Se puede pensar que esta asociación pudiera tener alguna relación biológica, pero como argumenta Pauletti (2012) no hay raíces ancestrales de esta asignación de colores a las niñas y niños. Esta autora señala que estos colores empezaron a asociarse al sexo en la Segunda Guerra Mundial, ya que antes se usaba el blanco para los bebes. La finalidad de esta imposición es establecer unas pautas, normas y estereotipos a las personas. Esta cuestión no tendría importancia si ello no conllevara una clasificación y jerarquización. Esta asignación condiciona el aspecto físico, el entorno y hasta los gustos. Y lo mismo ocurre con la música. Cuando se piensa en instrumentos o dirección de orquestas se extrapola a los varones. Si nos preguntasen por el nombre de algún compositor de música clásica, prácticamente todas las personas podrían responder como ejemplo que son Mozart, Beethoven o Falla. En cambio no mencionarían a las mujeres, como ocurre en otras artes. La invisibilidad de las mujeres en este ámbito es tan llamativa que, una de las razones para realizar esta Tesis es poner en evidencia los mecanismos que son los causantes de ese error. Los pilares básicos que sustentan este trabajo son la igualdad, el género, los derechos humanos, la música y la educación. Con los hallazgos se pretende conocer, analizar y demostrar cómo se construye la identidad del alumnado a través de la educación musical en la etapa de primaria, desde una mirada de género. Queremos "prestar nuestras gafas" para que se vea la discriminación que aún existe en la educación. De hecho la Ley Orgánica 8/2013, de 9 de diciembre, para la mejora de la calidad Educativa (LOMCE), afirma que "el nivel educativo de los ciudadanos determina su capacidad de competir con éxito en el ámbito del panorama internacional y de afrontar los desafíos que se planteen en el futuro", esto supone abrir las puertas a puestos de trabajo de alta cualificación, lo que representa una apuesta por el crecimiento económico y por un futuro mejor. Para ello se resalta el papel de materias científicas y técnicas, eliminando la obligatoriedad de cursar educación artística (plástica y música) en Educación Primaria, y música en Educación Secundaria, hecho que posibilita que un alumno o alumna termine su escolarización en España sin haber estudiado dicha materia. Otra razón para iniciar este estudio es que, como docente que soy, comparto los planteamientos de la corriente constructivista (Porlan, 1993; Díaz-Aguado y Medrano, 1994; Carretero, 2010) en la consideración de que la investigación es un factor fundamental para que las personas elaboremos y reconstruyamos nuestro conocimiento. Está claro que es fundamental mantener una perspectiva investigadora que nos permita conocer cuáles serían los nuevos conocimientos más adecuados para interaccionar en un contexto de aprendizaje y/o de formación. Pero la valoración de esta disciplina no siempre ha sido positiva, en concreto en la enseñanza básica. Murphey (1992, pp. 8-9) recoge algunas creencias del profesorado sobre el uso de la música en el terreno educativo, como son ''Los profesores no se toman la música en serio; creen que puede molestar a las clases contiguas; los estudiantes "se desmadran " y se pierde el control de la clase; los diferentes gustos musicales entre los estudiantes de un mismo grupo es un problema. " Santos (1997a) insiste también en que siguen persistiendo los prejuicios contrarios a la utilización de las canciones en el colegio, ya que se considera una pérdida de tiempo, una distracción del currículum a seguir, además de una falta de rigor y seriedad académica. Partiendo de la afirmación ya conocida de que "la educación, bien entendida, no es tan solo una preparación para la vida; es, en sí misma, una manifestación permanente y armoniosa de la vida" (Willems, 1984, pp. 13-14). Nos planteamos que esta idea debería extenderse a todo estudio artístico y particularmente para la educación musical, que apela, como afirma Willems (1984, pp. 13-14) "a la mayoría de las facultades del ser humano ". El desarrollo de estas capacidades y cualidades en los niños y niñas va a depender de los ambientes sociales a los que están expuestos: la familia, la escuela y la sociedad en general. En particular, la familia es el primer ambiente en el que pasamos los primeros años de nuestra vida, y precisamente es en éste, dónde reside la base de la educación musical. En ella se adquieren las habilidades sociales que permitirán desarrollar la autonomía, ya que "e/ modo como están siendo educados puede contribuir para que lleguen a ser más completos o, por otro lado, para limitar sus iniciativas y sus aspiraciones" (Finco, 2010, p. 59). Por lo tanto, será la familia la primera forma natural de preparación, transmitiéndoles, por medio del canto y juegos, la sensibilidad por la música. Luego está la escuela que complementa la formación en valores que el discente recibe en su hogar, máxime cuando existen en el entorno deficiencias en esta formación (García, 2005). Incluso desde "las ropas rosas y azules y los pendientes que 'adornan ' las orejas de las niñas, son claros indicios de que el desarrollo de los roles de género comienza muy tempranamente" (Gómez Bueno, 2001, p. 56). El segundo agente es la escuela. El colegio tiene un importante papel socializador, transmisor de valores, normas, hábitos de comportamiento., que facilitan la convivencia entre las personas. Tiene una serie de funciones, las cuales podríamos resumir en tres: preparar al sujeto para su futuro profesional, educar a las personas moral y socialmente, y dar una cultura personal. El ambiente social y público de las instituciones educativas, posibilita una educación colectiva, lo que propicia al niño o niña diferentes experiencias por medio de la convivencia con las diferencias de sexo, edad, etnia, religión, entre otras (Faria y Finco, 2011). Dentro de la función socializadora que tiene el colegio, es destacable "el papel de las personas que intervienen en él, las relaciones de poder, usos del lenguaje, estereotipos de género, estrategias de enseñanza y pertinencia de sus contenidos, y evaluación en la escuela" (Chavez, 2006, p. 18). Imbemón (2002, p. 17) considera que "la educación por sí sola no puede introducir los cambios necesarios en las sociedades pero sí puede actuar como instrumento fundamental para promover cambios en la misma. Es precisamente en estos tres ambientes, donde se mueve este trabajo de investigación que se presenta como Tesis Doctoral, puesto que la música se aprende desde la familia, ya que forma parte de la cultura de un lugar, y se vivencia en la escuela y la sociedad. La finalidad de este trabajo de investigación tiene una doble vertiente, por un lado valorar y demostrar que la música es un potente agente transmisor de conocimientos, no solamente musicales, sino también de valores, costumbres, creencias, estereotipos., que influyen en el desarrollo de la identidad de las personas. Por otro lado, resaltar la importante labor de la música en el proceso educativo del alumnado, ya que a través de ella se desarrollan capacidades, habilidades, destrezas. básicas para la vida de nuestro alumnado. El interés por este tema, parte del año 2008, ya que me inicié en esta temática con el trabajo de investigación titulado "Análisis de la transmisión de los estereotipos de género en el cancionero de Huelva como recurso educativo" realizado para el programa de doctorado "La Educación en la sociedad multicultural" (Bienio 2006/08). Para el desarrollo de dicho trabajo, se tomó como referencia el Cancionero infantil de la provincia de Huelva, realizado por Francisco José García Gallardo y Herminia Arredondo Pérez (1995), investigadores y docentes de la Facultad de Ciencias de la Educación de esa provincia andaluza. Las conclusiones de dicha investigación fueron la génesis de esta tesis doctoral, pues como se verá más adelante en el apartado "Conclusiones Finales", se siguen manteniendo los estereotipos en los recursos utilizados en las clases de música. En los primeros pasos para profundizar en esta temática, se puso de manifiesto los pocos estudios realizados en nuestro contexto sobre este tópico. Precisamente éste fue uno de los motivos que profesionalmente como docente, me generó curiosidad y fue decisivo para iniciar el estudio de investigación Como se ha mencionado anteriormente, tras una primera labor de búsqueda de documentación e investigaciones al respecto, encontramos que existen trabajos sobre el desarrollo de la identidad en la infancia como Phinney & Ong, 2007; Smith, 1995 y 2002; Pnevmatikos, Geka y Divane, 2010; y Markus, 2008; Al mismo tiempo, constan numerosos trabajos de investigaciones sobre transmisión de estereotipos de género a través de diversas asignaturas (como lenguaje, matemáticas, ciencias sociales, naturales, educación física. e incluso en la formación del profesorado que las imparte) como Márquez Guerrero, 2013; Álvarez, 1990; Torre, 2002; Velasco Marugán, 2012; Torres, G., y Arjona, 1988; Martínez Scott, 2012; Marco López, 1991; Lomas, 2004; Lozano Domingo, 1995; Díaz De Greñu, 2010; entre otros. Sin embargo, a la hora de abordar la educación musical como trasmisora de estereotipos a través de los recursos utilizados en las clases de música, existen muy pocas investigaciones al respecto. Con esta Tesis Doctoral, se pretende demostrar que en los recursos utilizados en clase, en este caso uno de los más empleados, como son los libros de texto de la asignatura de música en un centro educativo concreto, se transfieren conocimientos, hábitos, creencias., en definitiva, las concepciones existentes en una cultura andró céntrica, incluyendo los prejuicios. Se pretende poner de manifiesto el poder de este medio, ya que la educación es sonido e imagen; es decir, se transmite lo que se escucha y se ve, pero en la música, más concretamente, está acentuada esta relación por su incidencia en el desarrollo de las personas. Concretamente nos centramos en la influencia y efectos de la educación musical en la conformación de la identidad de género y en concreto en la transmisión de los estereotipos que se divulgan en los libros de texto de música. Para ello, se ha elegido un colegio onubense, el CEIP Aurora Moreno, ubicado en la localidad Gibraleón (Huelva). El planteamiento de este trabajo en el estudio de los libros texto es porque (desgraciadamente) en la educación en general, y la musical en particular, es el recurso más extendido a la hora de impartir las clases, limitando enormemente las actividades, tareas y ejercicios, ya que "todo está planificado" por las editoriales, ofreciendo hasta las respuestas estandarizadas que cada alumna o alumno debería dar, y no solo eso, sino las imágenes y textos que contienen, están encasillados en unas creencias, valores, pensamientos, actitudes. que poco a poco van influenciando la identidad de nuestras niñas y niños. Este poder educativo en la construcción del género, lo tiene incluso en la música actual, ya que se representan patrones de comportamiento que se asumen como normales y que, aun en la actualidad, ni se cuestionan. Podemos poner como ejemplo de esto la canción titulada "Mujer Florero" de Ella baila sola. Los fenómenos educativos no son de carácter meramente técnico. Son, más bien, de naturaleza moral y política. La actividad educativa está impregnada de contenidos morales. La responsabilidad que tenemos como profesionales del proceso educativo -en política, gestión, docencia.- es tener un control democrático externo de las acciones que se llevan a cabo y, también, un control interno nacido de las exigencias y necesidades de los protagonistas (Kelley y Beauchesne, 2001). Por eso, "no podemos ignorar o desatender que las escuelas están altamente implicadas en la educación, regulación, control y corrección de las expresiones sexuales y de género de niños y niñas, y que esas prácticas son indisociables de la producción simultánea de ordenamientos y jerarquías que legitiman y autorizan situaciones de exclusión, marginación, subordinación y violencia entre las identidades sexuales y de género, lo que posee una trascendencia política imposible de ignorar, por lo que urge avanzar en la inserción y discusión del tema en la formación de los y las profesionales de la educación" (Quaresma da Silva, Fanfa Sarmentó & Fossatti, 2012, p. 17). Los estereotipos de género que se muestran en muchas ocasiones en los libros de texto, canciones populares o tradicionales, videojuegos., encasillan a las mujeres en las "perfectas amas de casa y esposas", amables, dóciles, frágiles y, en definitiva, sin voluntad propia ni identidad o autonomía, dependientes siempre de un hombre para sentirse realizadas. Todo esto pertenece en educación al llamado currículum oculto. Se puede definir el currículum oculto como el conjunto de normas, costumbres, creencias, lenguajes y símbolos que se manifiestan en la estructura y el funcionamiento de una institución, constituyendo una fuente de aprendizajes para todas las personas que integran la organización (Santos Guerra, 2002). Los aprendizajes que se derivan del currículo oculto no solo afectan al alumnado sino también a los docentes. A partir del currículo oculto se asimilan significados a través de las prácticas que se realizan, de los discursos que se utilizan, de los textos que se leen (Santos, 2002). El androcentrismo tiene acciones muy poderosas y, en el ámbito musical más concretamente, han tratado de desvalorizar todo lo que hacen las mujeres. Estas acciones sumadas a la invisibilidad de las mujeres en la música, contribuye a desarrollar este papel secundario de ellas en esta materia de conocimiento. Por una parte se consigue infravalorar a la música realizada por mujeres, ya que carece de valor o importancia y, es por ello considerada una actividad propia de ellas, mientras que cuando hacen una aportación importante se destaca si son hombres. Como se plantea al inicio de este apartado todas y todos hemos oído hablar de Mozart o Beethoven, pero apenas se conoce la producción y el papel que han desempeñado en la vida de sus familiares mujeres como Fanny Mendelssohn (hermana de Félix), Clara Schumann (mujer de Robert), Alma Malher (mujer de Gustav) o Nanerl Mozart (hermana de Wolfgang Amadeus). Estas cuestiones son, muchas veces, olvidadas por el profesorado a la hora de seleccionar los libros de texto y quien tiene la responsabilidad en las editoriales, mostrando las concepciones y creencias arcaicas de una sociedad patriarcal, dominada por los hombres, que en algunas cuestiones es diferente en nuestros días, estando, por tanto, fuera de contexto. Con los hallazgos de este estudio se obtienen pruebas que resaltan la importancia que tiene el papel femenino dentro de la música y su efecto en la educación de las personas, en la línea que plantea una corriente actual del postmodemismo como es la musicología feminista. Esta rama de la musicología reivindica la figura de las féminas como eje central para evitar la discriminación de las mujeres no sólo como contenido, sino también como objeto. Para llevarlo a cabo, planteamos esta investigación cuya estructura se presenta a continuación: Para iniciar la fundamentación teórica de este trabajo, iniciamos una presentación de aspectos básicos que aportan la aclaración de los conceptos básicos que van a permitir la comprensión del mismo. Se parte de la idea de que la música es potente medio de comunicación, en muchas ocasiones objetivo y en otras subjetivo, otorgándole así una gran importancia como transmisor de ideas, creencias, valores, sentimientos. En primer lugar, se presenta la música como lenguaje, con sus elementos constitutivos, pues es una faceta poco conocida. También describimos lo inmensamente relacionada que está con la palabra, pues, muchos musicólogos coinciden en asignarle un origen común con el lenguaje oral. Como expresa Bernabé Villodre (2012, p. 107), "la música es una manifestación artística, es un medio de expresión de ideas, de emociones, de vivencias de una sociedad. El arte musical combina sus elementos propios de tal forma que acerca al oyente a la cultura del pueblo que la ha producido y a las emociones humanas. Por todo esto, podemos considerarla como una base para el establecimiento del diálogo intercultural, como una herramienta más de trabajo de la ínterculturalidad". La educación artística y, más concretamente la musical, ayuda a una transmisión de creencias, normas. ya que "en la música se enseñan valores y con la música se aprende a elegir valores" (Touriñán y Longueira, 2010, p. 160). Posteriormente, presentamos a la música como una fuente de expresión, e incluso haremos un recorrido cronológico del desarrollo expresivo de los niños y niñas a través de la misma. Además, se explicará con más detenimiento los tres tipos de expresión musical: vocal, instrumental y corporal. "El proceso de creación de la música puede contribuir a la apreciación de la diversidad cultural y al respeto de la libertad de expresión; de ahí, la importancia de la música como medio de comunicación entre culturas y, por extensión, la importancia de la educación por la música. Sin embargo, debe señalarse que no sólo la práctica musical en el ámbito formal puede favorecer la adquisición de la denominada competencia inter cultural" (García, Escarbajal de Haro y Escarbajal Frutos, 2007, p. 26). Posteriormente, se explica cómo el estudio de la música a lo largo de las distintas sociedades ha dado lugar a una ciencia llamada sociología. Se desarrolla una aproximación cronológica de la génesis de esta ciencia, así como de los distintos intelectuales importantes en el desarrollo de la misma. "Partimos de la idea de que la música se ha dotado desde un principio de una carga inherente de sociabilidad, es expresión de la vida interior, expresión de los sentimientos, pero a su vez exige por parte de quienes la escuchan, receptividad y conocimiento del estilo de que se trate, además de conocimiento de la sociedad en la que se crea, ya que cada obra musical es un conjunto de signos, inventados durante la ejecución y dictados por las necesidades del contexto social. Si desligamos a la obra de la sociedad que la creó los signos musicales tendrán sentidos distintos" (Hormigos, 2012, p. 75). En la antigüedad, el sentido musical estaba asociado a actividades colectivas, donde se compartían experiencias y vivencias, es decir, el contacto del individuo con la música se producía en el directo, compartiendo la experiencia musical con otras personas y generándose, de este modo, un verdadero acontecimiento social, sin embargo en la actualidad, es habitual que olvidemos esta dimensión ya que estamos demasiado acostumbrados a escucharla en solitario (Drósser, 2012). A continuación, se presenta el desarrollo cronológico de la función social de la música, desde la prehistoria hasta la actualidad. En este apartado se explica la importancia de la misma en las distintas sociedades y los usos que se hacía o hace de ella. En el desarrollo de este punto se resalta la importancia que tenía la música en la prehistoria hasta Grecia y Roma, pues entonces, tenía un valor formativo y educativo, y como posteriormente se le dio un trato de divertimento o pasatiempo, obviando sus propiedades. "Para descifrar el mensaje que posee toda composición musical es necesario entender su estructura y la forma de la música, estructura y forma que quedan determinadas por las características de la sociedad que las crea, las hereda o las interpreta. Por tanto, el hecho musical debe entenderse como una actividad social" (Hormigos, 2012, p. 76). Además, destaca la importancia del protagonismo femenino a lo largo de la historia, pues como veremos más adelante, las mujeres somos las "grandes olvidadas" en los libros de historia de la música. Green (2001, p. 25) argumenta que "la división del trabajo musical en una esfera pública, en gran medida masculina, y una esfera privada, en gran parte femenina, es un rasgo de la historia de la música occidental, así como de muchas culturas musicales de todo el mundo ". "En la música, el sistema patriarcal no ha sido menos influyente que en otros niveles sociales. La mujeres en la música han estado siempre invisibilizadas y relegadas a un segundo plano. No debemos olvidar que la música está insertada en un determinado modelo de sociedad que la produce, transmitiendo un determinado tipo de cultura, valores e intereses estéticos que siempre han de estar en conexión con el resto de factores que conforman dicha sociedad" (Laborda, 2015, p. 168) En el siguiente apartado se aborda el valor educativo de la música, iniciándolo en los antecedentes históricos y recorriendo cronológicamente las distintas épocas hasta llegar a la ley educativa actual, LOMCE. En este apartado, se desarrolla cómo se entiende la educación actual, así como más específicamente el currículum de música. Como en este trabajo es especialmente relevante el valor educativo de la música, así como de sus aportaciones a la etapa de primaria, se realiza una revisión detallada de los métodos de enseñanza y aprendizaje con fundamentación psicológica, los cuales aseguran que la música contribuye a una formación integral del alumnado, como son los de Suzuki, 1978; Willems, 1984; Kodaly, 1974; Ward, 1964; Orff-Schulwerk, 1969; Martenot, 1993; Paynter, 1999; y Dalcroze, 1998. En la escuela es fundamental tratar, estudiar y formar al alumnado en conocimientos sobre música. Según Alonso, Pereira y Soto (2003) la música es un instrumento educativo para la expresión de valores y sentimientos, ya que a través de la educación musical, el alumnado puede participar en producciones de forma cooperativa, establecer relaciones sociales, trabajo en equipo. Herrera (2007, p. 6), considera que "desde la educación musical podemos elaborar un marco de actuación idóneo para trabajar aspectos como la libertad, autonomía personal, autoestima, honestidad, felicidad, espíritu crítico, igualdad, solidaridad, pluralismo, cooperación, amor, creatividad. ". Una vez contextualizado el marco teórico, en el segundo bloque, se fundamenta y describen los objetivos de este estudio, que pueden resumirse en el título de esta Tesis Doctoral, realizar un análisis de la construcción de la identidad desde una perspectiva de género a través de la educación musical en la etapa de primaria. Para ello, se analizan los libros de texto de música desde una perspectiva de género; se realiza un análisis de los personajes que aparecen en los libros; se describe el rol social que desempeñan hombres y mujeres presentes en los libros de texto utilizados en las clases de música; se detectan y analizan los estereotipos de género que se le enseñan y transmiten al alumnado. Todo ello, con la finalidad de sensibilizar y crear conciencia entre el profesorado y a la administración pública de la presencia de un potente currículum oculto en los libros de texto; descubrir si en los libros de texto y editoriales seleccionadas existen valores racistas, sexistas o de otro tipo de discriminación de las personas de forma explícita y, además, proporcionar unas pautas de análisis que faciliten una mirada crítica, de género, sobre el material que se utiliza en las aulas de Educación Primaria que son los libros de texto. Sobre el material estudiado se ha realizado un análisis de contenido, cuyas categorías son la denominación de los personajes, descripción física, descripción psicológica, acciones que realizan, oficios o profesiones y objetos. Entre las conclusiones extraídas destaca el importante papel que desempeña la música como transmisora de normas, costumbres., en muchas ocasiones estereotipados, así como la influencia que esto produce en el desarrollo de la identidad del alumnado. De esta forma, se demuestra el verdadero valor educativo que tiene la música, más allá del aspecto lúdico, revalorizando su papel en el proceso formativo de los niños y niñas. Para finalizar, se ha incluido un apartado titulado "Limitaciones y posibles nuestras líneas de actuación" en el que se expondrá tanto propuestas de interacción como futuros estudios a realizar en esta línea. Dadas las condiciones de espacio y tiempo, hay cuestiones que no se pueden presentar en este trabajo, pero siento un gran interés para abordarlas en futuros estudios como son tratar las principales aportaciones de la musicología feminista, estudiar y poner de manifiesto en el contexto educativo los nombres de instrumentistas, directoras y compositoras, así como los instrumentos y repertorios considerados masculinos o femeninos. Por ello, hay que recalcar la importancia de una buena selección de los materiales utilizados por parte del profesorado en las clases, pues en la escuela, como agente socializador que es, se transfieren las creencias y valores inmersos en ellos. ; As presentation of this thesis, we want to mention the name of it in the title. By "Beyond Pink or Blue" we wish to express the arbitrariness of cultural patterns that prevail in childhood and spanning the entire life of the people. You might think that this association could have any biological relationship, but as argued Pauletti (2012) no ancestral roots of this color mapping to children. She points out that these colors began to associate sex in the Second World War, since before white for babies was used. The purpose of this tax is to establish guidelines, standards and stereotypes people. This issue would not matter if it did not involve a classification and prioritization. This assignment affects the appearance, the environment and even tastes. And so it is with music. When you think about instruments or orchestras address is extrapolated to men. If question at by the name of a classical composer, virtually everyone may respond as such they are Mozart, Beethoven and Falla. However not mention women, as in other arts. The invisibility of women in this field is so striking that one of the reasons for this thesis is to highlight the mechanisms that are responsible for that mistake. The basic pillars of this work are equality, gender, human rights, music and education. With the findings it aims to analyze and demonstrate how identity is constructed pupils through music education in the primary stage, from a gender perspective. We want to "pay our glasses" to see that discrimination still exists in education. In fact the Organic Law 8/2013, of 9 December, for the improvement of educational quality (LOMCE), states that "the educational level of citizens determines its ability to compete successfully in the field of the international scene and to face the challenges arising in the future ", this means opening the doors to jobs for highly qualified, representing a commitment to economic growth and a better future. For this, the role of scientific and technical matters is highlighted by eliminating mandatory study art education (plastic and music) in Elementary Education, and music in secondary education, a fact that enables a pupil finished his schooling in Spain without having studied this matter. Another reason to start this study is that, as a teacher I am, I share the ideas of the constructivist (Porlan, 1993; Diaz-Aguado y Medrano, 1994; Carter, 2010) in considering that research is a key factor for we draw people and rebuild our knowledge. Clearly it is essential to maintain a research perspective that allows us to know what would be the most appropriate new knowledge to interact in a context of learning and / or training. But the assessment of this discipline has not always been positive, particularly in basic education. Murphey (. 1992, pp 8-9) collects some beliefs of teachers on the use of music in the educational field, such as "Teachers do not take music seriously; They believe it can disturb adjacent classes; students "are desmadran" and control of the class is lost; different musical tastes among students of the same group is a problem . " Santos (1997a) also insists that those opposed to the use of songs in school prejudices persist, as it is considered a waste of time, a distraction from the curriculum to follow, along with a lack of rigor and academic seriousness. Starting from the well-known statement that "education, properly understood, is not just a preparation for life; is, in itself, a permanent and harmonious manifestation of life "(Willems, 1984, pp. 13-14). We propose that this idea should be extended to all artistic study and particularly for music education, appealing, as Willems (1984, pp. 13-14) "to most of the powers of the human being," he says. The development of these skills and qualities in children will depend on the social environments to which they are exposed: the family, school and society in general. In particular, the family is the first environment in which we spent the first years of our lives, and this is precisely where the basis of music education lies. In her social skills that will develop autonomy, because "the way we are being educated can contribute to become more complete and, secondly, to limit their initiatives and aspirations" (Finco, 2010 are acquired, p. 59). Therefore, the family is the first natural form of preparation, passing, through singing and games, music sensitivity. Then there is the school that complements the teaching of values that the learner receives at home, especially when there are deficiencies in the training environment (Garcia, 2005). Even from the "pink and blue clothes and earrings 'adorn' ears girls, are clear indications that the development of gender roles begins very early" (Gomez Bueno, 2001, p. 56). The second agent is school. The school has an important socializing role, transmitter of values, norms, habits of behavior . that facilitate the coexistence between people. It has a number of functions, which could be summarized in three: prepare the subject for their professional future, educate people morally and socially, and give a personal culture. The social environment and public educational institutions, enables a collective education, which encourages the child through different experiences of living with differences in gender, age, ethnicity, religion, among others (Faria and Finco, 2011) . Within the social function that has the school is remarkable "the role of the people involved in it, power relations, use of language, gender stereotypes, teaching strategies and relevance of its contents, and evaluation at school "(Chavez, 2006, p. 18). Imbernon (2002, p. 17) believes that "education alone can not make the necessary changes in societies but can act as a key instrument to promote changes in them." It is in these three environments, where the research work presented as a doctoral thesis, since music is learned from the family moves, as part of the culture of a place, and is experienced in school and society. The purpose of this research is twofold, first assess and demonstrate that music is a powerful transmitter agent of knowledge, not only music, but also of values, customs, beliefs, stereotypes . that influence the development the identity of people. On the other hand, emphasize the important role of music in the educational process of students, since through her abilities, skills . basic life of our students develop. Interest in this issue of the year 2008, since I started in this area with the paper titled "Analysis of the transmission of gender stereotypes in the songbook of Huelva as an educational resource" made to the doctoral program " Education in multicultural society " (2006/08 biennium) . For the development of this work, reference was made to child Songbook province of Huelva, by José Francisco Gallardo and Herminia Garcia Arredondo Perez (1995), researchers and teachers of the Faculty of Education of the Andalusian province. The findings of this investigation were the genesis of this dissertation, because as you will see later in "Final Conclusions" stereotypes are still maintained in the resources used in music classes. In the first steps to deepen this subject, it revealed few studies in our context on this topic. Precisely this was one of the reasons that professionally as a teacher, I generated curiosity and was instrumental in initiating the research study As mentioned above, after a first work of literature search and research the matter, we find that there are studies on the development of identity in childhood as Phinney & Ong, 2007; Smith, 1995 and 2002; Pnevmatikos, Geka and Divane, 2010; and Markus, 2008; At the same time, numerous studies consist of research on transmission of gender stereotypes through different subjects (such as language, mathematics, social sciences, natural, physical education . and even in teacher training that taught) as Marquez Guerrero, 2013 ; Alvarez, 1990; Torre, 2002; Marugán Velasco, 2012; Torres, G., and Arjona, 1988; Scott Martinez, 2012; Marco Lopez, 1991; Lomas, 2004; Lozano Domingo, 1995; Diaz De grenu, 2010; among others. However, when dealing with music education as a transmitter of stereotypes through resources used in music classes, there is little research on the subject. This doctoral thesis aims to demonstrate that the resources used in class, in this case one of the employees, such as textbooks for the subject of music in a particular school, knowledge, habits, beliefs are transferred . In short, existing in a male-centered culture, including prejudice conceptions. It is intended to demonstrate the power of this medium, since education is sound and picture; that is, transmitting what is heard and seen, but in music, more specifically, this relationship is accentuated by their impact on the development of people. In particular we focus on the influence and effects of music education in shaping gender identity and specifically in the transmission of the stereotypes that are disclosed in music textbooks. To do this, we have chosen a school Huelva, CEIP Aurora Moreno, located in the town Gibraleón (Huelva). The approach of this work in the study of text books is because (unfortunately) in education in general, and music in particular, is the most widespread when it comes to teach the classes, greatly limiting the activities, tasks and exercises resource because "everything is planned" by publishers, offering up the standard replies that each student or student should give, and not only that, but the images and texts that contain, are encased in some beliefs, values, thoughts, attitudes . that they are slowly influencing the identity of our children. This educational power in the construction of gender, has it even in music today, as behavior patterns that are assumed to be normal and, even today, not at issue are represented. We can make an example of this the song entitled "Woman Vase" Her dances alone. Educational phenomena are not purely technical. They are, rather, moral and political. The educational activity is imbued with moral content. Our responsibility as professionals of the educational process-in policy, management, teaching . - is to have an external democratic control of the actions undertaken and also an internal control born of the demands and needs of the protagonists (Kelley and Beauchesne, 2001) . Therefore, "we can not ignore or neglect that schools are highly involved in education, regulation, control and correction of sexual expression and gender of children, and that these practices are inseparable from the simultaneous production of systems and hierarchies legitimizing and authorizing situations of exclusion, marginalization, subordination and violence between sexual identities and gender, which has a political significance impossible to ignore, it is urgent to advance the inclusion and discussion of the issue in the training of and education professionals "(Quaresma da Silva Sarmento Fanfa & Fossatti, 2012, p. 17). Gender stereotypes shown on many occasions in textbooks, popular and traditional songs, video games . pigeonhole women in "perfect housewives and wives", kind, gentle, fragile and ultimately without free will or identity or autonomy, always dependent on a man to feel fulfilled. All this belongs to the so-called hidden curriculum education. You can set the hidden curriculum as a set of rules, customs, beliefs, languages and symbols that appear in the structure and functioning of an institution, constituting a source of learning for all people within the organization (Santos Guerra, 2002 ). The lessons derived from hidden curriculum not only affect the students but also teachers. From the meanings hidden curriculum through the practices carried out, the speeches that are used, the texts read (Santos, 2002) are treated. Androcentrism has very powerful actions and, more specifically in the musical field, have tried to devalue everything that women do. These actions added to the invisibility of women in music, helps develop this secondary role of them in this area of knowledge. On the one hand it is achieved underestimate music by women because it has no value or importance and is therefore considered an activity for them, whereas when they make an important contribution stands out if they are men. As discussed earlier in this section each and everyone has heard of Mozart or Beethoven, but little production and the role they have played in the lives of their female relatives as Fanny Mendelssohn (sister of Felix), Clara Schumann is known ( wife of Robert), Alma Mahler (Gustav woman) or Nanerl Mozart (sister of Wolfgang Amadeus). These issues are often neglected by teachers when selecting textbooks and who is responsible for the editorial, showing the archaic conceptions and beliefs of a patriarchal society dominated by men, that on some issues is different nowadays, being thus out of context. With the findings of this study tests that highlight the importance of women's role in music and its effect on the education of persons, in line it posed a current stream of postmodernism and feminist musicology is obtained. This branch of musicology claimed the figure of the women as central to prevent discrimination against women not only as content but also as an object. To carry out this research propose the structure is as follows: To start the theoretical foundation of this work, we began a presentation of basics that provide clarification of the basic concepts that will allow the understanding of it. It starts from the idea that music is powerful means of communication, in many goal chances and other subjective, thus giving great importance as a transmitter of ideas, beliefs, values, feelings . First, music is presented as a language with its constituents, as it is a little-known facet. We also describe how immensely related one with the word, then, many musicologists agree to assign a common origin with the spoken language. As expressed Barnabas Villodre (2012, p. 107), "Music is an art form, it is a means of expressing ideas, emotions, experiences of a society. The musical art combines elements so that the listener about the culture of the people that has already produced human emotions. For all this, we can consider it as a basis for establishing intercultural dialogue as a working tool of multiculturalism ". Arts education and, more specifically musical, helps transmission of beliefs, rules . and that "values are taught music and music learn to choose values" (Tourinan and Longueira, 2010, p. 160). Subsequently, we present the music as a source of expression, including making a chronological development of the expressive children through it. Also, it is explained in more detail the three types of musical expression: vocal and instrumental body. "The process of creating music can contribute to the appreciation of cultural diversity and respect for freedom of expression; hence the importance of music as a means of communication between cultures and, by extension, the importance of education for music. However, it should be noted that not only the musical practice in the formal scope may favor the acquisition of the so-called intercultural competence "(Garcia de Haro and Escarbajal Escarbajal Frutos, 2007, p. 26). Later, he explained how the study of music along the various companies has led to a science called sociology. A chronological approach to the genesis of this science develops, as well as other leading intellectuals in developing it. "We start from the idea that music has provided from the beginning of an inherent burden of sociability, it is an expression of the inner life, expression of feelings, but in turn requires from those who listen, responsiveness and knowledge of style which, in addition to knowledge of the society in which you create concerned, as each musical work is a set of signs invented during implementation and dictated by the needs of the social context. If we disclaim the work of the society that created the musical signs have different meanings "(Hormigos, 2012, p. 75) In ancient times, the musical sense was associated with group activities where life experiences are shared, that is, the individual's contact with music was produced in the direct sharing music experience with others and generating, in this way, a real social event, but today, it is common to forget this dimension as we are too used to listen alone (Drosser, 2012). Then the chronological development of the social function of music, from prehistory to the present day is presented. In this section the importance of the same in different societies and the uses made of it does or says. In developing this point how important it was the prehistoric music to Greece and Rome, since then, had a formative and educational value, and subsequently was given as a deal of amusement or pastime, ignoring its properties it is highlighted. "To decrypt the message that has all musical composition is necessary to understand its structure and form of music, structure and form are determined by the characteristics of the society that created, inherited or interpreted. Therefore, the musical should be viewed as a social activity "(Hormigos, 2012, p. 76). It also highlights the importance of women's role throughout history, because as we shall see, women are the "forgotten ones" in the history books of music. Green (2001, p. 25) argues that "the division of the musical work in a public sphere, in large measure men and a private sphere, largely female, is a feature of the history of Western music, as well as many musical cultures around the world. " "In music, the patriarchal system has not been less influential than in other social levels. The women in music have always been invisible and relegated to the background. We must not forget that music is inserted in a particular model of society that produces it, conveying a certain type of culture, values and aesthetic interest must always be connected with the other factors that make that society "(Laborda, 2015 , p. 168) In the next section the educational value of music, starting it on the historical background and chronologically through the different times to reach the current education law, LOMCE addressed. This section develops understand how the current education and more specifically the music curriculum. As this work is especially relevant educational value of music as well as their contributions to the primary stage, a detailed review of the methods of teaching and learning is done with psychological foundation, which ensures that music contributes to a comprehensive training of students, such as Suzuki, 1978; Willems, 1984; Kodaly, 1974; Ward, 1964; Orff -Schulwerk, 1969; Martenot, 1993; Paynter, 1999; and Dalcroze, 1998. In school is essential to address, study and train students in knowledge about music. According to Alonso, Pereira and Soto (2003) music is an educational tool for the expression of values and feelings, and that through music education, students can participate in cooperative productions, social relationships, teamwork. . Herrera (2007, p. 6), believes that "from the musical education we can develop a framework for suitable action to work on aspects such as freedom, personal autonomy, self-esteem, honesty, happiness, critical thinking, equality, solidarity, pluralism, cooperation, love, creativity . " Once contextualized the theoretical framework, in the second block, is based and describe the objectives of this study can be summarized in the title of this thesis, an analysis of the construction of identity from a gender perspective through music education in the primary stage. To do this, the music textbooks are analyzed from a gender perspective; an analysis of the characters in the books is done; the social role played by men and women on the textbooks used in music classes described; They are detected and analyzed gender stereotypes that teach and transmit to students. All this, in order to sensitize and raise awareness among teachers and public administration of the presence of a powerful hidden curriculum in the textbooks; discover whether there are racist, sexist or other discrimination against people explicitly values in selected textbooks and publishers and also provide guidelines to facilitate analysis a critical, gender, about the material used in classrooms of primary education are textbooks. On the studied material it has conducted a content analysis, whose categories are the names of the characters, physical description, psychological description, actions performed, trades or professions and objects. Among the conclusions drawn stresses the important role of music as a transmitter of norms, customs . in many stereotyped occasions as well as the influence it has on the development of the identity of the students. Thus, the real educational value of music, beyond the recreational aspect, reassessing its role in the learning process of children is demonstrated. Finally , we have included a section entitled " Limitations and our possible courses of action " in which both proposals as future interaction studies performed on this line will be exposed. Given the conditions of space and time , there are issues that can not be presented in this work , but I feel great interest to address in future studies as they are treating the main contributions of feminist musicology, studying and highlighting the educational context names of musicians , directors and composers , as well as instruments and repertoires considered masculine or feminine. Therefore, we must stress the importance of a good selection of materials used by teachers in the classroom , because in school as a socializing agent that is , beliefs and values embedded in them are transferred .
