trascendencia económica, social y ambiental. La mayoría de los sistemas de cultivo del olivo utilizan técnicas tradicionales de secano cuya productividad es muy baja. Además, las explotaciones olivareras son en su mayoría de pequeño tamaño, empleando a trabajadores ocasionales para tareas eventuales y con un bajo nivel de empleo a largo plazo asociado a un bajo rendimiento económico. El sector olivarero tunecino debe hacer frente a la creciente competitividad internacional optimizando la productividad y la innovación del olivar tradicional. En este sentido, el sector ha experimentado importantes cambios en las últimas décadas en cuanto a las prácticas agrarias utilizadas, evolucionando desde las asociadas a sistemas olivareros tradicionales de baja densidad, a las de nuevos sistemas innovadores de cultivo de alta densidad. Además, el riego y la producción ecológica juegan un papel cada vez más importante en este sector. Los sistemas intensivos tienen mayor productividad, pero pueden generar un alto impacto ambiental. Así, la sostenibilidad de estos sistemas sigue siendo un tema controvertido y fundamental, especialmente en Túnez. En este contexto, el objetivo principal de esta tesis doctoral es evaluar la sostenibilidad de los diferentes sistemas de producción olivarera existentes actualmente en Túnez con el fin de definir estrategias de mitigación y mejora hacia un manejo más sostenible de los mismos. El trabajo se ha realizado en dos fases: En la primera fase, se ha llevado a cabo una evaluación comparativa de la multifuncionalidad y sostenibilidad global de dos sistemas de cultivo del olivo, el ecológico y el convencional. La evaluación de la sostenibilidad se ha llevado a cabo basándose en: i) una perspectiva multidimensional, considerando las tres dimensiones de la sostenibilidad -ambiental, económica y socio-territorial; y ii) un enfoque de conocimiento de expertos para seleccionar y evaluar los criterios adecuados de sostenibilidad para comparar ambos sistemas. Para ello, se ha aplicado la metodología del Proceso Analítico Jerárquico - Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), una técnica de Análisis de Decisión Multicriterio – Multiple Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA), a partir de una encuesta dirigida a un panel de 20 expertos. En la segunda, se ha realizado una evaluación de la multifuncionalidad y sostenibilidad de los sistemas olivareros, con un mayor nivel de detalle de los mismos (ecológico tradicional, convencional tradicional, intensivo y súper-intensivo). Se han evaluado los sistemas de cultivo desde la fase de plantación hasta la fase de plena producción y la eliminación de los árboles al final del ciclo de vida, lo que abarca un periodo de 50 años. Así, se han comparado seis sistemas tradicionales, dos sistemas intensivos y uno súper-intensivo, considerando el tipo de cultivo (convencional o ecológico), el manejo del riego (con o sin riego) y el manejo de la fertilización (con o sin fertilización). Las prácticas agrícolas analizadas son el manejo del suelo, los fertilizantes, los pesticidas, la poda y la recolección. Los resultados del análisis se refieren a dos unidades funcionales: 1 tonelada de aceitunas y 1 hectárea de superficie de olivar. En primer lugar, se ha realizado una evaluación ambiental de los sistemas olivareros mediante el Análisis del Ciclo de Vida (ACV). Para analizar la sostenibilidad del Ciclo de Vida de los sistemas de cultivo del olivo se ha desarrollado un marco integrado de Análisis de la Sostenibilidad del Ciclo de Vida (ASCV) que consta de dos partes metodológicas: 1) Evaluación del ciclo de vida; e 2) Integración mediante el MCDA. En la primera parte, se calculan las categorías de impacto ambiental, económico y social mediante el ACV, el Cálculo de los Costes del Ciclo de Vida (CCV) y el Análisis Social del Ciclo de Vida (ACV-Social), respectivamente. Los datos cuantitativos se recogieron a partir de una encuesta realizada a 250 agricultores y de una revisión bibliográfica. Posteriormente, se aplicó el AHP para priorizar las tres dimensiones de la sostenibilidad (ambiental, económica y social) y las categorías de impacto y calcular una Puntuación de Sostenibilidad del Ciclo de Vida para cada sistema olivarero. El proceso de priorización se llevó a cabo mediante la consulta a 28 agentes del sector. Los resultados del análisis multicriterio mediante AHP muestran que el sistema olivarero ecológico es más sostenible que el convencional, si bien se pone de manifiesto la necesidad de incrementar el rendimiento económico del sistema ecológico. Los resultados del ACV indican que los sistemas innovadores (intensivo y súper-intensivo) producen un menor impacto ambiental en todas las categorías con respecto al resto de sistemas desde el punto de vista productivo. En cambio, generan un mayor impacto por hectárea de superficie cultivada. Los fertilizantes y el manejo del suelo son las prácticas agrarias con mayores contribuciones en la mayoría de las categorías de impacto evaluadas. El ASCV de los sistemas de producción olivarera indica que la mayor prioridad se asigna a los aspectos ambientales, seguidos de los económicos y sociales, especialmente, en las categorías de impacto de Agotamiento de los Recursos Hídricos, Tasa Interna de Retorno y Toxicidad Humana. En términos de sostenibilidad, los sistemas ecológicos obtienen mejores puntuaciones por hectárea y los sistemas innovadores por tonelada. Los resultados sugieren, de nuevo, la necesidad de incrementar el rendimiento económico del sistema ecológico a través de estrategias políticas centradas en: i) la mejora de la productividad mediante la aplicación de buenas prácticas agrarias; ii) el fomento de la demanda de productos ecológicos en el mercado local, esencialmente mediante la mejora de la capacidad de compra del consumidor y su formación; y iii) la adopción de un plan estratégico para explorar nuevos mercados. Además, la afiliación de los agricultores en cooperativas puede ser una solución eficaz para aumentar la baja rentabilidad de los olivares tradicionales. Una gestión más racional del olivar tradicional e innovador (intensivo y súper-intensivo), como por ejemplo desarrollando una normativa de producción integrada, similar a la de la UE, y la implantación de guías de buenas prácticas y programas de formación para los agricultores deberían considerarse líneas prioritarias en el diseño de políticas públicas para el fomento de una producción olivarera más sostenible en Túnez. A nivel metodológico, la combinación novedosa de las metodologías del Ciclo de Vida y el Análisis de Decisión Multicriterio han permitido definir un marco integrado de ASCV para la evaluación completa de la sostenibilidad de los sistemas agrarios, que puede ser válida para otros sistemas de cultivo y otros casos de estudio. ; Olive growing is widespread throughout Tunisia. Olive production for the production of olive oil is the most important agricultural activity in Tunisia because of its economic, social and environmental importance. Most of the olive cultivation systems use traditional rain-fed techniques with very low productivity. Moreover, olive farms are mostly small, employing occasional workers for casual tasks and with a low level of long-term employment associated with low economic returns. The Tunisian olive sector has to cope with increasing international competitiveness by optimising productivity and innovation in the traditional olive grove. In this respect, the sector has undergone major changes in recent decades in terms of the agricultural practices used, evolving from those associated with traditional low-density olive growing systems to those of new innovative high-density farming systems. In addition, irrigation and organic production are playing an increasingly important role in this sector. Intensive systems have higher productivity, but can have a high environmental impact. Thus, the sustainability of these systems remains a controversial and fundamental issue, especially in Tunisia. In this context, the main objective of this PhD thesis is to assess the sustainability of the different olive production systems currently existing in Tunisia in order to define mitigation and improvement strategies towards a more sustainable management of these systems. The work has been carried out in two phases: In the first stage, a comparative assessment of the overall multifunctionality and sustainability of both organic and conventional olive growing systems was performed. This assessment was undertaken based on: i) a multidimensional perspective considering the three classical dimensions of sustainability – environmental, economic and socio-territorial; and ii) on an experts' knowledge approach selecting the adequate criteria of sustainability to compare both systems. For this purpose, the Analytic Hierarchy Process methodology (AHP), a Multiple Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) technique was applied as the adequate framework to fulfil the study objectives based on a survey directed with a panel of 20 experts. In the second, the multifunctionality and sustainability of olive production was evaluated, with a more detailed analysis of the olive growing systems (traditional organic, traditional conventional, intensive and super-intensive) from the planting phase to the full production phase, during a reference period of the life cycle of the olive growth of 50 years. Six traditional systems, two intensive systems and one super-intensive system were compared and the differences of type of production (conventional or organic), irrigation management and fertilization management were selected. Field agricultural practices of olive systems are soil management, fertilizers, pesticides, pruning and harvesting. The results of this study are referred to two functional units: 1 ton of olives and 1 hectare of cultivated olive growing area. First, an environmental assessment of the olive systems was carried out using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). To analyze the Life Cycle sustainability of olive production systems, an integrated Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment framework was developed consisting of two methodological parts: 1) Life Cycle evaluation; and 2) Muticriteria Decision Analysis integration. In the first part, the impact categories are calculated using Life Cycle Assessment, Life Cycle Costing (LCC) and Social-Life Cycle Assessment (Social-LCA). Quantitative data were collected from a survey to 250 farmers and a literature review. Subsequently, the AHP methodology was applied to prioritize the three sustainability dimensions (environmental, economic and social) and impact categories and calculate a Life Cycle Sustainability Score (LCSS) for each olive system. The prioritization process was implemented through consultation with 28 stakeholders. The results of the multicriteria analysis using AHP show that the organic olive growing system is more sustainable than the conventional one, although the need to increase the economic performance of the organic system is evident. The LCA results indicate that the most innovative olive production systems (intensive and super-intensive) result in less environmental impacts for all categories with respect to the rest of systems from the productive perspective but produce higher impacts per hectare of cultivated area. Fertilizers and soil management are the field agricultural practices that presented the highest contributions in most of the categories evaluated. The LCSA of the olive production systems shows that the highest priority is allocated to environmental aspects, followed by economic and social ones, especially, in the Water Resource Depletion, Internal Rate of Return, and Human Toxicity impact categories. In terms of sustainability, organic systems achieve better scores per ha and innovative systems per ton. The results suggest, again, the need to increase the economic performance of the ecological system through policy strategies focusing on: i) improving productivity through the implementation of good agricultural practices ii) increasing the demand of organic products in the local market, essentially by the improvement of the consumer's purchase capacity and sensibilization and iii) adopting strategic plans to explore new markets. In addition, the integration of farmers into cooperatives could be an effective solution to increase the low profitability of traditional olive groves. A more rational management of traditional and innovative olive groves (intensive and super-intensive), such as the development of integrated production regulations, similar to those of the EU, and the implementation of best practice guides and training programs for farmers should be considered priorities in the design of public policies for the promotion of a more sustainable olive production in Tunisia. Methodologically, the novel combination of Life Cycle and Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis methodologies allows the definition of an integrated LCSA framework for the comprehensive assessment of the sustainability of farming systems, which can be used for other farming systems and other case studies.

Issue 45.5 of the Review for Religious, September/October 1986. ; REVIEW FOR REI.IGIOUS (ISSN 0034-639X), published every two months, is edited in collaboration with the faculty members of the Department of Theological Studies of St. Louis University. The editorial offices ave located at Room 428:3601 Lindell Blvd., St. Louis, MO 63108-3393. REvIEw FOR REIolGIOUS is owned by the Missouri Province Educational Institute of the Society of Jesus, St. Louis, MO. © 1986 by REVIEW FOR REt,IGIOUS. Composed, printed and manufactured in U.S.A. Second class postage paid at St. Louis, MO. Single copies: $2.50. Subscription U.S.A. $ I 1.00 a year: $20.00 for two years. Other countries: add $4.00 per year (postage). Airmail (Book Rate) $18.00 per year. For subscription orders or change of address, write i~vlr~w FOR I~LtG~OUS: EO. Box 6070; Duluth, MN 55806. Daniel E X. Meenan, S.J. Dolores Greeley, R.S.M. Iris Ann Ledden, S.S.N.D. Richard A. Hill, S.J. Jean Read Editor Associate Editor Review Editor Contributing Editor Assistant Editor Sept. / Oct., 1986 Volume 45 Number 5 Manuscripts, books for review and correspondence with the editor should be sent to I~v~Ew FOn REt,tG,OUS; Room 428; 3601 Lindell Blvd., St. Louis, MO 63108-3393. Correspondence about the department "Canonical Counsel" should be addressed to Richard A. Hill, S.J.; J.S.T.B.; 1735 LeRoy Ave.; Berkeley, CA 94709. Back issues and reprints should be ordered from REVIEW ~Oa REL~C~OUS; Room 428; 3601 Lindell . Blvd.; St. Louis, MO 63108-3393. "Out of print" issues and articles not published as reprints are available from University Microfilms International; 300 N. Zeeb Rd.; Ann Arbor, M! 48106. A major portion of each issue is also available on cassette recordings as a service for the visually impaired. Write to the Xavier Society for the Blind; 154 East 23rd Street; New York, NY 10010. Dominican Mission and Apostolic Common Life Mary A nn Fatula, O.P. Sister Mary Ann is the Chairperson of the Theology Department of Ohio Dominican College (1216 Sunbury Road; Columbus, OH 43219). Her last article, "Trusting in the Providence of God," appeared in the issue of January/February, 1986. In company with other religious orders, we Dominicans have placed a great amount of energy into reclaiming our mission of apostolic preaching in the Church. Yet even as we have become increasingly competent and profes-sional in our ministries, more than a few of us have sensed that something is radically missing from our reappropriation and that our mission requires far more of us than the total dedication of our energies to ministry. If we are honest, we must admit to a growing pain which we too easily push aside because we fear the cost of facing its implications. We find our ministries consuming us, sapping our energies and perhaps making very little real or lasting impact on others in spite of our hectic lives. At the same time, we see that the women and men drawn to Dominican life do not come to us for the sole sake of ministry. In many cases they already have been successful in a ministry and are looking for a committed community which will nourish their prayer and service in the Church. Yet we know in our hearts that precisely what these young people desire and have aright to expect from us we seem unable to offer them. In addition, our study of Dominic shows us that his vision entailed not simply a task to be accomplished but the far more comprehensive and demanding reality of a life to he lived. As we catch glimpses of these truths, we are beginning to suspect that our desire for "something more" in our life together expresses 641 642 / Review for Religious, September-October, 1986 the Spirit's own cry within us for the very life to which this same Spirit has called us: a life of preaching as the apostles did, out of a rich communion not only with the Lord but also with one another. The Relation Between Dominican Mission and Apostolic Common Life Many of us may not have reflected on the importance of community when we entered religious life, and yet we probably experienced its value, at some level at least, simply because we could not escape its structure. Today, however, we often have local settings in which hardly a semblance of com-munity life exists. On weekends no one is around; on weekdays it is difficult, if not impossible, to find one evening during a given month when even a small community is present in its totality at a supper meal. In many instances, not much binds us together except the TV set. We know by experience that simply promulgating laws does not make us choose something, no matter how valuable it is. We make free commit-ments because we have experienced the beauty of the reality held out to us, or because our hearts and minds reach out to claim a value when its beauty becomes apparent to us. Perhaps we do not experience the beauty of common life today--quite the opposite. But a deepened understanding of what common life can and must be for us could inspire us to consciously claim it anew. Far from providing "icing on the cake" to pep up our mission, so to speak, apostolic common life is literally a matter of life and death for us: if we do not reclaim it, we will perish. The interior communion and interdependence at the heart of Dominic's vision is something no structure or law can deliver to us; no outside force will hold us responsible for living it unless we ourselves do. Dominican apostolic common life, and thus the Dominican mission, will survive only if living men and women freely choose to devote their energy to living it. As M.H. Vicaire points out, Dominic renewed the apostolic life in its fullness precisely because he founded the outer element of missio upon the inne~ element of communio. The mission of itinerant preaching of God's word, the very ministry that founds the Church, was to flow from the rich interior life the Dominicans lived through prayer, the evangelical counsels, community and study. Far more than the task of merely verbal or written preaching, Dominic's mission entailed living the Word we preach with our mouths and pens, preaching in fact with our very lives. "I have come to cast fire on the earth" (Lk 12:49). We know the differ-ence between the preaching of mere words, and the kind which enlightens and sets fire to us: "Were not our hearts burning within us as he spoke to us on the way" (Lk 42:32). Dominican preaching is meant to be both light (or the mind and warmth for the heart because that preaching Dominican Mission / 643 comes from fire in the heart. This constitutes the Dominican mission in the Church, inseparably Word and Spirit, truth and love, light and fire--the fire of loving communion lived and put into words. The Spirit of communion anointed Jesus himself in the word he proclaimed (Lk 4:18); gathering a community around him, he preached not as an isolated individual but united to his Father and also to the twelve: "Let usgo to the next towns that we may preach there also, for this is why I came out" (Mk 1:39). When Jesus sends the apostles to preach, he sends them not one by one, but two by two (Mk 6:7). A witness at Dominic's canonization process in Bologna testified, "his words were so moving that most of the time he himself and his listeners were stirred to tears." We ourselves weep when something in a speaker's heart sets fire to our own hearts. Dominic wept when he preached because he spoke of what he loved and lived in his communion with the living God and with brothers and sisters. Jordan of Saxony writes of him that his "fre-quent and special prayer to God was for the gift of true charity." In a marve-lously creative synthesis Dominic combined the itinerant preaching of the apostles with the communio of the early Church. Preaching formed the purpose of the Dominicans' prayer, study, and community; but even more, the apostolic life they lived together, the reality of their love and communion with one another in the Lord, constituted the loudest and clearest word they preached. "Living Together," Community Life, and Common