Suchergebnisse

NOTICIAS / NEWS ("Transfer", 2016) 1) CONGRESOS / CONFERENCES: 1. Languages & the Media – Agile Mediascapes: Personalising the Future, Hotel Radisson Blu, Berlín, 2-4 Nov. 2016 www.languages-media.com 2. Third Chinese Drama Translation Colloquium Newcastle University, UK, 28-19 Junio 2016. www.ncl.ac.uk/sml/about/events/item/drama-translation-colloquium 3. 16th Annual Portsmouth Translation Conference – Translation & Interpreting: Learning beyond the Comfort Zone, University of Portsmouth, UK, 5 Nov. 2016. www.port.ac.uk/translation/events/conference 4. 3rd International Conference on Non-Professional Interpreting & Translation (NPIT3) Zurich University of Applied Sciences, Suiza
5-7 Mayo 2016. www.zhaw.ch/linguistics/npit3 5. 3rd Postgraduate Symposium – Cultural Translation: In Theory and as Practice. University of Nottingham, UK, 18 Mayo 2016. Contact: uontranslation2016@gmail.com 6. 3rd Taboo Conference – Taboo Humo(u)r: Language, Culture, Society, and the Media, Universitat Pompeu Fabra (Barcelona) 20-21 Sep. 2016.
https://portal.upf.edu/web/taco 7. Postgraduate Conference on Translation and Multilingualism Lancaster University, UK, 22 Abril 2016. Contacto: c.baker@lancaster.ac.uk 8. Translation and Minority University of Ottawa (Canadá), 11-12 Nov. 2016. Contacto: rtana014@uottawa.ca 9. Translation as Communication, (Re-)narration and (Trans-)creation Università di Palermo (Italia), 10 Mayo 2016 www.unipa.it/dipartimenti/dipartimentoscienzeumanistiche/convegni/translation 10. From Legal Translation to Jurilinguistics: Interdisciplinary Approaches to the Study of Language and Law, Universidad Pablo de Olavide, Sevilla,
27-28 Oct. 2016. www.tinyurl.com/jurilinguistics 11. Third International Conference on Research into the Didactics of Translation. Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 7-8 Julio 2016 http://grupsderecerca.uab.cat/pacte/en/content/second-circular-1 12. EST Congress – Expanding the Boundaries or Strengthening the Bases: Should Translation Studies Explore Visual Representation? Aarhus University (Dinamarca), 15-17 Sep. 2016 http://bcom.au.dk/research/conferencesandlectures/est-congress-2016/panels/18-expanding-the-boundaries-or-strengthening-the-bases-should-translation-studies-explore-visual-representation/ 13. Tourism across Cultures: Accessibility in Tourist Communication Università di Salento, Lecce (Italia). 25-27 Feb. 2016 http://unisalento.wix.com/tourism 14. Translation and Interpreting Studies at the Crossroad: A Dialogue between Process-oriented and Sociological Approaches – The Fourth Durham Postgraduate Colloquium on Translation Studies Durham University, UK. 30 Abril – 1 Mayo 2016. www.dur.ac.uk/cim 15. Translation and Interpreting: Convergence, Contact, Interaction Università di Trieste (Italia), 26-28 Mayo 2016 http://transint2016.weebly.com 16. 7th International Symposium for Young Researchers in Translation, Interpreting, Intercultural Studies and East Asian Studies. Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 1 Julio 2016. http://pagines.uab.cat/simposi/en 17. Translation Education in a New Age The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen, China 15-16 Abril 2016. Contact: Claire Zhou (clairezhou@cuhk.edu.cn) 18. Audiovisual Translation: Dubbing and Subtitling in the Central European Context, Constantine the Philosopher University, Nitra (Eslovaquia). 15-17 Junio 2016. https://avtnitraconference.wordpress.com 19. Cervantes, Shakespeare, and the Golden Age of Drama Madrid, 17-21 Oct. 2016 http://aedean.org/wp-content/uploads/Call-for-papers.pdf 20. 3rd International Conference Languaging Diversity – Language/s and Power. Università di Macerata (Italia), 3-5 Marzo 2016 http://studiumanistici.unimc.it/en/research/conferences/languaging-diversity 21. Congreso Internacional de Traducción Especializada (EnTRetextos) Universidad de Valencia, 27-29 Abril 2016 http://congresos.adeituv.es/entretextos 22. Translation & Quality 2016: Corpora & Quality Université Charles de Gaulle Lille 3 (Francia), 5 Feb. 2016 http://traduction2016.sciencesconf.org/?lang=en 23. New forms of feedback and assessment in translation and interpreting training and industry. 8th EST Congress – Translation Studies: Moving Boundaries, Aarhus University (Dinamarca), 15-17 Sep. 2016. www.bcom.au.dk/est2016 24. Intermedia 2016 – Conference on Audiovisual Translation University of Lodz (Polonia), 14-16 Abril 2016 http://intermedia.uni.lodz.pl 25. New Technologies and Translation Université d'Algiers (Argelia). 23-24 Feb. 2016 Contacto: newtech.trans.algiers@gmail.com 26. Circulation of Academic Thought - Rethinking Methods in the Study of Scientific Translation. 11 - 12 Dec. 2015, University of Graz (Austria).https://translationswissenschaft.uni-graz.at/de/itat/veranstaltungen/circulation-of-academic-thought 27. The 7th Asian Translation Traditions Conference Monash University, Malaysia Campus, 26-30 Sep. 2016. http://future.arts.monash.edu/asiantranslation7 28. "Translation policy: connecting concepts and writing history" 8th EST Congress – Translation Studies: Moving Boundaries Aarhus University (Dinamarca), 15-17 Sep. 2016 http://bcom.au.dk/research/conferencesandlectures/est-congress-2016/panels/13-translation-policy-connecting-concepts-and-writing-history 29. International Conference – Sound / Writing: On Homophonic Translation. Université de Paris (Francia), 17-19 Nov. 2016 www.fabula.org/actualites/sound-writing-on-homophonic-translationinternational-conference-paris-november-17-19-2016_71295.php 30. Third Hermeneutics and Translation Studies Symposium – Translational Hermeneutics as a Research Paradigm Technische Hochschule, Colonia (Alemania), 30 Junio-1 Julio 2016 www.phenhermcommresearch.de/index.php/conferences 31. II International Conference on Economic Financial and Institutional Translation. Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières (Canadá), 17-18 Agosto 2016. www.uqtr.ca/ICEBFIT 32. International Congress - liLETRAd 2016-Cátedra LILETRAD. Literature Languages Translation, Universidad de Sevilla, 6-8 Julio 2016. https://congresoliletrad.wordpress.com 33. Transmediations! Communication across Media Borders Linnæus University, Växjö (Suecia), 13–15 Oct. 2016 http://lnu.se/lnuc/linnaeus-university-centre-for-intermedial-and-multimodal-studies-/events/conferences/transmediations?l=en 34. Translation Education in a New Age, 15-16 Abril 2016. School of Humanities and Social Science, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen. Contacto: chansinwai@cuhk.edu.cn 35. Translation and Time: Exploring the Temporal Dimension of Cross-cultural Transfer, 8-10 Diciembre 2016. Departamento de Traducción, The Chinese University of Hong Kong. Contacto: translation-and-time@cuhk.edu.hk. 36. Du jeu dans la langue. Traduire les jeux de mots / Loose in Translation. Translating Wordplay, 23-24 Marzo 2017, Université de Lille (France) https://www.univ-lille3.fr/recherche/actualites/agenda-de-la-recherche/?type=1&id=1271. Contacto: traduirejdm@univ-lille3.fr, julie.charles@univ-lille3.fr 37. Translation and Translanguaging across Disciplines. EST Congress 2016 "Translation Studies: Moving Boundaries", European Society for Translation Studies, Aarhus (Dinamarca), 15-17 Sep. 2016 http://bcom.au.dk/research/conferencesandlectures/est-congress-2016/panels/12-translation-and-translanguaging-across-disciplines/ Contacto: nune.ayvazyan@urv.cat; mariagd@blanquerna.url.edu; sara.laviosa@uniba.it http://bcom.au.dk/research/conferencesandlectures/est-congress-2016/submission/ 38. Beyond linguistic plurality: The trajectories of multilingualism in Translation. An international conference organized jointly by Bogaziçi University, Department of Translation and Interpreting Studies, and Research Group on Translation and Transcultural Contact, York University, Bogaziçi University, 1-12 Mayo 2016. Contacto: sehnaz.tahir@boun.edu.tr, MGuzman@glendon.yorku.ca 39. "Professional and Academic Discourse: an interdisciplinary perspective". XXXIV IConferencia Internacional de la Sociedad Española de Lingüística Aplicada (AESLA), 14-16 Abril 2016. Interuniversity Institute for Applied Modern Languages (IULMA) / Universidad de Alicante. http://web.ua.es/aesla2016. Contacto: antonia.montes@ua.es. 2) CURSOS, SEMINARIOS, POSGRADOS / COURSES, SEMINARS, MASTERS: 1. Seminario: Breaking News for French>English and English>French Translators King's College Cambridge, UK, 8-10 Agosto 2016 Contacto: translateincambridge@iti.org.uk 2. Curso on-line: Setting Up as a Freelance Translator Enero – Marzo 2016. Institute of Translation & Interpreting, UK https://gallery.mailchimp.com/58e5d23248ce9f10c161ba86d/files/Application_Form_SUFT_2016.pdf?utm_source=SUFT+December+Emailer&utm_campaign=11fdfe0453-Setting_Up_as_a_Freelance_Translator12_7_2015&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_6ef4829e50-11fdfe0453-25128325 3. Curso: Using Interpreters for Intercultural Communication and Other Purposes (COM397CE) http://darkallyredesign.com/what-we-do/using-interpreters-for-intercultural-communication 4. Workshop: How to Write and Publish Your Scholarly Paper In cooperation with the European Association of Science Editors (EASE) New Bulgarian University, Sofia (Bulgaria), 21-23 Marzo 2016 www.facebook.com/events/1511610889167645 http://esnbu.org/data/files/resources/ease-nbu-seminar-march-2016-fees.pdf 5. Posgrado: II Postgraduate Course on Spanish Law Taught in English "Global study". Universidad Internacional de Andalucía / Colegio de Abogados de Málaga. www.unia.es/cursos/guias/4431_english.pdf 3) CURSOS DE VERANO / SUMMER COURSES: 1. STRIDON – Translation Studies Doctoral and Teacher Training Summer School, Piran (Eslovenia), 27 Junio – 8 Julio 2016 www.prevajalstvo.net/doctoral-summer-school 2. Training in Translation Pedagogy Program School of Translation and Interpretation, University of Ottawa (Canadá), 4-29 Julio 2016. https://arts.uottawa.ca/translation/summer-programs 3. 2016 Nida School of Translation Studies. Translation, Ecology and Entanglement, San Pellegrino University Foundation, Misano Adriatico, Rimini (Italia), 30 Mayo – 10 Junio 2016. http://nsts.fusp.it/Nida-Schools/NSTS-2016 4. TTPP - Intensive Summer Program in Translation Pedagogy University of Ottawa (Canadá), 4-29 Julio 2016. http://arts.uottawa.ca/translation/summer-programs-2016/ttpp 5. CETRA Summer School 2016. 28th Research Summer School University of Leuven, campus Antwerp (Bélgica), 22 Agosto – 2 Sep. 2016. Contacto: cetra@kuleuven.be. http://www.arts.kuleuven.be/cetra 4) LIBROS / BOOKS: 1. Varela Salinas, María-José & Bernd Meyer (eds.) 2016. Translating and Interpreting Healthcare Discourses / Traducir e interpretar en el ámbito sanitario. Berlín : Frank & Timme. www.frank-timme.de/verlag/verlagsprogramm/buch/verlagsprogramm/bd-79-maria-jose-varela-salinasbernd-meyer-eds-translating-and-interpreting-healthcare-disc/backPID/transued-arbeiten-zur-theorie-und-praxis-des-uebersetzens-und-dolmetschens-1.html 2. Ordóñez López, Pilar and José Antonio Sabio Pinilla (ed.) 2015. Historiografía de la traducción en el espacio ibérico. Textos contemporáneos. Madrid: Ediciones de Castilla-La Mancha. www.unebook.es/libro/historiografia-de-latraduccion-en-el-espacio-iberico_50162 3. Bartoll, Eduard. 2015. Introducción a la traducción audiovisual. Barcelona: Editorial UOC. www.editorialuoc.cat/introduccion-a-la-traduccion-audiovisual 4. Rica Peromingo, Juan Pedro & Jorge Braga Riera. 2015. Herramientas y técnicas para la traducción inglés-español. Madrid: Babélica. www.escolarymayo.com/libro.php?libro=7004107&menu=7001002&submenu=7002029 5. Le Disez, Jean-Yves. 2015. F.A.C.T. Une méthode pour traduire de l'anglais au français. París: Ellipses. www.editions-ellipses.fr/product_info.php?cPath=386&products_id=10601 6. Baker, Mona (ed.) 2015. Translating Dissent: Voices from and with the Egyptian Revolution. Londres: Routledge. www.tandf.net/books/details/9781138929876 7. Gallego Hernández, Daniel (ed.) 2015. Current Approaches to Business and Institutional Translation / Enfoques actuales en traducción económica e institucional. Berna: Peter Lang. www.peterlang.com/download/datasheet/86140/datasheet_431656.pdf 8. Vasilakakos, Mary. 2015. A Training Handbook for Health and Medical Interpreters in Australia. www.interpreterrevalidationtraining.com/books-and-resources.html 9. Jankowska, Anna & Agnieszka Szarkowska (eds) 2015. New Points of View on Audiovisual Translation and Media Accessibility. Oxford: Peter Lang. www.peterlang.com/index.cfm?event=cmp.ccc.seitenstruktur.detailseiten&seitentyp=produkt&pk=83114 10. Baer, Brian James (2015). Translation and the Making of Modern Russian Literature, Londres: Bloomsbury. Translation and the Making of Modern Russian Literature is the inaugural book in a new Translation Studies series: Bloomsbury's "Literatures, Cultures, Translation." 11. Camps, Assumpta. 2016. La traducción en la creación del canon poético (Recepción de la poesía italiana en el ámbito hispánico en la primera mitad del siglo XX). Berna: Peter Lang. 5) REVISTAS / JOURNALS: 1. JoSTrans, The Journal of Specialised Translation, nº especial sobre Translation & the Profession, Vol. 25, Enero 2016. www.jostrans.org 2. Translation and Interpreting – Nº especial sobre Community Interpreting: Mapping the Present for the Future www.trans-int.org/index.php/transint. 3. inTRAlinea – Nº especial sobre New Insights into Specialised Translation. www.intralinea.org/specials/new_insights 4. Linguistica Antverpiensia NS-Themes in Translation Studies, 2015 issue, Towards a Genetics of Translation. https://lans-tts.uantwerpen.be/index.php/LANS-TTS/issue/view/16 5. Quaderns de Filologia, Nº especial sobre Traducción y Censura: Nuevas Perspectivas, Vol. 20, 2015. https://ojs.uv.es/index.php/qdfed/issue/view/577 6. The Translator – Nº especial sobre Food and Translation, Translation and Food, 2015, 21(3). www.tandfonline.com/eprint/ryqJewJUDKZ6m2YM4IaR/full 7. Current Trends in Translation Teaching and Learning E, 2015, 2 www.cttl.org/cttl-e-2015.html 8. Dragoman Journal of Translation Studies. www.dragoman-journal.org 9. Current Trends in Translation Teaching and Learning E. Edición especial sobre Translation Studies Curricula Across Countries and Cultures. www.cttl.org 10. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, Nº especial sobre Translation Policies and Minority Languages: Theory, Methods and Case Studies http://fouces.webs.uvigo.es/CallForPapersIJSLTranslationPolicies.pdf 11. Nº especial de The Interpreter and Translator Trainer 11(2) – Employability and the Translation Curriculum www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1750399X.2015.1103092 12. InTRAlinea. Nº especial sobre Building Bridges between Film Studies and Translation Studies www.intralinea.org/news/item/cfp_building_bridges_between_film_studies_and_translation_studies 13. Nº especial de TranscUlturAl: Comics, BD & Manga in translation/en traduction https://ejournals.library.ualberta.ca/index.php/TC/announcement/view/290 14. The Journal of Translation Studies 2015, 16(4) Nº especial sobre Translator and Interpreter Training in East Asia Contacto: Won Jun Nam: wjnam@hufs.ac.kr, wonjun_nam@daum.net 15. TRANS Revista de Traductología, 19(2), 2015. www.trans.uma.es/trans_19.2.html 16. Between, 9, 2015 – Censura e auto-censura http://ojs.unica.it/index.php/between/index 17. Translation Studies, Nº especial sobre Translingualism & Transculturality in Russian Contexts of Translation http://explore.tandfonline.com/cfp/ah/rtrs-cfp3 18. Translation & Interpreting, 7:3, 2016 www.trans-int.org/index.php/transint/issue/view/38 19. "The translation profession: Centres and peripheries" The Journal of Specialised Translation (Jostrans), Nº. 25, Enero 2016. The Journal of Translation Studies is a joint publication of the Department of Translation of The Chinese University of Hong Kong and the Chinese University Press. Contact: jts.tra@cuhk.edu.hk, james@arts.cuhk.edu.hk 19. Nuevo artículo: "The Invisibility of the African Interpreter" por Jeanne Garane, Translation: a transdisciplinary journal http://translation.fusp.it/. Contact: siri.nergaard@gmail.com.