Publisher's version (útgefin grein) ; Objective: To explore genetic and lifestyle risk factors of MRI-defined brain infarcts (BI) in large population-based cohorts. Methods We performed meta-analyses of genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and examined associations of vascular risk factors and their genetic risk scores (GRS) with MRI-defined BI and a subset of BI, namely, small subcortical BI (SSBI), in 18 population-based cohorts (n=20,949) from 5 ethnicities (3,726 with BI, 2,021 with SSBI). Top loci were followed up in 7 population-based cohorts (n = 6,862; 1,483 with BI, 630 with SBBI), and we tested associations with related phenotypes including ischemic stroke and pathologically defined BI. Results: The mean prevalence was 17.7% for BI and 10.5% for SSBI, steeply rising after age 65. Two loci showed genome-wide significant association with BI: FBN2, p = 1.77 × 10-8; and LINC00539/ZDHHC20, p = 5.82 × 10-9. Both have been associated with blood pressure (BP)-related phenotypes, but did not replicate in the smaller follow-up sample or show associations with related phenotypes. Age- and sex-adjusted associations with BI and SSBI were observed for BP traits (p value for BI, p[BI] = 9.38 × 10-25; p [SSBI] = 5.23 × 10-14 for hypertension), smoking (p[BI]= 4.4 × 10-10; p [SSBI] = 1.2 × 10 -4), diabetes (p[BI] = 1.7 × 10 -8; p [SSBI] = 2.8 × 10 -3), previous cardiovascular disease (p [BI] = 1.0 × 10-18; p [SSBI] = 2.3 × 10-7), stroke (p [BI] = 3.9 × 10-69; p [SSBI] = 3.2 × 10 -24), and MRI-defined white matter hyperintensity burden (p [BI]=1.43 × 10-157; p [SSBI] = 3.16 × 10-106), but not with body mass index or cholesterol. GRS of BP traits were associated with BI and SSBI (p ≤ 0.0022), without indication of directional pleiotropy. Conclusion: In this multiethnic GWAS meta-analysis, including over 20,000 population-based participants, we identified genetic risk loci for BI requiring validation once additional large datasets become available. High BP, including genetically determined, was the most significant modifiable, causal risk factor for BI. ; CHAP: R01-AG-11101, R01-AG-030146, NIRP-14-302587. SMART: This study was supported by a grant from the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research–Medical Sciences (project no. 904-65–095). LBC: The authors thank the LBC1936 participants and the members of the LBC1936 research team who collected and collated the phenotypic and genotypic data. The LBC1936 is supported by Age UK (Disconnected Mind Programme grant). The work was undertaken by The University of Edinburgh Centre for Cognitive Ageing and Cognitive Epidemiology, part of the cross-council Lifelong Health and Wellbeing Initiative (MR/K026992/1). The brain imaging was performed in the Brain Research Imaging Centre (https://www.ed.ac.uk/clinical-sciences/edinburgh-imaging), a center in the SINAPSE Collaboration (sinapse.ac.uk) supported by the Scottish Funding Council and Chief Scientist Office. Funding from the UK Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC) and the UK Medical Research Council is acknowledged. Genotyping was supported by a grant from the BBSRC (ref. BB/F019394/1). PROSPER: The PROSPER study was supported by an investigator-initiated grant obtained from Bristol-Myers Squibb. Prof. Dr. J.W. Jukema is an Established Clinical Investigator of the Netherlands Heart Foundation (grant 2001 D 032). Support for genotyping was provided by the seventh framework program of the European commission (grant 223004) and by the Netherlands Genomics Initiative (Netherlands Consortium for Healthy Aging grant 050-060-810). SCES and SiMES: National Medical Research Council Singapore Centre Grant NMRC/CG/013/2013. C.-Y.C. is supported by the National Medical Research Council, Singapore (CSA/033/2012), Singapore Translational Research Award (STaR) 2013. Dr. Kamran Ikram received additional funding from the Singapore Ministry of Health's National Medical Research Council (NMRC/CSA/038/2013). SHIP: SHIP is part of the Community Medicine Research net of the University of Greifswald, Germany, which is funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (grants no. 01ZZ9603, 01ZZ0103, and 01ZZ0403), the Ministry of Cultural Affairs, as well as the Social Ministry of the Federal State of Mecklenburg–West Pomerania, and the network "Greifswald Approach to Individualized Medicine (GANI_MED)" funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (grant 03IS2061A). Genome-wide data have been supported by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (grant no. 03ZIK012) and a joint grant from Siemens Healthineers, Erlangen, Germany, and the Federal State of Mecklenburg–West Pomerania. Whole-body MRI was supported by a joint grant from Siemens Healthineers, Erlangen, Germany, and the Federal State of Mecklenburg–West Pomerania. The University of Greifswald is a member of the Caché Campus program of the InterSystems GmbH. OATS (Older Australian Twins Study): OATS was supported by an Australian National Health and Medical Research Council (NHRMC)/Australian Research Council (ARC) Strategic Award (ID401162) and by a NHMRC grant (ID1045325). OATS was facilitated via access to the Australian Twin Registry, which is supported by the NHMRC Enabling Grant 310667. The OATS genotyping was partly supported by a Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation Flagship Collaboration Fund Grant. NOMAS: The Northern Manhattan Study is funded by the NIH grant "Stroke Incidence and Risk Factors in a Tri-Ethnic Region" (NINDS R01NS 29993). TASCOG: NHMRC and Heart Foundation. AGES: The study was funded by the National Institute on Aging (NIA) (N01-AG-12100), Hjartavernd (the Icelandic Heart Association), and the Althingi (the Icelandic Parliament), with contributions from the Intramural Research Programs at the NIA, the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI), and the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) (Z01 HL004607-08 CE). ERF: The ERF study as a part of European Special Populations Research Network (EUROSPAN) was supported by European Commission FP6 STRP grant no. 018947 (LSHG-CT-2006-01947) and also received funding from the European Community's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007–2013)/grant agreement HEALTH-F4-2007-201413 by the European Commission under the programme "Quality of Life and Management of the Living Resources" of 5th Framework Programme (no. QLG2-CT-2002-01254). High-throughput analysis of the ERF data was supported by a joint grant from Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research and the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (NWO-RFBR 047.017.043). Exome sequencing analysis in ERF was supported by the ZonMw grant (project 91111025). Najaf Amin is supported by the Netherlands Brain Foundation (project no. F2013[1]-28). ARIC: The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities study was performed as a collaborative study supported by NHLBI contracts (HHSN268201100005C, HSN268201100006C, HSN268201100007C, HHSN268201100008C, HHSN268201100009C, HHSN268201100010C, HHSN268201100011C, and HHSN268201100012C), R01HL70825, R01HL087641, R01HL59367, and R01HL086694; National Human Genome Research Institute contract U01HG004402; and NIH contract HHSN268200625226C. Infrastructure was partly supported by grant no. UL1RR025005, a component of the NIH and NIH Roadmap for Medical Research. This project was also supported by NIH R01 grant NS087541 to M.F. FHS: This work was supported by the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute's Framingham Heart Study (contracts no. N01-HC-25195 and no. HHSN268201500001I), and its contract with Affymetrix, Inc. for genotyping services (contract no. N02-HL-6-4278). A portion of this research utilized the Linux Cluster for Genetic Analysis (LinGA-II) funded by the Robert Dawson Evans Endowment of the Department of Medicine at Boston University School of Medicine and Boston Medical Center. This study was also supported by grants from the NIA (R01s AG033040, AG033193, AG054076, AG049607, AG008122, and U01-AG049505) and the NINDS (R01-NS017950, UH2 NS100605). Dr. DeCarli is supported by the Alzheimer's Disease Center (P30 AG 010129). ASPS: The research reported in this article was funded by the Austrian Science Fund (FWF) grant nos. P20545-P05, P13180, and P20545-B05, by the Austrian National Bank Anniversary Fund, P15435, and the Austrian Ministry of Science under the aegis of the EU Joint Programme–Neurodegenerative Disease Research (JPND) (jpnd.eu). LLS: The Leiden Longevity Study has received funding from the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007–2011) under grant agreement no. 259679. This study was supported by a grant from the Innovation-Oriented Research Program on Genomics (SenterNovem IGE05007), the Centre for Medical Systems Biology, and the Netherlands Consortium for Healthy Ageing (grant 050-060-810), all in the framework of the Netherlands Genomics Initiative, Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO), UnileverColworth, and by BBMRI-NL, a Research Infrastructure financed by the Dutch government (NWO 184.021.007). CHS: This CHS research was supported by contracts HHSN268201200036C, HHSN268200800007C, N01HC55222, N01HC85079, N01HC85080, N01HC85081, N01HC85082, N01HC85083, N01HC85086, N01HC15103, and HHSN268200960009C and grants U01HL080295, R01HL087652, R01HL105756, R01HL103612, R01HL120393, R01HL085251, and R01HL130114 from the NHLBI with additional contribution from NINDS. Additional support was provided through R01AG023629 from the NIA. A full list of principal CHS investigators and institutions can be found at CHS-NHLBI.org. The provision of genotyping data was supported in part by the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, CTSI grant UL1TR001881, and the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Disease Diabetes Research Center grant DK063491 to the Southern California Diabetes Endocrinology Research Center. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the NIH. Rotterdam Study: The generation and management of GWAS genotype data for the Rotterdam Study is supported by the Netherlands Organisation of Scientific Research (NWO) Investments (no. 175.010.2005.011, 911-03-012). This study is funded by the Research Institute for Diseases in the Elderly (014-93-015; RIDE2), the Netherlands Genomics Initiative (NGI)/NWO project no. 050-060-810. The Rotterdam Study is funded by Erasmus MC Medical Center and Erasmus MC University, Rotterdam, Netherlands Organization for Health Research and Development (ZonMw), the Research Institute for Diseases in the Elderly (RIDE), the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science, the Ministry for Health, Welfare and Sports, the European Commission (DG XII), and the Municipality of Rotterdam. M.A.I. is supported by an NWO Veni grant (916.13.054). The 3-City Study: The 3-City Study is conducted under a partnership agreement among the Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), the University of Bordeaux, and Sanofi-Aventis. The Fondation pour la Recherche Médicale funded the preparation and initiation of the study. The 3C Study is also supported by the Caisse Nationale Maladie des Travailleurs Salariés, Direction Générale de la Santé, Mutuelle Générale de l'Education Nationale (MGEN), Institut de la Longévité, Conseils Régionaux of Aquitaine and Bourgogne, Fondation de France, and Ministry of Research–INSERM Programme "Cohortes et collections de données biologiques." C.T. and S.D. have received investigator-initiated research funding from the French National Research Agency (ANR) and from the Fondation Leducq. S.D. is supported by a starting grant from the European Research Council (SEGWAY), a grant from the Joint Programme of Neurodegenerative Disease research (BRIDGET), from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreements No 643417 & No 640643, and by the Initiative of Excellence of Bordeaux University. Part of the computations were performed at the Bordeaux Bioinformatics Center (CBiB), University of Bordeaux. This work was supported by the National Foundation for Alzheimer's Disease and Related Disorders, the Institut Pasteur de Lille, the Labex DISTALZ, and the Centre National de Génotypage. ADGC: The Alzheimer Disease Genetics Consortium is supported by NIH. NIH-NIA supported this work through the following grants: ADGC, U01 AG032984, RC2 AG036528; NACC, U01 AG016976; NCRAD, U24 AG021886; NIA LOAD, U24 AG026395, U24 AG026390; Banner Sun Health Research Institute, P30 AG019610; Boston University, P30 AG013846, U01 AG10483, R01 CA129769, R01 MH080295, R01 AG017173, R01 AG025259, R01AG33193; Columbia University, P50 AG008702, R37 AG015473; Duke University, P30 AG028377, AG05128; Emory University, AG025688; Group Health Research Institute, UO1 AG06781, UO1 HG004610; Indiana University, P30 AG10133; Johns Hopkins University, P50 AG005146, R01 AG020688; Massachusetts General Hospital, P50 AG005134; Mayo Clinic, P50 AG016574; Mount Sinai School of Medicine, P50 AG005138, P01 AG002219; New York University, P30 AG08051, MO1RR00096, UL1 RR029893, 5R01AG012101, 5R01AG022374, 5R01AG013616, 1RC2AG036502, 1R01AG035137; Northwestern University, P30 AG013854; Oregon Health & Science University, P30 AG008017, R01 AG026916; Rush University, P30 AG010161, R01 AG019085, R01 AG15819, R01 AG17917, R01 AG30146; TGen, R01 NS059873; University of Alabama at Birmingham, P50 AG016582, UL1RR02777; University of Arizona, R01 AG031581; University of California, Davis, P30 AG010129; University of California, Irvine, P50 AG016573, P50, P50 AG016575, P50 AG016576, P50 AG016577; University of California, Los Angeles, P50 AG016570; University of California, San Diego, P50 AG005131; University of California, San Francisco, P50 AG023501, P01 AG019724; University of Kentucky, P30 AG028383, AG05144; University of Michigan, P50 AG008671; University of Pennsylvania, P30 AG010124; University of Pittsburgh, P50 AG005133, AG030653; University of Southern California, P50 AG005142; University of Texas Southwestern, P30 AG012300; University of Miami, R01 AG027944, AG010491, AG027944, AG021547, AG019757; University of Washington, P50 AG005136; Vanderbilt University, R01 AG019085; and Washington University, P50 AG005681, P01 AG03991. The Kathleen Price Bryan Brain Bank at Duke University Medical Center is funded by NINDS grant NS39764, NIMH MH60451, and by GlaxoSmithKline. Genotyping of the TGEN2 cohort was supported by Kronos Science. The TGen series was also funded by NIA grant AG041232, the Banner Alzheimer's Foundation, The Johnnie B. Byrd Sr. Alzheimer's Institute, the Medical Research Council, and the state of Arizona and also includes samples from the following sites: Newcastle Brain Tissue Resource (funding via the Medical Research Council [MRC], local NHS trusts, and Newcastle University), MRC London Brain Bank for Neurodegenerative Diseases (funding via the Medical Research Council), South West Dementia Brain Bank (funding via numerous sources including the Higher Education Funding Council for England [HEFCE], Alzheimer's Research Trust [ART], BRACE, as well as North Bristol NHS Trust Research and Innovation Department and DeNDRoN), The Netherlands Brain Bank (funding via numerous sources including Stichting MS Research, Brain Net Europe, Hersenstichting Nederland Breinbrekend Werk, International Parkinson Fonds, Internationale Stiching Alzheimer Onderzoek), Institut de Neuropatologia, Servei Anatomia Patologica, and Universitat de Barcelona). ADNI: Funding for ADNI is through the Northern California Institute for Research and Education by grants from Abbott, AstraZeneca AB, Bayer Schering Pharma AG, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Eisai Global Clinical Development, Elan Corporation, Genentech, GE Healthcare, GlaxoSmithKline, Innogenetics, Johnson & Johnson, Eli Lilly and Co., Medpace, Inc., Merck and Co., Inc., Novartis AG, Pfizer Inc, F. Hoffman-La Roche, Schering-Plough, Synarc, Inc., Alzheimer's Association, Alzheimer's Drug Discovery Foundation, the Dana Foundation, and the National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering and NIA grants U01 AG024904, RC2 AG036535, and K01 AG030514. Support was also provided by the Alzheimer's Association (LAF, IIRG-08-89720; MAP-V, IIRG-05-14147) and the US Department of Veterans Affairs Administration, Office of Research and Development, Biomedical Laboratory Research Program. SiGN: Stroke Genetic Network (SiGN) was supported in part by award nos. U01NS069208 and R01NS100178 from NINDS. Genetics of Early-Onset Stroke (GEOS) Study was supported by the NIH Genes, Environment and Health Initiative (GEI) grant U01 HG004436, as part of the GENEVA consortium under GEI, with additional support provided by the Mid-Atlantic Nutrition and Obesity Research Center (P30 DK072488); and the Office of Research and Development, Medical Research Service, and the Baltimore Geriatrics Research, Education, and Clinical Center of the Department of Veterans Affairs. Genotyping services were provided by the Johns Hopkins University Center for Inherited Disease Research (CIDR), which is fully funded through a federal contract from the NIH to Johns Hopkins University (contract no. HHSN268200782096C). Assistance with data cleaning was provided by the GENEVA Coordinating Center (U01 HG 004446; PI Bruce S. Weir). Study recruitment and assembly of datasets were supported by a Cooperative Agreement with the Division of Adult and Community Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and by grants from NINDS and the NIH Office of Research on Women's Health (R01 NS45012, U01 NS069208-01). METASTROKE: ASGC: Australian population control data were derived from the Hunter Community Study. This research was funded by grants from the Australian National and Medical Health Research Council (NHMRC Project Grant ID: 569257), the Australian National Heart Foundation (NHF Project Grant ID: G 04S 1623), the University of Newcastle, the Gladys M Brawn Fellowship scheme, and the Vincent Fairfax Family Foundation in Australia. E.G.H. was supported by a Fellowship from the NHF and National Stroke Foundation of Australia (ID: 100071). J.M. was supported by an Australian Postgraduate Award. BRAINS: Bio-Repository of DNA in Stroke (BRAINS) is partly funded by a Senior Fellowship from the Department of Health (UK) to P.S., the Henry Smith Charity, and the UK-India Education Research Institutive (UKIERI) from the British Council. GEOS: Genetics of Early Onset Stroke (GEOS) Study, Baltimore, was supported by GEI Grant U01 HG004436, as part of the GENEVA consortium under GEI, with additional support provided by the Mid-Atlantic Nutrition and Obesity Research Center (P30 DK072488), and the Office of Research and Development, Medical Research Service, and the Baltimore Geriatrics Research, Education, and Clinical Center of the Department of Veterans Affairs. Genotyping services were provided by the Johns Hopkins University Center for Inherited Disease Research (CIDR), which is fully funded through a federal contract from the NIH to the Johns Hopkins University (contract no. HHSN268200782096C). Assistance with data cleaning was provided by the GENEVA Coordinating Center (U01 HG 004446; PI Bruce S. Weir). Study recruitment and assembly of datasets were supported by a Cooperative Agreement with the Division of Adult and Community Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and by grants from NINDS and the NIH Office of Research on Women's Health (R01 NS45012, U01 NS069208-01). HPS: Heart Protection Study (HPS) (ISRCTN48489393) was supported by the UK MRC, British Heart Foundation, Merck and Co. (manufacturers of simvastatin), and Roche Vitamins Ltd. (manufacturers of vitamins). Genotyping was supported by a grant to Oxford University and CNG from Merck and Co. J.C.H. acknowledges support from the British Heart Foundation (FS/14/55/30806). ISGS: Ischemic Stroke Genetics Study (ISGS)/Siblings With Ischemic Stroke Study (SWISS) was supported in part by the Intramural Research Program of the NIA, NIH project Z01 AG-000954-06. ISGS/SWISS used samples and clinical data from the NIH-NINDS Human Genetics Resource Center DNA and Cell Line Repository (ccr.coriell.org/ninds), human subjects protocol nos. 2003-081 and 2004-147. ISGS/SWISS used stroke-free participants from the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging (BLSA) as controls. The inclusion of BLSA samples was supported in part by the Intramural Research Program of the NIA, NIH project Z01 AG-000015-50, human subjects protocol no. 2003-078. The ISGS study was funded by NIH-NINDS Grant R01 NS-42733 (J.F.M.). The SWISS study was funded by NIH-NINDS Grant R01 NS-39987 (J.F.M.). This study used the high-performance computational capabilities of the Biowulf Linux cluster at the NIH (biowulf.nih.gov). MGH-GASROS: MGH Genes Affecting Stroke Risk and Outcome Study (MGH-GASROS) was supported by NINDS (U01 NS069208), the American Heart Association/Bugher Foundation Centers for Stroke Prevention Research 0775010N, the NIH and NHLBI's STAMPEED genomics research program (R01 HL087676), and a grant from the National Center for Research Resources. The Broad Institute Center for Genotyping and Analysis is supported by grant U54 RR020278 from the National Center for Research resources. Milan: Milano–Besta Stroke Register Collection and genotyping of the Milan cases within CEDIR were supported by the Italian Ministry of Health (grant nos.: RC 2007/LR6, RC 2008/LR6; RC 2009/LR8; RC 2010/LR8; GR-2011-02347041), FP6 LSHM-CT-2007-037273 for the PROCARDIS control samples. WTCCC2: Wellcome Trust Case-Control Consortium 2 (WTCCC2) was principally funded by the Wellcome Trust, as part of the Wellcome Trust Case Control Consortium 2 project (085475/B/08/Z and 085475/Z/08/Z and WT084724MA). The Stroke Association provided additional support for collection of some of the St George's, London cases. The Oxford cases were collected as part of the Oxford Vascular Study, which is funded by the MRC, Stroke Association, Dunhill Medical Trust, National Institute of Health Research (NIHR), and the NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, Oxford. The Edinburgh Stroke Study was supported by the Wellcome Trust (clinician scientist award to C.L.M.S.) and the Binks Trust. Sample processing occurred in the Genetics Core Laboratory of the Wellcome Trust Clinical Research Facility, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh. Much of the neuroimaging occurred in the Scottish Funding Council Brain Imaging Research Centre (https://www.ed.ac.uk/clinical-sciences/edinburgh-imaging), Division of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Edinburgh, a core area of the Wellcome Trust Clinical Research Facility, and part of the SINAPSE (Scottish Imaging Network: A Platform for Scientific Excellence) collaboration (sinapse.ac.uk), funded by the Scottish Funding Council and the Chief Scientist Office. Collection of the Munich cases and data analysis was supported by the Vascular Dementia Research Foundation. This project has received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreements no. 666881, SVDs@target (to M.D.) and no. 667375, CoSTREAM (to M.D.); the DFG as part of the Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (EXC 1010 SyNergy) and the CRC 1123 (B3) (to M.D.); the Corona Foundation (to M.D.); the Fondation Leducq (Transatlantic Network of Excellence on the Pathogenesis of Small Vessel Disease of the Brain) (to M.D.); the e:Med program (e:AtheroSysMed) (to M.D.) and the FP7/2007-2103 European Union project CVgenes@target (grant agreement no. Health-F2-2013-601456) (to M.D.). M.F. and A.H. acknowledge support from the BHF Centre of Research Excellence in Oxford and the Wellcome Trust core award (090532/Z/09/Z). VISP: The GWAS component of the Vitamin Intervention for Stroke Prevention (VISP) study was supported by the US National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI), grant U01 HG005160 (PI Michèle Sale and Bradford Worrall), as part of the Genomics and Randomized Trials Network (GARNET). Genotyping services were provided by the Johns Hopkins University Center for Inherited Disease Research (CIDR), which is fully funded through a federal contract from the NIH to Johns Hopkins University. Assistance with data cleaning was provided by the GARNET Coordinating Center (U01 HG005157; PI Bruce S. Weir). Study recruitment and collection of datasets for the VISP clinical trial were supported by an investigator-initiated research grant (R01 NS34447; PI James Toole) from the US Public Health Service, NINDS, Bethesda, MD. Control data obtained through the database of genotypes and phenotypes (dbGAP) maintained and supported by the United States National Center for Biotechnology Information, US National Library of Medicine. WHI: Funding support for WHI-GARNET was provided through the NHGRI GARNET (grant no. U01 HG005152). Assistance with phenotype harmonization and genotype cleaning, as well as with general study coordination, was provided by the GARNET Coordinating Center (U01 HG005157). Funding support for genotyping, which was performed at the Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, was provided by the GEI (U01 HG004424). R.L. is a senior clinical investigator of FWO Flanders. F.W.A. is supported by a Dekker scholarship-Junior Staff Member 2014T001–Netherlands Heart Foundation and UCL Hospitals NIHR Biomedical Research Centre. ; Peer Reviewed
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GETTYSBURG, PA., APRIL, 1903 No. 2 CONTENTS MY GUARDIAN STAR 48 C. E. BUTLER, '05. JONATHAN SWIFT AS A SATIRIST 49 HERBERT L. STIFEL, '03. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF HIGHER EDUCATION FOR WOMAN S3 M. ADA MCLINN, '04. THE BLACK SHEEP . 57 ESSAY-WRITING AS A COLLEGE DISCIPLINE . . 62 N. R. WHITNEY, '06. A SOLILOQUY 64 B. A. STROHMEIER, '06. THE INFLUENCE OF THE NOVEL . . . . . 66 J. EDWARD LOWE, '05. THE RURAL TELEPHONE 68 BRUCE P. COBAUGH, '05. SHOULD A STUDENT KEEP HIS COLLEGE TEXT-BOOKS? . 70 C. EDWIN BUTLER, '05 EDITORIALS 72 EXCHANGES " . 75 48 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. MY GUARDIAN STAR. C. E. BUTLER, '05. *m MiERE are spots in the far away sky *• Where the heavenly bodies stand, Like sentinels over all nature To keep the peace of the land. Here alone, great bodies are strewn And there sweeps a beautiful lake, And an angel brings a rose every night To hang as a clear silver flake. If one were to pause in the evening And gaze to the heavens all aglow, He would find there, a star, by instinct Whose secret only one man can know. This bright and heavenly body Has been placed by the hand of Fate To keep watch o'er a certain pilgrim On his journeys early and late. The Fates favor not only one, But each has his guardian star, And if you will but eagerly look Your guardian is watching from afar. 'Tis sweet to be so shielded By a Father who watches from above, For such stars are the works of his hand As our guardian angels of love. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 49 JONATHAN SWIFT AS A SATIRIST. HERBERT L. STIEEL, '03. {Graeff Prize Essay.] SATIRE has been defined as criticism that searches for de-fects in order to ridicule them. Being destructive rather than constructive, it is not the highest form of criticism; in fact it occupies a low plane in the scale of literary merit. Neverthe-less, it has been a popular form of writing from the times of the Athenian Aristophanes and the Roman Horace down to the present day. At no time, perhaps, was it so prevalent as at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Those days formed a period of literary duels, personal, political, and religious, such as the world has never seen before or since. Satire, lampoon, and epigram were the weapons ; such men as Voltaire, Swift, Addison, and Defoe, were the contestants. Masters of their weapons, all of them ; able to send home their rapier-like thrusts with telling effect. Pre-eminent among them, in satire at least, stands Jonathan Swift, author, clergyman, politician and misanthrope. Many a brilliant production has come from his vitriolic pen, but none of his works contain a satire more keen than his own life. At college he was a poor student. He read much, but the regular studies of his course had no attraction for him. Mathematics and the sciences of the day were his especial bugbear. This dislike may have been the origin of the ridicule to which he subjected them later, in his "Voyage to Laputa." At times he was pinched with poverty. An extremely dis-agreeable disposition prevented his making many friends and soon lost for him the few he did have. Joseph Addison was one notable exception, however; his friendship for Swift was firm and lasting. Swift was a man of irascible passions, mis-anthropic to the last degree. Life, to his mind, was not worth living. He had a horror of old age and a desire for death which would have been pathetic had it not been so cynical and bitter. "God bless you, I hope we shall never meet again," 50 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. was his customary farewell to his friends. Brutality towards woman was another of Swift's traits, Esther Johnson, the subject of his "Journal to Stella" and Miss Vanhomrig, known in his works as Vanessa, were the principal sufferers. The last few years of his life were spent in total insanity. Even on his death bed the habit of satire was strong in him. With satirical intent, as he himself admitted, he willed his entire fortune to a home for incurable madmen. Of the writings of Swift, "Gulliver's Travels" is the most im-portant and best known. Nearly all of his other satires are at times licentious, indelicate, and coarse. Particularly is this true of his "Tale of a Tub," a general satire, lashing in all directions. This was one of his earliest works and though very offensive, it has been pronounced "the most powerful satire of the century." The "Drapiers Letters" and the "Battle of the Books" are also among his more important productions. In his two pamphlets written along almost parallel lines, the "Argu-ment Against the Abolishment of Christianity" and the "Modest Proposal for Preventing the Children in Ireland from Being a Burden to their Parents" by fattening and eating them, we have two of the best examples of unrestrained irony known to the English language. He is also the author of numerous political pamplets which are worthy of consideration as examples of pure, simple En-glish. Throughout all of them we can trace the unfailing vein of his satire. The style of Swift is simple, direct and even. Sentences flow naturally and easily from his pen. A child would have no difficulty in understanding the words which he uses. Originality is another "characteristic of his works. Sir Walter Scott draws our attention to this fact, claiming that Swift was more original than any other author of his period. Swift has been imitated, as in the "Travels of Baron Mun-chausen," but never did he imitate. An interesting peculiarity of his writings is his power of giving "the wildest fiction an air of realism." The characteristics and methods of Swift's satire are best discerned by an examination of his well known work, "Gulliver's THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. Si Travels."* Here he makes the wildest invention and most grotesque humor hide a serious purpose. So well does he succeed that I have heard a college man, a Senior, declare that the work is a story for children, written with that purpose in view. The voyage of Captain Gulliver to Lilliput refers chiefly to the court and politics of England. The political parties in Lilliput, the one insisting that high heels shall be worn upon the shoes, the other equally insistent that only low heels shall be worn, are the Tories and Whigs of England. When Swift tells of the heir apparent of the country, who wears one heel high and one low, the shaft is aimed at the Prince of Wales, whose political leanings were equivocal, to say the least. The petty disputes in Lilliput as to whether eggs should be broken at the small or the big end, find their parallel in the differences of the English Papists and Protestants. Horace Walpole, Prime Minister'of England, is said to have laughed heartily when, on reading Swift's ridiculous account of the Premier Flimnap, he recognized himself. Placing the scene of the story in a country where the inhabitants are six inches high and their surroundings and deeds in proportion, only adds effectiveness. In the next voyage we are taken to Brobdingnag. The satire here is more general. Few particular references to persons or events can be discovered. The littleness and vanity of our desires and the insignificance of our pursuits are shown the more strongly by increasing them to Brobdingnagian propor-tions. The third voyage is to Laputa, and this time the scien-tists of England suffer. It is not real science which Swift de-rides, but the many pretenses and imitations of the day. Nevertheless, some pointed passages are directed against Sir Isaac Newton and the Royal Society. In the author's gloomy account of the Struldbrugs, the immortals of Laputa, we are reminded of his own indifference to life and his fear of old age. * Analysis based on notes of Rev. John Mitford ; W. C. Taylor Edi-tion, Vol. I. 52 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. The satire which we find in the fourth voyage is bitterly mis-anthropic and repelling. On this voyage, Captain Gulliver is thrown ashore upon an island where the horse is the superior animal and man the inferior. The picture which Swift here draws of human nature is nauseating and disgusting. The mind at once rejects so horrible a caricature. Had the "Voy-age to the Houyhnums" never been written, "Gulliver's Travels" would be a much more readable book. With all his coarseness, Swift was undoubtedly a genius. Thackeray, with all his adverse criticism, admits that he was "the greatest wit of all times ;" Macaulay claims that he was the "ablest man in the Tory party" and the "keenest observer of men and manners ;" Joseph Addison calls him "the greatest genius of his age." Of Swift's use of English, Dr. Hugh Blair says, "He knew beyond almost any man the purity, extent and precision of the English language." The consensus of opinion is that he was the greatest satirist of his own, if not of any, age. Sir Walter Scott not inaptly compares the personality of Swift to Shake-speare's description of Cassius in "Julius Caesar :" "He reads much ; He is a great observer and he looks quite through The deeds of men. Seldom he smiles ; and smiles in such a sort, As if he mocked himself and scorned his spirit. That could be moved to smile at anything." THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 53 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF HIGHER EDUCATION FOR WOMAN. M. ADA MCLINN, '04. "Ignorance is the curse of God. Kowledge is the wings with which we fly to heaven." IF knowledge is so significant for the uplifting of the human race and the lack of knowledge equally significant for its downfall, it is worth while to investigate it and discover in what way it means so much to mankind in general. It is through education that one obtains knowledge. Education is too comprehensive in its workings to admit of definition. This much can be said of it, however. It is an all-round de-velopment of the mind by means of which it expands and changes in character. This development guides the mind to the great realms of thought where a vast, vast expanse stretches before it. There the minds sees by-ways, roads and large avenues which lead to undiscovered knowledge. The only pass needed for traveling upon them is thought—deep, re-searchive thought; but, to speak literally, the training of one's intellectual powers is of untold value. Ask any educated per-son if he would be willing to part with what he knows. He will answer positively in the negative. It means too much to him to part with it at any price. What mean the phenomena of nature to the untaught? What does he see in the sky above him other than a canopy over the earth set with lights ? He does not see the stars as worlds revolving in the endless blue aether. What does he see in the gorgeous cloud formations and hues of dawn and sunset other than a sign of to morrow's weather ? The orchard in its dainty dress of blossom pink and leafy green means only a prospective crop of fruit. To one whose mind has been trained by thought and study these sights give inspiration, they open a new world to him, they fill his mind with glorious reflections and create within him a desire to become something. 54 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. To the ignorant person, the world is as an opaque mist. He can see dimly the outlines and positions of objects, but can-not define them. It is education that clears away the opacity and enables him to view his surroundings through a clear transparent atmosphere. It is in our literature that we find the greatest thoughts of the greatest minds, the most soul inspiring thought, the most beautiful songs of gifted poets. These mean nothing to the unlearned. He thereby loses all the best that the world which lived before him left him. Education gives one a constant source of entertainment and instruction. Place an educated person on a lonely island. He can do more than exist. He can find friends in the birds, the trees, in fact, in all of his surroundings. Place him in the crowded city and, because of his insight into human nature, he will be the leader of his circle. In any place, he is at home and capable. Through education one discovers what a potent force is mind—how it rules the world with its all-compelling sway. Before this development one leads, as it were, a vegetative ex-istence ; he is merely an individual—one of the many millions upon the earth's surface. Educate him and he is a person with a personal plan before him to carry out. He is a character with influence. This and much more does education mean to every human being who lives on God's earth—both to man and woman, but we shall now proceed to show what it signifies to woman, specially, in her own sphere. No one will deny that woman's mental constitution is dif-ferent from man's. Her nature is more sensitive to her sur-roundings, she requires a more ideal existence, her sense of sympathy is keener, her heart is the controlling force. To such a temperament education means more than to the more staid temperament of man. Her sensitive nature quick-ened, by such training, to a sense of the great possibilities be-fore it, will make a new world for itself. The horizon will stretch away from the four walls of the house to the great round THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 55 - world. To her, personally, it means a life flavored with con-tinual happiness, it is "a thing of beauty and a joy forever." It gives her the ideal existence that she needs. Instead of be-ing bound down to the hum-drum routine of her household duties, she rises above the drudgery of them. With systematic order she can arrange these duties, then lay them aside to en-joy life in a realm above the culinary department. Her tendency to be ruled by the heart is restrained, which, while most humane, is sometimes dangerous without the con-trolling power of reason. Her judgment and reasoning powers are developed. She views the questions of life with logical perception. Her sanguine temperament is brought to its proper balance and her mind in emergencies becomes calm and clear. It is the ideal existence which makes woman happy, and Ruskin says, that is what makes her lovely. It is education that gives substance to her day dreams. With clearer vision than man she grasps the ideal which stands out upon the heights of possible achievement. She listens to the low voice of duty which commands the actualization of this ideal, and with the power which the intellectual life bestows, she approxi-mates it more closely, in her daily life, than man can do. In the home it establishes her as queen. What does it not mean to a home to have an educated mother in it? Her trained faculties, combined with her innate love and sympathy, make her an ideal mother. It is safe to say that the rudeness of American children, for which unfortunately they are noted, would disappear could educated and cultured mothers be placed in all homes. To his mother a child owes his mental endowment. Review the biographies of the great men of the age. It will be found that from their mothers they inherited superior mental traits. Again to be an ideal wife a woman must have reached such a stage of mental development that she can meet her husband on any ground. Can there be per-fect congenialty and love between two minds, one of which has expanded and been broadened in its development, the other a small intellect filled with trifles ? In addition to the influence education exerts upon a woman 56 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. personally, and her elevation in the home, it means a great deal to her social position. One can judge the status of a com-munity by the women he finds in it. Woman rules the social world about her. Every one will acknowledge that it is desir-able to live in a community of some standing and culture. Then he must acknowledge that it is necessary to have the women educated who live in the community. An educated woman will have no time for petty gossip and slander. And by conversing with her one will gain more than mere diversion. It gives her presence, assurance and tact in her intercourse with others. If one wishes to know what education has done for woman previous to this, let him note the changes in her condition and in the condition of the world, since the time when she was de-nied the privilege of learning even so much as the alphabet. Education enables woman to help man directly and indirectly in his work in the world. It was Psyche, in Tennyson's "Princess," who in speaking of this union of the minds of man and woman, said with prophetic voice: "Everywhere Two heads in council, two beside the hearth, Two in the tangled business of the world, Two in the liberal offices of life, Two plummets dropped for one to sound the abyss Of science and the secrets of the mind." This combining of the two minds she expected to see brought about by woman's being educated apart from the world. We are seeing her prophecy fulfilled, not by woman's exclusion from the world, but by her mingling with it, and being edu-cated to dwell in it. In this way she is becoming an interesting factor in the world's history, while at the same time she is becoming a womanly woman, full of charm, and ready to fill any place where the world needs her, be it within or without the home. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 57 THE BLACK SHEEP. IN his library, one December night, an old man sat watching the flames as they leaped higher and higher in the old fireplace, each one seeming as though it were trying to reach a greater height than its fellow. His head rested in his hands, and on his face was a look of sadness, such as might have been produced by some mental agony. If the old man's face could have been seen, a tear would have been noticed trinkling down his old, wrinkled face. He might, perchance, be recalling the dark days of his life. For no life, no matter to what height of perfection it has attained, but has had its hours of temptations and darkness. Outside the winds howled and moaned. The snow flew in clouds. A fierce winter's storm was raging. The streets were deserted except for those whom business compelled to be abroad on such a night. Yes, on such a night the home was the Mecca of all pedestrians. The old man continued to sit in silence until he was aroused from his musings by the opening of the door into his den. And turning around he beheld his daughter in the doorway. She was a woman of perhaps twenty years of age, not to say beautiful; but her face had that in it which makes one feel at once that he has found a woman of noble character. One whose life was filled with noble sentiment and pure thoughts. "You wish to see me, father?" she asked, approaching the old man. "Yes, my dear," replied the old man, raising his head, "draw a chair up to the fireplace, I wish to talk to you." While she was doing as her father directed, the old man's head was again in his hands and he seemed lost in thought. She sat for some moments in silence, waiting for the old man to speak, but he did not move. At length she ventured to say, "I am still here, father." Without seeming to notice her remark the old man began : "Nellie, I have always been a good father to you, haven't 58 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. I ? I have always done all for you that I should ? I was always good to your mother before she died? I never brought disgrace or sorrow to our home ? We were always happy, we three ?" "Why, certainly, father, why do you ask ?" his daughter questioned, in some surprise. "Because, my daughter," the old man resumed, "I feel that my life is almost at its close; that my race is almost run." "Don't talk so foolish, father, you know that you will live many years yet." "Ah ! my daughter, I wish it were so, but I know it cannot be. And before I die there is something which I must tell you. Something which only myself and my God know, yet I feel, my darling, that when I have told you that you will turn away from your poor old father in disgust. You won't do that, Nellie ? Say that you won't do that." And the old man stretched his hands appealingly toward his daughter. "You have always been true and noble to me, father, and whatever you may have done I am sure that I will love you still," replied the girl taking the old man's hands in her own. They sat in silence for some moments but at length the old man began: "Having started out in life under favorable circumstances, it was not long until I had made a name for myself. At a quite early age I became cashier in the bank then run by Howard & Rawlston. My mother and father were proud of their son. He was an honor and joy to them. Soon my name became a by-word for honesty and integrity. But not so with my elder brother Dick. On the contrary, Dick was a wild sort of a chap. The old folks never mentioned his doings excepting when things had gone so far that we could not bear them any longer. Time after time father had gotten him out of one scrape only to find that he had gotten into another. At last it came to a crisis and when father had given poor old Dick his last chance, he ignominiously failed. Then father left him shift for himself. I really pitied my brother often, believing that we THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 59 did not fully understand him. For I knew that at heart he was a noble fellow. " Year after year glided by, during which I met your mother and our friendship was eventually consummated in our happy marriage. At length, one day, I was shown a chance by which I might make my fortune. I invested. Then came the crash. What should I do ? I needed money. An idea came to my mind, but I would not listen to it. No, I had lost my all but I was still honest. " Oh ! how many sleepless nights I spent. Oh ! how many days of torture I lived through, no one will ever know. And then to cap the climax you were born. There were three mouths to feed now, what should I do? After much delibera-tion I resolved to give way to the thought which had come into my mind, and make of myself a criminal. I was surprised to see with what complacency I arranged my plan. Really, I was astonished with myself. " I waited with impatience the fatal day. It came at last, bringing with it rain and a high wind. A very suitable time for my opprobrious project. After the business hours of the day were over I went home, ate my supper, and told your mother I must go out on business. This being a frequent oc-currence did not surprise her in the least. 'About midnight, muffled in a long coat, I made my way to-ward the bank. The rain was falling fast. No one was on the streets. All the better for me. At length I stood on the bank steps; my heart almost failed me. No, I would not turn back, I had made my resolve and would stick to it. I took out my keys and soon had the door open. It was only the work of a moment to get to the safe and open it. Quickly taking out ten packages of bills, each containing ten one thousand dollar bills, I put them into a bag which I had brought with me for that purpose. Ah, I was rich once more, but the bank! The bank was ruined, but what cared I for that, I had gone too far to turn back. The bank must look out for itself. "In a few moments I had the safe closed and was soon on the outside. I hastily looked up and down the street. No one 6o THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. was in sight. I started quickly up the street. Soon I was at the corner and just as I turned around it I bumped into a man coming in the opposite direction. He muttered something about people looking where they were going. We looked at each other, my God! It was my brother Dick. He did not apparently recognize me, or if he did he did not care to let me know it. "I was soon at home and after having put the bank notes in a safe place turned to my bed to spend a sleepless night. ******** "The next day the town was wild., The robbery had been discovered. The bank was on the verge of ruin. Detectives were sent for, but they could find no clue. The robbers had left not the slightest trace of their identity behind. "A few weeks after, one of the parties believed he had traced the crime to me. He as much as told me that I had done it. What should I do ? Was all my work for nothing ? I must prove an alibi by all means, but how ? That was the question. "The directors of the bank were in meeting. I was there against my will. I was to prove to them that I had had no connection with the robbery whatever. If I failed in this I should be handed over to the authorities in the morning. I was almost frantic with fear. I believed myself lost. I had been away from home that night and they knew it. Try as I would, I could not think of any plausible thing to tell them. "Many questions were asked me, and I was given a chance to prove that I was not near the place of crime. But it was of no avail. I could not do it. I was doomed. At length Mr. Howard arose and looking squarely at me said, 'John Gilford, we have given you a chance to clear yourself. You have failed. Yet you stoutly maintain your innocence. We wish to believe you. I wish to God I could do so. But if you are not guilty, who is?' "Not a sound was heard. The perspiration was trinkling down my face in large drops. The fatal moment had come. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 61 All eyes were riveted upon me. I resolved to confess, to tell them all. I was just about to answer when 'I am' came the answer in a clear and distinct voice. We all turned and there standing in the doorway was a man, worn and haggard-looking, and that man was my brother Dick. "I tried to see Dick during the trial but he would not let them admit me to see him. All too soon the trial was over, and Dick was sentenced to twenty years in the State prison. But the poor boy did not last long. The next year we buried him in the cemetery on the hill. He had fallen a victim to typhoid fever, contracted shortly after he entered the prison. "My darling, what years of torture I have gone through since then no one can realize. What remorse and anguish have filled my soul God alone knows. But I was a coward then. I could not confess and clear him, and Dick, poor boy, did it for myself and your mother. He loved your mother, Nellie, and he would not see her disgraced." The old man in his earnestness arose, stretched his hands toward his daughter : "You forgive me my child ? You will love—you will love—me—still ?" He tottered and fell to the floor. Quickly his daughter was by his side. "Speak to me, father," she cried, "speak to me." She felt at his heart. It had ceased to beat. No, he would speak no more. He had gone to his God. His race was run. He had gone to join the Black Sheep. w. A. G. 62 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. ESSAY-WRITING AS A COLLEGE DISCIPLINE. N. R. WHITNEY, '06. THE end for which men come to college is to gain a lib-eral education. To attain this end it is necessaiy to make use of some means besides that of poring over text books. These means are to be found especially in literary-work. This must not be understood as implying that the knowledge gained from text books is of secondary importance. On the contrary such knowledge is of primary importance, for one must have thoughts worthy of utterance before he begins to write; and the knowledge gained from a course of study is such as to suggest these thoughts. Besides text books we have access to another source of in-formation. This is found in the reading of good literature. When a person reads a book properly it is not the thoughts of the author that impress and benefit him so much as it is the ideas suggested to him by the book, but enlarged and converted into thought by his own brain. We never truly appreciate a book or its author until we possess ourselves of the facts he had and then strive, by our own mental powers, to arrive at the same conclusions at which he did. Reading, in addition to furnishing thoughts, will give one an ideal of the proper literary form and thus serve a two-fold purpose. The ability properly to express one's thoughts is an accomplishment of no mean worth and will be found of great value in whatever occupation he may engage. Language is but the garment of thought. Good taste is just as evident in the selection of language as in dress. It is man's nature to wish to communicate his joys and his sorrows to others. His joys are never half so enjoyable as when shared with others, and his sorrows never so heavy and depressing as when borne alone, hidden in the depths of his own heart. So in all his experiences he feels the impulse to communicate them. Language, either written or spoken, is the means by which he makes known his innermost feelings THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 63 and desires, hence we see the value of this practice in express-ing thought. The ability to communicate with others is not restricted to man alone. The lower animals also have some means of communicating with others of their kind, and as we advance in the scale of intelligence and civilization this means of intercourse becomes more perfectly developed. In fact we have come to gauge the degree of the civilization of a people by its literature. In studying the history of the Middle Ages we regard the revival of learning as the chief instrument or agent in dispelling the darkness of ignorance and superstition, and awakening the human mind from its long sleep to witness the dawn of a new day in the world's history. The expression and progress of this intellectual revival is found in the literature of that period. Thus literature is synonymous with enlighten-ment and education. This being true, practice in literary work is a necessity to a liberal education. Exercise in this branch of college work will gain for one the habit of thinking logically and of arranging his thoughts in the most effective manner. It will increase our vocabulary and improve our diction. The reading necessary to this work will enlarge our fund of general information and develop the aesthetic side of our nature. If one attempts to write a descriptive article, the necessity of observing more closely his surroundings will be forcibly impressed upon him—it is truly amazing how little one sees in comparison with what there is to be seen all around him. Thus, looking at the matter from every side, one must be conscious of the great benefits to be derived from this work. It is true that it requires a great deal of time and effort, but the results will prove it to be a profitable investment. Bacon has said, "Reading maketh a full man ; writing an exact man," to which we might add, and together they make a liberally edu-cated man. 64 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. A SOLILOQUY. B. A. STROHMKIER, '06. TEJTAVE you ever been off with a college team— ■^■*- With a basket-ball, base-ball, or football team, When your spirits were high and your heart was light, And your soul bubbled over with hopes all bright? Say, have you? Have you ever thus gone from your college home Like the legions that marched out of ancient Rome, Full of confidence born in a brilliant past, Gone to war with a foeman that stands aghast? Say, have you? Have you entered the land of the foe and felt All at once, at Uncertainty's shrine you knelt, When you heard the wild crowd giving hostile cheers And the young vulgur rabble hurl stinging jeers ? Say, have you? Have you girded your lions for the coming fray Thinking still that your prestige will win the day ? Have you heard the shrill, referee's whistle blow When, relieved, in to conquer or die you go? Say, have you ? Then alas! has your prestige and fame dissolved Like the mist into air by the sun resolved ? Have you lived not to glory, but groan.in pain, While the ignoble foe sings the victor's strain? Well, I have. Of a truth it is bitter to taste defeat; It is sweet to be feared as unconquered, unbeat. But in all the wide world, and in any age Who can find such a one writ on history's page ? Say, can you,? THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 65 When Ambition appeared, then great Caesar fell; It was Carelessness sounded vast Rome's death-knell; And Napoleon met with his Waterloo When he least was afraid. Can it be it's true ? Say, can it ? Then remember the lesson, and hold it tight: It is power not prestige that wins the fight; And defeat now and then is a wholesome thing That conceit, too high flown, back to earth will bring, For a man's but a man, that withal he's done, Though there's many a man thinks he's more than one. Say, do you ? THE YOUNG SINGER. He sang the charge song of the Guard A mad, wild fever seized me. He crooned a mother's cradle-song ; What far fond dreams it weaved me ! With bursts of laughing opera airs Tumultuously he'd wake me; And through a flaunting Gypsy dance His tripping voice would take me. He sang of love, my blood caught fire, For lo ! soft hands caressed me. He sang of death ; a calm cold breath With mystic power oppressed me. He sang, but now his voice is still. Why should his memory grieve me? For in the spirit of his songs He lives, he ne'er shall leave me. —The Monthly Maroon. 66 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. THE INFLUENCE OF THE NOVEL. J. EDWARD LOWS, '06. THIS is an age of education, and the present generation is a generation of readers. Illiteracy, at least in the most pro-gressive countries, is no longer the rule, but the exception. Since education has become so general, it is hard to find a man, who has gone beyond the purely elementary stage of mental train-ing, who is not somewhat familiar with the literature of his mother-tongue. There is a class, often referred to as the read-ing public, who compose the material for the newspapers, magazines and books. Since literature is a subject with which so many are inter-ested, it might be proper to inquire what particular branch of literature is the most powerful and far-reaching in its effects. The answer, I think, is not hard to find ; it is the department of prose fiction. It will doubtless be readily considered that the novel is at least the most popular kind of writing. There are reasons for this. For to appreciate poetry properly often requires no small degree of culture, if not, indeed, a special cast of mind. Not every-body enjoys reading history, be it ever so graphi-cally portrayed. There are few who do not enjoy reading a good story and who cannot appreciate, in some degree at least, the work of a master-hand in this department. Who does not follow with breathless interest the vivid narrative of Scott ? Who does not laugh at "Mr. Pickwick," the inimitable creation of Charles Dickens ? Or again the vividly portrayed story of "Rip Van-Winkle," written by Washington Irving? It is safe to say that ten novels are read to every volume of poetry; a hundred to every volume of history. One great reason for the popularity of the modern novel is its realism. It is in this respect that it is so very different from its prototype, the romance of the Middle Ages. The hero of the Medieval romance was generally a king or knight, an impossible creature, who was the very embodiment of virtue and bravery. En- THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 67 chanted castles, witches, ghosts and spectres played a promi-nent part in the plot. These went to make up a story so fan-tastic that it could have appealed to minds only the most imaginative and credulous. The modern novel, on the contrary, is decidedly realistic. "Robinson Crusoe," by some called the first English novel, is so well composed, that it is often hard to convince a boy. who reads Defoe's celebrated story that it is not gospel truth. Every cause can be best judged by the effect it produces and,, judging the influence of some of the world's greatest novels bjr the results they have achieved, it is beyond doubt that they have been most potent factors in the great work of moral re-form, and social progress. It was the publication of Dickens' "Nicholas Nickelby," that opened the eyes of the English people to the abuses existing in the public-school system, and its direct results was a radical change in that system. In "Oliver Twist" the evils in the system of poor-relief were pointed out. We turn to the United States, for the most re-markable effect a novel has ever produced upon the public sentiment. That novel was "Uncle Tom's Cabin," which a prominent Southern writer recently asserted was the cause of the Civil War. This may seem a little far-fetched, but it was at least one of the causes of the awful conflict between the North and the South. It has been predicted by certain writers, that there will come a time when the novel as a form of literature will cease to exist. They think that eventually everything in the form of a plot will have been so completely worked out that the new will be only a repetition of the old. This, it seems to me, is a foolish view. Solomon was doubt-less correct when he said, "There is nothing new under the Sun." But the fact remains that there have always been minds that could present the old in a new and attractive form. When the military hero has ceased to win the admiration of the ap-plauding millions ; when all the world has ceased to love a lover; when, in short, the human mind has lost the faculty of imagination; then, and only then, will the novel cease to live. 68 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. THE RURAL TELEPHONE. BRUCE P. COBAUGH, '05. THE telephone is one of the great factors of modern pro-gress. Now, it is a noticeable fact, and a deplorable one too, that, while miles of telephone lines stretch across the country, the farmer seldom avails himself of the benefits afforded by the telephone. Nor is it wholly through ignorance that he does not do this, for any intelligent man must recognize the usefulness of the 'phone; but the farmer must consider the cost of the telephone service, and in the stock companies the yearly rate is so high that he cannot well afford the expense. What the farmer needs is a line that will connect him with the market, and his neighbors as well, at a moderate expense. The question of the rural telephone has been successfully solved by the mutual company. By this is meant the entire ownership and operation of the line by the subscribers. In order to show that mutual control of a line is practical, the writer will state a few facts concerning a mutual line with which he is familiar. This line has been in operation for several years and has given good satisfaction. The residents of a certain community held several meetings to discuss the necessity of a telephone line. It was agreed that the telephone would be of advantage but that the cost was too great. This was based on the offer of a stock company, which proposed to place 'phones in the homes at a yearly rent of fifteen dollars each. This led to the suggestion of a cheaper method: the mutual control of the line, and accordingly a company of twenty subscribers was organized. The members of the company did as much work as possible in the construc-tion of the line, thereby restricting the cost to the minimum. The line when completed was ten miles long and connected a small town to a larger one. The total cost of construction of the line was twelve hundred dollars, or an average of sixty dollars per member. But new members were added at once and so the cost was lessened THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 69 greatly. Each member paid eighteen dollars in cash and the remainder in yearly payments of six dollars each till the line was paid for. At the end of his payments the subscriber owned a full share in the company and his 'phone as well. The yearly cost of operation was found to be not over two dollars per member. The line has later been extended by con-nection with another mutual line and by a rate free exchange of connection with a good stock company. The necessity of the 'phone is clearly shown by its many advantages. It brings the farmer into close touch with the markets. He can keep track of the fluctuating prices of pro-duce by ringing up his home dealer, for the business men are generally connected with a farmers' line. In this way some men have saved more than the cost of their 'phone. Then the telephone brings the people of a community into close contact. The farmer finds it rather more convenient and more pleasant to sit down to his desk and speak with his neigh-bor than go a mile to borrow an implement only to find it in use. Formerly it was a half-day's work to procure hands for threshing. By use of the 'phone it is done now in an hour. And in procuring assistance for all kinds of work, the 'phone is especially useful to the farmer. But we should not omit the social intercourse which the 'phone affords the farmer's home. This is probably one of the greatest advantages of telephone service. No need of braving a winter storm to inquire about the health of a sick friend. One great advantage is yet to be named : it is the time which the 'phone saves in summoning a physician. All physi-cians within reach of the line are connected with it. In many cases they have arrangements for night calls. The time saved in their arrival may save the-life of many a sufferer. These are only a few of the advantages of the rural telephone. Others could be named which would prove further the profit-able use of the 'phone and the comfort and pleasure as well which it affords the home. The farmer can well consider him-self fortunate in having the 'phone, by it a comparatively isolated life has been socially strengthened through a ready means of intercourse. 7o THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. SHOULD A STUDENT KEEP HIS COLLEGE TEXT BOOKS ? C. EDWIN BUTI,ER, '05. THIS is a question every college man must meet, and that very early in his college course. Comparatively few men go through a course of four years at college without pur-chasing a number of text books. Everyone knows the neces-sity of them for a successful study and research, and if it is so essential to have them during the college life, why should they not be just as necessary afterwards, or what is the reason for parting with them ? There can be only one of two reasons : either the student has no use for them in later life, or the money he gets for them—which is generally a very small sum—is of more value than the books themselves. If it is proven that a student has need, and great need, of his books after he leaves college; and if it is proven that they are of greater value to him than any price he can obtain for them, then is it not clear that a student should keep his college text books ? It is the prevailing custom of the human race to have friends. Each person, no matter of what degree or station in life, enjoys the companionship of certain friends. Whether he be a doc-tor, minister, statesman, or common day-laborer, they are as necessary to his peace of mind and contentment as food and clothes are for the body. And what are books to the student, but friends? They help him over the rough places in his course and stand by him in all his need and labors. What he does not know they tell him. When he chances to go astray, they put him on the correct path. Verily, they are friends indeed as well as friends in his need. At least it does one a great deal of good to think of them as such. While seated in the class room many little notes and marks are made in those books that in later years are found to be a source of fond recollections. The memory of them will float through the mind as sweet incense. Hence they would be THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. n worth the keeping for old times' sake, if there were nothing else to enhance their value. It matters not into what profession you enter, your college text books will prove themselves friends to you at many times. You will have need of them. Being thoroughly acquainted with their contents you can very readily turn to any subject which may have escaped your memory and refresh yourself in half the time and with thrice the ease you would find by con-sulting any other book. And back of it all, you have the authority which you have been prepared so well to defend dur-ing all your college course. The cost of college books now compared with former days is so small that the student of moderate means finds it within his power to retain them even for his whole life and then hand them down to his children, from whom they could not be pur-chased for ten times their value. When you purchase your text books you pay full value for them, and if you sell them to another student, you cannot receive more than that, and gener-ally but half as much. ' They have become endeared to you by frequent use, and like old friends you dislike parting with them. The price you paid for them is incomparable with the value of them to you now. Even should you never have any cause to use them, are not the recollections they recall worth the cost? Any man who should dare to insult you by offering to buy your friends would receive a blow from you that would com-pensate him in full for his audacity. Why then should any college man misusing or offering you a mean price for your books not receive as much or more? Fellow-students, keep your text books ! Under no circum-stances barter them away for a mess of potage. They will prove a monument of pleasure more enduring than brass and which the countless succession of years cannot wear away. You will love them in later years as you do no other books, and curse the hand that dares to misuse them. Honor your college career, your library, and your home, and take with you the joy and comfort of your old age, which may be found in your books, and which treasures should not purchase from you. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY Entered at the Postoffi.ce at Gettysburg as second-class matter Voi,. XII GETTYSBURG, PA., APRIL, 1903 No. 2 Editor-in-ch ief LYMAN A. GUSS, '04 Exchange Editor M. ROY HAMSHER, '04 Business Manager F. GARMAN MASTERS, '04 Asst. Business Manager A. L. DIHENBECK, '05 Associate Editors M. ADA MCLINN, '04 BRUCE P. COBAUGH, '05 C. EDWIN BUTTER, '05 Advisory Board PROF. J. A. HIMES, LITT. D. PROF. G. D. STAHI,EY, M.D. PROF. J. W. RICHARD, D.D. Published each month, from October to June inclusive, by the joint literary societies of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg) College. Subscription price, one dollar a year in advance; single copies 15 cents. Notice to discontinue sending the MERCURY to any address must be accompanied by all arrearages. Students, Professors and Alumni are cordially invited to contribute. All subscriptions and business matter should be addressed to the Busi-ness Manager. Articles for publication shoidd be addressed to the Editor. Address THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY, GETTYSBURG, PA. ■ THE REASON WHY EDITORIALS. Scientists tell us that in this world of ours all is strife. Of all the forces in the universe every one is antagonistic to every other. The domin-ating and controling are eternally being opposed by the minor and subordinate. All is constant strain. In the physical world the animating energies of nature are continually work-ing counter to one another. Although there is interpenetration yet there is resistance. In the lowest forms of life, in the smallest microcosms, there is unrelenting conflict. In a higher grade we find the same warfare exemplified in the continued existence of the most capable. Finally the antagonism finds its culmination in the great struggle for existence common to the race. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 73 Even as this is the climax, so it is likewise the point of demarcation. Success now crowns the efforts of the strong ; failure those of the weak. Success! That for which all men hope. Strength ! The means by which they attain it. The latter is the cause, the former the effect. The inference is ready. The effect is the necessary consequential of the cause, but let it not be supposed that the strength incident to success is that typical of a Cyclops, or that symbolic of a Hercules. Rather it is that kind which has been evinced by the master-minds of all ages—intellectual strength. And this is the reason why men go to college ; to attain intellectual power, to cultivate brain-energy, to discipline mental vigor, to learn to appreciate the good, the beautiful and the true, to exalt their being in every way tending to symmet-rical development and, in short, to bring out all that is worth the effort in self. But too often, alas, do college men fail to realize the vitality of their situation; they neglect to seize circumstance and to clinch with time, pregnant with the possibilities of future great-ness. Too frequently is the collegiate life considered one of imposing task work, a mighty preponderance of labor over-shadowing the student. Hence his constant aim is to elimin-ate it, not by conquering it, in which case the law of compen-sation yields ready returns, but by shirking it, whence comes only a void which the craving of later years will seek in vain to satisfy. Instead of surmounting obstacles he shuns them, instead of trodding boldly over the rocky places he rides over them, while his companion plods. But the tortoise beat the hare at the finish. This is the reason why some college men are, and forever will be, in the great but glorious struggle for existence. Their lot must ever be commonplace. They can-not rise above the common level of humanity. The scholar must overcome, not surrender, must conquer, not submit, and must take advantage of all advantages. As Winter, with his cold and stormy winds takes his departure, Spring appears before us in all the beauty of awakening life, and if there is one place especially favored with a beautiful Spring-time it OPPORTUNITIES OF SPRING. 74 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. is the country surrounding Gettysburg. Not only do the climate and natural contour of the country with its hills, woods and creeks make it pleasing, but the avenues over the battle-field furnish ideal walks for recreation hours. For the lover of natural scenery this country furnishes a magnificent prospect with charming color effects. To the botanist it gives a most varied flora. The country is also full of birds. Many rare kinds may be found by the close observer. One of the stu-dents has counted thirty different kinds of birds from his win-dow already this Spring. For the student of geology the land formations will repay any attention given them. And if one unfortunately should have no taste for any of these things he can at least study the history of his country in the many mon-uments and tablets erected over the battlefield. Rarely does one find a place so inviting to the man who wishes to increase his store of general knowledge; and these delightful spring days furnish time to make use of the opportunities. Instead of a spring fever that gives one a desire to loaf and neglect all his work let him contract a fever for making use of what Gettysburg and her surroundings offer him in the above men-tioned lines. THE TRUTH FOR In all colleges there exists a spirit of mis- ITS OWN SAKE, chief and diablerie. No college is without it; none can be without it. It is peculiar to the college world. As such it can scarcely be called an infection, yet it is in the atmosphere, and may be said to be an all-pervading character-istic of every collegiate community. The infusion of this unavoidable, yet not always desirable, element in the student body often finds its manifestation in some overt acts on behalf of its most arduous enthusiasts, rang-ing even from the quite insignificant to the violent, but for the most part in our own college this diablery has existed only in a dormant state, and its most ostentatious expression has been, excepting extremely rare cases, of a mediocre kind. Therefore, when in its mild form it so impels a few students to commit a mischievious act of harmless and unimportant con-sequences, resulting in nothing but a slight inconvenience to THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 75 the usual routine of college affairs, why should it be enlarged upon to such proportions and amplified to such an enormity as was the case in the recent chapel disorder? Such misstatements as appeared rife and rank in the city papers a few days ago cannot help but redound to the degredation of the good name of the college. May not our reporters be more considerate in noting details? May we not have more of the truth for its own sake ? ALUMNI REUNIONS. As the spring term opens we gradually be-come aware of the approaching end of the collegiate year. Then naturally our minds turn to the events which always take place at such time and the abundance of pleasure derived from their occurrence. In other words, we begin to think about commencement and its attendant circum-stances. This time is undoubtedly the most enjoyable time of the year, but its success is only made possible by the presence of the students, in the first case, and by the alumni, in no less degree, in the second. One of the best means perhaps of per-suading the congregation of a large -number of alumni is by class reunions. The class spirit never dies out in the breast of the college man, and if he can come to his alma mater with the expectation of meeting old-time friends and class-mates, the chances of his coming, no doubt, will be greatly enhanced. The class spirit, redoubled by the college spirit, would certainly act as a powerful stimulus or persuasion in inducing the alum-nus to visit the scene of his college days. It is to be hoped that we may have several class reunions at least during the coming commencement week. Now is the time to arrange for them. EXCHANGES. The editor of the average college literary monthly is usually at a loss for material to make the magazine truly interest-ing to all its readers. Several of our exchanges seem to have struck the proper means of awaking interest, in publishing 76 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. articles on travel and foreign lands, written by recent graduates. "Random Sketches" in The Otterbein Aegis was written by an alumnus travelling in Europe. The Swarthmore Phoenix contains an article on "A Journey to the Second Cataract of the Nile" and another on "University Life Abroad," written by a graduate of Swarthmore, who had taken a course in the Ger-man Universities. Such contributions certainly add to the in-terest and value of a college monthly. There is the danger, however, that the true object of a college paper, which con-sists in securing literary contributions from the students, may thereby be neglected or forgotten. The Pharetra comes out in a very pretty blue and white dress with the representation of a demure college maiden on its cover page. We find several delightful storiettes in the last number; and may say that the paper is characterized by a general tone of pleasantness rather than by any philosophic traits. "Tell a tale of troubles March wind and April rain, Second term has ended Marks are here again— Sing a song of quizzes, Are we to take them all? Reports they'll soon be reading, How great may be the fall!" —Maryland Collegian, The Mountaineer has again devoted the greater part of her exchange column to a pleasant criticism of our former editor. We agree with one of our exchanges in saying that our col-league of Mt. St. Mary's should not have blamed the MERCURY representative for words that were not his; and that he should reconcile his preaching with his practice. We sincerely hope that our "smoky" (?) article will cease to inflame the wrath of our neighbor. May we add our regrets that The Mountaineer of last month has not arrived in time to be reviewed. Among the influences that tend to corrupt our speech there is none more pernicious than the play upon words. It is with THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 77 some surprise then, that we find an article entitled "A Defense of Shakespeare," in one of the college papers, which ends with the following paragraphs : "In the second place, why should anyone who loved the name of BACON SO lose all sense of his own dignity and all respect for his own good name as to give a play of "his own make" by the name of "Ham-let." "Now I hope I have made myself clear and vindicated my client. If I have not, this has been 'Love's Labor Lost'— yea, even more ! it has been 'Much Ado About Nothing.' This, however, is a serious matter; it is no 'MidsummerNight's Dream' but a plain 'Winter's Tale.' Take it ^As You Like It' but remember All's Well That End's Well.' " EASTER LILIES. Sweet emblems of a purity unknown to earth, They wake the soul of man to aspirations fair, And fill the palace—aye, the cot of meanest worth— With fragrance like the incense of an angel's prayer. So fragile all, so weak, they seem a tempting prey To every hostile gale—each hand untaught of ruth; But ah ! the spoiler e'en should know that in the day That beauty dies, the world must die to love and truth. Fit consorts these of faith and prayer and holy praise; Mute worshippers and witnesses of Him above, Whose skill can wed to matchless glory simplest grace, And veil in wondrous art the mysteries of love. —University of Va. Magazine. The Monthly Maroon has a poem to Robert Louis Stevenson as its frontispiece. One of the best features of this number is the well-written paper on Stevenson, depicting the life and character of this Scottish author. "Unto the End" is a beau-tiful story; the author portrays an ideal love which seems none the less real for its beauty. Some of the shorter stories are of a bravado character, but "The Cub-Errant" depicts a phase of college life seldom represented. 78 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. Quite a number of the exchanges this month contain "Char-acter Sketches" of different great men or characters in fiction. We refer the reader particularly to "Francis Parkman : a Study-in Success," in the Nassau Literary Magazine ; and "Mr. Jack Hamlin," a study of one of Bret Harte's heroes in the College Student. This is a most commendable kind of essay-writing, and every student should try his ability along this line. The Medico-Chirurgical College of Philadelphia, DEPARTMENT OF MEDICINE Offers exceptional facilities to graduates of Gettysburg College, especially to those who have taken a medical preparatory or biological course. The instruction is thoroughly practical, particular attention being given to laboratory work and bed-side and ward-class teaching. Ward-classes are limited in size. A modified seminar method is a special feature of the Course. Free quizzing in all branches by the Professors and a special staff of Tutors. The College has also a Department of Dentistry and a Department of Pharmacy. All Gettysburg College students are cordially invited to inspect the College and Clinical Amphitheatre at any time. For announcements or information apply to SENECA EGBERT, Dean of the Department of Medicine, 17th & Cherry Streets, PHILADELPHIA, PA. tfrjp, \\ \ Co. 140-144 Woodward Avenue, DETROIT, MICH. Send for Catalogue and Price List- Special Designs on Application, Manufacturers of high grade Fraternity Emblems Fraternity Jewelry Fraternity Novelties Fraternity Stationery Fraternity Invitations Fraternity Announcements Fraternity Programs PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. ^m«*mw«««w*«»mw*««««w«m«*«w««««« AMOS ECKERT Latest Styles in HATS, SHOES AND GENT'S FURNISHING .Our specialty. WALK-OVER SHOE AMOS ECKERT Prices always right The Lutheran puMigfjing {louse. No. 1424 Arch Street PHILADELPHIA, PA. 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Introducción La vida social humana se sustenta en la cooperación de una forma diferente respecto a otras especies. Los científicos han indagado en la evolución de la cooperación desde distintos puntos de vista (Trivers, 1971; Dawkins, 1976; Axelrod y Hamilton, 1981; Axelrod, 1984; Caporael et al., 1989; Boyd & Richerson, 1990; Wilson & Sober, 1994; Bergstrom, 2002; Boyd et al., 2003; Gintis et al., 2003; Bowles & Gintis, 2004; Gintis et al., 2008; Boyd et al., 2010) pero ninguna de tales explicaciones dan cuenta de la complejidad de las relaciones cooperativas humanas. En este trabajo de tesis se analizan las relaciones cooperativas destacando su relación intrínseca con las relaciones de confianza. ¿Por qué cooperamos? ¿Cuál es la influencia de la confianza en la cooperación y qué papel juega la historia evolutiva en este puzle? Tomando en consideración las formas sociales adoptadas por nuestros antepasados humanos, es posible pensar en ciertos rasgos cognitivos y psicológicos específicos relevantes para entender las relaciones actuales de cooperación y, en un sentido más amplio, las relaciones sociales. El objetivo es, en definitiva, enmarcar las relaciones sociales humanas en un entorno evolutivo para explicar comportamientos sociales que existen en la actualidad. Contenido de la investigación Esta tesis trata de responder a las cuestiones planteadas anteriormente basándose primero en la relación que existe entre la evolución de la socialidad y la cognición humanas, como hipótesis de partida a contrastar en estudios posteriores. Desde esta perspectiva y, utilizando una metodología multidisciplinar procedente de disciplinas tales como la Sociología, Psicología y Antropología, se diseña un plan de investigación que trata de profundizar en mayor medida en dichos temas. El trabajo de tesis parte inicialmente de una revisión crítica sobre estudios que tratan de relacionar el comportamiento social en primates y la evolución del neocórtex –la Hipótesis del Cerebro Social de Dunbar (Dunbar, 1992; Dunbar, 1998; Dunbar & Shultz, 2007; Shultz & Dunbar, 2007; Dunbar, 2010). De dicha revisión, resulta evidente la necesidad de utilizar un enfoque más matizado para explicar la enorme complejidad de las relaciones sociales humanas. Para ello, ofrece un enorme interés el análisis de la influencia del mecanismo psicológico de la confianza. No obstante, los estudios de Dunbar, especialmente aquellos relacionados con las características propias de los grupos sociales humanos en relación a la capacidad cognitiva, son continuamente revisados a lo largo de todo este trabajo. Posteriormente se propone un marco teórico sobre los factores que influyen en la confianza (Parsons, 1970; Barber, 1983; Good, 1988; Yamagishi, 1998; Glaeser et al., 2000; Uslaner, 2002; Six, 2005; Bjørnskov, 2006; Hardin, 2006) y su posible configuración en un entorno evolutivo. Sobre esta base teórica, se diseña el posterior trabajo empírico, siempre teniendo en cuenta la hipótesis de que el ser humano tiene un comportamiento social ampliamente influenciado por un contexto de relaciones dentro de los pequeños grupos en los que ha convivido durante la mayor parte de su historia evolutiva. El marco teórico explica los elementos que conforman la confianza, la tipología y su posible configuración a lo largo de la historia evolutiva. Constituyen el substrato utilizado para llevar a término el análisis de la confianza y del comportamiento cooperativo en los siguientes trabajos empíricos. Los estudios empíricos siguen un plan basado en un diseño propio, procedente de la revisión de la literatura (Fey, 1955; Rosenberg, 1957; Wrightsman, 1964, 1974; Rotter, 1967; Survey Research Center, 1969; Christie & Geis, 1970; Johnson-George & Swap, 1982; Rempel et al., 1985; World Values Survey Association, 2009), con cuestionarios para medir el nivel de confianza general y personal en un grupo. Además se usa un juego experimental – dilema del prisionero con algunas variantes– que demuestra el comportamiento cooperativo real de los individuos. El juego se realiza en condiciones de confianza y de no confianza entre los miembros de un mismo grupo. El estudio piloto se lleva a cabo inicialmente en dos grupos diferentes. Los resultados muestran ya la influencia de las relaciones cercanas de confianza personal en la cooperación y el interés de analizar las redes de confianza (Radcliffe-Brown, 1940; Barnes, 1954; Milgram, 1967; Mitchell, 1969; Wasserman & Faust, 1994; Molina, J.L., 2001; White & Harary, 2001; Newman et al., 2003; Freeman, 2004; Eguíluz et al., 2005; Fowler & Christakis, 2010) en mayor profundidad. Los resultados de este trabajo se confirman en un estudio similar posterior con otros grupos más numerosos y más comparables entre sí. Los nuevos resultados muestran cómo la cooperación se relaciona en buena medida con un compromiso afectivo de reciprocidad que proviene de la confianza personal, como elemento adaptativo hacia una cooperación más exitosa, incluso en condiciones de anonimato y pese a la posibilidad de causar un perjuicio en el individuo a corto plazo. Además, el estudio incluye un análisis en profundidad de las redes de confianza de estos grupos para constatar la importancia que ciertas topologías de redes de confianza pueden tener en la cohesión general de un grupo. La última parte de la tesis presenta una perspectiva más antropológica con la realización de trabajo de campo en dos zonas caracterizadas por su gran diversidad étnica: el norte de Ghana y Oaxaca, en México. Estos lugares permiten estudiar cómo interaccionan los grupos y por qué mantienen sus identidades étnicas a pesar de una historia en común. Se pretende analizar si los mecanismos de la confianza personal que aparecen a nivel individual pueden trasladarse también a grupos más grandes o a sociedades. En este caso, además de la observación directa de los grupos y de la inclusión de su contexto histórico, social, económico y político, se utilizan entrevistas y redes personales de cooperación. En el trabajo de Ghana (Rattray, 1931, 1932; Syme, 1932; Tait, 1961; Hilton, 1962; Hart, 1971; Drucker-Brown, 1975, 1992; Fussy, 1979; Laari, 1987; Awedoba, 1989, 2001; Wilks, 1989; Assimeng, 1990; Kotey, 1995; Schlottner, 2000; Oppong, 2002; Tonah, 2005), se hace un recorrido por el contexto de los grupos y se explican las características de sus redes de confianza y cooperación. En este trabajo, se observa la eficacia de la diversificación étnica como medio para crear pequeños grupos más resistentes a la hora de enfrentarse a entornos difíciles. Se muestra también la adopción de formas culturales que permiten extender los mecanismos de la confianza personal en colectivos mayores. En el último trabajo se comparan los resultados anteriores con los de México (Chance, 1979; Zeithin, 1990; Campbell, 1993; Oseguera, 2004; Reina Aoyama, 2004; Barabas, 2006, 2008; Trejo Barrientos, 2006; Spores, 2008; Joyce, 2010; Nahmad Sitton, 2013), en un análisis cross-cultural para identificar posibles elementos "universales" en las redes de confianza y cooperación y también las influencias culturales. Conclusiones Mediante los anteriores trabajos se muestra que la confianza es uno de los mecanismos cognitivos y psicológicos más anclado en la historia evolutiva humana. Su origen evolutivo se observa en los resultados de esta tesis: al demostrarse la mayor influencia de la confianza personal sobre la confianza general a la hora de influir en la cooperación, la cual necesita de las relaciones cercanas y por tanto del pequeño grupo para su aparición –dadas las limitaciones cognitivas y temporales para mantener este tipo de relaciones con gran número de personas–, y su fuerte conexión con aspectos emocionales inconscientes –uno de los mecanismo más primitivos en los seres humanos. De hecho, tanto en el trabajo empírico como en el de campo, aparece la configuración de redes de confianza en torno a pequeños grupos. La confianza personal también puede extenderse a colectivos mayores. Incluso en las grandes sociedades más desarrolladas los individuos siguen creando sus pequeños grupos en todos los ámbitos de su vida. Sin embargo, en algunas sociedades, donde existen mayores dificultades de supervivencia, como las analizadas en esta tesis, se observan determinadas herramientas culturales que sirven para extender la confianza personal a un mayor número de personas: conceptos tales como grupos étnicos, clanes, linajes, familias, comunalidad, municipalidad en el caso oaxaqueño, valores internalizados, etc… son eficaces en este sentido. De este modo, la cultura provee de los mecanismos necesarios para crear fuertes lazos de cohesión basados en los elementos emocionales. La mayor cohesión y una actitud más abierta de confianza que surgen de tales herramientas culturales ayudan a enfrentarse a los entornos de forma más eficaz. Así pues, se podría predecir que a medida que los entornos resultan más difíciles, aparece una mayor diversificación de los grupos. Con la comparación de los resultados de Ghana y México, se profundiza en mayor medida en los elementos comunes en las redes de confianza y cooperación –aspectos universales–: los grupos pequeños y distintos niveles de emocionalidad implícita en los vínculos de confianza; y aquellos elementos culturales que se adecuan al contexto histórico y a la situación económica de los grupos, para crear una mayor o menor cohesión de sus miembros en función de sus necesidades. De este modo, además de identificarse en el campo diferentes indicadores para medir la confianza, también se identifican ciertas formas culturales que parecen más eficaces que otras a la hora de cohesionar los grupos, a saber, los valores y el sentimiento de identidad y pertenencia grupal, frente a la normatividad. ; Introducció La vida social humana es basa en la cooperació i la confiança d'una manera diferent de la d'altres espècies. Els científics han investigat la cooperació humana des de diferents punts de vista (Trivers, 1971; Dawkins, 1976; Axelrod y Hamilton, 1981; Axelrod, 1984; Caporael et al., 1989; Boyd & Richerson, 1990; Wilson & Sober, 1994; Bergstrom, 2002; Boyd et al., 2003; Gintis et al., 2003; Bowles & Gintis, 2004; Gintis et al., 2008; Boyd et al., 2010), però encara hi ha moltes preguntes sobre l'evolució de la cooperació sense explicació. Aquest treball de tesi analitza les relacions cooperatives emfasitzant la seva relació intrínseca amb les relacions de confiança. Per què cooperem? Quina és la influència de la confiança en la cooperació i el paper de la història evolutiva en aquest trencaclosques? Tenint en compte les formes socials adoptades pels avantpassats humans, és possible pensar en certs trets cognitius i psicològics específics que podrien tenir una importància clau per entendre les actuals relacions de cooperació i, en un sentit més ampli, les relacions socials. L'objectiu de la tesi és, en definitiva, emmarcar les relacions socials en un entorn evolutiu per explicar els comportaments socials que existeixen avui en dia. Contingut de la investigació Aquesta tesi tracta de respondre les preguntes anteriors, a partir de la relació entre l'evolució de la sociabilitat i la cognició humà, com hipòtesi inicial per contrastar els estudis posteriors. Des d'aquesta perspectiva i utilitzant una metodologia multidisciplinària de la Psicologia, Antropologia i Sociologia, es va dissenyar un pla de recerca que pretén aprofundir en aquest plantejament. Amb aquest objectiu en ment, el treball de tesi es basa inicialment en una revisió crítica d'estudis anteriors que intenten relacionar el comportament social dels primats i l'evolució del neocórtex –la Hipòtesi del Cervell Social de Dunbar (Dunbar, 1992; Dunbar, 1998; Dunbar & Shultz, 2007; Shultz & Dunbar, 2007; Dunbar, 2010). Aquesta revisió mostra clarament la necessitat d'un enfocament més matisat per explicar aquesta relació a causa de l'enorme complexitat de les relacions socials humanes. Per això, l'estudi de la influència del mecanisme psicològic de la confiança ofereix un interès enorme. No obstant això, els estudis de Dunbar, especialment aquells relacionats amb les característiques dels grups socials humans en relació amb la seva capacitat cognitiva, sóntinguts en compte al llarg de tot aquest treball. Després d'aquesta revisió es proposa un marc teòric sobre els factors que influeixen en la confiança (Parsons, 1970; Barber, 1983; Good, 1988; Yamagishi, 1998; Glaeser et al., 2000; Uslaner, 2002; Six, 2005; Bjørnskov, 2006; Hardin, 2006) i la seva possible configuració en un entorn evolutiu. En base a aquest marc teòric, es dissenyen els treballs empírics posteriors, sempre tenint en compte la hipòtesi que l'ésser humà té un comportament social àmpliament influenciat per un context de relacions dintre de petits grups. Aquest és el context social en que han viscut els humans durant la major part de la seva història evolutiva. El marc teòric explica els elements que conformen la confiança, la tipologia i la seva possible configuració al llarg de la història evolutiva. Constitueix el substrat utilitzat per dur a terme l'anàlisi de la confiança i del comportament cooperatiu en els següents treballs empírics. Aquests estudis empírics segueixen un pla basat en un disseny propi, a partir de la revisió de la literatura (Fey, 1955; Rosenberg, 1957; Wrightsman, 1964, 1974; Rotter, 1967; Survey Research Center, 1969; Christie & Geis, 1970; Johnson- George & Swap, 1982; Rempel et al., 1985; World Values Survey Association, 2009), amb qüestionaris per mesurar el nivell de confiança personal i general en un grup. També s'utilitza un joc experimental –el dilema del presoner amb algunes variacions– que demostra el comportament cooperatiu efectiu dels individus. El joc es realitza en condicions de confiança i sense confiança entre els membres d'un mateix grup. L'estudi pilot inicial es realitza en dos grups diferents. Els resultats ja mostren la influència de les relacions estretes de confiança personal en la cooperació i l'interès de anàlisi de xarxes de confiança (Radcliffe-Brown, 1940; Barnes, 1954; Milgram, 1967; Mitchell, 1969; Wasserman & Faust, 1994; Molina, J.L., 2001; White & Harary, 2001; Newman et al., 2003; Freeman, 2004; Eguíluz et al., 2005; Fowler & Christakis, 2010) en major profunditat. Els resultats d'aquest treball es confirmen en un similar estudi posterior amb altres grups més nombrosos i més comparables entre si. Els nous resultats mostren com la cooperació s'incrementa en gran mesura si es dóna un compromís afectiu inconscient de reciprocitat que ve de la confiança personal, com un element adaptatiu cap a una cooperació més efectiva i recíproca, fins i tot en condicions d'anonimat i malgrat la possibilitat de causar un prejudici en el curt termini. A més, l'estudi inclou una anàlisi en profunditat de les xarxes de confiança d'aquests grups per determinar la importància que poden tenir certes topologies de xarxes de confiança en la cohesió general d'un grup. En la darrera part de la tesi, s'utilitza una perspectiva més antropològica amb la realització de treballs de camp en dues àrees que es caracteritzen per la seva gran diversitat ètnica: nord de Ghana i Oaxaca, a Mèxic. Aquests llocs permeten estudiar com interactuen els grups i per què es mantenen les seves identitats ètniques malgrat una història i un territori en comú. Es pretén examinar també si els mecanismes de la confiança personal, que funcionen clarament a nivell individual, poden trobar-se també en grups grans o societats de gran escala. En aquest cas, a més de l'observació directa dels grups i la inclusió del seu context històric, social, econòmic i polític, s'utilitzen entrevistes i xarxes personals de cooperació. En el treball de Ghana (Rattray, 1931, 1932;) Syme, 1932; Tait, 1961; Hilton, 1962; Hart, 1971; Drucker-Brown, 1975, 1992; Primmirat, 1979; Laari, 1987; Awedoba, 1989, 2001; Wilks, 1989; Assimeng, 1990; Kotey, 1995; Schlottner, 2000; Oppong, 2002; Tonah, 2005), es mostra el context dels grups i s'explica les característiques de les seves xarxes de confiança i cooperació. En aquest estudi es posa de manifest l''eficàcia del fenomen de la diversificació ètnic com un mitjà per crear petits grups més resistents quan s'enfronten amb entorns difícils. També s'analitza l'adopció de formes culturals que permeten ampliar el mecanisme de la confiança personal a grups més grans. En l'últim treball de la tesi es comparen els anteriors resultats de Ghana amb els de Mèxic (Chance, 1979; Zeithin, 1990; Campbell, 1993; Oseguera, 2004; Reina Aoyama, 2004; Webmoney, 2006, 2008; Trejo Barrientos, 2006; Espores, 2008; Joyce, 2010; Nahmad Sitton, 2013), en una anàlisi intercultural per identificar possibles elements "universals" a les xarxes de confiança i cooperació i així com les influències culturals que modulen aquestes predisposicions humanes en cada cas. Conclusions Els diversos treballs en conjunt mostren que la confiança és un mecanisme cognitiu i psicològic ancorat en la història evolutiva humana, que ha jugat un paper important en l'evolució de la cooperació que caracteritza les societats humanes. El seu origen evolutiu es desprèn dels resultats d'aquesta tesi: es demostra que la confiança personal té més influència que la confiança general en la cooperació, que la confiança necessita relacions properes i, per tant, del petit grup per la seva aparició – tenint en compte les limitacions cognitives per mantenir aquestes relacions amb un gran nombre de persones– i la seva estreta connexió amb aspectes emocionals inconscients – un dels mecanismes més primitiu en humans. De fet, la configuració de les xarxes de confiança en petits grups apareixen tant als treballs empírics com als treballs de camp,. La confiança personal també es pot ampliar a col·lectius més grans. Fins i tot a les societats més desenvolupades les persones continuen creant els grups reduïts en tots els àmbits de la seva vida. No obstant això, en algunes societats, on hi ha importants dificultats de supervivència, com les analitzades en aquesta tesi, hi ha certes eines culturals que serveixen per ampliar la confiança personal a un major nombre de persones: conceptes com grups ètnics, clans, llinatges, famílies, coincidència, "comunalidad" i municipi en cas d'Oaxaca, valors interioritzats, etc. són eficaços en aquest sentit. Així, la cultura proporciona els mecanismes necessaris per a crear uns vincles forts de cohesió basats en elements emocionals. Una major cohesió i una actitud més oberta de confiança derivada de tals eines culturals ajuden a enfrontar-se als ambients més eficaçment. Així, es podria predir que quan els entorns són més difícils, es mostrarà una major diversificació dels grups. Amb la comparació dels resultats de Ghana i Mèxic, s'aprofundeix en major mesura en els elements comuns en les xarxes de confiança i cooperació –aspectes universals–: petits grups i diferents nivells d'emocionalitat implícita en els vincles de confiança; i elements culturals que s'adeqüin al context històric i la situació econòmica dels grups, per crear una més o menys cohesió dels seus integrants segons les seves necessitats. Així, a més d'identificar en el camp diferents indicadors i eines per mesurar la confiança, són també identificades certes formes culturals que semblen més eficaces que altres quan es tracta d'unir els grups, és a dir, els valors i el sentit d'identitat i grup de pertinença, davant les normes i l'autoritat. ; Introduction Human social life is sustained by cooperation in a different way with respect to other species. Scientists have investigated human cooperation from different points of view (Trivers, 1971; Dawkins, 1976; Axelrod y Hamilton, 1981; Axelrod, 1984; Caporael et al., 1989; Boyd & Richerson, 1990; Wilson & Sober, 1994; Bergstrom, 2002; Boyd et al., 2003; Gintis et al., 2003; Bowles & Gintis, 2004; Gintis et al., 2008; Boyd et al., 2010) but many questions about the evolution of cooperation remain open. In this dissertation the cooperative relationships are analyzed emphasizing its intrinsic link with trust relationships. Why do we cooperate? What is the influence of trust on cooperation and which role does human evolutionary history play in this puzzle? Considering the social forms our ancestors lived by, it is possible to think in certain cognitive and psychological traits that might have a key importance in order to understand the relationships of cooperation and, in a wider sense, the social relationships it made possible. The goal is, in short, framing social relationships in an evolutionary framework in order to explain the social behaviors of nowadays. Content of research This work attempts to answer these questions firstly on the basis of the relation between the evolution of human sociality and cognition, as a hypothesis to be tested in the following studies. From this perspective and using a multidisciplinary methodology including Sociology, Psychology and Anthropology, a research plan was designed in order to further examine these topics. This dissertation starts with a critical review of some previous studies that relate the social behavior in primates to the evolution of the neocortex –Dunbar's Social Brain Hypothesis (Dunbar, 1992; Dunbar, 1998; Dunbar & Shultz, 2007; Shultz & Dunbar, 2007; Dunbar, 2010). This review shows the need for a more nuanced approach in order to explain this dependence because of the enormous complexity of human social relationships. To achieve this goal, the analysis of the psychological mechanism of trust offers a huge interest. However, Dunbar's studies, especially those that relate human social groups to cognitive ability, are continuously in the background throughout all this work. Next, a theoretical framework is introduced to characterize trust and the factors that influence it (Parsons, 1970; Barber, 1983; Good, 1988; Yamagishi, 1998; Glaeser et al., 2000; Uslaner, 2002; Six, 2005; Bjørnskov, 2006; Hardin, 2006), as well as their possible configuration in an evolutionary environment. On the basis of this theoretical framework the subsequent empirical work is designed, always keeping in mind the assumption that humans have a social behavior widely influenced by a context of relationships within small groups. They are the social configuration humans lived most of their evolutionary history. In the theoretical framework the elements that make up trust, its typology and its possible configuration in the evolutionary history are explained. This work is the substrate used to groundthe analysis of trust and cooperative behavior carried out in the following empirical works. These empirical studies follow an original plan, grounded in a literature review (Fey, 1955; Rosenberg, 1957; Wrightsman, 1964, 1974; Rotter, 1967; Survey Research Center, 1969; Christie & Geis, 1970; Johnson-George & Swap, 1982; Rempel et al., 1985; World Values Survey Association, 2009), which involves the development of new questionnaires to measure the level of general and personal trust in a group. In addition, an experimental game –a prisoner's dilemma with some variants– is included in order to show the effective cooperative behavior of participants. The game is played in conditions of trust and non-trust among the members of the group. The pilot study is initially conducted in two different groups. The results already show the influence of close relationships of personal trust in cooperation and the interest of analyze trust networks (Radcliffe-Brown, 1940; Barnes, 1954; Milgram, 1967; Mitchell, 1969; Wasserman & Faust, 1994; Molina, J.L., 2001; White & Harary, 2001; Newman et al., 2003; Freeman, 2004; Eguíluz et al., 2005; Fowler & Christakis, 2010) more deeply. The results of this work are confirmed in a subsequent similar study with other more numerous and more comparable groups. The new results show how cooperation relates largely to an affective commitment of reciprocity that comes from personal trust, as adaptive element towards a more successful cooperation, even in conditions of anonymity, and despite the possibility of causing a cost in individuals in the short term. In addition, the study includes an analysis in depth of these groups' trust networks to analyze the importance that certain topologies of trust networks can have on the general cohesion of a group. The last part of the dissertation shows a more anthropological perspective with the completion of fieldwork in two areas characterized by a great ethnic diversity: Northern Ghana and Oaxaca, in Mexico. These locations allow study how groups interact and why they keep their ethnic identities despite a history and a territory in common. To examine whether the personal trust mechanisms present at an individual level can be also extended to larger groups or societies is aimed. In this case, in addition to the direct observation of groups and the inclusion of its historical, social, economic and political context, interviews and personal networks of cooperation are used. The work of Ghana (Rattray, 1931, 1932) Syme, 1932; Tait, 1961; Hilton, 1962; Hart, 1971; Drucker-Brown, 1975, 1992; Primmirat, 1979; Laari, 1987; Awedoba, 1989, 2001; Wilks, 1989; Assimeng, 1990; Kotey, 1995; Schlottner, 2000; Oppong, 2002; Tonah, 2005) shows the context of groups and the features of their trust networks of trust and cooperation are explained . In this work, the effectiveness of ethnic diversification as a means to create small groups more resilient when face with difficult environments is shown. The adoption of cultural forms that allow extend personal trust in larger collectives is also presented. The last work compares the Ghana results with those of Mexico (Chance, 1979; Zeithin, 1990; Campbell, 1993; Oseguera, 2004; Queen Aoyama, 2004; Barabas, 2006, 2008; Trejo Barrientos, 2006; Spores, 2008; Joyce, 2010; Nahmad Sitton, 2013), in a cross-cultural analysis to identify possible "universal" elements in trust and cooperation networks, and also cultural influences. Conclusions The previous works show that trust is a cognitive and psychological mechanism anchored in human evolutionary history. Their evolutionary origin is supported by the results of this dissertation: to demonstrate the higher influence of personal trust than general trust in fostering cooperation. Close relationships are needed for personal trust and they require small groups for its emergence –given the cognitive and temporal constraints required in order to keep such relationships with a larger number of people. Close relationships also involve an emotional dimension –a most primitive mechanism in humans. In fact, small group dynamics was found both in experimental games and in fieldwork. Personal trust also plays a role in large scale societies, where individuals continue to create their small groups in all areas of their life. However, in those societies where survival is more difficult and resources scarce certain cultural tools (such as values or norms) appear whose function is to extend personal trust to a greater number of people: groups such as ethnic groups, clans, lineages, families, commonalities, municipalities (as in the Oaxaca case). Thus, culture provides the necessary mechanisms to create strong bonds of cohesion based on emotional elements beyond the small group. Greater cohesion and a more open attitude of trust arising from such cultural tools help at time to face environments more efficiently. Thus, it could be predicted that more difficult environments show a greater group diversification. In addition, the comparison of Ghana and Mexico results allows a deeper analysis of the common elements of trust and cooperation networks -their universal aspects-: small groups and different levels of emotionality implied in the bonds of trust; and cultural elements that are suited to the historical context and the economic situation of groups, to create a more or less cohesion of its members according to their needs. Thus, in addition to identify in the field several indicators to measure trust, more effective cultural forms to foster cooperation is also identified: the values and the sense of identity of group membership, instead of formal regulations and authority.
[spa] La vida social humana se sustenta en la cooperación de una forma diferente respecto a otras especies. Los científicos han indagado en la evolución de la cooperación desde distintos puntos de vista (Trivers, 1971; Dawkins, 1976; Axelrod y Hamilton, 1981; Axelrod, 1984; Caporael et al., 1989; Boyd & Richerson, 1990; Wilson & Sober, 1994; Bergstrom, 2002; Boyd et al., 2003; Gintis et al., 2003; Bowles & Gintis, 2004; Gintis et al., 2008; Boyd et al., 2010) pero ninguna de tales explicaciones dan cuenta de la complejidad de las relaciones cooperativas humanas. En este trabajo de tesis se analizan las relaciones cooperativas destacando su relación intrínseca con las relaciones de confianza. ¿Por qué cooperamos? ¿Cuál es la influencia de la confianza en la cooperación y qué papel juega la historia evolutiva en este puzle? Tomando en consideración las formas sociales adoptadas por nuestros antepasados humanos, es posible pensar en ciertos rasgos cognitivos y psicológicos específicos relevantes para entender las relaciones actuales de cooperación y, en un sentido más amplio, las relaciones sociales. El objetivo es, en definitiva, enmarcar las relaciones sociales humanas en un entorno evolutivo para explicar comportamientos sociales que existen en la actualidad. Contenido de la investigación Esta tesis trata de responder a las cuestiones planteadas anteriormente basándose primero en la relación que existe entre la evolución de la socialidad y la cognición humanas, como hipótesis de partida a contrastar en estudios posteriores. Desde esta perspectiva y, utilizando una metodología multidisciplinar procedente de disciplinas tales como la Sociología, Psicología y Antropología, se diseña un plan de investigación que trata de profundizar en mayor medida en dichos temas. El trabajo de tesis parte inicialmente de una revisión crítica sobre estudios que tratan de relacionar el comportamiento social en primates y la evolución del neocórtex –la Hipótesis del Cerebro Social de Dunbar (Dunbar, 1992; Dunbar, 1998; Dunbar & Shultz, 2007; Shultz & Dunbar, 2007; Dunbar, 2010). De dicha revisión, resulta evidente la necesidad de utilizar un enfoque más matizado para explicar la enorme complejidad de las relaciones sociales humanas. Para ello, ofrece un enorme interés el análisis de la influencia del mecanismo psicológico de la confianza. No obstante, los estudios de Dunbar, especialmente aquellos relacionados con las características propias de los grupos sociales humanos en relación a la capacidad cognitiva, son continuamente revisados a lo largo de todo este trabajo. Posteriormente se propone un marco teórico sobre los factores que influyen en la confianza (Parsons, 1970; Barber, 1983; Good, 1988; Yamagishi, 1998; Glaeser et al., 2000; Uslaner, 2002; Six, 2005; Bjørnskov, 2006; Hardin, 2006) y su posible configuración en un entorno evolutivo. Sobre esta base teórica, se diseña el posterior trabajo empírico, siempre teniendo en cuenta la hipótesis de que el ser humano tiene un comportamiento social ampliamente influenciado por un contexto de relaciones dentro de los pequeños grupos en los que ha convivido durante la mayor parte de su historia evolutiva. El marco teórico explica los elementos que conforman la confianza, la tipología y su posible configuración a lo largo de la historia evolutiva. Constituyen el substrato utilizado para llevar a término el análisis de la confianza y del comportamiento cooperativo en los siguientes trabajos empíricos. Los estudios empíricos siguen un plan basado en un diseño propio, procedente de la revisión de la literatura (Fey, 1955; Rosenberg, 1957; Wrightsman, 1964, 1974; Rotter, 1967; Survey Research Center, 1969; Christie & Geis, 1970; Johnson-George & Swap, 1982; Rempel et al., 1985; World Values Survey Association, 2009), con cuestionarios para medir el nivel de confianza general y personal en un grupo. Además se usa un juego experimental – dilema del prisionero con algunas variantes– que demuestra el comportamiento cooperativo real de los individuos. El juego se realiza en condiciones de confianza y de no confianza entre los miembros de un mismo grupo. El estudio piloto se lleva a cabo inicialmente en dos grupos diferentes. Los resultados muestran ya la influencia de las relaciones cercanas de confianza personal en la cooperación y el interés de analizar las redes de confianza (Radcliffe-Brown, 1940; Barnes, 1954; Milgram, 1967; Mitchell, 1969; Wasserman & Faust, 1994; Molina, J.L., 2001; White & Harary, 2001; Newman et al., 2003; Freeman, 2004; Eguíluz et al., 2005; Fowler & Christakis, 2010) en mayor profundidad. Los resultados de este trabajo se confirman en un estudio similar posterior con otros grupos más numerosos y más comparables entre sí. Los nuevos resultados muestran cómo la cooperación se relaciona en buena medida con un compromiso afectivo de reciprocidad que proviene de la confianza personal, como elemento adaptativo hacia una cooperación más exitosa, incluso en condiciones de anonimato y pese a la posibilidad de causar un perjuicio en el individuo a corto plazo. Además, el estudio incluye un análisis en profundidad de las redes de confianza de estos grupos para constatar la importancia que ciertas topologías de redes de confianza pueden tener en la cohesión general de un grupo. La última parte de la tesis presenta una perspectiva más antropológica con la realización de trabajo de campo en dos zonas caracterizadas por su gran diversidad étnica: el norte de Ghana y Oaxaca, en México. Estos lugares permiten estudiar cómo interaccionan los grupos y por qué mantienen sus identidades étnicas a pesar de una historia en común. Se pretende analizar si los mecanismos de la confianza personal que aparecen a nivel individual pueden trasladarse también a grupos más grandes o a sociedades. En este caso, además de la observación directa de los grupos y de la inclusión de su contexto histórico, social, económico y político, se utilizan entrevistas y redes personales de cooperación. En el trabajo de Ghana (Rattray, 1931, 1932; Syme, 1932; Tait, 1961; Hilton, 1962; Hart, 1971; Drucker-Brown, 1975, 1992; Fussy, 1979; Laari, 1987; Awedoba, 1989, 2001; Wilks, 1989; Assimeng, 1990; Kotey, 1995; Schlottner, 2000; Oppong, 2002; Tonah, 2005), se hace un recorrido por el contexto de los grupos y se explican las características de sus redes de confianza y cooperación. En este trabajo, se observa la eficacia de la diversificación étnica como medio para crear pequeños grupos más resistentes a la hora de enfrentarse a entornos difíciles. Se muestra también la adopción de formas culturales que permiten extender los mecanismos de la confianza personal en colectivos mayores. En el último trabajo se comparan los resultados anteriores con los de México (Chance, 1979; Zeithin, 1990; Campbell, 1993; Oseguera, 2004; Reina Aoyama, 2004; Barabas, 2006, 2008; Trejo Barrientos, 2006; Spores, 2008; Joyce, 2010; Nahmad Sitton, 2013), en un análisis cross-cultural para identificar posibles elementos "universales" en las redes de confianza y cooperación y también las influencias culturales. Conclusiones Mediante los anteriores trabajos se muestra que la confianza es uno de los mecanismos cognitivos y psicológicos más anclado en la historia evolutiva humana. Su origen evolutivo se observa en los resultados de esta tesis: al demostrarse la mayor influencia de la confianza personal sobre la confianza general a la hora de influir en la cooperación, la cual necesita de las relaciones cercanas y por tanto del pequeño grupo para su aparición –dadas las limitaciones cognitivas y temporales para mantener este tipo de relaciones con gran número de personas–, y su fuerte conexión con aspectos emocionales inconscientes –uno de los mecanismo más primitivos en los seres humanos. De hecho, tanto en el trabajo empírico como en el de campo, aparece la configuración de redes de confianza en torno a pequeños grupos. La confianza personal también puede extenderse a colectivos mayores. Incluso en las grandes sociedades más desarrolladas los individuos siguen creando sus pequeños grupos en todos los ámbitos de su vida. Sin embargo, en algunas sociedades, donde existen mayores dificultades de supervivencia, como las analizadas en esta tesis, se observan determinadas herramientas culturales que sirven para extender la confianza personal a un mayor número de personas: conceptos tales como grupos étnicos, clanes, linajes, familias, comunalidad, municipalidad en el caso oaxaqueño, valores internalizados, etc… son eficaces en este sentido. De este modo, la cultura provee de los mecanismos necesarios para crear fuertes lazos de cohesión basados en los elementos emocionales. La mayor cohesión y una actitud más abierta de confianza que surgen de tales herramientas culturales ayudan a enfrentarse a los entornos de forma más eficaz. Así pues, se podría predecir que a medida que los entornos resultan más difíciles, aparece una mayor diversificación de los grupos. Con la comparación de los resultados de Ghana y México, se profundiza en mayor medida en los elementos comunes en las redes de confianza y cooperación –aspectos universales–: los grupos pequeños y distintos niveles de emocionalidad implícita en los vínculos de confianza; y aquellos elementos culturales que se adecuan al contexto histórico y a la situación económica de los grupos, para crear una mayor o menor cohesión de sus miembros en función de sus necesidades. De este modo, además de identificarse en el campo diferentes indicadores para medir la confianza, también se identifican ciertas formas culturales que parecen más eficaces que otras a la hora de cohesionar los grupos, a saber, los valores y el sentimiento de identidad y pertenencia grupal, frente a la normatividad. ; [cat] La vida social humana es basa en la cooperació i la confiança d'una manera diferent de la d'altres espècies. Els científics han investigat la cooperació humana des de diferents punts de vista (Trivers, 1971; Dawkins, 1976; Axelrod y Hamilton, 1981; Axelrod, 1984; Caporael et al., 1989; Boyd & Richerson, 1990; Wilson & Sober, 1994; Bergstrom, 2002; Boyd et al., 2003; Gintis et al., 2003; Bowles & Gintis, 2004; Gintis et al., 2008; Boyd et al., 2010), però encara hi ha moltes preguntes sobre l'evolució de la cooperació sense explicació. Aquest treball de tesi analitza les relacions cooperatives emfasitzant la seva relació intrínseca amb les relacions de confiança. Per què cooperem? Quina és la influència de la confiança en la cooperació i el paper de la història evolutiva en aquest trencaclosques? Tenint en compte les formes socials adoptades pels avantpassats humans, és possible pensar en certs trets cognitius i psicològics específics que podrien tenir una importància clau per entendre les actuals relacions de cooperació i, en un sentit més ampli, les relacions socials. L'objectiu de la tesi és, en definitiva, emmarcar les relacions socials en un entorn evolutiu per explicar els comportaments socials que existeixen avui en dia. Contingut de la investigació Aquesta tesi tracta de respondre les preguntes anteriors, a partir de la relació entre l'evolució de la sociabilitat i la cognició humà, com hipòtesi inicial per contrastar els estudis posteriors. Des d'aquesta perspectiva i utilitzant una metodologia multidisciplinària de la Psicologia, Antropologia i Sociologia, es va dissenyar un pla de recerca que pretén aprofundir en aquest plantejament. Amb aquest objectiu en ment, el treball de tesi es basa inicialment en una revisió crítica d'estudis anteriors que intenten relacionar el comportament social dels primats i l'evolució del neocórtex –la Hipòtesi del Cervell Social de Dunbar (Dunbar, 1992; Dunbar, 1998; Dunbar & Shultz, 2007; Shultz & Dunbar, 2007; Dunbar, 2010). Aquesta revisió mostra clarament la necessitat d'un enfocament més matisat per explicar aquesta relació a causa de l'enorme complexitat de les relacions socials humanes. Per això, l'estudi de la influència del mecanisme psicològic de la confiança ofereix un interès enorme. No obstant això, els estudis de Dunbar, especialment aquells relacionats amb les característiques dels grups socials humans en relació amb la seva capacitat cognitiva, sóntinguts en compte al llarg de tot aquest treball. Després d'aquesta revisió es proposa un marc teòric sobre els factors que influeixen en la confiança (Parsons, 1970; Barber, 1983; Good, 1988; Yamagishi, 1998; Glaeser et al., 2000; Uslaner, 2002; Six, 2005; Bjørnskov, 2006; Hardin, 2006) i la seva possible configuració en un entorn evolutiu. En base a aquest marc teòric, es dissenyen els treballs empírics posteriors, sempre tenint en compte la hipòtesi que l'ésser humà té un comportament social àmpliament influenciat per un context de relacions dintre de petits grups. Aquest és el context social en que han viscut els humans durant la major part de la seva història evolutiva. El marc teòric explica els elements que conformen la confiança, la tipologia i la seva possible configuració al llarg de la història evolutiva. Constitueix el substrat utilitzat per dur a terme l'anàlisi de la confiança i del comportament cooperatiu en els següents treballs empírics. Aquests estudis empírics segueixen un pla basat en un disseny propi, a partir de la revisió de la literatura (Fey, 1955; Rosenberg, 1957; Wrightsman, 1964, 1974; Rotter, 1967; Survey Research Center, 1969; Christie & Geis, 1970; Johnson- George & Swap, 1982; Rempel et al., 1985; World Values Survey Association, 2009), amb qüestionaris per mesurar el nivell de confiança personal i general en un grup. També s'utilitza un joc experimental –el dilema del presoner amb algunes variacions– que demostra el comportament cooperatiu efectiu dels individus. El joc es realitza en condicions de confiança i sense confiança entre els membres d'un mateix grup. L'estudi pilot inicial es realitza en dos grups diferents. Els resultats ja mostren la influència de les relacions estretes de confiança personal en la cooperació i l'interès de anàlisi de xarxes de confiança (Radcliffe-Brown, 1940; Barnes, 1954; Milgram, 1967; Mitchell, 1969; Wasserman & Faust, 1994; Molina, J.L., 2001; White & Harary, 2001; Newman et al., 2003; Freeman, 2004; Eguíluz et al., 2005; Fowler & Christakis, 2010) en major profunditat. Els resultats d'aquest treball es confirmen en un similar estudi posterior amb altres grups més nombrosos i més comparables entre si. Els nous resultats mostren com la cooperació s'incrementa en gran mesura si es dóna un compromís afectiu inconscient de reciprocitat que ve de la confiança personal, com un element adaptatiu cap a una cooperació més efectiva i recíproca, fins i tot en condicions d'anonimat i malgrat la possibilitat de causar un prejudici en el curt termini. A més, l'estudi inclou una anàlisi en profunditat de les xarxes de confiança d'aquests grups per determinar la importància que poden tenir certes topologies de xarxes de confiança en la cohesió general d'un grup. En la darrera part de la tesi, s'utilitza una perspectiva més antropològica amb la realització de treballs de camp en dues àrees que es caracteritzen per la seva gran diversitat ètnica: nord de Ghana i Oaxaca, a Mèxic. Aquests llocs permeten estudiar com interactuen els grups i per què es mantenen les seves identitats ètniques malgrat una història i un territori en comú. Es pretén examinar també si els mecanismes de la confiança personal, que funcionen clarament a nivell individual, poden trobar-se també en grups grans o societats de gran escala. En aquest cas, a més de l'observació directa dels grups i la inclusió del seu context històric, social, econòmic i polític, s'utilitzen entrevistes i xarxes personals de cooperació. En el treball de Ghana (Rattray, 1931, 1932;) Syme, 1932; Tait, 1961; Hilton, 1962; Hart, 1971; Drucker-Brown, 1975, 1992; Primmirat, 1979; Laari, 1987; Awedoba, 1989, 2001; Wilks, 1989; Assimeng, 1990; Kotey, 1995; Schlottner, 2000; Oppong, 2002; Tonah, 2005), es mostra el context dels grups i s'explica les característiques de les seves xarxes de confiança i cooperació. En aquest estudi es posa de manifest l''eficàcia del fenomen de la diversificació ètnic com un mitjà per crear petits grups més resistents quan s'enfronten amb entorns difícils. També s'analitza l'adopció de formes culturals que permeten ampliar el mecanisme de la confiança personal a grups més grans. En l'últim treball de la tesi es comparen els anteriors resultats de Ghana amb els de Mèxic (Chance, 1979; Zeithin, 1990; Campbell, 1993; Oseguera, 2004; Reina Aoyama, 2004; Webmoney, 2006, 2008; Trejo Barrientos, 2006; Espores, 2008; Joyce, 2010; Nahmad Sitton, 2013), en una anàlisi intercultural per identificar possibles elements "universals" a les xarxes de confiança i cooperació i així com les influències culturals que modulen aquestes predisposicions humanes en cada cas. Conclusions Els diversos treballs en conjunt mostren que la confiança és un mecanisme cognitiu i psicològic ancorat en la història evolutiva humana, que ha jugat un paper important en l'evolució de la cooperació que caracteritza les societats humanes. El seu origen evolutiu es desprèn dels resultats d'aquesta tesi: es demostra que la confiança personal té més influència que la confiança general en la cooperació, que la confiança necessita relacions properes i, per tant, del petit grup per la seva aparició – tenint en compte les limitacions cognitives per mantenir aquestes relacions amb un gran nombre de persones– i la seva estreta connexió amb aspectes emocionals inconscients – un dels mecanismes més primitiu en humans. De fet, la configuració de les xarxes de confiança en petits grups apareixen tant als treballs empírics com als treballs de camp,. La confiança personal també es pot ampliar a col·lectius més grans. Fins i tot a les societats més desenvolupades les persones continuen creant els grups reduïts en tots els àmbits de la seva vida. No obstant això, en algunes societats, on hi ha importants dificultats de supervivència, com les analitzades en aquesta tesi, hi ha certes eines culturals que serveixen per ampliar la confiança personal a un major nombre de persones: conceptes com grups ètnics, clans, llinatges, famílies, coincidència, "comunalidad" i municipi en cas d'Oaxaca, valors interioritzats, etc. són eficaços en aquest sentit. Així, la cultura proporciona els mecanismes necessaris per a crear uns vincles forts de cohesió basats en elements emocionals. Una major cohesió i una actitud més oberta de confiança derivada de tals eines culturals ajuden a enfrontar-se als ambients més eficaçment. Així, es podria predir que quan els entorns són més difícils, es mostrarà una major diversificació dels grups. Amb la comparació dels resultats de Ghana i Mèxic, s'aprofundeix en major mesura en els elements comuns en les xarxes de confiança i cooperació –aspectes universals–: petits grups i diferents nivells d'emocionalitat implícita en els vincles de confiança; i elements culturals que s'adeqüin al context històric i la situació econòmica dels grups, per crear una més o menys cohesió dels seus integrants segons les seves necessitats. Així, a més d'identificar en el camp diferents indicadors i eines per mesurar la confiança, són també identificades certes formes culturals que semblen més eficaces que altres quan es tracta d'unir els grups, és a dir, els valors i el sentit d'identitat i grup de pertinença, davant les normes i l'autoritat. ; [eng] Human social life is sustained by cooperation in a different way with respect to other species. Scientists have investigated human cooperation from different points of view (Trivers, 1971; Dawkins, 1976; Axelrod y Hamilton, 1981; Axelrod, 1984; Caporael et al., 1989; Boyd & Richerson, 1990; Wilson & Sober, 1994; Bergstrom, 2002; Boyd et al., 2003; Gintis et al., 2003; Bowles & Gintis, 2004; Gintis et al., 2008; Boyd et al., 2010) but many questions about the evolution of cooperation remain open. In this dissertation the cooperative relationships are analyzed emphasizing its intrinsic link with trust relationships. Why do we cooperate? What is the influence of trust on cooperation and which role does human evolutionary history play in this puzzle? Considering the social forms our ancestors lived by, it is possible to think in certain cognitive and psychological traits that might have a key importance in order to understand the relationships of cooperation and, in a wider sense, the social relationships it made possible. The goal is, in short, framing social relationships in an evolutionary framework in order to explain the social behaviors of nowadays. Content of research This work attempts to answer these questions firstly on the basis of the relation between the evolution of human sociality and cognition, as a hypothesis to be tested in the following studies. From this perspective and using a multidisciplinary methodology including Sociology, Psychology and Anthropology, a research plan was designed in order to further examine these topics. This dissertation starts with a critical review of some previous studies that relate the social behavior in primates to the evolution of the neocortex –Dunbar's Social Brain Hypothesis (Dunbar, 1992; Dunbar, 1998; Dunbar & Shultz, 2007; Shultz & Dunbar, 2007; Dunbar, 2010). This review shows the need for a more nuanced approach in order to explain this dependence because of the enormous complexity of human social relationships. To achieve this goal, the analysis of the psychological mechanism of trust offers a huge interest. However, Dunbar's studies, especially those that relate human social groups to cognitive ability, are continuously in the background throughout all this work. Next, a theoretical framework is introduced to characterize trust and the factors that influence it (Parsons, 1970; Barber, 1983; Good, 1988; Yamagishi, 1998; Glaeser et al., 2000; Uslaner, 2002; Six, 2005; Bjørnskov, 2006; Hardin, 2006), as well as their possible configuration in an evolutionary environment. On the basis of this theoretical framework the subsequent empirical work is designed, always keeping in mind the assumption that humans have a social behavior widely influenced by a context of relationships within small groups. They are the social configuration humans lived most of their evolutionary history. In the theoretical framework the elements that make up trust, its typology and its possible configuration in the evolutionary history are explained. This work is the substrate used to groundthe analysis of trust and cooperative behavior carried out in the following empirical works. These empirical studies follow an original plan, grounded in a literature review (Fey, 1955; Rosenberg, 1957; Wrightsman, 1964, 1974; Rotter, 1967; Survey Research Center, 1969; Christie & Geis, 1970; Johnson-George & Swap, 1982; Rempel et al., 1985; World Values Survey Association, 2009), which involves the development of new questionnaires to measure the level of general and personal trust in a group. In addition, an experimental game –a prisoner's dilemma with some variants– is included in order to show the effective cooperative behavior of participants. The game is played in conditions of trust and non-trust among the members of the group. The pilot study is initially conducted in two different groups. The results already show the influence of close relationships of personal trust in cooperation and the interest of analyze trust networks (Radcliffe-Brown, 1940; Barnes, 1954; Milgram, 1967; Mitchell, 1969; Wasserman & Faust, 1994; Molina, J.L., 2001; White & Harary, 2001; Newman et al., 2003; Freeman, 2004; Eguíluz et al., 2005; Fowler & Christakis, 2010) more deeply. The results of this work are confirmed in a subsequent similar study with other more numerous and more comparable groups. The new results show how cooperation relates largely to an affective commitment of reciprocity that comes from personal trust, as adaptive element towards a more successful cooperation, even in conditions of anonymity, and despite the possibility of causing a cost in individuals in the short term. In addition, the study includes an analysis in depth of these groups' trust networks to analyze the importance that certain topologies of trust networks can have on the general cohesion of a group. The last part of the dissertation shows a more anthropological perspective with the completion of fieldwork in two areas characterized by a great ethnic diversity: Northern Ghana and Oaxaca, in Mexico. These locations allow study how groups interact and why they keep their ethnic identities despite a history and a territory in common. To examine whether the personal trust mechanisms present at an individual level can be also extended to larger groups or societies is aimed. In this case, in addition to the direct observation of groups and the inclusion of its historical, social, economic and political context, interviews and personal networks of cooperation are used. The work of Ghana (Rattray, 1931, 1932) Syme, 1932; Tait, 1961; Hilton, 1962; Hart, 1971; Drucker-Brown, 1975, 1992; Primmirat, 1979; Laari, 1987; Awedoba, 1989, 2001; Wilks, 1989; Assimeng, 1990; Kotey, 1995; Schlottner, 2000; Oppong, 2002; Tonah, 2005) shows the context of groups and the features of their trust networks of trust and cooperation are explained . In this work, the effectiveness of ethnic diversification as a means to create small groups more resilient when face with difficult environments is shown. The adoption of cultural forms that allow extend personal trust in larger collectives is also presented. The last work compares the Ghana results with those of Mexico (Chance, 1979; Zeithin, 1990; Campbell, 1993; Oseguera, 2004; Queen Aoyama, 2004; Barabas, 2006, 2008; Trejo Barrientos, 2006; Spores, 2008; Joyce, 2010; Nahmad Sitton, 2013), in a cross-cultural analysis to identify possible "universal" elements in trust and cooperation networks, and also cultural influences. Conclusions The previous works show that trust is a cognitive and psychological mechanism anchored in human evolutionary history. Their evolutionary origin is supported by the results of this dissertation: to demonstrate the higher influence of personal trust than general trust in fostering cooperation. Close relationships are needed for personal trust and they require small groups for its emergence –given the cognitive and temporal constraints required in order to keep such relationships with a larger number of people. Close relationships also involve an emotional dimension –a most primitive mechanism in humans. In fact, small group dynamics was found both in experimental games and in fieldwork. Personal trust also plays a role in large scale societies, where individuals continue to create their small groups in all areas of their life. However, in those societies where survival is more difficult and resources scarce certain cultural tools (such as values or norms) appear whose function is to extend personal trust to a greater number of people: groups such as ethnic groups, clans, lineages, families, commonalities, municipalities (as in the Oaxaca case). Thus, culture provides the necessary mechanisms to create strong bonds of cohesion based on emotional elements beyond the small group. Greater cohesion and a more open attitude of trust arising from such cultural tools help at time to face environments more efficiently. Thus, it could be predicted that more difficult environments show a greater group diversification. In addition, the comparison of Ghana and Mexico results allows a deeper analysis of the common elements of trust and cooperation networks -their universal aspects-: small groups and different levels of emotionality implied in the bonds of trust; and cultural elements that are suited to the historical context and the economic situation of groups, to create a more or less cohesion of its members according to their needs. Thus, in addition to identify in the field several indicators to measure trust, more effective cultural forms to foster cooperation is also identified: the values and the sense of identity of group membership, instead of formal regulations and authority.