Life We have learned to distinguish between mission and ministry; our mission of preaching entails living the apostolic life in its fullness, preaching what we live, while our ministries express that mission in concrete and diverse ways. In a similar manner, we can distinguish between simply living together, community living and common life. Most of us perhaps know the first reality, "living under the same roof." Like ships in the night we greet each other but have no real connection to or interaction'with one another. Some of us may know, too, the deeper reality of community life, concrete sharing of goals, interests, work, prayer, responsibilities. But the words "common life" in fact translate the Latin word communio denoting an interior reality, a union of hearts and minds which only the Spirit can effect. Certainly this communion must be expressed in concrete forms, yet its reality is far more deep and inclusive than what "living together" or even "community life" denotes. We can share many things in community and still not share the deepest reality for which we are called together, the Lord whose love makes us one. The Hebrew and Christian Scriptures which, inspired Dominic's vision 644 / Review for Religious, September-October, 1986 portray preachers as people joined together to receive and to proclaim the Word expressing the very life they live in communion with others. Recalling how communities gathered around the Hebrew prophets, the author of John 17 places on the lips of Jesus the following prayer: May they "be one, as you, Father, in me, and I in you." May they all "be one in us, that the world may believe that you have sent me. I have made known to them your name and I will make it known, that the love with which you have loved me may be in them, and I in them." These words hint at the truth that no mere human effort can bring about communio. We have already tried human plans, projects, laws and programs, and we still find that we cannot achieve by our own efforts alone the kind of communion to which we are called as Dominicans. Only the Spirit gives life, and only the Spirit can offer us the power to live the kind of communion to which our vocation calls us, a human sacrament of the unspeakable com-munion at the heart of the triune God. When we ourselves love, we find that the closer we come to another, the more the union causes a bitter-sweet pain precisely because we cannot achieve the kind of oneness we desire. Because we cannot literally have one mind and heart with another; there remains always that final place in us which no one else can know or enter. But the Father, Son and Spirit live literally one life; in their communion no hint of division or separation exists. Our call to communio, to the common life, invites and urges us to be in some way a sacrament of this trinitarian communion. The Acts of the Apostles describes this reality among the early Christians: "The company of believers were of one heart and one soul in the Lord . . . they had all in common" (Ac 4:32). Here common life signifies not simply the sharing of material goods but ultimately the interior bond which makes them of one mind and heart in the Lord. Precisely because of this communion, the early disciples share everything in a "common life." This apostolic communio described in Acts 4:32 clearly inspired Dominic's own vision. The Rule of Augustine which he adopted for his Order opens with the proclamation that those gathered together have been called by the Lord precisely to live with one heart and mind in the Lord. And the primitive Constitution of his Order begins with this prologue: "Because a precept of our Rule commands us to have one heart and one mind in the Lord, it is fitting that., the uniformity maintained in our external conduct may foster and indicate the unity which should be present interiorly in our hearts. "" The earliest constitution of Dominic's Order thus identifies preaching not as a mere speaking of words, but as the expression of unity in the Lord which even in their diversity binds the members together in the apostolic common life. Dominican Mission / 645 The Basic Constitution adopted at River Forest in 1968 emphasizes this theme anew. The first three paragraphs speak of the mission of proclaiming God's Word, but the fourth paragraph makes clear the very heart of this mission: "Because we share the mission of the apostles, we follow their way of life as Dominic conceived it. With one soul we live in community." This distinction between the interior communion and the concrete expression of it in community life has important implications. Those who for serious reasons are unable to live in Dominican community may yet be truly living in the communion that binds us together with one heart and soul in God. Communio does have to be lived out in concrete ways, and community life is one of them, but Dominican communio is lived out also through study, prayer and ministry that flow from our interior union with our brothers and sisters in Dominic's family. We are called to foster one heart and soul in the Lord--a mystery far more deep and demanding than simply living under one roof. The Holy Spirit at the Heart of Dominican Apostolic Communion We address Dominic as "Preacher of grace" precisely because his procla- ¯ marion came not only from grace, from the Spirit's fire, but also spoke about grace, the supremacy of God's mercy and power in our lives. The Dominican mission calls us to preach from the fullness of our own experience of this mercy, our own realization that finally God's work and not our own will save us. In our attempts to renew and to live this communion among us, we are thus brought to our knees; the word of grace we are called to preach to others becomes only a "noisy gong and clanging cymbal" (1 Cot 13:1) unless it is also the word of grace we ourselves live together. In writing of love, Aquinas stresses how the activities of knowing and loving expand and enlarge us by uniting us to reality beyond ourselves. The process of becoming mature adults entails the ability to extend ourselves outside of our own limited being to others around us. Knowledge takes reality into us, so to speak, but in also lov!ng what we know we reach out in an "ecstatic" movement outward toward what we love (ST I, 16, 1). In love, we put others in place of ourselves and regard their good truly as if it were our own. The ecstatic nature of love's union in this way truly enlarges our being, increasingly actualizing us as human persons. Thomas distinguishes, however, between self-gratifying love and the love of friend-ship. In self-gratifying love, although we seem to be drawn out of ourselves to good outside us, the movement of love remains within us and focused on ourselves; we desire the good of others not for their sake but for our own (ST I, 28, 3). The love of friendship, in contrast, loves others as equals and directs 646 / Review for Religious, September-October, 1986 our affection outside of us to their reality precisely as other. True union thus happens only when we reach out of ourselves in an unselfish move-ment of love toward others' own uniqueness. Yet as experience itself teaches us, our own efforts alone cannot effect this kind of love. Precisely for this reason, "the love of God has been poured into our hearts by the Holy Spirit who has been given to us" (Rm 5:5). Most of our communities have engaged in some program of helping us to appreciate and to tap our own resources, especially the gift of one another. But the gift we have left most untapped is the very person of the Spirit. Aquinas notes that the Spirit's name as Gift denotes gratuitous, unreturnable bestowal, with no expectation of return. And because a gift is presented to us only so that it may belong to us, the Spirit given to us is truly ours, our possession, our gift, our Spirit (ST I, 38, 1). Dominican women especially are called upon to renew this awareness of and reliance upon the Spirit's power in our life and ministry together. If we would claim our affinity for the Spirit's tender mercy and strength within and among us, we could become ourselves a new gift in and for the Dominican family, a living gift of women who live and speak the anointed word. For the word we have preached as Dominicans too often has not conveyed or come from the Spirit's anointing. This seems to me a special contribution which Dominican women can make to the Order today: to live and to proclaim the word of truth warmed with the fire. of life. Aquinas stresses that the Word cannot be divorced from the Holy Spirit: because the Son eternally breathes forth the very love between him and the Father, the living person of the Spirit, the Word is always Verbum spirans amorem-- the Word breathing forth love (ST I, 43, 5, ad 2). Only when we internalize this truth will we live out our call to be preachers not simply of the Word but of the anointed Word. Our mission to preach the Word by its very nature thus demands our increasing submission to the Spirit of God in whom we are to find the motiva-tion and power for our life together. "Ask, and it will be given you . . . if you who are evil know how.to give good gifts to your children, how much more will the heavenly Fath.er give the Holy Spirit to those who ask him" (Lk 11:9, 13). We need to call down upon our life together the Spirit who alone can effect the interior communio at the heart of our preach-ing mission. As Aquinas stresses, the charity at the heart of our union is a created participation in the very person of the Spirit (ST II-II, 24, 2). This is a profound and radical insight, it seems to me: the bond of love we share is in some sense nothing less than the very reality of the Spirit, the divine person of love. As a participation in this Spirit, charity heals and enlivens our capacity to love one another truly as other. Again as Aquinas Dominican Mission / ~147 comments, charity of all the virtues has the strongest inclination to its act, for it reaches out to live in a spontaneous movement of pleasure and delight (ST II-II, 24, 5, ad 3; II-II, 23, 2). Since the Spirit's own person dwells in us by charity, making his power of love in some sense our very own, charity is specifically the same act whereby we love God and also one another. The movement of selfless love that binds us to each other thus of its very nature binds us also to God (ST II, 25, 1). The interior communion at the heart of our preaching mission calls us to reach out to one another's joys and sorrows, but we know how difficult it is to do this. We may be physically in the same room, apparently speaking and listening to one another, and yet we know in our hearts how often we are not present to one another's concerns. This kind of communion can happen only when the Spirit opens us to one another. As William Hill points out, the Spirit--and not just some effect of the Spirit's activity--is the very bond in some way uniting us in apostolic communion.' Perhaps we have had tastes of this communion at a time when we were bound together in a community sorrow or joy or at a time of deep prayer and celebration. We may have experienced this interior bond when the group was lost in silence and we had an intimation that our common life is not simply words we say or tasks we do for another. As Hill notes, when the Spirit "lays fast hold of us, we begin to live from a personal center that is our own self.''2 This last insight suggests that Dominican apostolic common life is possible only at the price of a profound continuing conversion on the part of each of us. W~ are called to live not from a center of narrow interest and self-concern, but from the abundant love of the Spirit who enlarges our hearts by making room in them for the truth of one another, In the depths of our being, the Spirit "lures us to the self-transcendence" of interdependence in the midst of our diversity: "The proper domain of the Spirit is not life in isolation, but in communion.''3 Neither Jesus nor Dominic sent our people one by one to convert the world, to be individual leavens in many places. This is a valid call, but it is not ours as Dominicans. If we are to live our charism in the Church, our preach-ing must express the fire of love that we live first of all in communion with one another. Individual men and women may have 1o minister alone in special cases, but their ministry also is called to give voice to the communion at the heart of the Dominican mission. If we are truly to live what we preach and preach what we live, the word we proclaim as Dominicans must express the apostolic communion we live with one another. The apostles' own preaching had such power because it overflowed with the Spirit's love lived in communion with one another, Because the Spirit inflames and anoints our preaching only to the extent that this same Spirit 648 / Review for Religious, September-October, 1986 binds us in love in one another, we will rediscover what it means to be fire in the Church, as Dominic was, only when we rediscover the absolute central-ity of apostolic communion. In many instances we still do not preach and minister out of the abundant communio we live with one another. And to the extent that we do not, we are insipid in the Church, a "noisy gong" and a "clanging cymbal" (1 Cor 13:1). Each of us is called to beg the Spirit's grace in our individual life and in our life together that our preaching would in fact give voice to the communioh we live with one another. Renewing Common Life Through Renewing the Four Elements of Dominican Life Because the Spirit's grace entails the mystery of both God's activity in us and also our free human cooperation, perhaps our most significant task in deepening our communion is to give renewed attention to each of the four elements which comprise Dominican apostolic life. And for both Dominican women and men, it may well be not simply a question of reclaim-ing but also of claiming these elements as our own in a way we have never done before. With regard to the first of the elements, prayer, we realize that our preach-ing is meant to flow from the abundance of our contemplation: "'contemplata aliis tradere. "" Yet too often we find ourselves saying, "My work is my prayer; the demands of my ministry prevent me from devoting explicit time to prayer." But as Vincent de Couesnongle, former master general of the Order, commented in an address at Providence in 1982, "People quickly distinguish the preachers who speak of the Friend with whom they constantly live, from the preachers who speak of him as of a stranger and try to pass him off as a companion with whom they are on familiar terms. The first know how to speak about God, because they are in the habit of speaking to God." People are thirsting to find in us women and men of God, and they recognize our pretense when we do not pray. And because this is so, what we most owe others in our ministry is precisely what we do with our time when we are not with them. Experience itself teaches us the paradox of grace: that God accomplishes wonderful things through us when we do not devote one hundred percent of our time to ministry, when we devote ourselves also to adoration before the living God in prayer. Many of us are perfectionists who think that our time must be consumed by projects to make our ministry more effective. Without belittling these efforts, more than a few of us are discovering that redirecting some of our " energy from compulsive busy-ness to time in prayer and fostering contempla-tive peace in our lives effect far more profound results than our efforts alone could have accomplished. What we do with our time when our people do Dominican Mission / 649 not see us often bears the deepest gifts for them when they do see us. We owe the people to and with whom we minister a consecration of our time to prayer so that they will find in us living evidence that God's presence and mercy fill the world. With regard to the second element of Dominican life, we are beginning to suspect the radical nature of our call to study. Dominic identifies as the crucial element at the heart of his Order the sacred study which opens us to contemplation and preaching. And is this not what we most lack in our lives today? Again, in his 1982 Providence address, de Couesnongle stresses, "It is a systematic, deepened and persevering study that we need to under-take . If this is not the case, then spiritual suffocation awaits us. The experience of each one of us shows this sufficiently." De Couesnongle com-ments that he stopped congratulating members of the Order for working so hard precisely because "people are overworked., they believe that one has to work like this. And thus, an unbalanced life results" whose equilibrium can be regained only by "stressing more a basic study that is at once serious and prayerful." Without prayer and study, we do no real preaching. We women especially must claim as never before our call to profound study; if we think we have no time for this because of our ministry's demands, we fool ourselves. No one will force us to study; this is a priority choice we ourselves must make. We come now to the third element that fosters communio, our com-munity life. In 1980, de Couesnongle noted in his report to the General Chapter meeting at Walberberg that he too easily believed the common life could be renewed simply by insisting on meetings and rules, as if these would automatically bring results. He came to see that true community life flourishes only to the extent that each person freely chooses to commit herself or himself to a real interest in the community members and to sharing what makes up his or her own life. "The newspaper and TV . . . will simply not suffice to excite and nourish an authentic community life. How many of us know how to share with outsiders what is best about ourselves, but become soeechless with our sisters and brothers?" We need to become, as never before, women~and men of the Word shared with one another, choosing to live what Dominic asked of us by speaking to and about God with one another. Is this not what we so little do? Because very few structures foster our communio, community life will cease to exist unless we freely choose it. We easily blame those in authority for the erosion of our life together when in fact we ourselves are responsible for its life or death. If our communities die, each one of us is responsible. We must begin to speak the Word to one another, to pray together, to speak to one another of deeper matters than simply the weather. 