When Ebenezer Howard imagines his Garden City, he is looking for a response to what his contemporaries in the second half of the 19th century considered an "urban crises without precedence". The big cities are overpopulated and force the working classes to live un disastrous conditions. Land speculation in the urban periphery races out of control. Howard's invention is based on the idea of the "people's return to the land". The idea is to encourage city dwellers to migrate out to a network of interconnected satellite cities that propose the best of urban and country life, via the railroads. His work consists in part in the organization of this migration away from urbans centers. In his new cities, all the land would be collectively owned. This collective ownership would inhibit speculative development and permit instead to reinvest in the community. The architects Barry Parker and Raymond Unwin design the first Garden City. They create picturesque architecture that fits into its geography and context, with nature as a structuring element of the city's organization. The Garden City has an immense influence on the theory of urbanism, influencing urban planning in numerous Latin American countries, including Mexico. A group of architects and engineers – such as Carlos Contreras, Ignacio Bancalari, José Cuevas Pietrasanta – use the Garden City model to plan a post-revolutionary Mexico fitting with its principles. Inspired by the Garden City Association, they create the National Association for the Planning of the Republic of Mexico, which aims both to promote the model and to put it into practice at a national scale. The government, intergovernmental organization – including UN-Habitat – and numerous think tanks all agree on a set of urban challenges faced by Mexico. In the end, these challenges differ only slightly from those which Ebenezer Howard sought to resolve. Still in the wake of the Agrarian Reform of the first part of the 20th century, individuals across Mexican society advocate for and deem necessary a new Urban Reform. This Thesis is based on the hypothesis that the Garden City could constitute a "reservoir of precedence" those implicated in this Urban Reform in Mexico could use as inspiration to push forward the transformation of their cities and territories. Although certain research accentuates the idea of the compact city and increasing the density of the existing urban fabric, this work defends the idea that it is possible to extend the city in a manner that is virtuous. Reflections inherited from the Garden City such as the Neighborhood unit or the more contemporary New urbanism are used to support the claim. More than a century after Howard published his proposals, our cities seem to be confronted by very similar issues. The ideas of Howard have never been effectively practiced at a large scale, despite the great success of the first materialization of the ideas in the English city of Letchworth. In the face of a status quo that has lasted for decades, the author asks if it is it not time to shake up our conception of the city as well as our current practices. The demonstration of such a hypothesis is separated into three parts:First, the research questions the theoretical notions of the model and its dissemination, thus defining the Garden city not only as a model of urban planning, but also as a social project that can propose new ways to imagine the cities and communities of tomorrow. This work posits that the reservoir of references found in the Garden City is constituted by a knowledge built both in theory and practice. The work traces the multiple examples of the Garden City, their principles and their materializations in order to define a set of social aspirations and spatial principles. Second, the research studies the dissemination of the model on the Mexican context. This phase of the work analyses the conduits of dissemination, their most important materializations, and certain legal limitations faced by these cases. The research shows that to reference the Garden City in the Mexican context is not only reasonable but recognizant of the importance of the model in the history of Mexican city planning. The research hope to contribute to the reservoir of references through the consideration of theses Mexican examples. Third, the work imagines how this reservoir of precedence can transform Mexican cities today. Here, the architectural and urban project is used as a means of inquiry capable of creating knowledge. It is an inquiry that can produce an understanding of a certain place, and then, imagine a prospective future for this place. This last part of the research is focused on the creation of possible scenarios. These possible or probable futures can be compared and can be used to help inform the planning process.This last part of the research project elicits the creation of a methodology and the novel research tool of the project. The research questions if the pertinent transformation made of one space could be equally pertinent in another? Rather than relying on an existing site as the locus of exploration of the various scenarios, this research fabricates an urban environment constructed of elements typical of Mexican cities in which to set the experiment. This process necessitates the observation of multiple Mexican cities and the identification of generalities and typical traits. The research thus creates a site that does not exist – ou topos – that combines these characteristics. This site is used both as an illustration of the complexities of these urban environments and as a context for the experimentation of the proposed transformations – notably through the process of drawing. ; Cuando Ebenezer Howard imagina su Ciudad Jardín, busca una respuesta a lo que los contemporáneos de la segunda mitad del siglo XIX consideran como «una crisis urbana sin precedentes». Las grandes ciudades están superpobladas e imponen unas condiciones de vida desastrosas a las clases trabajadoras. La especulación del suelo lleva al crecimiento incontrolado de la periferia urbana.Su invención consiste en el «retorno del pueblo a la tierra».Defiende la migración de las poblaciones urbanas a una red de ciudades satélite interconectadas que combinen las cualidades de la ciudad y el campo. El ferrocarril es la herramienta de esta migración. Debe organizar el desplazamiento de las personas de las zonas urbanas que se han convertido en la tumba de la condición humana. En estas nuevas ciudades se establece la propiedad colectiva de la tierra. Debe impedir que los especuladores se apropien del aumento del valor del terreno y permitir su reinversión en beneficio de la comunidad. Los arquitectos Barry Parker y Raymond Unwin espacializan la Ciudad jardín. Eligen una arquitectura pintoresca, trazados adaptados al contexto geográfico y utilizan la naturaleza como elemento estructurador de la organización urbana.La Ciudad Jardín tiene una gran influencia en las teorías de planificación urbana y se difunde en muchos países de América Latina, incluido México. Un grupo de arquitectos e ingenieros – entre los que se encuentran Carlos Contreras, Ignacio Bancalari y José Cuevas Pietrasanta – utilizan el modelo para planificar un México posrevolucionario conforme a sus ideales. Inspirados por la Asociación de Ciudades Jardín, crearon la Asociación Nacional para la Planeación de la República Mexicana, que se interesa tanto en la difusión del modelo como en promover una planeación a escala nacional.El gobierno, las organizaciones intergubernamentales – incluido ONU Hábitat – y varios think tanks coinciden en una serie de retos urbanos a los que se enfrenta México. Desafíos que no están muy alejados de aquellos a los que Howard busca respuestas. Tras su famosa Reforma agraria al inicio del siglo XX, México defiende ahora la necesidad de una Gran Reforma urbana. Esta tesis doctoral se basa en la hipótesis de que la Ciudad jardín podría constituir un «fondo de precedentes» en la que los actores mexicanos pueden inspirarse para impulsar la transformación de sus ciudades y territorios. Mientras que muchos informes abogan por la ciudad compacta y la densificación de sus tejidos existentes, este trabajo defiende que es posible extender la ciudad de forma virtuosa. En este sentido, invoca reflexiones heredadas de la Ciudad jardín, como la Neighborhood unit, o el New urbanism más contemporáneo.Más de un siglo después de las propuestas de Howard, nuestras ciudades parecen enfrentarse a problemas relativamente similares. Sus ideas nunca se han puesto en práctica a gran escala, aunque Letchworth – la primera materialización del modelo – ha demostrado su viabilidad. Frente al statu quo que ha durado tantas décadas, ¿no es hora de sacudir nuestro imaginario de la ciudad y romper con nuestras prácticas actuales?La demostración de tal hipótesis implica una reflexión en tres pasos.Primo, cuestionando las nociones teóricas de modelo y difusión, y luego definiendo la Ciudad jardín no sólo como un modelo urbano, sino también como un proyecto de sociedad capaz de proponer una nueva forma de imaginar las ciudades y los territorios del mañana. Este trabajo defiende que el conjunto de referencias de la Ciudad jardín se realiza en un perpetuo ir y venir entre la teoría y lo empírico. Recorre los diferentes precedentes que la componen, sus principios y sus materializaciones para definirla a través de una serie de aspiraciones sociales y principios espaciales.Secundo, estudiando la difusión del modelo en el contexto mexicano. Esta etapa analiza sus canales de difusión, sus materializaciones más significativas, y observa las transformaciones que conocen estas realizaciones. Quiere demostrar que hablar de la Ciudad Jardín en México no es una locura y que el país ya ha invocado ampliamente este precedente en el pasado. Pero también enriquecer el fondo de precedentes mediante la movilización de experiencias mexicanas.Tercio, imaginando cómo esta «fondo de precedentes» puede transformar la ciudad mexicana actual. La composición arquitectónica y urbanística se moviliza como una investigación capaz de crear conocimiento. Una investigación orientada primero a la comprensión de un lugar y luego a la prospección de un futuro para este lugar. La imaginación de escenarios está en el centro de esta última parte. Permite comparar ciertos futuros posibles y plausibles, y adoptar una postura.Esta última parte se traduce en la creación de una metodología y una nueva herramienta de composición. Una otra hipótesis le preocupa: ¿una transformación que es relevante para un lugar también lo es para otros lugares? En vez de basar sus escenarios en un lugar existente, prefiere crear un territorio urbano típico de las ciudades mexicanas para experimentar con sus ideas. Este proceso se enfoca en la observación de las especificidades de estas ciudades y en la generalización de sus rasgos típicos. Crea un lugar inexistente – ou topos – que combina todas estas especificidades. Este lugar típico se utiliza a la vez como ilustración de la complejidad de estos territorios urbanos, pero también como soporte para experimentar – a través del dibujo – las transformaciones propuestas. ; Lorsqu'Ebenezer Howard imagine sa Garden city, il cherche une réponse à ce que les contemporains de la seconde moitié de dix-neuvième siècle considèrent comme « une crise urbaine sans précédent ». Les grandes villes sont surpeuplées et imposent des conditions de vie désastreuses aux classes populaires. La spéculation foncière conduit à une croissance incontrôlée des périphéries urbaines.Son invention repose sur le « retour du peuple à la terre ». Elle prône la migration des populations urbaines vers un réseau de cités-satellites interconnectées qui conjuguent les qualités de la ville et de la campagne. Le chemin de fer est l'outil de cette migration. Il doit organiser le déplacement des populations depuis les zones urbaines devenues tombeaux de la condition humaine. Dans ces nouvelles cités, une propriété collective du foncier est mise en place. Elle doit empêcher l'appropriation des plus-values foncières par les spéculateurs, et permettre leur réinversion au profit de la communauté. Les architectes Barry Parker et Raymond Unwin spatialisent la Garden city. Ils font le choix d'une architecture pittoresque, de tracés adaptés au contexte géographique, et utilisent la nature comme un élément structurant de l'organisation urbaine.La Garden city a une immense influence sur les théories de l'urbanisme, et se diffuse dans de nombreux pays d'Amérique latine, dont le Mexique. Un groupe d'architectes et d'ingénieurs – parmi lesquels Carlos Contreras, Ignacio Bancalari, José Cuevas Pietrasanta – convoquent le modèle pour planifier un Mexique postrévolutionnaire en phase avec ses idéaux. En s'inspirant de la Garden city Association, ils créent l'Association Nationale pour la Planification de la République Mexicaine qui s'intéresse à la fois à la diffusion du modèle et promeut une planification à l'échelle du pays tout entier.Gouvernement, organisations intergouvernementales – dont ONU Habitat – et divers think tanks : tous s'accordent sur un certain nombre de défis urbains auxquels le Mexique fait face. Des défis finalement peu éloignés de ceux auxquels Howard cherche des réponses. Dans le sillage de sa célèbre Réforme agraire au début du XXe siècle, le Mexique prône aujourd'hui la nécessité d'une grande Réforme urbaine. Cette thèse s'appuie sur l'hypothèse selon laquelle la Garden city pourrait constituer « un réservoir de précédents » dont les acteurs mexicains peuvent s'inspirer pour impulser la transformation de leurs villes et territoires. Alors que de nombreux rapports mettent l'accent sur la ville-compacte et la densification de ses tissus existants, ce travail défend qu'il soit possible d'étendre la ville de façons vertueuses. Il convoque à ce titre des réflexions héritières de la Garden city telles que le neighborhood unit, ou le new urbanism plus contemporain.Plus d'un siècle après les propositions de Howard, nos villes semblent être confrontées à des problématiques relativement proches. Ses idées n'ont jamais réellement été mises en pratique à grande échelle, alors même que Letchworth – première matérialisation du modèle – a prouvé de sa faisabilité. Face aux statu quo qui durent depuis tant de décennies, n'est-il pas temps de bouleverser notre imaginaire de la ville et de rompre avec nos pratiques actuelles ?La démonstration d'une telle hypothèse passe par une réflexion en trois temps. Primo, en questionnement les notions théoriques de modèle et de diffusion, puis en définissant la Garden city non seulement comme modèle urbain, mais également comme projet de société en mesure de proposer une nouvelle façon d'imaginer les villes et territoires de demain. Ce travail défend que le réservoir de références de la Garden city se fabrique dans un perpétuel va-et-vient entre la théorie et l'empirique. Il revient sur les différents précédents qui le composent, sur ses principes, et ses matérialisations pour le définir au travers d'un certain nombre d'aspirations sociales et de principes spatiaux. Secundo, en étudiant la diffusion du modèle dans le contexte mexicain. Cette phase analyse ses canaux de diffusion, ses matérialisations les plus significatives, et statue sur les transformations que ces réalisations subissent. Elle souhaite montrer que parler de Garden city au Mexique n'est pas un insensé grand écart et que le pays a déjà largement convoqué ce précédent par le passé. Mais aussi à enrichir le réservoir de précédents en mobilisant les expériences mexicaines. Tercio, en imaginant comment ce « réservoir de précédents » peut transformer la ville mexicaine actuelle. Le projet d'architecture et d'urbanisme est mobilisé comme une enquête capable de créer de la connaissance. Une enquête d'abord orientée vers la compréhension d'un lieu, puis vers la prospection d'un futur pour ce lieu. L'imagination de scénarios est cœur de cette dernière partie. Elle permet de comparer certains futurs possibles et plausibles, et de nous positionner. Cette dernière partie se confronte à la création d'une méthodologie et d'un nouvel outil de projet. Une sous-hypothèse la taraude : une transformation pertinente pour un lieu, l'est-elle également pour d'autres lieux ? Plutôt que d'asseoir ses scénarios sur un lieu existant, elle préfère fabriquer un territoire urbain typique des villes mexicaines pour expérimenter ses idées. Ce processus s'attache à observer les spécificités de ces villes et à monter en généralité ses traits typiques. Il en fabrique un lieu qui n'existe pas – ou topos – qui combine l'ensemble de ces spécificités. Ce lieu typique est à la fois utilisé comme une illustration de la complexité de ces territoires urbains, mais également comme un support pour expérimenter – par le dessin – les transformations proposées.

The demand for functional and smart textiles has risen nowadays due to the lifestyle change of human beings. Along with this, the production of functional and smart textiles is consistently increasing. However, the conventional dyeing and finishing methods used to produce the functional textiles have issues such as the requirement of a large amount of fresh-water, energy, and chemicals and the associated wastewater pollution which poses harmful effect to humans, animals, and the environment. Moreover, due to the stringent environmental legislation on effluent release and hence the necessity of wastewater treatment, it has also become an economic problem for the textile industry. Thus, the textile industry has nowadays focused on alternative green technologies and eco-friendly chemical agents to minimize these problems. In this regard, supercritical carbon dioxide (scCO2) dyeing technique is a promising alternative to conventional aqueous-based methods as it avoids the use of water, uses less energy, and fewer chemicals minimizing the waste generation which is important to improve the ecological footprint and reduced production cost. Owing to these important attributes, scCO2 dyeing has been investigated in the last three decades as an environmentally benign process and now it is commercially successful in an industrial scale for dyeing polyester fibres. Thus, employing this technique to textile functionalization can bring additional economic and environmental benefits for the textile dyeing and finishing industry. Nevertheless, only a few attempts have been made so far in using this technology for textile finishing despite having promising potentials. This thesis used scCO2 dyeing technology intending to explore its potential to the production of functional and smart textiles. To fulfil this, firstly, different functional dyes and functional finishing agents of interest suitable for scCO2 media were selected based on literature data and some screening experiments. Based on this, chitosan very low molecular weight and lactate derivatives, curcumin natural dye, and two commercial photochromic dyes based on spirooxazine and naphthopyran dye classes were selected. Secondly, these agents were incorporated into the polyester fabric using scCO2 impregnation technique to impart range functionalities such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, UV protecting and smart UV-sensor fabrics. Moreover, the functional and colour performances of these functional textiles and the effects of the processing variables on the functional/colour properties were explored. Besides, the thesis includes the production of pH sensing functional fabric with a halochromic molecule using photo grafting technique as an alternative resource-efficient method. The results showed that scCO2 is a viable technique for the production of functional polyester fabric in a resource-efficient and eco-friendly way. Dyed polyester fabric with additional functionalities such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, UV protection, and UV sensing properties were realised in