A locus at 19p13 is associated with breast cancer (BC) and ovarian cancer (OC) risk. Here we analyse 438 SNPs in this region in 46,451 BC and 15,438 OC cases, 15,252 BRCA1 mutation carriers and 73,444 controls and identify 13 candidate causal SNPs associated with serous OC (P=9.2 × 10(-20)), ER-negative BC (P=1.1 × 10(-13)), BRCA1-associated BC (P=7.7 × 10(-16)) and triple negative BC (P-diff=2 × 10(-5)). Genotype-gene expression associations are identified for candidate target genes ANKLE1 (P=2 × 10(-3)) and ABHD8 (P<2 × 10(-3)). Chromosome conformation capture identifies interactions between four candidate SNPs and ABHD8, and luciferase assays indicate six risk alleles increased transactivation of the ADHD8 promoter. Targeted deletion of a region containing risk SNP rs56069439 in a putative enhancer induces ANKLE1 downregulation; and mRNA stability assays indicate functional effects for an ANKLE1 3'-UTR SNP. Altogether, these data suggest that multiple SNPs at 19p13 regulate ABHD8 and perhaps ANKLE1 expression, and indicate common mechanisms underlying breast and ovarian cancer risk. ; We thank all the individuals who took part in these studies and all the researchers, clin- icians, technicians and administrative staff who have enabled this work to be carried out, in particular those involved in the COGS project: Rosalind A. Eeles, Ali Amin Al Olama, Zsofia Kote-Jarai, Sara Benlloch (PRACTICAL), Andrew Lee, and Ed Dicks, Craig Luccarini and the staff of the Centre for Genetic Epidemiology Laboratory, the staff of the CNIO genotyping unit, Daniel C. Tessier, Francois Bacot, Daniel Vincent, Sylvie LaBoissie ` re and Frederic Robidoux and the staff of the McGill University and Ge ́ nome Que ́ bec Innovation Centre, Sune F. Nielsen, Borge G. Nordestgaard, and the staff of the Copenhagen DNA laboratory, and Julie M. Cunningham, Sharon A. Windebank, Christopher A. Hilker, Jeffrey Meyer and the staff of Mayo Clinic Genotyping Core Facility. BCAC (acknowledgements by study) (ABCFS) : Maggie Angelakos, Judi Maskiell, Gillian Dite. (ABCS) C Ellen van der Schoot, Sanquin Amsterdam. (ACP) The ACP study wishes to thank the participants in the Thai Breast Cancer study. Special Thanks also go to the Thai Ministry of Public Health (MOPH), doctors and nurses who helped with the data collection process. Finally, the study would like to thank Dr Prat Boonyawongviroj, the former Permanent Secretary of MOPH and Dr Pornthep Siriwanarungsan, the Department Director-Generalof Disease Control who have supported the study throughout. (BBCS) Eileen Williams, Elaine Ryder-Mills, Kara Sargus (BIGGS) Niall McInerney, Gabrielle Colleran, Andrew Rowan, Angela Jones. (BSUCH) Peter Bugert, Medical Faculty Mannheim (CGPS) Staff and participants of the Copenhagen General Population Study. For the excellent technical assistance: Dorthe Uldall Andersen, Maria Birna Arnadottir, Anne Bank, Dorthe Kjeldgård Hansen (CNIO-BCS) Guillermo Pita, Charo Alonso, Daniel Herrero, Nuria A ́ lvarez, Pilar Zamora, Primitiva Menendez, the Human Genotyping-CEGEN Unit (CNIO)(CTS). The CTS Steering Committee includes Leslie Bernstein, Susan Neuhausen, James Lacey, Sophia Wang, Huiyan Ma, Yani Lu, and Jessica Clague DeHart at the Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Dennis Deapen, Rich Pinder, Eunjung Lee, and Fred Schumacher at the University of Southern California, Pam Horn-Ross, Peggy Reynolds, Christina Clarke Dur and David Nelson at the Cancer Prevention Institute of California, and Hoda Anton-Culver, Argyrios Ziogas, and Hannah Park at the University of California Irvine. (ESTHER) Hartwig Ziegler, Sonja Wolf, Volker Hermann. (GC-HBOC) Heide Hellebrand, Stefanie Engert and GC-HBOC (Supported by Deutsche Krebshilfe). (GENICA) The GENICA Network: Dr Margarete Fischer-Bosch-Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Stuttgart, and University of Tu ̈bingen, Germany [HB, Wing-Yee Lo, Christina Justenhoven], German Cancer Consortium (DKTK) and German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) [HB], Department of Internal Medicine, Evangelische Kliniken Bonn gGmbH, Johanniter Krankenhaus, Bonn, Germany [Yon-Dschun Ko, Christian Baisch], Institute of Pathology, University of Bonn, Germany [Hans-Peter Fischer], Molecular Genetics of Breast Cancer, Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany [UH], Institute for Prevention and Occupational Medicine of the German Social Accident Insurance, Institute of the Ruhr University Bochum (IPA), Bochum, Germany [Thomas Bru ̈ning, Beate Pesch, Sylvia Rabstein, Anne Lotz]; and Institute of Occupational Medicine and Maritime Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Germany [Volker Harth] (HEBCS) Kirsimari Aaltonen, Karl von Smitten, Sofia Khan, Tuomas Heikkinen, Irja Erkkila ̈ . (HMBCS) Natalia Antonenkova, Peter Hillemanns, Hans Christiansen and Johann H. Karstens (KBCP) Eija Myo ̈ ha ̈ nen, Helena Kemila ̈ inen. (kConFab/AOCS) We wish to thank Heather Thorne, Eveline Niedermayr, all the kConFab research nurses and staff, the heads and staff of the Family Cancer Clinics, and the Clinical Follow Up Study (which has received funding from the NHMRC, the National Breast Cancer Foundation, Cancer Australia, and the National Institute of Health (USA)) for their contributions to this resource, and the many families who contribute to kConFab. (LAABC) We thank all the study participants and the entire data collection team, especially Annie Fung and June Yashiki. (LMBC) Gilian Peuteman, Dominiek Smeets, Thomas Van Brussel and Kathleen Corthouts. (MARIE) Petra Seibold, Judith Heinz, Nadia Obi, Alina Vrieling, Sabine Behrens, Ursula Eilber, Muhabbet Celik, Til Olchers and Stefan Nickels. (MCCS) MCCS cohort recruitment was funded by VicHealth and Cancer Council Victoria. The MCCS was further supported by Australian NHMRC grants 209057, 251553 and 504711 and by infrastructure provided by Cancer Council Victoria. Cases and their vital status were ascertained through the Victorian Cancer Registry (VCR) and the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW), including the National Death Index. (MBCSG) Bernard Peissel and Daniela Zaffaroni and Giulietta Scuvera of the Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori (INT), Milan, Italy; Monica Barile and Irene Feroce of the Istituto Europeo di Oncologia (IEO), Milan, Italy; and the personnel of the Cogentech Cancer Genetic Test Laboratory. (MTLGEBCS) We would like to thank Martine Tranchant (CHU de Que ́ bec Research Center), Marie-France Valois, Annie Turgeon and Lea Heguy (McGill University Health Center, Royal Victoria Hospital; McGill Uni- versity) for DNA extraction, sample management and skilful technical assistance. J.S. is Chairholder of the Canada Research Chair in Oncogenetics. (MYBRCA) Phuah Sze Yee, Peter Kang, Kang In Nee, Kavitta Sivanandan, Shivaani Mariapun, Yoon Sook-Yee, Daphne Lee, Teh Yew Ching and Nur Aishah Mohd Taib for DNA Extraction and patient recruitment. (NBHS) We thank study partcipants and research staff for their contributions and commitment to this study. (OBCS) Meeri Otsukka, Kari Mono- nen(OFBCR) Teresa Selander, Nayana Weerasooriya(ORIGO) We thank E. Krol-War- merdam, and J. Blom for patient accrual, administering questionnaires, and managing clinical information. The LUMC survival data were retrieved from the Leiden hospital- based cancer registry system (ONCDOC) with the help of Dr J. Molenaar. (PBCS) Louise Brinton, Mark Sherman, Neonila Szeszenia-Dabrowska, Beata Peplonska, Witold Zatonski, Pei Chao, Michael Stagner(pKARMA) The Swedish Medical Research Counsel. (RBCS) Petra Bos, Jannet Blom, Ellen Crepin, Elisabeth Huijskens, Annette Heemskerk, the Erasmus MC Family Cancer Clinic. (SASBAC) The Swedish Medical Research Counsel. (SBCGS) We thank study partcipants and research staff for their contributions and commitment to this study. (SBCS) Sue Higham, Helen Cramp, Ian Brock, Malcolm W. R. Reed, Sabapathy Balasubramanian and Dan Connley. (SEARCH) The SEARCH and EPIC teams. (SGBCC) We thank the participants and research coordinator Kimberley Chua. (SKKDKFZS) We thank all study participants, clinicians, family doctors, researchers and technicians for their contributions and commitment to this study. (TNBCC) Robert Pilarski and Charles Shapiro were instrumental in the formation of the OSU Breast Cancer Tissue Bank. We thank the Human Genetics Sample Bank for processing of samples and providing OSU Columbus area control samples. (UKBGS) We thank Breakthrough Breast Cancer and the Institute of Cancer Research for support and funding of the Breakthrough Generations Study, and the study participants, study staff, and the doctors, nurses and other health care providers and health information sources who have contributed to the study. We acknowledge NHS funding to the Royal Marsden/ ICR NIHR Biomedical Research Centre. OCAC (acknowledgements by study) : This study would not have been possible without the contributions of the following: J Dennis, P. Hall (COGS); D. C. Tessier, F. Bacot, D. Vincent, S. LaBoissie ` re and F. Robidoux and the staff of the genotyping unit, (Genome Quebec); D. C. Whiteman, P. M. Webb, A. C. Green, N. K. Hayward, P. G. Parsons, D. M. Purdie, B. M. Smithers, D. Gotley, A. Clouston, I. Brown, S. Moore. K. Harrap, T. Sadkowski, S. O'Brien, E. Minehan, D. Roffe, S. O'Keefe, S. Lipshut, G. Connor . Berry, F. Walker, T. Barnes, J. Thomas, L. Terry, M. Connard, L. Bowes, M-R. Malt, J. White, C. Mosse, N. Tait, C. Bambach, A. Biankan, R. Brancatisano, M. Coleman, M. Cox, S. Deane, G. L. Falk, J. Gallagher, M. Hollands, T. Hugh, D. Hunt, J. Jorgensen, C. Martin, M. Richardson, G. Smith, R. Smith, D. Storey, J. Avramovic, J. Croese, J. D'Arcy, S. Fairley, J. Hansen, J. Masson, L. Nathanson, B. O'Loughlin, L. Rutherford, R. Turner, M. Windsor, J. Bessell, P. Devitt, G. Jamieson, D. Watson, S. Blamey, A. Boussioutas, R. Cade, G. Crosthwaite, I. Faragher, J. Gribbin, G. Hebbard, G. Kiroff, B. Mann, R. Millar, P. O'Brien, R. Thomas, S. Wood, S. Archer, K. Faulkner, J. Hamdorf (ACS); R. Stuart-Harris, F. Kirsten, J. Rutovitz, P. Clingan, A.Glasgow, A. Proietto, S. Braye, G. Otton, J. Shannon, T. Bonaventura, J. Stewart, S. Begbie, M. Friedlander, D. Bell, S. Baron-Hay, G. Gard, D. Nevell, N. Pavlakis, S. Valmadre, B. Young, C Camaris, R. Crouch, L. Edwards, N. Hacker, D. Marsden, G. Robertson, P. Beale, J. Beith, J. Carter, C. Dalrymple, R. Houghton, P. Russell, L. Anderson, M. Links, J. Grygiel, J. Hill, A. Brand, K. Byth, R. Jaworski, P. Harnett, R. Sharma,.G Wain, D. Purdie, D. Whiteman, B. Ward, D. Papadimos, A. Crandon, M. Cummings, K. Horwood. A. Obermair, L. Perrin, D. Wyld, J. Nicklin, M. Davy, M. K. Oehler, C. Hall, T. Dodd, T. Healy, K. Pittman, D. Henderson, J. Miller, J. Pierdes, A. Achan, P. Blomfield, D. Challis, R. McIntosh, A. Parker, B. Brown, R. Rome, D. Allen, P. Grant, S. Hyde, R. Laurie, M. Robbie, D. Healy, T. Jobling, T. Manolitsas, J. McNealage, P Rogers, B. Susil, E. Sumithran, I. Simpson, I. Haviv, K. Phillips, D. Rischin, S. Fox, D. Johnson, S. Lade, P. Waring, M. Loughrey, N.O'Callaghan, B. Murray, L. Mileshkin, P. Allan; V. Billson, J. Pyman, D. Neesham, M. Quinn, A. Hamilton, C. Underhill, R. Bell, L. F Ng, R. Blum, V.Ganju, I. Hammond, C. Stewart, Y. Leung, M. Buck, N. Zeps (ACS); G. Peuteman, T. Van Brussel and D. Smeets (BEL); U. Eilber and T. Koehler (GER); L. Gacucova (HMO); P. Schu ̈rmann, F. Kramer, W. Zheng, T.-W. Park-Simon, K. Beer-Grondke and D. Schmidt (HJO); G.S. Keeney, S. Windebank, C. Hilker and J. Vollenweider (MAY); the state cancer registries of AL, AZ, AR, CA, CO, CT, DE, FL, GA, HI, ID, IL, IN, IA, KY, LA, ME, MD, MA, MI, NE, NH, NJ, NY, NC, ND, OH, OK, OR, PA, RI, SC, TN, TX, VA, WA, and WYL (NHS); L. Paddock, M. King, U. Chandran, A. Samoila, and Y. Bensman (NJO); L. Brinton, M. Sherman, A. Hutchinson, N. Szeszenia- Dabrowska, B. Peplonska, W. Zatonski, A. Soni, P. Chao and M. Stagner (POL); ); C. Luccarini, P. Harrington the SEARCH team and ECRIC (SEA); the Scottish Gynaecological Clinical Trails group and SCOTROC1 investigators (SRO); W-H. Chow, Y-T. Gao (SWH); Information about TCGA and the investigators and institutions who constitute the TCGA research network can be found at http://cancergenome.nih.gov/ (TCGA); I. Jacobs, M. Widschwendter, E. Wozniak, N. Balogun, A. Ryan and J. Ford (UKO); Carole Pye (UKR); a full list of the investigators who contributed to the generation of the WTCCC data is available from http://www.wtccc.org.uk/ (WTCCC). CIMBA (acknowledgements by study) : (BCFR-AU) Maggie Angelakos, Judi Maskiell, Gillian Dite, Helen Tsimiklis. (BCFR-NY) We wish to thank members and participants in the New York site of the Breast Cancer Family Registry for their contributions to the study. (BCFR-ON) We wish to thank members and participants in the Ontario Familial Breast Cancer Registry for their contributions to the study. (BFBOCC-LT) We acknowledge Vilius Rudaitis, Laimonas Gris ˇ kevic ˇ ius, Ramu ̄ nas Janavic ˇ ius (if not in the authorship). BFBOCC-LV acknowledge Drs Janis Eglitis, Anna Krilova and Aivars Stengrevics. (BMBSA) We wish to thank the families who contribute to the BMBSA study. (BRICOH) We wish to thank Yuan Chun Ding and Linda Steele for their work in participant enrolment and biospecimen and data management.(CNIO) We thank Alicia Barroso, Rosario Alonso and Guillermo Pita for their assistance. (CONSIT TEAM) Alessandra Viel and Riccardo Dolcetti of the CRO Aviano National Cancer Institute, Aviano (PN), Italy; Laura Ottini of the 'Sapienza' University, Rome, Italy; Liliana Varesco of the IRCCS AOU San Martino - IST Istituto Nazionale per la Ricerca sul Cancro, Genoa, Italy; Laura Papi and Gabriele Capone of the University of Florence, Florence, Italy; Antonella Savarese and Aline Martayan of the Istituto Nazionale Tumori Regina Elena, Rome, Italy; Stefania Tommasi and Brunella Pilato of the Istituto Nazionale Tumori 'Giovanni Paolo II', Bari, Italy. (CORE) The CIMBA data management and analysis is funded through Cancer Research- UK grant C12292/A11174. ACA is a Senior Cancer Research - UK Research Fellow. (EMBRACE) RE is supported by NIHR support to the Biomedical Research Centre at The Institute of Cancer Research and The Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust. (FCCC) We thank Ms. JoEllen Weaver and Dr Betsy Bove for their technical support. (GEMO) Genetic Modifiers of Cancer Risk in BRCA1/2 Mutation Carriers (GEMO) study: National Cancer Genetics Network ) UNICANCER Genetic Group * , France. We wish to thank all the GEMO collaborating groups for their contribution to this study. GEMO Collaborating Centres are: Coordinating Centres, Unite ́ Mixte de Ge ́ ne ́ tique Constitutionnelle des Cancers Fre ́ quents, Hospices Civils de Lyon - Centre Le ́ on Be ́ rard, and Equipe ) Ge ́ ne ́ tique du cancer du sein * , Centre de Recherche en Cance ́ rologie de Lyon: Olga Sinilnikova w , Sylvie Mazoyer, Francesca Damiola, Laure Barjhoux, Carole Verny-Pierre, Me ́ lanie Le ́ one, Nadia Boutry-Kryza, Alain Calender, Sophie Giraud; and Service de Ge ́ ne ́ tique Oncologique, Institut Curie, Paris: Dominique Stoppa-Lyonnet, Marion Gauthier-Villars, Bruno Buecher, Claude Houdayer, Etienne Rouleau, Lisa Golmard, Agne ` s Collet, Virginie Moncoutier, Ce ́ drick Lefol, Muriel Belotti, Antoine de Pauw, Camille Elan, Catherine Nogues, Emmanuelle Fourme, Anne-Marie Birot. Institut Gustave Roussy, Villejuif: Brigitte Bressac-de-Pail- lerets, Olivier Caron, Marine Guillaud-Bataille. Centre Jean Perrin, Clermont–Ferrand: Yves-Jean Bignon, Nancy Uhrhammer. Centre Le ́ on Be ́ rard, Lyon: Christine Lasset, Vale ́ rie Bonadona, Sandrine Handallou. Centre Franc ̧ ois Baclesse, Caen: Agne ` s Hardouin, Pascaline Berthet, Dominique Vaur, Laurent Castera. Institut Paoli Calmettes, Marseille: Hagay Sobol, Violaine Bourdon, Tetsuro Noguchi, Audrey Remenieras, Franc ̧ ois Eisinger. CHU Arnaud-de-Villeneuve, Montpellier: Isabelle Coupier, Pascal Pujol. Centre Oscar Lambret, Lille: Jean-Philippe Peyrat, Joe ̈ lle Fournier, Franc ̧ oise Re ́ villion, Philippe Vennin w , Claude Adenis. Centre Paul Strauss, Strasbourg: Danie ` le Muller, Jean-Pierre Fricker. Institut Bergonie ́ , Bordeaux: Emmanuelle Barouk-Simonet, Franc ̧ oise Bonnet, Virginie Bubien, Nicolas Sevenet, Michel Longy. Institut Claudius Regaud, Toulouse: Christine Toulas, Rosine Guimbaud, Laurence Gladieff, Viviane Feillel. CHU Grenoble: Dominique Leroux, He ́ le ` ne Dreyfus, Christine Rebischung, Magalie Peysselon. CHU Dijon: Fanny Coron, Laurence Faivre. CHU St-Etienne: Fabienne Prieur, Marine Lebrun, Caroline Kientz. Ho ˆ tel Dieu Centre Hospitalier, Chambe ́ ry: Sandra Fert Ferrer. Centre Antoine Lacassagne, Nice: Marc Fre ́ nay. CHU Limoges: Laurence Ve ́ nat-Bouvet. CHU Nantes: Capucine Delnatte. CHU Bretonneau, Tours: Isabelle Mortemousque. Groupe Hospitalier Pitie ́ -Salpe ́ trie ` re, Paris: Florence Coulet, Chrystelle Colas, Florent Soubrier, Mathilde Warcoin. CHU Vandoeuvre-les- Nancy: Johanna Sokolowska, Myriam Bronner. CHU Besanc ̧ on: Marie-Agne ` s Collonge- Rame, Alexandre Damette. Creighton University, Omaha, USA: Henry T. Lynch, Carrie L. Snyder. (G-FAST) We wish to thank the technical support of Ilse Coene en Brecht Crombez. (HCSC) We acknowledge Alicia Tosar for her technical assistance(HEBCS) HEBCS would like to thank Dr Kristiina Aittoma ̈ ki, Taru A. Muranen, Drs Carl Blomqvist and Kirsimari Aaltonen and RNs Irja Erkkila ̈ and Virpi Palola for their help with the HEBCS data and samples. (HEBON) The Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer Research Group Netherlands (HEBON) consists of the following Collaborating Centres: Coordinating center: Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, NL: M.A. Rookus, F.B.L. Hogervorst, F.E. van Leeuwen, S. Verhoef, M.K. Schmidt, N.S. Russell, J.L. de Lange, R. Wijnands; Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, NL: J.M. Colle ́ e, A.M.W. van den Ouweland, M.J. Hooning, C. Seynaeve, C.H.M. van Deurzen, I.M. Obdeijn; Leiden University Medical Center, NL: C.J. van Asperen, J.T. Wijnen, R.A.E.M. Tollenaar, P. Devilee, T.C.T.E.F. van Cronenburg; Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center, NL: C.M. Kets, A.R. Mensenkamp; University Medical Center Utrecht, NL: M.G.E.M. Ausems, R.B. van der Luijt, C.C. van der Pol; Amsterdam Medical Center, NL: C.M. Aalfs, T.A.M. van Os; VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, NL: J.J.P. Gille, Q. Waisfisz, H.E.J. Meijers-Heijboer; University Hospital Maastricht, NL: E.B. Go ́ mez- Garcia, M.J. Blok; University Medical Center Groningen, NL: J.C. Oosterwijk, A.H. van der Hout, M.J. Mourits, G.H. de Bock; The Netherlands Foundation for the detection of hereditary tumours, Leiden, NL: H.F. Vasen; The Netherlands Comprehensive Cancer Organization (IKNL): S. Siesling, J.Verloop; The Dutch Pathology Registry (PALGA): L.I.H. Overbeek. The HEBON study is supported by the Dutch Cancer Society grants NKI1998-1854, NKI2004-3088, NKI2007-3756, the Netherlands Organization of Scien- tific Research grant NWO 91109024, the Pink Ribbon grants 110005 and 2014- 187.WO76, the BBMRI grant NWO 184.021.007/CP46 and the Transcan grant JTC 2012 Cancer 12-054. HEBON thanks the registration teams of IKNL and PALGA for part of the data collection. (HRBCP) We wish to thank Hong Kong Sanatoriuma and Hospital for their continual support. (HUNBOCS) We wish to thank the Hungarian Breast and Ovarian Cancer Study Group members (Janos Papp, Tibor Vaszko, Aniko Bozsik, Timea Pocza, Judit Franko, Maria Balogh, Gabriella Domokos, Judit Ferenczi, Department of Molecular Genetics, National Institute of Oncology, Budapest, Hungary) and the clin- icians and patients for their contributions to this study.(HVH) We wish to thank the Oncogenetics Group (VHIO), and the High Risk and Cancer Prevention Unit of the University Hospital Vall d'Hebron.(ICO) We wish to thank the ICO Hereditary Cancer Program team led by Dr Gabriel Capella. (INHERIT) We would like to thank Dr Martine Dumont, Martine Tranchant for sample management and skilful technical assistance. J.S. is Chairholder of the Canada Research Chair in Oncogenetics. J.S. and P.S. were part of the QC and Genotyping coordinating group of iCOGS (BCAC and CIMBA). (IPOBCS) We wish to thank Drs Ana Peixoto, Catarina Santos, Patrı ́ cia Rocha and Pedro Pinto for their skilful contribution to the study. (KCONFAB) We wish to thank Heather Thorne, Eveline Niedermayr, all the kConFab research nurses and staff, the heads and staff of the Family Cancer Clinics, and the Clinical Follow Up Study (which has received funding from the NHMRC, the National Breast Cancer Foundation, Cancer Australia, and the National Institute of Health (USA)) for their contributions to this resource, and the many families who contribute to kConFab. (MODSQUAD) Modifier Study of Quantitative Effects on Disease (MODSQUAD): we acknowledge ModSQuaD members Csilla Szabo (National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA); Lenka Foretova and Eva Machackova (Department of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, Masaryk Memorial Cancer Institute and MF MU, Brno, Czech Republic); and Michal Zikan, Petr Pohlreich and Zdenek Kleibl (Oncogynecologic Center and Department of Biochemistry and Experimental Oncology, First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic). (MSKCC) Anne Lincoln, Lauren Jacobs. (NICCC) We wish to thank the NICCC National Familial Cancer Consultation Service team led by Sara Dishon, the lab team led by Dr Flavio Lejbkowicz, and the research field operations team led by Dr Mila Pinchev. (NRG Oncology) We thank the investigators of the Australia New Zealand NRG Oncology group. (OCGN) We wish to thank members and participants in the Ontario Cancer Genetics Network for their contributions to the study. (OSU CCG) Leigha Senter, Kevin Sweet, Caroline Craven, and Michelle O'Conor were instrumental in accrual of study participants, ascertainment of medical records and database management. Samples were processed by the OSU Human Genetics Sample Bank. (SEABASS) We would like to thank Yip Cheng Har, Nur Aishah Mohd Taib, Phuah Sze Yee, Norhashimah Hassan and all the research nurses, research assistants and doctors involved in the MyBrCa Study for assistance in patient recruitment, data collection and sample preparation. In addition, we thank Philip Iau, Sng Jen-Hwei and Sharifah Nor Akmal for contributing samples from the Singapore Breast Cancer Study nd the HUKM-HKL Study respectively. The Malaysian Breast Cancer Genetic Study is funded by research grants from the Malaysian Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Ministry of Higher Education (UM.C/HIR/MOHE/06) and charitable funding from Cancer Research Initiatives Foundation. (SMC) SMC team wishes to acknowledge the assistance of the Meirav Comprehensice breast cancer center team at the Sheba Medical Center for assistance in this study. (SWE-BRCA) Swedish scientists participating as SWE-BRCA collaborators are: from Lund University and University Hospital: Åke Borg, Håkan Olsson, Helena Jernstro ̈ m, Karin Henriksson, Katja Harbst, Maria Soller, Ulf Kristoffersson; from Gothenburg Sahlgrenska University Hospital: Anna O ̈ fverholm, Margareta Nordling, Per Karlsson, Zakaria Einbeigi; from Stockholm and Karolinska University Hospital: Anna von Wachenfeldt, Annelie Liljegren, Annika Lindblom, Brita Arver, Gisela Barbany Bustinza, Johanna Rantala; from Umeå University Hospital: Beatrice Melin, Christina Edwinsdotter Ardnor, Monica Emanuelsson; from Uppsala University: Hans Ehrencrona, Maritta Hellstro ̈ m Pigg, Richard Rosenquist; from Linko ̈ ping University Hospital: Marie Stenmark-Askmalm, Sigrun Lied- gren(UCHICAGO) We wish to thank Cecilia Zvocec, Qun Niu, physicians, genetic counsellors, research nurses and staff of the Cancer Risk Clinic for their contributions to this resource, and the many families who contribute to our programme. (UCLA) We thank Joyce Seldon MSGC and Lorna Kwan, MPH for assembling the data for this study. (UCSF) We would like to thank Dr Robert Nussbaum and the following genetic coun- sellors for participant recruitment: Beth Crawford, Kate Loranger, Julie Mak, Nicola Stewart, Robin Lee, Amie Blanco and Peggy Conrad. And thanks to Ms. Salina Chan for her data management. (UKFOCR) We thank Carole Pye, Patricia Harrington and Eva Wozniak for their contributions towards the UKFOCR. (VFCTG) Geoffrey Lindeman, Marion Harris, Martin Delatycki of the Victorian Familial Cancer Trials Group. We thank Sarah Sawyer and Rebecca Driessen for assembling this data and Ella Thompson for performing all DNA amplification. Grant Support : The COGS project is funded through a European Commission's Seventh Framework Programme grant (agreement number 223175—HEALTH-F2-2009- 223175). BCAC is funded by Cancer Research UK [C1287/A10118, C1287/A12014] and by the European Community ́ s Seventh Framework Programme under grant agreement number 223175 (grant number HEALTH-F2-2009-223175) (COGS). The CIMBA data management and analytical work is funded by Cancer Research UK (C12292/A11174, C12292/A20861). Funding for the iCOGS infrastructure came from: the European Community's Seventh Framework Programme under grant agreement n ° 223175 (HEALTH-F2-2009-223175) (COGS), Cancer Research UK (C1287/A10118, C1287/A 10710, C12292/A11174, C1281/A12014, C5047/A8384, C5047/A15007, C5047/A10692, C8197/A16565), the National Institutes of Health (CA128978) and Post-Cancer GWAS initiative (1U19 CA148537, 1U19 CA148065 and 1U19 CA148112 - the GAME-ON initiative), the Department of Defence (W81XWH-10-1-0341), the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) for the CIHR Team in Familial Risks of Breast Cancer, Komen Foundation for the Cure, the Breast Cancer Research Foundation, and the Ovarian Cancer Research Fund. The Ovarian Cancer Association Consortium is supported by a grant from the Ovarian Cancer Research Fund thanks to donations by the family and friends of Kathryn Sladek Smith (PPD/RPCI.07). The scientific development and funding for this project were in part supported by the US National Cancer Institute GAME-ON Post-GWAS Initiative (U19-CA148112). This study made use of data generated by the Wellcome Trust Case Control consortium. Funding for the project was provided by the Wellcome Trust under award 076113. The results published here are in part based on data generated by The Cancer Genome Atlas Project established by the National Cancer Institute and National Human Genome Research Institute. Personal support: K.L. is supported by a K99/R00 grant from the National Cancer Institute (Grant number 1K99CA184415-01). This project was supported in part by a Program Project Development Grant from the Ovarian Cancer Research Fund (S.A.G and A.M). The in vitro aspects of this project were performed within the Norris Cancer Centre at USC, which is supported in part by award number P30CA014089 from the National Cancer Institute. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Cancer Institute or the National Institutes of Health. D.F.E. is a Principal Research Fellow of Cancer Research UK. A.C.A. is a Cancer Research—UK Senior Cancer Research Fellow. G.C.-T. and P.M.W. are supported by the National Health and Medical Research Council. (WCP) B.Y.K is funded by the American Cancer Society Early Detection Professorship (SIOP- 06-258-01-COUN) and the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), Grant UL1TR000124. L.E.K. is supported by a Canadian Institutes of Health Research Investigator award (MSH-87734). S.P.K. is supported by a Gates Cambridge Scholarship. J.S. is Chairholder of the Canada Research Chair in Oncogenetics. RB was a Cancer Institute NSW Clinical Research Fellow. M.C.S. is a NHMRC Senior Research Fellow. A.K.G. was funded by 5U01CA113916, R01CA140323, and by the Chancellors Distinguished Chair in Biomedical Sciences Professorship. J.L.H. is a National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) Senior Principal Research Fellow. S.L.E. and J.D.F. are supported by Fellowships from the National Breast Cancer Foundation (NBCF) Australia and NHMRC project grant (1058415). Funding : BCAC: The Australian Breast Cancer Family Study (ABCFS) was supported by grant UM1 CA164920 from the National Cancer Institute (USA). The content of this manuscript does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the National Cancer Institute or any of the collaborating centres in the Breast Cancer Family Registry (BCFR), nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the USA Government or the BCFR. The ABCFS was also supported by the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia, the New South Wales Cancer Council, the Victorian Health Promotion Foundation (Australia) and the Victorian Breast Cancer Research Consortium. The ABCS study was supported by the Dutch Cancer Society [grants NKI 2007-3839; 2009 4363]. The ACP study is funded by the Breast Cancer Research Trust, UK. The BBCS is funded by Cancer Research UK and Breakthrough Breast Cancer and acknowledges NHS funding to the NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, and the National Cancer Research Network (NCRN).ES is supported by NIHR Comprehensive Biomedical Research Centre, Guy's and St. Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust in partnership with King's College London, United Kingdom. IT is supported by the Oxford Biomedical Research Centre.The BSUCH study was supported by the Dietmar-Hopp Foundation, the Helmholtz Society and the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ). The CGPS was supported by the Chief Physician Johan Boserup and Lise Boserup Fund, the Danish Medical Research Council and Herlev HospitalThe CNIO-BCS was supported by the Instituto de Salud Carlos III, the Red Tema ́ tica de Investigacio ́ n Cooperativa en Ca ́ ncer and grants from the Asociacio ́ n Espan ̃ ola Contra el Ca ́ ncer and the Fondo de Investigacio ́ n Sanitario (PI11/00923 and PI12/00070). The CTS was initially supported by the California Breast Cancer Act of 1993 and the California Breast Cancer Research Fund (contract 97-10500) and is cur- rently funded through the National Institutes of Health (R01 CA77398). Collection of cancer incidence data was supported by the California Department of Public Health as part of the statewide cancer reporting program mandated by California Health and Safety Code Section 103885. HAC receives support from the Lon V Smith Foundation (LVS39420). The ESTHER study was supported by a grant from the Baden Wu ̈rttemberg Ministry of Science, Research and Arts. Additional cases were recruited in the context of the VERDI study, which was supported by a grant from the German Cancer Aid (Deutsche Krebshilfe). The GC-HBOC was supported by Deutsche Krebshilfe (107 352). The GENICA was funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) Germany grants 01KW9975/5, 01KW9976/8, 01KW9977/0 and 01KW0114, the Robert Bosch Foundation, Stuttgart, Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum (DKFZ), Heidelberg, the Institute for Prevention and Occupational Medicine of the German Social Accident Insurance, Institute of the Ruhr University Bochum (IPA), Bochum, as well as the Department of Internal Medicine, Evangelische Kliniken Bonn gGmbH, Johanniter Krankenhaus, Bonn, Germany. The HEBCS was financially supported by the Helsinki University Central Hospital Research Fund, Academy of Finland (266528), the Finnish Cancer Society, The Nordic Cancer Union and the Sigrid Juselius Foundation. The HMBCS was supported by a grant from the Friends of Hannover Medical School and by the Rudolf Bartling Foundation. The KBCP was financially supported by the special Government Funding (EVO) of Kuopio University Hospital grants, Cancer Fund of North Savo, the Finnish Cancer Organizations, and by the strategic funding of the University of Eastern Finland. kConFab is supported by a grant from the National Breast Cancer Foundation, and previously by the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC), the Queensland Cancer Fund, the Cancer Councils of New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia, and the Cancer Foundation of Western Australia. Financial support for the AOCS was provided by the United States Army Medical Research and Materiel Command [DAMD17-01-1-0729], Cancer Council Victoria, Queensland Cancer Fund, Cancer Council New South Wales, Cancer Council South Australia, The Cancer Foundation of Western Australia, Cancer Council Tasmania and the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia (NHMRC; 400413, 400281, 199600). LAABC is supported by grants (1RB-0287, 3PB-0102, 5PB-0018, 10PB-0098) from the California Breast Cancer Research Program. Incident breast cancer cases were collected by the USC Cancer Surveillance Program (CSP), which is supported under subcontract by the California Department of Health. The CSP is also part of the National Cancer Institute's Division of Cancer Prevention and Control Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results Program, under contract number N01CN25403. LMBC is supported by the 'Stichting tegen Kanker' (232-2008 and 196-2010). Diether Lambrechts is supported by the FWO and the KULPFV/10/016-SymBioSysII.The MARIE study was supported by the Deutsche Krebshilfe e.V. [70-2892-BR I, 106332, 108253, 108419], the Hamburg Cancer Society, the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) and the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) Germany [01KH0402]. (MBCSG) is supported by grants from the Italian Association for Cancer Research (AIRC) and by funds from the Italian citizens who allocated the 5/1000 share of their tax payment in support of the Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale Tumori, according to Italian laws (INT-Institutional strategic projects '5x1000'). The work of MTLGEBCS was supported by the Quebec Breast Cancer Foundation, the Canadian Institutes of Health Research for the 'CIHR Team in Familial Risks of Breast Cancer' program – grant # CRN-87521 and the Ministry of Economic Development, Innovation and Export Trade – grant # PSR-SIIRI-701.MYBRCA is funded by research grants from the Malaysian Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (MOSTI), Malaysian Ministry of Higher Education (UM.C/HlR/MOHE/06) and Cancer Research Initiatives Foundation (CARIF). Additional controls were recruited by the Singapore Eye Research Institute, which was supported by a grant from the Biomedical Research Council (BMRC08/1/35/19/550), Singapore and the National medical Research Council, Singa- pore (NMRC/CG/SERI/2010). The NBHS was supported by NIH grant R01CA100374. Biological sample preparation was conducted the Survey and Biospecimen Shared Resource, which is supported by P30 CA68485. The OBCS was supported by research grants from the Finnish Cancer Foundation, the Academy of Finland (grant number 250083, 122715 and Center of Excellence grant number 251314), the Finnish Cancer Foundation, the Sigrid Juselius Foundation, the University of Oulu, the University of Oulu Support Foundation and the special Governmental EVO funds for Oulu University Hospital-based research activities. The Ontario Familial Breast Cancer Registry (OFBCR) was supported by grant UM1 CA164920 from the National Cancer Institute (USA). The content of this manuscript does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the National Cancer Institute or any of the collaborating centres in the Breast Cancer Family Registry (BCFR), nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the USA Government or the BCFR. The ORIGO study was supported by the Dutch Cancer Society (RUL 1997-1505) and the Biobanking and Biomolecular Resources Research Infrastructure (BBMRI-NL CP16). The PBCS was funded by Intramural Research Funds of the National Cancer Institute, Department of Health and Human Services, USA. The pKARMA study was supported by Ma ̈ rit and Hans Rausings Initiative Against Breast CancerThe RBCS was funded by the Dutch Cancer Society (DDHK 2004-3124, DDHK 2009-4318). The SASBAC study was sup- ported by funding from the Agency for Science, Technology and Research of Singapore (A*STAR), the US National Institute of Health (NIH) and the Susan G. Komen Breast Cancer Foundation. The SBCGS was supported primarily by NIH grants R01CA64277, R01CA148667, and R37CA70867. Biological sample preparation was conducted the Survey and Biospecimen Shared Resource, which is supported by P30 CA68485. The scientific development and funding of this project were, in part, supported by the Genetic Associations and Mechanisms in Oncology (GAME-ON) Network U19 CA148065.The SBCS was supported by Yorkshire Cancer Research S295, S299, S305PA and Sheffield Experimental Cancer Medicine Centre.SEARCH is funded by a programme grant from Cancer Research UK [C490/A10124] and supported by the UK National Institute for Health Research Biomedical Research Centre at the University of Cambridge.SGBCC is funded by the NUS start-up Grant, National University Cancer Institute Singapore (NCIS) Centre Grant and the NMRC Clinician Scientist Award. Additional controls were recruited by the Singapore Consortium of Cohort Studies-Multi-ethnic cohort (SCCS-MEC), which was funded by the Biomedical Research Council, grant number: 05/ 1/21/19/425.SKKDKFZS is supported by the DKFZ. The TNBCC was supported by: a Specialized Program of Research Excellence (SPORE) in Breast Cancer (CA116201), a grant from the Breast Cancer Research Foundation, a generous gift from the David F. and Margaret T. Grohne Family Foundation, the Hellenic Cooperative Oncology Group research grant (HR R_BG/04) and the Greek General Secretary for Research and Technology (GSRT) Program, Research Excellence II, the European Union (European Social Fund – ESF), and Greek national funds through the Operational Program 'Education and Lifelong Learning' of the National Strategic Reference Framework (NSRF) - ARISTEIA. The UKBGS is funded by Breakthrough Breast Cancer and the Institute of Cancer Research (ICR), London. ICR acknowledges NHS funding to the NIHR Biomedical Research Centre. Funding : OCAC : Funding of the constituent studies was provided by the American Cancer Society (CRTG-00-196-01-CCE); the California Cancer Research Program (00-01389 V-20170, N01-CN25403, 2II0200); the Canadian Institutes for Health Research (MOP-86727); Cancer Council Victoria; Cancer Council Queensland; Cancer Council New South Wales; Cancer Council South Australia; Cancer Council Tasmania; Cancer Foundation of Western Australia; the Cancer Institute of New Jersey; Cancer Research UK (C490/A6187, C490/A10119, C490/A10124, C536/A13086, C536/A6689); the Celma Mastry Ovarian Cancer Foundation; the Danish Cancer Society (94-222-52); the ELAN Program of the University of Erlangen-Nuremberg; the Eve Appeal; the Helsinki University Central Hospital Research Fund; Helse Vest; Imperial Experimental Cancer Research Centre (C1312/A15589); the Norwegian Cancer Society; the Norwegian Research Council; the Ovarian Cancer Research Fund; Nationaal Kankerplan of Belgium; Grant-in-Aid for the Third Term Comprehensive 10-Year Strategy for Cancer Control from the Ministry of Health Labour and Welfare of Japan; the L and S Milken Foun- dation; the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education (4 PO5C 028 14, 2 PO5A 068 27); Malaysian Ministry of Higher Education (UM.C/HlR/MOHE/06) and Cancer Research Initiatives Foundation; the Roswell Park Cancer Institute Alliance Foundation; the US National Cancer Institute (K07-CA095666, K07-CA143047, K22-CA138563, N01-CN55424, N01-PC067010, N01-PC035137, P01-CA017054, P01-CA087696, P30-CA15083, P50-CA105009, P50- CA136393, R01-CA014089, R01-CA016056, R01-CA017054, R01-CA049449, R01-CA050385, R01-CA054419, R01- CA058598, R01-CA058860, R01-CA061107, R01-CA061132, R01-CA063682, R01-CA064277, R01-CA067262, R01- CA071766, R01-CA074850, R01-CA076016, R01-CA080742, R01-CA080978, R01-CA083918, R01-CA087538, R01- CA092044, R01-095023, R01-CA106414, R01-CA122443, R01-CA112523, R01-CA114343, R01-CA126841, R01- CA136924, R01-CA149429, R03-CA113148, R03-CA115195, R37-CA070867, R37-CA70867, U01-CA069417, U01- CA071966, R01-CA063678 and Intramural research funds); the US Army Medical Research and Material Command (DAMD17-98-1- 8659, DAMD17-01-1-0729, DAMD17-02-1-0666, DAMD17-02-1- 0669, W81XWH-10-1-0280); the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia (199600 and 400281); the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research of Germany Programme of Clinical Biomedical Research (01 GB 9401); the state of Baden-Wu ̈rttemberg through Medical Faculty of the University of Ulm (P.685); the Minnesota Ovarian Cancer Alliance; the Mayo Foundation; the Fred C. and Katherine B. Andersen Foundation; the Lon V. Smith Foundation (LVS-39420); the Oak Foundation; the OHSU Foundation; the Mermaid I project; the Rudolf-Bartling Foundation; the UK National Institute for Health Research Biomedical Research Centres at the University of Cambridge, Imperial College London, University College Hospital 'Womens Health Theme' and the Royal Marsden Hospital; WorkSafeBC. Funding : CIMBA (BCFR—all) : This work was supported by grant UM1 CA164920 from the National Cancer Institute. The content of this manuscript does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the National Cancer Institute or any of the collaborating centres in the Breast Cancer Family Registry (BCFR), nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the US Government or the BCFR. (BFBOCC-LT) BFBOCC is partly supported by: Lithuania (BFBOCC-LT): Research Council of Lithuania grant LIG-07/2012; (BIDMC) BIDMC is supported by the Breast Cancer Research Foundation. (BMBSA) BRCA-gene mutations and breast cancer in South African women (BMBSA) was supported by grants from the Cancer Association of South Africa (CANSA) to Elizabeth J. van Rensburg. (BRICOH) SLN was partially supported by the Morris and Horowitz Familes Endowed Professorship. (CBCS) This work was supported by the NEYE Foundation. (CNIO) This work was partially supported by Spanish Association against Cancer (AECC08), RTICC 06/0020/1060, FISPI08/1120, Mutua Madrilen ̃ a Foundation (FMMA) and SAF2010-20493 (COH-CCGCRN) City of Hope Clinical Cancer Genetics Community Network and the Hereditary Cancer Research Registry, supported in part by Award Number RC4CA153828 (PI: J. Weitzel) from the National Cancer Institute and the Office of the Director, National Institutes of Health. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health. (CONSIT TEAM) Funds from Italian citizens who allocated the 5x1000 share of their tax payment in support of the Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale Tumori, according to Italian laws (INT-Institutional strategic projects '5x1000') to Siranoush Manoukian. (CORE) The CIMBA data management and data analysis were supported by Cancer Research – UK grants C12292/A11174 and C1287/A10118.SH is supported by an NHMRC Program Grant to GCT. ACA is a Cancer Research -UK Senior Cancer Research Fellow. (DEMOKRITOS) This research has been co-financed by the European Union (European Social Fund – ESF) and Greek national funds through the Operational Program 'Education and Lifelong Learning' of the National Strategic Reference Frame- work (NSRF) - Research Funding Program of the General Secretariat for Research and Technology: ARISTEIA. Investing in knowledge society through the European Social Fund.(DKFZ) The DKFZ study was supported by the DKFZ. (EMBRACE) EMBRACE is supported by Cancer Research UK Grants C1287/A10118 and C1287/A11990. D. Gareth Evans and Fiona Lalloo are supported by an NIHR grant to the Biomedical Research Centre, Manchester. The Investigators at The Institute of Cancer Research and The Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust are supported by an NIHR grant to the Biomedical Research Centre at The Institute of Cancer Research and The Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust. (FCCC) The authors acknowledge support from The University of Kansas Cancer Center (P30 CA168524) and the Kansas Bioscience Authority Eminent Scholar Program. (GC-HBOC) The German Consortium of Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer (GC-HBOC) is supported by the German Cancer Aid (grant no 109076, Rita K. Schmutzler) and by the Center for Molecular Medicine Cologne (CMMC). (GEMO) The study was supported by the Ligue Nationale Contre le Cancer; the Association 'Le cancer du sein, parlons-en!' Award; the Canadian Institutes of Health Research for the 'CIHR Team in Familial Risks of Breast Cancer' program and the French National Institute of Cancer (INCa). (GEORGETOWN) CI received support from the Non-Therapeutic Subject Registry Shared Resource at Georgetown University (NIH/NCI grant P30-CA051008), the Fisher Center for Familial Cancer Research, and Swing Fore the Cure. (G-FAST) Kim De Leeneer is supported by GOA grant BOF10/ GOA/019 (Ghent University) and spearhead financing of Ghent University Hospital. (HCSC) HCSC supported by a grant RD12/0036/0006 and 12/00539 from ISCIII (Spain), partially supported by European Regional Development FEDER funds. (HEBCS) The HEBCS was financially supported by the Helsinki University Hospital Research Fund, Academy of Finland (266528), the Finnish Cancer Society and the Sigrid Juselius Foundation. (HEBON) The HEBON study is supported by the Dutch Cancer Society grants NKI1998-1854, NKI2004-3088, NKI2007-3756, the Netherlands Organization of Scientific Research grant NWO 91109024, the Pink Ribbon grant 110005 and the BBMRI grant NWO 184.021.007/CP46. HEBON thanks the registration teams of the Comprehensive Cancer Centre Netherlands and Comprehensive Centre South (together the Netherlands Cancer Registry) and PALGA (Dutch Pathology Registry) for part of the data collection. (HRBCP) HRBCP is supported by The Hong Kong Hereditary Breast Cancer Family Registry and the Dr Ellen Li Charitable Foundation, Hong Kong (HUNBOCS) Hungarian Breast and Ovarian Cancer Study was supported by Hungarian Research Grants KTIA-OTKA CK-80745, OTKA K-112228 and the Norwegian EEA Financial Mechanism Hu0115/NA/2008-3/OP-9. (ICO) Contract grant sponsor: Asociacio ́ n Espan ̃ ola Contra el Ca ́ ncer, Spanish Health Research Fund; Carlos III Health Institute; Catalan Health Institute and Autonomous Government of Catalonia. Contract grant numbers: ISCIIIRETIC RD06/0020/1051, RD12/0036/008, PI10/01422, PI10/ 00748, PI13/00285, PIE13/00022, 2009SGR290 and 2014SGR364. (IHCC) The IHCC was supported by Grant PBZ_KBN_122/P05/2004(ILUH) The ILUH group was supported by the Icelandic Association 'Walking for Breast Cancer Research' and by the Landspitali University Hospital Research Fund. (INHERIT) This work was supported by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research for the 'CIHR Team in Familial Risks of Breast Cancer' program, the Canadian Breast Cancer Research Alliance-grant #019511 and the Ministry of Economic Development, Innovation and Export Trade – grant # PSR-SIIRI- 701. (IOVHBOCS) IOVHBOCS is supported by Ministero della Salute and '5 1,000' Istituto Oncologico Veneto grant. (IPOBCS) This study was in part supported by Liga Portuguesa Contra o Cancro.(KCONFAB) kConFab is supported by a grant from the National Breast Cancer Foundation, and previously by the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC), the Queensland Cancer Fund, the Cancer Councils of New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia, and the Cancer Foundation of Western Australia; (KOHBRA) KOHBRA is supported by a grant from the National R&D Program for Cancer Control, Ministry for Health, Welfare and Family Affairs,Republic of Korea (1020350). (MAYO) MAYO is supported by NIH grants CA116167, CA128978 and CA176785, an NCI Specialized Program of Research Excellence (SPORE) in Breast Cancer (CA116201), a U.S. Department of Defence Ovarian Cancer Idea award (W81XWH-10-1-0341), a grant from the Breast Cancer Research Foundation, a generous gift from the David F. and Margaret T. Grohne Family Foundation and the Ting Tsung and Wei Fong Chao Foundation. (MCGILL) Jewish General Hospital Weekend to End Breast Cancer, Quebec Ministry of Economic Development, Innovation and Export Trade (MODSQUAD) MODSQUAD was supported by MH CZ - DRO (MMCI, 00209805) and by the European Regional Development Fund and the State Budget of the Czech Republic (RECAMO, CZ.1.05/2.1.00/03.0101) to LF, and by Charles University in Prague project UNCE204024 (MZ). (MSKCC) MSKCC is supported by grants from the Breast Cancer Research Foundation, the Robert and Kate Niehaus Clinical Cancer Genetics Initiative, and the Andrew Sabin Research Fund. (NAROD) 1R01 CA149429- 01. (NCI) The research of Drs MH Greene, JT Loud and PL Mai was supported by the Intramural Research Program of the US National Cancer Institute, NIH, and by support services contracts NO2-CP-11019-50 and N02-CP-65504 with Westat, Inc, Rockville, MD. (NICCC) NICCC is supported by Clalit Health Services in Israel. Some of it's activities are supported by the Israel Cancer Association and the Breast Cancer Research Foundation (BCRF), NY. (NNPIO) This work has been supported by the Russian Federation for Basic Research (grants 13-04-92613, 14-04-93959 and 15-04-01744). (NRG Oncology) This study was supported by National Cancer Institute grants to the NRG Oncology Administrative Office and Tissue Bank (CA 27469), the NRG Oncology Statistical and Data Center (CA 37517), and NRG Oncology's Cancer Prevention and Control Committee (CA 101165). (OSU CCG) OSUCCG is supported by the Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center. (PBCS) This work was supported by the ITT (Istituto Toscano Tumori) grants 2011-2013. (SEABASS) Ministry of Science, Technol- ogy and Innovation, Ministry of Higher Education (UM.C/HlR/MOHE/06) and Cancer Research Initiatives Foundation. (SMC) This project was partially funded through a grant by the Isreal cancer association and the funding for the Israeli Inherited breast cancer consortium (SWE-BRCA) SWE-BRCA collaborators are supported by the Swedish Cancer Society. (UCHICAGO) UCHICAGO is supported by NCI Specialized Program of Research Excellence (SPORE) in Breast Cancer (CA125183), R01 CA142996, 1U01CA161032 and by the Ralph and Marion Falk Medical Research Trust, the Entertainment Industry Fund National Women's Cancer Research Alliance and the Breast Cancer research Foundation. OIO is an ACS Clinical Research Professor.(UCLA) Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center Foundation; Breast Cancer Research Foundation. (UCSF) UCSF Cancer Risk Program and Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center. (UKFOCR) UKFOCR was supported by a project grant from CRUK to Paul Pharoah. (UPENN) National Institutes of Health (NIH) (R01-CA102776 and R01- CA083855; Breast Cancer Research Foundation; Susan G. Komen Foundation for the cure, Basser Research Center for BRCA. (UPITT/MWH) Frieda G. and Saul F. Shapira BRCA-Associated Cancer Research Program;Hackers for Hope Pittsburgh. (VFCTG) Victorian Cancer Agency, Cancer Australia, National Breast Cancer Foundation unding for the iCOGS infrastructure came from: the European Community's Seventh Framework Programme under grant agreement n ° 223175 (HEALTH-F2-2009-223175) (COGS), Cancer Research UK (C1287/A10118, C1287/A 10710, C12292/A11174, C1281/ A12014, C5047/A8384, C5047/A15007, C5047/A10692, C8197/A16565), the National Institutes of Health (CA128978) and Post-Cancer GWAS initiative (1U19 CA148537, 1U19 CA148065 and 1U19 CA148112 - the GAME-ON initiative), the Department of Defence (W81XWH-10-1-0341), the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) for the CIHR Team in Familial Risks of Breast Cancer, Komen Foundation for the Cure, the Breast Cancer Research Foundation, and the Ovarian Cancer Research Fund and grants R01-CA122443 and P50-CA136393. ; Sí
The dissertation focuses on multiple (or parallel) proceedings in private international litigation. In international civil disputes it is not unusual that jurisdiction for a particular dispute exists in several countries. In that case, each party may be tempted to start litigation in the forum most favorable to it, for example to take advantage of the forum's more generous recovery rules or the extended possibilities of discovery. Similarly, one party can also choose to initiate proceedings in different countries for the same dispute. The question arises how the legal systems involved will and should deal with such 'multi-fora' disputes. The first question addressed is whether and to what extent the international legal community should strive to prevent and/or eliminate such duplicate proceedings. It is undubitable that multiple proceedings could lead to undesirable consequences, such as conflicting judgments. Concurrent jurisdiction also brings about a waste of (scarce) judicial resources, and unnecessary expenses for the litigants. To prevent altogether parallel proceedings from happening however, seems at best utopic or even dangerous. Even if the international community were to achieve a global agreement on a comprehensive set of jurisdiction rules, one cannot imagine that there rules would designate one and only one court for each particular dispute. The desire to concentrate jurisdiction for all related disputes in the hands of one court is indeed but one of the numerous factors influencing the allocation of jurisdiction in international matters. The dissertation therefore undertakes to study the rules and instruments that can be used to resolve parallel litigation once multiple proceedings have been issued. The study learns that courts can adopt a variety of attitudes when faced with parallel litigation. A legal system can decide to ignore altogether the fact that a foreign court is seised of parallel proceedings, relying on the res judicata effect of the first decision to be rendered. It can also decide to abstain from taking up the case in deference to the foreign proceedings. Finally it can try to put an end to the parallel proceedings, by enjoining a party from further proceeding before the foreign court. After an in-depth analysis of these different policies and of the various rules and instruments in which they are embodied, my conclusion is that the preference should be given to mechanisms whereby one court voluntarily declines jurisdiction in favor of the other. The preference I express for a mechanism of 'international abstention' is however qualified. Whether or not a court declines jurisdiction in favor of a foreign court, will depend inter alia on the confidence it has that justice will be done in the foreign forum. Even with a minimum level of trust and confidence between jurisdictions, the abstention rule can follow different models, from the continental lis alibi pendens rule, which offers almost automatic priority to the court first seised, to the common law doctrine of 'forum non conveniens', where priority goes to the more appropriate forum. Between these two extremes lies a world of nuances. The dissertation therefore attempts to formulate an abstention rule which will reconcile these seemingly opposed visions and explain in which circumstances and under which conditions a court should or can decline jurisdiction in deference to litigation pending before a foreign court. ; Het onderzoek handelt over parallelle procedures in het internationaal rechtsverkeer. Met parallelle procedures - in de Engelse terminologie bekend als multi fora litigation - worden procedures bedoeld die éénzelfde geheel van feiten betreffen en tegelijkertijd - of opeenvolgend - voor twee (of uitzonderlijk meer dan twee) gerechtelijke instanties in verschillende landen gevoerd worden. Spaakgelopen huwelijken tussen echtgenoten van verschillende nationaliteiten vormen vaak de voedingsbodem voor het voeren van parallelle procedures : dikwijls zal een echtgenoot de echtscheiding voor de rechter van de echtelijke verblijfplaats vorderen, terwijl de andere, die naar zijn/haar thuisland teruggekeerd is, daar eveneens gerechtelijke stappen zal ondernemen met het oog op de ontbinding van het huwelijk. Beide echtgenoten zullen vanzelfsprekend de fout in elkaars schoenen schuiven en de echtscheiding ten laste van de partner vorderen. Hierdoor worden twee gerechtelijke instanties gevraagd om zich parallel, en in concurrentie met elkaar, over hetzelfde geschil uit te spreken. Parallelle procedures komen ook in de internationale handel voor, bijv. wanneer een kooptransactie tussen ondernemingen gevestigd in verschillende landen fout loopt : indien de koper beweert dat de geleverde goederen gebrekkig zijn, heeft hij vaak de mogelijkheid om schadevergoeding te vorderen van de rechter van het land waar de levering plaatsvond, terwijl de verkoper anderzijds de rechter van zijn eigen land kan vragen te verklaren dat de goederen conform zijn of nog betaling van de koopprijs eisen. 2 Het is onmogelijk gebleken om precieze statistieke gegevens te vinden over parallelle procedures in het internationaal rechtsverkeer. Aldus kan niet met zekerheid worden gesteld dat dergelijke procedures meer en meer voorkomen – zoals nochtans vaak beweerd wordt. Wel kan worden vastgesteld dat concurrerende procedures géén recent fenomeen zijn. Reeds in 1895 heeft het Institut de Droit International zich over dit probleem gebogen. De eindresolutie van het Instituut bevatte een sterke aanbeveling naar de Staten toe om de exceptie van internationale aanhangigheid te aanvaarden. De belangstelling voor dit fenomeen is sedertdien niet verdwenen, getuige hiervan de keuze van de Internationale Academie voor Rechtsvergelijking om het onderwerp in 1994 te bestuderen. Ook in de schoot van de Haagse Conferentie voor het internationaal privaatrecht heeft het onderwerp de nodige aandacht gekregen, met name in het kader van de lopende onderhandelingen die tot een nieuw Haags Executieverdrag (zouden) moeten leiden. De litispendentieregel en de forum non conveniens-leer – twee instrumenten die een belangrijke rol in de oplossing van parallelle procedures spelen, waarover meer infra – werden tijdens deze onderhandelingen het voorwerp van lange besprekingen, die tot een bijzonder vruchtbaar compromis geleid hebben. 3 Binnen één rechtssysteem kan de pluraliteit van procedures op een vrij eenvoudige manier aangepakt worden. Het Belgisch recht voorziet bijv. in een (gesofistikeerde) litispendentieregeling, waardoor parallelle procedures voor één enkele rechtbank geconcentreerd (kunnen) worden (artt. 29 en 565 Ger.W.). Daarnaast belet de exceptie van gezag van gewijsde (artt. 23 t.e.m. 28 Ger.W.) dat een reeds beslecht geschil opnieuw aan de rechter voorgelegd wordt. Het Belgisch recht bevat tenslotte een opvangbepaling voor de uitzonderlijke hypothese waarin, ondanks de twee reeds aangehaalde rechtsfiguren, onverenigbare uitspraken het licht zouden zien (bijzonder rechtsmiddel van de herroeping van het gewijsde - art. 1133, 3° Ger.W.). Op internationaal vlak ontbreekt vooralsnog een sluitende regeling voor parallelle procedures. De meeste Staten beschikken wel over specifieke regels waarmee hun rechtbanken op conflicterende procedures kunnen reageren; tevens bestaan er op regionaal niveau, en in het bijzonder binnen de Europese Unie, afspraken over het lot van parallelle procedures. De coördinatie tussen deze verschillende regelingen is evenwel zoek. Het onderzoek had precies tot doel de bestaande regels kritisch door te lichten en voorstellen voor verbetering te formuleren. Daarbij werd vooral aandacht besteed aan de formulering van algemene beginselen, die niet louter tot één rechtsstelsel of juridische traditie beperkt zijn. It takes two to tango : conflicterende procedures zijn ex hypothesis niet tot één land beperkt. Bij het uitwerken van mogelijke oplossingen moest derhalve rekening worden gehouden met de bruikbaarheid en de aanvaardbaarheid ervan voor meerdere rechtssystemen. Het doel zelf van het onderzoek, beginselen formuleren die de overtuiging van een groot deel van de internationale gemeenschap kunnen wegdragen, heeft op een bijna natuurlijke manier geleid tot het bestuderen van meerdere rechtssystemen. Het internationaal privaatrecht, dat gericht is op de coördinatie van het door rechtsverscheidenheid geplaagde internationale rechtsverkeer, is trouwens op een natuurlijke wijze aangewezen op rechtsvergelijking als bron van internationale rechtsvorming. Bovendien ben ik snel tot de conclusie gekomen dat het rechtsdenken over internationale parallelle procedures, en in het algemeen over internationaal procesrechtelijke vragen, in België nog steeds te weinig ontwikkeld is.1 4 Uitgangspunt van het onderzoek was dat de pluraliteit van procedures in het internationaal rechtsverkeer niet wenselijk is. Parallelle procedures kunnen immers tot tegenstrijdige uitspraken leiden, bijv. omdat beide rechtbanken op basis van verschillende rechtsregels oordelen, of hetzelfde feitelijke begrip - het 'belang' van het kind - anders benaderen. Onverenigbare beslissingen zijn niet alleen schadelijk voor het ideaalbeeld van de rechtspraak; ze kunnen ook aanleiding geven tot netelige problemen bij de concrete uitvoering van de uitspraken. Parallelle procedures leiden weliswaar niet automatisch tot tegenstrijdige uitspraken, doch dit gevaar kan niet genegeerd worden. Bovendien brengt het voeren van parallelle procedures een niet te verwaarlozen verspilling van tijd en geld voor de procespartijen met zich mee, alsook voor de rechtbanken die ze hiervoor aanspreken – dit terwijl het gerechtelijk apparaat van de meeste landen reeds overbevraagd is en over onvoldoende middelen beschikt om aan de minimale vereisten van een snelle en efficiënte rechtsbehandeling te voldoen. Daarom werd het onderzoek opgevat met als doel een oplossingsmodel voor te stellen waarmee parallelle procedures tot een minimum beperkt kunnen worden. Hiervoor werden twee denksporen onderzocht. In eerste instantie werd de mogelijkheid onderzocht om het ontstaan van dergelijke procedures van meetaf aan te vermijden. Naast dit preventief luik werd ook gewerkt rond de mogelijkheid om een einde te maken aan reeds ontstane conflicterende procedures. 5 Parallelle procedures kunnen alleen verklaard worden doordat het forum voor de uitkomst van het geschil geen neutraal gegeven is. Ook m.b.t. de keuze van de rechter staan de belangen van de procespartijen immers tegenover elkaar.2 Het belang van het forum voor de uitkomst van het geschil is slechts de eerste oorzaak van conflicterende procedures. Parallelle procedures zijn verder slechts mogelijk omdat partijen voor een zelfde of aanverwante geschillen verschillende rechterlijke instanties kunnen aanspreken. Voor een groot aantal grensoverschrijdende geschillen zijn meerdere Staten immers vaak bereid de deuren van hun gerechten tegelijkertijd te openen. Hierbij moet niet alleen aan het eenzijdig karakter van de nationale bevoegdheidsregelingen gedacht worden – in beginsel bepaalt elke Staat eenzijdig onder welke omstandigheden zijn gerechten bevoegd zijn om van een internationaal geschil kennis te nemen, hetgeen betekent dat de hierdoor resulterende bevoegdheidsgronden niet noodzakelijk op elkaar afgestemd zijn. Zelfs wanneer de Staten d.m.v. verdragen over de internationale rechtsmachtsverdeling afspraken maken, verdwijnt de ruimte voor parallelle procedures niet automatisch – getuige hiervan het belangrijke contentieux binnen de Europese gerechtelijke ruimte over conflicterende procedures. Een verder bewijs is het feit dat deze verdragen vaak ook regels bevatten die specifiek toegespitst zijn op parallelle procedures, zoals bijv. een prioriteitsregel ten gunste van de als eerste gevatte rechter of bijzondere weigeringsgronden in geval van conflicterende beslissingen. In eerste instantie werd daarom de mogelijkheid onderzocht om de pluraliteit van bevoegdheidsgronden, die aan de grondslag van parallelle procedures ligt, in te dijken. Hiervoor werd een beroep gedaan op het internationaal recht en de rechten van de mens, en in het bijzonder op het recht op een eerlijk proces. De vraag luidde of deze normen concrete aanknopingspunten bieden waarmee een scheidingslijn getrokken kan worden tussen aanvaardbare en onaanvaardbare aanspraken op rechtsmacht door nationale Staten. Vastgesteld moest worden dat de grenzen van de vrijheid waarover Staten beschikken om hun internationale bevoegdheid af te bakenen, bijzonder vaag zijn en geen concrete houvast bieden – behalve dan om zeer algemene beginselen te distilleren. Daarna werd aandacht besteed aan de mogelijkheid om bevoegdheidsaanspraken te coördineren. Hierbij werd stilgestaan bij het forum connexitatis, als instrument bij uitstek om de verschillende facetten van een geschil voor één rechtbank te brengen. Vastgesteld moest evenwel worden dat deze 'catch all' bevoegdheidsregel noodzakelijkerwijze ook aan bijzondere grenzen onderworpen dient te worden, om het evenwicht tussen de overige bevoegdheidsregel niet te verstoren. Dit verklaart trouwens ook waarom deze techniek, hoewel voor de coördinatie van geschillen zeer bevorderlijk, rechtsvergelijkend geen succes is. Uiteindelijk kan de pluraliteit van fora waarschijnlijk worden verklaard door het feit dat bevoegdheidsregels aan verschillende, soms tegenstrijdige beleidsdoelstellingen dienen te beantwoorden, zoals de wens om enerzijds zwakke partijen te beschermen en anderzijds contractuele afspraken aan te moedigen. Hierdoor is het moeilijk of soms zelfs onmogelijk om op voorhand voor elk geschil slechts één enkele (zgn. natuurlijke) rechter aan te wijzen. Het besluit luidde aldus dat bevoegdheidsregels, hoe geperfectioneerd ook, waarschijnlijk steeds de mogelijkheid zullen bieden om voor een zelfde geschil verscheidene rechters aan te spreken. 6 Naast de theoretische onderbouwing van de internationale rechtsmachtsafbakening werd ook aandacht besteed aan de wilsautonomie van partijen als mogelijke remedie tegen het ontstaan van parallelle procedures. Voorafgaandelijke akkoorden over de bevoegdheid kunnen immers bijdragen tot een vermindering van het aantal gevallen van conflicterende procedures. Vastgesteld werd dat de preventieve werking van bevoegdheidsafspraken, hoewel groot, nooit sluitend is, gelet op de versplintering van de controle op dergelijke afspraken en het ontbreken van een algemeen aanvaard kader voor de wilsautonomie. Daarom werden een aantal denksporen aangereikt met als doel de werking van de wil der partijen te versterken. Belangrijk is het voorstel om de verhouding tussen gederogeerde en prorogeerde fora te herschikken, zodanig dat aan die laatste een (voorlopige of definitieve) monopolie zou worden toegekend om de geldigheid en de werking van het bevoegdheidsakkoord te toetsen. 7 Sluitende afspraken over de bevoegdheidsverdeling zullen het ontstaan van conflicterende procedures niet beletten. Daarom steunt het onderzoek ook in een belangrijke mate op een curatief oplossingsmodel. Hiervoor werd in twee fasen gewerkt. In een eerste fase werden twee technieken bestudeerd, waarvan gebleken is dat ze geen voldoening geven en aldus niet tot model-oplossingen uitgeroepen kunnen worden. Het gaat in de eerste plaats om de mogelijkheid voor een rechtbank om een partij, die een procedure voor een buitenlandse rechter instelt, een verbod op te leggen deze procedure verder te zetten. Met een dergelijk verbod – anti-suit injunction in de Engelse terminologie – kan een rechtbank rechtstreeks – of ten minste via de persoon van de verweerder, eiser voor de buitenlandse rechter - een einde aan de buitenlandse procedure maken. Het rechterlijk verbod is een bijzonder krachtig instrument, dat d.m.v. de contempt of court gesanctioneerd wordt. Het procedureverbod biedt het voordeel dat op de buitenlandse procedure zelf een (al dan niet) beslissend invloed uitgeoefend werd, zonder evenwel enige druk op de buitenlandse rechter rechtstreeks uit te oefenen. De sancties waarmee het overtreden van het verbod gepaard gaan, viseren immers slechts de persoon van de verweerder, eiser in het buitenland. Uit het onderzoek is echter gebleken dat de anti suit injunction bezwaarlijk een algemene oplossing voor conflicterende procedures kan bieden. Dit is in eerste instantie te wijten aan het feit dat de voorwaarden waaronder een dergelijke injunction toegekend wordt, bijzonder restrictief zijn. In wezen zal een Engelse of een Amerikaanse rechter slechts naar de injunction grijpen wanneer hij of zij overtuigd is dat de buitenlandse procedure een misbruik uitmaakt, bijv. doordat de eiser in het buitenland op de tegenpartij druk probeert uit te oefenen, of nog door het instellen van een procedure voor een buitenlandse rechter de erkenning resp. tenuitvoerlegging van de toekomstige Engelse beslissing tracht te dwarsbomen. Hierdoor ontsnapt een groot deel van de parallelle procedures aan deze sanctie. Daarnaast is ook gebleken dat anti suit injunctions vaak meer moeilijkheden creëren dan ze oplossingen bieden. Dit heeft te maken met het agressief karakter van het procedureverbod, dat de indruk kan wekken dat een rechter zich het recht toeëigent om te beslissen over het lot van een voor een buitenlandse rechter ingestelde procedure. Dit wordt de Engelse of Amerikaanse rechter niet in dank genomen. In de praktijk wordt op dergelijke procedureverboden soms hevig gereageerd, en wanneer de buitenlandse rechter zelf het instituut van de injunction kent, is een reactie 'in natura' niet uitgesloten (zgn. anti anti suit injunction), waardoor de kans op een ware juridische guerrilla ontstaat. Tenslotte moet vastgesteld worden dat het gebruik van anti suit injunctions fundamenteel onverzoenbaar is met het vertrouwensidee waarop internationale akkoorden tussen Staten gebaseerd zijn. Zijn de betrokken Staten gebonden door een verdrag, dat hun respectieve bevoegdheden nauwkeurig vastlegt en voor het vrij verkeer van hun beslissingen zorgt, dan kan niet aanvaard worden dat een bepaalde rechter 'politieman' speelt en eenzijdig beslist wanneer een andere zich niet aan de afspraken houdt. In dit verband moet vastgesteld worden dat afspraken tussen Staten hoe langer hoe gebruikelijker worden in het internationaal privaatrechtelijk contentieux - niet alleen binnen Europa, maar ook daarbuiten. Hierdoor verdwijnt elke ruimte voor eenzijdige initiatieven zoals de anti suit injunctions. 8 In plaats van zich (on)rechtstreeks in de buitenlandse procedure te mengen, kan een rechter ook beslissen om een afwachtende houding t.a.v. het conflict tussen procedures te nemen en de oplossing tot een later stadium uit te stellen. De gedachte is dan dat het conflict tussen twee procedures wel opgelost zal worden wanneer een van de twee rechtbanken zich uitspreekt, vermits zijn beslissing in de andere procedure ingeroepen kan worden, op grond van de exceptie van gezag van gewijsde of een equivalent hiervan. Deze methode kenmerkt een deel van de Amerikaanse rechtspraak. Onder invloed van interne precedenten hebben Amerikaanse rechtbanken immers als algemene regel geponeerd dat parallelle procedures getolereerd dienen te worden en slechts een einde zullen nemen wanneer de eerste beslissing in de andere procedure ter staving van een exceptie van gezag van gewijsde ingeroepen wordt. In andere landen wordt de exceptie van gezag van gewijsde eerder als een vervangende oplossing beschouwd, waarvan slechts toepassing gemaakt wordt wanneer andere technieken ontoereikend blijken. De exceptie van gezag van gewijsde biedt geen voldoening bij het oplossen van conflicterende procedures. Door de oplossing tot op het stadium van de erkenning uit te stellen, blijven de twee procedures parallel verlopen, hetgeen een onduldbare verspilling van gerechtelijke krachten en tijd met zich meebrengt. Het risico is ook groot dat beide partijen zullen trachten om 'hun' procedure zo snel mogelijk tot een einde te laten komen ('race to judgment'). Bovendien blijft het gevaar bestaan dat tegenstrijdige uitspraken het licht zien. De werking van de exceptie van gezag van gewijsde is immers aan talrijke voorwaarden onderworpen : naast de weigeringsgronden vormt het procedureel statuut van de exceptie ook een obstakel voor de beslechting van parallelle procedures. Het is aldus niet uitgesloten dat de eerste beslissing in het ander land geen uitwerking krijgt. Dit zal met name het geval zijn wanneer de procedure die tot de eerste beslissing geleid heeft, nà de concurrerende procedure ingeleid is geweest. In vele landen is de schending van de eerdere aanhangigheid van het forum immers een weigeringsgrond. 9 Het procedure-verbod en het gezag van het eerste rechterlijke gewijsde kunnen hoogstens als marginale oplossingen getolereerd worden. Voor de oplossing van procedureconflicten biedt de voorrangsregel meer voldoening. Hiermee wordt bedoeld dat een rechtbank die volgens zijn eigen regels bevoegd is, een geschil uit handen geeft t.v.v. een andere rechtbank zodat slechts één instantie zich over het geschil uitspreekt. Voorrang geven aan de concurrerende rechter is zeker geen evidentie, nu het betekent dat het geschil geheel volgens de buitenlandse normen – ten gronde doch ook voor de procedure - beslecht zal worden. Dit verklaart waarom de voorrangsmethode in de verschillende rechtsstelsels slechts zeer geleidelijk ingang gevonden heeft. Tegenwoordig is deze methode echter tot dé oplossing bij uitstek voor parallelle procedures uitgegroeid : zowel in nationale codificaties als in internationale verdragen wordt de 'hoffelijkheid' terecht als de oplossing voor procedureconflicten naar voren geschoven. Deze methode blijkt het best in staat om het uitgangspunt van de studie te helpen verwezenlijken, en wordt daarom geprivilegieerd. 10 Onthoudingsregels komen in verschillende vormen voor, gaande van een automatische litispendentieregel, gebaseerd op de strikte chronologie van de procedures, tot een zeer gesofistikeerde forum non conveniens-regel waarbij een afweging van zowel privé- als van publieke belangen gemaakt wordt. Bij de analyse werden drie verschillende vormen van de voorrangsregel onderscheiden, die aan talrijke modaliteiten onderworpen kunnen worden. De opdracht bestond er daarom in om een keuze te maken tussen de verschillende vormen. De hoffelijkheid kan in de eerste plaats aan het idee van misbruik van procedure onderworpen worden. In deze eerste, beperkte vorm is er slechts plaats voor onthouding door een rechtbank ten voordele van een buitenlandse procedure wanneer vastgesteld wordt dat het instellen van de forumprocedure een misbruik vormt. Deze beperkte opvatting van de onthouding heeft in de 19de eeuw lange tijd de bovenhand gehad. In Engeland stemt ze overeen met de eerste versie van wat later tot de forum non conveniens-theorie zou uitgroeien. De misbruiktheorie biedt geen voldoening om als grondslag voor de hoffelijkheid te fungeren. Door de onthouding tot die gevallen voor te behouden waar er van misbruik sprake is, blijft een groot deel van de parallelle procedures buiten schoot. In vele gevallen worden conflicterende procedures immers zonder (al te veel) bijbedoelingen ingesteld. Bovendien dwingt de misbruiktheorie de rechter tot een moeilijk onderzoek van de bedoelingen van procespartijen. De grens tussen 'gewone' forum shopping en misbruik kan moeilijk worden getrokken. Het recht van rechtsonderhorigen om toegang tot de rechter te krijgen moet centraal blijven en het misbruik mag slechts uitzonderlijk aanvaard worden. 11 De hoffelijkheid kan ook aan het idee worden aangeknoopt dat een bepaalde rechter beter geplaatst is dan een andere om het geschil te beslechten. Deze idee heeft in de common law landen ingang gevonden onder de vorm van de forum non conveniens leer : een Engelse rechter zal aan een buitenlandse rechter voorrang geven indien het oordeelt dat deze laatste, gelet op de bijzondere omstandigheden van het geval, beter in staat is om van het geschil kennis te nemen. De beslissing om zich te onthouden gebeurt in deze hypothese op basis van een erg ruim geformuleerde algemene regel, na een grondig onderzoek van de bijzondere omstandigheden van het geschil, met als doel na te gaan of het geschil tot de natuurlijke bevoegdheidsfeer van de Engelse rechter thuishoort. De leer van het forum non conveniens werd in Engeland en andere common law landen ook ten dienste gesteld van de beslechting van parallelle procedures. Deze bijzonder gesofistikeerde methode overtuigt echter niet als grondslag voor de hoffelijkheid. Het probleem met het forum non conveniens is dat het om een uitzonderingsclausule gaat : in wezen dient de doctrine om de ongewenste resultaten van ruim geformuleerde bevoegdheidsregels ongedaan te maken. Het forum non conveniens werkt aldus best wanneer er een sterk onevenwicht tussen de twee rechtbanken en hun aanspraken op bevoegdheid bestaat. Wanneer de twee rechtbanken integendeel redelijkerwijze op bevoegdheid aanspraak kunnen maken, is het forum non conveniens niet bij machte om de voorrangsvraag te beslechten. Het begrip van 'natural forum' waarop de doctrine gebaseerd is, kan derhalve niet als onderscheidingscriterium weerhouden worden. 12 Tenslotte werd een derde vorm van hoffelijkheid grondig bestudeerd : in deze vorm, geeft een rechtbank voorrang aan een andere omdat deze laatste als éérste geadieerd werd. Het tijdstip van aanhangigheid fungeert dan als onderscheidingscriterium tussen de twee procedures. Deze benadering van de hoffelijkheid kan in de continentaal-europese landen op een lange traditie steunen. Binnen de Europese gerechtelijke ruimte werd dit criterium zelfs tot de enige oplossing gepromoveerd voor procedureconflicten. De chronologische benadering contrasteert met het forum non conveniens door zijn eenvoud en zijn duidelijkheid. In de meeste gevallen zal zonder al te veel moeilijkheden kunnen worden vastgesteld welke rechter als eerste van het geschil gevat werd. Anderzijds kan het chronologisch criterium zich op het idee van proceseconomie beroepen : de eerste procedure krijgt voorrang, niet louter omwille van een arbitraire keuze, doch wel omdat partijen in de regel in de eerste procedure reeds bepaalde steppen zullen genomen hebben. Deze inspanningen zouden op de helling worden gezet indien aan de tweede procedure systematisch voorrang zou worden gegeven. De chronologische methode is echter niet zonder moeilijkheden. De bepaling van het tijdstip waarop een rechter van een geschil gevat wordt, kan bijzonder moeilijk uitvallen. Bovendien is het chronologische criterium waardeloos wanneer de twee procedures gelijktijdig ingeleid worden. In dit geval verliest het tijdscriterium bovendien een groot deel van zijn rechtvaardiging, nu beide procedures ongeveer even ver gevorderd zullen zijn. Tenslotte kan de chronologische benadering tot ongewenste resultaten leiden, in het bijzonder doordat procespartijen a.h.w. tot het instellen van een procedure aangemoedigd worden ('race to the court'). 13 Daarom wordt de voorkeur voor de chronologische benadering van de internationale hoffelijkheid in het laatste deel sterk genuanceerd. Nuances worden in twee richtingen gezocht. Ten eerste wordt aan de grondslag zelf van de hoffelijkheid gesleuteld. Voorgesteld wordt met name om de chronologische methode af te zwakken, door een uitzondering op de voorrang van de eerste rechter in te voeren. Deze uitzondering zou de eerste gevatte rechter de kans geven om de voorrang die hij geniet, te weigeren indien hij oordeelt dat het geschil manifest beter bij de andere rechter thuishoort. Daarnaast wordt ook aandacht besteed aan de randvoorwaarden van de chronologische regel. Daaronder vallen o.a. het bepalen van het tijdstip van de aanhangigheid en van de grenzen van de identiteit van de geschillen, de mogelijkheid om de chronologische voorrang aan een wederkerigheidsvoorwaarde te onderwerpen of aan een voorwaarde afgeleid uit de erkenning van de toekomstige beslissing. Tenslotte wordt ook onderzocht welke weerslag de exceptie van openbare orde op de internationale hoffelijkheid kan hebben. 14 Conclusie - De studie biedt een (hopelijk) objectieve weergave van de manier waarop een aantal landen parallelle procedures behandelen, en tracht opmerkelijke gelijkenissen en verschillen tussen deze behandelingen aan te tonen. Daarnaast, en niet in mindere mate, werd getracht om een verklarend kader te schetsen, dat kan bijdragen tot een beter begrip voor de verschillende wijzen waarop de betrokken rechtssystemen parallelle procedures behandelen. Tegelijkertijd heeft dit kader de mogelijkheid geboden om de bestaande oplossingen te evalueren en te bekritiseren. De rode draad doorheen deze kritiek was de vaststelling dat de eenzijdigheid en de daarmee samenhangende soevereiniteitsgedachte in het internationaal procesrecht nog altijd de bovenhand hebben op het streven naar harmonieuse, door samenwerking gekenmerkte oplossingen. Het onderzoek naar conflicterende procedures is de aanleiding geweest om een doorsnede van het internationaal procesrecht te maken. Parallelle procedures, die slechts één van de talrijke problemen zijn waarmee het internationaal procesrecht geconfronteerd wordt, vormen een mooie illustratie van het onvoltooid karakter van deze rechtstak. Hoewel het onderzoek ook geleid heeft tot het formuleren van een paar punctuele voorstellen tot verbetering van de thans geldende of aangekondigde regels, ligt het belang ervan vooral in het aanreiken van een aantal bouwstenen waarop de evolutie van het internationaal procesrecht naar meer samenwerking en minder eenzijdigheid kan steunen.