650 / Review for Religious, September-October, 1986 Because mission is our purpose, our community life and sharing of the Word with one another cannot be a matter of adding more time requirements to our already busy day; our commitment to one another must be in terms of quality rather than quantity time. Even if we are fortunate enough to experience a measure of community life, it is often not communio, our shared faith in the living God, that binds us together. But by taking advantage of the opportunities we already have for quality time together, we can take the risk of improving the level of conversation at table and of sharing the Word at our prayer and house meetings. And instead of harboring anger and resentment, we can begin to speak the truth in love to one another, for even honest fights do far more to foster communio than polite silence. Candidates to our communities who may have tremendous gifts for preaching and prayer and yet do not value the commitment to communio show by this very fact that whatever call they do have, it is not to Dominican life. And we who have already consecrated ourselves to this life must con-sciously choose today what perhaps we have never really chosen before, a true commitment to the community life that fosters the communio at the heart of our Dominican mission. De Couesnongle noted in his 1982 Provi-dence talk that as we have abandoned structures, individualism and non-par-ticipation have grown, and these are the "enemy number-one of community life." "Community life demands interpersonal relationships. Are we not too easily secretive. Do we not spontaneously hide what we are?. We bottle ourselves up and dodge compromising questions." He also notes the radical nature of our present call to community, precisely because so much today militates against a true union among us. We have become as secula-rized as the world, as filled, perhaps, with a selfish individualism that makes it increasingly difficult for us to reach out of ourselves to one another. Just as we ourselves must ratify our own baptismal vows, we Domini-cans are called to make a personal choice to live in fact what we say we are living. We can no longer escape facing ourselves with the question: "Why am I here? If I want to preach as a Dominican, my preaching must come from a true communio I myself concretely live." Unless each of us squarely faces this question and lives out its implications, we will surely die as com-munities, because we will fail to live our charism in the Church. Since the Dominican tradition has always treasured the richness of plural-ity, there are and will be diverse ways of living our call to communio. Our being bound together with one heart and mind in the Lord will express itself in different ways according to the character of each local community. And if for some serious reason a Dominican must live alone, he or she can still live out the Dominican call to communio-missio by fostering in whatever ways possible a true communion, a oneness of mind and heart with the Dominican Mission / 651 brothers and sisters. As our congregations decrease in numbers, we will be forced to cooperate with one another in the kind of collaboration that the Dominican family asks of us. Increasingly we are called to minister together, to provide options for living in communities of other Dominican congrega-tions in order to preach and minister from a communio concretely lived. And we need to actively work toward these new kinds of configurations. We consider finally the relation between communio and ministry. We Dominican women especially are growing to realize that our mission is not simply ed.ucation but Dominic's mission, the preaching of God's Word through our varied ministries. Each of us needs to take personal responsi-bility for the extent to which her ministry concretely expresses this mission and to ask ourselves how we can best focus our varied gifts in the service of proclaiming the Word. Perhaps more than a few of us are called to re-examine whether the ministry to which we are devoting our energies is the one to which God is calling us now, the ministry which best utilizes our gifts for the mission of proclaiming the Word. We need also to ask ourselves whether we have allowed our ministries to consume and master us, rather than to free us in joyful service. When we fail to live the Dominican call in all of its elements, when we cheat other dimensions of our life to devote all of our energy to ministry, we find our-selves in an inevitable burnout, ministering not out of the abundance of our communion with God and with one another, but out of our own emptiness. Not every possible ministry is meant for us as Dominicans. If we are not ministering from the fullness of a contemplative peace and in a way that fosters this peace in others, we need to face the hard question of why this is so. If all that we bring to the world as Dominicans is more busy-ness, more hectic activity, we have nothing to contribute. What others need from us is not more unpeacefulness but the witness of men and women who minister from the depths of contemplative peace. This is one of the chief ways we are called as Domincans to be counte~:-cultural. When our ministry no longer fosters this peace within and around us, when it drains us end-lessly and yields nothing but unpeace, we need to take a second look at whether God is not calling us to another ministry more at the heart of our mission to proclaim the Word. De Couesnongle points out in his 1982 Providence address: "Work is not prayer., in saying we lack time we find an easy excuse. Do we have the right to present ourselves as religious whose word proceeds from the abundance of contemplation? Time is needed, if we are to pray. Let us find this time and give it to God . . . This is my dream for the Order: contemplation and preaching., preaching ex abundantia contempla- 652 / Review for Religious, September-October, 1986 tionis. "' This is also Dominic's dream for us. But a dream becomes reality only when we ask it as a gift from God and then with all of our hearts make a conscious choice to commit ourselves to its realization., together. In his 1970 commentary on the Fundamental Constitution, Vicaire stresses that our one profession, our one vow, integrates us "'into the communion, and it is the communion which has the mission. "" Our vow consecrates us not only to God but also to one another, for it consecrates us to be a "reli-gious community of life vowed to preaching." Our Dominican life itself "is an apostolic mission in the Church" that springs from the communion we live with one another. Vicaire continues: we are not "just a team engaged in a common task." We are "a community of life, centered essentially in faith's response to the Gospel and in the seeking for God together." Our call to the common life is the heart of our specific mission in the Church, for our preaching as Dominicans is meant to flow from our communion with God and with one another, the communion that makes us in truth of one heart and mind in the Lord. "This requires that we be a true community. We are in it for better or for worse, as in the conjugal community, until death." We need to take seriously this "conjugal" relationship not only with the Lord but also with one another, for as married people can and do tell us, real communion happens only at the cost of personal time and energy and commitment. Our Dominican mission will again bring fire to the Church and world only to the extent that it springs from and expresses the communio we live with one another. As ! write these words, 1 am conscious of how little I live them. But I also know that to run from the truth is to sell our very soul. May the words de Couesnongle spoke in Providence in 1982 about the common life as the indispensable well-spring of our preaching mission in the Church continue to knock at the door of our minds and hearts: "Each of us must feel herself or himself responsible for this. We have to pay out of our own person . Alone and in community, let us have the courage to confront this problem and then, 'Do what he tells you.' " NOTES ~William J. Hill, O.P., The Three-Personed God (Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University of America Press, 1982), p. 303. 21bid, p. 288. 3lbid, p. 307. Active and Monastic: Two Apostolic Lifestyles George A. Aschenbrenner, S.J. Father Aschenbrenner is well known to our readers especially for the series of yearly surveys in spirituality he authored from 1980 through 1985. For the past year he has been Director of the Spiritual Formation Program at the North American College in Rome, where he may be addressed (00120 Vatican City State). This article originally appeared in the USIG Bulletin (Rome: no. 70, 1986), and is reprinted with permission. The spirited beauty and gracefulness of Jesus Christ has inspired the minds and hearts of women and men for centuries. They have been stirred, at times, to feats of missionary heroism all over the world. At other times, they have found encouragement for quiet, hidden faithfulness to the daily duties of a very ordinary state in life. In all these different types of heroism the moti-vation is the same: an enthusiastic love of Jesus Christ. In some way, then, Christian spirituality is always one and the same. Its beginning and end, its motive and energy always focus on that one whose words still echo in hearts today: "I am the Way, the Truth and the Life" (Jn 14:6). But over the many years, this one, central essence of Christian spirituality has taken expression in many different forms, some of which, at times, have seemed almost irreconcilable. Whenever these different forms are misunderstood and their common rooting in one basic Christian spirituality is forgotten, then they can become competitive or even truly at loggerheads. The interrelationships of each form with the one fundamental Christian spirituality, and of the various forms among themselves, have not always been easy and clear. But as long as we are careful to maintain a lively familiar-ity with and a genuine belief in Jesus Christ as the root and foundation of 653 654 / Review for Religious, September-October, 1986 Christian spirituality, we can speak of numerous Christian spiritualities. The following quotations are good examples of two very different dynamics within the one basic Christian spirituality: The Carthusian life rests upon a deep foundation of silence which you know and love, and it is in that depth that the Eternal Word is born for each one of us. There lies our whole vocation: to listen to Him who generates the Word and to live thereby. The Word proceeds from Silence, and we strive to find Him in His Source. This is because the Silence here in question is not a void nor a negation but, on the contrary, Being at its fullest and most fruitful plenitude. That is why it generates; and that is why we keep silent.~ Take down your lantern from its niche and go out! You may not rest in firelight certainties, Secure from drifting fog of doubt and fear. You may not build yourself confining walls And say: 'thus far, and thus, and thus far shall I walk, And these things shall I do, and nothing more.' Go out! For need calls loudly in the winding lanes And you must seek Christ there. Your pilgrim heart Shall urge you still one pace beyond. And love shall be your lantern flame.2 Though the dynamic of expression is different in these two instances, the core of the matter is the same: a heart afire with God's love in Jesus. But there will often be a very significant difference in the details of the daily living out of these two dynamics. And though the difference is never so profound asto destroy a common essence and a genuine bond, yet it is significant enough to prevent an easy identification of these two forms. My concern in this article is to describe and distinguish further these two different charisms or spiritualities, without endangering their basic rootedness in the tradition of Christian spirituality. Often in the past the Christian tra-dition has distinguished between monastic and apostolic spiritualities. I would like to suggest a further refinement of that distinction--a nuance that seems to me to be important and clarifying in these present times of struggle to understand the essence and expression of apostolic spirituality in religious life and throughout the Church. After some comments on the essence of all Christian spirituality as being apostolic, I will describe at some length what I will call two different apostolic lifestyles, charisms or spiritualities: the monastic and the active. Among the ancient world religions Christianity is unique in its strong Two Apostolic Lifestyles / 655 incarnational quality. In the Christian religion, at its center, is the claim that the Son of God became a full human being. Neither a deceptive illusion, nor a passing hallucinatory appearance, Jesus of Nazareth intimately, pre-cisely, awesomely gives flesh in our midst to the God who lives, beyond beginning or end, in unapproachable light and holiness. In Jesus, there can be no doubt that God is turned toward us forever in loving forgiveness and is ineluctably involved with and committed to our world evolving in time. In fact God is the decisive source and gentle sustainer of all being and crea-tion. And so we find in Jesus someone who enters our world confidently and profoundly, someone who lives and loves tenderly, courageously, thoroughly, and yet whose center of identity is never fully of this world. His God, addressed so intimately as Abba, "my dear Father," focuses his heart far beyond all of this world. On Calvary an apparently absurd and horrendous death can be desired, even chosen, precisely because his identity, though fully lived within this world, is not finally rooted here. And this identity is then fully revealed by God in the blessing of resurrection. The God of Christian religion always far transcends in being, beauty and life anything of this world. And so the Christian God is never fully identified with or by anything of the here and now, but, in Jesus, stands forever committed in loving forgiveness to all of us and to our created uni-verse. Fired by the same Spirit of God, all disciples of Jesus must learn to find an identity resonating in God far beyond this world while they live and love with a profound joy and hope that implicates them seriously within this world--but never so as to confine their identity to what they can see, taste and know here and now. And this balanced integration of the seriously incar-national with the transcendently eschatological has never been easy for any disciple of Jesus. There must never be any doubt of Christianity's healthy, creative and serious concern for this world. In the sense of a serious commitment to and involvement with our world, every disciple of Jesus must be intensely apostolic. Not to be apostolic, in this sense, is simply to betray Christian discipleship. For this reason, any facile distinction between apostolic spiritu-alities and monastic spiritualities may confuse, and may even deny the healthy, creative and serious concern--the apostolic concern--with this world that must be part of monastic spirituality. Nevertheless, as the central point of this article will make clear, there are two different ways of living out Christianity's serious, loving concern for this beautiful, anguished world. A central assertion of this article is that the essential apostolic orientation of Christian spirituality can be expressed in either a monastic or an active lifestyle. And these two quite different apostolic lifestyles are the result of God's Spirit at work in the hearts of men and women. This distinction, then, 656 / Review for Religious, September-October, 1986 is not something simply of human invention. Over centuries, as believers have struggled to be faithful to the Spirit of God inspiring their hearts, apostolic concern for our world expressed itself in a variety of ways. The evidence for our distinction here has resulted from God's love stirring human hearts down the ages. This distinction between the two dynamics of a monastic and an active relationship with the world cuts across the whole Church. It can name the experience of lay men and women as much as it can describe different types of religious congregations. And the Church has not always found it easy to acknowledge and respect these different apostolic charisms among women and men. Today, however, as a result of Vatican II, we are in a better position to recognize and cooperate with the different ways that grace stirs human hearts to express themselves and to be present.to God. To confuse or blur these two distinctive apostolic dynamics runs the danger of not respecting God's call in human hearts and of not cooperating properly in the formation of an appropriate apostolic Christian presence. The monastic and the active styles of Christian apostolate are not meant as hard and fast divisions. Rather, they express tendencies, movements of grace in our hearts. For many people and for many religious congregations, the challenge is to achieve the proper blend of these tendencies. We are speak-ing here, then, of a whole spectrum of development, from the highly monastic with little mixture of the active, right through to the highly active with a similarly small mixture of the monastic. It is like a long clothesline, and every individual and every group in the Church may be imagined as a clothespin that God attaches to some part of the line. As we consider these two different apostolic dynamics and tendencies of grace in the human heart, the issue centers on nothing less than identity-- either the identity of an individual or the corporate identity of a religious congregation. To avoid spiritual schizophrenia and identity confusion, no pins ought to be on the clothesline in the exact center. People who try to focus identity on this central point of the spectrum attempt the impossible balance of a life in apostolic faith of exactly equal monastic and active proportions. Religious congregations that referred in the past to themselves as semi-cloistered have been invited after Vatican II more carefully and decisively to interpret their identity with clear priority for either the monastic or the active style. The semi-cloistered balancing of exactly equal monastic and active dimensions is not possible. And such identity confusion, besides the damage done an individual or a religious congregation, also wreaks havoc in the ministry which, as the product of such identity confusion, must also be con-fused and weakly focused. Before moving now to a description of each of these two apostolic dynamics and lifestyles, two further comments are in order. First, no priority Two Apostolic Lifestyles / 657 of one style over the other is intended. The claim is that the monastic and the active are different and distinctive. There is no claim that they are superior, one to the other, in any way. Second, in describing each dynamic I will center on groups or on individuals who legitimately embody each tendency in a fullness and a clarity--with little qualification and nuance. When seen in such simple clarity and fullness, the dynamic in question can be better appreciated. But it should be understood that for many individuals and reli-gious congregations, the precise challenge is for them to qualify and nuance both dynamics so as to achieve an appropriate and identifying blend of each one.3 The Monastic Apostolic Dynamic I will describe six aspects of the monastic charism. These aspects are not disparate realities that stand on their own; rather they coalesce into a whole sensibility and way of life. As integrated and unified, they make up the monastic experience of God and the monastic vision of reality. These aspects are rooted in a distinctive dynamic at work in human hearts and comprise what, in the Church's long history, is usually called monastic spirituality. 1. Formal prayer is the primary determining influence. In the monastic apostolic lifestyle, the formal prayer of the Liturgy of the Hours and the Eucharist, and any other private contemplation resulting from the liturgy, has a clear and decisive primacy in the development of the Whole way of life. These times of formal prayer are the first items placed in the daily schedule. They literally determine the schedule and the contour of the life. As regularly spread throughout the day, this experience of formal prayer clearly determines, not only the schedule, but the very structure of monastic spiritu-ality. The heart of the monastic person is primarily and thoroughly rapt in the contemplation of God. And simply everything reveals this primacy. 2. Order, routine, regularity and schedule are central. Because of the clear priority of the Liturgy of the Hours and the Eucharist, the monastic life reveals and requires a regularity of order and schedule. Often, only Sundays"and special feasts will vary the fundamental routine of monastic life. An active prejudicefor variety as the spice of life should not lure monastic people away from a profound regularity of life in which the monastic heart is purified and disciplined for docility to the spon-taneity of God's Spirit. The disorder of any inappropriate irregularity is serious enough to trivialize the monastic experience of God. 658 / Review for Religious, September-October, 1986 3. Being set apart from the world in order to be part of the world. The monastic dynamic always requires an appropriate withdrawal from the world. This being set apart from the world can never become an end in itself, nor an uncaring protection from the world. Should such a lack of concern develop, the monastic life would have lost that apostolic commitment to this world which is essential to all Christian discipleship. But for the monastic heart, it is precisely through being set apart from the world that a care and concern for the world grows and is appropriately expressed. This monastic withdrawal from the world can serve as a reminder for all disciples of Jesus. "If you belonged to the world, the world would love its own; but the reason that the world hates you is that you do not belong to the world for I chose you out of the world" (Jn 15:19). These words of Jesus profess a type of separation from the world without which serious Christian discipleship can never be possible. The monastic separation from the world-- never meant to be a frightened disinterest, but rather a sharing in God's passionate care for this world--serves as a reminder of Jesus' words for every Christian disciple. This monastic separation from the world is expressed in many different ways. Some monasteries are situated literally out in the middle of nowhere. Others are situated in the midst of an inner city, still crumbling or now being redeveloped. Sometimes the monastic person is set apart from the world in a small, simple apartment-hermitage. Especially in experimentation after Vatican II, monastic women and men have rediscovered that the cloister of the heart contemplatively fascinated in God is the central issue, much more than any grilles and cloistered spaces. And yet, unless there is an appropriate external separation from the world, the monastic heart will be distracted and become trivialized in its simple contemplative focus on God. 4. Stability, solitude and peace figure prominently in the monastic life. From the outset, in discussing the importance of each of these three qual-ities in the monastic life, key distinction must be made between the quality considered as a profound inner reality of heart and as an external expression of that same interior reality. When stability is viewed as a profound, inner quality of heart, it typifies and would be expected of any mature believer-- and not just of the monastic person. Interior stability, as dependability and responsibility before God, always entails the refined sensitivity which dis-tinguishes God's word of true love from the many other seductive words of apparent and fallacious love heard at times within the human heart. This inner stability and refined insight comprise the core of faith maturity and, therefore, would be at the very heart of both monastic and active apostolic lifestyles. Two Apostolic Lifestyles / 659 But there is an appropriate external expression of this inner stability of heart that typifies the monastic lifestyle and not the active. Vowed stability in a monastic congregation, though surely a profound reality of heart in all the members, also unites them in this specific place with a communal bond that facilitates their ongoing search together into God. This kind of external stability, while stimulating profound communal experience of God in the monastic life, obviously interferes with the mobility of the active life. To appreciate the necessary role of solitude in the monastic life, the same distinction must be applied. A regular experience of solitude alone with and in God is another sign of every mature believer, whether called to the monas-tic or the active life. Without such experience of God in solitude, we remain superficial and immature, in our experience of life, ourselves and God. One of the dangers that could weaken the Church's ministry today, especially in the active form, is the situation in which active apostles become too busy for regular prayer in solitude--with the result that their faith becomes immature, superficial and indecisive. But for the monastic heart there must be an appropriate external expression and atmosphere of quiet solitude if one is to maintain a live witness within the Church of an inner solitude with God, a nourishment for which all our hearts year9 and are made. In a similar fashion, peace, as a deep inner quality of heart, is Jesus' gift to every serious disciple. Beyond this mature, inner experience of Jesus' peace, the monastic apostolic lifestyle also provides an external expression and atmosphere of peace, without the disruption and distraction of the active lifestyle. This distinction between inner quaiity of heart and external expression is very helpful in describing both the overlapping and the distinctiveness of these two apostolic lifestyles. I will make use of it later in describing the active style of being apostolic. 