a single step. The fabrics developed have demonstrated desirable colour and functional properties without affecting each other confirming compatibility. Moreover, the functional fabrics exhibited the required durability and fastness properties sufficient for various applications. This thesis contributes towards widening the application of supercritical CO2 dyeing technique further and paves a way for sustainable production of functional and smart textiles in a resource-efficient and eco-friendly way. Moreover, the functionalization of cotton fabric with a pH indicator dye using the photo-grafting technique was successful and exhibited good halochromic property towards different pH environments with potential application in several smart textile areas. ; Efterfrågan på funktionella och smarta textilier har under senare tid ökat på grund utav människans förändrade livsstil. I samband med detta ökar ständigt produktionen utav funktionella och smarta textilier kontinuerligt. Dock har de konventionella färgnings- och beredningsmetoder som används för att producera funktionella textilier vissa tillkortakommanden såsom: användandet av stora kvantiteter färskvatten, energi och kemikalier; förorening utav avfallsvattnet vilket påverkar människor, djur och miljön. Vidare medför sträng lagstiftning angående utsläpp och därpå följande nödvändighet av vattenreninsgsåtgärder en ekonomisk börda för textilindustrin. Därför fokuserar textilindustrin i dag på alternativa gröna teknologier och miljövänliga kemikalier för att minimera dessa problem. Ur denna synvinkel är teknologin att färga med superkritiskt koldioxid (scCO2) ett lovande alternativ till konventionella vattenbaserade metoder då den undviker användningen utav vatten, reducerar energiåtgången och använder färre kemikalier vilket minimerar avfallsproduktionen vilket är viktigt för att minska det ekologiska avtrycket samt reducera produktionskostnader. Tack vare dessa aspekter så har scCO2-färgning undersökts under de senaste tre decenierna som en miljövänlig process och numera är den en, i industriell skala, komersiellt framgångsrik metod för att färga in polyester fibrer. Icke desto mindre har endast ett fåtal försök gjorts för att använda denna teknologi som en textil slutberedningsmetod trots sin lovande potential för detta ändamål. I denna avhandling användes scCO2-färgningsteknologin med intentionen att utforska dess potential för produktion utav funktionella och smarta textilier. För att genomföra detta gjordes för det första ett urval utav olika funktionella färgämnen och funktionella beredningskemikalier med intressanta egenskaper vilka också lämpar sig för scCO2-färgning. Detta urval gjordes på grundval utav litteraturstudier samt preliminära mätningar. Baserat på nyss nämnda kriterier valdes chitosan med väldigt låg molekylvikt och laktatderivat, naturlig kurkumin (gurkmeja) samt två komersiella fotokroma färgämnen baserade på spirooxanin och naphtopyran klasserna som färgämnen. För det andra inkorporerades dessa färgämnen in i ett polyestertyg med hjälp utav impregnerande scCO2-teknik för att förmedla en mängd funktionaliteter såsom: antimikrobiell, antioxidant, UV-skydd samt en smart UV-senorik. Förutom detta innehåller avhandlingen också produktionen utav ett pH-kännande funktionellt tyg med en halokrom molekyl tillverkad med hjälp utav så kallad "photo-grafting" teknik som ett alternativ resurssål metod. Resultaten visar på att scCO2-färgningsteknologin är en användningsbar teknik för framställning utav funktionella polyestertyger på ett resurssnålt och miljövänligt vis. Färgade polyestertyger med tillagd funktionalitet såsom: antimikrobiell, antioxidant, UV-skydd samt UV-kännande, kunde tillverkas i ett enda steg. De tillverkade tygerna uppvisar önskvärda färgegenskaper samt funktionella egenskaper utan att dessa egenskaper påverkar varandra vilket indikerar hög kompatibilitet. Vidare uppvisade de funktionella tygerna tillräckligt goda stabilitets och härdighetsresultat för att kunna användas i en rad olika applikationer. Denna avhandling bidrar med att utöka användningsområdet för scCO2-färgningsteknologin och banar väg för en hållbar produktion av funktionella och smarta textilier på ett resurssnålt och miljövänligt sätt. Vidare var funktionaliseringen utav ett bomullstyg med en pH-indikator med hjälp utav "photo-grafting"-teknik en framgång och uppvisade goda halokroma egenskaper gentemot olika pH-miljöer, tydande på en potentiell användning inom flera smarta textila områden. ; La domanda di tessuti funzionali è significamente aumentata negli ultimi anni a causa del cambiamento di stile di vita degli utilizzatori. Ciò ha fatto si che la produzione di tessuti funzionali sia in costante aumento. Tuttavia, i metodi di tintura e finissaggio convenzionalmente utilizzati per produrre tessuti funzionali presentano alcuni limiti come il grande utilizzo di acqua ed ausiliari chimici. Questi ultimi possono essere causa di un significativo inquinamento delle acque reflue che può causare danni all'ecosistema ed alle popolazioni limitrofe. Inoltre la rigorosa legislazione ambientale in materia di rilascio degli effluenti impone alle aziende tessili il trattamento delle acque reflue, questo processo ha un significativo impatto sul costo del prodotto finito. Pertanto, l'industria tessile si è concentrata su tecnologie ecologiche alternative e agenti chimici ecologici per ridurre al minimo questi problemi. In questo contesto, la tecnica della tintura in anidride carbonica supercritica (scCO2) è considerata come una promettente alternativa ai metodi convenzionali. Questa tecnica evita l'uso di acqua, utilizza meno energia e meno sostanze chimiche minimizzando la generazione di rifiuti, andando così a migliorare l'impronta ecologica e riducendo i costi di produzione. Grazie a queste importanti caratteristiche, la tintura scCO2 è stata studiata negli ultimi tre decenni come un processo ecologicamente conveniente. Al giorno d'oggi essa è utilizzata a livello industriale per la tintura di fibre di poliestere. Pertanto, l'utilizzo di questa tecnica per la funzionalizzazione dei tessuti può apportare ulteriori vantaggi economici e ambientali all'industria tessile. Tuttavia, finora sono stati fatti solo pochi tentativi nell'uso di questa tecnologia per il finissaggio tessile. Questa tesi ha utilizzato la tecnologia della tintura in scCO2 allo scopo di esplorare il suo potenziale per la produzione di tessuti funzionali. In primo luogo sono stati selezionati diversi coloranti ed agenti di finissaggio funzionali in base ai dati della letteratura e ad alcuni esperimenti di screening. Da questi studi sono stati selezionati i derivati del lattosio, il chitosano a basso peso molecolare peso molecolare, la curcumina, e dei coloranti fotocromici basati sulla spirooxazina ed il naftopirano. In secondo luogo, queste sostanze sono state incorporate nel tessuto di poliestere usando la tecnica di impregnazione scCO2 per conferire una vasta gamma di funzionalità quali proprietà antimicrobiche, antiossidanti, protezione e sensing dei raggi UV. Inoltre, sono state esplorate le prestazioni funzionali e colorimetriche di questi tessuti andando a studiare l'effetto delle variabili di processo sulle proprietà studiate.Inoltre, la tesi comprende la produzione di tessuto utilizzabile come sensore di pH ottenuto funzionalizzando il substrato tessile con una molecola alocromica. Per la produzione di questo materiale è stato utilizzato un metodo di finissaggio fotochimico. I risultati hanno mostrato che scCO2 è una tecnica efficiente ed ecologica per la produzione di poliestere funzionale. Infatti, la produzione di tessuti con funzionalità antimicrobiche, antiossidante, rilevamento e protezione dai raggi UV è stata ottenuta mediante una singola operazione unitaria. I tessuti ottenuti hanno riportato le qualità desisderate sia dal punto di vista colorimetrico che da quello funzionale. Inoltra la tintura ha dismostrato di possedere una solidità soddisfacente per le varie applicazioni. Questa tesi contribuisce ad ampliare ulteriormente l'applicazione della tecnica di tintura in CO2 supercritica e apre la strada ad una produzione sostenibile di tessuti funzionali. Inoltre, la funzionalizzazione del tessuto di cotone con un colorante sensibile al pH ha dimostrato la possibilità di produrre sensori di pH basati su materiali tessili, impiegando processi fotochimici a basso impatto ambientale. ; 随着生活方式的转变,现如今人们对功能纺织品和智能纺织品的需求与日俱增,伴随需求而来的该类产品的生产研发活动也相应增加。通常用于生产功能纺织品的技术为染整加工技术,传统的染整加工技术往往会消耗大量的新鲜水、能源、化学品并带来水污染,污染的水会对人类、动物以及环境造成有害影响。污水排放严格的环境法规使工厂增加了污水处理成本,因此寻找替代的生态化学品、绿色加工技术成为当下解决上述问题的有效途径。其中,超临界二氧化碳流体染整技术(以下简称scCO2技术)由于其不使用水,耗能低,添加化学品少,从而排污少,生产成本低,有助于提高生态足迹,和传统水介质染色技术相比具有很好的发展前景,过去三十年来引发了研究者们的高度关注,目前在聚酯纤维染色中已有工业应用。如果将此技术应用于纺织品功能化,则可为染整工业带来新的环境效益及经济效益。尽管有较好的潜在应用前,但是目前这方面的研究报导还比较少。 本文主要基于scCO2染整技术来探究其在功能及智能纺织品领域应用的可行性。首先,研究了筛选了不同功能染料和功能整理剂,主要优选出低分子量的壳聚糖及其乳酸衍生物,姜黄染料,以及基于螺噁嗪及萘并吡喃结构的两种光致变色染料;其次,将这些助剂在scCO2中用浸渍法应用于涤纶织物从而获得抗菌性、抗氧化性、抗紫外性能以及获得智能紫外感知织物;本论文还研究了制备功能纺织品的工艺参数、颜色性能以及功能性;此外,本论文还采用加酸显色分子通过光接枝技术制备了一种pH敏感织。研究结果表明,scCO2染整技术在生产加工功能性涤纶织物来说是一资源效益型和环境友好的切实可行的技术。织物可通过一步法染整加工在获得颜色的同时获得功能性,诸如抗菌性、抗氧化性、抗紫外性能、紫外感知性能,且颜色和功能具有较好的相容性,互不冲突。制备的功能纺织品表现出了较好的耐久性和色牢度。本论文的研究为功能和智能纺织品的可持续生产加工奠定了技术基础。 本论文采用光接枝技术将pH指示染料应用于棉织物经FTIR表征证明反应成功完成。光接枝样品在不同的pH环境下表现出了较好的酸碱变色性能,这为其在智能纺织品领域的应用提供了技术依据。

학위논문(박사)--서울대학교 대학원 :공과대학 산업공학과,2020. 2. 박용태. ; 치열한 글로벌 경쟁속에서 지속적 성장을 위한 혁신의 중요성으로 인해, 수많은 국가, 산업, 기술 수준의 혁신 연구들은 다양한 관점에서 혁신의 영향요인과 메커니즘에 대해 깊게 탐구해 왔다. 그러나 연구범위의 특수성, 소규모의 실증연구, 혁신연구 자료에 따른 대용 지표의 특성에 의해 제한된 전통적인 통계적 방법론과 결부된 복잡한 혁신 환경은 혁신에 대한 다양한 논쟁을 일으키며, 혁신에 대한 총체적인 합의를 어렵게 해왔다. 본 학위 논문은 다양한 측도로 측정되는 혁신 연구자료의 대용지표적 특성과 이에 의해 제한된 전통적 통계 방법론의 적용의 취약점을 넘어서서, 16,230개의 대규모 표본 실증 자료와 이를 통합적으로 반영할 수 있는 의사결정나무분석을 활용한 하나의 통계적 프레임워크에 기반하여 국가적, 산업적, 지역적 수준에서 제조업과 서비스업에 대한 횡단적, 종단적 비교분석을 통해 두 업종을 아우르는 혁신에 대한 총체적인 지식의 부족함을 경감함으로써 혁신 연구의 지평을 넓히고 풍성하게 하는 것을 목표로 한다. 본 학위 논문은 체계적 프레임워크를 개발함으로써, 한국의 제조업과 서비스 산업의 모든 세부 산업을 전국적으로 반영할 수 있도록, 이론적으로 표준화되고 실무적으로 세계적으로 활용되는 오슬로 매뉴얼에 기반한 한국혁신조사 자료를 활용하여, 최근의 연속된 두 기간 동안, 선행연구에서 제시된 혁신과 연관된 외생적, 내생적 변수를 모두 고려하여, 다양한 관점의 다양한 수준에서 산업, 세부산업, 지역 간의 종단적이고 횡단적인 비교분석을 통해 종합적인 혁신의 영향 요인과 혁신의 유형적 거동을 탐색하고자 한다. 본 학위 논문은 두개의 주제로 구성되어 있다. 첫번째 주제는 선행연구들이 선험적으로 가정하였지만, 통계적으로 검증되지 않은, 산업, 세부산업, 지역, 지역산업 수준에서 제조업과 서비스 산업의 혁신의 성공과 실패에 대한 통계적 차이를 확인한다. 8가지 가설에 따른 28개 모델에 대한 교차표 분석과 카이제곱 검정을 통해 지지된 가설검증 결과를 바탕으로, 본 학위논문은 혁신에 대한 영향요인과 유형별 거동을 탐구한다. 두번째 주제는 CHAID 알고리즘과 10-fold 교자검증을 활용한, 안정적이고 타당한 예측적 의사결정 나무분석을 통해 혁신에 대한 영향요인과 유형별 거동을 탐구한다. 두번째 주제는 세가지 세부 모듈로 구성된다. 첫번째 모듈은, 52개 모델에 기반하여 전국적, 지역적 수준에서 제조업과 서비스 산업의 혁신 성공과 실패에 대해 비교 분석을 통해 혁신 영향요인과 유형별 거동을 파악한다. 두번째 모듈은 30개 모델에 기반하여, 제조업과 서비스 산업내 성공기업의 전반적인 혁신활동에 대해 다양한 관점에서 비교분석을 통해 혁신 영향요인과 유형별 거동을 파악한다. 세번째 모듈은 제조업과 서비스 산업내 가장 혁신적인 세부산업, 지역, 지역산업에 대해 36개 모델을 통해 혁신 영향요인과 유형별 거동을 파악한다. 이를 통하여, 본 학위 논문은 제조업과 서비스업 내의 중요 영향요인과 이들의 변화를 종단적, 횡단적으로 파악하고 유형적 혁신 거동을 밝힌다. 118개의 의사결정나무분석을 통한 혁신의 영향요인과 유형적 거동에 대한 종합적 이해를 바탕으로, 전국적, 지역적, 산업적, 기업적 관점에서의 종합적인 시사점을 제시한다. 제조업과 서비스산업 전반에 걸쳐, 내부 연구개발과 역량은 혁신 성공에 중요한 것으로 확인되었다. 제조업에서는 기업 규모가 클수록, 기업 연령이 높을수록, 혁신 성공가능성이 높은 것으로 확인되었다. 제조업내 저 기술 분야의 기업은 R&D 활동보다 비R&D 활동을 선호하였으며, 서비스산업에서는 기존 연구와는 다르게, 혁신 성공에 대한 세부 산업간 차별적 특성뿐 아니라, 기업 규모와 연령효과가 확인되었다. 특히 경제 호황기에서 기업 규모의 효과가 두드러지게 나타났다. 지역 측면에서는 수도권과 광역권내에서의 혁신 성공과 실패에 있어 기업의 혁신 역량과 세부산업간 차이가 확인되었다. 산업측면에서는 제조업과 서비스산업내의 R&D의 역할에 대한 차이가 나타났다. 제조기업은 비R&D 활동 보다 R&D 활동에 더욱 집중하는 반면, 서비스 기업은 전반적으로 R&D보다 비R&D 활동을 수행하는 것으로 확인되었다. 지식활용 측면에서는 서비스 기업이 민간 고객 정보에 집중하는 반면, 제조기업은 동일 분야내 경쟁정보를 더욱 중요시하였다. 성공기업의 혁신의 재무적 기여측면에서는, 혁신은 수년에 걸쳐 두 산업 모두에서 재무적으로 기여하였다. 제조기업의 혁신이 서비스기업의 혁신보다 더 많은 재무적 기여를 하는 것으로 확인되었으며, R&D 혁신활동을 수행하는 제조기업이 더 높은 재무적 기여를 달성했다. 서비스 산업내에서는 내부역량과 지식활용의 자유도가 높은 서비스 기업이 높은 재무적 기여를 거두었다. 전반적인 성공기업의 혁신활동의 영향요인과 거동 측면에서는 제조업과 서비스산업 전반에서 혁신성공기업들은 저비용의 R&D 활동을 선호하였으나, 저 기술군 산업은 비R&D 활동을 선호했다. 제조업에서는 기업으로 하여금 시장 니즈 탐색 활동을 유도하는 목표시장 성격에 따라 제조기업의 전반적인 혁신활동과 외부 지식 활용 활동에 영향을 미쳤다. 대부분의 연구소를 보유하고 있는 기업은 자사의 지식을 활용함으로써 내부연구개발에 집중하였다. 협력R&D는 부족한 내부역량을 채우기 위해 수행되었으나, 이를 보완하기 위한 흡수역량이 요구되었다. 서비스 산업에서는 기업들은 기술활용측면의 세부산업의 차별적 특성에 따라 내부 역량에 따라 R&D를 수행하거나 하지 않았다. 서비스 기업의 혁신 거동은 고객과 경쟁자로부터의 지식 활용 측면과 밀접하게 연관되어 있는 것이 확인되었으며, 특히 경제 활황기에는 고객 및 외부 R&D 기관으로부터의 지식활용에 적극적이었다. 혁신 성공을 제고하기 위한 정책적 시사점으로는, 제조업에 있어서 자금 지원을 통한 내부 R&D와 협력 R&D 역량 모두를 높일 수 있는 체계와 기술과 시장에 대한 정보제공 수준을 높이는 측면에서 국가혁신체계를 강화하는 것이 중요하다. 서비스 산업에 있어서는, 협력 네트워킹 활동을 강화하는 것보다 내부 R&D 뿐만 아니라 비R&D 활동을 위한 역량을 강화하는 것에 초점을 맞추는 것이 중요하다. 또한, 세부산업의 차별적 특성에 맞춘 시장정보 제공의 촉진이 요구된다. 전체적으로, 본 학위 논문은 빅데이터 수준의 혁신 연구 자료의 다양한 지표 형태를 포괄할 수 있는 단일 통계적 프레임워크로써 의사결정나무분석 방법론을 제시하고, 기업 혁신 활동의 다양한 관점과 전국적, 산업적, 지역적 수준에서 서로 다른 산업적 특성을 가진 제조업과 서비스산업 전반의 종단적, 횡단적 비교 분석 연구를 통해 주요한 영향요인과 유형적 혁신 거동에 관한 발견과 시사점을 제시하였으며, 이는 총체적인 혁신 이해에 대한 지식 축적에 기여한다. 제안된 종합적인 분석 체계를 기반으로 실증적으로 다양한 맥락을 관통하는 혁신 측정의 일관성을 가진 대규모의 혁신 연구 자료를 활용함으로써, 다양한 관점과 소규모의 실증적 혁신 환경에 따른 혁신 연구 자료와 비일관적인 대용 지표에 기인한 주요 혁신요인과 메커니즘에 대한 다양한 논쟁을 해소하고, 동시대의 새로운 혁신 연구의 지평을 밝힌 점에서 의의를 가진다. ; Numerous innovation studies at the national, industrial, and corporate levels from the various perspectives on diverse innovation taxonomy have fathomed influencing factors and in-depth mechanism on innovation due to the crucial role of innovation for ensuring growth under a fiercely competitive business environment in globalized economy. However, the complex context of innovation has led to controversies on innovation and made it difficult to address a comprehensive prescription of innovation involving specific research scopes, small pieces of empirical cases, and traditional statistical methodologies tied down by natures of proxy measures in innovation study data. This doctoral thesis aims to broaden and enrich the landscape of innovation study by mitigating the shortness of comprehensive knowledge on innovation encompassing manufacturing and service industries based on the big data scale of 16,230 empirical cases from cross-sectional and longitudinal comparative perspective between two industries at the national, sectoral, and regional levels through a single statistical framework by employing decision-making tree analysis, beyond the weakness of proxy measures in innovation study data regarding type and scale, and classical statistical methodologies tied down by the data. This thesis develops a systemic framework to identify overall influencing factors and typological behaviors by considering all factors together entailing contextual and intrinsic factors, which are determined in previous empirical studies in different contexts from the diverse microscopic foci, at various level from diverse perspectives based on the cross-sectional and longitudinal comparative analysis between industries, sectors, and regions on manufacturing and service industries to reflect all sectors nationwide over the years in Korea empirically, by using data from recent two consecutive Korea Innovation Survey (KIS), which is based on the Oslo manual that is standardized theoretically and practically applied worldwide. This thesis consists of two themes. Theme#1 aims to verify statistical differences in innovation success and failure between manufacturing and service industries at the industrial, sectoral, regional, and across sectoral and regional levels nationwide, which is preliminary assumed in previous studies that there is significant difference between sectors statistically, but not tested. Based on the supported eight hypotheses on 28 models by cross-tabulation analysis and chi-square test, this thesis explores forward significant influencing factors and typological behavior on innovation. Theme#2 explores to identify influencing factors and typological behaviors on innovation comparatively between manufacturing and service industries nationwide based on decision-making tree analysis employing CHAID algorithm and 10-fold cross-validation, which are stable, rational and predictive. This theme#2 consists of three modules. The first module identifies influencing factors and typological behaviors on innovation success and failure comparatively between manufacturing and service industries at the national and regional level based on 52 models. The second module identifies influencing factors and typological behaviors on firms that succeeded in innovation comparatively between manufacturing and service industries at overall innovation activity levels from various perspectives based on 30 models. The third module identifies influencing factors and typological behaviors on the most innovative domains having highest success rate comparatively between manufacturing and service industries at the sectoral, regional, and across the industrial and regional levels with higher resolution particularly based on 36 models of three sub-modules. From these models, this thesis identifies pivotal and varying influencing factors across industries over the years, and determines typological behavior of firms in manufacturing and service industries. Based on comprehensive findings on significant influencing factors and typological behaviors on innovation in each result of overall 118 decision-making tree analysis models in three modules in theme#2, overall implications on each typological variation at the national, regional, industrial, and corporate level are drawn. At the national level, the role of internal R&D and its capability are crucial for innovation success across manufacturing and service industries. In manufacturing industry, the larger the firm size and the older the firm, the higher the success will be achieved. Firms in low-technology sectors prefer non-R&D innovation activities rather than R&D. In service industry, effects of firm size and age with sectoral differences are identified. The size effects are prominent under the booming economy circumstances. At the regional level, significant influencing factors are consistent with the arguments on innovation capacity and sectoral difference on both capital and metropolitan area. At the industrial level, the significant role of R&D is witnessed between manufacturing and service industries, such that manufacturers concentrate more in R&D activities than non-R&D activities, and that service firms generally implemented non-R&D innovation activities than R&D. Regarding utilizing information, service firms focus on information from private customer, whereas manufacturers emphasis information from competitor in same sector. At the firm level on innovation contribution, innovation have contributed to the sales on both industries over the years. Comparatively there was a tendency that innovation in manufacturing industry contributes more than service industry. In manufacturing industry, firms performing R&D related innovation activities earn higher contribution to sales from innovation. In service industry, the higher internal capability and freedom in utilizing knowledge, the higher financial contribution will be achieved. Concerning an innovator's behavior, in manufacturing industry, target market characteristics that drive a firm to explore market needs affects innovation behavior and the utilization of external knowledge. Firms prefer implementing low-cost R&D activities across sectors, but firms in low-technology sectors prefer non-R&D activities. Most firms having R&D institutes focus on performing internal R&D with using their own knowledge. Cooperative R&D is conducted for closing capability gaps, but absorptive capacity is necessary to complement cooperative R&D. In service industry, firms primarily decide on whether to engage in R&D based on sectoral differentiations in technology facilitation with internal R&D capability. Their behavior is closely related to the knowledge utilization from customer or competitor. Firms perfervidly engage in utilizing knowledge from customers and external R&D institutes under the booming economy. For managerial or political implications in manufacturing industry, it is crucial to enhance the national innovation system, such that strengthening a support program to increase the capacity of both in-house R&D and cooperative R&D through funding, and to enliven