The College Metcuty. VOL. IV. GETTYSBURG, PA., JULY, 1896. No. 5. THE COLLEGE MEfiCUftr, Published each month during the college year by the Students of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg) College. STAFF. Editor: ROB3IN B. WOLF, '97. Associate Editors : LEWIS C. MANGES, '97. ED. W. MEISENHELDER, '98. SAMUEL J. MILLER '97. CHARLES T. JOHN W. OTT, '97. CHARLES H. E. L. KOLLER, '98. LARK TILP, Alumni Association Editor: REV. D. FRANK GARLAND, A. M., Baltimore, Md. Business Manager: HARRY R, SMITH, '97. Assistant Business Manager: JOHN E. MEISENHELDER, '97. -n.-.iru ("One volume (ten months). U'UMS-\Slngle copies Finable is advance. $1,110 .15 AH Students are requested to hand us matter tor publication. The Alumni and ex-members or the College will favor us by sending information concerning their whereabouts or any items they may think would be interesting for publication. All subscriptions and business matters should be addressed to the business manager. , Matter intended for publication should be addressed to the Editor Address, THE COLLEGE MEKCUHY, Gettysburg, Pa! CONTENTS. ABSTRACT or BACCALAUREATE SERMON, - 66 THE PLACE or THE Y. M. C. A. IN THE \ ,R SOCIOLOGY OF THE COLLEGE, | CLASS-DAY EXERCISES, . - --- 71 CLASS-DAY POEM, - 71 JUNIOR ORATORICAL CONTEST, - 71 HOME, SWEET HOME. - 71 ROLL OF HONOR, - - -.- - - - - - -74 COLLEGE COMMENCEMENT PROGRAM. --- 74 DEGREES. -74 SPECIAL ANNOUNCEMENT, - - 75 ALUMNI NOTES, 75 SrF.ciAL ANNOUNCEMENT, - - - 77 COLLEGE LOCALS, -' --- . 77 ATHLETICS, 79 HOTEL LOOKOUT, --81 ABSTRACT OF BACCALAUREATE SERMON. BY II. W. MCKNIGHT, D D., IX. D. li'h- 8: 5. "See, saith He, that thou make all things according to the pattern showed to thee in the Mount." These words relate to the building of the tabernacle in the wilderness. It was to sub-serve such great purposes in the camp of the chosen people that God himself had revealed the pattern of it to Moses on Mount Sinai, in-dicating and fixing both its general plan and its minutest details, and saying to him : "See that thou make all things according- to the pattern showed to thee.'' Moses was, first, to grasp clearly the plan, the ideal. He was to go to his work, not aimlessly, but knowing what he was to do and how he was to do it. Definiteness of plan, distinctness of ideal, and fidelity to it were to him the esseutialconditions of success. The lessons thus taught are easily discerned. They are applicable now and here. You, my young friends, are about to go down from a veritable mount of privilege and preparatory training to engagements and a mission that have been fixed for you in the divine plan. Your intended work is to be constructive. You are to be builders in a very high and real sense—builders of character, organizers and constructors of a lifework as solemn in its im-port as destiny and as enduring as the endless cycles of eternity. Nor are you left to guess what you are to do and how you are to do it. God, who has built the universe and formed its myriad and minutest parts together in a comprehensive and harmonious plan, whose purpose shines in every star, blooms in every flower, is enfolded in every seed and finds ex-pression in every voice of nature, has his plan, also, for your life and work. He has embod-ied it for your guidance in the precepts and principles of His word. He has revealed it 67 THE COLLEGE MERCURY. most clearly and impressively in the spotless example of His Son. He has brought you up to that other mount of latest and sweetest reve-lation, the mount of the cross, that you might with open-face behold and with grateful hearts love the heavenly pattern of living and work-ing. Fidelity to this divine ideal is central and all inclusive in your preparation for life. To ignore it is the madness of turning from light to darkness. To practically neglect it will be to repeat the fatal mistake of the foolish builder who "built his house upon the sand," and whose plans and efforts and hopes came to naught in the ruin wrought by the tempest's and torrent's fury. Speaking to you, therefore, in the name of your instructors and delivering to you the final and affectionate charge of the institution, whose training you have received, permit me to set before you the pattern of a true life, to urge you to embody it in the ideal, and plans you form for your work, and to re-peat to you the solemn injunction : "See that you make all things according to it.'' He then presented and discussed the ideal of a true life as ist. The subordination of the material to the spiritual. 2nd. The embodiment of beneficence. 3rd. Having as its radiant centre—its Holy of Holies, God, his will, grace and glory. After discussing these points he addressed the class as follows : "My young friends of the class of'96: In sending you forth now, the Institution is concerned, not only for what you will do, but also for the spirit in which you will do it. It would have you adopt as the stand-ard by which you will measure your achieve-ments a high and worthy ideal and aim. What you will do, the spheres you will fill, will be determined largely by your endowments and opportunities, by circumstances not always within your control. You may not be per-mitted to choose what you will do, but you can determine the spirit in which you will do it. This, more than anything else, will settle the question of your worthiness and real suc-cess. Ideals and aims, whether right or wrong, true or false, lofty or low, though but neutral facts, mere abstractions, become a vitalized force to those who make them their own—a power to be measured only by the comprehen-siveness and reach of the principles involved. Whether in the form of proverbs, mottoes or doctrine, they have masterful force. Men bow before them as the ripened corn before the au-tumn winds. How the recent re-statement of the Monroe doctrine, our nation's ideal for this continent, and its interposition against the ag-gression of England roused the people with readiness to subordinate to it all other interests and to defend it at any cost : "Freedom for the American slave," too, was once only an abstraction, and those who cherished it were decried as wild enthusiasts, but it asserted its sway and, through the proclamation of Presi-dent Lincoln and the victories of the Union arms, became a sublime reality in the disen-thrallment of swarthy millions. Of the Puri-tans, whose unswerving devotion to truth and the principles of liberty once made them seem so visionary, whose name has become familiar as any household word in the homes of free-dom, and whose imperishable memorial is the civil and religious liberty of England and America. Macaulay, tracing the power that swayed them to its source, has well said: "They derived their character from the daily contemplation of superior beings and eternal interests." All history attests the fact that all men who have done the best and largest work first wrought out in thought the pattern of their work. They anticipated the end from the beginning and set their aims toward it as the pilot holds the prow of his ship towards the harbor beyond the sea. Greatness and steadiness of aim impelled Paul and Luther to heroic deeds and made them a world-wide force. The loftiness of their ideals drew them up with increasing strength into spheres of sub-limest achievement. Nor can you come into excellence of char-acter and work in any other way. "Purpose," it has been wisely said, "is what gives life a meaning." It rouses and directs the energies, THE COLLEGE MERCURY. 68 and prevents drifting. Bind your life to that which is great and good, and greatness and goodness will be your enduring portion. A worthy ideal will give its ennobling impress to vour character and work, in any sphere, even as the beauty of the blossom is determined by the colors laid at the root of the tree. In the very sense of incompleteness, of "having not yet attained" which it begets and perpetuates vou will find a prime condition of progress, and an urgency to such sustained effort as in-sures increasing effectiveness and power. "Mrs. Sarah Larman Smith," it is said, "learned to talk of Christ to the Arab women in a few months, and Schwartz to the Hindoos in three weeks." Why? A great purpose— to preach the gospel to the benighted and per-ishing, quickened their faculties and enabled them to do in a few weeks or months what to minds, lacking such inspiration, would have been the work of years. So let it be with you. While you dwell among things which seem temporal and have to do with them, look above and beyond them at the things which are un-seen and eternal. Let your ideal of living and working be a pattern showed to you in the Mount of God, a celestial power and iuspira: tion in the doing of earthly things. Grasp its full significance "in the perfect man" in whom the ideal became the real, and pattern was changed with person. Let His love constrain you ; His arms control you ; His example in-spire and mould you ; let it be Christ for you to live, and the end will be, must be, eternal gain. "See that you make all things accord-ing to the pattern showed to you in the Mount.'' THE PLACE OF THE Y. M. C. A. IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE COLLEGE. BY DR. ENOCH PERRINE. A change international in extent has revo-lutionized the college world. Barriers between the different classes and between professors and students have been broken down. An-tagonism between different professors and bit-ter contention between colleges has largely disappeared. Colleges are bound even in an international fellowship. All departments contribute to this movement, the Y. M. C. A. most of all, suggesting a sociology of the col-lege. The young man coming to college thinks first of his social status, the attitude of other students, and whether he shall make war or peace. Formerly he had to conquer a place and having established his reputation as a dangerous man, he visited the newer comer with the same horrors to which he had been subjected. Now the Y. M. C. A. meets him at the beginning and does numberless acts of kindness, exhibiting the characteristics of Christ, "the first true gentleman that ever breathed." It thus binds the college world fast by social ties. This must be done in the college before we can expect, it to obtain out-side, since in the college are peculiar incen-tives for the work. The young man next adjusts himself to his intellectual environment. He begins to be shut in by the material success about him and may be tempted to leave behind his "trailing clouds of glory." Then the Y. M. C. A. can direct aright his thought, insisting that God ought to be traced everywhere, thus binding all his intellectual efforts around the cross of Christ, "by whom all things consist." The importance and office of the intellect in the pursuit of truth will be plain to him. Darwin suffered an atrophy ou his poetic and spiritual side and the Y. M. C. A. may prevent such a fate from overtaking their fellows, thus pre-venting the head from freezing the heart and working a great benefit in the Intellectual life of the college. As he proceeds in the acquisition of knowl-edge, the young student will begin to think that in ideas alone there is a defense against moral degredation and a nepenthe for all dis-appointments. Culture will keep corruption from his hands—will be a shelter in the time of storm. Orators and poets shall be his all in all. Then the Y. M. C. A. may give him 69 THK COLLEGE MERCURY. right conceptions as to the Moral life, assert-ing that it is pitiful when the soul mounts higher but comes not closer to God and prov-ing that he only is truly moral who bases his life upon God. All parts of the social life are to be harmonized under one supreme principle. This is to be found at the foot of the cross and any other proposal is but a scheme of decep-tion leaving the mighty turmoil to seethe and boil underneath in undiminished horror. As the Y. M. C. A. insists upon this no man of culture will wail with Mathew Arnold that "most men die unfreed, having seen nothing, still unblest." But all these results may be successfully ac-complished and yet the student may miss the crowning glory. He may play the gentleman in the highest outward sense, may go willingly to the point where his logical faculties assure him that'there is a God, may develop his aesthetic sense so that the moral thing shall seem to be a beautiful thing, and yet blending by all this glory he may not know that he is really in Chimerian darkness. Then the Y. M. C. A. can declare that only he truly loves who loves a personality, that no one ever got beyond a cold respect for an abstraction, though that abstraction be a s.ream of tend-ency that makes for righteousness, and that one must see the king in his beauty before he will get that larger outlook without which life is flat, stale and unprofitable. The Y. M. C. A. can bring about this very desirable change of view better than any other agency about the college since the ordinary student out of Christ, now that he is no longer in the acad-emy, will resent the efforts of his professors to a greater degree than he will those of his fel-lows. Hence in the Social, Intellectual, Moral and Spiritual life of the college, the Y. M. C. A. can make its influence felt at every point, con-tributing that great and final binding force which will make the students in colleges in all lauds a more nearly compact body, and hence furnishing the material for an enduring sociol-ogy inside the college that shall spread out-ward in power and bring the world into a fed-erated parliament that-shall be the longest known to history'. FINE ART'S LIFE. BY L. P. EISENHART. Delightfully care-free seems the Fine Art's career to most of us. Light-hearted and blith-some, it is like the Arcadian life of poetic lore. But beneath its ruddy surface are the marks of many a suffering, the traces of many a heartache. The working of these hidden cares gives to genius its wonted lustre. Sons of art whatever be its realm are all of one brotherhood. The story of the one is the re-told tale of the other. The history of Italy is one great romance. It is the story of sailors, painters and poets. But its fulcrum chapter is the tale of that life-tossed son of Florence. Dante. Born into the throes of civil war, banished from office, de-serted by his friends, he was turned out of his beloved Florence, a heart-broken exile. Sor-row- stricken, death-doomed, he became a wan-derer with no home on earth. An American poet told his life-story in the epithet "world-worn." But his thoughts kept tending toward the eternal world. There his tender pitying soul found a calm repose. This hidden pain of a wrecked and thwarted usefulness showed itself seared and smarting in the Divine Comedy. Had he been spared these suffer-ings, the world would have lost its greatest epic, "the voice often silent centuries" would have been unheard. Insanity made an exile of another Italian bard. Vexed in spirit and failing in body, it was during the same moments of his prison lite that he poured forth his sweetest strains. In another clime those ballads which inspired a nation's people with the love of country are the life thoughts of a poverty-cursed poet. England's master poet in the trouble time of life wrote his best tragedies. A German poet touched the key-note of Fine Art's life when he said of a fellow-craftsman, "The Muse of THE COEEEGE MERCURY. 70 Comedy kissed him on the lips, but the Muse of Tragedy on the heart." Many a versed line lightly passed by has in it the throb and heart-break of tragic every day. The picture of Scott's departure from life-bought Abbottsford is painted in cold, gray colors. We who read his tales of Scotland life scarce realize the pathos and romance of their writer's ill-fated career. Of it his own words were: "But death would have them from me, if misfortunes had spared them." Pride-stricken, broken in body and crushed in spirit he toiled until his fingers could no longer grasp that noted pen. Scott, the minstrel of Highlandlays, the story-teller of border life appeared in the tragic fifth act of his life as Scott the great-hearted man. The life of Robert Louis Stevenson was one long struggle for health. It was this that led him into the pleasant scenes of Scotland, brought him to America, and finally carried him to the island of Samoa. Yet in these blighted years came his creative mood, came too his working day. *'I count life just a stuff To try the soul's strength on, educe the man." Delightful Jean Paul Richter gave this word-ing to our theme—thought. "Fate does with poets, as'we-do with birds—it darkens the warbler's cage until he has caught the oft-played air that he is to sing." Workers at canvas and easel have painted with real meaning in dark, sombre hues. Michel Angelo working for years on those Florentine frescoes, a victim of civil strife and hated by his fellow-painters is a picture not to be forgotten. Many a time did faithless patrons and flights for liberty stay his brush. The sweet-faced Madonnas of an earlier art age are their master's souls in color. Had they life, theirs would be a touching tale of dingy garrets, sleepless nights, days of untold hunger. Pressing poverty and a father's violence made intense the storm and stress period of Beethoven's life. Few were the moments not embittered by trouble at home, ingratitude of friends and the sting of unjust criticism. But life itself seemed lost when the dearest of all senses to him was gradually passing away. His own sonatas could no longer make sound-harmony. It was at this time that he poured forth his great symphonies, those tales of human woe. That was poetic music, the music of the soul. Not one of Schubert's greater operas was placed upon the stage ; nor was he ever to hear his own symphonies ; to him starvation was an uncanny darkness, ever near by. The Fine Art's life of our master musicians is a song in minors. The saddening notes of their soul-touching sonatas are the echoes of many sufferings. Behind the richly-colored scenes of the glit-tering theatre have been acted life's sternest realities. Queens of the stage and kings among actors have not only acted tragedies but have also lived them. While yet a mere boy, Edwin Booth, snow-bound amid the' wastes of Nevada, heard the news of his father's death, the loss of his only hope. The woman of his first love, the companion in his art, died in his absence. Then came the rash act of a lunatic brother, which cast a shadow over the whole world and for a moment his reputation and honored name seemed lost. But a nation's sympathy and the sense of duty to his great art called him back from his gloomy retire-ment. Returning, "he saw his fortune of more than a million dollars, together with the toil of some of the best years of his life frittered away." "A crowning hurt was the gradual passing away of his style of dramatic art. Booth was a dreamer, made sublime by suffer-ing. It was his cares and sorrows that made him dreamy and mysterious in Hamlet, tender and majestic in Richelieu, frenzied and at the same time affectionate in King Eear. May we not say, then, that often has it been the storm and stress of things that has cried to the Fine Art's soul, "Awake !" The Kalendar is the name of an interesting exchange that comes to our table from the Woman's College, of Baltimore. 71 THE COLLEGE MERCURY. CLASS-DAY EXERCISES. TUESDAY EVENING, JUNE 16, 1896. Master of Ceremonies, - - - - L. P. EISENHART. Music—Orchestra. CLASS EXERCISES. Class Roll, ARTHUR C. CARTY. Class History, IRA O. MOSER. Class Poem, EDNA M. LOOMIS. Music—Orchestra. Presentation Oration, - - WILLIAM R. REITZEL. Class Prophecy, FRED. J. BAUM. Peace Cup Oration, WILLIAMG. BRUBAKER. Mantle Presentation, - - - - WILLIAM MENGES. Junior Response, HENRY W. BIKI.E. Final Parade around the buildings, headed by the Band. CLASS-DAY POEM. From our Freshman year to Senior, College life meant toil and pain ; Now, lessons all are learned, and never Need we con them o'er again. Oh, the joy this thought brings with it; Joy wo feel but cannot speak. No more trials with mathematics, Logic, chemistry, or Greek. Yet, amid these thoughts of pleasure, I am in a dreadful fix; For the class must have a poem, And what will rhyme with '96? All the words by Webster given, All of those in Worcester found, One by one I've looked them over, But they give no classic sound. Days and nights I've toiled in anguish, 'Till my brain is in a mix; But not a word of sound poetic, Will make a rhyme with '96. All the class has done and conquered, All its record pnre and bright, Merit words of beauty, surely, Yet with prosy pen I write. I would say, the class are noble, Yet I only call them "bricks;" It is slang, I know, but truly, Noble will not rhyme with six. When I say of this or that one, He does well, he never sticks, Do not criticise my language, It's all the fault of '96. I would say they all are students, Aud I say, "They burn their wicks ;" Midnight oil would sound much better, But that won't rhyme with '96. Sometimes, classes passed thro' college, Trusting in a horse that kicks; Some have wasted time, but never, Was this done by '96. Some, the Faculty have worried, With their wild and foolish tricks. Neither this, nor any such thing, Has been done by '96. Thus, our record's full of honor; Not a conscience here that pricks! Every heart is brave and loyal, In the class of'96. But our college days are over, And we turn in sadness round; Noting now, with tender memories, Each familiar sight and sound. Hall, and "dorm" and "lab" and chapel, And the solemn clock that ticks, Mid our jokes and smiles the warrant For the death of'96. Now, the time has come for parting; Hall and Campus, loved of yore, Loved forever, we must leave you, We may dwell with you no more. Gettysburg, our Alma Mater, Mournful is the latch that clicks, As we pass beyond thy portal, A long farewell to '96. JUNIOR ORATORICAL CONTEST. WEDNESDAY, The Magnetism of Mystery, Our Debt to our Forefathers, National Character, - The Model American, - Home, Sweet Home, r International Arbitration, The Mission of the Jew, - Shoals of Success. - fPhrenakosmian. ♦Philomathsan. JUNE 17, 1896. GEORGE W. ENGLAR:* P. T. E- STOCKSLAGER.f - HORACE E- CLUTE.* ROBBIN B. WOLF.t - A. GERTRUDE SIEBER.* JOHN \V. OTT.f - GEORGE F. ABEL.* HENRY W. BIKLE.I HOME, SWEET HOME. BY ANNA G. SIEBER-The home is a divine institution, founded when God created our first parents in his own image and placed them in that home of prim-eval innocence to form the nucleus of the race. Even since the fallj which "brought death into the world and all our woe," the home bears the marks of divine fingers. Here love's first and finest feelings find expression and the wholesome restraints of government begin their peaceful sway. The Father of us all set the solitary in families and bound them together with ties of mutual sympathy, mutual depend-ence and mutual helpfulness. From the begin- THE COLLEGE MERCURY. 72 ning its divine sanction as well as its divine wisdom was recognized. Among the chosen people it developed into the patriarchal gov-ernment ; among the Greeks and Romans, in their highest civilization, the home was a sacred spot and the family the cradle of social and political power and the school of patriotism and religion. With the neglect of the home and a disregard for the family, came the decay of morals, the loss of power and the fall of the empire. The home must ever be the founda-tion of government, and if the foundations be destroyed, how can the individual, social and political building stand ? If the home be pro-tected and the graces of virtue, education, in-dustry and religion be carefully fostered and cultivated, the nation must live and fulfil her high destiny. The coming campaign will doubtless again fill the air with eloquent argu-ment in protection of the national sheep and the American hen and skillfully fail to mention the imperiled boy in the citadel of the Ameri-can home. Whether our great leaders recog-nize the home in their ambition for position or not, the fact remains the same, that here lies the secret of national power or weakness. There are several insidious tendencies which threaten the national life by destroying the home. There is the mad rush to the large cities early in life to secure financial advant-age. Leaving the pure mountain air, the ten-der ministries of home and nature, the asso-ciations of religion in the country or village church, the simple demands of society, the modern young man is tossed like a toy upon the jostling mass of humanity to "break every tender tie" of home, to live in the city board-ing house or hotel and to measure his untried strength with the powers of the world, the flesh and the devil. His future success in building character that will ornament society, strengthen the church, and protect the nation from potitical peril will depend largely upon the principles brought from the obscure home among the hills and valleys of his youth. The permanence of his financial and social standing must depend finally, not so much upon the tricks of trade, nor the chance of fortune, but upon the fidelity to truth, the per-sistent industry and the self-sacrificing econ-omy, laid stone upon stone, in the tedious for-mation of character about the humble home of childhood. Even wealth or position without these would be a calamity. The mountain stream, bursting from the rock, leaping with youthful glee over many a sunlit cascade, goes hurrying to the broad plain below, to turn the weels of industry, to quench the thirst ol a multitude, to join hands with kindred streams and bear upon her jew-eled decked bosom the commerce of a world. But there are a few simple laws laid down by Mother Nature, from which she must never depart. vSo, from the home must go the forces that will drive the machinery of a nation, strike hands with their kindred beyond the seas, and lift an exiled world back to God. Our success will depend upon a few simple laws which God and our Christian mothers will teach us. One of these principles is that gold must not become the individual's nor the nation's god. There are things finer than gold, more pre-cious than much fine gold. Those invisible hands that bind the gold-thirsty young man to his mother, those imperishable chords that in-crease their tension with distant separation and will not relax through the pleadings of time. Those divine threads that are woven into the web of our lives, in such a variety of color, through so many years of tender ministries, which neither the sunshine nor the rain will cause to fade. That mysterious attraction that tears the busy merchant from his surroundings to hasten to the old home, to feast the eyes upon scenes that will not perish, to quicken the affections that cannot die, to grasp the parental hand that warms with age, and to look upon the face of the only one whose feat-ures beautify with years. What strange calculations are these ! By some irresistible logic, as he stands by the grave of the departed mother, he reasons thus: 73 THE COU-EGE MERCURY. Take these stocks and bonds, these railroad and real estate interests, seize these large man-ufacturing and commercial. enterprises, take this palace of marble and bury them all, rather than let the cruel clay hide from me the treas-ured influence that crowned that life, finer than gold. Wealth must not become our ideal nor our idol. Only as it builds more homes and builds them more beautiful, adorns them with culture and religion, sweetens them as fountains of purity for the healing of the nation, strength-ens them as fortresses for her protection, will it bless our civilization. Another tendency that threatens the home is the social condition which seeks to separate the family. There is a kind of centrifugal force which tends to scatter the members of the household and destroy that bond which should bind them together with a kind of social grav-itation, which afterwards becomes the power of the community and of the state. There is danger of the boys and girls being thrown from the home nest before the fledgelings can use their wings or have wisdom to select their food. There are many temptations to lure them from the tender influences and sympa-thies of those who reared them. Even the recognized helps may prove hindrances ;. the schools that place these young lives in the hands of strangers over half their time from six years of age, the social, innocent pleasures that rob the parents of over half the remainder of their heaven-given opportunities, to say nothing of those attractions which cause many to spend the remainder of their time not spent in eating and sleeping outside of the home. How narrow the margin becomes for the home to do its work. To pi ess the plastic ma-terial into shape, to lay the artful chisel to the stone and hew with loving stroke the perfect form. How jealous the parent should be of these first and best opportunities! How guarded the sensitive plate of the mind and heart, that the first light to shine upon its deli-cate surface should reflect a perfect image ! Is the father anxious to spend the leisure hours in the home rather than in the lodge or club house, or is he too busy with his profes-sion, too closely confined to his business to im-press true character upon his own boy, who shall succeed him in business and become heir of his hard-earned estate ? Has the wife and mother been more anxious to keep flies out of the house than to keep her boy in ; has she be-stowed more thought upon velvet or brussels than upon the delicately woven character of an immortal ; has she studied to make an impres-sion upon fashionable society rather than to impress a future citizen of the State ? The law of nature will not be reversed to make amends for parental indifference or careless-ness. The colors we mix will appear on the canvas, the materials we use in the mortar will show themselves in the building. Is the home the centre of attraction and interest? Then it has its rightful place and becomes the sun of the system around which all things re-volve, from which they get their light and heat and are held in their proper orbits. De-stroy this relation, and confusion and anarchy follow. The home is a miniature government, in which the parents rule. Here begins re-spect for authority and obedience to law, the two great essentials in the security of the State; and if not learned here, may be learned too late to avert crime. Here are developed those finer affections toward brothers and sisters which, when en-larged, produce true patriotism and make "the whole world kin." Here under the form of possessions acquired and protected, the true right of ownership becomes early established, that true love of country may become the en-larged law of self-protection ; thus combining the law of chivalry to defend the innocent and the heroism of the soldier to protect the nation. The social and national life are found in min-iature in the empire of the home which, when properly controlled, becomes the ideal of the national government. The King rules his subjects with a father's tenderness. The sub-jects obey the laws, prompted by filial grati-tude for the general good. An injustice against THE COLLEGE MERCURY. 74 one member is an offense against the whole body politic. Suffering in part enlists the sympathy of the whole. A cry of distress startles the nation and all the nerves of sensa-tion carry the news and the alarm brings re-pair and relief trains over every highway of approach. The homes of the nation must ever be the fountains for the public school, the supply for the church, the protection of our liberties against internal and external foes. These must be the watch towers, and the sons and daughters the real standing army to protect our civil and religious liberties. The thousands of men who live on wheels, without a sure place to set their feet, must have a starting-point and a returning point for their souls, a tension to hold them in place more binding than the rules of the business firm, a restraint to stay their feet on the verge of temptation mightier than law, an unseen angel to stand between them and sin, to guard them from its blighting touch This starting-point is the Christian home, this tension, the mystic chord that binds them to the altar, this angel, the messenger that sits in the temple of the memory and holds the wife, the mother, the innocent children before the soul. The home is a type of Heaven, the perfec-tion of future blessedness. God, the Father of us all, Christ, the Brother of us all, we, the children. From the imperfect to the perfect, from the trial to the triumph. We are but children away from home. Earth is but the play-ground. We stretch onr tiny hands toward the stars glimmering in the dark-ness that surrounds us. We tire of these earthly toys. We cry, in our distress, to grasp the eternal. The father hears his lost childrens' piteous wail and calls us home ; sweet, sweet, home. ROLL OF HONOR. FIRST HONOR. LUTHER P. EISENHART, York. D. EDGAR RICE, Chainbersburg. GRAYSON Z. STOP, Frederick, Md. EDNA M LOOMIS, Troy. GRIFF PRIZE, FOR BEST ESSAY ON HOLMES AS THE POET OF COLLEGIANS." LUTHER P. EISENHAET, York. HASSLER GOLD MEDAL, JUNIOR LATIN PRIZE. ELKANAH M. DUCK, Spring Mills. WITH HONORABLE MENTION OF GEORGE F. ABEL, Philadelphia. BAUM SOPHOMORE MATHEMATICAL PRIZE. JAMES A. MCALLISTER, Gettysburg EFPIE ELIZABETH HESS, - - - - Taneytown, Md! WITH HONORABLE MENTION OF EDMUND W. MEISENHELDER, York. EDMUND L. ROLLER, Hanover. CHARLES T. LARK, - - - - - - Millersburg. WILLIAM H. SPRENKLE, - - - Jack's Mountain. ALBERTUS G. FUSS, . Williamsport, Md. MUHLENBERG FRESHMAN PRIZE. FOR BEST GENERAL SCHOLARSHIP. HENRY ALBERS, JR., Jersey City, N. J. WITH HONORABLE MENTION OF ARTHUR STC. BRUMBAUGH, - - - Roaring Spring. STEWARD W. HERMAN, - . York. PAUL H. BIKLE, Gettysburg. REDDIG PRIZE IN ORATORV. ANNA GERTRUDE SIEBER, . Gettysburg. WITH HONORABLE MENTION OF HENRY WOLF BIKLE, Gettysburg. GEORGE F. ABEL, Philadelphia. *—♦—» COLLEGE COMMENCEMENT PROGRAM. THURSDAY, JUNE 18, 1896. Latin Salutatory, GRAYSON Z. STUP. Christianity and the Working Class, - WEBSTER C. SPAYDE. Municipal Reform, . FREDERICK J. BAUM. Cecil Rhodes, -. MERCHANT TAILOR flje tat Work at uje) NEXT DOOF* TO 5 Suits from $12,00 to $40.00. Lowest iPrkss, \ P^^f' J Paots from $00 to $121, ^Centre Square.^ COLLEGE OF PHVSICIANS S SURGEONS, The (College of Physicians and Surgeons of Balti-more, Maryland, i.s a well-equipped school. Four ses-sions arc required for graduation. For full informa-tion send for the animal catalogue, or write to THOMAS OPIE, M. D., Dean, Cor. Calvert and Saratoga Sts. c_£p»Established 1876.-5-5 *PBN110SB SfYBRSJfc WATCHMAKER AND JEWELER, Gettfsborg Souvenir Spoons, College Souvenir Spoons, No. 10 Baltimore Street, GETTYSBURG, PENN'A. J. A TAWNEV Is ready to furnish clubs and boarding houses BREAD, ROLLS, &0., at short notice and reasonable rates. Cor.Washington and Middle Sts., Gettysburg. WiiWlsiHoSwiit DEALERS IN Fresh Beef, Veal, Lamb, Pork, Pudding, Sausage, HAMS, LARD, &c-., GETTYSBURG, IMIM'A. JOHN L. SHERDS. NEW CIGAR STORE Next door io W. M.
YOL. XII NO. 1 MARCH, 1903 The Gettysburg ODereary GETTYSBURG COLLEGE GETTYSBURG, PA. T r PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS ! Good Work Low Prices Publishers ol THE GETTYSBURG NEWS 142 Carlisle St., Gettysburg, Pa. JUBEIEIItf LITTLE, LTD. AMOS ECKERT Latest Styles in HATS, SHOES AND GENT'S FURNISHING .Our specialty. WALK-OVER SHOE AMOS ECKERT Prices always right The Lutheran puM$jing {lou£e". No. 1424 Arch Street PHILADELPHIA, PA. Acknowledged Headquarters for anything and everything in the way of Books for Churches, Col-leges, Families and Schools, and literature for Sunday Schools. PLEASE REMEMBER That by sending your orders to us you help build up and devel-op one of the church institutions with pecuniary advantage to yourself. Address H. S. BONER, Supt. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTIZERS. FURNITURE Mattresses, Bed Springs, Iron Beds, Picture Frames, Repair Work done promptly. Under-taking a specialty. * Telephone No. 97. X3Z_ IE. Eem-d-er 37 Baltimore St., Gettysburg, Pa. THE STEWART & STEEN CO. College Engravers cond (Printers 1024 Arch St., Philadelphia, Pa. MAKERS AND PUBLISHERS OF Commencement, Class Day Invitations and Programs, Class Pins and Buttons in Gold and Other Metals, Wedding Invitations and Announcements, At Home Cards, Reception Cards and Visiting Cards, Visiting Cards—Plate and 50 cards, 75 cents. Special Discount to Students. N. A. YEANY, Gettysburg College Representative. 4. §. (Spalding £ §ros., Largest Manufacturers in the World of Official Athletic Supplies. Base Ball Lawn Tennis Golf Field Hockey Official JUMetic Implements. Spalding's Catalogue of Athletic Sports Mailed Free to any Address. A. G. Spalding & Bros. NEW YORK - . CHICAGO - - DENVER - - BUFFALO - - BALTIMORE THESE FIRMS ARE O. K. PATRONIZE THEM. DO YOU KNOW WHERE The Choicest Candies, The Finest Soda Water, The Largest Oysters, The Best Ice Cream, Can be found in town? Yes, at Young's Confectionary On Chambersburg Street, near City Hotel, Gettysburg, Pa. IF YOU CALL OH" C. A. Bloeher, JemeleF, Centre Square, He can serve you in anything you may want in REPAIRING or JEWELRY. SEFTON & FLEMMING'S LIVERY Baltimore Street, First Square, Gettysburg, Pa. Competent Guides for all parts of the Battlefield. Arrangements by telegram or letter. Lock Box 257. I I. MUMPER. 41 Baltimore St., Gettysburg, Pa. The improvements to our Studio have proven a perfect success and we are now better prepared than ever to give you satisfactory work. -*■ ■*-—-"' "At" THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. J old man lifted her up, As they both stood gazing on the white form below, Whitman said to the child : "You do not under-stand this, my dear, do you?" "No," said the child. "Neither do I, neither do I," was the answer. He loved to contemplate the questions!"children would ask. "A child said, What is the grass ? fetching it to me with full hands ; How could I answer the child ? I do not know what it is any more than he. I guess it must be the flag of my disposition, out of hopeful green stuff woven. Or I guess it is the handcherchief of the Lord, A scented gift and remembrancer designedly droppt, Bearing the owner's name someway in the corners, that we may see and remark and say, Whose ?" When he was too ill to leave his room he wanted his friends continually by his side. Whitman died March 26, 1902, and his funeral was wholly without parallel in this country. It was attended by thous-ands, yet not so much a funeral as a merry-making; not a tear fell, bright and happy were the faces. They did not rejoice in his death, but were glad that he had lived. Walt Whitman enjoyed a popularity abroad equal only to that of Longfellow. Here his popularity is intermittent, Long-fellow's constant. Whether he will be generally read, time alone will tell. Some will be repelled by the lack of rhyme and rhythm. But give his poems that excellence, you take away the force, you take away the man, and we care for rhyme and rhythm not more than for Whitman himself. His admirers have called him the American Homer ; others, Hesiod teaching us "Works and Days." There is somewhat of the Greek in Whitman, yet not the Greek of Homer nor yet the Greek of Hesiod, for he was as in-capable of pessimism as Hesiod was of optimism. He is our American Rhapsodist singing the songs of Man, of Nature and Life, of Home—a genius, let us take him as he is. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. THE ELECTRA OF SOPHOCLES. M. ADA MCLINN, '04. THE Greek poet Sophocles was called "The Bee" among his contemporaries because of the sweetness and smoothness of his verse. From such a writer we should expect a well-written play; and our loftiest expectations are realized after a study of his Electra. This tragic drama deals with the ill-fated house of Atreus. Agamemnon, a descendant of this house, upon his return from the Trojan war in which he commanded the Greeks, was treacherously slain by his wife Clytemnaestra with the aid of her paramour Aegisthus. Her son Orestes was also to be dispatched by some underhand means, but he is rescued by his sister Electra, who, after caring for him for many years, sends him to the court of Strophius of Phokis. He afterward visits the oracle of Apollo, where he is commanded to avenge his father's death. Both Electra and Orestes make this revenge the one aim and purpose of their lives. The story opens eight years after Agamemnon's death. Orestes has returned with his attendant to his native land. While at his uncle's court, he formed a fast friendship with his cousin Pylades and it is with his advice that all plans for ven-geance are formed. The morning has dawned bright and joyous and with it dawns a new hope. Orestes is roused to cany out the oracle's command—■ That he himself unarmed with shield or host Should subtly work the righteous deed of blood. The deed is to be carried out by strategy. News of his death will be carried to the palace, thus giving Clytemnaestra and Aegisthus a sense of freedom from their constant fear of Ores-tes; then, off their guard, they will be slain. The play naturally divides itself into four parts : First—The return of Orestes and the formation of a plan for executing vengeance. This plan forms the key-note of the play. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 9 Second—The appearance of Electra before the palace, her outpouring of grief, the sympathetic answers from the chorus, the appearance of Chrysothemis, a younger sister, with offerings from Clytemnaestra for Agamemnon's grave to propitiate the dream which she had received, Electra's persuasions resulting in Chrysothemis' pouring libations on the grave with prayers for Orestes' return, Clytemnaestra's appearance and her bitter reproaches against Electra, the arrival of the messenger telling of Orestes' death, over which Electra is cast down to the depths of despair and Clytemnaestra raised to a corresponding height of joy, Chrysothemis' second appearance telling of Orestes' visit to Agamemnon's grave and of his offerings upon it, Electra's refutation of this by the news of Orestes' death, the coming of two messengers bearing the urn containing Orestes' ashes; this may be called the elaboration in preparation for the catastrophe. Third—The recognition of Orestes and Electra upon his revealing his identity, their joy in meeting and their discussion of vengeance. Fourth—The conspiracy against Clytemnaestra and Aegis-thus resulting in their death, thus freeing the house of Atreus from its curse as expressed in the closing lines of the chorus: O seed of Atreus, after many woes, Thou hast come forth, thy freedom hardly won, By this emprise made perfect ! The play throughout is characterized by great feeling. The plot is so well carried out that the interest of the reader is con-stantly sustained. There are some phases of the play which call forth our in-dignation; for example—Clytemnaestra's hatred of her son and daughter, her joy over the announcement of her son, Orestes' death, Electra's life-consuming passion for revenge, her seem-ing delight and satisfaction when the murder of her mother and Aegisthus takes place, and Orestes' performance of the murder; but the Greek idea of vengeance was that of a relig-ious duty and a man received commendation for executing it. IO THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. The heroine and strongest character of the play is Electra. For force of will, persistence of purpose, and thirst for ven-geance she has not been surpassed among womankind. Yet counterbalancing the sterner side of her nature is her tender care of Orestes when he was a child, her love towards him, her great joy at meeting him, and her pleasure upon recognizing the faithful old pedagogue. Her tendency to extremes of despair and joy is shown in the following lines: and "Ah me ! I perish utterly. All is lost !" 'O blessed light! O voice ! And art thou come?" The former, uttered when she thought Orestes dead; the latter when she recognizes his living presence. Sophocles thoroughly understands the art of making his readers acquainted with his characters. One feels as if he were living with them. When Electra is sad, we are sad, and we sympathize with her as did the chorus. Her lot was indeed a hard one. For those many years she had waited for the exe-cution of vengeance, while, in the mean time, she had to live in the same building with those whom she despised, to see Aegisthus established in her father's place, and, to all appear-ances, prosperous and happy, to be deserted by all friends, and at last to hear of the death of Orestes, the one in whom she centred all her hopes. Still with a courageous spirit, she sug-gests to Chrysothemis that they together do the deed. Orestes enters the play as a means for revenge. The interest is so constantly with Electra that one is interested in him only in his connection with Electra and in his fulfilment of her wishes. He shows an obedient spirit in his regard for the pedagogue's advice and a stern sense of religious duty in his regard for the oracle's command. His love and compassion for his sister in her neglected condition is expressed between the lines, as it were, in these words of recognition: "Is this Electra's noble form I see? Alas, alas, for this sad lot of thine !" . r THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. II In the same degree that we sympathized with Electra, we hate Clytemnaestra. Her heart is black and sinful and in all her words we must condemn her. She appears specially obnoxious when she receives the news of Orestes' death, and how we must loathe the feeling of satis-faction she exhibits when she says: "Now, for all her threats, We shall live on and pass our days in peace." With the same feeling of detestation we regard Aegisthus and we give our assent when his murder takes place. The irony of the conclusion is fine. We can feel it in all that is said and done. Sophocles has fairly painted before our eyes the picture of the scenes. For example, when Aegisthus removes the cloth from the face of Orestes, as he supposed, and finds Clytemnaestra, his wife, dead and cold, we can hear him say: "Oh, what sight is this?" Chrysothemis, the sister of Orestes and Electra, is a minor character, introduced to bring out by contrast with her weak-ness the great strength of Electra's character. The play contains many fine monologues. The attendant's description of the chariot-race is so real that one can see the contestants as: "With sound of brazen triumph, They started. Cheering all their steeds At once, they shook the reins, and then, The course was filled with all the clash and din Of rattling chariots, and the dust rose high ; And all commingled, sparing not the good, That each might pass his neighbor's axle-trees, And horses' hot hard breathing," The gods are clearly recognized but are kept in the back-ground. They control the acts of men, and great confidence is placed in them as shown in the words of the chorus: "Take heart, my child, take heart; Mighty in heaven he dwells, Zeus, seeing, guiding all." 12 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. THE EVOLUTION OF PERSONALITY. E. B. HAY, '03. HAVE you ever stopped, in the turmoil of your busy life long enough to think that you are a person: that is( I mean—to realize that you are more than an individual, a mere unit among the myriads of humanity ; that, on the other hand, you are unique, no other being has been just like you, and all eternity will fail to reproduce your personality ? If you have ever meditated thus, or if you have attempted to solve the question : What is implied by the word personality ? you have doubtless been staggered by the immensity of the problem before you. There are terrestrial bodies of water which have never been fathomed. Men have been able to obtain some idea of their great depth, however, by the very futility of their attempts to gain more exact knowledge. So, in our consideration of per-sonality, we may but hope to sound its depths for a further rev-elation of their vastness. It is not my intention to trace out the lines of distinction in personalities which lead to the many interesting variations among humanity; but, to present an outline,in accordance with modern scientific views, of the vast movement through which an unceasing energy has evolved from an original chaos the complexity of system to which we to-day give the name of petsotiality. We cannot but approach our discussion in reverence, realiz-ing that none but the great Creator and Preserver of this mighty universe knows, or perhaps ever will know the exact course through which a terrestrial being, man, came to be but a little lower than the angels, "to have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over every living thing that moveth upon the earth." "Man proposes, but God disposes." God has disposed, and now man would propose. Made in the image of his Creator, man seeks to understand the divine plan. He would study and interpret the laws of God. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 13 As the finite cannot comprehend the infinite, so can man, of himself, never reach a perfect solution ol the methods and laws of his Creator. One law, that of his own heredity, has, how-ever, long been of paramount interest to man, and more es-pecially to the inquisitive Aryan. Theory upon theory has been advanced and accepted. Each has its flaws and breaks of evidence. Any discussion of our topic, however, must be based upon some one of these theories, and so I have chosen the great generalization of to-day's scientific thought; namely, "the genetic unity and unbroken development of the whole realm of nature, to which we also belong." Scientists tell us that organic and inorganic forms were orig-inally one.the organicbeingahigher development of the inorganic. They further make mind the consummate flower of organic life. Hence we would complete the vast development of nature in the final fruitage of personality, saying with Drummond that "to withdraw continuity from the universe would be the same as to withdraw reason from an individual." In the first place, we shall trace a development from an original unity of matter to a separation of i?idividual iorms ; in the second, an advance in these individual forms from their primal simplicity to a marked complexity ; and finally, we shall attempt to show that the consummation of the universal im-pulse to.individualization is personality. Consider, then, a period probably thousands of millions of years ago, when space was occupied by a diffused nebulous material, where the ultimate atoms were the only definite struc-tures. Out of this seemingly infinite and formless deep the nebulae settle into various individual aggregations. The move-ment is universal, and as this primitive matter assumes individ-ual forms it also takes on certain functions, and gradually great solar systems evolve. Our own earth, a vast whirling mass of nebulous matter, gradually contracts and assumes still more complicated functions as it falls into motion about a similar though much larger aggregation of matter. Turning our atten-tion now solely to our own sphere and passing by ages in its formation, we reach the highest form of distinctive character in 14 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. its inorganic development when the crystal first makes its ap-pearance. Now, we first have a clear and substantial prophesy of those higher forms of individuality which are to follow. Each crystal has a well defined and a generally symmetrical form. Under the action of the crystalizing force, it may take up new materials and rebuild itself, a property commonly at-tributed only to organic forms. But who shall trace further the course from the greatest in the kingdom of the inorganic to the least in the kingdom of the organic ? Indeed La Conte tells us that "conditions necessary for so extraordinary a change could hardly be expected to occur but once in the history of the earth." Thus far, we have traced a great impulse leading from unity to individual forms; now, we would look at the more complex outgrowth as we find individuality developed by the throb of life. Following nature then in her continuous course, which we may so nearly yet not clearly establish at this point, we note that she starts on her more perfect individualization by the forming of a cell. Now, for the first time, a formation of na-ture has the capacity to perpetuate itself. Too much stress cannot be laid upon this advance from, or as scientists would say, through the inorganic to organic forms, in nature's develop-ment towards the more complex existence. The fundamental properties of life, assimilation, growth and reproduction, are now active, and it is but a question of time till these cells multiply and are organized under different environments into the intri-cate forms of plant and animal life. The next great step in the evolution of complex individuality is achieved in the gain of sentient power. It were indeed a difficult task to form any sharp distinction between the awaken-ing animal sentiency and the sensitiveness of some plants. But, in the animal world we find sensitiveness specialized and developed in and with more or less acute nervous organization to the resultant varying degrees of animal intelligence. From the lower forms of animal life, where nature seems to care not for the individual but only for the species, we find her interest THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 15 apparently increasing with the advance in sentiency. All things seem to work together for good to the individual, as we ascend the scale of animal intelligence. And finally, after a seeming perfection has been reached in the physical organiza-tion of the individual, this sentient energy continues to advance and develop in complexity. But, now having considered two phases of the vast move-ment to individuality, you may wonder what all this has to do with personality. It will have either little or much to do, ac-cording as we accept the "supernatural descent of mind into matter, or the theory of its natural ascent through the develop-ment of matter." Incidentally, I may say, that though in some circles the Creator is still grudged his own universe, yet, the thoughtful naturalist finds as much manifestation of divine power and wisdom in the controlling and gradual evolution of forces, as in their terrestrial introduction by special creative acts, breaking in upon the continuity of the universe. If we accept the modern scientific hypothesis of evolution, the steps just traced are of vital importance. For somewhere in this great movement toward the perfection of individual types, must have gradually evolved a part so far transcending "dying nature's earth and lime" as to admit of no comparison or analogy with this baser foil of its glory. In the words of Newman Smyth, the scientist regards personality as "a specialization of a spirit-ual element and energy which was in the beginning and which has ever been pressing to revelation throughout the whole evolution." So, rather than pick up an uncertain thread from its midst, we have traced from the beginning this vast process of the ages, this propagation of a mighty impulse, to its con-summation in personality. What an elevated position do we, then, as persons, hold in this grand upward moyement through formative cycles ! For, "now are we the sons of God, and it doth not yet appear what we shall be." Who can believe that this implanted image of the Creator shall be consigned eternally to its native dust, or who shall say that the travail of the ages has been for a be-ing whose days are as the grass, as a flower of the field ? ■ *fl! 16 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY'. Shall the dissolution of our earthy frame, which has long since become subject to the higher power within, mean the cessation of the mighty evolution, which has made us persons, or shall we not, giving dust to dust, free these personalities from every weight which doth so easily beset them, and continue the "rand march of time amid celestial harmonies ? THE PHILOSOPHERS. They are presumptuous systems that we raise To compass life's last miracle and frame The glory with its source, forging a name Exhaustive of the meaning of our days. Is there no peace among sweet finite ways— No rest forever from the inward flame Of troubled question over chance or aim, Real and unreal, and what's to blame or praise ? Can we not wait, patient with life'awhile, Somewhat content to speak the given word, Go the appointed way, and ask no more— Then, if the work be done, with quiet smile, When in our darkened house the voice is heard, Pass silently with Death through the last door?—Ex. ' ■ ' *ft-lm't *-. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 17 A CHARACTER SKETCH OF CECIL RHODES. ABDKI. R. WENTZ, '04. ALMOST a year has elapsed since the death of Cecil Rhodes, familiarly known as the South African "Colos-sus," and the press has not yet ceased to publish discussions of the man's character. Few had more zealous friends; none have had more bitter enemies. And yet his most devoted friends found in his character some undesirable traits, and his most positive enemies recognized some merit. It will be in-teresting, therefore, to attempt to understand his real character and to ascertain the moral of his marvelous career. Cecil Rhodes was born in 1853, in Hertfordshire, England, in the impecunious condition of the younger son of a country parson. He was unaided by birth, fortune, or any other outside agency. From his parents he received no position, no money, nothing except clean and gentle breeding. His early life at home and at grammar school afforded no indication of genius. It was intended that he should enter the ministry and so he was sent to Oxford University. But a decline in health was soon noticed and his physicians confidently foretold his death of con-sumption. In the hope of prolonging his life for a few years he went to South Africa where his older brother was living. For a while he assisted his brother in diamond-digging, but he soon went into the industry for himself and great success attended him. In the meantime his health was greatly im-proved by the pure, dry air of the African veldt and he was able, both financially and physically, to return to Oxford during the dry summer months and continue his course of study. This he did year by year, always returning to South Africa in the Fall, and finally in 1881, nine years after he had matricu-lated, he was graduated from the University. By this time he had laid the foundation for a large fortune in South Africa. He succeeded in having the law repealed which provided that one person could hold only one diamond claim. The new law permitted a man to hold ten claims, and it was soon discovered 18 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. that Rhodes held ten. This new law was also repealed after a short time. Then began the speculation in buying and selling claims, and presently he found himself one of three interests con-trolling the entire diamond field. And this number soon dimin-ished to two. Then came the amalgamation, with Cecil Rhodes as the amalgamator, and the colossal De Beers Diamond Min-ing Company as the product. By this he was enabled to create a monopoly, control the diamond market, and amass his millions. In this respect he was the forerunner of J. P. Mor-gan. The next step in his wonderful career was to enter the Parliament of Cape Colony. He soon became the most pow-erful man in the politics of South Africa; and this distinction he continued to enjoy until his death on March 26, last. In order to understand the motive which actuated his won-derful career it may be well to consider for a moment the course of reasoning by which he determined what should be the aim of his life. In the course of his studies in Greek at Oxford University he chanced upon Aristotle's definition of virtue as the "highest activity of the soul living for the highest object in. a perfect life." This he interpreted to mean that every person should have an object in life sufficiently lofty to make it worth while to spend a lifetime in the endeavor to ob-tain it. The object had not yet been determined in his own life, and so he began to reason with himself in the endeavor to find the aim sufficiently lofty to justify him in dedicating his life to it. First he considered the matter of accumulating wealth. But what is wealth ? From the experience of the men about him who had made the amassing of wealth the chief aim of their lives he concluded that wealth as an end in itself was only a source of care and anxiety. People spend part of their lives in making money and the rest in taking care of it. This, Rhodes decided, could not by any means justify the expendi-ture of one's life. Then he considered politics. But what is the highest round in the political ladder? In his case it was the premiership of Cape Colony. And what sort of life is that of a premier ? Now THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 19 in office and now out; constantly dependent upon the good will of the voters. Surely, this was not the proper goal for his life. Then he turned to religion. He had always admired the career of Ignatius Loyola. But then Rhodes felt that he could scarcely accept any religious creed. Every excavation in Pal-estine revealed some new fact which to him seemed to prove the Bible untrue. The Catholic beliefs came nearest to his, but he was sure there was no hell, and how then could he devote his life to serving the Catholic Church ? So he concluded that religion was not to be the field of his life work. Then he went deeper. In religious views he was decidedly agnostic. He always held that there was a 50-per-cent chance that there is a God. So he continued his reasoning thus: "If there be a God, of which there is 50-per cent chance, it is all-important that I should do what he would have me do." Then again, "If there be a God, and if he is concerned at all about what I do, it is safe to say that he would have me do what he himself is doing, to propagate his own work." From this arose the question, "What is God doing ?" Then he set about discovering the divine plan. In the first place the divine plan whatever it is must be universal. God cares for all. Whatever instrument he is using therefore must be in-fluencing the whole race of man. Now Rhodes was a strict believer in the Darwinian theory of evolution. He believed in the survival of the most capable species. And in the pro-cess of perfecting the race of man by the elimination of the least capable, he recognized the "struggle for existence" as the instrument of the divine Ruler. And in the struggle for exist-ence the white race, beyond a doubt, had been the most cap-able. Moreover, taking as standards of human perfection, the three great principles of Justice, Liberty, and Peace, he unhesi-tatingly concluded that it is the English-speaking race that is most likely to secure universal justice, all-pervading liberty, and world-wide peace, if these are to be secured at all. And the conclusion of the long train of reasoning was "that the highest practical idea was to work for the unity of the English-speaking 20 THE GETTVSBUKG MERCURY. race, in order that, being united, it might extend over all the world the beneficent influence which this race exercised for Justice, Liberty, and Peace among the inhabitants of this planet." This, then, was the guiding principle of his life—internation-al amity and the unity of the English-speaking race. And Rhodes thought that in order to wield any considerable influ-ence in that direction, he must have wealth. "What is the use," he said, "of having grand projects if you lack the money to back them ?" and so he proceeded to acquire wealth, solely with a view to extending the British Empire and thus the Eng-lish- speaking race. His money was never spent for selfish ends. His personal needs could have been covered by a clerk's income. Though king of the diamond mines, he never wore a single one of the precious gems upon his person. He never changed the simple tastes which he had acquired at the coun-try parsonage. He was unconventional to the extreme. As prime minister of Cape Colony he wore the worst hat in the as-sembly. His aristocratic friends in London were compelled to be ashamed of him when he visited them. True, he had a fine house, but it was for the entertainment of others. He never had many fancy pictures; not because he could not appreciate the art, but because he considered the money spent uselessly. "I could build so many miles of railroad for such a picture," he would say. And so it was in all his financial relations; his money was to be used solely upon the object for which he was living. To him nothing seemed more abhorrent than the clogged and impotent discomfort of the ordinary millionaire. He considered it a positive injustice for a man to leave his chil-dren so much money as to enable them to go through the world with folded arms. His life-aim required money for its accomplishment, and for that reason he amalgamated the diamond out-put of the world, thus arming himself with the chosen weapon of the day. Moreover, Rhodes realized that political influence would help him to obtain his life-object. He entered the Parliament of Cape Colony and was soon raised to the highest office in the THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 21 Cape government, the premiership. This influence he began to wield to the end that "as much of the map of Africa as possi-ble might be painted British red," as he himself put it. Terri-tories, one after the other, were added to British dominion. It is true, too true, that the means which he used to bring about these results were in many cases questionable. Even his most admiring friends are compelled to admit that he was unscrupu-lous in his methods. He knew no code of political morals. He did not hesitate to do anything which would help bring about the object for which he was spending his life. He wanted to extend the British empire, and to this end he bent all his en-ergies, whether by deceiving the ignorant Boers or by juggling the laws of the different governments. And it has been calcu-lated that he carried the British flag over a territory nearly as great in extent as British India. But there was one great hindrance to the carrying out of Rhodes' idea of a confederated South Africa, and that was the existence of the two independent Dutch republics known as the the Orange River Free State and the Transvaal. Accordingly he began to form deep-laid plans to bring them under British dominion. The notorious Jameson raid was the result. The facts of the raid, to be brief, are these : A large mining popu-lation composed in great part of foreigners had gathered in those districts. In order to overthrow the Dutch government and acquire the country, Rhodes had his agents to build up secret organizations among the foreigners in Johannesburg, the capital city of the Transvaal. It was planned that upon an appointed day these foreigners, or "Uitlanders" as the Boers called them, should cause an uprising under some feigned pre-text and precipitate a revolt against the government. The Uitlanders were to be assisted from the outside by the invasion of a small body of troops under the command of Dr. Jameson, Rhodes' right-hand man. It is a well-known fact that the raid failed. The Boers were apprised of the plot; the foreigners refused at the last moment to act and Jameson and his men were ignominiously captured by the Boers. It was this Jameson raid which precipitated the Boer war, so disastrous to all par-ties concerned. 22 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. This was the turning-point in Cecil Rhodes' career. The Boers, among whom he had been very popular previous to the raid, and by whose votes he had become premier, now became his bitterest enemies; for he had betrayed them. The English government renounced all connection with Rhodes. The whole world called it an outrage. He was compelled to resign the premiership, and it is said that his friends noticed that in a few days following the failure of the raid his hair became whiter and the lines about his mouth and eyes deepened. This was the one gross blunder of his life, the one dark spot upon his character which to some seems so dark as to cover with a shadow the better qualities of the man. Cecil Rhodes was a millionaire with an imagination ; he did not hold his money-bags on his head and allow them to crush out his brains. He was philosophic and reflective in mind ; and in his entire foreign policy his strength and victory lay in his vision of what the other side desired and how they hoped to achieve it. He was a great reader although he did not have a very large library. One of his favorite books was Gibbon's "Decline and Fall," and this probably gave him many thoughts upon his life-aim. In Parliament he was a very effective speaker but not what we would call eloquent. He was a lover of natural scenery, as is shown by the selection of the sites of his buildings and of his burying place. His remains are en-tombed in the midst of picturesque mountain scenery. In the will of this great man we see again his immense wide-ness of view. His bequest of $10,000,000 to Oxford Univer-sity has provoked much discussion here in America. But it is not the bequest which concerns us so much as the conditions which the bequeather attaches to it. The will provides that the $ 10,000,000 shall be applied to scholarships apportioned as follows: Two to each of the self-governing colonies of Great Britain, five to Germany, and two to each State or Ter-ritory in the United States. The will also provides for a very unique method of choosing the students, and states that the object of the scholarships is to educate together the future leaders of the three great countries, and thus "secure the peace of the world." It is not necessary to consider here whether THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 23 the scholarships will really secure "the peace of the world," nor yet whether they will probably benefit America or not. We need but to note the largeness of the scale upon which Cecil Rhodes laid his plans. He thought in continents; and this is only one of the many schemes which he devised to bring about his favorite idea of the unity of the English-speaking race. Rhodes always felt that life was too short to achieve much ; he was too eager to see his objects accomplished. And his last words were, "So much to do ; so little done." Surely few men present such great complexity of character. He was "ruthless in the pursuit of gain, and caring nothing for gold ; cursed as the cause of the war, yet looking to the reign of universal peace." To some he is known as the author of the South African war, the plunderer of inferior races, and the personifi-cation of greed ; to others, as a poet who confined his energies to deeds. By some he is called the Napoleon of South Africa; by others, the South African Colossus. Whatever can be said concerning Cecil Rhodes, it must be admitted that he pro-duced a lasting impression upon the world's destinies. 24 THE GETTVSBURG MERCURY. SALAMIS AND PROGRESS. BERTRAM STROHMEIER, '06. TTpROM the earliest dawn of history, even from the ages *■ shrouded in the gloom and mist of antiquity, now being rescued from oblivion through the discovery of broken inscrip-tions, and crumbled cities, even to the present day, down the . centuries has flowed almost unceasingly a crimson flood fed by a myraid of battlefields. Mars has revelled to his heart's con-tent in his infernal sport. And when we consider the useless carnage and frightful slaughter that has followed men's differ-ences in oftentimes trivial affairs, it would seem that some treacherous spirit does stir up men's hellish passions just to ap-pease an ungovernable desire. But here and there dropped in the path of Time, unwittingly and unrecognized at fir^t, we find a battle, that in the light of subsequent events proved a boon to mankind, and marked an epoch in the progress of civilization—a battle terrible as a thunder-storm, yet, like iti grand, awe-inspiring, even sublime—a battle not between men alone nor yet between nations, but a struggle between ideas and principles—a battle not for one man, nor for one people; not for one age; but a battle for all people, for all time. Salamis was such a battle. As Balboa paused on the mountain height to recover from his great astonishment, and to take in and more fully under-stand the panorama that suddenly burst upon his vision, when first he beheld the calm Pacific, before plunging down the rockyway to plant the flag of Spain in its waters, so let us pause and take in the historical panorama before entering into the consideration of this world famed battle. Persia is the all-supreme ruler of the East. One by one the proud Oriental kings have bowed the knee to her conquering despot, until for further conquest he has been compelled to send his triumphant legions into far away India on the one side, and to cross the Caucasian limits of his empire on the other and strike terror to the Scythian hordes. From North, South, East In an up-to-P^J CHORUS. — U-pI-dee-l-dee-l-da 1 etc. Her voice is clear as a soaring lark's, And her wit is like those trullev-car sparks I When 'cross a muddy street she ilits, The buys ;;d h^ve conniption fits I The turn of her head turns all ours, too. There's always a strife to si: in her pew; 'Tis enough to make n parson drunk, To hear her sing; old co-ca-che-luuk! m j. The above, and three other NEW verses to U-P1-DEH, 1,, rJf/IT and NEW WORDS, catchy, uu-to-date, to many f*pe- ii TT ^\y},[ sides OLD FAVOK ■ TBS ; and also many NEW SONGS. Jik> SONGS OF ALL THE COLLEGES. Wtf m\Copjrrlgln, Price, S/.JO, postpaid. m ILUU HINDS & NOiSLE, Publishers, New York buy. 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Publisher's version (útgefin grein) ; Breast cancer is a common disease partially caused by genetic risk factors. Germline pathogenic variants in DNA repair genes BRCA1, BRCA2, PALB2, ATM, and CHEK2 are associated with breast cancer risk. FANCM, which encodes for a DNA translocase, has been proposed as a breast cancer predisposition gene, with greater effects for the ER-negative and triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) subtypes. We tested the three recurrent protein-truncating variants FANCM:p.Arg658*, p.Gln1701*, and p.Arg1931* for association with breast cancer risk in 67,112 cases, 53,766 controls, and 26,662 carriers of pathogenic variants of BRCA1 or BRCA2. These three variants were also studied functionally by measuring survival and chromosome fragility in FANCM−/− patient-derived immortalized fibroblasts treated with diepoxybutane or olaparib. We observed that FANCM:p.Arg658* was associated with increased risk of ER-negative disease and TNBC (OR = 2.44, P = 0.034 and OR = 3.79; P = 0.009, respectively). In a country-restricted analysis, we confirmed the associations detected for FANCM:p.Arg658* and found that also FANCM:p.Arg1931* was associated with ER-negative breast cancer risk (OR = 1.96; P = 0.006). The functional results indicated that all three variants were deleterious affecting cell survival and chromosome stability with FANCM:p.Arg658* causing more severe phenotypes. In conclusion, we confirmed that the two rare FANCM deleterious variants p.Arg658* and p.Arg1931* are risk factors for ER-negative and TNBC subtypes. Overall our data suggest that the effect of truncating variants on breast cancer risk may depend on their position in the gene. Cell sensitivity to olaparib exposure, identifies a possible therapeutic option to treat FANCM-associated tumors. ; Peterlongo laboratory is supported by Associazione Italiana Ricerca sul Cancro (AIRC; IG2015 no.16732) to P. Peterlongo and by a fellowship from Fondazione Umberto Veronesi to G. Figlioli. Surrallés laboratory is supported by the ICREA-Academia program, the Spanish Ministry of Health (projects FANCOSTEM and FANCOLEN), the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competiveness (projects CB06/07/0023 and RTI2018-098419-B-I00), the European Commission (EUROFANCOLEN project HEALTH-F5-2012-305421 and P-SPHERE COFUND project), the Fanconi Anemia Research Fund Inc, and the "Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional, una manera de hacer Europa" (FEDER). CIBERER is an initiative of the Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Spain. BCAC: we thank all the individuals who took part in these studies and all the researchers, clinicians, technicians and administrative staff who have enabled this work to be carried out. ABCFS thank Maggie Angelakos, Judi Maskiell, Tu Nguyen-Dumont is a National Breast Cancer Foundation (Australia) Career Development Fellow. ABCS thanks the Blood bank Sanquin, The Netherlands. Samples are made available to researchers on a non-exclusive basis. BCEES thanks Allyson Thomson, Christobel Saunders, Terry Slevin, BreastScreen Western Australia, Elizabeth Wylie, Rachel Lloyd. The BCINIS study would not have been possible without the contributions of Dr. Hedy Rennert, Dr. K. Landsman, Dr. N. Gronich, Dr. A. Flugelman, Dr. W. Saliba, Dr. E. Liani, Dr. I. Cohen, Dr. S. Kalet, Dr. V. Friedman, Dr. O. Barnet of the NICCC in Haifa, and all the contributing family medicine, surgery, pathology and oncology teams in all medical institutes in Northern Israel. The BREOGAN study would not have been possible without the contributions of the following: Manuela Gago-Dominguez, Jose Esteban Castelao, Angel Carracedo, Victor Muñoz Garzón, Alejandro Novo Domínguez, Maria Elena Martinez, Sara Miranda Ponte, Carmen Redondo Marey, Maite Peña Fernández, Manuel Enguix Castelo, Maria Torres, Manuel Calaza (BREOGAN), José Antúnez, Máximo Fraga and the staff of the Department of Pathology and Biobank of the University Hospital Complex of Santiago-CHUS, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Santiago, IDIS, Xerencia de Xestion Integrada de Santiago-SERGAS; Joaquín González-Carreró and the staff of the Department of Pathology and Biobank of University Hospital Complex of Vigo, Instituto de Investigacion Biomedica Galicia Sur, SERGAS, Vigo, Spain. BSUCH thanks Peter Bugert, Medical Faculty Mannheim. CBCS thanks study participants, co-investigators, collaborators and staff of the Canadian Breast Cancer Study, and project coordinators Agnes Lai and Celine Morissette. CCGP thanks Styliani Apostolaki, Anna Margiolaki, Georgios Nintos, Maria Perraki, Georgia Saloustrou, Georgia Sevastaki, Konstantinos Pompodakis. CGPS thanks staff and participants of the Copenhagen General Population Study. For the excellent technical assistance: Dorthe Uldall Andersen, Maria Birna Arnadottir, Anne Bank, Dorthe Kjeldgård Hansen. The Danish Cancer Biobank is acknowledged for providing infrastructure for the collection of blood samples for the cases. Investigators from the CPS-II cohort thank the participants and Study Management Group for their invaluable contributions to this research. They also acknowledge the contribution to this study from central cancer registries supported through the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention National Program of Cancer Registries, as well as cancer registries supported by the National Cancer Institute Surveillance Epidemiology and End Results program. The CTS Steering Committee includes Leslie Bernstein, Susan Neuhausen, James Lacey, Sophia Wang, Huiyan Ma, and Jessica Clague DeHart at the Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Dennis Deapen, Rich Pinder, and Eunjung Lee at the University of Southern California, Pam Horn-Ross, Peggy Reynolds, Christina Clarke Dur and David Nelson at the Cancer Prevention Institute of California, Hoda Anton-Culver, Argyrios Ziogas, and Hannah Park at the University of California Irvine, and Fred Schumacher at Case Western University. DIETCOMPLYF thanks the patients, nurses and clinical staff involved in the study. The DietCompLyf study was funded by the charity Against Breast Cancer (Registered Charity Number 1121258) and the NCRN. We thank the participants and the investigators of EPIC (European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition). ESTHER thanks Hartwig Ziegler, Sonja Wolf, Volker Hermann, Christa Stegmaier, Katja Butterbach. FHRISK thanks NIHR for funding. GC-HBOC thanks Stefanie Engert, Heide Hellebrand, Sandra Kröber and LIFE - Leipzig Research Centre for Civilization Diseases (Markus Loeffler, Joachim Thiery, Matthias Nüchter, Ronny Baber). The GENICA Network: Dr. Margarete Fischer-Bosch-Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Stuttgart, and University of Tübingen, Germany [HB, Wing-Yee Lo], German Cancer Consortium (DKTK) and German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) [HB], Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation) under Germany's Excellence Strategy - EXC 2180 - 390900677 [HB], Department of Internal Medicine, Evangelische Kliniken Bonn gGmbH, Johanniter Krankenhaus, Bonn, Germany [Yon-Dschun Ko, Christian Baisch], Institute of Pathology, University of Bonn, Germany [Hans-Peter Fischer], Molecular Genetics of Breast Cancer, Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany [Ute Hamann], Institute for Prevention and Occupational Medicine of the German Social Accident Insurance, Institute of the Ruhr University Bochum (IPA), Bochum, Germany [TB, Beate Pesch, Sylvia Rabstein, Anne Lotz]; and Institute of Occupational Medicine and Maritime Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Germany [Volker Harth]. HABCS thanks Michael Bremer. HEBCS thanks Heidi Toiminen, Kristiina Aittomäki, Irja Erkkilä and Outi Malkavaara. HMBCS thanks Peter Hillemanns, Hans Christiansen and Johann H. Karstens. HUBCS thanks Shamil Gantsev. KARMA thanks the Swedish Medical Research Counsel. KBCP thanks Eija Myöhänen, Helena Kemiläinen. LMBC thanks Gilian Peuteman, Thomas Van Brussel, EvyVanderheyden and Kathleen Corthouts. MABCS thanks Milena Jakimovska (RCGEB "Georgi D. Efremov), Katerina Kubelka, Mitko Karadjozov (Adzibadem-Sistina" Hospital), Andrej Arsovski and Liljana Stojanovska (Re-Medika" Hospital) for their contributions and commitment to this study. MARIE thanks Petra Seibold, Dieter Flesch-Janys, Judith Heinz, Nadia Obi, Alina Vrieling, Sabine Behrens, Ursula Eilber, Muhabbet Celik, Til Olchers and Stefan Nickels. MBCSG (Milan Breast Cancer Study Group) thanks Daniela Zaffaroni, Irene Feroce, and the personnel of the Cogentech Cancer Genetic Test Laboratory. We thank the coordinators, the research staff and especially the MMHS participants for their continued collaboration on research studies in breast cancer. MSKCC thanks Marina Corines and Lauren Jacobs. MTLGEBCS would like to thank Martine Tranchant (CHU de Québec Research Center), Marie-France Valois, Annie Turgeon and Lea Heguy (McGill University Health Center, Royal Victoria Hospital; McGill University) for DNA extraction, sample management and skillful technical assistance. J.S. is Chairholder of the Canada Research Chair in Oncogenetics. NBHS thanks study participants and research staff for their contributions and commitment to the studies. We would like to thank the participants and staff of the Nurses' Health Study and Nurses' Health Study II for their valuable contributions as well as the following state cancer registries for their help: AL, AZ, AR, CA, CO, CT, DE, FL, GA, ID, IL, IN, IA, KY, LA, ME, MD, MA, MI, NE, NH, NJ, NY, NC, ND, OH, OK, OR, PA, RI, SC, TN, TX, VA, WA, WY. The study protocol was approved by the institutional review boards of the Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, and those of participating registries as required. The authors assume full responsibility for analyses and interpretation of these data. OFBCR thanks Teresa Selander and Nayana Weerasooriya. ORIGO thanks E. Krol-Warmerdam, and J. Blom for patient accrual, administering questionnaires, and managing clinical information. PBCS thanks Louise Brinton, Mark Sherman, Neonila Szeszenia-Dabrowska, Beata Peplonska, Witold Zatonski, Pei Chao and Michael Stagner. The ethical approval for the POSH study is MREC /00/6/69, UKCRN ID: 1137. We thank staff in the Experimental Cancer Medicine Centre (ECMC) supported Faculty of Medicine Tissue Bank and the Faculty of Medicine DNA Banking resource. PREFACE thanks Sonja Oeser and Silke Landrith. PROCAS thanks NIHR for funding. RBCS thanks Petra Bos, Jannet Blom, Ellen Crepin, Elisabeth Huijskens, Anja Kromwijk-Nieuwlaat, Annette Heemskerk, the Erasmus MC Family Cancer Clinic. We thank the SEARCH and EPIC teams. SKKDKFZS thanks all study participants, clinicians, family doctors, researchers and technicians for their contributions and commitment to this study. We thank the SUCCESS Study teams in Munich, Duessldorf, Erlangen and Ulm. SZBCS thanks Ewa Putresza. UCIBCS thanks Irene Masunaka. UKBGS thanks Breast Cancer Now and the Institute of Cancer Research for support and funding of the Breakthrough Generations Study, and the study participants, study staff, and the doctors, nurses and other health care providers and health information sources who have contributed to the study. We acknowledge NHS funding to the Royal Marsden/ICR NIHR Biomedical Research Centre. CIMBA: we are grateful to all the families and clinicians who contribute to the studies; Sue Healey, in particular taking on the task of mutation classification with the late Olga Sinilnikova; Maggie Angelakos, Judi Maskiell, Helen Tsimiklis; members and participants in the New York site of the Breast Cancer Family Registry; members and participants in the Ontario Familial Breast Cancer Registry; Vilius Rudaitis and Laimonas Griškevičius; Yuan Chun Ding and Linda Steele for their work in participant enrollment and biospecimen and data management; Bent Ejlertsen and Anne-Marie Gerdes for the recruitment and genetic counseling of participants; Alicia Barroso, Rosario Alonso and Guillermo Pita; all the individuals and the researchers who took part in CONSIT TEAM (Consorzio Italiano Tumori Ereditari Alla Mammella), thanks in particular: Giulia Cagnoli, Roberta Villa, Irene Feroce, Mariarosaria Calvello, Riccardo Dolcetti, Giuseppe Giannini, Laura Papi, Gabriele Lorenzo Capone, Liliana Varesco, Viviana Gismondi, Maria Grazia Tibiletti, Daniela Furlan, Antonella Savarese, Aline Martayan, Stefania Tommasi, Brunella Pilato, Isabella Marchi, Elena Bandieri, Antonio Russo, Daniele Calistri and the personnel of the Cogentech Cancer Genetic Test Laboratory, Milan, Italy. FPGMX: members of the Cancer Genetics group (IDIS): Ana Blanco, Miguel Aguado, Uxía Esperón and Belinda Rodríguez. We thank all participants, clinicians, family doctors, researchers, and technicians for their contributions and commitment to the DKFZ study and the collaborating groups in Lahore, Pakistan (Noor Muhammad, Sidra Gull, Seerat Bajwa, Faiz Ali Khan, Humaira Naeemi, Saima Faisal, Asif Loya, Mohammed Aasim Yusuf) and Bogota, Colombia (Diana Torres, Ignacio Briceno, Fabian Gil). Genetic Modifiers of Cancer Risk in BRCA1/2 Mutation Carriers (GEMO) study is a study from the National Cancer Genetics Network UNICANCER Genetic Group, France. We wish to pay a tribute to Olga M. Sinilnikova, who with Dominique Stoppa-Lyonnet initiated and coordinated GEMO until she sadly passed away on the 30th June 2014. The team in Lyon (Olga Sinilnikova, Mélanie Léoné, Laure Barjhoux, Carole Verny-Pierre, Sylvie Mazoyer, Francesca Damiola, Valérie Sornin) managed the GEMO samples until the biological resource centre was transferred to Paris in December 2015 (Noura Mebirouk, Fabienne Lesueur, Dominique Stoppa-Lyonnet). We want to thank all the GEMO collaborating groups for their contribution to this study. Drs.Sofia Khan, Irja Erkkilä and Virpi Palola; The Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer Research Group Netherlands (HEBON) consists of the following Collaborating Centers: Netherlands Cancer Institute (coordinating center), Amsterdam, NL: M.A. Rookus, F.B.L. Hogervorst, F.E. van Leeuwen, M.A. Adank, M.K. Schmidt, N.S. Russell, D.J. Jenner; Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, NL: J.M. Collée, A.M.W. van den Ouweland, M.J. Hooning, C.M. Seynaeve, C.H.M. van Deurzen, I.M. Obdeijn; Leiden University Medical Center, NL: C.J. van Asperen, P. Devilee, T.C.T.E.F. van Cronenburg; Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center, NL: C.M. Kets, A.R. Mensenkamp; University Medical Center Utrecht, NL: M.G.E.M. Ausems, M.J. Koudijs; Amsterdam Medical Center, NL: C.M. Aalfs, H.E.J. Meijers-Heijboer; VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, NL: K. van Engelen, J.J.P. Gille; Maastricht University Medical Center, NL: E.B. Gómez-Garcia, M.J. Blok; University of Groningen, NL: J.C. Oosterwijk, A.H. van der Hout, M.J. Mourits, G.H. de Bock; The Netherlands Comprehensive Cancer Organisation (IKNL): S. Siesling, J.Verloop; The nationwide network and registry of histo- and cytopathology in The Netherlands (PALGA): A.W. van den Belt-Dusebout. HEBON thanks the study participants and the registration teams of IKNL and PALGA for part of the data collection. Overbeek; the Hungarian Breast and Ovarian Cancer Study Group members (Janos Papp, Aniko Bozsik, Zoltan Matrai, Miklos Kasler, Judit Franko, Maria Balogh, Gabriella Domokos, Judit Ferenczi, Department of Molecular Genetics, National Institute of Oncology, Budapest, Hungary) and the clinicians and patients for their contributions to this study; HVH (University Hospital Vall d'Hebron) the authors acknowledge the Oncogenetics Group (VHIO) and the High Risk and Cancer Prevention Unit of the University Hospital Vall d'Hebron, Miguel Servet Progam (CP10/00617), and the Cellex Foundation for providing research facilities and equipment; the ICO Hereditary Cancer Program team led by Dr. Gabriel Capella; the ICO Hereditary Cancer Program team led by Dr. Gabriel Capella; Dr Martine Dumont for sample management and skillful assistance; Catarina Santos and Pedro Pinto; members of the Center of Molecular Diagnosis, Oncogenetics Department and Molecular Oncology Research Center of Barretos Cancer Hospital; Heather Thorne, Eveline Niedermayr, all the kConFab investigators, research nurses and staff, the heads and staff of the Family Cancer Clinics, and the Clinical Follow Up Study (which has received funding from the NHMRC, the National Breast Cancer Foundation, Cancer Australia, and the National Institute of Health (USA)) for their contributions to this resource, and the many families who contribute to kConFab; the investigators of the Australia New Zealand NRG Oncology group; members and participants in the Ontario Cancer Genetics Network; Kevin Sweet, Caroline Craven, Julia Cooper, Amber Aielts, and Michelle O'Conor; Christina Selkirk; Helena Jernström, Karin Henriksson, Katja Harbst, Maria Soller, Ulf Kristoffersson; from Gothenburg Sahlgrenska University Hospital: Anna Öfverholm, Margareta Nordling, Per Karlsson, Zakaria Einbeigi; from Stockholm and Karolinska University Hospital: Anna von Wachenfeldt, Annelie Liljegren, Annika Lindblom, Brita Arver, Gisela Barbany Bustinza; from Umeå University Hospital: Beatrice Melin, Christina Edwinsdotter Ardnor, Monica Emanuelsson; from Uppsala University: Hans Ehrencrona, Maritta Hellström Pigg, Richard Rosenquist; from Linköping University Hospital: Marie Stenmark-Askmalm, Sigrun Liedgren; Cecilia Zvocec, Qun Niu; Joyce Seldon and Lorna Kwan; Dr. Robert Nussbaum, Beth Crawford, Kate Loranger, Julie Mak, Nicola Stewart, Robin Lee, Amie Blanco and Peggy Conrad and Salina Chan; Carole Pye, Patricia Harrington and Eva Wozniak. OSUCCG thanks Kevin Sweet, Caroline Craven, Julia Cooper, Michelle O'Conor and Amber Aeilts. BCAC is funded by Cancer Research UK [C1287/A16563, C1287/A10118], the European Union's Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme (grant numbers 634935 and 633784 for BRIDGES and B-CAST respectively), and by the European Community´s Seventh Framework Programme under grant agreement number 223175 (grant number HEALTH-F2-2009-223175) (COGS). The EU Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme funding source had no role in study design, data collection, data analysis, data interpretation or writing of the report. Genotyping of the OncoArray was funded by the NIH Grant U19 CA148065, and Cancer UK Grant C1287/A16563 and the PERSPECTIVE project supported by the Government of Canada through Genome Canada and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (grant GPH-129344) and, the Ministère de l'Économie, Science et Innovation du Québec through Genome Québec and the PSRSIIRI-701 grant, and the Quebec Breast Cancer Foundation. The Australian Breast Cancer Family Study (ABCFS) was supported by grant UM1 CA164920 from the National Cancer Institute (USA). The content of this manuscript does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the National Cancer Institute or any of the collaborating centers in the Breast Cancer Family Registry (BCFR), nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the USA Government or the BCFR. The ABCFS was also supported by the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia, the New South Wales Cancer Council, the Victorian Health Promotion Foundation (Australia) and the Victorian Breast Cancer Research Consortium. J.L.H. is a National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) Senior Principal Research Fellow. M.C.S. is a NHMRC Senior Research Fellow. The ABCS study was supported by the Dutch Cancer Society [grants NKI 2007-3839; 2009 4363]. The Australian Breast Cancer Tissue Bank (ABCTB) was supported by the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia, The Cancer Institute NSW and the National Breast Cancer Foundation. The AHS study is supported by the intramural research program of the National Institutes of Health, the National Cancer Institute (grant number Z01-CP010119), and the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (grant number Z01-ES049030). The work of the BBCC was partly funded by ELAN-Fond of the University Hospital of Erlangen. The BBCS is funded by Cancer Research UK and Breast Cancer Now and acknowledges NHS funding to the NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, and the National Cancer Research Network (NCRN). The BCEES was funded by the National Health and Medical Research Council, Australia and the Cancer Council Western Australia. For the BCFR-NY, BCFR-PA, BCFR-UT this work was supported by grant UM1 CA164920 from the National Cancer Institute. The content of this manuscript does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the National Cancer Institute or any of the collaborating centers in the Breast Cancer Family Registry (BCFR), nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the US Government or the BCFR. BCINIS study was funded by the BCRF (The Breast Cancer Research Foundation, USA). The BREast Oncology GAlician Network (BREOGAN) is funded by Acción Estratégica de Salud del Instituto de Salud Carlos III FIS PI12/02125/Cofinanciado FEDER; Acción Estratégica de Salud del Instituto de Salud Carlos III FIS Intrasalud (PI13/01136); Programa Grupos Emergentes, Cancer Genetics Unit, Instituto de Investigacion Biomedica Galicia Sur. Xerencia de Xestion Integrada de Vigo-SERGAS, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Spain; Grant 10CSA012E, Consellería de Industria Programa Sectorial de Investigación Aplicada, PEME I + D e I + D Suma del Plan Gallego de Investigación, Desarrollo e Innovación Tecnológica de la Consellería de Industria de la Xunta de Galicia, Spain; Grant EC11-192. Fomento de la Investigación Clínica Independiente, Ministerio de Sanidad, Servicios Sociales e Igualdad, Spain; and Grant FEDER-Innterconecta. Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad, Xunta de Galicia, Spain. The BSUCH study was supported by the Dietmar-Hopp Foundation, the Helmholtz Society and the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ). Sample collection and processing was funded in part by grants from the National Cancer Institute (NCI R01CA120120 and K24CA169004). CBCS is funded by the Canadian Cancer Society (grant # 313404) and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research. CCGP is supported by funding from the University of Crete. The CECILE study was supported by Fondation de France, Institut National du Cancer (INCa), Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer, Agence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire, de l'Alimentation, de l'Environnement et du Travail (ANSES), Agence Nationale de la Recherche (ANR). The CGPS was supported by the Chief Physician Johan Boserup and Lise Boserup Fund, the Danish Medical Research Council, and Herlev and Gentofte Hospital. The American Cancer Society funds the creation, maintenance, and updating of the CPS-II cohort. The CTS was initially supported by the California Breast Cancer Act of 1993 and the California Breast Cancer Research Fund (contract 97-10500) and is currently funded through the National Institutes of Health (R01 CA77398, K05 CA136967, UM1 CA164917, and U01 CA199277). Collection of cancer incidence data was supported by the California Department of Public Health as part of the statewide cancer reporting program mandated by California Health and Safety Code Section 103885. The University of Westminster curates the DietCompLyf database funded by Against Breast Cancer Registered Charity No. 1121258 and the NCRN. The coordination of EPIC is financially supported by the European Commission (DG-SANCO) and the International Agency for Research on Cancer. The national cohorts are supported by: Ligue Contre le Cancer, Institut Gustave Roussy, Mutuelle Générale de l'Education Nationale, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) (France); German Cancer Aid, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) (Germany); the Hellenic Health Foundation, the Stavros Niarchos Foundation (Greece); Associazione Italiana per la Ricerca sul Cancro-AIRC-Italy and National Research Council (Italy); Dutch Ministry of Public Health, Welfare and Sports (VWS), Netherlands Cancer Registry (NKR), LK Research Funds, Dutch Prevention Funds, Dutch ZON (Zorg Onderzoek Nederland), World Cancer Research Fund (WCRF), Statistics Netherlands (The Netherlands); Health Research Fund (FIS), PI13/00061 to Granada, PI13/01162 to EPIC-Murcia, Regional Governments of Andalucía, Asturias, Basque Country, Murcia and Navarra, ISCIII RETIC (RD06/0020) (Spain); Cancer Research UK (14136 to EPIC-Norfolk; C570/A16491 and C8221/A19170 to EPIC-Oxford), Medical Research Council (1000143 to EPIC-Norfolk, MR/M012190/1 to EPIC-Oxford) (United Kingdom). The ESTHER study was supported by a grant from the Baden Württemberg Ministry of Science, Research and Arts. Additional cases were recruited in the context of the VERDI study, which was supported by a grant from the German Cancer Aid (Deutsche Krebshilfe). FHRISK is funded from NIHR grant PGfAR 0707-10031. The GC-HBOC (German Consortium of Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer) is supported by the German Cancer Aid (grant no 110837, coordinator: Rita K. Schmutzler, Cologne). This work was also funded by the European Regional Development Fund and Free State of Saxony, Germany (LIFE - Leipzig Research Centre for Civilization Diseases, project numbers 713-241202, 713-241202, 14505/2470, 14575/2470). The GENICA was funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) Germany grants 01KW9975/5, 01KW9976/8, 01KW9977/0 and 01KW0114, the Robert Bosch Foundation, Stuttgart, Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum (DKFZ), Heidelberg, the Institute for Prevention and Occupational Medicine of the German Social Accident Insurance, Institute of the Ruhr University Bochum (IPA), Bochum, as well as the Department of Internal Medicine, Evangelische Kliniken Bonn gGmbH, Johanniter Krankenhaus, Bonn, Germany. The GEPARSIXTO study was conducted by the German Breast Group GmbH. The GESBC was supported by the Deutsche Krebshilfe e. V. [70492] and the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ). The HABCS study was supported by the Claudia von Schilling Foundation for Breast Cancer Research, by the Lower Saxonian Cancer Society, and by the Rudolf Bartling Foundation. The HEBCS was financially supported by the Helsinki University Central Hospital Research Fund, Academy of Finland (266528), the Finnish Cancer Society, and the Sigrid Juselius Foundation. The HMBCS was supported by a grant from the German Research Foundation (Do 761/10-1). The HUBCS was supported by a grant from the German Federal Ministry of Research and Education (RUS08/017), and by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research and the Federal Agency for Scientific Organizations for support the Bioresource collections and RFBR grants 14-04-97088, 17-29-06014 and 17-44-020498. E.K was supported by the program for support the bioresource collections №007-030164/2 and study was performed as part of the assignment of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of Russian Federation (№АААА-А16-116020350032-1). Financial support for KARBAC was provided through the regional agreement on medical training and clinical research (ALF) between Stockholm County Council and Karolinska Institutet, the Swedish Cancer Society, The Gustav V Jubilee foundation and Bert von Kantzows foundation. The KARMA study was supported by Märit and Hans Rausings Initiative Against Breast Cancer. The KBCP was financially supported by the special Government Funding (EVO) of Kuopio University Hospital grants, Cancer Fund of North Savo, the Finnish Cancer Organizations, and by the strategic funding of the University of Eastern Finland. LMBC is supported by the 'Stichting tegen Kanker'. DL is supported by the FWO. The MABCS study is funded by the Research Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology "Georgi D. Efremov" and supported by the German Academic Exchange Program, DAAD. The MARIE study was supported by the Deutsche Krebshilfe e.V. [70-2892-BR I, 106332, 108253, 108419, 110826, 110828], the Hamburg Cancer Society, the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) and the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) Germany [01KH0402]. MBCSG is supported by grants from the Italian Association for Cancer Research (AIRC) and by funds from the Italian citizens who allocated the 5/1000 share of their tax payment in support of the Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale Tumori, according to Italian laws (INT-Institutional strategic projects "5 × 1000"). The MCBCS was supported by the NIH grants CA192393, CA116167, CA176785 an NIH Specialized Program of Research Excellence (SPORE) in Breast Cancer [CA116201], and the Breast Cancer Research Foundation and a generous gift from the David F. and Margaret T. Grohne Family Foundation. MCCS cohort recruitment was funded by VicHealth and Cancer Council Victoria. The MCCS was further supported by Australian NHMRC grants 209057 and 396414, and by infrastructure provided by Cancer Council Victoria. Cases and their vital status were ascertained through the Victorian Cancer Registry (VCR) and the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW), including the National Death Index and the Australian Cancer Database. The MEC was support by NIH grants CA63464, CA54281, CA098758, CA132839 and CA164973. The MISS study is supported by funding from ERC-2011-294576 Advanced grant, Swedish Cancer Society, Swedish Research Council, Local hospital funds, Berta Kamprad Foundation, Gunnar Nilsson. The MMHS study was supported by NIH grants CA97396, CA128931, CA116201, CA140286 and CA177150. MSKCC is supported by grants from the Breast Cancer Research Foundation and Robert and Kate Niehaus Clinical Cancer Genetics Initiative. The work of MTLGEBCS was supported by the Quebec Breast Cancer Foundation, the Canadian Institutes of Health Research for the "CIHR Team in Familial Risks of Breast Cancer" program – grant # CRN-87521 and the Ministry of Economic Development, Innovation and Export Trade – grant # PSR-SIIRI-701. The NBHS was supported by NIH grant R01CA100374. Biological sample preparation was conducted the Survey and Biospecimen Shared Resource, which is supported by P30 CA68485. The Northern California Breast Cancer Family Registry (NC-BCFR) and Ontario Familial Breast Cancer Registry (OFBCR) were supported by grant UM1 CA164920 from the National Cancer Institute (USA). The content of this manuscript does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the National Cancer Institute or any of the collaborating centers in the Breast Cancer Family Registry (BCFR), nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the USA Government or the BCFR. The Carolina Breast Cancer Study was funded by Komen Foundation, the National Cancer Institute (P50 CA058223, U54 CA156733, U01 CA179715), and the North Carolina University Cancer Research Fund. The NHS was supported by NIH grants P01 CA87969, UM1 CA186107, and U19 CA148065. The NHS2 was supported by NIH grants UM1 CA176726 and U19 CA148065. The ORIGO study was supported by the Dutch Cancer Society (RUL 1997-1505) and the Biobanking and Biomolecular Resources Research Infrastructure (BBMRI-NL CP16). The PBCS was funded by Intramural Research Funds of the National Cancer Institute, Department of Health and Human Services, USA. Genotyping for PLCO was supported by the Intramural Research Program of the National Institutes of Health, NCI, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics. The PLCO is supported by the Intramural Research Program of the Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics and supported by contracts from the Division of Cancer Prevention, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health. The POSH study is funded by Cancer Research UK (grants C1275/A11699, C1275/C22524, C1275/A19187, C1275/A15956 and Breast Cancer Campaign 2010PR62, 2013PR044. PROCAS is funded from NIHR grant PGfAR 0707-10031. The RBCS was funded by the Dutch Cancer Society (DDHK 2004-3124, DDHK 2009-4318). SEARCH is funded by Cancer Research UK [C490/A10124, C490/A16561] and supported by the UK National Institute for Health Research Biomedical Research Centre at the University of Cambridge. The University of Cambridge has received salary support for PDPP from the NHS in the East of England through the Clinical Academic Reserve. The Sister Study (SISTER) is supported by the Intramural Research Program of the NIH, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (Z01-ES044005 and Z01-ES049033). The Two Sister Study (2SISTER) was supported by the Intramural Research Program of the NIH, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (Z01-ES044005 and Z01-ES102245), and, also by a grant from Susan G. Komen for the Cure, grant FAS0703856. SKKDKFZS is supported by the DKFZ. The SMC is funded by the Swedish Cancer Foundation and the Swedish Research Council [grant 2017-00644 for the Swedish Infrastructure for Medical Population-based Life-course Environmental Research (SIMPLER)]. The SZBCS is financially supported under the program of Minister of Science and Higher Education "Regional Initiative of Excellence" in years 2019-2022, Grant No 002/RID/2018/19. The TNBCC was supported by: a Specialized Program of Research Excellence (SPORE) in Breast Cancer (CA116201), a grant from the Breast Cancer Research Foundation, a generous gift from the David F. and Margaret T. Grohne Family Foundation. The UCIBCS component of this research was supported by the NIH [CA58860, CA92044] and the Lon V Smith Foundation [LVS39420]. The UKBGS is funded by Breast Cancer Now and the Institute of Cancer Research (ICR), London. ICR acknowledges NHS funding to the NIHR Biomedical Research Centre. The UKOPS study was funded by The Eve Appeal (The Oak Foundation) and supported by the National Institute for Health Research University College London Hospitals Biomedical Research Centre. The USRT Study was funded by Intramural Research Funds of the National Cancer Institute, Department of Health and Human Services, USA. CIMBA CIMBA: The CIMBA data management and data analysis were supported by Cancer Research – UK grants C12292/A20861, C12292/A11174. ACA is a Cancer Research -UK Senior Cancer Research Fellow. GCT and ABS are NHMRC Research Fellows. The PERSPECTIVE project was supported by the Government of Canada through Genome Canada and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, the Ministry of Economy, Science and Innovation through Genome Québec, and The Quebec Breast Cancer Foundation. BCFR: UM1 CA164920 from the National Cancer Institute. The content of this manuscript does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the National Cancer Institute or any of the collaborating centers in the Breast Cancer Family Registry (BCFR), nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the US Government or the BCFR. BFBOCC: Lithuania (BFBOCC-LT): Research Council of Lithuania grant SEN-18/2015 and Nr. P-MIP-19-164. BIDMC: Breast Cancer Research Foundation. BMBSA: Cancer Association of South Africa (PI Elizabeth J. van Rensburg). CNIO: Spanish Ministry of Health PI16/00440 supported by FEDER funds, the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO) SAF2014-57680-R and the Spanish Research Network on Rare diseases (CIBERER). COH-CCGCRN: Research reported in this publication was supported by the National Cancer Institute of the National Institutes of Health under grant number R25CA112486, and RC4CA153828 (PI: J. Weitzel) from the National Cancer Institute and the Office of the Director, National Institutes of Health. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health. CONSIT TEAM: Associazione Italiana Ricerca sul Cancro (AIRC; IG2014 no.15547) to P. Radice. Funds from Italian citizens who allocated the 5 × 1000 share of their tax payment in support of the Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale Tumori, according to Italian laws (INT-Institutional strategic projects '5 × 1000') to S. Manoukian. UNIROMA1: Italian Association for Cancer Research (AIRC; grant no. 21389) to L. Ottini. DFKZ: German Cancer Research Center. EMBRACE: Cancer Research UK Grants C1287/A10118 and C1287/A11990. D. Gareth Evans and Fiona Lalloo are supported by an NIHR grant to the Biomedical Research Centre, Manchester (IS-BRC-1215-20007). The Investigators at The Institute of Cancer Research and The Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust are supported by an NIHR grant to the Biomedical Research Centre at The Institute of Cancer Research and The Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust. Ros Eeles and Elizabeth Bancroft are supported by Cancer Research UK Grant C5047/A8385. Ros Eeles is also supported by NIHR support to the Biomedical Research Centre at The Institute of Cancer Research and The Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust. FCCC: NIH/NCI grant P30-CA006927. The University of Kansas Cancer Center (P30 CA168524) and the Kansas Bioscience Authority Eminent Scholar Program. A.K.G. was funded by R0 1CA140323, R01 CA214545, and by the Chancellors Distinguished Chair in Biomedical Sciences Professorship. Ana Vega is supported by the Spanish Health Research Foundation, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), partially supported by FEDER funds through Research Activity Intensification Program (contract grant numbers: INT15/00070, INT16/00154, INT17/00133), and through Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enferemdades Raras CIBERER (ACCI 2016: ER17P1AC7112/2018); Autonomous Government of Galicia (Consolidation and structuring program: IN607B), and by the Fundación Mutua Madrileña (call 2018). GC-HBOC: German Cancer Aid (grant no 110837, Rita K. Schmutzler) and the European Regional Development Fund and Free State of Saxony, Germany (LIFE - Leipzig Research Centre for Civilization Diseases, project numbers 713-241202, 713-241202, 14505/2470, 14575/2470). GEMO: Ligue Nationale Contre le Cancer; the Association "Le cancer du sein, parlons-en!" Award, the Canadian Institutes of Health Research for the "CIHR Team in Familial Risks of Breast Cancer" program, the French National Institute of Cancer (INCa) (grants AOR 01 082, 2013-1-BCB-01-ICH-1 and SHS-E-SP 18-015) and the Fondation ARC pour la recherche sur le cancer (grant PJA 20151203365). GEORGETOWN: the Survey, Recruitment and Biospecimen Shared Resource at Georgetown University (NIH/NCI grant P30-CA051008) and the Fisher Center for Hereditary Cancer and Clinical Genomics Research. HCSC: Spanish Ministry of Health PI15/00059, PI16/01292, and CB-161200301 CIBERONC from ISCIII (Spain), partially supported by European Regional Development FEDER funds. HEBCS: Helsinki University Hospital Research Fund, Academy of Finland (266528), the Finnish Cancer Society and the Sigrid Juselius Foundation. HEBON: the Dutch Cancer Society grants NKI1998-1854, NKI2004-3088, NKI2007-3756, the Netherlands Organization of Scientific Research grant NWO 91109024, the Pink Ribbon grants 110005 and 2014-187.WO76, the BBMRI grant NWO 184.021.007/CP46 and the Transcan grant JTC 2012 Cancer 12-054. HUNBOCS: Hungarian Research Grants KTIA-OTKA CK-80745 and NKFI_OTKA K-112228. HVH (University Hospital Vall d'Hebron) This work was supported by Spanish Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII) funding, an initiative of the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Innovation partially supported by European Regional Development FEDER Funds: FIS PI12/02585 and PI15/00355. ICO: The authors would like to particularly acknowledge the support of the Asociación Española Contra el Cáncer (AECC), the Instituto de Salud Carlos III (organismo adscrito al Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad) and "Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional (FEDER), una manera de hacer Europa" (PI10/01422, PI13/00285, PIE13/00022, PI15/00854, PI16/00563, P18/01029, and CIBERONC) and the Institut Català de la Salut and Autonomous Government of Catalonia (2009SGR290, 2014SGR338, 2017SGR449, and PERIS Project MedPerCan), and CERCA program. IHCC: PBZ_KBN_122/P05/2004. ILUH: Icelandic Association "Walking for Breast Cancer Research" and by the Landspitali University Hospital Research Fund. INHERIT: Canadian Institutes of Health Research for the "CIHR Team in Familial Risks of Breast Cancer" program – grant # CRN-87521 and the Ministry of Economic Development, Innovation and Export Trade – grant # PSR-SIIRI-701. IOVHBOCS: Ministero della Salute and "5 × 1000" Istituto Oncologico Veneto grant. IPOBCS: Liga Portuguesa Contra o Cancro. kConFab: The National Breast Cancer Foundation, and previously by the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC), the Queensland Cancer Fund, the Cancer Councils of New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia, and the Cancer Foundation of Western Australia. MAYO: NIH grants CA116167, CA192393 and CA176785, an NCI Specialized Program of Research Excellence (SPORE) in Breast Cancer (CA116201), and a grant from the Breast Cancer Research Foundation. MCGILL: Jewish General Hospital Weekend to End Breast Cancer, Quebec Ministry of Economic Development, Innovation and Export Trade. Marc Tischkowitz is supported by the funded by the European Union Seventh Framework Program (2007Y2013)/European Research Council (Grant No. 310018). MSKCC: the Breast Cancer Research Foundation, the Robert and Kate Niehaus Clinical Cancer Genetics Initiative, the Andrew Sabin Research Fund and a Cancer Center Support Grant/Core Grant (P30 CA008748). NCI: the Intramural Research Program of the US National Cancer Institute, NIH, and by support services contracts NO2-CP-11019-50, N02-CP-21013-63 and N02-CP-65504 with Westat, Inc, Rockville, MD. NNPIO: the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (grants 17-54-12007, 17-00-00171 and 18-515-45012). NRG Oncology: U10 CA180868, NRG SDMC grant U10 CA180822, NRG Administrative Office and the NRG Tissue Bank (CA 27469), the NRG Statistical and Data Center (CA 37517) and the Intramural Research Program, NCI. OSUCCG: was funded by the Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center. PBCS: Italian Association of Cancer Research (AIRC) [IG 2013 N.14477] and Tuscany Institute for Tumors (ITT) grant 2014-2015-2016. SMC: the Israeli Cancer Association. SWE-BRCA: the Swedish Cancer Society. UCHICAGO: NCI Specialized Program of Research Excellence (SPORE) in Breast Cancer (CA125183), R01 CA142996, 1U01CA161032 and by the Ralph and Marion Falk Medical Research Trust, the Entertainment Industry Fund National Women's Cancer Research Alliance and the Breast Cancer research Foundation. UCSF: UCSF Cancer Risk Program and Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center. UKFOCR: Cancer Researc h UK. UPENN: National Institutes of Health (NIH) (R01-CA102776 and R01-CA083855; Breast Cancer Research Foundation; Susan G. Komen Foundation for the cure, Basser Research Center for BRCA. UPITT/MWH: Hackers for Hope Pittsburgh. VFCTG: Victorian Cancer Agency, Cancer Australia, National Breast Cancer Foundation. WCP: Dr Karlan is funded by the American Cancer Society Early Detection Professorship (SIOP-06-258-01-COUN) and the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), Grant UL1TR000124. ; Peer Reviewed