5. The apostolate of formal prayer is most typical of monastic spirituafity. The formal prayer of the Liturgy of the Hours and the Eucharist and of individual contemplation is the chief and primary apostolate or ministry of the monastic heart. No other secondary ministry should be practiced except insofar as it relates to and does not interfere with the monastic life of con-templation alone with God. To blur or confuse this ministerial primacy of formal prayer could, once again, trivialize the monastic experience of God. The monastic heart always senses a salvific radiation emanating from its contemplative adventure alone in God. 6. Importance of physical presence in the formation of monastic community. Christian community is usually easier to define than to live. Wherever 660 / Review for Religious, September-October, 1986 it occurs, it is a union of minds and hearts primarily focused by a shared faith vision. Though many other elements, like similar age, training and interests, may facilitate union of minds and hearts, nothing is more important than a genuinely corporate faith vision regularly experienced and appropri-ately expressed. In the monastic style of Christian community, physical pres-ence, often in silence, plays a very important role in developing and maintaining the unity deriving from a corporate faith vision. A physical togetherness in prayer, reading, eating, sleeping and recreating are further aspects of the monastic dynamic at work in human hearts--and they are not unimportant ones in the living of monastic community. The Active Apostolic Dynamic Contrasted with the monastic, the active apostolic lifestyle is rooted in a different dynamic in the heart, and it also takes a different expression. This difference becomes obvious in the first of the six aspects that I will now describe. 1. Ministry is the primary determining influence. Vatican II, when describing this active dynamic in terms of religious life, speaks of communities in which "the very nature of the religious life requires apostolic action and services.''4 When this active charism is given either to a whole community or to an individual believer, it is ministerial involvement, rather than formal prayer, that determines the contours and the schedule of daily life. This is an important but very subtle point, which requires further eluci-dation, lest it be seriously misunderstood. To give primacy of influence to ministry is not meant to deny the absolute importance of quiet contemplation for the active apostle. Henri Nouwen states clearly the importance of formal prayer for ministry when he says: "If the minister wants to minister 'In the Name' he must live in the Name and speak and act from there.''5 Without mature prayer, mature ministry just is not possible. To deepen their regular contemplative experience is a great challenge today for active apostles, so busy and fatigued with responding to our modern world's needs. Let me be firm and clear in asserting this radical importance of formal prayer for the busy minister. The point to be stressed here, while not denying the importance of regular prayer, concerns the influence that ministry has on the whole makeup of the active life. The legitimate demands of ministry form the schedule of the day. When people enter a new ministry, with the intention of maintaining a past set time for private prayer which now will clearly interfere with availability for the new ministry, this violates the dynamic of the active apostolic charism. Two Apostolic Lifestyles / 661 To have a schedule of formal prayer already in place before entering into the new ministerial situation is backwards for active apostles. Rather, they must first insert themselves into the new ministry and get an honest sense of its reasonable demands. Only then can their conviction about regular contemplation determine the specifics of when, where and how long they should pray each day. That there be regular contemplation is beyond doubt, regardless of ministry. But the determination of the specifics of regular contemplation depends upon the demands of the new ministry. For the active apostle, ministry, then, while not a substitute for regular contemplation, is the primary determining influence in this whole way of life. 2. Flexibility for change is central. Because busy ministry and service of others is essential to active spiritu-ality, a regular routine scheduled around formal prayer is not possible. A flexibility of heart and spirit is called for, in order to respond to the challenges and needs of a world so often in great upheaval and unrest. The earlier distinction between a profound reality of the heart and its external expression is important here again. Flexibility of heart is not some-thing that only active apostles know. A profound inner flexibility of spirit makes possible genuine docility to the spontaneity of the Holy Spirit--and is always a sign of spiritual maturity, both for monastic and for active people. Responsible involvement in complicated and unsettled situations, something not usual in monastic life, calls forth in the active apostle a distinctive external expression and practice of this mature flexibility of heart. The struggle and anguish involved in much of our response to Vatican II reveals how hard it is to change a routine and how prone many of us are to find our security in a rather rigid routine rather than in a faithfully loving God. As indicated above I believe that a routine is not only healthy, but necessary for living out the monastic charism. But, while a certain routine is necessary for all human life, the active apostle must always resist the escape into an overly monastic routine and must learn to trust the gift of flexibility that is always part of the active apostolic dynamic in the Church. 3. Ability discerningly to find, be with and serve God in all activity. Someone in a busy, active life can become very scattered and distracted. One's attention almost constantly flits from one thing to another. One's energy and concern are poured out in one situation after another. Drained and running, one loses a sense of focus, of unity and maybe even of funda-mental meaning. As life gets more and more hectic and chaotic, burnout of body and spirit sets in. Review for Religious, September-October, 1986 Moments of special religious experience in formal prayer cannot, all by themselves, stem the tide of this heightening discouragement and tension. More than regular formal prayer is needed. Despite a great desire for unity and integration, human consciousness is capable, often without being aware of it, of various compartmentalizations. One of these is the split between formal prayer and the activity of life. In such a split, the surge of religious experience in private prayer ebbs in the face of all the busy activity of the rest of the day. The frantic, frenetic business of the day often calls forth and reveals in the apostle little sense of God. Private prayer is stubbornly main-tained in an attempt to keep religious experience alive. But such an ebb and flow of religious experience actually saps the apostle's energy and finally fails in accomplishing the desired integration in which all the activity of a day contributes to, rather than interferes with, a person's unifying religious experience. The proper balance of regular prayer and discerning involvement in the business of everyday can simplify and purify the focus and commitment of a heart so that the compartmentalized split of human experience into sacred and secular is gradually healed in a unity whereby all human experience bbc0mes religious--and finds God. In my own opinion, this is the greatest challenge still facing active apostolic spirituality. Often, past religious for-mation produced a compartmentalized relationship between prayer and activ-ity. Religious formation, in many ways, is still struggling to help active apostles find the proper interior integration that facilitates, and actually makes possible, the religious experience of finding, being with and serving God in all activity. Active apostles need a reflective sensitivity, in order to recognize the subtle but real difference between a selfish manipulation of others that finds self and a generously humble service of others that finds God. Only a genuine experience of the intimacy of God's love as beyond all other love and inviting a radical abandonment of self in love to God, together with a rigorously careful discernment of inner affective experiences, can make possible a human, loving presence that finds God in all activity and dealings with others. Vatican 11 makes a similar claim when it says that, for com-munities in religious life whose very nature requires apostolic action and services, "their entire apostolic activity should be animated by a religious spirit.''~ 4. Mobility and apostolic availability are key in active spirituality. Because mission and active ministry are so central to the active apostolic dynamic, mobility of body and spirit are important. Any rigidity in a person can interfere with the fruitfulness of this charism. In an active religious corn- Two Apostolic Lifestyles / 663 munity, the members come together precisely in order to be sent out on specific ministries, each of which shares in God's mission of salvation in Jesus. Any stubborn selfishness or immature insecurity will always corrode that mobility for mission which should characterize active spirituality. Apostolic availability is a readiness of spirit born of a freedom radically fascinated with a loving God's faithful commitment to us. Because of the inevitable limitation of human weakness and sinfulness, this freedom never perdures perfectly in a human heart. It must be won and received again and again. But the more this precious freedom grows in a human heart or in a whole congregation the more an availability of spirit allows the person or congregation to be thoroughly committed to a present ministry, but always with a readiness for wherever God's love may lead in the future. 5. The prayer of the apostolate is most typical of active spirituafity. The phrase that typifies monastic spirituality is reversed here. Granting, once again, the absolute value of regular contemplation in any serious spiritual life, the typical and more important prayer of the active apostle is a distinctively prayerful presence in and through all activity. This is related to. the third element above, i.e. the need to find, be with and serve God in all activity. The prayer of the apostolate should not be misunderstood as that claim and practice that many of us struggled with through the 1960s and 1970s: "my work is my prayer." Most of us now know the heresy.of such a claim, even though active apostles who would not want to profess an identification of work and prayer can still easily be pressured into living such a heresy. We have learned again over recent years that for no one does work become prayer, unless that person regularly stops working--and prays. So the prayer of the apostolate does not mean any simpliste identification of work and prayer. Rather the prayer of the apostolate involves two mutual and integral movements. The first is an appropriate, regular involvement in contempla-tion, which gradually spills over and renders pi'ayerful everything the person does, says and is. The second is an involvement in activity which stirs a desire for, and sometimes provides the subject matter of, formal contemplation in private. As one grows faithful and sensitive to these two movements, a pres-ence in all activity develops which is prayerful--a presence which is the Spirit of God praying and which reveals those clear signs of the Spirit mentioned in chapter five of Galatians. ¯ 6. A unity of mind and heart extending far beyond physical presence. Whereas the corporate faith vision of those sharing the monastic charism 664 / Review for Religious, September-October, 1986 requires much physical presence with one another, the active apostolic dynamic, because its very nature requires apostolic action and services, does not depend as much on the physical presence of the members to each other. It can foster a union of minds and hearts among members missioned all over the world in various ministries. Obviously, this corporate bond is not auto-matic. It is not the effect of any one person's fiat. It cannot be something superficially external. Rather, a unity rooted deeply in the hearts of all mem-bers will always require a profound attitude of heart on the part of each member, a distinctive type of missioning process and the careful practice of certain human, symbolic means. To say that the active charism depends less on the physical presence of the members than the monastic does certainly does not mean that physical presence can be simply disregarded in active communities. It is inhuman to imagine that members of a local live-in community, whatever the size, can develop a union of minds and hearts if they never gather together in quality physical presence. However, without disregarding the need for some such physical presence, we must not conceive the communitarian dimension Of the active charism according to monastic norms. Many active congregations today continue to struggle in local communities with how much physical presence of all members and what quality of presence of each is needed if there is to be a genuine, faith union of minds and hearts. If this struggle is not better resolved soon, increasing numbers of active religious, caught in the tension between involvement in an exciting ministry and the boring frustration of no shared vision in the local community, may well find celibacy too heavy a burden to bear alone. The De-monasticizing of Active Religious Life As religious have seriously responded to Vatican II's invitation to return to "the original inspiration" behind their own institute, a greater realization of the clear distinction between the differing and graced dynamics of the monastic and active has grown among us. In the wake of this growing clarity there also comes the realization that in the past we have not always respected this distinction with enough care. A major part of the renewal of religious life, therefore, has involved the de-monasticizing of institutes which were, in their founding, and which should, with greater fidelity over the years have continued to be, actively apostolic rather than monastic. This de-monasticizing process has not been easy. Mistakes have occurred. At times, inevitably, overreaction has set in. And many individuals have experienced great personal anguish in the midst of the confusion and turmoil of critiquing and of chang-ing, through experiment, revered and long-standing practices. But this process, although most painful, was unavoidable. To avoid it Two Apostolic Lifestyles / 665 would have been as serious a refusal as to violate the reverent d~cility due the Spirit of God who invites us to be faithful to the genuine, graced identity of our religious institute. In the past twenty years much headway has been made in realigning the fundamental conception, formation programs, ministerial practices and daily living of communities according to their rediscovered, original identity. Though the process is surely not finished, we are presently involved, appropriately enough, in a period of careful assessment of the fruits of this renewal process.7 A successful evaluation can help us to sift the precious wheat of fidelity to the essentials of religious life, as incarnated in appropriate contemporary expressions of the original founding charism, from the deceptive (though often attractive!) weeds of contemporary develop-ments that either destroy a necessary continuity of identity or shortsightedly try to defend older forms, which are now, and ought to be, simply dead. Vatican II reminds us of the importance of fidelity to the unique charism and identity of each religious community. "It serves the best interests of the Church for communities to have their own special character and purpose."s In line with this directive Thomas Merton cautions us against confusing the monastic and active dynamic: "The monastic life must not be evaluated in terms of active religious life, and the monastic orders should not be equated with other religious institutes, clerical or otherwise. The monastic community does not exist for the sake of any apostolic or educational work, even as a secondary end. The works of the monk are not justified by their external results but only by their relevance to his monastic life alone with God.''9 In conclusion, let me point to three results of respecting the clear dis-tinction between the active and monastic dynamic. First, we must be careful how we make use of the Liturgy of the Hours. In the monastic community the Liturgy of the Hours is a primary determinant and focus of the whole day, at which the physical presence of all is expected. In the active commu-nity, a regular communal prayer besides th.e Eucharist seems necessary. Some use of the Liturgy of the Hours may serve as an appropriate regular com-munity prayer. On the other hand, some other type of communal prayer may better serve a particular community. If something o.f the Liturgy of the Hours is used, it should not become a primary determinant and focus of schedule, to the detriment of the members' ministerial involvement. So, depending on the size and variety of the local community, the physical presence of all members is neither expected nor possible. However, the active community would be deficient in its unified faith vision if each member did not share the same desire to pray together regularly--which desire would always take expression in physical presence, except for ministerial reasons. But for an active community to use the Liturgy of the Hours in a monastic fashion would be to violate its God-given charism. 