the information environment on technology and market. For service industry, it should focus on enhancing the capacity for non-R&D innovation activities as well as for the internal R&D rather than promoting cooperative networking activities. Also, it should strengthen the national innovation system for to facilitate provision of market information according to the sectoral differentiation. In whole, the findings and implications presented in this thesis contribute to the comprehensive knowledge on influencing factors and typological behaviors on innovation across manufacturing and service industries nationwide from cross-sectional and longitudinal comparative analysis by employing DT methodology to encompass various types of proxy measures in innovation study data together in a single statistical framework on the big-data scale, thereby shedding light on landscape of innovation study and resolving controversies involving various empirical contexts and diverse proxy measures, which are tied down by the innovation study data. ; Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Background and motivation 1 1.2 Purpose 5 1.3 Scope and framework 7 1.4 Thesis outline 10 Chapter 2 Background 13 2.1 Theoretical background 13 2.1.1 Definition and measurement of innovation 13 2.1.2 Antecedents of innovation 17 2.1.2.1 Extrinsic determinants of innovation 17 2.1.2.2 Intrinsic determinants of innovation 21 2.1.3 Innovation studies at the sectoral and regional levels 27 2.2 Methodological background 30 2.2.1 Decision-making tree analysis 30 2.2.2 Validation and accuracy 33 2.3 Data and variables 34 2.4 Research framework and flow 44 Chapter 3 An analysis of industrial and regional differences in the success of innovation between Manufacturing and service industries 50 3.1 Structure and hypotheses of difference in innovation success between manufacturing and service industries at the industrial, sectoral, and regional levels 50 3.2 Differences in innovation success between manufacturing and service industries at the industrial, sectoral, and regional levels 54 3.3 Conclusion 84 Chapter 4 Identifying influencing factors and typological behaviors in innovation between manufacturing and service industries by using decision-making tree analysis 88 4.1 Identifying contextual factors and typological behavior in innovation success and failure between manufacturing and service industries at the national and regional levels 89 4.1.1 Analysis structure on innovation success and failure at the national and regional levels 89 4.1.2 Factors and behaviors in innovation success and failure between manufacturing and service industries at the national and regional levels 92 4.1.2.1 Overall influencing factors and typological behaviors on innovation success and failure at the national level 97 4.1.2.2 Overall influencing factors and typological behaviors on innovation success and failure at the regional level 111 4.2 Identifying intrinsic and contextual factors and typological behaviors in successful innovation firms between manufacturing and service industries at the various activity levels 116 4.2.1 Analysis structure on intrinsic and contextual factors and typological behaviors in successful innovation at the various activity levels 116 4.2.2 Intrinsic and contextual factors and typological behaviors in successful innovation at the various activity levels 119 4.2.2.1 Industrial difference in successful innovation 119 4.2.2.2 Contribution to sales from innovation 124 4.2.2.3 Overall innovation activities 133 4.2.2.4 Overall R&D activities 141 4.2.2.5 Cooperative activities 151 4.2.2.6 Best cooperative partner 156 4.2.2.7 Sources of innovation budget 161 4.3 Identifying factors and behaviors in innovative domains between manufacturing and service industries at the sectoral, regional, and across the industrial and regional levels 166 4.3.1 Analysis structure on innovative domains 166 4.3.2 Overall influencing factors and behaviors in innovative domains at the sectoral, regional, and across the industrial and regional levels 173 4.3.2.1 Innovative sectors 173 4.3.2.2 Innovative regions 182 4.3.2.3 Innovative regional sectors 188 4.4 Conclusion 194 Chapter 5 Conclusion 205 5.1 Summary and contribution 205 5.2 Limitation and further research 212 Bibliography 214 Appendix 249 국문초록 347 ; Doctor

Barranquilla, a city located in an intertropical geographical latitude on the left bank of the Magdalena's River mouth, is constituted as a conglomerate of pieces due to its urbanization processes. Processes that began an accelerated urban development during the first decades of the 20th century, without an Urban Plan for the management of its vast territory. In the absence of this, bourgeois neighborhoods are drawn up to allocate European Immigrants by the time that other informal neighborhoods appear spontaneously to allocate local and regional immigrants. Among the bourgeois neighborhoods, El Prado neighborhood stands out, developed according to the urbanistic principles of the Modern Movement, following the Garden City model, it constitutes the main urban landmark of the city in the 20th century. That is how El Prado is planned with a continuous urban layout and built in each of its properties, houses, and buildings of architectural styles like those built in the north American and British cities. Among these buildings, which are now patrimonial, stands out: the construction of fifty-four isolated houses for the Barranquilla elite, the El Prado Hotel and the opening of the Country Club. The passing of time has generated functional transformations in the El Prado neighborhood that have modified its symbols and imaginaries. However, the declaration as an Asset of National Cultural Interest, through Resolution 0087 on February 2, 2005, has prevented the structural modification of its architectural heritage pieces, front gardens, courtyards, and most of the plant species, as well as the urban layout. Nowadays there are a confluence of integrated and complementary manifestations that can be lived in the neighborhood and are conjugated with cultural activities developed in the urban space, activities that are linked with cultural and artistic scenarios which by the passing of the time have been set up in the neighborhood. This confluence has generated a synergy between the Garden City model, the typical daily residential life of the Caribbean that inhabits part of the architectural heritage, the culture hosted in heritage buildings and the wide open public spaces, reaffirming the living as a condition to be considered from the heritage understanding as a matter of future. An understanding that, also puts in value the human manifestations that are less recognized, since with it, the territory acquires other potentials. This is how the initiative of the Museo Vivo El Prado promotes this value as a process of urban regeneration. The potential value of the living, structured under the concept of Museum, through the process of urban regeneration, includes the El Prado neighborhood as a territory of key opportunities in cultural management and innovation, through the startup of other economic models that exclude the possibility of gentrification. That is how this research is immersed to an in-depth study of urban regeneration, the understanding of the image of the city as a piece of art and the research on the significance of museums in different instances. Concretizing this way, the conception of the Living Museum as the meaning of urban space that firstly, does not take its collection out of context, but in opposition, is generated around itself, taking advantage of the dynamic, symbiotic, socially balanced spatial and cultural systems in which democratic and spontaneous dynamics that develop, grounds and support an economic, natural and cultural equilibrated system. It is not a matter of creating an untouchable inert environment, but to allowing actions and relationships between visitors and inhabitants that enhance those dynamics.This is how The Museo Vivo El Prado, proposed as a cultural and creative innovation district, will not only generate impact and economic retribution, but it will also make possible the transformation of collective imaginaries, founding their identities and consolidating their image. That will be favored by its initial urban planning energized by the ways of living that happens in this heritage environment, letting it being recognized as its "own brand", from the territorial marketing, in terms of recognition and promotion within the city, by the incentive of the 'Orange economy' that is one of the Colombian National Government goalsIn this way, the Museo Vivo El Prado is projected from the understanding of the heritage as a matter of future, standing apart from the traditional concept of a museum, this is, as a static, inert and inanimate concept that takes out the collection of its context and uses the buildings as a supports for other artwork. In Opposition the Museo vivo El Prado places the concept of the museum in the dimension of urban management and regeneration combined with creative economy processes, to be handed over to a democratic, public, open-air space. That is how the urban space is the museum itself, its limits are the territory on which the heritage is administratively placed and the sky as its upper border. ; Barranquilla, ciudad ubicada en una latitud geográfica intertropical en el margen izquierdo de la desembocadura del Río Magdalena, se constituye como un conglomerado de trozos debido a sus procesos de urbanización. Procesos que inician un desarrollo urbano acelerado durante las primeras décadas del siglo XX, sin contar con un Plan Urbanístico para la ordenación de su vasto territorio. En ausencia de ello, se trazan, por un lado, barrios burgueses para alojar las migraciones europeas y por el otro, gracias a ese desarrollo, aparecen de manera espontánea, los barrios informales consolidados debido a la migraciones locales y regionales. Entre los barrios burgueses se distingue el Barrio El Prado, desarrollado a partir de los principios urbanísticos del Movimiento Moderno, siguiendo el modelo de Ciudad Jardín, constituyéndose de esta manera, como el principal hito urbano de la ciudad en siglo XX. Es así como el Prado se caracterizó por la continuidad de su trazado y por erigir sobre cada uno de sus terrenos, edificaciones de estilos arquitectónicos equiparables a las que se construían en ciudades norteamericanas e inglesas de la época. Entre estas edificaciones, hoy patrimoniales se destacan la construcción de cincuenta y cuatro viviendas aisladas para la élite de Barranquilla, el Hotel El Prado y la puesta en funcionamiento del Country club. El transcurrir del tiempo ha generado en el Barrio El Prado transformaciones funcionales que fueron modificando sus símbolos e imaginarios. Sin embargo, su declaratoria como Bien de Interés Cultural de carácter Nacional, a través de la Resolución 0087 el 2 de febrero de 2005, ha impedido la modificación estructural de sus piezas arquitectónicas patrimoniales, antejardines, patios y la mayoría de las especies vegetales, así como tampoco el trazado urbano. Actualmente en el barrio se vive una confluencia de manifestaciones integradas y complementarias, partiendo de aquellas propias del uso residencial en el Caribe, conjugadas con el desarrollo de actividades culturales en el espacio público, las cuales se articulan con escenarios culturales y artísticos que, con el tiempo se han establecido en el barrio. Esta confluencia ha generado una sinergia entre el modelo de Ciudad Jardín, la cotidianidad residencial propia del Caribe que habita parte del patrimonio arquitectónico, la cultura alojada en edificios patrimoniales y sus amplios espacios públicos, reafirmando lo vivo como una condición a considerar desde un patrimonio comprendido como cuestión de futuro. Una comprensión que, también pone en valor las manifestaciones humanas poco reconocidas, ya que con ello el territorio adquiere otros potenciales. Es así como la iniciativa del Museo Vivo El Prado potencia este valor como proceso de regeneración urbana.El potencial valor de lo vivo, estructurado bajo el concepto de Museo, mediante el proceso de regeneración urbana, comprende al Barrio El Prado como un territorio de oportunidades clave en la gestión cultural y de innovación, mediante la puesta en marcha de otros modelos económicos, que excluyan la posibilidad de gentrificación. De esta manera esta investigación se sumerge en una profundización sobre estudios de regeneración urbana, la comprensión de la imagen de la ciudad como obra de arte y la investigación sobre la significación de museo en distintas instancias. Concretando de esta forma, la concepción de Museo Vivo como la definición de espacio urbano que, en primera instancia no saca su colección del contexto, sino que, por el contrario, genera la colección en torno a ella, tomando partida del sistema espacial, cultural dinámico, simbiótico, socialmente equilibrado, en el cual se desarrollan dinámicas democráticas y espontáneas que fundamentan y sustentan un sistema de equilibrios económicos, naturales y culturales. No se trata de crear un medio inerte intocable, sino de permitir acciones y relaciones entre visitantes y habitantes que potencien esas dinámicas.Es así como El Museo Vivo El Prado, propuesto como un distrito de innovación cultural y creativo, no solo generará impacto y retribución económica, sino que posibilitará la transformación de imaginarios colectivos, fundamentando sus identidades y consolidando su imagen. Lo cual se verá favorecido por su planificación urbana inicial y dinamizadas por las formas de habitar que discurren en este entorno patrimonial, pudiéndose reconocer como una "marca propia", desde el marketing territorial en cuanto a su reconocimiento y promoción dentro de la ciudad a partir del fomento de la economía naranja, la cual es una de las metas del Gobierno Nacional Colombiano.De este modo el Museo Vivo El Prado, se proyecta a partir de la comprensión del patrimonio como una cuestión de futuro, separándose de la concepción tradicional de museo, esto es, una concepción estática, inerte, inanimada, que saca la colección de su contexto y que utiliza los edificios como soportes para otras artes. Por el contrario, el Museo Vivo El Prado Ubica el concepto de museo en la dimensión de la gestión y regeneración urbana conjugada con procesos de economía creativa, para ser entregadas a un espacio democrático, de uso público, libre y al aire libre. Es así como el espacio urbano es el propio museo, sus límites, el territorio sobre el cual se posa el patrimonio administrativamente definido y el cielo como su confín superior. ; Barranquilla, ciutat situada a una latitud geogràfica intertropical al marge esquerre de la desembocadura de el Riu Magdalena, es constitueix com un conglomerat de trossos a causa dels seus processos d'urbanització. Processos que inicien un desenvolupament urbà accelerat durant les primeres dècades de segle XX, sense comptar amb un Pla Urbanístic per a l'ordenació del seu vast territori. En absència d'això, es tracen, d'una banda, barris burgesos per allotjar les migracions europees i de l'altra, gràcies a aquest desenvolupament, apareixen de manera espontània, els barris informals consolidats a causa de la migracions locals i regionals.Entre els barris burgesos es distingeix el Barri El Prat, desenvolupat a partir dels principis urbanístics de el Moviment Modern, seguint el model de Ciutat Jardí, constituint-se d'aquesta manera, com el principal fita urbana de la ciutat en segle XX. És així com el Prat es va caracteritzar per la continuïtat del seu traçat i per erigir sobre cadascun dels seus terrenys, edificacions d'estils arquitectònics equiparables a les que es construïen en ciutats nord-americanes i angleses de l'època. Entre aquestes edificacions, avui patrimonials es destaquen la construcció de cinquanta-quatre habitatges aïllats per a l'elit de Barranquilla, l'Hotel El Prado i la posada en funcionament del Country club.El transcórrer de el temps ha generat en el Barri El Prat transformacions funcionals que van ser modificant els seus símbols i imaginaris. No obstant això, la seva declaratòria com a Bé d'Interès Cultural de caràcter Nacional, a través de la Resolució 0087 el 2 de febrer de 2005, ha impedit la modificació estructural de les seves peces arquitectòniques patrimonials, antejardins, patis i la majoria de les espècies vegetals, així com tampoc el traçat urbà. Actualment al barri es viu una confluència de manifestacions integrades i complementàries, partint d'aquelles pròpies de l'ús residencial al Carib, conjugades amb el desenvolupament d'activitats culturals a l'espai públic, les quals s'articulen amb escenaris culturals i artístics que, amb el temps s'han establert al barri. Aquesta confluència ha generat una sinergia entre el model de Ciutat Jardí, la quotidianitat residencial pròpia de l'Carib que habita part de el patrimoni arquitectònic, la cultura allotjada en edificis patrimonials i els seus amplis espais públics, reafirmant el viu com una condició a considerar des d'un patrimoni comprès com a qüestió de futur. Una comprensió que, també posa en valor les manifestacions humanes poc reconegudes, ja que amb això el territori adquireix altres potencials. És així com la iniciativa del Museu Viu El Prat potencia aquest valor com a procés de regeneració urbana.El potencial valor del que viu, estructurat sota el concepte de Museu, mitjançant el procés de regeneració urbana, comprèn a el Barri El Prat com un territori d'oportunitats clau en la gestió cultural i d'innovació, mitjançant la posada en marxa d'altres models econòmics, que excloguin la possibilitat de gentrificació. D'aquesta manera aquesta investigació es submergeix en un aprofundiment sobre estudis de regeneració urbana, la comprensió de la imatge de la ciutat com a obra d'art i la investigació sobre la significació de museu en diferents instàncies. Concretant d'aquesta manera, la concepció de Museu Viu com la definició d'espai urbà que, en primera instància no treu la seva col·lecció de l'context, sinó que, per contra, genera la col·lecció entorn d'ella, prenent partida de sistema espacial, cultural dinàmic, simbiòtic, socialment equilibrat, en el qual es desenvolupen dinàmiques democràtiques i espontànies que fonamenten i sustenten un sistema d'equilibris econòmics, naturals i culturals. No es tracta de crear un mitjà inert intocable, sinó de permetre accions i relacions entre visitants i habitants que potenciïn aquestes dinàmiques.És així com El Museu Viu El Prat, proposat com un districte d'innovació cultural i creatiu, no només generarà impacte i retribució econòmica, sinó que possibilitarà la transformació d'imaginaris col·lectius, fonamentant les seves identitats i consolidant la seva imatge. La qual cosa es veurà afavorit per la seva planificació urbana inicial i dinamitzades per les formes d'habitar que discorren en aquest entorn patrimonial, podent-se reconèixer com una "marca pròpia", des del màrqueting territorial pel que fa al seu reconeixement i promoció dins de la ciutat a partir del foment de l'economia taronja, la qual és una de les metes de Govern Nacional Colombià.D'aquesta manera el Museu Viu El Prat, es projecta a partir de la comprensió de el patrimoni com una qüestió de futur, separant-se de la concepció tradicional de museu, és a dir, una concepció estàtica, inert, inanimada, que treu la col·lecció del seu context i que utilitza els edificis com a suports per a altres arts. Per contra, el Museu Viu El Prat Situa el concepte de museu en la dimensió de la gestió i regeneració urbana conjugada amb processos d'economia creativa, per a ser lliurades a un espai democràtic, d'ús públic, lliure i a l'aire lliure. És així com l'espai urbà és el propi museu, els seus límits, el territori sobre el qual es posa el patrimoni administrativament definit i el cel com el seu confí superior.