Questa ricerca riguarda l'analisi di bacini sintettonici neogenici che si sono sviluppati in varie posizioni rispetto all'orogene siciliano-maghrebide. Lo studio dei bacini in ambiente cinematico convergente e dei depositi che ne costituiscono il riempimento sedimentario, rappresenta uno degli strumenti fondamentali per la comprensione delle modalità con cui avviene la progressiva strutturazione di una zona di catena. In questo lavoro sono stati analizzati i bacini con riempimento di età compresa tra il Serravalliano superiore e il Messiniano inferiore, che si trovano sul fronte e sul dorso della catena siciliana (Thrust Top Basin, Piggy Back Basin) mettendoli in relazione dal punto di vista genetico e stratigrafico-strutturale nel contesto del foreland basin system siciliano. Lo studio è stato condotto nei settori della Sicilia centro-occidentale centrale e orientale, in particolare nell'area di Polizzi Generosa, Resuttano e Catenanuova – Centuripe. In queste aree a partire dall'Oligocene-Miocene la costruzione della catena siciliana è stata accompagnata dalla formazione di sistemi di bacini periferici che migrano verso le zone di avampaese. In particolare, durante il Miocene superiore (Tortoniano sup.-Messiniano inf.) si depositarono dei cunei di sedimenti silicoclastici sulle scaglie tettoniche in movimento. Nel Tortoniano sup.-Messiniano inf. questi bacini sono riempiti da uno spesso cuneo di sedimenti silico-clastici, fluvio-deltizi, marini e carbonatici che si accumulano su un substrato in movimento molto spesso deformato. La base del lavoro effettuato è rappresentata dal rilevamento geologico di dettaglio alla scala 1:10.000. La distinzione tra i principali corpi mappati è stata basata principalmente su caratteri di natura litologica, sedimentologica, stratigrafica (trend deposizionali analisi delle variazioni verticali e laterali di facies), misura di paleocorrenti e studio delle strutture direzionali (clasti embricati pebble cluster). Durante la fase di rilevamento sono state individuate anche le principali strutture tettoniche, misurati i valori giaciturali e rappresentati tramite diagrammi di tipo stereonet. Sono stati misurati dei log sedimentologici di dettaglio in aree chiave per la definizione della successione stratigrafica e dei principali ambienti deposizionali. La misurazione di tali sezioni è stata accompagnata dalla raccolta di circa 45 campioni per analisi micropaleontologiche. Per la classificazione di ciascun bacino sedimentario, è stato fatto riferimento alle classificazioni proposte dai vari autori, in particolare Allen & Allen (1993) e DeCelles & Giles (1996). Per la classificazione e codificazione dei depositi terrigeni è stata utilizzata la classificazione di Miall (1978-1985). La successione tardo miocenica nell'area di Polizzi si presenta con un trend fining e deepening upward caratterizzata dalla sovrapposizione verso l'alto di litofacies conglomeratiche, sabbiose ed argillose mostranti rapporti laterali eteropici. Nell'area di Polizzi i terreni del Tortoniano sup.-Messiniano inf. appartenenti alla Fm. Terravecchia si sovrappongono con rapporti di troncatura erosiva e discordanza sulle arenarie ed argille sabbiose della Fm. Castellana Sicula (Serravalliano sup. –Tortoniano inf.) che affiorano, con limitata estensione solo nella parte SE del bacino o sulle unità tettoniche già strutturate della catena ed in particolare sulle Argille Varicolori (Cretaceo-Eocene inf). Il limite superiore della Fm. Terravecchia si rinviene localmente ed è rappresentato da una superficie di discordanza e discontinuità ricoperta rispettivamente da carbonati di scogliera riferibili alla Fm. Baucina (Tortoniano sup. Messiniano inf) o dalle delle gessareniti della Fm di Pasquasia (Messiniano sup.), chiudono la successioni i Trubi (Zancleano). All'interno della successione stratigrafica tardo miocenica sono state differenziate due settori con associazioni di facies differenti: il settore NW presenta, a partire dal basso, conglomerati politipici con elementi carbonatici, silicei, cristallini, organizzati in unità tabulari, con spessore totale di circa 20 m, con matrice sabbiosa rossastra, riferibili ad un contesto di conoide alluvionale che hanno registrato un trend medio di paleoflusso da NNE a SSW. A seguire arenarie con granulometria da grossolana a media, con geometria esterna lentiforme, con spessore di 25 m che diminuisce verso sud, organizzate in strati metrici con geometria esterna tabulare e stratificazione incrociata ad alto angolo, nella parte bassa, che passano verso l'alto a livelli con stratificazione incrociata a basso angolo di tipo swaley (SCS) ed hummocky (HCS); queste litofacies sono riferibili ad un contesto di wave dominated shoreface delta system che hanno registrato un trend medio di paleocorrente concorde con i conglomerati da NNE a SSW. Chiude la successione un corpo di argille siltose e silt argillosi con fauna planctonica riferibili ad un contesto marino "aperto". Nella zona orientale, invece, a partire dal basso si riconoscono conglomerati organizzati in unità di spessore metrico con geometria concava, costituiti da conglomerati rossastri massivi o mal stratificati, riconducibili a contesti deposizionali di tipo braided river a canali concavi che hanno registrato un trend di paleocorrente che va da ENE a WSW. Seguono facies calcarenitiche medio-grossolane con grande quantità di bivalvi, arrangiate in strati metrici che si intervallano a strati costituite da arenarie medio fini, che presentano clinoformi progradanti verso W con inclinazione di 20°. Queste facies sono attribuibili ad un contesto di delta front. Da punto di vista strutturale il bacino di Polizzi è una sinclinale con asse che si sviluppa in direzione NNE-SSW. Il fianco occidentale risulta essere più inclinato di quello orientale, circa 35° per il primo e immersione a ENE e circa 25° il secondo con immersione WSW. Nell'area sono presenti faglie dirette con orientazione circa NE-SW e non vi sono evidenze che queste faglie abbiano avuto movimento durante le fasi deposizionali. La successione stratigrafica nel settore di Polizzi è riconducibile principalmente a due sistemi deposizionali: uno di fan delta system (Galloway 1988), evolvente a wave dominated shoreface delta system (Howell et al., 2003) ed uno di river delta system, che confluivano all'interno di un bacino da due diverse direzioni: il primo da N-NNE verso S-SSW il secondo da ENE verso WSW alimentati da una sorgente caratterizzata dall'attiva erosione delle unità cristalline Kabilo- Calabridi e da prodotti derivanti da vulcanismo di tipo calcalcalino come dimostrato dalla presenza di basalti andesitici. Il meccanismo deposizionale che interessava la parte occidentale (grain flow) induce a considerare che i corsi d'acqua che alimentavano la piana alluvionale si sviluppavano per un tratto relativamente corto mantenendo un gradiente elevato fino allo sbocco nel bacino ricevente. I depositi di shoreface media superiore invece si formano nel momento in cui si ha risalita del livello del mare modifica il tipo di apporto sedimentario, infatti cominciano a depositarsi sabbie ben cernite di taglia medio-grossolana con un grosso sviluppo verticale che lateralmente riducono il loro spessore verso il bacino e aumentano verso terra (river-dominated shoreface delta system). Nelle zone più orientali, invece, si sviluppava un sistema di tipo braided che scaricava in mare i depositi via via più sabbiosi che progradavano in un delta a basso gradiente, di cui oggi si può vedere la parte frontale (river dominated delta system) da Est verso Ovest come si evince dalle misure di paleocorrene. Correlando le diverse sezioni stratigrafiche osservate nel Bacino di Polizzi è possibile osservare che la successione è "Trasgressiva" con un profilo complessivamente fining upward. I due settori però, danno alcune informazioni di carattere "regressivo", poiché le sequenze di facies alluvionali sono considerate il risultato della progradazione di sistemi fluviali e/o di conoide alluvionale, indotta da un incremento progressivo dell'energia dei corsi d'acqua. Nella curva di variazione relativa del livello del mare simili condizioni si verificano durante lo sviluppo del lowstand systems tract. I caratteri deposizionali e le geometrie stratali descritte per l'associazione di facies di shoreface (profilo fining upward) sono concordanti con quelli tipicamente associati allo sviluppo del trasgressive system tract. Questo è testimoniato anche dalle geometria progradanti delle facies arenitiche sulle stesse facies arenitiche di delta front. La successione tardo miocenica nell'area di Resuttano si presenta con un trend coarsening- e shallowing upward nella parte bassa e nella restante parte con un trend fining deepining upward, caratterizzata dalla sovrapposizione verso l'alto di litofacies sabbiose e conglomeratiche, e lateralmente argillose e calcarenitiche, mostranti rapporti laterali eteropici. I depositi del Tortoniano sup. Messiniano inf. giacciono con rapporti di troncatura erosiva e discordanza sulle argille sabbiose della Fm. Castellana Sicula che affiorano in tutta la zona limitrofa l'abitato di Resuttano fino a Cozzo Terravecchia, le quali giacciono sulle unità tettoniche già strutturate della catena ed in particolare sulle Argille varicolori. I terreni più recenti sono rappresentati dalla biolititi a coralli della Fm. Baucina qui datata Tortoniano sup., a seguire il calcare di base che affiora a Cozzo Terravecchia e chiudono la successione i gessi messiniani All'interno della successione stratigrafica tardo miocenica sono state differenziate, procedendo da NE verso SW, litofacies costituite da ortoconglomerati con spessore di circa 10 m e geometria esterna tabulare, che si alternano a strati con spessore di circa 4 m a geometria esterna tabulare di arenarie e calcareniti con stratificazione incrociata ad alto angolo. Queste litofacies fanno parte di un contesto alluvionale di tipo braided canalizzato. Le strutture sedimentarie come pebble clusters e l'embricatura dei ciottoli più appiattiti hanno registrato una direzione media delle paleocorrenti da NW a SE Verso SW le litofacies sopra descritte passano a litofacies, arenitiche di taglia grossolana, che si alternano a sabbie siltose stratificate con spessori di 20 cm circa e presentano strutture sedimentarie di tipo stratificazione incrociata a basso angolo swaley (SCS) ed hummocky (HCS) ed hanno una diffusa presenza di bivalvi. Queste litofacies costituiscono una associazione di facies di fronte deltizia con pattern delle paleocorrenti concorde con quello misurato nei conglomerati. Tutti i litotipi a granulometria fine (peliti sabbiose, marne argillose, silt argillosi) con spessori decametrici, sono stati inseriti in un unica associazione di facies relativa ad un ambiente di prodelta affiorante nella porzione centrale e meridionale del settore di Resuttano. Da punto di vista strutturale il bacino di Resuttano è una sinclinale blanda e incompleta con asse che si sviluppa in direzione NE-SW. Il fianco occidentale risulta essere più inclinato rispetto a quello orientale. Gli elementi strutturali presenti nell'area sono faglie dirette con orientazione circa NW-SE e NE-SW che dislocano i terreni messiniani. Sono state riscontate faglie inverse con andamento circa E-W e NE-SW che a differenza di quelle dirette dislocano solo i terreni tortoniani. La regione è interessata da pieghe minori con orientazione NE-SW che interessa i conglomerati e SW-NE che interessa i gessi messiniani. Nell'area non sono state riconosciute geometrie stratali sintettoniche. La successione stratigrafica nel settore di Resuttano è riconducibile principalmente ad un sistema deposizionale di river delta system (Galloway 1988) che si sviluppava da NNE e NE verso SSW e SW. Questa area di sedimentazione era alimentata da corsi d'acqua effimeri, ad alta energia, che formavano ampie piane alluvionali non confinate attraversate da canali a morfologia braided. I depositi grossolani trasportati alla foce dai corsi d'acqua formavano un sistema deltizio di grandi dimensioni del tipo Shelf Type a bassa inclinazione. La presenza dei calcari di scogliera della Fm. Baucina, sovrapposti alle litofacies di fronte/prodelta nelle aree meridionali del bacino, è indicativa della tendenza "trasgressiva" nell'evoluzione complessiva del bacino tra il Tortoniano sup. ed il Messiniano inferiore. Tuttavia alcuni settori danno informazioni di carattere "regressivo" poiché la porzione bassa delle sequenze di facies alluvionali è considerato il risultato della progradazione di sistemi fluviali indotta da un incremento progressivo dell'energia dei corsi d'acqua. Nella curva di variazione del livello del mare simili condizioni si verificano durante lo sviluppo del lowstand systems tract LST. La parte superiore della successione costituita dalle arenarie con piccoli canali riempiti induce a pensare che dopo la prima fase di abbassamento del livello del mare e progradazione ci sia stata una fase di sollevamento, confermato anche dal livello di argille marine che si trova alla base del corpo conglomeratico geometricamente più alto e al tetto delle facies sabbiose. Questa parte di successione si sviluppa con un profilo "trasgressivo" con sequenze di facies a trend fining- e deepening upward. I caratteri deposizionali e le geometrie stratali descritte per l'associazione di facies braided (profilo fining upward) sono concordanti con quelli tipicamente associati allo sviluppo del trasgressive system tract TST . Nell'area di Catenanuova-Centuripe i depositi del Tortoniano sup. Messiniano inf. giacciono con rapporti di troncatura erosiva e discordanza sui terreni delle Unità Sicilidi e del Flysch Numidico e verso l'alto sono delimitati dalla serie evaporitica messiniana, dai calcari e calcari-marnosi dei Trubi del Pliocene inferiore e dalle calcareniti della Formazione di Centuripe. All'interno di questa sequenza si intercalano, a vari livelli stratigrafici, olistostromi di Argille Brecciate La successione si presenta con un trend Coarsening- Shallowing Upward. Nell'area essa è generalmente costituita da due litofacies eteropiche: una litofacies, più diffusa, costituita da marne argillose e da sabbie quarzose; l'altra, costituita da sabbie quarzose con grosse lenti di conglomerati a clasti da piatti a sferici, arrotondati, di natura sia sedimentaria che cristallina. Le litofacies conglomeratiche hanno uno spessore di circa 15m organizzati in livelli potenti circa 4 m con geometria esterna concava, gradati inversamente nella parte bassa e caotici nella parte alta in matrice arenitica di taglia medio- grossolana che si sono formati in un contesto di canali braided. Lungo la sinclinale di Centuripe-Leonforte e la valle del F. Dittàino prevale nettamente la facies marnoso sabbiosa che è costituita da alternanze di arenarie e argille marnose con abbondante quarzo e glauconite, interdigitate tra loro con spessore di 20 m circa con gradazione inversa. Le diverse facies presentano notevoli variazioni di spessore testimonianza di una varietà degli apporti detritici connessi all'articolazione dell'ambiente deposizionale che è riconducibile a piane alluvionali prodotte da corsi d'acqua caratterizzati da canali di tipo braided che scaricavano i sedimenti nella piana deltizia e che verso S creavano un ambiente di fronte deltizia/prodelta, che hanno registrato una direzione di paleoflusso da NE a SW. Nell'area tra Catenanuova e Centuripe il bacino ha la forma di un sinclinorio consviluppo E-W che non presenta un pattern deformativo sia fragile che duttile molto evidente. Si può notare che questo bacino è il risultato dell'avanzamento del fronte della catena che man mano che procedeva verso ESE e si smantellava, le misure giaciturali infatti confermano che questi bacini impostati sul dorso dei principali sovrascorrimenti immergono a N-NNW come mostrato dalle geometrie di crescita divergente verso N che hanno i livelli marnoso-sabbiosi grossolani sul Flysch Numidico. Sono state misurate assi di pieghe isoclinali con assi orientati NE-SW e pieghe coricate con asse NNE-SSW ed ENE-WSW a volte erose dalle successioni tardo mioceniche e che rispecchiano il senso di orientazione dei fronti. In questa area il sistema deposizionale, ricostruito in base alla distribuzione delle litofacies, è costituito da una piana alluvionale superiore attraversata da canali amalgamati che erano soggetti a piene frequenti (river delta system Galloway 1988) e una pianura alluvionale distale caratterizzata da canali distributari con carico sabbioso che via via lasciavano il posto ai processi marini verso la zona di fronte deltizio/prodelta. Correlando le diverse sezioni stratigrafiche osservate è possibile osservare che la successione tardo miocenica è "Regressiva" con un profilo complessivamente coarsening upward. La sequenza di facies alluvionale è considerato il risultato della progradazione di sistemi fluviali indotta da un incremento progressivo dell'energia dei corsi d'acqua. Una situazione simile può avvenire durante la regressione normale (Plint, 1988; Posamentier et al., 1992) Nella curva di variazione relativa del livello del mare simili condizioni si verificano durante lo sviluppo del lowstand systems tract LST. La presenza di una superficie di erosione probabilmente sub-aerea alla base dei depositi alluvionali induce a considerare che si tratti di un LST. Dai dati raccolti si può concludere che i depositi tardo miocenici in tutti i settori studiati poggiano con rapporto di discordanza angolare, oltre che sulle unità del Flysch Numidico e Sicilidi (Creataceo sup.-Eocene/Oligocene sup.-Miocene inf.), anche sui depositi appartenenti alla Fm. Castellana Sicula (Serravalliano sup. - Tortoniano inf.). La successione tardo miocenica nel settore di Polizzi e di Resuttano si è sviluppata all'interno di bacini sedimentari che si sono prima riempiti e poi deformati in risposta alla deformazione delle unità strutturalmente più basse dell'edificio tettonico siciliano in risposta ad un campo di stress contrazionale orientato circa NW-SE, nella parte alta del Tortoniano, quindi tali bacini sono pre-tettonici; formatisi tra il primo e il secondo evento della deformazione della catena (Avellone et al., 2010) mentre nell'area tra Centuripe e Catenanuova il bacino è sintettonico. La presenza di sequenze di facies regressive nella successione assume un carattere molto più importante spostandosi verso Est (attuale) dal Bacino di Polizzi verso il Bacino Catenanuova – Centuripe, che è l'unico ad essere regressivo. Il carattere confinato delle litofacies alluvionali e le litofacies di valle incisa si attenuano fino a scomparire spostandosi verso l'attuale Est partendo dal Bacino di Polizzi; spostandosi da Est verso Ovest si passa, da sistemi deposizionali di tipo wave dominated "shoreface" delta system (Bacino di Polizzi porzione occidentale) a sistemi deposizionali del tipo river-dominated delta system (Bacino di Polizzi porzione orientale, Bacino di Resuttano e Bacino tra Catenanuova e Centuripe), molto probabilmente legata alla fisiografia dell'area deposizionale su cui si impostavano. In base a quanto osservato nei singoli bacini le strutture da back thrust a vergenza settentrionale, hanno giocato un ruolo importante, dopo la deposizione delle successioni tardo mioceniche, per la deformazione dei bacini più occidentali. Per il bacino di Catenanuova-Centuripe la geometria divergente indica la possibile attività di un thrust nord-vergente contemporaneamente alla deposizione. ; The aim of this study is the analysis of Neogene syntectonic basins developed in different positions above the Sicilian-Maghrebian orogen. The study of the basins in convergent setting and their filling, is one of the fundamental tools for understanding the ways in which the progressive structuring of a chain area occurs. In this work, Thrust Top Basin and Piggy Back Basin lying on the Sicilian fold and thrust belt, filled up with Serravallian to Messinian sediments, have been analysed in order to relate them to a genetic and stratigraphic-structural point of view in the Sicilian foreland basin system context. The study has been carried out in Central-Western and eastern Sicily in particular in the Polizzi Generosa, Resuttano and Catenanuova–Centuripe areas. In these areas from Oligocene to Miocene the building of the Sicilian fold and thrust belt has been accompanied by the development of a peripheral foreland basin system which migrated toward the Foreland. In particular, during the late Miocene (late Tortonian to early Messinian) a siliciclastic sedimentary wedge above the moving thrust sheets have been deposited. These basins are characterized by sedimentation of continental to open marine clastics and shallow-marine carbonates sediments, above an often deformed moving substrate. The basis of the work is a detailed geological mapping, performed at a 1:10.000 scale. The distinction between the main bodies mapped in the field, has been made on the lithological, sedimentological, stratigraphic features (such as depositional trend, lateral and vertical relationships among facies associations), palaeocurrents measurement and study of the imbricated clasts and pebble clusters. During the geological surveys, the main tectonic structures, have been identified, measured and plotted by stereonet diagrams. Detailed sedimentological log in key areas for the definition of the stratigraphic sequence and the main depositional environments have been measured. The measurement of these sections is accompanied by a collection of 45 samples for micropaleontological analysis. For the classification of each sedimentary basin, reference is made to the classifications proposed by Allen & Allen (1993) and DeCelles & Giles (1996). The classification of Miall (1978-1985) has been used for the classification and codification of terrigenous deposit. The late Miocene succession in the Polizzi area, shows a fining and deepening upward trend characterized by overlapping of conglomeratic, sandy and clayey lithofacies showing lateral heteropic relations. In the Polizzi area the late Tortonian-early Messinian sediments, belonging to Terravecchia Fm. overlay, in unconformity, the sandstones and sandy clays of the Castellana Sicula Fm. (late Serravallian-early Tortonian) or above the structured tectonic units of the chain in particular on Varicolored Clay (Cretaceous-early Eocene).The upper limit of Terravecchia Fm. is found locally and is represented by a unconformity surface covered by carbonates reef deposit pertaining to Baucina Fm. (late Tortonian–early Messinian) or by the Gessarenites pertaining to Pasquasia Fm. (late Messinian). The sequence ends with the Trubi (Zanclean). Inside the upper Miocene stratigraphic succession two areas are differentiated with different facies associations: the NW sector shows, starting from the bottom, polymittic conglomerates with reddish sandy matrix, with carbonatic, siliceous, crystalline clasts, arranged in tabular units, with a total thickness of about 20 m, related to an alluvial fan, which registers an average trend of paleocurrent from NNE to SSW. Upward there are medium- to coarse-grained sandstones, whit external lens geometry and 25 m thick, which decreases towards the south, arranged in well defined, planar-shaped, up to 1m-thick strata characterized by large scale cross bedding in the early part, which pass upward at swaley (SCS) and hummocky (HCS) cross stratification. These lithofacies have been related to a wave-dominated shoreface delta system which recorded an average trend of paleocurrent like conglomerates from NNE to SSW. The sequence ends with silty clays and clayey silts with planktonic fauna related to an offshore environment. In the eastern part of Polizzi basin, conglomerates arranged into units of metric thickness with external concave upward geometry can be recognized from the bottom, made up of reddish conglomerates, massive or poorly stratified, related to a braided river channels environments that showed a mean paleocurrent trend ranging from ENE to WSW. To follow, there are medium-coarse calcarenites with large amount of bivalves, arranged in metric layers alterning to medium-fine sandstones, forming clinoforms dipping towards W with 20° gradient. These facies can be attributed to a delta front environment. From the structural point of view the Polizzi basin is a syncline with NNE-SSW axis. The western limb is more inclined than the eastern limb, the first 35° dipping toward ENE whilst the second 25 °dipping toward SW. In this area there is a normal faults system, NE to SW trending and there is not evidence of syn- tectonics deposition. The stratigraphic succession in the Polizzi area is due to two main depositional systems: the first related to fan delta system (Galloway 1988), evolving in wave-dominated shoreface delta system (Howell et al., 2003); the second related to a river delta system converged inside the basin from two different way: the first from the N- NNE to S-SSW the second from ENE to WSW, from a source characterized by the active erosion of the Kabilo-Calabrides crystalline units and calcalkaline rocks coming from Tyrrhenian volcanic arc. The depositional mechanism that affected the western part of sector (grain flow), leads us to consider that the streams have been developed in a relatively short stretch, maintaining a steep gradient until the mouth to the receiver basin. The late-medium shoreface deposits are instead formed when there are sea level rise that changes the type of sedimentation, indeed starting to accumulate well sorted medium to coarse sands, with a large vertical development, that reduce their thickness laterally toward the basin and increase toward the land (river-dominated shoreface delta system). In the easternmost areas, instead, a braided river system has developed discharging sediments in the sea, gradually more sandy, advancing in a low-gradient delta, (river dominated delta system) from an easterly direction as shown by paleocurrent measures. By linking the different stratigraphic sections observed in the Polizzi Basin it is possible to see that the succession is "Transgressive" with a trend fining upward. The two areas, however, show a "regressive" trend because the alluvial facies are considered to be the result of river systems and /or alluvial fan progradation, induced by a progressive increase in the energy rivers. In the curve of relative sea level change these conditions occur during the development of lowstand systems tract. The characters and the depositional geometries described for the shoreface facies association (fining upward trend) are concordant with those typically associated with the development of the transgressive systems tract. The upper Miocene succession in the Resuttano area develops with a trend-coarsening and shallowing upward, in the lower part, and in the remaining part with a trend fining-deepining upward, characterized by the overlapping of sandy conglomeratic lithofacies and laterally clayey and calcareous, showing heteropic relations. In the Resuttano area the upper Tortonian- lower Messinian sediments, belonging to Terravecchia Fm. overlay in unconformity the sandstones and sandy clays of the Castellana Sicula Fm. (late Serravallian-early Tortonian) cropping out from Resuttano village to Cozzo Terravecchia or above the structured tectonic units of the chain in particular on Varicolored Clay (Cretaceous-early Eocene). The upper limit of Terravecchia Fm. is represented by an unconformity covered by carbonates reef deposits pertaining to Baucina Fm. (late Tortonian in this area) or by the "Calcare di Base" (late Messinian). The sequence ends with the Messinian evaporitic deposit. Inside the upper Miocene stratigraphic succession are differentiated, from NE to SW, ortoconglomeratic lithofacies, 10 m thick and tabular external shape, which alternate layers with 4m thickness of sandstone and calcarenite with high-angle cross-bedding with tabular external shape. These lithofacies are typical of braided river. The sedimentary structures like pebble clusters and imbricated pebbles recorded an average trend of paleocurrent from NW to SE. Towards the SW the lithofacies described above is made up of medium-to coarse sandstones, with external lens geometry and 20 m thickness, arranged in well defined, planar-shaped, up to 1m-thick strata characterized by large scale through cross bedding in the early part, which pass upward at, swaley (SCS) and hummocky (HCS) cross stratification with abundant bivalves. These lithofacies are related to a delta front which records an average trend of paleocurrent from NW to SE. All fine grain litotypes (mudstones, sandy clay and silt clay) with a decametric thickness, are included in a single facies association relating to a prodelta environment, cropping out in the central and southern Resuttano area. From the structural point of view the Resuttano basin is an incomplete syncline with NE-SW axis trend. The western limb is more inclined than the eastern limb. The structural elements are normal faults with NW-SE and NE-SW trend that displace the Messinian deposits and reverse fault with E-W and NE-SW trend that displace the Tortonian deposits. There is no trace of syn- tectonics deposition. The stratigraphic succession in the Resuttano area consists mainly of a depositional river delta system (Galloway, 1988) developed from SSW to NNE and from NE to SW. This area of sedimentation was fed by high-energy ephemeral streams, forming large alluvial plains crossed by not confined braided channels. The coarse deposits transported by rivers have formed a large Shelf Type delta system with low gradient. Some sector of this area, however, show a "regressive" trend because the alluvial facies are considered to be the result of river progradation systems, induced by a progressive increase in the energy rivers. In the curve of relative sea level change these conditions occur during the development of lowstand systems tract. The late part of the sequence constituted by sandstones with small channels fillings, suggests that after the first phase of lowering sea level and progradation, there has been an uplift phase, also confirmed by the level of marine clay located at the base of the conglomeratic body geometrically higher being the roof of the sandy facies. This part of the succession is developed with a "transgressive" trend with fining and deepening upward facies sequences. The stratal pattern described above for the braided facies (fining upward trend) is typically associated with the development of the transgressive systems tract. In the Catenanuova-Centuripe area the upper Tortonian- lower Messinian sediments, belonging to Terravecchia Fm. overlay in unconformity the Sicilide Unit and Numidian Flysch; the upper limit is represented by an unconformity surface covered by carbonates reef deposit pertaining to Messinian deposits, marly limestones and limestones of the Early Pliocene (Trubi) and calcarenitic facies pertaining to Centuripe Formation. Within this sequence olistostromes of "Argille Brecciate" are intercalated at various stratigraphic levels. The sequence shows a coarsening -shallowing upward trend. This area is generally constituted by two heteropic lithofacies: the one's, most widespread, consists of clayey marl and quartz sands, and the other is constituted by quartz sands with thick lenses of conglomerates with dishes spherical clasts, rounded, of sedimentary and crystalline nature. The conglomeratic lithofacies are 15m thick organized in layers (4 m thick) with external concave shape, inversely graded in the lower part, and chaotic in the upper part made up of medium to coarse sandy matrix which were formed in a braided channels environment. Along the Centuripe-Enna syncline and the Dittàino river valley prevails the sandy marl facies made up of alternating sandstones and marly clays with abundant quartz and glauconite, 20 m thick and inverse gradation. The different facies show significant variations in thickness that reflect a high diversity in sedimentary supply, due to the articulation of depositional environment which was made by floodplains produced by braided channels that discharged the sediments into the delta plain and created an delta/prodelta environment towards S, which recorded a paleocurrent from NE to SW. The basin in the area between Catenanuova Centuripe has a synform shape with EW trend and does not present a deformation brittle or ductile pattern very evident. It can be seen that this basin is the result of the moving chain front towards ESE, structural data confirm that these basins, set on the back of the main thrusts dipping toward N-NW, as shown by the growth geometry diverging towards N. Isoclinal folds with NE-SW axes and folds with NNE-SSW and ENE-WSW horizontal axis have been measured, which reflect the sense of orientation of chain fronts, sometimes eroded by the upper Miocene sequences. In this area, the depositional system, reconstructed according to the distribution of lithofacies, is made up of upper alluvial plain crossed by amalgamated channels, subject to frequent floods (river delta system, Galloway, 1988) and a distal alluvial plain characterized by distributary channels with coarse load sandy that gradually gave way to marine processes towards the area of the delta front/prodelta. By correlating the stratigraphic sections it is possible to see that the upper Miocene succession is "regressive" with a coarsening upward trend. The sequence of alluvial facies is considered to be the result of the fluvial systems progradation, induced by a progressive increase in the rivers energy. A similar situation may occur during the normal regression (Plint, 1988; Posamentier et al., 1992). In the curve of relative sea level change these conditions occur during the development of lowstand systems tract, as confirmed by the presence of sub-aerial erosion, probably, at the base of the alluvial deposits. From the data collected it can be concluded that the upper Miocene deposits in all areas studied lie, with angular unconformity relationship, above the Numidian Flysch and Sicilide Unit (late Cretaceous-Eocene/Oligocene–late Miocene) and above deposits belonging to the. Castellana Sicula Fm. (late Serravallian -early Tortonian). The Polizzi and Resuttano basins was filled and then deformed in response to deformation of the lowest structurally tectonic units of the Sicilian fold and thrust belt in response to a NW- SE contractional stress, during the late Tortonian, therefore these basins are pre- tectonic; formed between the first and the second event of the chain deformation (Avellone et al., 2010) while in the area between Centuripe and Catenanuova the basin is syntectonic. The presence of regressive facies sequences is prevalent, moving actual eastward, from Polizzi, to Catenanuova–Centuripe; the latter is the only regressive one. In the Western sector the Miocene succession is characterized by an incised valley, instead in the eastern sector it is characterized by a delta plain system. Moving from west to east the depositional systems are different, switching from wave-dominated delta systems and shoreface delta system (Western sector of Polizzi basin), to dominated delta system (Eastern sector of Polizzi basin, Resuttano basin and Catenanuova- Centuripe basin) probably related to the different physiography areas. According to what has been observed in individual basins the north-verging back thrust played an important role, after the deposition of the upper Miocene succession, for the deformation of the western basins. For the Catenanuova-Centuripe basin the divergent geometry indicates the possible activities of a north -verging thrust simultaneously with deposition.
Part three of an interview with Musa Ali of Fitchburg, Massachusetts. Topics include: Different job he held and businesses he owned. How he brought his children to the U.S. Where his children were educated and what they do for work. How he has been treated in the U.S. What churches he attends. What marriage customs are like. ; 1 SPEAKER 1: Yeah. ALI: Uh, he say, "Give me $10 more and me wash dishes." I say, "No, my friend, me like wash dishes." And he can't kick me out because I'm the boss. SPEAKER 1: Boss, right. [Laughs] ALI: And I start working in the kitchen. This Chinese is a short fellow. What he do, I write in my. with Arabic language. I write what he do. Every time, what he do-do, I write it until I learned all the cook. SPEAKER 1: Really? ALI: I fired the cook, I hired dishwasher. SPEAKER 1: [Laughs] ALI: And I start cooking for two and a half years Chinese food. SPEAKER 1: Wow, you stayed that one. ALI: I stayed two and a half years. SPEAKER 1: Yeah? ALI: Yes. And after, American government send me to Russia. SPEAKER 1: For what? ALI: Business. SPEAKER 1: Business? [Laughs] ALI: And I went to Russia and I have to sell my business. SPEAKER 1: Yeah? ALI: I sold it, I think, $11,000. SPEAKER 1: Yeah? ALI: The restaurant. I stayed six months, less than a few days to six months. When I came back, I find the place go to pieces. SPEAKER 1: Really? ALI: That's right. And I took over. I be. I-I bought it $450. SPEAKER 1: Back? You bought it? ALI: Back. SPEAKER 1: [Laughs] Yeah. 2 ALI: And then we changed it from Chinese to American again. SPEAKER 1: Yeah? ALI: Yeah. And I took it over. I bought it $450. I fire all the help and I hire good girls, nice-looking girls. She wants to take picture in Fox and Hound, if you know that place, Fox and Hound Nightclub in Quincy. She take picture and take the picture, put your picture in a match. SPEAKER 1: Oh, yeah? ALI: She's a beautiful girl. SPEAKER 1: Yeah. ALI: Big, tall, hair up to. I hire her behind the counter and I see a lot of customers look at her. And her dance is very, very good and after. Uncle Sam again, called me up again. SPEAKER 1: Yeah? ALI: Send me back to Palestine. SPEAKER 1: Business again? ALI: Business again. SPEAKER 1: Yeah. ALI: And I have to sell it. SPEAKER 1: Yeah. ALI: And I sold it. When I came back again, I have to take hairdresser. I went to school. SPEAKER 1: Yeah? You went to school? ALI: A hairdresser. Yeah. SPEAKER 1: Where was this, did you go to school? ALI: In Boston. SPEAKER 1: Yeah. ALI: Academy something school. Yes. And I took a license. And after when we talk, I became. me and Harry J. Sullivan, and Harry L. Barker, we had a meeting together and I said, "I'd like to get my business back to be doctor." He said, "Ali, you can't. You have to 3 go to school." I went to Harvard College. When I went to Harvard College, naturally they talk big words, the dean of the college. I don't understand. I go to library. In state hospital, you have a beautiful library, American here. I went to library and that's where the boys who were in the same class with me, some of them were in the army too, you know, and started to look at dictionary what this word mean. I don't understand even the meaning of the word. I look what's the meaning of this word way back two or three times. I got lost. I said, "I don't want to lose my time in the government." The government pay for the school and gave me $125 a week. SPEAKER 1: Really? ALI: That's right. They pay me $125 a week and I don't understand nothing. That's why I thought make the government pay money for nothing and I don't understand nothing. It make you feel ashamed. Number two, it make you feel ashamed, an intelligent man, you don't understand English. It looks bad. SPEAKER 1: It's not an easy language. ALI: That's right. I say, "Okay, forget it." See? And I open sponge business. SPEAKER 1: Sponge? ALI: That's right. SPEAKER 1: [Laughs] ALI: They call it [unintelligible - 00:03:40] Sponge Company in Boston. That's my name. Yes. I have 250 men diver for me. SPEAKER 1: Oh, yeah? ALI: Yes, in Boston. I made good business. Yes. And I have a boat go to Middle East and come back. Yes, with captain. I go with them once in a while. I've done a very good business. Yes. And after, I sold the business and I came to Fitchburg. 4 SPEAKER 1: Well, all this time you were in Boston, were you still living with your brother? ALI: No. SPEAKER 1: No? You moved out? ALI: I move out. I live alone. I hire apartment, one doctor. I mean, doctor. him and I, we live together. SPEAKER 1: But you still didn't have enough family to bring your family over here? ALI: No, I bring my family. SPEAKER 1: When did you bring your family? ALI: In 1946, I bring my son. SPEAKER 1: Yeah? ALI: Yes. SPEAKER 1: Just your son or.? ALI: My son, the one who died. SPEAKER 1: Yeah? ALI: I bring him; I put him in high school in Boston. After, I put him in Northeastern College. After, I put him to Harvard College. Yes. SPEAKER 1: Did you bring your wife or the rest of the.? ALI: No, my wife she. SPEAKER 1: She had died. ALI: In 1948. SPEAKER 1: And what about the rest of your children? ALI: Lived with my mother and father. My father, he lived 107. SPEAKER 1: To 107 years old? ALI: That's right. SPEAKER 1: And the other children lived with him? ALI: Yes. SPEAKER 1: Why did you just bring the one boy and not the others? Because. ALI: No, no, because he's old enough. He was 17. SPEAKER 1: Yeah. 5 ALI: And the other one was younger. He didn't need mother. SPEAKER 1: Yeah, they had to be taken care of while he was work. ALI: We have to be [unintelligible - 00:05:07]. If I bring with me women here. because I hear here, in old country, they say he's a playboy. SPEAKER 1: Oh, yeah. ALI: And I don't want to say that. I don't want somebody give me a bad name. I don't want no woman to live with me with my children. You see? Right away, they say, "It's not for his children – he playboy." SPEAKER 1: Yeah. ALI: And I don't like that. See? I bring my son then he finish and I bring other son when he grow when I came to Fitchburg here. In 1950, I bring my other son. And after, I bring my daughter. See? And my son, that number two, he don't like the school. I put him in Fitchburg High School here three months and I walk with him – I don't take him in a car, walk with him – he go to school, inside. He see when I go and he walk out. He don't go to school. SPEAKER 1: Do they speak English at all? ALI: A little bit. SPEAKER 1: A little bit. Yeah. ALI: Because down there, they teach you A, B, C, D, open the door, close the door, thank you, goodbye, how are you, you know. SPEAKER 1: He just didn't like it. ALI: He don't like the school. We have to learn some trade. He said, "I like to be mechanic." I put him to mechanic here in [unintelligible - 00:06:25] summer school, a mechanic. I put him there, two weeks, he said, "Too dirty." SPEAKER 1: Yeah. ALI: And I said, "All right." And he start to smoke. I beat him up. And he see me a few time I go to Fidelity Bank, to Mr. Barrett. He 6 ask him, he say, "My father need $200, Mr. Barrett. Can you give me please?" Mr. Barrett did give him $200, the president of the bank. SPEAKER 1: Oh, geez. ALI: He took $200 and he took the bus from here to Boston. He was only five months in this country. And he went to Boston by bus. And from Boston, he took the taxi to the airport and he took the airplane to Dearborn, Michigan. This boy here, you met him, Abdullah? SPEAKER 1: Yeah. ALI: He's the one who was there in Dearborn, Michigan, because he came the same day, this my nephew, because. both cousin. And he went to see him. He started work with him. From there, he went to volunteer to the air force, American Air Force, four years. SPEAKER 1: Yeah. What's he doing today? ALI: Now, he wants to work with me, barber. I put him in school here to be barber because he don't like. SPEAKER 1: He came back, yeah. ALI: He came back. He get married and he get six kid now. I put him to work with me for 14 years, you know, barber. I gave him $225 a week, five days, for barber. He was [Unintelligible - 00:08:01] for me in barbershop here. SPEAKER 1: In Fitchburg? ALI: In Fitchburg. And after the business dropped down because everybody gets. starts to get long hair. And then he left. He went to Somerville. He bought packages store, you know, variety store. And he bought house there, see. And now, he has then. making a good living. SPEAKER 1: What about your daughter? How did.? ALI: My daughter, she got married. SPEAKER 1: So she came here? 7 ALI: No. I send her to Harvard College. I want to be doctor. Because I found out you can't open a hospital, you can't do nothing until you be doctor. And I was thinking, "She's young and she know English." I put her in Harvard College, took a medical degree, and she get doctors. And I work on her hair. And after two or three years, could be, maybe, I get my practice license doctor, too. See? And she went over a year and a half. And I was her hairdresser myself in Fitchburg here. She don't like to be doctor. She said, "Dad, I don't like it – too hard for me. Can I take hairdressing and work with you?" I said, "Okay." I put her hairdresser, in a school. She stays seven months in school and then she got her practice license, hairdresser. And she came work with me in Fitchburg as hairdresser. She don't like it. I said, "What do you want?" She said, "Well, let me work with you in the house." I have a house. SPEAKER 1: Take care of your house? ALI: My house. SPEAKER 1: Yeah. ALI: I put her in the house. Then she hit 18, 19 and I said, "Now, you can't stay like this. You have to be married." I send her back to old country. She met my cousin. SPEAKER 1: Yeah? ALI: Yes. SPEAKER 1: It was an arranged type of marriage? ALI: Yes. Yes. SPEAKER 1: Yeah. Your other boy got married though. That wasn't arranged, was it? ALI: Arranged by my father. SPEAKER 1: Oh, it was? ALI: Yes. I send them there from here, from the air force. SPEAKER 1: So he married an Arab? ALI: Yes. 8 SPEAKER 1: And your other son, he went to a school here? ALI: Yes, he went to Northeastern College. He went to Harvard College. SPEAKER 1: For any special thing? ALI: Yes. SPEAKER 1: To be a doctor? ALI: No. SPEAKER 1: No? ALI: Number one, he was engineer, see. And after, he took, I don't know what kind of thing. He took another one. Subject, he took another subject. And after, he went to the air force. He once worked for the government intelligence service six and a half years, see. And after he get discharged, he came here. He opened supermarket in Detroit, Michigan. And the American government went after him, took him. He went on postmaster in Saudi Arabia. After, they took him back to ambassador. Two months ago, the American government, they want me to go back. They came here to the barbershop and ask me to follow. I thought about it. They want me to go back to the service. SPEAKER 1: They want you, too? ALI: Yes. SPEAKER 1: Yeah? And you said no? ALI: No. I told them the story about when that tourist was hunting. Do you remember? SPEAKER 1: I think. ALI: One Arabian champion and one German champion went to hunt. They say, "There can't be two champions. There got to be one." When he went to Germany, he say, "Okay, you're my guest tomorrow morning." Next morning, they went to hunt. The German fellow took the eagle with him – pheasants, they're called pheasants. He let the pheasant cock, cock, cock, and all the 9 pheasant come in. German fellow, he took the gun and shot five. He said, "Boy, that's why you're champion?" He says, "Well, that's my limit now. Five minute, five pheasants. Let's go back home." He said, "Before you go, you want to sell me the pheasant? He said, "It cost too much money." He said, "Why?" "Because they take me a long time to teach them, making the pheasant come in and after I kill them, he come in with them. You know, because they're dead and it becomes alive and put them with me and go home. It cost me too much time and money." He said, "I don't care. How much you want to sell it?" He said, "A thousand mark." He said, "Here's a thousand mark, my friend." Look at him, the smartest man. He said, "I'll buy it. The German fellow, he said, "A thousand marks for one pheasant is a lot of money." He took it, and the Arabian man, he took the gun and shot him, he kill him. He said, "Why you kill him?" He said, "Well, he's not worth to live. He doesn't deserve to live." He said, "Why?" He said, "He double-cross his kind." SPEAKER 1: [Laughs] ALI: Double-cross his kind. The German fellow, he always said, "You're right." He said, "He's not worth to live." Am I going against my people? No. And I told that story to the people who come to see me. They say, "You're still American." I say, "I don't care. Still, I'm Arabian blood." SPEAKER 1: Yeah, you can't go against your people. ALI: I can't. SPEAKER 1: When you started to live in this area, did you look for a neighborhood of your own nationality or weren't there enough people? ALI: No, when I came here, I don't find nobody except one man, I told you, Mr. Joseph. He's Lebanese and he's Catholic. And the Catholic, they don't like the Muslim. 10 SPEAKER 1: They don't? No? ALI: No. This people here that came tonight, they don't like Muslims. SPEAKER 1: No? ALI: But just he work for me one time. When he came to this country to. he didn't have no license. I took him with me to Boston and I help him out to get his license. And he work with me one year, see. And I give him good money. But, of course, I'm Muslim, he quit. SPEAKER 1: Really? ALI: That's right, after I give him license. He work in the plastic. He come and his finger all burned here because of the plastic. SPEAKER 1: The chemicals? ALI: Because I get factory in New Hampshire. SPEAKER 1: You have a factory now? ALI: Yeah, I sold it. SPEAKER 1: Oh, you sold it? ALI: Yeah, last year. I get plastic factory, Green, in New Hampshire? SPEAKER 1: Yeah? ALI: That's my name. SPEAKER 1: Geez. You have a lot of things going. Well, how did the people treat you when you came into this area? ALI: Well, like I say, when I came here, I think I told you I met that man, Mr. [Lowell], and I took him home, I make Christmas dinner. I told you a story about it. And when I ask him to get. I give him $2 and dinner with us. She took it the wrong way. SPEAKER 1: Yeah, to be a waitress. ALI: Yeah, and after I went to First Baptist Church, where is the library now exactly, I make dinner for 250. When we were finished, I show you the papers here. I fed him next year. I asked him, he said, no, he get to be only a Baptist member, a First Baptist Church member. I said, "No, my friend, every man, the Greek, Italian, 11 Jews, Catholic, Orthodox, Protestant, I don't care who it is, over 6 years, they are invited. We call the mother, father of the town or the city. I invite everybody. And I have cars, transportation. I have. each car, two people to bring man or woman in wheelchair and put them in a car. When they come out, they can bring them to the dinner. And I have nurses; I hire 10 nurses. Every time I went to [unintelligible - 00:15:28] Hospital with my high English. I have a hard time even to rent 10 girls, to hire girls to feed the people and wash them out and send them back. Even one fellow is named Father O'Brien. He was in charge of the Saint Camilla Church. He was a waiter. And he didn't believe it. He came, kiss me, and hug me two or three time in my cheek. He say he never see that in his life and he was waiter with the George Burke last time and the policemen in five minutes, city council – waiters. And Father O'Brien, he volunteered. He say, "Honest to God, Mo, I give one man five times, you know, what's called second, second, second, five dishes. He eat five dishes in all, all men. And this man, he never eat before." I said, "That's what I would love to have. I want people to eat." The last time, last year, when I get. I get 15 years in Fitchburg here. The last time was 2,200 people. It was on TV, channel 4, 5, and 7. SPEAKER 1: Really? ALI: Yes, ma'am. SPEAKER 1: I don't remember. ALI: Yes. SPEAKER 1: A year ago? ALI: Yes. No, eight years ago. SPEAKER 1: Oh, eight years ago. ALI: Yes. Then they take me to the court. I have 500 letters. Over 10 letter come in from Tokyo, Japan. SPEAKER 1: Really? 12 ALI: That's right. I still got that mail. From Tokyo, Japan they thank me. They never see that man who do all that dinner, 82 turkey. I bought the smallest turkey, 35 pound from C.A. Cross. I don't know if you remember that name. It was a wholesale when you go to Wayland Park in your right-hand side. I bought. when I have my own restaurant. I have restaurant in [Parma], big dining. And I have the hotel. [Unintelligible - 00:17:29] I told you. And I had. SPEAKER 1: Barry? ALI: Barry. I have restaurant in [unintelligible - 00:17:37]. See, I have different places. And I buy a lot of food from them. And I ask Mr. Cross, young fellow, I say, "I want to make dinner." He say, "I hear about it." I say, "I want you to give me wholesale." He say, "Yes." He give me 82 turkeys but it's special because you have to order especially that big turkey. And nobody wanted that turkey, 38 and 40 pound, not 10, 15 pound. The smallest was 38 pound, see. I bought it and put them at table. And then the TV man, he came and took the picture. SPEAKER 1: Yeah? ALI: Yeah, he didn't believe it. One man, he volunteered to buy this stuff and cook them and slice them. He don't believe it. And nobody helped me here. And after, took me to the court. I told you that. They want to know where I got my money and what reason. I told them. SPEAKER 1: They just didn't know you could do something like that because you want to do it for people, to help them. ALI: I want it. I've done it in London. SPEAKER 1: Yeah. ALI: I fed in London in 1943. I fed 1,500 people in London. And the mayor of London, his name is Mr. Johnson—I not forgot it, old man with one eye—he worked with me all night long. And the 13 English is, everybody know, cold-blooded. But he's hot blooded. He worked with me. But the American here, nobody work with me. SPEAKER 1: No one helped you? ALI: Nobody. And even took me to the court. They want to know where I got my money. SPEAKER 1: So the people just weren't very friendly to you? ALI: No. No. Can you believe.? What reason, I can't tell you – just jealous because I run for politics here, for mayor? SPEAKER 1: When was that? ALI: Huh? SPEAKER 1: What year was that? ALI: I forget. Eight years ago since I start to run for mayor, this trouble starts in the city. SPEAKER 1: So do you still find a little bit of hostility now even? ALI: A little bit. I know they don't like me. Look now, I have a building, main street building – Dr. Rosenberg here, Dr. Benton here, and my building in the middle. Number one, I paint it white. They came and give me help, you see. "You can't paint it white. You have to paint it blue." I had one argument with my neighbor. I said, "Okay, I paint it blue but not dark blue, light blue." Dr. Benton and the dentist's wife, they came and they both gave me, "Are you blind? We're not this color." I say, "You told me blue. It is blue." He said, "No, it's light blue." I say, "Yes. It's barbershop. I want to grab people eyes, look. I don't want it dark." He said, "Where do you buy your paint?" I told him, "From Academy Paint Store." His name Phil, the manager, they went to see him. He said, "Phil?" He say, "Yes." He say, "We want a paint for Mr. Ali." He say, "Sure. No?" He say, "Yes." He say, "We need paint." They pick up the color – dark, dark blue. I could swear to God it's black. And he say, "[Unintelligible -14 00:20:51]. Is he color blind? He's stupid." He, he, he to the end. And then he came home to the office and he called me up. He say, "Ali?" I say, "Yes." "We got you the paint." I thought he pay for the paint. No. SPEAKER 1: Yeah. They wouldn't pay? ALI: No. He just pick up the color for me. I went to Phil. He said, "Ali, how do you live with this wife?" I said, "Why?" He said, "She call you stupid, she call you colorblind, she call you." I say, "That's not – you know how the women. They don't want to hear me. I didn't say nothing. SPEAKER 1: You didn't say it wasn't your wife? [Laughs] ALI: No. And he said, "What color?" He said, "This one." I said, "My gosh! Nobody died in my barbershop." SPEAKER 1: [Laughs] ALI: It's black. He say, "That's the wife. She." I say, "Give me that green." He says, "She's going to divorce you." I say, "Good. I like her to divorce me. I'll find another one." I painted it green. And since that time, he don't talk to me. He called me everything. We have a fire in that building. Fellow's name [unintelligible - 00:21:59]. He's the headman or the building inspector. He send me a letter by police – not by post office or by mail – by the police. I have to start remodeling my building before eight hours. If not, he can [unintelligible - 00:22:16] to make my building. I start for eight hours after the fire, start work on my building, three years ago. Now, Dr. Rosenberg is still there now. The window broke, the door broke. There's snow inside, frozen pipe. They didn't tell him, "You have to remodel your building." Why? He's a white man. I'm a white man. He's an American citizen. I'm an American citizen. He pay tax. I pay tax. I pay $800 tax – this year, $2,100 tax. But why they can't send him letter, "You have to fix this building." I went to John [unintelligible - 00:23:00]. I 15 said, "Mr. John, cousin," I say, "Will you please write letter to Dr. Rosenberg? He don't want to fix his building?" "All right, I can't force him. I'm not the City Hall." I say, "Can you give me permit at least for the window? Because it froze my pipe and I can't afford it. Even last week, when I was in old country, the pipe froze. They have to call the policeman; they have to call the fireman to close my water. It was leaking, fifth floor to the cellar, my pipe. It cost me $1,000. And they won't help me to [sell]. They won't help me. SPEAKER 1: No? ALI: No. When I went to John [unintelligible - 00:23:41], he charged me $10. He wrote me a letter, a typewritten letter, good English, to Dr. Rosenberg to ask him permit, to give me permit. I buy the wood; I hire the carpenter, just for the window to hold the air. You sue me for $25,000. SPEAKER 1: They can do that? ALI: Yes. Now, I'm under court for $25,000 and that passing, what's that called in English? SPEAKER 1: Damages? ALI: No, pass. SPEAKER 1: Trespassing? ALI: Trespassing. And I send them up by mail, by lawyer. They charge me $10. See? SPEAKER 1: And they're going to sue you? ALI: They sue me already. My lawyer, Solomon, too, is Jewish; Dr. Rosenberg is Jewish. I say, "Two Jewish fight each other." See? To show you I'm not wanted here. SPEAKER 1: Yeah. You said something about you became an American citizen. When did you become one? Do you remember? 16 ALI: 1942 and they took me to intelligence service. Because you can be intelligence service; you have to be citizen. I took my citizen in Durham, North Carolina. SPEAKER 1: Yeah? ALI: That's right. SPEAKER 1: Really? Did you ever become involved in… well, there was no Muslim Church around here. You said that. where is the church? ALI: We have a church in Quincy. We have a church in New York. We have a big church in Washington, D.C. We have a church in Dearborn, Michigan. We have church in Detroit, Michigan. We have church in Cleveland, Ohio. SPEAKER 1: But none really that. do you go to churches around here? ALI: I go to every church. I go to Saint [unintelligible - 00:25:13], I go to Christ Church, I go to Saint Georgia's Church [unintelligible - 00:25:20], I go to Baptist Church. now they move it. It was here. They move it in John Fitch Highway [unintelligible - 00:25:30] down when you go to New Hampshire. Ashby? SPEAKER 1: Oh, Ashby? ALI: In the middle. We have a garage there, a new garage, in the church up the hill, building new. I go there. I go to Jew synagogue. SPEAKER 1: So you're really involved in all of them? ALI: I go to everyone. I don't mind. SPEAKER 1: It doesn't make any difference? ALI: No, we have one God in this world, like I told you yesterday. We have one God in this world, see. SPEAKER 1: Did you ever become involved in any social activities while you did those, you know. like you did the Christmas dinners with people. Anything else that you. any social activities like. did lots of Muslims ever get together and have like dates? ALI: No. SPEAKER 1: Nothing like that? 17 ALI: We have Arabian dance in Boston because [unintelligible - 00:26:14] get married, or [ring show] from Egypt, Lebanon, Beirut, [unintelligible - 00:26:19]. SPEAKER 1: But nothing in this area? ALI: Not in this area, because not much here people. SPEAKER 1: No? ALI: The most 25, 30 people, just young boys. SPEAKER 1: Yeah. What were some of the things that you miss most about home, back in Arabia? Like did you miss the food or the.? ALI: Yes. SPEAKER 1: Do you still cook Arabian food? ALI: I cook any kind but I can't cook Arabian food. SPEAKER 1: You can't? ALI: I can't cook Arabian food. SPEAKER 1: No? ALI: No. I have to go some time in Worcester. They call it [El Morocco]. You've been there? SPEAKER 1: I've heard of it, yeah. ALI: I go there sometime when I want Arabian food. But sometime, invite me, somebody like this people here, Lebanese, sometime invite me. I eat Arabian food. Sometime, I go to my son, I go to my nephew, see. SPEAKER 1: Do you miss that kind of food though? ALI: Yes. SPEAKER 1: You're becoming adjusted to American food though? ALI: Yeah, I like American food. SPEAKER 1: [Unintelligible - 00:27:15]. ALI: Anything to fill your belly. SPEAKER 1: Yeah. ALI: That's all. SPEAKER 1: Do you miss the customs and things like that? 18 ALI: I wear it here. Yes. SPEAKER 1: You were telling me about the marriage customs. I thought that was kind of interesting, you know, how you don't get. like in your country, you don't even see them. ALI: No, you don't see them. SPEAKER 1: Each other before you're married. ALI: See, down there, like I say, I like the custom this way. And I like American custom like we talked yesterday because independent. how you look at it. Number one, down there, you can't have no girlfriend, no boyfriend, only through by your mother, by your father. See, you're married. Okay. When you're married, like I say, depending on your class, how much money you're worth; if you're worth money enough because the money belong to you because you belong to your wife, $2,000. You buy silk handkerchiefs. It's got to be white silk handkerchiefs. You give to the girl's father. The girl father count them. You have to replace it, match it. SPEAKER 1: Match it, yeah. ALI: He put $2,000, you put $2,000. He put $5,000, you put $5,000. He put $10,000, you put $10,000. The girl father, you have to match it. And he call the mother and he give the mother. The mother and the daughter, they go outside next day, buy jewelry, furnishing. SPEAKER 1: Stuff for the house? ALI: Stuff for the girl, for her future. Okay. And after, the boy, he invites everybody. Like I told you, we have dance three nights, see, until 12 or 1 o'clock in the morning. They bring like guitars in old country but call that oud. SPEAKER 1: Oud? ALI: Oud is different. It's round. SPEAKER 1: It's round? Yes. 19 ALI: Yes, beautiful. See? And they play sometime until 4 or 5 o'clock in the morning. Poem. SPEAKER 1: Singing? ALI: Yeah. And people have good time drinking coffee and cinnamon. SPEAKER 1: Yeah, cinnamon. ALI: Oh, beautiful. I love it. SPEAKER 1: But no liquor or nothing? ALI: No liquors, absolutely none. SPEAKER 1: It's against the religion? ALI: If you get caught with empty can beer in your hand or your body, three months in jail without court. SPEAKER 1: Because of your religion? ALI: That's right. SPEAKER 1: Really? ALI: That's right. Now, I can tell you now. But in my time, you see, you can. not allowed. You remember my nephew when he told you I own the hotel. He get busy because I have nightclub. See? And I bring girl from Africa, Algiers, dancing from. from Italy, dancing and advertising in the papers and radio. And everybody, they want to see something different. Because you have to get [unintelligible - 00:30:06] to bring somebody and I bring a lot of people. And when the bartender. they have three bartender and too busy, see. I have to help them. They say, "Mo, give me Schlitz." "This cousin Schlitz?" "No, no, not this one." "This?" "No, no." I start to pick up. I don't care. Beer is the same thing to me. SPEAKER 1: Yeah. ALI: Beer is beer. SPEAKER 1: Yeah. ALI: Everyone has a different name, see. I have a cooler. I can put in 30 case, see. And I do not care. I just pick up. "I don't want this 20 one." "Okay, cousin. Open this." "Okay. No, not this one." "Okay, that's the one. Okay." They drive me. but fast. I want it fast. SPEAKER 1: So when you have your wedding celebrations, you just like to sit, have coffee, things like that. ALI: Coffee. SPEAKER 1: That lasts for three days? ALI: Yes. SPEAKER 1: And the girls last three days, too? Separate? ALI: No, together. SPEAKER 1: Oh, together? ALI: Together, but men dance and sing and the girl behind – same area but not together, see. All right. And after, they make dinner. SPEAKER 1: For everybody? ALI: For everybody. Sometime, even four or five towns, depending how you are well known. I don't know what you call in English. How much you are well known. People know you. Two or three towns, sometimes 10 towns. Sometimes, nobody just your neighbors, see. Sometimes, a lot of people come in, 40, 50, 6000 lambs, sometimes two lamb. But like I say, how much people do you know? SPEAKER 1: So you kill a lamb? ALI: You kill them; you cook them, make dinner. And after, we eat dinner. No, before the dinner, we take the boy, ride in a horse, like I told you, and start a race, see. And after half or one hour, the men bring back the horse and they begin with the dance with the sword and poem./AT/mb/ee