666 / Review for Religious, September-October, 1986 Second, members of active communities cannot avoid a natural monas-ticizing tendency as they get older. As the biological breakdown of old age sets in, religious become less and less active, they settle into a much more regularized pattern, and the apostolate of prayer becomes more predominant in their daily lives. If we are careful of certain presuppositions, this natural monasticizing tendency will not necessarily violate the active apostolic nature of a community. But the older members, whose lifestyle is now understand-ably more monastic, must not claim that this monastic lifestyle is the genuine identity of the whole congregation. Another subtle change of attitude could be entailed here. If a section of the motherhouse is located where many of the older, retired sisters are living, then naturally the style and schedule of life for that part of the house will be more monastic--as it should be. However, we must then be careful .that this more monastic schedule and style not be idolized as typical for all other houses of the congregation, an image that motherhouses often in the past have projected. Such a misunderstanding would be a serious interference with the unity and ministerial effectiveness of the whole congregation. In fact, it can be downright demoralizing and dis-torting for younger members. Furthermore, though these older members are much more inactive than earlier in their lives, they must be helped to keep the active zeal and concerns of their hearts alive and peacefully integrated with their bodily inactivity. These older members must also have a live sense of the ministry of old age and retirement. They must be helped to realize how valuable and necessary for the whole congregation's ministerial effectiveness is their own ministry of prayer and sacrifice. So often older religious think they have retired from ministry. I cannot stress enough the need for the elderly, and for everyone, to realize that while the aged and the sick must humbly retire from active involvement they never retire from ministry. The final and most important ministry is dying. If these concerns are not forgotten, then the natural monasticizing tendency of old age 'will not interfere with the active, apostolic nature of a religious community. Third, in the long history of women's religious congregations, for various historical reasons which are beyond my simple point here, the Church has had great difficulty in recognizing the active charism at work in the hearts of various foundresses. Angela Merici, Mary Ward, Marguerite Bourgeoys and Louise de Marillac and their followers are but a very few examples of the suffering this confusion has caused. In some ways the Church still continues to struggle today with this issue of more fully acknowledging and facilitating the active charism within communities of women religious. It is very clear that the Church's welcoming approval of valid contemporary forms of active spirituality among women religious--and without imposing any additional, Two Apostolic Lifestyles / 667 illegitimate, monastic expectations-- will enormously enrich God's mission of justice and love in our world. This article has described two different charisms, two different apostolic lifestyles, the active and the monastic. The Spirit of God has created and kept these two charisms alive in the Church. In a recent talk to the American bishops Michael Buckley, S.J., summarized the treatment of charism in the document "Directives for Mutual Relations Between Bishops and Religious in the Church": "Charism always involves three factors: It is an enabling gift of the Spirit which so conforms the recipients to Christ that they build the Church.''~° Three things, then: a gift of the Spirit, intimacy with Jesus, for the sake of the Church. As we come to appreciate further the active and monastic lifestyles in the Church, it is the hope of this writer that we will not confuse or corrupt these different charisms, but cooperate with what God intends, through them, for the unity of the Church, the holiness of its members and the service of a faith-filled justice in our world. Paul's words to the Corinthians both confirm and stimulate our hope: There is a variety of gifts but always the same Spirit; there are all sorts of service to be done, but always to the same Lord; working in all sorts of differ-ent ways in different people, it is the same God who is working in all of them. The particular way in which the Spirit is given to each person is for a good purpose (1 Co 12:4-7). NOTES ~They Speak By Silence, a Carthusian (Huntington, Indiana: Our Sunday Visitor Inc.), p.3. 2One Pace Beyond--The Life of Nano Nagle, M. Raphael Consedine, P.B.V.M., (Moorabbin, Victoria: L.R. McKinnon & Co., 1977), p. 7. 3As a result of their study of the document "Essential Elements in the Church's Teach-ing on Religious Life as Applied to Institutes Dedicated to Works of the Apostolate," Franciscans are investigating and proposing the evangelical life as the best description of their charism. It remains to be seen whether this evangelical life is a third type of spirituality different from what I am calling the monastic and the active, whether it is its own unique blend of the active and monastic, or whether it is a particular version of an active spirituality. 668 / Review for Religious, September-October, 1986 4Vatican 11, "Decree on the Appropriate Renewal of the Religious Life," #8. 5Soul Friend, Kenneth Leech, (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1977), p. viii. 6Vatican II, "Decree on the Appropriate Renewal of Religious Life," #8. 7See my two articles "Assessing and Choosing Even as the Journey Continues," REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, March/April 1984, and "Come Let Us Talk This Over: Issues in Spirituality, 1985," Part 1, 'REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, July/August 1985, and Part II, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, September/October 1985. 8Vatican II, "Decree on the Appropriate Renewal of the Religious Life," #2. 9The Monastic Journey, T. Merton, (New York: Image, 1978), p. 213. ~°See "The Charism and Identity of Religious Life," REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, September/ October 1985, p. 661. From Tablet to Heart: Internalizing New Constitutions I and II Address: by Patricia Spillane, M.S. C. Price: $1.25 per copy, plus postage. Review for Religious Rm 428 3601 Lindell Blvd. St. Louis, Missouri 63108 Canonical Considerations of Autonomy and Hierarchical Structure Elizabeth McDonough, O.P. Sister McDonough is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Canon Law at The Catholic University of America (Washington, DC 20064). This article is based on a presen-tation she made to the LCWR convention in New Orleans last September. In the Middle Ages--from the grips of which many people suspect canon law has never been freed--canonical discipline was known as "practical theo-logy." That is, it was not a separate science as it is today, with specialized formulators, practitioners, codifiers and interpreters. What people did on a regular basis became operative norms of action. By authoritative interven-tion or by custom these operative norms of action eventually became recog-nized as laws in the technical sense of the Aristotelian/Thomistic construct, that is: An ordinance of reason formulated and promulgated by one charged with care of the common good. At that point in time the reasonableness of the norm, the intelligence of the individual, and each person's freedom of choice were paramount. Also in the Middle Ages--from the grips of which many people like-wise suspect religious life has never been freed--the ancient monastic and recently discovered mendicant ideas of religious life held sway. By that time the former was already highly clericalized, feudally land-based, rather well-off, and subject to frequent reforms. The latter was a new notion capitalizing on mobility, the development of towns, the discovery of trade, the rise of universities, and renewed lay piety. It, too, soon became rather clericalized; comfortably land-based, economically well-off, and in need of frequent reforms. 669 670 / Review for Religious, September-October, 1986 Nearly three centuries later at the time of Trentmfrom the grips of which most people are quite certain canon law and religious life have not been freed--canonical science was heavily influenced by nominalism, voluntarism, legalism and emerging casuistry. At that point in time the reasonableness of the norm, the intelligence of the individual, and one's freedom of choice were no longer paramount. The then recognized forms of religious life were suffering badly from the mediocrity and compromise and half measures that commonly accompany the waning of initial fervor, the dissipation of energies, the loss of resources, the monotony of the ordinary, the discovery of personal interpretation, and the sometimes misplaced convenience of dis-pensation, exception and privilege. Similarly, all of society was in flux: notions of political power, emerging nations, methods of warfare, forms of communication, frontiers of exploration, monetary systems, philosophical reasoning, theological conclusions, and ecclesiastical structures all experienced incredible upheavals and alterations. And in the midst of this social and ecclesial melange, the desperately needed "new idea" of apostolic religious life was conceived by Angela Merici, Ignatius Loyola, Mary Ward, Louise de Marillac and Jane de Chantal. These charismatic individuals were fol-lowed in a few centuries by Catherine McAuley and many others. Perhaps it was a failure of imagination on the part of the ecclesiastical establishment that perpetuated the ancient, cloistered, monastic model in theological reasoning and canonical practice for women religious. But reli-gious life itself simply continued to develop. Eighty percent of the religious groups ever founded became established between Trent and the twentieth century, and non-cloistered, non-solemnly vowed, apostolic religious life for women was finally universally recognized, but not until 1900. Canon law-- retaining some remnant of its medieval ',practical theology" identity--could not ignore the reality of the "new idea" in religious life forever, although recognition came rather slowly by our standards. Relating to the Present But what precisely is the connection of all this with the topic at hand, namely "Canonical Considerations of Self-Determination, Just Autonomy and Hierarchical Structure"? The connection is this: At the moment recog-nized forms of religious life are suffering badly from the mediocrity and compromise and half measures that commonly accompany the waning of initial fervor, the dissipation of energies, the loss of resources, the monotony of the ordinary, the discovery of personal interpretation, and the sometimes misplaced convenience of dispensation, exception and privilege. Similarly, at the present time all of society is in flux: notions of political power, emerg-ing nations, methods of warfare, forms of communication, frontiers of explo- Canonical Considerations / (171 ration, monetary systems, philosophical reasoning, theological conclusions, and ecclesiastical structures are all experiencing incredible upheavals and alterations. We are clearly in a post-conciliar era incredibly comparable to the late Middle Ages and to post-Tridentine times. In the midst of this social and ecclesial melange, religious life is again in need--perhaps desperately in need--of yet another "new idea." But those of us who are currently members of established communities, more than likely, are not the bearers of this desperately "new idea." At best we are perhaps--or certainly have the opportunity to be--artisans of a transition. And with proper understand-ing and use, this writer contends that canon law can be a great aid in this transition. Fostering a Transition To illustrate the transitional role of contemporary religious institutes, let us for a moment take the medieval methodological approach of canon law as "practical theology" and look at what current "theology in practice" in the 1983 code suggests about this life we call "religious." To begin, the new law talks about life: an identifiable form of life, a substantive form of life, a stable form of life. It speaks of a life clearly understood and freely chosen: a life of following Christ, a life of total dedication to God. It con-siders this life a particular state in the Church undertaken by profession of the evangelical counsels and lived in accord with the supreme law of the Gospel as expressed in the proper law of one's institute. It is a life involving some fixed organizational structures, certain obligations and rights, various spiritual exercises, some restrictions on personal and apostolic activities, numerous clear procedures for admission and departure, and a public con-nection to the local and universal Church. From the point of view of "practical theology" the new code requires proper law specification in seventy-four out of the one hundred fifty-three canons that apply to religious institutes. In other words, in nearly half of the canons concerning religious, the institute itself must or may determine specific elements of the life of its members, both individually and collectively. Thus, widespread distinctions in practice are not excluded by the universal law requirements for common life, identifiable superiors, necessary forma-tion, apostolic limitations, departure procedures, and the like. The prin-ciple of subsidiarity is canonically incorporated in the new code, and opportunities for practical variations are amply provided. How well or to what extent these are utilized depends entirely on one's proper law. Proper-law revision, or the writing of constitutions, as experienced during the last two decades in the life of religious institutes has been no easy task, however. In some instances the process was carried out in an ambience of 672 / Review for Religious, September-October, 1986 internal polarization that fomented contentions among members as each retreated to his or her corner courageously defending the truth for the sake of God. In other instances the formulation of an institute's truly representa-tive legislation was complicated by a certain lack of contemporaneity in institutional and hierarchical Church structures themselves. Nevertheless, these difficulties do not negate the fact that it is precisely the revision of proper-law wherein lies the opportunity for institutes to incorporate new ideas and new experiences of religious life. Good proper-law revision allows them to accomplish this without having to shoulder the burden of being the initiators or receivers of the desperately needed "new idea" mentioned above. Moreover, incorporating new ideas and experiences in proper-law to the greatest extent possible now, can help pave the way for later canonical acceptance of other, newer ideas and experiences, however long that may take. Institutionalizing Charisms Backtracking momentarily before going on, let us note that the phrase "new idea" is entirely inadequate. Ideas have consequences, but they are not the only realities that have consequences. And religious life is never primarily or merely an idea, an intellectual endeavor. It is a gift of the Spirit to, in, and through the Church. Charisms are like seeds planted in particularly fertile soil in a specific historical context. They are shaped and reshaped by the exigencies of history, by the fortunes and misfortunes of the passage of time. They are nourished and grow and evolve in the context of everyday life with everyday people--interspersed here and there by those we happily refer to as "saints" (while being equally happy we never had to live with them). Charisms are never captured in constitutions or any collection of fundamental and secondary documents. Charisms live in people or they do not live at all. Legal norms, on the other hand, are externally formulated and externally measurable. They can never totally express internal motivation. Thus, the basic import of any constitutions and any collection of fundamental and secondary documents is not merely their juridical perspective and canoni-cal determination. The legal heritage of an institute, capturing as best it can the articulated charism, is always conditioned by the emerging values of real life as experienced by those inspired to embrace the charism. People are, you see, an undeniably important element of the canonical system. On another level, the institutional Church, which in some form or another has been with us for nearly two millennia, must itself occasionally reach out and embrace a genuinely new charism. In such instances the ecclesial structure must fracture its preset boundaries, redefine its established cate-gories, and reorient its institutional life in order to incorporate, that is, take Canonical Considerations / 673 into its structures, a new breath of the Spirit. This reaching out and embracing a charism has probably happened only three times in Church history: for Benedictine monasticism, medieval mendicancy, and post-reformation apostolic orders. In each instance, institutional embracing of the new charism occurred quite slowly, required numerous adjustments and experienced set-backs over the years. The time may very well be ripe for another institutional embracing of truly new charisms of consecrated life in the Church. If so, this too will occur slowly, require adjustments, and experience setbacks. And, if history can offer us any objective insights regarding the process and its effects, one might be cautioned to note that once the institutional Church reaches out and embraces a genuinely new charism, the rest of the story is that of the charism's institutionalization. It is simply a matter of time and human nature: initial ideals are eventually dimmed or forgotten; initial fervor is slowly chilled or lost; initial Gospel goals are gradually subordinated to preservation of the new institution. Suffice it to say that the readers of this article are, more likely than not, part of already established, already institutionalized charisms and, as such, are not the first wave of any new movement in religious life. Limiting Self-Determination and Autonomy The parameters of ecclesial embrace and the exigencies of historical evolu-tion are the primary limiting factors in the "self-determination"aspect of any religious founder or foundress, of any religious institute. Self-determina-tion is never absolute. It has always been far from so for religious life, and still is. But this is also the case, for example, regarding members of the Christian faithful in general. In the new code all Christians are entitled to form associations (c. 215). All Christians should lead holy lives and promote the building up of the Church (c. 210). All Christians have the right and duty to work towards announcing the Gospel of :salvation (c. 211) and to undertake apostolic activi-ties (c. 216). But no Christians are obliged in any way to seek official recog-nition for these :activities in 'any canonical form unless they choose to do them in the name of the Church '(c.301,). And no Christian is obliged in any way to choose any form of consecrated life (c. 573 §2). Yet the self-determination of any Christian (which is never absolute to begin with) is quite circumscribed and channeled--limited, if you will--by either of the above choices once made. As individuals we cannot be both teachers and nurses at the same time. As communities we cannot be both monastic and apostolic at the same time. As institutes we cannot be both Ursuline and Franciscan at the same time. Thus, in an era that prefers to deal with "both/and," we are sometimes faced with an inevitable "either/or" because 674 / Review for Religious, September-October, 1986 no self-determination is absolute. Similarly the "just autonomy" of any institute is always and only to be considered within the context of ecclesial embrace and historical evolu-tion. Philosophically speaking, autonomy refers to freedom from external control and censure. It guarantees room for action and reflection without disruption, but it includes necessary coordination in reference to the whole. Nevertheless, any auto nomos, from the Greek to be self-normed, is funda-mentally limited by creation and redemption: by our realistic situation of being creatures in an ambience of and affected by evil. As individuals we have from the start only limited independence that remains always relative: so, too, with religious institutes in the Church. Appreciating the Role of Obligation Here it may be important to digress somewhat to consider the bias that supports the current canonical system. It is a philosophical/theological con-struct characterized by valuing status, common good and obligation. This is so in contrast to more recent philosophical/theological constructs character-ized by valuing human dignity, individual advantage and personal rights. Neither need be mutually exclusive of, or in direct contradiction to, the other. But both have often appeared so. Even with the advances of the last few centuries and the affirmations of recent popes and the articulations of Vatican Council II, the former con-struct is the one that clearly underlies the new law. In the new code, the communal context of "status" constantly qualifies any affirmations of equality in dignity. In it, the common good--perceived as a set of conditions enabling the attainment of reasonable objectives for the sake of which individuals have decided to collaborate--is clearly prior to independent, indi-vidual advantage. In it, rights are subordinate to and conditioned upon duties intrinsic to the Gospel and to our social nature. In it, the protection of rights is for the sake of fuller participation in one's evangelical and social obliga-tions. And in it, patriarchal paradigms and male-dominated linear images still predominate. But what of the alternative constructs? What of, for example, the philosophical and theological mind-set that emerges from the social contract and human rights theories of Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau? These are to a great extent the basis of our constitutional republic and the foundation of American civil law and jurisprudence. Prescinding from their equally patriarchal paradigms and male-dominated linear images, note that social-contract and human-rights theories appear to posit the pristine existence of free, independent but highly vulnerable individuals willing to ransom a portion of personal autonomy for collective security. Rights are the "playing Canonical Considerations / 675 cards" or the "poker chips" of the barter: some cannot be relinquished (these are termed "inalienable"); others can be relinquished but can also be recalled (in breach of contract). It may appear, at times, that the institu-tional Church would be much better off with a healthy dose of American civil liberties incorporated into its legal system: with a civil rights basis; with non-hierarchical checks and balances; with protection by administrative pro-cedures; with guarantees of prior notification, due process, provision for counsel, and the like. And, for the most part, this is probably not only an accurate observation but also a viable possibility and partial reality. Witness, for instance, the numerous appeals boards and administrative tribunals that already exist in many religious institutes and dioceses to complement the heavily hierarchical Church system. Indeed, it is clear that these two systems are not, and need not be considered, contradictory or mutually exclusive. Nevertheless, there is a significant difference between the Medieval and Enlightenment mind-sets, and the difference is crucial for ecclesiastical law and especially for religious institutes. Social-contract and human-rights con-structs, while very affirming of life and dignity in theory, are singularly inept at guaranteeing life and dignity to the individual from the community in practice. This is because one finds in them no legal locus of obligation. They are based, if you will, on the implicit myth that somewhere there exists a Utopian world of perfectly free humans who have no alienated or usurped rights and who experience no unresolved conflicts, individually or collectively. Reality is not quite so Utopian. So, for example, in the American social-contract/ human-rights systems, suppose you are .walking over a bridge beneath which there is someone in the water drowning. Note that, even though the drowning person has affirmed rights to life, education, suitable housing, equal-opportunity employment, a just wage, and more, there is absolutely no civil-law focus of obligation for anyone to come to his or her aid. This is not to say there is no moral obligati?n to come tothe person's aid, but there is no legal one. In fact, the legal system--because of numerous possibilities for litigation--at times seems even to militate against fulfillment of one's moral obligations in such situations. And note that we are not discussing here the medical/moral/legal subtleties of prenatal life or of the terminally ill. We simply have a recognizably fully alive human being with numerous affirmed rights who ends up quite dead because of lack of legal obligation in the system itself. In sharp contrast, the Aristotelian/Thomistic system of law, and even further back the Judaic/Talmudic system of law, are based primarily on obligations: common, mutual, reciprocal obligations that arise from a cor-porate experience. The Hebrew, the Christian, the religious is chosen-- passive voice--be it at Sinai, through the Last Supper, or by a call to conse- 676 / Review for Religious, September-October, 1986 crated life. We are chosen. This is not to suggest that we, therefore, have no responsibilities; but rather, to highlight the fact that the initiative is God's. Only the response is ours. Thus it is the beginning of our system's notion of legal obligation that becomes the crucial difference in the end.~ We do not begin by bartering away any pristine "rights." We receive a gift, with consequences. The legal constructs of our lives relate to divine events in and through which everything necessary for the eternal salvation of everyone for all ages has somehow already been given, in some sense even commanded. They are the same divine events in and through which we have freely assumed personal perpetual obligations. And they provide for an amazing absence of Utopian myths. For there is in salvation history ample evidence of human failure, outright betrayal, personal and collective infidelity, repeated digressions, and an uncanny unwillingness to live up to our part of the bargain. In contrast, on the part of God, there is ample evidence of long-suffering patience, relentless forgiveness and unswerving fidelity to the promise of mercy. Moreover, if we do not read the Gospel too selectively, even after having done everything expected, you and I have no basic right or even a distant claim to any reward whatsoever, although we are assured in the end of attaining the greatest possible goal. Situating Obligation in Hierarchical Structures The importance of proper law--the law that obtains for one's own insti-tute- has already been mentioned in regard to fostering the current transition in the paradigms of religious life. Proper law is also crucial to any element of self-determination and just autonomy within the Church's hierarchical structure. And the central element of ecclesiastical proper law, as well as ecclesiastical universal law, is the locus of incumbent obligation. This is what gives our laws content and objectivity for assuring the protection of values and the exercise of rights, even if these values and rights are not directly named as such. In fact, whether or not the values and rights are actually named in the law is of minimal importance. Perhaps at this point an example is in order. There is an ancient principle of Roman Law which states: Where there is a right, there is a remedy (Ubi ius, ibi remedium). It is in the logical contrapositive that we more readily recognize the truth of the principle, namely: If there is no remedy to be found for violation of an affirmed right, there is really no right at all. With this in mind, let us proceed to the example. It is an example not taken from ttie~ law for religious so that the content will not distract from the point intend~dl. Chnon 22'1! §'2',of~ the 1983 code states: If the Christian faithful are sum- Canonical Considerations / 677 moned to judgment by c6mpetent authority, they have the right to be judged in accord with the prescriptions of law applied with equity. It sounds wonder-ful. But what is there to guarantee that this will, indeed, be the case? The answer: incumbent obligations and opportunities to insist on their fulfill-ment as provided in the canons on judicial procedures. °The affirmed right of c. 221 §2 can be vindicated because all tribunal personnel must take an oath that they will fulfill their functions properly and faithfully (c. 1454). All tribunal personnel must disqualify themselves from involvement in cases concerning: (1) persons with whom they have a first-cousin or closer relationship, (2) persons for whom they are guardians or trustees~ (3) persons with whom they have a close friendship or for whom they feel a great animosity, as well as (4) those instances in which they desire to make a profit or avoid some loss (c. 1448). And if the tribunal personnel do not disqualify themselves, the parties in the case can lodge an objection (c. 1229) to which the court must attend before the trial can continue (c. 1451). All tribunal personnel are forbidden to accept any gifts whatsoever for the performance of their duties (c. 1456). And any tribunal personnel are subject to penalties, including loss of office, if they refuse to deal with a case for which they are competent, or attempt to deal with a case for which they are not competent, or violate the law of secrecy, or inflict damage on the parties out of malice or serious negligence (c. 1457). In other words, these procedural canons--specifying as they do the legal locus of obligations and providing the opportunity to insist that the obliga-tions be fulfilled--are really what give canonical force to c. 221 §2. But the point is this: These canons, albeit with different numbers, were also in the former code. The affirmation of current c. 221 §2 was not. How much this newly affirmed "right" would mean without these related obligations is questionable, for indeed: If there is no remedy, there is really no right. And how much this newly incorporated right actually adds to the related, already long-standing procedures still remains to be seen. All the foregoing in norway intends to ignore the fact that. even in the best of legal systems incumbent obligations can upon occasion be observed primarily in the breach. The intention is, rather, to provide a clear under-standing of the importance of obligations in the Church's legal system in order to investigate more meaningfully the numerous obligations contained in the canons concerning religious institutes. Religious Institutes and Obligations To begin our discussion, as well as to illustrate the complexity of the: interrelationships among canons, let us consider thosecanons contaii~ed under the title "Obligations and Rights of Institutes and of their Members,." cc. 678 / Review for Religious, September-October, 1986 662-672. As often as one might comb the (official Latin) text of the canons, there is not one strict right (ius) to be found. But at this point in the presenta-tion, such a discovery should be no great surprise: It is the locus of incumbent obligation, not the affirmation of rights, that is the substantive base for our legal system. Moreover, listed in these canons there are numerous obliga-tions from which it is clear that what other legal systems call "rights" will be respected even though not mentioned by name. To pursue the practical content of obligations/rights in the code as related to self-determination, just autonomy and hierarchical structure, we will isolate one of the canons in this section and investigate its canonical consequences. Perhaps the most important obligation listed in this set of canons is that of c~ 670: Each institute must (debet) supply for its members all those things necessary for attaining the end of their vocation. The debet is canonically preceptive language. The subject, object, and matter of the obligation are, respectively, the institute, its members, and necessities. Proper law should certainly address itself to the objective meaning of "necessities," and the meaning should have some reference to what is justly judged so in an equit-able manner by competent authority within the norms, structures, and resources of a particular institute. There is some problem, to be sure, with relating mandated necessities to the end of one's vocation when that end ultimately transcends temporal realities and, thus, is effectively precluded from the possibility of practical evaluation. But consequences of the mandate in c. 670 are extensive and have already been addressed by canonists.2 At the very least, this obligation on the part of institutes is interpreted as requiring those in positions, of government to provide for, and as giving members a corresponding right to: (1) sound, complete, approved proper law, (2) structural provision for general chapters, superiors and councils, (3) systematic formation, (4) stable community life, (5) suitable options for apostolic action or internal work in accord with the institute's mission, and (6) appropriate material goods and .opportunities for ongoing health care, formation, work and renewal. Note that none of the mutual obligations/rights in this list are meaningful except as connected to a coherent legal system that can guarantee their fulfill-ment. And recall that in Church law the locus of incumbent obligation is what provides objective content and procedural safeguards for affirmed or unaffirmed rights. It is the locus of incumbent obligation that is the basis for whatever down-ward or lateral accountability might exist in our hierarchical system, which Canonical Considerations / 679 operates primarily on the intrinsic principle of upward accountability. That is, in fulfilling well the obligations it has towards its members (i.e., its down-ward accountability), any institute is also more than likely fulfilling its obliga-tions towards the other elements of the hierarchical structure (i.e., its lateral and upward accountability). Simply put, an institute cares for downward accountability by attending to the legal obligations it has towards its members. It does this by providing for at least the six categories mentioned as flowing from the requirement of c. 670. But in so doing the institute is not only protecting the rights of individual members. It is also establishing itself on a sound operational basis for relating to equivalent juridic persons, such as other religious institutes, in lateral accountability. And it is likewise con-tributing to its own just autonomy in the upward accountability of the insti-tute to higher authorities in the hierarchical structure. Thus, all of the mutual obligations/rights that derive from c. 670 are directly or indirectly related to the question of an institute's existence and just autonomy. But the motive for action and the locus of accountability in c. 670-- fulfilling obligations toward members--shift the focus for the institute from that of accepting the collective imposition of alien restrictions to that of guaranteeing the possible pursuance of someone's response to having been chosen. It is possible to approach this accountability from an entirely different perspective, namely: from the recog-nition of just autonomy for religious institutes in c. 586. Indeed, the result of beginning with c. 586 might even be somewhat similar, as will be seen in the next section. Yet the basis for action in the former approach is probably more canonically sound. Religious Institutes and Just Autonomy Canon 586 states that it belongs to local ordinaries to preserve and protect (servare ac tueri) the autonomy of each institute. In the same canon "just autonomy of life, especially of government" is recognized by universal law. The canon goes on to describe this "just autonomy" as that by which insti-tutes enjoy (gaudeant) their own discipline and have the power to pre~serve (servare valeant) their patrimony3 intact. The patrimony of an institute of consecrated life is described in c. 578 as the intention and purpose of the founders/foundresses, sanctioned by competent ecclesiastical authority, con-cerning the nature, end, spirit and character of the institute as well as its sound traditions. The canon adds that this patrimony is to be faithfully preserved (servanda est) by all. Elsewhere, in c. 631 § 1, the general chapter is given special responsibility both to protect (tueri) the institute's patrimony as described in c. 587 and to promote its appropriate renewal (accommodatam renovationem). Still elsewhere in c. 587 §1, institutes must (debent) incor-porate into their constitutions .whatever is established regarding their 680 / Review for Religious, September-October, 1986 patrimony in order to faithfully protect (ad. fide#us tuendam) the voca-tion and identity of their instutute. Another set of canons is also pertinent to the investigation at hand: cc. 675 §1, 611 #2, 677 §1, and 671. The first states that in apostolic institutes apostolic action is part of their very nature (ipsam eorundem naturam). The second states that a bishop's consent for canonical erection of a religious house includes the right (ius) to exercise the works proper to the institute according to the norm of law and within any restrictions contained in the consent. The third states that superiors and members of institutes should faithfully retain (fide#ter retineanO and prudently accommodate (prudenter accommodenO the mission and works of their institute. And the fourth states that members may not undertake pgsitions outside of those proper to the institute,without the permission of legitimate superiors. Both the language and the interplay of all these canons are significant. The patrimony of any institute, or, if you will, the meaningful heritage or expres-sion of its charism, is somehow to be contained in its proper law. Note that this is the same sound, complete, approved proper law to which membe~-s have a right by reason of the obligation in c. 670. And this patrimony is to be preserved by all--an unqualified and inclusive all--according to c. 578. Con-stitutions (c. 587), general chapters (c. 631), and local ordinaries (c. 586) are each required (using some form of the same Latin verb, tueor) to protect the institute's patrimony. Chapters have the responsibility to renew it (c. 631), while superiors and members have the ability to retain and accommodate certain aspects of it (c. 677). Now for the sake of example, let us suppose that an institute has been founded whose nature is apostolic, whose purpose is to practice the corporal works of mercy, whose spirit is non-monastic, and whose character, because of its purpose, is for the most part one of commitment to individual rather than to collective apostolates. Let us also suppose that the instutute is of pontifical right, that it has three canonically erected houses in three dioceses, and that its members are present in seven other dioceses in which the institute has n6 canonically erected houses. Finally, let us suppose that a member of this institute, with appropriate permission from internal authorities and fulfilling the norms of universal and proper law, is exercising an apostolate which the diocesan bishop does not wish this person to exercise in the diocese entrusted to his care. The stage is set, is it not, for the play of tensions commonly experienced between just autonomy and hierarchical structure? Without being facetious, let me suggest further that the script for this act of the play commonly has the religious entering stage left, the bishop entering stage right, and all defini-tive action coming Deus ex machina from above. The entire performance Canonical Considerations / 681 is usually viewed only through the opera glasses of a communications media well known for its ability to distort the factual while filling lacunae with unfounded conjecture. When the curtain falls, there are inevitable winners and losers, but who belongs to which category most often depends on where you were seated--center orchestra, third balcony, backstage, or in the wings. And usually the real issues have neither been well addressed nor even partially solved, while genuine Christian values, not to mention Christian people, have more than likely been forgotten or neglected or badly battered during the performance. As a canonist, this writer holds there are viable alternatives to the above scenario. For, if law does nothing else for us in the Church, it ought to at least be able to function as the impartial arbiter in cases of conflict. How well it can do this for cases such as the above, however, depends on how clearly and thoroughly obligations are both delineated in proper law and fulfilled by those responsible for them. But, to return to the case and the question at hand: Can the bishop prohibit the religious from exercising the apostolate in the diocese entrusted to his care? If you view it from the per-spective of the religious--to use familiar phraseologywthe "bad news" is that he probably can, because ultimately all religious are subject to the power of the bishop in apostolic works (c. 678 §1). The "good news" is that such a prohibition would be very difficult in some circumstances. Needless to say, if you are looking at this case from the vantage point of the bishop, the content of the answer is exactly the same: The prohibition is probably possible but possibly very difficult. The law, you see, is rather objective and can be an impartial arbiter in such matters, even though the "goodness" or "badness", attributed to the content would probably be reversed (and logically so) in the judgment of the bishop. Why is it probably possible but possibly very difficult for the bishop to forbid the religious from exercising an apostolate in the diocese entrusted to his care? The answer, to be canonically sound, requires a careful investi-gation of the canons previously mentioned. If the institute is an apostolic one, then apostolic works are part of its nature by law (c. 675). The nature of an institute as sanctioned by ecclesiastical authority is part of its patri-mony to be preserved°by all (c. 578) and contained in its constitutions (c. 587). The power to preserve this patrimony is part of an institute's legally recognized just autonomy of life, and local ordinaries are to preserve and protect this autonomy (c. 586). Regarding just autonomy of life, on the one hand, it cannot be restricted merely to internal matters or only to government. If autonomy is restricted to internal matters, then the understanding of religious life under universal law would be a dichotomized, compartmentalized one. The code takes great 682 / Review for Religious, September-October, 1986 pains to