Using data from the Ecuadorian private banking system for the period 2000-2017, this paper analyses macroeconomic and bank specific variables as determinants of credit risk, evaluated through a panel data with random effects. The findings highlight that macroeconomic and financial conditions of the country can explain credit banks quality in Ecuador. In particular, the factors that influence the credit risk in private banking system are the unemployment, government variables, the growth rate of loans, provisions, profitability and size. Keywords: Credit risk, banking system, macroeconomic factors, institutional factors. URL: http://revistas.uta.edu.ec/erevista/index.php/bcoyu/article/view/842 DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.31164/bcoyu.23.2019.842 References: Ahmad, N., & Ariff, M. (2007). Multi-country study of bank. The International Journal of Banking and Finance, 135-152. Alfaro, R., Calvo, D., & Oda, D. (2008). Riesgo de Crédito de la Banca. 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Determinants of credit risk in the banking system in Sub-Saharan Africa. Review of Development Finance, 1-13. Nkusu, M. (2011). Nonperforming Loans and Macrofinancial Vulnerabilities in Advanced Economies. IFM working paper, 1-28. Red de Instituciones Financieras de Desarrollo. (04 de Octubre de 2019). RFD. Obtenido de http://rfd.org.ec/docs/estadisticas/capcolo.pdf Reinhart, C., & Rogoff, K. (2010). From finantial to crash to debt crisis. National Bureau of economic research, 1-46. Sagner, A. (2012). El influjo de cartera vencida como medida de riesgo de crédito: Análisis y aplicación al caso de Chile. Revista de Análisis Económico, 27-54. Salas, V., & Saurima, J. (2002). Credit risk in two institutional regimes: Spanish commercial and savings banks. Journal of Finantial Services Research, III(22), 203-224. Sánchez, C., Mogro, S., & Cruz, J. (2017). Estructura de mercado del sistema bancario ecuatoriano: concentración y poder de mercado. Revista Cumbres, 09-16. Subgerencia de Programación y Regulación Dirección Nacional de Riesgo Sistémico. (Mayo de 2017). Monitoreo de los principales indicadores monetarios y financieros de la economía ecuatoriana. Obtenido de Banco Central del Ecuador: contenido.bce.fin.ec/documentos/PublicacionesNotas/Datos.xlsx Superintendencia de Bancos . (Abril de 2018). Superintendencia de Bancos Portal Estadístico. Obtenido de http://estadisticas.superbancos.gob.ec/portalestadistico/portalestudios/?page_id=415 Superintendencia de Bancos. (4 de Octubre de 2017). Estadísticas.superbancos. Obtenido de http://estadisticas.superbancos.gob.ec/portalestadistico/portalestudios/wp-content/uploads/sites/4/downloads/2019/01/Memoria_2017.pdf The World Bank Group. (28 de Agosto de 2018). Global Finantial Development. Obtenido de http://databank.worldbank.org/data/reports.aspx?source=global-financial-development# Titelman, D. (2003). La banca de desarrollo y el financiamiento productivo. Serie Financiamiento del Desarrollo, 1- 35. Uquillas, A., & Gozáles, C. (2017). Determinantes macro y microeconómicos para pruebas de tensión de riesgo de crédiro: un estudio comparativo entre Ecuador y Colombia basado en la tasa de morosidad. Ensayos sobre Política Económica, 35, 245-259. Urbina, M. (Julio de 2017). Tesis Uchile. Obtenido de http://repositorio.uchile.cl/bitstream/handle/2250/149796/Urbina%20Poveda%20Myriam.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y Vallcorba, M., & Delgado, J. (2007). Determinantes de la morosidad bancaria en una economía dolarizada. El caso uruguayo. Documentos de trabajo. Banco de España, 1-45. Vera, C., & Titelman, D. (2013). El sistema financiero en América Latina y el Caribe. Financiamiento para el Desarrollo, 1-40. Obtenido de https://repositorio.cepal.org/bitstream/handle/11362/35880/1/LCL3746_es.pdf Vuslat, U. (2016). A dynamic approach to analysing the effect of the global crisis on nonperforming loans: evidence from the Turkish banking sector. Applied Economics Letters, 186-192. Waemustafa, W., & Sukri, S. (2015). Bank Specific and Macroeconomics Dynamic Determinants of Credit Risk in Islamic Banks and Conventional Banks. International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues, 476-481. Obtenido de econjournals.com/index.php/ijefi/article/view/1105/pdf ; Utilizando datos del sistema bancario ecuatoriano del periodo 2000-2018, se analizan variables macroeconómicas y efectos propios de las instituciones bancarias como factores determinantes del riesgo de crédito, evaluado a través de un enfoque de datos de panel estático. Los resultados indican que las condiciones macroeconómicas y financieras del país son un medio para explicar la probabilidad de default de los préstamos otorgados por los bancos. En particular, los factores que influyen en el riesgo de crédito del sistema privado bancario ecuatoriano son la tasa del crecimiento del PIB, variables gubernamentales, tasa de crecimiento de los créditos, las provisiones y la rentabilidad. Palabras clave: Riesgo de crédito, sistema bancario, factores macroeconómicos, factores institucionales. URL: http://revistas.uta.edu.ec/erevista/index.php/bcoyu/article/view/842 DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.31164/bcoyu.23.2019.842 Referencias: Ahmad, N., & Ariff, M. (2007). Multi-country study of bank. The International Journal of Banking and Finance, 135-152. Alfaro, R., Calvo, D., & Oda, D. (2008). Riesgo de Crédito de la Banca. Banco Central de Chile Documentos de Trabajo, 1-29. Asobanca. (2019). Informe técnico: Banco Vs Cooperativas. Quito: Asobanca. Obtenido de www.asobanca.org.ec Banco mundial. (Julio de 2018). Banco de datos Indicadores mundiales de buen gobierno. Obtenido de https://databank.bancomundial.org/Governance-Indicators/id/2abb48da Berger, A., & DeYoung, R. (1997). Problem loans and cost efficiency in commercial banks. Journal of Banking and Finance, 21, 849-870. Obtenido de https://www.federalreserve.gov/pubs/feds/1997/199708/199708pap.pdf Boudriga, A., Boulila, N., & Jellouli, S. (2009). Banking supervision and nonperforming loans: a cross-country analysis. Journal of Financial Economic Policy, 1(4), 286-318. doi:10.1108/17576380911050043 Boudriga, A., Boulila, N., & Jellouli, S. (2010). Bank Specific, business and institutional environment determinants of banks nonperforming loans: Evidence from Mena countries. Economic Researc Forum(547), 1-28. Obtenido de http://erf.org.eg/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/547.pdf Castro, V. (2013). Macroeconomic determinants of the credit risk in the banking system: The case of the GIPSI. Economic Modelling, 31, 672-683. Obtenido de econpapers.repec.org/article/eeeecmode/v_3a31_3ay_3a2013_3ai_3ac_3ap_3a672-683.htm Chaibi, H., & Ftiti, Z. (2014). Credit risk determinants: Evidence from a cross-country study. Research in International Business and Finance, Volume 33(33), 1-16. Flórez, R. (2007). Análisis de los determinantes del riesgo de crédito en presencia de carteras de bajo incumplimiento. Una nueva propuesta de aplicación. Revista Europea de Dirección y Economía de la Empresa, 71-92. Fondo Monetario Internacional. (2016). La solidez del sistema financiero. Washington: Departamento de Comunicaciones FMI. García-Marco, T., & Robles-Fernández, M. (2007). Risk-taking behaviour and ownership in the banking industry: The Spanish evidence. García-Marco, T., & Robles-Fernández, M. D. (2008). Risk-taking behaviour and ownership in the banking industry: The Spanish evidence. Journal of Economics and Business, 60(4), 332–354. doi:10.1016/j.jeconbus.2007.04.008(60), 332-354. doi:10.1016/J.JECONBUS.2007.04.008 Hoang, T. T., Vo, K. T., & Ha, N. T. (2019). Analysis of the Factors Affecting Credit Risk of Commercial Banks in Vietnam. Springer Nature Switzerland, 522-532. Obtenido de link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-030-04200-4_38 Jara, M., Arias, J., & Rodríguez, A. (2011). Diversificación y determinantes del desempeño bancario: una comparación internacional. Estudios de Administración, 1-48. Jeanneau, S. (2007). Banking systems: characteristics and structural changes . Bank for International Settlements, 1-65. Kaufmann, D., Kraay, A., & Mastruzzi, M. (2010). The Worldwide Governance Indicators: Methodology and Analytical Issues. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 5430, 31. Obtenido de http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1682130 King, R., & Levine, R. (1993). Finance and growth: Schumpeter might be right. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 108(3), 717-737. Labra, R., & Torrecillas, C. (2014). Guía CERO para datos de panel. Un enfoque práctico. UAM-Accenture Working Papers, 1-61. Obtenido de www.catedrauamaccenture.com/documents/Working%20papers/WP2014_16_Guia%20CERO%20para%20datos%20de%20panel_Un%20enfoque%20practico.pdf Louhichi, A., & Boujelbene, Y. (Septiembre de 2016). Credit risk, managerial behaviour and macroeconomic equilibrium within dual banking systems: Interest-free vs. interest-based banking industries. Research in International Business and Finance, Volume 38(38), 104-121. Louhichi, A., & Boujelbene, Y. (September de 2016). Credit risk, managerial behaviour and macroeconomic equilibrium within dual banking systems: Interest-free vs. interest-based banking industries. Research in International Business and Finance, Volume 38(38), 104-121. Louzis, D., Vouldis, A., & Metaxas, V. (2012). Macroeconomic and bank-specific determinants of non-performing loans in Greece: A comparative study of mortgage, business and consumer loan portfolios. Journal of Banking & Finance, 1012-1027. doi:10.1016/j.jbankfin.2011.10.012 Mayorga, M., & Muñoz, E. (Septiembre de 2000). Documento de trabajo del Banco Central de Costa Ric. Obtenido de https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/8300249/mayorga%20y%20munoz%20tecnica%20de%20datos%20de%20panel.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A&Expires=1552261226&Signature=UWniEpUeI3dEFEdY8Nb%2B2WIFkvY%3D&response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20 Messai, A., & Jouini, F. (2013). Micro and macro determinants of non-performing loans. International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues, 3(4), 852-860. Montero, M. (2011). Efectos fijos o aleatorios: test de especificación. Documentos de Trabajo en Economía Aplicada, 1-5. Obtenido de https://www.ugr.es/~montero/matematicas/especificacion.pdf Mpofu, T., & Nikolaidou, E. (2018). Determinants of credit risk in the banking system in Sub-Saharan Africa. Review of Development Finance, 1-13. Nkusu, M. (2011). Nonperforming Loans and Macrofinancial Vulnerabilities in Advanced Economies. IFM working paper, 1-28. Red de Instituciones Financieras de Desarrollo. (04 de Octubre de 2019). RFD. Obtenido de http://rfd.org.ec/docs/estadisticas/capcolo.pdf Reinhart, C., & Rogoff, K. (2010). From finantial to crash to debt crisis. National Bureau of economic research, 1-46. Sagner, A. (2012). El influjo de cartera vencida como medida de riesgo de crédito: Análisis y aplicación al caso de Chile. Revista de Análisis Económico, 27-54. Salas, V., & Saurima, J. (2002). Credit risk in two institutional regimes: Spanish commercial and savings banks. Journal of Finantial Services Research, III(22), 203-224. Sánchez, C., Mogro, S., & Cruz, J. (2017). Estructura de mercado del sistema bancario ecuatoriano: concentración y poder de mercado. Revista Cumbres, 09-16. Subgerencia de Programación y Regulación Dirección Nacional de Riesgo Sistémico. (Mayo de 2017). Monitoreo de los principales indicadores monetarios y financieros de la economía ecuatoriana. Obtenido de Banco Central del Ecuador: contenido.bce.fin.ec/documentos/PublicacionesNotas/Datos.xlsx Superintendencia de Bancos . (Abril de 2018). Superintendencia de Bancos Portal Estadístico. Obtenido de http://estadisticas.superbancos.gob.ec/portalestadistico/portalestudios/?page_id=415 Superintendencia de Bancos. (4 de Octubre de 2017). Estadísticas.superbancos. Obtenido de http://estadisticas.superbancos.gob.ec/portalestadistico/portalestudios/wp-content/uploads/sites/4/downloads/2019/01/Memoria_2017.pdf The World Bank Group. (28 de Agosto de 2018). Global Finantial Development. Obtenido de http://databank.worldbank.org/data/reports.aspx?source=global-financial-development# Titelman, D. (2003). La banca de desarrollo y el financiamiento productivo. Serie Financiamiento del Desarrollo, 1- 35. Uquillas, A., & Gozáles, C. (2017). Determinantes macro y microeconómicos para pruebas de tensión de riesgo de crédiro: un estudio comparativo entre Ecuador y Colombia basado en la tasa de morosidad. Ensayos sobre Política Económica, 35, 245-259. Urbina, M. (Julio de 2017). Tesis Uchile. Obtenido de http://repositorio.uchile.cl/bitstream/handle/2250/149796/Urbina%20Poveda%20Myriam.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y Vallcorba, M., & Delgado, J. (2007). Determinantes de la morosidad bancaria en una economía dolarizada. El caso uruguayo. Documentos de trabajo. Banco de España, 1-45. Vera, C., & Titelman, D. (2013). El sistema financiero en América Latina y el Caribe. Financiamiento para el Desarrollo, 1-40. Obtenido de https://repositorio.cepal.org/bitstream/handle/11362/35880/1/LCL3746_es.pdf Vuslat, U. (2016). A dynamic approach to analysing the effect of the global crisis on nonperforming loans: evidence from the Turkish banking sector. Applied Economics Letters, 186-192. Waemustafa, W., & Sukri, S. (2015). Bank Specific and Macroeconomics Dynamic Determinants of Credit Risk in Islamic Banks and Conventional Banks. International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues, 476-481. Obtenido de econjournals.com/index.php/ijefi/article/view/1105/pdf

The use of chemicals is one of the key factors in the sustainability and has a particular relevance in the textile and clothing sector, due not only to the legislation related with chemicals used (specially REACH, CLP and BPR Regulations) but also to clients RSL (restricted substance list) and campaigns from non-governmental organizations, such as the Detox campaign and ZDHC programme. As response to this challenges some methodologies and tools are available:ZDHC toolsOEKO-TEX® products: STANDARD 100 (appendix 6) and DETOX TO ZEROGM SUB toolZDHC toolsThe ZDHC (Zero Zero Discharge of Hazardous Chemicals) Programme main objective is to eliminate the use of priority chemicals (11 category of chemicals) and for that has developed some tools that the companies can use, including:Manufacturing Restricted Substances List (version 1.1, from 2015) provides a list of priority chemicals and specifies the maximum concentration limit of each substance within commercial chemical formulations. It has 2 chapters, one for textiles and synthetic leather processing and the other for natural leather processing. And 2 groups, group A for raw material and finished product (substances that are banned from intentional use in facilities that process raw materials and manufacture finished products), and group B for chemical supplier (substances are restricted to concentration limits in chemical formulations commercially available from chemical suppliers)Interim MRSL Conformance Guidance, help brands and suppliers judge their confidence in whether a perceived MRSL compliant formulation from a supplier actually meets the requirements of the ZDHC MRSL standardMRSL Supplier Acknowledgement Letter (template letter)Chemical Guidance Sheets (substance use, reason for restriction, and safer alternatives), for chlorobenzenes, chlorophenols, halogenated solvents, organotins, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons/ naphthalene, toluene, long-chain perfluoroalkyl acids (LCPFAAs), nonylphenol (NP), nonylphenol ethoxylates (NPEOs), phthalates and short-chain chlorinated paraffinsChemical Management Systems (CMS) Guidance Manual (from 2015), focuses on the approach, structure and documentation needed to create and support a ZDHC Programme. The CMS is structured in five sections that follow the plan-do-check-act: commitment to CMS (plan phase), assessment, planning and prioritisation (plan phase), chemicals management (do phase), monitoring (check phase) and management review (act phase)Right to Know Disclosure Methodology Research (2014), present the ZDHC team research results on chemical compliance and disclosure methodologiesZDHC Academy provides brands and manufacturers with ZDHC certified training to improve their knowledge and practice of responsible chemical management STANDARD 100 by OEKO-TEX® (appendix 6)STANDARD 100 by OEKO-TEX® is a worldwide consistent, independent testing and certification system for raw, semi-finished, and finished textile products at all processing levels, as well as accessory materials used. The certified textile products are tested for harmful substances, legally banned and controlled substances, chemicals known to be harmful to the health (but not yet legally controlled) and parameters for health protection.Appendix 6 of STANDARD 100 by OEKO-TEX® was specially developed for companies focused in Detox campaign. The limits in this annex does not take from human ecological point of view but considering special environmental friendly production conditions, therefore the limit values are stricter (than in appendix 4) DETOX TO ZERO by OEKO-TEX®DETOX TO ZERO by OEKO-TEX® is a comprehensive verification and reporting system that prepares facilities along the textile chain for the requirements requested by the Detox campaign of Greenpeace. The DETOX TO ZERO by OEKO-TEX® service is focused on:the establishment of a transparent chemical management systema continuous improvement plan to reduce hazardous substances in the production process, e.g. comprehensive MRSL examinationwastewater and sludge measurementsimprovement of protective measures for the protection of the environmentDETOX TO ZERO provides an annual status report about chemicals used, evaluation of waste and wastewater treatment analysis and environmental protection measures so the facility and its buyers have a continuous monitoring tool focused on achieving Detox campaign alignment. In addition, OEKO-TEX® pays particular attention to the following:Elimination:Eliminating all release of toxic chemicals and recognising that there are no environmentally safe levels for hazardous substances according to Greenpeace's priority list of 11 hazardous chemicals/chemical groups.Prevention and precaution:Review and analysis of processes and measures for continuous improvement regarding preventive measures for the handling and the use of hazardous substances.Right to know:Documentation of the company's operations including training, environmental reporting, internal and external communications. One of the targets is a publicly available register on the OEKO-TEX website.Within the scope of DETOX TO ZERO by OEKO-TEX®, tests are conducted to check against the requirements of the Detox campaign, but OEKO-TEX® has added incremental elements such as, for example, resource efficiency, health protection, environmental protection and prevention of water pollution, and occupational safety.This procedure for this OEKO-TEX® service is the following:Online-application or contact an OEKO-TEX® instituteUser accesses an online questionnaire (DETOX assessment tool) to gather information about the Chemical Management System, inventory of chemicals used including CAS number, MSDS information as well as main ingredients, components additives and, if possible, information about impurities, wastewater and sludge informationOn-site visit from an OEKO-TEX® specialist to verify the stated company data and process information.Final status report including improvements and compliance level. This validity of the report is one year. A renewal can be applied for up to three months before the end of the validity period GM SUBGM SUB is a software tool for SDS (safety data sheets) and chemical management, developed by CITEVE and MACWIN company. The information is based on the chemicals used in a company, considering their SDS, places where they are used, legislation and chemical incompatibilities.Based on that information, GM-SUB automatically creates communication documents in a quick and effective manner, such as:Safety data sheet (on paper or in digital format), the complete version or a summary of the most relevant information (to be available in the places where chemicals are stored or used)Labels (for instance when the original recipient losses the label or for new recipients, when collecting samples for laboratory use, for example, or for repackaging)Awareness posters, like posters with safety alerts/ hazard and precautionary statements, like storage incompatibilities and good practice for handling and storing chemical substancesIt also allows the user to search specific substances and/or mixtures used in the company (indicating the workplaces where they are used), based on:CAS Number, EC Number or REACH registration number,Hazard classes or R-, S-, H- and P-phrasesRisk assessment of chemicals is a key issue in companies, and one of the biggest difficulties is related to determining chemical incompatibility. So GM SUB permits to check for compatibility between chemical substances used in a company, based on the hazard class and CAS number.As the protection of workers when handling chemical substances is very important, GM-SUB allows the identification of the necessary personal protective equipment, by chemical and/or by workplace, within a given workplace, when handling a particular chemical, moreover, it permits to identify the personal protective equipment for each worker.GM-SUB is continuously updated in accordance with the latestSVHClist (Substances of Very High Concern). This way at any time the user can access information on whether a substance used in the company has been placed on the candidate list or a new substance the company intend to use is already on the candidate list. These methodologies and tools are essential to the new sustainable chemistry, including reduction of hazardous chemicals (hazardous for humans or for the environment), specially to answer the challenges of the chemicals used in textile sector, namely the legislation related with chemicals speciallyREACH,CLPandBPR Regulations) but also to clients RSL (restricted substance list) and campaigns from non-governmental organizations, such as the Detox campaign and ZDHC programme.Since 2006, with the publication of theREACH(Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals) Regulation (Regulation CE 1907/2006), the chemicals start to be analyses in a more comprehensive way, which means, this Regulation was adopted to improve the protection of human health and the environment from the risks that can be posed by chemicals, so the legislation includes the articles, beside the chemical substances and the mixtures. The application of the REACH Regulation in textile articles (from fibres to final products) has three possible levels of application:The registration of substances in articles (when the substance, in quantity superior to 1 ton/year, is intended to be released from articles to provide added value)The authorization, including the candidate list of substances of very high concern (SVHC) for authorization (if an article has a substance in theSVHClist in quantity superior to 0,1%, the supplier has to provide to the client enough information to allow the safe use of the article, as a minimum the name of the substance in question has to be communicated. And if thatSVHCis present in these articles in quantities totaling over 1 ton/year, the company have to notify ECHA, no later than six months after the inclusion of the substance in the candidate list), and the annex XIV – list of substances subject to authorization (these substances cannot be placed on the market or used after a given date, unless an authorisation is granted for their specific use, or the use is exempted from authorization)The restriction defined in annex XVII (includes specific restriction for textile articles and some general restriction that are relevant to textile articles)TheBPR(Biocidal Product Regulation), Regulation EU 528/2012, concerns the placing on the market and use of biocidal products, which are used to protect humans, animals, materials or articles against harmful organisms, like pests or bacteria, by the action of the active substances contained in the biocidal product. This regulation defines that biocidal products need an authorization before they can be placed on the market, and the active substances contained in that biocidal product must be previously approved. There rules applies to several types of products (PT), including two that are relevant to textile articles, the PT2: Disinfectants and algaecides not intended for direct application to humans or animals, used to be incorporated in textiles, tissues, masks, paints and other articles or materials with the purpose of producing treated articles with disinfecting properties, and PT9: Fibre, leather, rubber and polymerized materials preservatives, used for the preservation of fibrous or polymerised materials, such as leather, rubber or paper or textile products by the control of microbiological deterioration. This product-type includes biocidal products which antagonise the settlement of micro-organisms on the surface of materials and therefore hamper or prevent the development of odour and/or offer other kinds of benefits.The Detox campaign was launched in 2011, by Greenpeace, with the main objective of remove from the textile supply chain a group of 11 categories of chemicals, until 2020. A company commitment with this campaign represent the adoption of measures to phase out the use and release of some chemicals from their global supply chain and products. The commitment is based in three fundamental principles:Zero discharge of all hazardous chemicals: this means really eliminating all releases: whether via waste water pipe discharges, other production emissions (e.g. air and solid wastes) or later life "losses" from the final product — recognising that there are no environmentally safe levels for hazardous substancesPrevention and Precaution: this means taking preventative action towards the elimination of hazardous chemicals in the face of scientific uncertainty. This should be focused on elimination at source through substitution with sustainable alternatives or even product redesignRight to know. this means that brands and their supply chains need to be fully transparent and that they need to publicly disclose information about the hazardous chemicals used and discharged when making their productsUntil now the Detox campaign has been public adopted by nineteen brands, namely,Nike, Adidas,Puma,H&M,M&S,C&A, Li-Ning,Zara,Mango, Esprit,Levi's,Uniqlo,Benetton,Victoria's Secret,G-Star RawValentino,Coop,Canepa,BurberryandPrimark. The group of 11 categories of chemicals that must be eliminated arealkylphenols,phthalates,brominated and chlorinated flame retardants,azo dyes,organotin compounds,perfluorinated chemicals,chlorobenzenes,chlorinated solvents,chlorophenols,short-chain chlorinated paraffinsandheavy metals: cadmium, lead, mercury and chromium (VI).The ZDHC (Zero Zero Discharge of Hazardous Chemicals) Programme, developed by ZDHC Foundation, takes a holistic approach to tackling the issue of hazardous chemicals in the global textile and footwear value chain. The objective is to eliminate the use of priority chemicals by focussing on the following areas:Manufacturing Restricted Substances List (MRSL): is a list of chemical substances banned from intentional use in facilities that process textile materials and trim parts in apparel and footwear. It establishes acceptable concentration limits for these substances as impurities or by-products in chemical formulations used within manufacturing facilities. It is supported by the documentZDHC MRSL V1.1, from 2015.Wastewater Quality: Well-designed, properly functioning wastewater treatment plants, good process controls and effective chemicals management are key to minimizing chemical, physical and biological pollutants discharged into the environmentAudit Protocol: was developed to ensure consistency in environmental auditing across the supply chain and sharing of audit findings. The Audit Protocol is supported by the ZDHC Chemical Management System (CMS) Guidance Manual, released in 2015Research: Research List is a list of prioritized chemical substances for which there are no safer alternatives in the market today. It lists priority chemical substances that require additional research or substitutionData and Disclosure: While implementing the Joint Roadmap, the need for integrated data management became apparent. The ZDHC Programme and its value chain participants including mills, tanneries, chemical companies and third-party service providers began exploring the challenges in data capture, reporting and global synchronizationTraining: is designed to support implementation of ZDHC standards throughout the value chain. Training is aimed at all parts of the value chain, including, brands, chemical suppliers, manufacturers and other intermediaries to adopt ambitious chemical management standardsDue to this new challenges the textile sector must implement a chemical management system that, in a first step, identify the problematic chemicals and in a second phase, look for safer alternatives. Considering that the textile wet or chemical processes (like dyeing, printing, coating, etc.), uses a huge quantity of chemicals, the management of those chemicals can only be effective if supported by tools and structured methodologies that help the chemical textile user to move for a sustainable chemistry. Relevant links:REACH Regulation:https://echa.europa.eu/regulations/reach/SVHC candidate list:https://echa.europa.eu/candidate-list-tableAuthorization list:https://echa.europa.eu/addressing-chemicals-of-concern/authorisation/recommendation-for-inclusion-in-the-authorisation-list/authorisation-listRestrictions:https://echa.europa.eu/addressing-chemicals-of-concern/restrictions/substances-restricted-under-reachCLP Regulation:https://echa.europa.eu/regulations/clpBPR regulation:https://echa.europa.eu/regulations/biocidal-products-regulationList of authorised biocidal products:https://echa.europa.eu/information-on-chemicals/biocidal-productsDetox campaign:http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/detox/water/detox/intro/ZDHC programmehttp://www.roadmaptozero.com/programme/OEKO-TEX® Products:https://www.oeko-tex.com/en/business/business_home/business_home.xhtml

One of the most important vectors of Ukraine's contemporary development is its active policy in bilateral relations with the leading European countries, since such a policy opens the way for recognition of its European identity and forms unlimited opportunities for international cooperation on a mutually beneficial basis. Among the closest partners and the most reliable allies of Ukraine was and remains Poland, because here, hundreds of thousands of Ukrainians live, work and study without any special problems. In addition, the strengthening of strategic partnership with Poland contributes to the practical realization of the European choice of Ukraine. On the other hand, Poles are interested in the territorial integrity, independence and European orientation of Ukraine, seeing it an ally in confronting external threats.In connection with the aforementioned one of the most important directions of the study of the state and prospects of modern Ukrainian-Polish relations is the elucidation of the sources and methodology of their comprehension comprehension. Although any classification is conditional, it is still worth trying to identify the main sources whose potential is intended to strengthen the relations between the two countries and outline the methodological aspects of their use in order to strengthen Ukrainian-Polish cooperation. First of all, such sources should include the following.1. The ideological and theoretical work of the representatives of Ukraine and Poland, aimed at finding ways to deepen mutual understanding between the two peoples. At the same time, particular attention should be paid to strategic considerations expressed on both sides, as well as reservations about the risks that accompany bilateral relations. Along with this, the important points for studying are the positions of people who are distinguished for their diligence, openness to mutual respect and mutual understanding. The ideological and theoretical potential of Ukrainian and Polish intellectuals, aimed at convergence, the dialogue of the cultures of the two countries, still needs to be properly studied and systematized, and can serve as an important basis for the state-building efforts of Ukraine and Poland in the future.2. External and domestic legal acts and documents of strategic direction aimed at strengthening of bilateral relations. This vector of relationships was already established at the turn of the 20th - 21st centuries in the relevant international legal and internal documents: the Declaration on the Principles and Main Directions of Ukrainian-Polish Relations (October 13, 1990); Treaty on Good Neighborhood, Friendly Relations and Cooperation (May 18-19, 1992); Agreement on the legal status of the Ukrainian-Polish border (January 12, 1993); Communique on the results of the meeting of the Consultative Committee of the Presidents of Ukraine and the Republic of Poland (September 27-28, 1995); Joint Statement for Understanding and Integration (May 21, 1997); Security Strategies of the Republic of Poland (2000); National Concept of Strategic Partnership Relations with the Republic of Poland (July 27, 2001); in a paper presented by the Polish political experts «The Eastern Policy of the Union in the Perspective of its Expansion through the States of Central and Eastern Europe - the Polish Point of View» (October 2003). Sufficiently strong legal and regulatory framework for bilateral relations between Ukraine and Poland is evidence of a gradual strengthening of political, economic, international legal and cultural cooperation. At the same time, a number of problems remain inadequate. First of all, it concerns border cooperation, common historical heritage, education, labor migration, etc.3. Institutional system for the provision and coordination of mutual strategic interests of the two states. Today, this coordination is jointly carried out by: the Advisory Committee of the Presidents of Ukraine and the Republic of Poland; Ukrainian-Polish Mixed Commission on Trade and Economic Cooperation; Ukrainian-Polish and Polish-Ukrainian parliamentary groups; Permanent Ukrainian-Polish Conference on European Integration; Polish Institute in Kyiv; Ukrainian-Polish, Polish-Ukrainian forums, Foundation Research Center Poland-Ukraine and others. In addition, there are a number of research structures in each of the countries that are highly specialized in the Polish-Ukrainian and Ukrainian-Polish issues. Accordingly, this direction should be monitored and the current evaluation of the effectiveness of these or other structural units should be carried out on the subject of a real impact on the quality of bilateral relations. At the same time, mutual understanding should be sought on the basis of openness, dialogue, compromise, and the avoidance of the formation of structures focused on unilateral consideration of disputed problems.4.State-political decisions in the field of security policy, anti-hybrid foreign-policy threats. A real threat to the entire European security system was the aggressive policy of Russia in 2014. Under these conditions, Ukraine was the leading outpost of protecting European values and democratic order. Systemic comprehension of the existing experience in a vital military-strategic sphere will help to optimize the directions of further cooperation, in particular on such important issues as: the final determination by Ukraine of the transition to international standards in the military sphere; exchanging experience of reforming the troops and maintaining their combat readiness at an appropriate level; combining the efforts of all EU countries in combating hybrid threats, as well as conducting a single foreign and security policy; consolidated actions of the European states in relation to the offending state (point of application of sanctions, embargo, etc.); to develop, on the basis of the UN, a common position on the unconditional implementation by all countries of the world of the requirements of international law and the search for ways to improve it in order to resolve non-standard situations; the study of the NATO countries by the unique Ukrainian experience of functioning the state in a hybrid war.5. The ideological and theoretical potential of public events (scientific conferences, debates, discussions, official meetings) that promote reconciliation with respect to controversial historical events, the dissolution of persistent stereotypes. From time to time, the recurrence of historical hostility between the two neighboring countries is given significant, including at the official level. First of all, these are the negative manifestations of mutual opposition, such as: the war of monuments to the dead Poles and Ukrainians; the dissemination at the level of mass consciousness of outdated stereotypical ideas humiliating national dignity; attempts to politicize the policy of memory through speculation on the tragic events of the past, in which the representatives of both nations suffered; the criticisms of the Polish radicals about the re-establishment of the Commonwealth at the borders of 1939 and the ill-conceived statements of some Ukrainians, which prompted «to forget about Poland for 25 years». The realization by Poland of offensive historical politics in Ukraine creates a reciprocal reaction in the issue of Ukraine's implementation of its policy of memory and causes various kinds of distortions. Therefore, under the current conditions, monopolization of the policy of memory at the state level, without involving the general public, is extremely dangerous for the future. This remark applies to both Poland and Ukraine.Thus, despite current problems, today we have every reason to state the significant level of Ukrainian-Polish cooperation. At the same time, in the bilateral relations between Ukraine and Poland it is worth looking first and foremost on positive things, consolidating in the mass consciousness what unites the two Eastern European countries, to highlight the views of people who for years build a Polish-Ukrainian understanding: translate books, establish scientific cooperation, restore cemeteries, collect help for soldiers who guarantee European security in eastern Ukraine. The progressive forces of both countries, regardless of the various kinds of provocations, should be abstracted from the insinuations of the marginal environment, reveal wisdom in assessing historical events, and determine common priorities not only for the medium term, but also for the long-term perspective. The level of mutual relations between the two countries depends on the possibility of realizing the needs of national minorities - Ukrainian in Poland and Polish in Ukraine. In addition, the strengthening of intergovernmental cooperation will contribute to establishing closer cooperation between Ukrainian and Polish societies in general, which depends largely on the future of both countries in the European House of Spies. ; One of the most important vectors of Ukraine's contemporary development is its active policy in bilateral relations with the leading European countries, since such a policy opens the way for recognition of its European identity and forms unlimited opportunities for international cooperation on a mutually beneficial basis. Among the closest partners and the most reliable allies of Ukraine was and remains Poland, because here, hundreds of thousands of Ukrainians live, work and study without any special problems. In addition, the strengthening of strategic partnership with Poland contributes to the practical realization of the European choice of Ukraine. On the other hand, Poles are interested in the territorial integrity, independence and European orientation of Ukraine, seeing it an ally in confronting external threats.In connection with the aforementioned one of the most important directions of the study of the state and prospects of modern Ukrainian-Polish relations is the elucidation of the sources and methodology of their comprehension comprehension. Although any classification is conditional, it is still worth trying to identify the main sources whose potential is intended to strengthen the relations between the two countries and outline the methodological aspects of their use in order to strengthen Ukrainian-Polish cooperation. First of all, such sources should include the following.1. The ideological and theoretical work of the representatives of Ukraine and Poland, aimed at finding ways to deepen mutual understanding between the two peoples. At the same time, particular attention should be paid to strategic considerations expressed on both sides, as well as reservations about the risks that accompany bilateral relations. Along with this, the important points for studying are the positions of people who are distinguished for their diligence, openness to mutual respect and mutual understanding. The ideological and theoretical potential of Ukrainian and Polish intellectuals, aimed at convergence, the dialogue of the cultures of the two countries, still needs to be properly studied and systematized, and can serve as an important basis for the state-building efforts of Ukraine and Poland in the future.2. External and domestic legal acts and documents of strategic direction aimed at strengthening of bilateral relations. This vector of relationships was already established at the turn of the 20th - 21st centuries in the relevant international legal and internal documents: the Declaration on the Principles and Main Directions of Ukrainian-Polish Relations (October 13, 1990); Treaty on Good Neighborhood, Friendly Relations and Cooperation (May 18-19, 1992); Agreement on the legal status of the Ukrainian-Polish border (January 12, 1993); Communique on the results of the meeting of the Consultative Committee of the Presidents of Ukraine and the Republic of Poland (September 27-28, 1995); Joint Statement for Understanding and Integration (May 21, 1997); Security Strategies of the Republic of Poland (2000); National Concept of Strategic Partnership Relations with the Republic of Poland (July 27, 2001); in a paper presented by the Polish political experts «The Eastern Policy of the Union in the Perspective of its Expansion through the States of Central and Eastern Europe - the Polish Point of View» (October 2003). Sufficiently strong legal and regulatory framework for bilateral relations between Ukraine and Poland is evidence of a gradual strengthening of political, economic, international legal and cultural cooperation. At the same time, a number of problems remain inadequate. First of all, it concerns border cooperation, common historical heritage, education, labor migration, etc.3. Institutional system for the provision and coordination of mutual strategic interests of the two states. Today, this coordination is jointly carried out by: the Advisory Committee of the Presidents of Ukraine and the Republic of Poland; Ukrainian-Polish Mixed Commission on Trade and Economic Cooperation; Ukrainian-Polish and Polish-Ukrainian parliamentary groups; Permanent Ukrainian-Polish Conference on European Integration; Polish Institute in Kyiv; Ukrainian-Polish, Polish-Ukrainian forums, Foundation Research Center Poland-Ukraine and others. In addition, there are a number of research structures in each of the countries that are highly specialized in the Polish-Ukrainian and Ukrainian-Polish issues. Accordingly, this direction should be monitored and the current evaluation of the effectiveness of these or other structural units should be carried out on the subject of a real impact on the quality of bilateral relations. At the same time, mutual understanding should be sought on the basis of openness, dialogue, compromise, and the avoidance of the formation of structures focused on unilateral consideration of disputed problems.4.State-political decisions in the field of security policy, anti-hybrid foreign-policy threats. A real threat to the entire European security system was the aggressive policy of Russia in 2014. Under these conditions, Ukraine was the leading outpost of protecting European values and democratic order. Systemic comprehension of the existing experience in a vital military-strategic sphere will help to optimize the directions of further cooperation, in particular on such important issues as: the final determination by Ukraine of the transition to international standards in the military sphere; exchanging experience of reforming the troops and maintaining their combat readiness at an appropriate level; combining the efforts of all EU countries in combating hybrid threats, as well as conducting a single foreign and security policy; consolidated actions of the European states in relation to the offending state (point of application of sanctions, embargo, etc.); to develop, on the basis of the UN, a common position on the unconditional implementation by all countries of the world of the requirements of international law and the search for ways to improve it in order to resolve non-standard situations; the study of the NATO countries by the unique Ukrainian experience of functioning the state in a hybrid war.5. The ideological and theoretical potential of public events (scientific conferences, debates, discussions, official meetings) that promote reconciliation with respect to controversial historical events, the dissolution of persistent stereotypes. From time to time, the recurrence of historical hostility between the two neighboring countries is given significant, including at the official level. First of all, these are the negative manifestations of mutual opposition, such as: the war of monuments to the dead Poles and Ukrainians; the dissemination at the level of mass consciousness of outdated stereotypical ideas humiliating national dignity; attempts to politicize the policy of memory through speculation on the tragic events of the past, in which the representatives of both nations suffered; the criticisms of the Polish radicals about the re-establishment of the Commonwealth at the borders of 1939 and the ill-conceived statements of some Ukrainians, which prompted «to forget about Poland for 25 years». The realization by Poland of offensive historical politics in Ukraine creates a reciprocal reaction in the issue of Ukraine's implementation of its policy of memory and causes various kinds of distortions. Therefore, under the current conditions, monopolization of the policy of memory at the state level, without involving the general public, is extremely dangerous for the future. This remark applies to both Poland and Ukraine.Thus, despite current problems, today we have every reason to state the significant level of Ukrainian-Polish cooperation. At the same time, in the bilateral relations between Ukraine and Poland it is worth looking first and foremost on positive things, consolidating in the mass consciousness what unites the two Eastern European countries, to highlight the views of people who for years build a Polish-Ukrainian understanding: translate books, establish scientific cooperation, restore cemeteries, collect help for soldiers who guarantee European security in eastern Ukraine. The progressive forces of both countries, regardless of the various kinds of provocations, should be abstracted from the insinuations of the marginal environment, reveal wisdom in assessing historical events, and determine common priorities not only for the medium term, but also for the long-term perspective. The level of mutual relations between the two countries depends on the possibility of realizing the needs of national minorities - Ukrainian in Poland and Polish in Ukraine. In addition, the strengthening of intergovernmental cooperation will contribute to establishing closer cooperation between Ukrainian and Polish societies in general, which depends largely on the future of both countries in the European House of Spies.