indicate that this is clearly not the case, and especially for the apostolic activity of apostolic institutes (cc. 662, 673, 675). Furthermore, if autonomy is restricted to the institute's internal government, then the just autonomy "especially of government" recognized in c. 586 is a meaningless phrase even canonically. On the other hand, if any apostolate is fundamental to an institute and if any autonomy in regard to this apostolate is to be recognized, then the apostolate must be clearly articulated in the institute's constitutions. If it is clearly articulated in the constitutions, and if the institute has a canon-cially erected house in the diocese, then this includes a strict right (ius) to exercise proper-law apostolate(s) of the institute from this house (c. 611 #2). Note, however, that while the institute has this right, each and every member of the institute is not necessarily free to exercise the right. Canonists do agree that, in granting consent for a religious house, a diocesan bishop can restrict some of the institute's activities for all of the members or all of the institute's activities for some of the members. But they also agree that he cannot restrict all of the institute's activities for all of the members. If he judges this extreme restriction necessary, he simply ought not to grant consent for establishing the house. Thus, in response to the case, if: - there is a constitutionally established apostolate - exercised by a member of the institute -~with proper internal permissions ~ according to universal law (i.e., legally) -. from a canonically established house -to which no general or specific apostolic restrictions have been attached, it would be very difficult for the bishop to prevent the religious from continuing the apostolic activity. The prohibition would not be impossible, however, because it is provided by c. 679, that if: - the bishop judges there is a most grave cause - after having referred the matter to the major superior - and if the major superior does not take appropriate action - the bishop can prohibit the religious from remaining in the diocese. But this action constitutes a penalty (c. 1327 §1) which means that -the procedure for application of penalties is to be followed (cc. 1341-1353) - no steps may be dispensed with (c. 87) 7 all wording must be interpreted strictly (c. 18) - the constitutions of the institute may not be violated (c. 1327 §1) and - the bishop must immediately inform the Holy See of his action (c. 679). Canonical Considerations / 683 Whence, the answer given above must contain an important qualification: The prohibition is probably possible but possibly very difficult only if the initial legal obligations regarding apostolate, houses and constitutions have been fulfilled by the institute to which the member belongs. But such is not usually the case, is it? For the most part situations arise in which it is clear that one or many of the above legal obligations have not been fulfilled and, consequently, the rights involved are not well protected. It often happens that the institute has no canonically erected house in the diocese. Then there is simply no right for the institute or any of its member to exercise any apostolate there. If they do so, they do so at the good will of the bishop who can subsequently forbid what he has previously permitted. The written agreements between diocesan bishops and competent superiors, which are now required by c. 681 when entrusting works to religious, might possibly give the religious a cause for civil-law action in the case of a breach of contract, but this could only occur if the agreements were poorly composed canonically in the first place. One might add that adhering to the require-ment for these written agreements, which are supposed to include the type of work involved, could possibly identify potential conflicts such as the above case in their incipient stages. It also often happens that a particular activity exercised by a religious is not mentioned--or at least not referred to in a specific enough manner--to definitively include it in the constitutionally approved elements of the insi-tute's apostolate. The competent internal authority by making a practical interpretation in the course of good government may judge that this specific activity is included within the constitutionally approved elements of its aposto-late. But if this practical interpretation is challenged and recourse is had to the competent external authority, the interpretation of the authority who approved the constitutions in the first place is the one that prevails. Another common occurrence is practical accommodation of an institute's mission and apostolic works by the superiors and members in accord with c. 677. An institute may adapt its apostolate from educating orphans, for instance, to educating Blacks or Hispanics. Or, again, an institute may relin-quish nursing in hospitals in order to serve in home-nursing ministries. Some-times these accommodations are not subsequently or accurately incorporated into one's constitutions by a general chapter. But legal affirmation of such adjustments is both the obligation and prerogative of general chapters accord-ing to c. 631. If general chapters do not fulfill their obligations by providing an adequate update of an institute's proper law, the "good news" and "bad news" for the religious will be rendered as mentioned above. Three other forms of apostolic accommodation are also common and can be far more problematic, namely: 684 / Review for Religious, September-October, 1986 (1) defining the institute's mission and apostolate in so generic a manner that almost any apostolic activity can be included in them, (2) including in the institute's mission and apostolate some activities that appear to be only indirectly connected with its patrimony, and (3) including in the institute's mission and apostolate those activities which relate closely to those prohibited for religious in universal law. It would be unrealistic--if not grandiose--to attempt a treatment here of the specifics of each of these instances, but all three can certainly be recog-nized as occasions for another play of tensions between just autonomy and hierarchical structure. In the process of approval of constitutions, competent ecclesiastical authorities often perceive these instances as fostering generic vagueness or minute inclusiveness or institutional challenges: Their response is usually to request or to mandate adjustments in wording and/or content. This is often viewed by the institutes both as a violation of their just auto-nomy and as a negation of their renewal experiences. There is no doubt that the attitudes of those involved in the dialogues concerning constitutional revision are crucial to the results. In the first case just suggested, there can be--but need not be--a real danger of dissipating an institute's resources by too extensive a diversification within a generic category, such as education or health care or social justice. In the second, there can be, but need not be, a noble attempt to "legitimize" the activity of every member, however diversified, by incorporating it by name into the institute,s proper law. In the third, there can be, but need not be, a genuine and necessary prophetic challenge to the gradually institutionalized: restrictions on Gospel imperatives. Whether competent authorities and reli-gious institutes approach these and similar situations from a stance of polari-zation and confrontation or from a stance of pluralism and constructive compromise alters the "flashpoint" of the matter involved. A "flashpoint" is the degree of flammability of combustible materials. Most readers will probably be aware that there have been many tenuous "flashpoints" approached and passed by the interaction of hierarchy and religious--as well as among religious themselves--throughout history. Such opposition and conflict, indeed, utter conflagrations at times, have been regrettable and are certainly not to be excused.4 But in the interaction of religious charism and ecclesial institution they will always be potentially present. Suggestions are sometimes made that religious institutes experiencing great charism/hierarchical tensions might opt for what is referred to as "non-canonical" status. Legally speaking "non-canonical" is a misnomer as well as an almost impossible option. Religious institutes are by law public juridic persons (c. 634, 116 §2). Canonical Considerations / 685 This means they automatically have a "canonical status" which can also be described as legal standing or public authentication within the ecclesial structure. This status is understood to guarantee the soundness of the insti-tute's charism and traditions, to empower the duly elected officers of the institute forgoverning, and to confer a mandate on the institute (and its members) for apostolic activities. It is quite clear in Church law that only the appropriate ecclesiastical authorities--namely, Diocesan ]~ishops or the Apostolic See--can erect religious institutes (cc. 576, 578-579, 589), can approve and accept the charisms of founders and foundresses (c. 578), and can officially interpret and moderate the practice of the evangelical counsels (c. 576). Any public juridic person in the Church is by law a "perpetual" entity and can be legitimately extinguished only by competent authority (c. 120 §1). The Apostolic See alone is able to suppress an institute of consecrated life once it has been canonically erected (c. 584). On the occasion of such sup-pression, the disposition of the goods of the institute, which are by law "ecclesiastical goods" (c. 1257), belongs to the Apostolic See (c. 584) unless the approved statutes of the public juridic person (i.e., the institute's proper law) provide otherwise (c. 123). Thus, the material possessions of any religious institute, as well as the final decisions regarding what is to be done with them, do not belong ultimately to the institute or to its members but to the institutional Church. Moreover, religious institutes are "collegial" public juridic persons (c. 115 §2) andas such continue to exist (unless suppressed) as long as there is one surviving member, upon whom all the rights and obliga-tions of the institute devolve (c. 120 §2). For two major reasons, therefore, it is not legally realistic for a religious institute as such to become "non-canonical" in response to the tensions experienced in the interplay of the institute's charism and hierarchical struc-tures: (1) suppression of a religious institute is difficult to accomplish and (2) truly non-canonical status is almost impossible to find. First, an institute does not have the authority to suppress itself; and it is rare that all members of an institute might opt for requesting suppression by the Apostolic See. If such were the case., however, the juridic person could totally cease to exist. But if even a few chose to remain and were allowed to do so, these few would then enjoy all the rights and assume all the obligations of the still existing original religious institute. The ecclesiastical goods of the institute would also be subject to the care and control of the remaining members according to Church law? In other words, the mem-bers of any religious institute cannot simply decide to self-destruct the juridic person and head off into the sunset, each fortified with his or her own "piece 686 / Review for Religious, September-October, 1986 of the (institutional) rock." Second, even if an institute were sup

About the contributors -- Acronyms and Abbreviations -- Introduction : The dynamism and challenges of the social movements in the South / François Polet -- Part I. Latin America -- Chapter 1. From Cancún to Mar del Plata: A continent in effervescence / Raúl Zibechi -- Chapter 2. Dilemmas for social actors in Brazil / Marcelo Kunrath Silva and Antônio J.F. de Lima -- Chapter 3. The emergence of indigenous nationalism in Bolivia / Pablo Stefanoni and Hervé Do Alto -- Chapter 4. Venezuela: The workers' movement and the Bolivarian revolution / Héctor Lucena -- Chapter 5. Reinvigorated indigenous and popular movements tackle Guatemala's huge inequalities / Manolo García -- Chapter 6. Argentina: The Kirchner method and Peronism's force of inertia / Maristella Svampa -- Chapter 7. Mexico is becoming Latinamericanized / Guillermo Almeyra -- Chapter 8. The social movement and the left-wing government in Uruguay / Raúl Zibechi -- Chapter 9. Democratizing 'democracy' in Colombia / Mauricio Archila -- Part II. The Near East and the Maghreb -- Chapter 10. The reactivation of Arab civil societies and the demand for democracy / Sarah Ben Néfissa -- Chapter 11. Demands grow in Egypt for social justice and democracy / Azza Khalil -- Chapter 12. Algeria: From social regimentation to new popular movements / Abdel Nasser Djabi -- Chapter 13. Social awakening in the Arabian Peninsula: the oil monarchies adapt / Fatiha Dazi-Héni -- Chapter 14. Morocco: Hopes and fears and 'sit-in wars' / Kamal Lahbib -- Chapter 15. Israel-Palestine: A lack of perspective / Michel Warschawski -- Chapter 16. Turkey: Alternative world struggles, identity struggles and the centralizing inheritance / Gülçin Erdi Lelandais -- Part III. Sub-Saharan Africa -- Chapter 17. Struggles against neoliberal policies in Africa / Demba Moussa Dembélé -- Chapter 18. Social movements and democratization in Kenya / Frank Khachina Matanga -- Chapter 19. Niger: Civil society activists reinject politics into public life / Mahaman Tidjani Alou -- Chapter 20. Botswana's civil society: weak and under threat / Ian Taylor -- Chapter 21. Political transition and civil society in the Democratic Republic of the Congo / Sylvestre Kambaza -- Chapter 22. Nigeria: The ambiguities of the social movement / Femi Aborisade -- Chapter 23. Cameroon: Is its civil society 'tainted'? / Yves Alexandre Chouala -- Chapter 24. Social movements in South Africa: The Soweto Electricity Crisis Committee / Fiona White -- Chapter 25. Senegal: Social movements lead the struggle against neoliberalism / Demba Moussa Dembele -- Part IV. Asia -- Chapter 26. Internationalizing the campaigns against the Asian Development Bank / Teresa S. Encarnacion Tadem -- Chapter 27. India: Neoliberalism, caste politics and farmer suicides / Vinod Raina -- Chapter 28. The tyranny of the majority and the coup d'état in Thailand / Chantana Banpasirchote and Uchane Cheangsan -- Chapter 29. China: The new ways of resistance / Dai Jinhua -- Chapter 30. State and civil society in the South Pacific / Jean-Marc Regnault and Tamatoa Bambridge -- Chapter 31. Malaysia: Militants confront repression -- Chapter 32. Towards a convergence of resistance in Sri Lanka? / Jude Lal Fernando -- Chapter 33. Indonesia: Paddling through increasingly treacherous and neoliberal waters / Oleh George Junus Aditjondro -- Chapter 34. Philippine social movements face the challenges of democracy / Teresa S. Encarnacion Tadem -- Select Bibliography -- Index.

Non-farm income sources are increasingly important in the developing world, representing up to 50 percent of average rural household income. Although there is a vast literature on the determinants of rural households' strategies for income diversification, two factors associated with long-term transformations and common to many developing countries, have not yet been integrated into the analysis: (i) the role of intraseasonal climate variability (affected by climate change), and (ii) the role of family networks located in distant areas (increasingly important given population displacement due to the internal conflict and increasing connectivity via roads and communications). Whereas an increase in climate variability entails an increase in risk and vulnerability for farm activities, family networks located in distant regions(that do not share the local climate or market shocks) may become a key asset for managing risk and fostering income opportunities (as long as they convey information and opportunities that are not available through local networks). Given the market imperfections that are common in developing rural areas - especially those related to climate risk management - explicit consideration of both factors is key to understanding rural households' diversification strategies. The study aims to contribute to this pending agenda, investigating the role of these two factors on a household's income diversification into non-farm activities in the Peruvian Andes, a mountain region with large intraseasonal climate variability and limited but increasing spatial connectivity, where the rural population was severely affected by the internal conflict that took place in the country during the eighties and nineties. Two economic outcomes are modeled: the share of non-farm working hours and the share of non-farm labor income. We find that controlling for other assets and environmental conditions, households with distant but strong networks tend to diversify more into non-farm activities (the results suggest that there is a substitution effect between distant strong and weak ties). Increases in intraseasonal climate variability (proxied by temperature range during the main crop growing season) induce rural households to increase the relative share of nonfarm income and working hours. The analysis shows heterogeneous effects within the Andean region. While in the Northern region and colder areas in the Central Andean region (below 13˚C during the crop growing season) an increase in intraseasonal climate variability induces rural households to increase non-farm income-generating activities, the Southern region shows no significant impact. Further analysis is needed to understand whether this lack of effect is explained by farm-related responses. These results suggest that interventions focused on helping farmers cope with climate change should consider not only farm activities but skills and assets required to access non-farm occupations as well. A type of asset that is usually neglected by development projects is households' distant networks, which can actually play a role in risk management strategies, according to our results.

A gripping essay on the role that Italian intellectuals played in the organization and scheduling of Swiss public radio between the Fascist period and the so-called Anni di Piombo (Years of Lead). The book
What was the role of Italian intellectuals in the history of Swiss radio broadcasting culture? And what images of Switzerland and Italy were conveyed between 1930 and 1980?
Ever since it began in the 1930s, Italian-language Swiss radio, a national public service broadcaster addressed to a linguistic minority, drew from intellectual resources external to its own political borders, a characteristic that contributed to defining its profile. During the Fascist period, for example, Italian intellectuals could express themselves from the microphones of this radio with a freedom that they were not allowed in their home country: Benedetto Croce's 1936 speech is a memorable case in point. Subse-quently, when the interview and debate formats tended to undermine that of the radio lecture, journalists and writers such as Pier Paolo Pasolini and Eugenio Montale took advantage of the debating space that Swiss Italy offered them.
By analysing the written and audio sources, many of which unpublished, Nelly Valsangiacomo's essay reconstructs a complex as well as fascinating radio broadcasting panorama, brought to life by the voices of some of the greatest Italian intellectuals, such as Elio Vittorini, Maria Corti, Indro Montanelli, and Dario Fo. Voices that can now be listened to once again thanks to a web page completing the book: www.rsi.ch/dietroalmicrofono (Radiotelevisione svizzera di lingua italiana/Italian-language Swiss Radio and Television) - Qual è stato il ruolo degli intellettuali italiani nella storia della cultura radiofonica svizzera? E quali immagini della Svizzera e dell'Italia sono state veicolate tra il 1930 e il 1980? Fin dai suoi esordi negli anni Trenta, la Radio svizzera di lingua italiana, emittente nazionale di servizio pubblico rivolta a una minoranza linguistica, attinse a risorse intellettuali esterne alle proprie frontiere politiche, caratteristica che contribuì a definirne il profilo. Durante il ventennio fascista, ad esempio, gli intellettuali italiani poterono esprimersi ai microfoni di questa radio con una libertà che in Patria non si sarebbero concessi: memorabile in tal senso il discorso di Benedetto Croce del 1936. In seguito, quando le forme dell'intervista e del dibatti-to tenderanno a scalzare quella della conferenza radiofonica, saranno giornalisti e scrittori come Pier Paolo Pasolini o Eugenio Montale ad approfittare di quello spazio di confronto che la Svizzera italiana offriva loro.
Attraverso l'analisi delle fonti scritte e sonore, molte delle quali inedite, il saggio di Nelly Va-lsangiacomo ricostruisce un panorama radiofonico complesso e affascinante, animato dalle voci di alcuni tra i più grandi intellettuali italiani, come Elio Vittorini, Maria Corti, Indro Montanelli e Dario Fo. Voci che ora possono essere riascoltate grazie a una pagina web creata a complemento del volume: www.rsi.ch/dietroalmicrofono.