One of the most important vectors of Ukraine's contemporary development is its active policy in bilateral relations with the leading European countries, since such a policy opens the way for recognition of its European identity and forms unlimited opportunities for international cooperation on a mutually beneficial basis. Among the closest partners and the most reliable allies of Ukraine was and remains Poland, because here, hundreds of thousands of Ukrainians live, work and study without any special problems. In addition, the strengthening of strategic partnership with Poland contributes to the practical realization of the European choice of Ukraine. On the other hand, Poles are interested in the territorial integrity, independence and European orientation of Ukraine, seeing it an ally in confronting external threats.In connection with the aforementioned one of the most important directions of the study of the state and prospects of modern Ukrainian-Polish relations is the elucidation of the sources and methodology of their comprehension comprehension. Although any classification is conditional, it is still worth trying to identify the main sources whose potential is intended to strengthen the relations between the two countries and outline the methodological aspects of their use in order to strengthen Ukrainian-Polish cooperation. First of all, such sources should include the following.1. The ideological and theoretical work of the representatives of Ukraine and Poland, aimed at finding ways to deepen mutual understanding between the two peoples. At the same time, particular attention should be paid to strategic considerations expressed on both sides, as well as reservations about the risks that accompany bilateral relations. Along with this, the important points for studying are the positions of people who are distinguished for their diligence, openness to mutual respect and mutual understanding. The ideological and theoretical potential of Ukrainian and Polish intellectuals, aimed at convergence, the dialogue of the cultures of the two countries, still needs to be properly studied and systematized, and can serve as an important basis for the state-building efforts of Ukraine and Poland in the future.2. External and domestic legal acts and documents of strategic direction aimed at strengthening of bilateral relations. This vector of relationships was already established at the turn of the 20th - 21st centuries in the relevant international legal and internal documents: the Declaration on the Principles and Main Directions of Ukrainian-Polish Relations (October 13, 1990); Treaty on Good Neighborhood, Friendly Relations and Cooperation (May 18-19, 1992); Agreement on the legal status of the Ukrainian-Polish border (January 12, 1993); Communique on the results of the meeting of the Consultative Committee of the Presidents of Ukraine and the Republic of Poland (September 27-28, 1995); Joint Statement for Understanding and Integration (May 21, 1997); Security Strategies of the Republic of Poland (2000); National Concept of Strategic Partnership Relations with the Republic of Poland (July 27, 2001); in a paper presented by the Polish political experts «The Eastern Policy of the Union in the Perspective of its Expansion through the States of Central and Eastern Europe - the Polish Point of View» (October 2003). Sufficiently strong legal and regulatory framework for bilateral relations between Ukraine and Poland is evidence of a gradual strengthening of political, economic, international legal and cultural cooperation. At the same time, a number of problems remain inadequate. First of all, it concerns border cooperation, common historical heritage, education, labor migration, etc.3. Institutional system for the provision and coordination of mutual strategic interests of the two states. Today, this coordination is jointly carried out by: the Advisory Committee of the Presidents of Ukraine and the Republic of Poland; Ukrainian-Polish Mixed Commission on Trade and Economic Cooperation; Ukrainian-Polish and Polish-Ukrainian parliamentary groups; Permanent Ukrainian-Polish Conference on European Integration; Polish Institute in Kyiv; Ukrainian-Polish, Polish-Ukrainian forums, Foundation Research Center Poland-Ukraine and others. In addition, there are a number of research structures in each of the countries that are highly specialized in the Polish-Ukrainian and Ukrainian-Polish issues. Accordingly, this direction should be monitored and the current evaluation of the effectiveness of these or other structural units should be carried out on the subject of a real impact on the quality of bilateral relations. At the same time, mutual understanding should be sought on the basis of openness, dialogue, compromise, and the avoidance of the formation of structures focused on unilateral consideration of disputed problems.4.State-political decisions in the field of security policy, anti-hybrid foreign-policy threats. A real threat to the entire European security system was the aggressive policy of Russia in 2014. Under these conditions, Ukraine was the leading outpost of protecting European values and democratic order. Systemic comprehension of the existing experience in a vital military-strategic sphere will help to optimize the directions of further cooperation, in particular on such important issues as: the final determination by Ukraine of the transition to international standards in the military sphere; exchanging experience of reforming the troops and maintaining their combat readiness at an appropriate level; combining the efforts of all EU countries in combating hybrid threats, as well as conducting a single foreign and security policy; consolidated actions of the European states in relation to the offending state (point of application of sanctions, embargo, etc.); to develop, on the basis of the UN, a common position on the unconditional implementation by all countries of the world of the requirements of international law and the search for ways to improve it in order to resolve non-standard situations; the study of the NATO countries by the unique Ukrainian experience of functioning the state in a hybrid war.5. The ideological and theoretical potential of public events (scientific conferences, debates, discussions, official meetings) that promote reconciliation with respect to controversial historical events, the dissolution of persistent stereotypes. From time to time, the recurrence of historical hostility between the two neighboring countries is given significant, including at the official level. First of all, these are the negative manifestations of mutual opposition, such as: the war of monuments to the dead Poles and Ukrainians; the dissemination at the level of mass consciousness of outdated stereotypical ideas humiliating national dignity; attempts to politicize the policy of memory through speculation on the tragic events of the past, in which the representatives of both nations suffered; the criticisms of the Polish radicals about the re-establishment of the Commonwealth at the borders of 1939 and the ill-conceived statements of some Ukrainians, which prompted «to forget about Poland for 25 years». The realization by Poland of offensive historical politics in Ukraine creates a reciprocal reaction in the issue of Ukraine's implementation of its policy of memory and causes various kinds of distortions. Therefore, under the current conditions, monopolization of the policy of memory at the state level, without involving the general public, is extremely dangerous for the future. This remark applies to both Poland and Ukraine.Thus, despite current problems, today we have every reason to state the significant level of Ukrainian-Polish cooperation. At the same time, in the bilateral relations between Ukraine and Poland it is worth looking first and foremost on positive things, consolidating in the mass consciousness what unites the two Eastern European countries, to highlight the views of people who for years build a Polish-Ukrainian understanding: translate books, establish scientific cooperation, restore cemeteries, collect help for soldiers who guarantee European security in eastern Ukraine. The progressive forces of both countries, regardless of the various kinds of provocations, should be abstracted from the insinuations of the marginal environment, reveal wisdom in assessing historical events, and determine common priorities not only for the medium term, but also for the long-term perspective. The level of mutual relations between the two countries depends on the possibility of realizing the needs of national minorities - Ukrainian in Poland and Polish in Ukraine. In addition, the strengthening of intergovernmental cooperation will contribute to establishing closer cooperation between Ukrainian and Polish societies in general, which depends largely on the future of both countries in the European House of Spies. ; One of the most important vectors of Ukraine's contemporary development is its active policy in bilateral relations with the leading European countries, since such a policy opens the way for recognition of its European identity and forms unlimited opportunities for international cooperation on a mutually beneficial basis. Among the closest partners and the most reliable allies of Ukraine was and remains Poland, because here, hundreds of thousands of Ukrainians live, work and study without any special problems. In addition, the strengthening of strategic partnership with Poland contributes to the practical realization of the European choice of Ukraine. On the other hand, Poles are interested in the territorial integrity, independence and European orientation of Ukraine, seeing it an ally in confronting external threats.In connection with the aforementioned one of the most important directions of the study of the state and prospects of modern Ukrainian-Polish relations is the elucidation of the sources and methodology of their comprehension comprehension. Although any classification is conditional, it is still worth trying to identify the main sources whose potential is intended to strengthen the relations between the two countries and outline the methodological aspects of their use in order to strengthen Ukrainian-Polish cooperation. First of all, such sources should include the following.1. The ideological and theoretical work of the representatives of Ukraine and Poland, aimed at finding ways to deepen mutual understanding between the two peoples. At the same time, particular attention should be paid to strategic considerations expressed on both sides, as well as reservations about the risks that accompany bilateral relations. Along with this, the important points for studying are the positions of people who are distinguished for their diligence, openness to mutual respect and mutual understanding. The ideological and theoretical potential of Ukrainian and Polish intellectuals, aimed at convergence, the dialogue of the cultures of the two countries, still needs to be properly studied and systematized, and can serve as an important basis for the state-building efforts of Ukraine and Poland in the future.2. External and domestic legal acts and documents of strategic direction aimed at strengthening of bilateral relations. This vector of relationships was already established at the turn of the 20th - 21st centuries in the relevant international legal and internal documents: the Declaration on the Principles and Main Directions of Ukrainian-Polish Relations (October 13, 1990); Treaty on Good Neighborhood, Friendly Relations and Cooperation (May 18-19, 1992); Agreement on the legal status of the Ukrainian-Polish border (January 12, 1993); Communique on the results of the meeting of the Consultative Committee of the Presidents of Ukraine and the Republic of Poland (September 27-28, 1995); Joint Statement for Understanding and Integration (May 21, 1997); Security Strategies of the Republic of Poland (2000); National Concept of Strategic Partnership Relations with the Republic of Poland (July 27, 2001); in a paper presented by the Polish political experts «The Eastern Policy of the Union in the Perspective of its Expansion through the States of Central and Eastern Europe - the Polish Point of View» (October 2003). Sufficiently strong legal and regulatory framework for bilateral relations between Ukraine and Poland is evidence of a gradual strengthening of political, economic, international legal and cultural cooperation. At the same time, a number of problems remain inadequate. First of all, it concerns border cooperation, common historical heritage, education, labor migration, etc.3. Institutional system for the provision and coordination of mutual strategic interests of the two states. Today, this coordination is jointly carried out by: the Advisory Committee of the Presidents of Ukraine and the Republic of Poland; Ukrainian-Polish Mixed Commission on Trade and Economic Cooperation; Ukrainian-Polish and Polish-Ukrainian parliamentary groups; Permanent Ukrainian-Polish Conference on European Integration; Polish Institute in Kyiv; Ukrainian-Polish, Polish-Ukrainian forums, Foundation Research Center Poland-Ukraine and others. In addition, there are a number of research structures in each of the countries that are highly specialized in the Polish-Ukrainian and Ukrainian-Polish issues. Accordingly, this direction should be monitored and the current evaluation of the effectiveness of these or other structural units should be carried out on the subject of a real impact on the quality of bilateral relations. At the same time, mutual understanding should be sought on the basis of openness, dialogue, compromise, and the avoidance of the formation of structures focused on unilateral consideration of disputed problems.4.State-political decisions in the field of security policy, anti-hybrid foreign-policy threats. A real threat to the entire European security system was the aggressive policy of Russia in 2014. Under these conditions, Ukraine was the leading outpost of protecting European values and democratic order. Systemic comprehension of the existing experience in a vital military-strategic sphere will help to optimize the directions of further cooperation, in particular on such important issues as: the final determination by Ukraine of the transition to international standards in the military sphere; exchanging experience of reforming the troops and maintaining their combat readiness at an appropriate level; combining the efforts of all EU countries in combating hybrid threats, as well as conducting a single foreign and security policy; consolidated actions of the European states in relation to the offending state (point of application of sanctions, embargo, etc.); to develop, on the basis of the UN, a common position on the unconditional implementation by all countries of the world of the requirements of international law and the search for ways to improve it in order to resolve non-standard situations; the study of the NATO countries by the unique Ukrainian experience of functioning the state in a hybrid war.5. The ideological and theoretical potential of public events (scientific conferences, debates, discussions, official meetings) that promote reconciliation with respect to controversial historical events, the dissolution of persistent stereotypes. From time to time, the recurrence of historical hostility between the two neighboring countries is given significant, including at the official level. First of all, these are the negative manifestations of mutual opposition, such as: the war of monuments to the dead Poles and Ukrainians; the dissemination at the level of mass consciousness of outdated stereotypical ideas humiliating national dignity; attempts to politicize the policy of memory through speculation on the tragic events of the past, in which the representatives of both nations suffered; the criticisms of the Polish radicals about the re-establishment of the Commonwealth at the borders of 1939 and the ill-conceived statements of some Ukrainians, which prompted «to forget about Poland for 25 years». The realization by Poland of offensive historical politics in Ukraine creates a reciprocal reaction in the issue of Ukraine's implementation of its policy of memory and causes various kinds of distortions. Therefore, under the current conditions, monopolization of the policy of memory at the state level, without involving the general public, is extremely dangerous for the future. This remark applies to both Poland and Ukraine.Thus, despite current problems, today we have every reason to state the significant level of Ukrainian-Polish cooperation. At the same time, in the bilateral relations between Ukraine and Poland it is worth looking first and foremost on positive things, consolidating in the mass consciousness what unites the two Eastern European countries, to highlight the views of people who for years build a Polish-Ukrainian understanding: translate books, establish scientific cooperation, restore cemeteries, collect help for soldiers who guarantee European security in eastern Ukraine. The progressive forces of both countries, regardless of the various kinds of provocations, should be abstracted from the insinuations of the marginal environment, reveal wisdom in assessing historical events, and determine common priorities not only for the medium term, but also for the long-term perspective. The level of mutual relations between the two countries depends on the possibility of realizing the needs of national minorities - Ukrainian in Poland and Polish in Ukraine. In addition, the strengthening of intergovernmental cooperation will contribute to establishing closer cooperation between Ukrainian and Polish societies in general, which depends largely on the future of both countries in the European House of Spies.

Máster Universitario en Ingeniería Industrial ; El clima del planeta lleva sufriendo desde hace varios años importantes cambios. Estas alteraciones se deben fundamentalmente a las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero, que son originadas entre otros, por el uso de combustibles fósiles. A día de hoy existen numerosas pruebas irrefutables de este cambio climático que están afectando negativamente al ecosistema, la salud humana y la economía. La concienciación por este grave problema es cada vez mayor, gobiernos e instituciones a nivel mundial se han unido por la lucha contra el cambio climático y han asumido objetivos de reducción de emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero. Para lograr estas metas, se están impulsando medidas y ayudas económicas que favorezcan la puesta en marcha de prácticas y modelos más eficientes energéticamente. Las ciudades son el punto de partida en esta batalla, si no se consiguen ciudades sostenibles tampoco se conseguirá que lo sea el planeta. El entorno urbano es uno de los retos más importantes dentro del área de la investigación ambiental. El tráfico de vehículos en las grandes ciudades es uno de los principales focos de polución en las mismas, lo que conlleva negativas consecuencias para las personas y el medio. Dentro del tráfico urbano, la flota de servicios urbanos representa una gran parte de los vehículos que circulan por las ciudades, esto ha impulsado unas políticas europeas que tienen como objetivo promover el desarrollo de transportes urbanos más ecológicos. En la actualidad hay ayuntamientos españoles que ya han puesto en marcha estas nuevas medidas y están renovando las flotas urbanas por otras mucho más recomendables desde el punto de vista ecológico. Siguiendo esta línea, el proyecto se centra en medir el impacto ambiental y económico que supondría la renovación parcial o total de la flota de un ayuntamiento por vehículos ecológicos, entendiéndose por vehículos ecológicos, vehículos eléctricos de baterías, vehículos híbridos eléctricos y vehículos convencionales de bajo consumo. Por razones de simplicidad, el estudio se ha llevado a cabo en la ciudad de Valladolid. No obstante la finalidad del mismo es que este proyecto sea una herramienta, no sólo para Valladolid, sino para cualquier individuo o colectivo interesado en la sustitución de un vehículo por otro más eficiente energéticamente. El impacto ambiental se define como la reducción de emisiones de CO2 y de contaminantes que se obtiene al sustituir un vehículo de una flota por su equivalente ecológico; y el impacto económico es el coste que supone esta sustitución. La compra de un nuevo vehículo implica una inversión y esta inversión es por tanto el impacto económico que supondría la renovación de un vehículo.La metodología que se ha seguido para el análisis y renovación de una flota compleja como la de Valladolid es la siguiente: • Identificación de los servicios y vehículos sujetos a renovación: para el caso de una flota tan numerosa como la de Valladolid se ha decidido analizar únicamente aquellos vehículos que están presentes más repetidamente. • Selección de tres vehículos ecológicos equivalentes para cada vehículo sujeto a renovación: a partir de unos criterios de equivalencia, se selecciona un vehículo eléctrico de baterías, un vehículo híbrido eléctrico y uno convencional de bajo consumo. • Elección del vehículo óptimo tanto a nivel ambiental como económico: partiendo de las tres alternativas ecológicas, se realiza un estudio de emisiones de CO2 y contaminantes y del coste de los vehículos y se elige como la solución más adecuada aquel vehículo con el que se reduzcan en mayor cantidad las emisiones de CO2 por euro invertido en el mismo. Para que la comparación sea lo más justa posible, el análisis se lleva a cabo teniendo en cuenta las diferentes etapas del ciclo de vida de un vehículo. • Impacto ambiental y económico de los vehículos: con los nuevos vehículos es posible calcular la reducción de emisiones de CO2 que supondrán las sustituciones y el coste implícito que éstas conllevan. En el siguiente estudio, se han analizado seis vehículos pertenecientes a seis diferentes flotas del ayuntamiento de Valladolid. En todos los casos, el vehículo eléctrico ha sido la opción óptima como alternativa para la renovación de la flota.Debido a la repetición de estos vehículos en sus respectivas flotas, con el análisis de únicamente seis vehículos es posible sustituir setenta y cinco vehículos de la flota del ayuntamiento de Valladolid.Esta renovación parcial de la flota supone una reducción de 4,15 miles de toneladas de dióxido de carbono respecto de las emisiones generadas por los setenta y cinco vehículos actuales durante la vida media en uso de los mismos, fijada en diez años (reducción del 55,4%). Sin embargo, si se tienen en cuenta todas las etapas del ciclo de vida de un vehículo, es decir desde la fabricación hasta el reciclado del mismo, la reducción de emisiones de dióxido de carbono es todavía mayor, alcanzándose las 6 mil toneladas de CO2. La apuesta por esta nueva flota ecológica requiere de una gran inversión. La reducción de emisiones no es a coste cero, sino que implica la adquisición de nuevos vehículos, elevándose a 10.908.300 € en el caso de los setenta y cinco vehículos de la flota de Valladolid. Pese al gran impacto económico, la renovación de las flotas urbanas es un tema primordial y prioritario para la sostenibilidad del planeta. De ello son conscientes organismos e instituciones a nivel mundial, y lo han demostrado con numerosos planes de financiación que fomentan e impulsan el desarrollo de estas tecnologías limpias. En la actualidad existen diversas ayudas económicas impulsadas por el Gobierno que hacen que la inversión inicial requerida se vea mermada. De este modo, el Plan MOVELE 20151 y el Plan PIMA AIRE 42 son programas que conceden financiación económica para incentivar la adquisición de nuevos vehículos con tecnologías limpias. Así mismo, se ha creado recientemente el Fondo de Carbono para una Economía Sostenible (FES-CO2)3. Este fondo es un nuevo instrumento de financiación climático. Tiene como objetivo redirigir la economía hacia modelos bajos en carbono. El fondo ofrecerá la inversión necesaria para el impulso de actividades y desarrollo de tecnologías limpias que favorezcan la atenuación del cambio climático. Para llevar a cabo esta financiación, el fondo adquirirá créditos en forma de reducción de emisiones de carbono de aquellos proyectos o iniciativas que luchan contra el cambio climático en España y que pertenecen a aquellos sectores que no están sujetos al régimen europeo de comercio de derechos de emisión, como es el caso del sector transporte. El Plan MOVELE 2015 es un programa que aplica directamente al caso de la renovación de la flota del ayuntamiento de Valladolid. Debido a que todos los vehículos sustitutos son vehículos eléctricos, se obtendría una financiación de 570.000 € por la renovación de los setenta y cinco vehículos gracia a este plan. Aunque el coste sigue siendo elevado, es ahora el momento de implantar este tipo de proyectos. Los ayuntamientos, empresas, organismos, etc. deben contribuir a la reducción de emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero, y que mejor manera que empezar por uno de los sectores de mayor repercusión en este asunto, el sector transporte. No cabe duda de que la industria del transporte es de gran trascendencia para la economía mundial, pero al mismo tiempo constituye una enorme carga energética y unagran huella ambiental afectando directamente a la salud, la calidad de vida, los ecosistemas y el cambio climático; y todo ello se opone al desarrollo sostenible a nivel local y global. El coste de los efectos secundarios del cambio climático es superior al coste de las renovaciones de las flotas urbanas, y la reducción de emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero que ofrecen estas flotas hacen que este tipo de proyectos merezcan la pena. ; The Earth's climate has been undergoing several changes during the last years. These alterations are mainly due to emissions of greenhouse gases, which are caused among others by the use of fossil fuels. Nowadays there is irrefutable evidence that climate change is negatively affecting the ecosystem, human health and the economy. Awareness about this serious problem is raising, governments and institutions worldwide have joined the fight against climate change and they have assumed emissions reduction targets for greenhouse gases. To achieve these goals, they are driving measures and financial support to encourage the implementation of more energy efficient practices and models. Cities are the departure point in this battle, if sustainable cities are not achieved neither the sustainability of the planet will be achieved. The urban environment is one of the most important challenges in the area of environmental research. Vehicular traffic is one of the main sources of pollution in big cities, which leads to negative consequences for people and the environment. In urban traffic, the fleet of urban services represents a large proportion of vehicles traveling through the cities. This fact has prompted some European policies that aim to promote the development of more environmentally friendly urban transport. Currently there are Spanish municipalities that have already implemented these new measures and they are renewing their urban fleets by others more desirable vehicles from the ecological point of view. Following this line, the project focuses on measuring the environmental and economic impact that would result in the partial or total renewal of a fleet of a municipality. The actual fleet will be renewed with some environmentally friendly vehicles, meaning by environmentally friendly vehicles, battery electric vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles and conventional low consumption vehicles. For simplicity, the study has been carried out in the city of Valladolid. However, the purpose of this project is that this study is a tool, not only for Valladolid, but for any individual or group interested in replacing one vehicle for another more energy efficient vehicle.The environmental impact is defined as the CO2 and pollutant emissions reduction obtained by replacing a vehicle from a fleet for its ecological equivalent; and the economic impact is the cost of this replacement. Buying a new vehicle involves an investment and this investment is therefore the economic impact involved in the renovation of a vehicle. The methodology followed for the analysis of a complex fleet renewal as Valladolid is as follows: • Identification of the services and vehicles subject to renewal: as the fleet of Valladolid is considerably large, only those vehicles that are present over repeatedly will be analyzed. • Selection of three equivalent ecological vehicles for each vehicle subject to renewal: using a criteria of equivalence, an electric vehicle battery, a hybrid electric vehicle and a conventional low consumption vehicle are selected. • Choice of the optimal vehicle both environmentally and economically: having the three ecological alternatives, thanks to a study on the CO2 and pollutants emissions and on the cost of vehicles, the most appropriate vehicle is chosen. That best option will be the vehicle with the largest reduction of CO2 per euro invested in it. To make the comparison as fair as possible, the analysis is carried out taking into account the different stages of the life cycle of a vehicle. • Environmental and economic impact of the new vehicles: with these new vehicles is possible to calculate the reduction in CO2 emissions which will provide these replacements and the implicit cost they entail. In this study, six vehicles belonging to six different fleets in the municipality of Valladolid have been analyzed. In all cases, the electric vehicle is the optimal choice as an alternative for fleet renewal.Because of the repetition of these vehicles in their fleets, with the analysis of only six vehicles, seventy five vehicles of the municipality of Valladolid can be replaced. This partial renewal of the fleet represents a reduction of 4.15 thousand tons of emissions of carbon dioxide from the emissions generated by the current seventy five vehicles during their life in use, set at ten years (reduction of 55,4%). However, when taking into account all stages of the life cycle of a vehicle, from manufacturing to recycling it, the reduction of the emissions of carbon dioxide is even higher, reaching the 6,02 tons of CO2. The commitment to this new ecological fleet requires a large investment. Reducing emissions is not at zero cost, it involves the acquisition of new vehicles, rising to 10.908.300 € in the case of the seventy-five vehicles of the fleet of Valladolid. Despite the huge economic impact, the renewal of urban fleets is a priority issue for the sustainability of the planet. Organizations and institutions worldwide are aware of this topic, and they have demonstrated their consciousness with numerous financing plans that encourage and promote the development of these clean technologies. Currently there are various financial aid promoted by the Government that will reduce the initial investment required. Thus, the "Plan MOVELE 2015"1 and the "Plan PIMA AIRE 4"2 are programs that grant economic funding to encourage the purchase of new vehicles with clean technologies. Futhermore, recently is has been created the "Fondo de Carbono para una Economía Sostenible (FES-CO2)"3. This fund is a new tool for climate funding. It aims to redirect the economy towards low-carbon models. The fund will provide the necessary investment for the support of activities and development of clean technologies that promote climate change mitigation. To carry out this funding, the fund will acquire credits in the form of reduced carbon emissions of projects or initiatives that fight against climate change in Spain and belong to sectors that are not subject to the European emissions trading system, such as the transport sector The "Plan MOVELE 2015" is a program that applies directly to the case of the renewal of the fleet of the city of Valladolid. Since all the proposed vehicles are electric vehicles, 570.000 € in funding would be obtained by the renewal of seventy five vehicles thanks to this plan. Although the cost is still high, it is now time to implement such projects. Municipalities, companies, organizations, etc. should contribute to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases, and the transport sector is the most significant one to start working on since it has the greatest impact on the emissions. There is no doubt that the transportation industry has a great significance in the world economy, but at the same time it is a huge energy charge with a really important environmental impact that affects directly to the health, quality of life, ecosystems and climate change; and all that is opposed to sustainable development both locally and globally.The cost of the side effects of climate change is greater than the cost of the renewals of urban fleets and the reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases that these fleets offer make such projects worthwhile.