part Part I Gender and Sexuality -- chapter 1 Todd M. Borgerding (2002), 'Sic ego te dilegebam: Music, Homoeroticism, and the Sacred in Early Modern Europe', in Todd Borgeding (edition), Gender, Sexuality and Early Music, New York and London: Routledge, pp. 249-63 -- chapter 2 Suzanne G. Cusick (1996), 'On a Lesbian Relationship with Music: A Serious Effort Not to Think Straight', in Philip Brett, Elizabeth Wood and Gary C. Thomas (eds), Queering the Pitch: The New Gay and Lesbian Musicology, New York and London: Routledge, pp. 67-83 -- chapter 3 Freya Jarman-Ivens (2011), 'Introduction: Voice, Queer, Technologies', in Queer Voices: Technologies, Vocalities, and the Musical Flaw, New York: Palgrave MacMillan, pp. 1-24 -- chapter 4 Fred Everett Maus (1993), 'Masculine Discourse in Music Theory', Perspectives of New Music, 31, pp. 264-93 -- chapter 5 Susan McClary (1991), 'Introduction: A Material Girl in Bluebeard's Castle', in Feminine Endings: Music, Gender and Sexuality, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, pp. 3-34 -- chapter 6 Henry Spiller (2007), 'Negotiating Masculinity in an Indonesian Pop Song: Doel Sumbang's -- part Part II Race -- chapter 7 Deborah Pacini Hernandez (1998), 'Dancing with the Enemy: Cuban Popular Music, Race, Authenticity, and the World-Music Landscape', Latin American Perspectives, 25, pp. 110-25 -- chapter 8 Josh Kun (2005), 'The Yiddish Are Coming', in Audiotopia: Music, Race, and America, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, pp. 48-85 -- chapter 9 Russell A. Potter (1995), -- chapter 10 Katie Trumpener (2000), 'Béla Bartók and the Rise of Comparative Ethnomusicology: Nationalism, Race Purity, and the Legacy of the Austro-Hungarian Empire', in Ronald Radano and Philip V. Bohlman (eds), Music and the Racial Imagination, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 403-34 -- part Part III Social Identities -- chapter 11 Philip V. Bohlman (1996), 'The Final Borderpost', The Journal of Musicology, 14, pp. 427-52 -- chapter 12 Tak Wing Chan and John H. Goldthorpe (2007), 'Social Stratification and Cultural Consumption: Music in England', European Sociological Review, 23, pp. 1-19 -- chapter 13 Anahid Kassabian (2001), 'At the Twilight's Last Scoring', in Hearing Film: Tracking Identifications in Contemporary Hollywood Film Music, New York and London: Routledge, pp. 91-116 -- chapter 14 George Lipsitz (1994), 'That's My Blood Down There', in Dangerous Crossroads: Popular Music, Postmodernism and the Poetics of Place, London and New York: Verso, pp. 69-93 -- chapter 15 Alex Lubet (2010), 'Losing. My Religion: Music, Disability, Gender, and Jewish and Islamic Law', in Music, Disability, and Society, Philadelphia: Temple University Press, pp. 89-133 -- chapter 16 Bode Omojola (2009), 'Politics, Identity, and Nostalgia in Nigerian Music: A Study of Victor Olaiya's Highlife', Ethnomusicology, 53, pp. 249-76 -- chapter 17 Anne K. Rasmussen (2001), 'The Qur'ń in Indonesian Daily Life: The Public Project of Musical Oratory', Ethnomusicology, 45, pp. 30-57 -- chapter 18 Martin Stokes (2004), 'Music and the Global Order', Annual Review of Anthropology, 33, pp. 47-72.

The shallow and the deep, long-range ecology movements : a summary -- The deep ecology platform -- The glass is on the table : the empiricist versus total view -- Ayer on metaphysics : a critical commentary by a kind of metaphysician -- A reply to Arne N(c)Œss -- Arne N(c)Œss, a philosopher and a mystic : a commentary on the dialogue between Alfred Ayer and Arne N(c)Œss -- Remarks on Interpretation and preciseness -- Paul Feyerabend : a green hero? -- Comment : N(c)Œss and Feyerabend on science -- Reply to Bill Devall -- Spinoza's environmental ethics -- Environmental ethics and Spinoza's ethics : comments on Genevieve Lloyd's article -- Comment : Lloyd and N(c)Œss on Spinoza as ecophilosopher -- A critique of anti-anthropocentric biocentrism -- A defense of the deep ecology movement -- Against biospherical egalitarianism -- An answer to William C. French : ranking, yes, but the inherent value is the same -- Comment : on N(c)Œss versus French -- Deep ecology : a new philosophy of our time? -- Intuition, intrinsic value, and deep ecology -- On guiding stars of deep ecology -- Comment : pluralism and deep ecology -- Man apart : an alternative to the self-realization approach -- "Man apart" and deep ecology : a reply to Reed -- Comment : self-realization or man apart? The Reed-N(c)Œss debate -- Deep ecology and its critics Kirkpatrick Sale -- A European looks at North American branches of the deep ecology movement -- Letter to the editor of Zeta magazine, 1988 -- Letter to Dave Foreman, 23 June 1988 -- Comment : human population reduction and wild habitat protection -- Class, race, and gender discourse in the ecofeminism/deep ecology debate -- Ecofeminist philosophy and deep ecology -- The ecofeminism versus deep ecology debate -- The ecofeminism-deep ecology dialogue : a short commentary on the exchange between Karen Warren and Arne N(c)Œss -- Social ecology versus deep ecology : a challenge for the ecology movement -- Note concerning Murray Bookchin's article "Social ecology versus deep ecology" -- Unanswered letter to Murray Bookchin, 1988 -- To the editor of Synthesis -- Comment : deep ecology and social ecology -- Radical American environmentalism and wilderness preservation : a third world critique -- Comments on Guha's "Radical American environmentalism and wilderness preservation : a third world critique" -- Comment : N(c)Œss and Guha -- Philosophy of wolf policies (I) : general principles and preliminary exploration of selected norms -- N(c)Œss's deep ecology approach and environmental policy -- Harold Glasser and the deep ecology approach (DEA) -- Convergence corroborated : a comment on Arne N(c)Œss on wolf policies -- Value in nature : intrinsic or inherent? -- Response to Jon Wetlesen -- Platforms, nature, and obligational values --Platforms, nature, and obligational values : a response to Per Ariansen -- From skepticism to dogmatism and back : remarks on the history of deep ecology -- Response to Peder Anker -- Arne N(c)Œss and the Norwegian nature tradition -- Is the deep ecology vision a green vision or is it multicoloured like the rainbow? An answer to Nina Witoszek -- Radical American environmentalism revisited

Recommended readings (Machine generated): 1. James Brander and Paul Krugman (1983), 'A "Reciprocal Dumping" Model of International Trade', Journal of International Economics, 15 (3-4), November, 313-21 -- 2. Wilfred J. Ethier (1982), 'Dumping', Journal of Political Economy, 90 (3), June, 487-506 -- 3. Robert W. Staiger and Frank A. Wolak (1992), 'The Effect of Domestic Antidumping Law in the Presence of Foreign Monopoly', Journal of International Economics, 32 (3-4), May, 265-87 -- 4. Kyle Bagwell and Robert W. Staiger (1990), 'A Theory of Managed Trade', American Economic Review, 80 (4), September, 779-95 -- 5. Richard H. Clarida (1993), 'Entry, Dumping, and Shakeout', American Economic Review, 83 (1), March, 180-202 -- 6. James E. Anderson (1992), 'Domino Dumping, I: Competitive Exporters', American Economic Review, 82 (1), March, 65-83 -- 7. Thomas J. Prusa (1997), 'The Trade Effects of U.S. Antidumping Actions', in Robert C. Feenstra (ed.), The Effects of U.S. Trade Protection and Promotion Policies, Chapter 7, Chicago, IL, USA and London, UK: University of Chicago Press and Cambridge, MA, USA: National Bureau of Economic Research, 191-213 -- 8. Chad P. Bown and Meredith A. Crowley (2007), 'Trade Deflection and Trade Depression', Journal of International Economics, 72 (1), May, 176-201 -- 9. Kathy Baylis and Jeffrey M. Perloff (2010), 'Trade Diversion from Tomato Suspension Agreements', Canadian Journal of Economics, 43 (1), February, 127-51 -- 10. Tibor Besedeš and Thomas J. Prusa (2017), 'The Hazardous Effects of Antidumping', Economic Inquiry, 55 (1), January, 9-30 -- 11. Robert W. Staiger and Frank A. Wolak (1994), 'Measuring Industry-Specific Protection: Antidumping in the United States', Brookings Papers on Economic Activity: Microeconomics, 51-103, references -- 12. Corinne M. Krupp and Patricia S. Pollard (1996), 'Market Responses to Antidumping Laws: Some Evidence from the U.S. Chemical Industry', Canadian Journal of Economics, XXIX (1), February, 199-227 -- 13. J. M. Finger, H. Keith Hall and Douglas R. Nelson (1982), 'The Political Economy of Administered Protection', American Economic Review, 72 (3), June, 452-66 -- 14. Chad P. Bown and Meredith A. Crowley (2013), 'Self-Enforcing Trade Agreements: Evidence from Time-Varying Trade Policy', American Economic Review, 103 (2), April, 1071-90 -- 15. Bruce A. Blonigen and Chad P. Bown (2003), 'Antidumping and Retaliation Threats', Journal of International Economics, 60 (2), August, 249-73 -- 16. Alberto Martin and Wouter Vergote (2008), 'On the Role of Retaliation in Trade Agreements', Journal of International Economics, 76 (1), September, 61-77 -- 17. Michael O. Moore and Maurizio Zanardi (2009), 'Does Antidumping Use Contribute to Trade Liberalization in Developing Countries?', Canadian Journal of Economics, 42 (2), May, 469-95 -- 18. Michael M. Knetter and Thomas J. Prusa (2003), 'Macroeconomic Factors and Antidumping Filings: Evidence from Four Countries', Journal of International Economics, 61 (1), October, 1-17 -- 19. Bruce A. Blonigen and Stephen E. Haynes (2002), 'Antidumping Investigations and the Pass-Through of Antidumping Duties and Exchange Rates', American Economic Review, 92 (4), September, 1044-61

Рассматриваются вопросы, связанные с организацией в России в 1990-1993 гг. вертикали исполнительной власти, важной частью которой стали органы исполнительной власти краев и областей, выявляются основные противоречия этого процесса. Установлено, что на формирование вертикали исполнительной власти существенное влияние оказали переходные процессы, связанные с разработкой стратегии развития российской государственности и установлением основных государственных институтов, реализующих функции управления страной. ; The Perestroika reforms of the late 1980s in all the spheres of public life began cardinal transformation of the system of public authorities of Russia. Revival of the principle of sovereignty of the Councils and introduction of local government as an alternative of administration from above became the main content of reforms. Registration of the Russian statehood took place on June 12, 1990 when the I Congress of People's Deputies of RSFSR accepted the Declaration on the state sovereignty and some other documents, in which the principle of division of the authorities entered the political system of the country, as a basis of the democratic organisation of the state without essential changes of the Soviet political system. But, despite the declaration of independence, Russia did not develop a complete concept of reforms of all spheres of public life. The tendency to combine principles of sovereignty of the Councils and division of power when developing conceptual documents regulating the activity of bodies of the central and regional powers is distinctly traced. The created power structure based on submission of executive committees to the Councils only revealed the practical shortcomings of the system. The Councils were not adapted for operative administrative activity, and to ensure social and economic transformations in the country the next stage of political reform was carried out. The institute of the President entered the political system of the country and need of formation of executive power on the basis of one-man management and vertical hierarchy of its bodies was proved. If organizational problems of formation of the Institute of the President and the head of administration of the local government managed to be settled, the agreement over organization of executive power of regions between various political forces was impossible to achieve. Uncertainty with the order of empowerment of the head of administration of regions appointment or people's vote became the main problem. Therefore, the introduction of the post of the head of administration appointed by the President at regional levels during the August Putsch of 1991 was one of the emergency measures directed at preservation of control of the situation in regions. In the autumn of 1991 on the basis of presidential decrees the vertical of executive power headed by the President who received additional powers for management of the republic was built. Formation of the two power verticals executive and representative in the conditions of a radical economic reform and continuing uncertainty of the conceptual bases of the Russian statehood caused sharp opposition between the President and the Supreme Council for control over the activity and formation of the vertical of executive power in Russia. As a result, the President headed for development of the new Russian Constitution and elimination of the system of the Soviet power in the country.

The UK will soon join this group, but does it really matter?It has somehow come to pass that the UK has now joined an Asia-Pacific trade agreement. OK, so the free trade agreement in question is not the US-led Trans Pacific Partnership, but rather the US-absent Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP). Moreover, the Pacific is vast: the world's largest ocean is said to contain over half the world's waters. Still, an undeniable fact is that the UK is not in the Pacific. (The last time I checked, it also belonged to this group called the "North Atlantic Treaty Organization".) Chalk this oddity up to the Brexiteer pledge that leaving the European Union would somehow leave it better off by signing up to FTAs worldwide, and not just with the UK's neighbors. There are a few things to unpack before getting to the significance of this announcement, so here's a quick recap:The trade-averse US government has continued post-Trump, meaning the US seems to have no intention of (re-)joining CPTPP. Lacking a firmly "Western" prestige partner, the remaining CPTPP countries likely decided to allow negotiations to proceed with the UK anyway.Now, to the crux of the matter: are there significant economic benefits to be reaped by the UK from this agreement? The UK government estimates that their economy will gain 0.08% as a result over 10 years. 0.08%. To me that seems to be a rounding error instead of a significant gain. Put it down to the UK already having existing FTAs with most CPTPP members and trading far less with these Asia-Pacific nations than with its European neighbors:The
Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership -
or CPTPP - was established in 2018, and includes Australia, Brunei,
Canada, Chile, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Peru, Singapore and
Vietnam. Membership of the CPTPP loosens restrictions on trade between members and reduce tariffs - a form of border tax - on goods.However,
the gains for the UK from joining are expected to be modest. The UK
already has free trade deals with all of the members except Brunei and
Malaysia, some of which were rolled over from its previous membership of
the EU. And
even with some gains in trading the government only estimates it will
add 0.08% to the size of the economy in 10 years. The Office for Budget
Responsibility (OBR), which provides forecasts for the government, has
previously said Brexit would reduce the UK's potential economic growth by about 4% in the long term.Simply put, joining CPTPP would only claw back, oh, 2% of the economic output lost from leaving the EU. It's as close to non-news as you can get in the economic realm.

PurposeThe decision-making to outsource and select the most suitable global manufacturing outsourcing partner (MOP) is complex and uncertain due to multiple conflicting qualitative and quantitative criteria as well as multiple alternatives. Vagueness and variability exist in ratings of criteria and alternatives by group of decision-makers (DMs). The paper provides a novel Stochastic Fuzzy (SF) method for evaluation and selection of agile and sustainable global MOP in uncertain and volatile business environment.Design/methodology/approachFour main selection criteria for global MOP selection were identified such as economic, agile, environmental and social criteria. Total 16 sub-criteria were selected. To consider the vagueness and variability in ratings by group of DMs, SF method using t-distribution or z-distribution was adopted. The criteria weights were determined using the Stochastic Fuzzy-CRiteria Importance Through Intercriteria Correlation (SF-CRITIC), while MOP selection was carried out using Stochastic Fuzzy-VIseKriterijumskaOptimizacija I KompromisnoResenje (SF-VIKOR) in the case study of footwear industry. Sensitivity analysis was performed to test the robustness of the proposed model. A comparative analysis of SF-VIKOR and VIKOR was made.FindingsThe worker's wages and welfare, product price, product quality, green manufacturing process and collaboration with partners are the most important criteria for MOP selection. The MOP3 was found to be the best agile and sustainable global MOP for the footwear company. In sensitivity analysis, significance level is found to have important role in MOP ranking. Hence, the study concluded that integrated SF-CRITIC and SF-VIKOR is an improved method for MOP selection problem.Research limitations/implicationsIn a group decision-making, ambiguity, impreciseness and variability are found in relative ratings. Fuzzy variant Multi-Criteria Decision-Making methods cover impreciseness in ratings but not the variability. On the other hand, deterministic models do not cover either. Hence, the stochastic method based on the probability theory combining fuzzy theory is proposed to deal with decision-making problems in imprecise and uncertain environments. Most notably, the proposed model has novelty as it captures and reveals both the stochastic perspective and the fuzziness perspective in rating by group of DMs.Practical implicationsThe proposed multi-criteria group decision-making model contributes to the sustainable and agile footwear supply chain management and will help the policymakers in selecting the best global MOP.Originality/valueTo the best of the authors' knowledge, SF method has not been used to select MOP in the existing literature. For the first time, integrated SF-CRITIC and SF-VIKOR method were applied to select the best agile and sustainable MOP under uncertainty. Unlike other studies, this study considered agile criteria along with triple bottom line sustainable criteria for MOP selection. The novel method of SF assessment contributes to the literature and put forward the managerial implication for improving agility and sustainability of global manufacturing outsourcing in footwear industry.