Máster Universitario en Ingeniería Industrial ; El proyecto surge por el propio interés propio del alumno en todo lo que rodea a las energías renovables y tiene como objetivo estudiar la implantación de una central hidroeléctrica reversible en una localización concreta. El Plan de Energías Renovables 2011-2020 establece que para este último año el 20% de la energía consumida en España debe proceder de una fuente renovable. Esta es la motivación principal, el reto de que en diferentes partes de España la implantación de fuentes de energía renovables ha sido desigual, y mediante la construcción en zonas aisladas de centrales hidroeléctricas reversibles se puede ayudar a la aparición de otras o mejorar su rentabilidad, como la éolica o la fotovoltaico cuyo funcionamiento depende de la aleatoriedad del entorno, ya que mediante el bombeo se puede almacenar la energía que las otras produzcan cuando no sea necesario, y turbinar durante los momentos de demanda más alta. La primera parte del proyecto por tanto abarca la justificación del proyecto, las motivaciones, y la búsqueda de la ubicación para la central. Para esto último se realiza un análisis del mercado eléctrico en las diferentes islas del archipiélago Canario para así discernir sobre en cuál de las islas sería más necesario. Finalmente se ha decantado por la Isla de La Gomera debido a su escasa implantación de instalaciones renovables y que prácticamente el 100% de su electricidad consumida proviene de la central térmica El Palmar. Una vez decidida la isla, se busca la posibilidad de utilizar embalses ya existentes debido al ahorro que supondría. Finalmente se encuentra un embalse suficientemente grande para actuar como embalse o nivel inferior, el embalse de Almalahüigue de 900.000 m3 de capacidad, mientras que el embalse o nivel inferior será a construir con unas dimensiones de 60x50x10 y una capacidad de 30.000 m3. Esta localización permite un desnivel entre los dos embalses de 300 metros. Una vez elegida la ubicación se comienza con el diseño de la central propiamente dicho. El primer paso es seleccionar las tuberías y calcular las pérdidas de carga. Debido al elevado desnivel entre los dos embalses, que necesitaría de bombas muy grandes se decide separar la central en dos partes, la primera parte con 4 bombas en paralelo impulsando un caudal de 1000 m3/h cada una, y otra parte con otras cuatro bombas en serie separadas dos a dos. Esto permitirá instalar bombas más pequeñas y económicas. A su vez, con el objetivo de desligar las pérdidas de carga de una zona de la otra, se decide que la primera zona descargue en un pozo de bombeo, que habrá que dimensionar. Una vez establecidas las dimensiones de ambas zonas se calculan las pérdidas de carga para cada zona tanto para bombeo como para turbinación, y se puede establecer la altura efectiva de cada una de las turbomáquinas y proceder a la selección de las bombas y de las turbinas para la instalación, obteniendo de esta manera la potencia nominal de la central para cada uno de sus modos de funcionamiento, siendo estos 4,13 MW en bombeo y 2,82 MW en turbinación. Para hacer esto se procede a estudiar las diferentes ofertas del mercado buscando precios normales en los diferentes catálogos de las empresas del mercado. Los mismo se hace con las máquinas eléctricas y los transformadores, necesarios para el intercambio de energía entre la red y la central. Para finalizar la fase de diseño de la central se adjunto los diferentes planos que son necesarios para entender el funcionamiento de la instalación. Una vez realizado el diseño de la central se realiza la estimación del presupuesto y de la inversión inicial necesaria para su puesta en marcha. Para hacer esto se utiliza la ecuación LCC (Life Cost Cycle) que permite tener en cuenta los diferentes costes intrínsecos al ciclo de vida de un proyecto siendo estos, compra, instalación y puesta en marcha, obtención de energía, operación, mantenimiento, reparaciones, costes medioambientales y finalmente retirada. Además de los costes que van a ser tenidos en cuenta, es necesario establecer una longitud a la vida útil de la central, habiéndose escogido en este caso 50 años. Teniendo en cuenta estos costes y esta vida útil, el presupuesto de la central asciende a Dos millones trescientos doce mil ochocientos catorce Euros (2.312.814 €). Una vez realizado el diseño y estimado el presupuesto se procede a estudiar la viabilidad de la central. La viabilidad esta estudiada desde el punto de vista técnico, económico y medioambiental. La viabilidad técnica se justifica durante la parte del diseño, mediante el estudio de no cavitación y sobre el golpe de ariete. Para estudiar la viabilidad económica se utiliza la ecuación del VAN (Valor Actual Neto) que permite calcular el valor actual de los diferente flujos de caja futuros que se producirán a lo largo del proyecto. Mediante el cálculo del VAN se establece si el proyecto va a producir rentabilidad o no. Para hacer esto es necesario conocer el valor de la inversión inicial, que se calcula sumando los costes del presupuesto que se tienen que realizar antes de la puesta en marcha de la central. La inversión inicial asciende en este caso a un millón setecientos sesenta mil doscientos euros (1.761.200,0 €). Junto a la inversión inicial se debe calcular los beneficios que va a generar la central. Para hacer esto se discretiza el día en dos periodos de 7 horas, uno de bombeo y otro de turbinación. La central funcionará en modo turbinación durante las 7 horas del día que presenten un precio horario de compra de energía en MWh mayor, mientras que durante las 7 horas con un precio menor la central funcionará en modo bombeo. Para conocer los precios horarios de energía se recurre a los datos publicados del OMIE, calculándose el beneficio medio esperado para cada mes del año. Para estos valores de inversión inicial y de beneficios esperados para la compra-venta de electricidad se obtiene un VAN negativo. Esto quiere decir que el proyecto no va a ser suficientemente rentable para compensar una inversión inicial y unos costes demasiado elevados comparados con los beneficios que la central produce. A pesar de esto, para justificar la rentabilidad de la central hidroeléctrica es posible acogerse al Plan de Retribución Específico del Gobierno para las energías renovables. Concretamente es posible acogerse a recibir un término por unidad de potencia que compense la inversión inicial para instalaciones renovables de elevado coste. Así se lograría compensar los costes de la inversión y aumentar la rentabilidad de la central. Aún así, se pone de relevancia que una central hidroeléctrica reversible por sí sola no produce suficientes beneficios apoyándose simplemente en las diferencias de precio entre los picos y los valles de demanda energética, sino que el mayor punto fuerte de estas centrales es la posibilidad de almacenamiento de energía, que combinándolo con otras fuentes de energía renovables, permita disminuir la utilización de fuentes de energía contaminantes. Para terminar el proyecto se realiza un estudio sobre el impacto ambienta y la viabilidad desde el punto de vista medio ambiental. Debido al carácter natural de la isla y de la existencia de un Parque Nacional en el centro de la misma hace que el respeto del medio ambiente sea muy importante para la realización del proyecto, ya de que no hacerlo este puede ser rechazado o cancelado. Para ello se enumeran los posibles impactos o riesgos que pueden aparecer en una central de este tipo y se proponen actuaciones a seguir para minimizarlos. ; The project purpose arises from the interest of the student in everything related to renewable energy and is aimed to study the implementation of a reversible hydroelectric power plant at an specific location. The Renewable Energy Plan 2011-2020 states that 20% of the energy consumed in Spain must come from a renewable source. This is the main motivation, the challenge that in different parts of Spain the implementation of renewable energy sources has been uneven, and by building in isolated areas of reversible hydroelectric power plants can help the appearance of others or improve their profitability, such as wind mills or photovoltaic plants whose operation depends on the randomness of the environment as by pumping can store energy than other produce when not needed, and turbining during times of highest demand. The first part of the project includes the project justification, motivations, and the research for a location for the plant. To do this, an analysis of the electricity market is carried out in the different islands of the Canary archipelago in order to discern which of the islands would be most suitable for the project. It has been finally chosen the island of La Gomera due to its poor implementation of renewable energy installations and because of almost 100% of its electricity consumed comes from the thermal power station El Palmar. After chosing the island, it is necessary to look for the possibility of using existing reservoirs due to the savings that would result. Finally the large enough Almalahüigue reservoir is going to act as the lower level or reservoir with a capacity of 900,000 m3, while higher level will be built, with dimensions of 60x50x10 and a capacity of 30,000 m3. This location allows for a gap between the two reservoirs of 300 meters. Once the location is chosen it is time to begin with the design of the plant itself. The first step is to select the pipes and calculate the losses. Due to the large gap between the two reservoirs, which would have required very large pumps, it is decided to split the plant into two parts, the first part with 4 pumps in parallel to drive a flow of 1000 m3 / h each, and a second part with four other bombs serially spaced in pairs. This will let us install smaller and cheaper pumps. In turn, with the aim of reversing losses of a zone of the other, it is decided that the first zone unload in a pumping well, which will be dimensioned. the dimensions of both areas are stablished, the load losses for each zone and for both pumping or turbine stations are calculated, so we will be able to set the effective height of each of the turbomachinery and proceed to the selection of pumps and turbines for the plant, thereby obtaining the nominal power of the plant for each of its operating modes, these being 4.13 MWfor pumping and 2.82 MW for turbining. To do this we proceed to study the different offers on the market, looking normal prices in the catalogs of the companies in the market. The same is done with electric machines and all the necessary for the energy exchange between the network and the power plant. The different planes that are necessary to understand the operation of the facility are attached to complete the design phase of the plant. Once the design of the power plant is completed, it is time for the budget estimatation and the initial investment required for its implementation. To do this, the equation LCC (Life Cost Cycle) is used, which allows taking into account the different intrinsic costs the life cycle of a project being these, purchasing, installation and commissioning, energy production, operation, maintenance, repairs used, environmental costs and eventually withdrawn. In addition to the costs that will be taken into account, it is necessary to set a length to the life of the plant, having been chosen in this case 50 years. Given these costs and useful life, powet plant budget rises to two million three hundred and twelve thousand eight hundred and fourteen Euros (€ 2,312,814). Once the design and thebudget estimation are done, we proceed to study the feasibility of the plant. The feasibility is studied from the technical, economic and environmental point of view. The technical feasibility is justified during the design part, by studying no cavitation and water hammer. To study the economic viability , the equation NPV (net present value) is used for calculating the present value of future cash flows that will occur throughout the project used. By calculating the NPV it is set if the project will produce profits or not. To do this it is necessary to know the value of the initial investment, which is calculated by adding the costs of the budget that must be done before the commissioning of the plant. The initial investment in this case arises to one million seven hundred sixty thousand two hundred euros (€ 1,761,200.0). Along with the initial investment we must calculate the benefits that the plant will generate. To do this, the days are splitted up into two periods of seven hours, one for pumping and the other for turbining. The plant works in turbination mode while the 7 hours when the energy price for MWh is higher, while during the 7 hours with a lower price the plant works in pumping mode. For the diary energy pricing the OMIE published data is used to calculate the average profit expected for each month of the year. For these values of initial investment and expected benefits for the buying and selling of electricity a negative NPV is obtained. This means that the project will not be profitable enough with this high initial investment and excessively high costs compared to the benefits that the plant produces. Despite this, to justify the profitability of the hydroelectric plant may benefit from the specific Compensation Plan Government for renewable energy. Specifically it may qualify to receive an economic amount per power unit to offset the initial investment for high-cost renewable energy installations. This would ensure offset the investment costs and increase profitability of the plant. Still, it becomes important that a pumped-storage hydroelectricity alone does not produce enough benefits simply relying on price differences between the peaks and valleys of energy demand, but the greatest strength of these plants is the possibility of storage energy, which combined with other sources of renewable energy, allow to reduce the use of polluting energy sources. To complete the project a study on the feasibility and environmental degradation is done. Due to the natural character of the island and the existence of a National Park in the middle of it makes the respect for the environment a very important issue for the project, and not taking it into account can make this project be rejected or canceled. For this, the potential impacts or risks that may appear in a plant of this type and possible actions are proposed in order to minimize them.

Hushållens bidrag av tvättvatten från textiltvätt till de kommunala avloppsreningsverken uppskattas till ca 2% av det totala volymflödet. Registerdata över kemikalier som används vid tillverkning av textilier/kläder samt analyser av tvättvatten visar att textilfibrer, mikroplastfibrer och många miljöstörande ämnen når våra reningsverk via textiltvätt. Dessa fibrer och kemiska ämnen kan bidra till förorening av avloppsreningsslam som används för gödsling av åkermark eller av vattenmiljö nedströms reningsverken. Ett av Sveriges miljömål är En Giftfri Miljö och dess delmål innefattar bl.a. information om farliga ämnen i varor (Ds 2012:23). Textilier är en av de varugrupper som Miljömålberedningen föreslagit (SOU 2012:38) bli föremål för ett regeringsuppdrag avseende innehåll av farliga ämnen och riskbegränsande åtgärder samt frivillig miljömärkning. I det svenska miljömålsystemet ingår också generationsmål om att materialkretsloppen skall vara så fria från farliga ämnen som möjligt och att våra konsumtionsmönster av varor ska ge så små hälso- och miljöproblem som möjligt även i varornas tillverkningsländer utanför Sverige. Generationsmålet innebär att svensk politik behöver ta hänsyn till den miljö- och hälsopåverkan som svensk konsumtion orsakar i andra länder. EU:s ramdirektiv för avfall (2008/96/EG) har vidare slagit fast en avfallshierarki som sätter återanvändning av uttjänta varor, t. ex. kläder, före materialåtervinning av avfall. Syfte Syftet med denna studie var att undersöka i vilken utsträckning som vattentvätt av fem klädtyper (t-tröjor av bomull med plasttryck, bomullsjeans, arbetsbyxor, fleecetröjor samt allvädersjackor) bidrar till förekomsten av miljögifter i slam samt i utgående vatten från representativt utvalda svenska reningsverk. Utförande Kläder av fem olika klädtyper, enligt specifikation från naturvårdsverket (baserat på en tidigare studie av Swerea) köptes in från affärer i Umeå under januari 2014. Det var 8 st t-tröjor av bomull med plasttryck, 3 st bomullsjeans, 2 st arbetsbyxor, 8 st fleecetröjor samt 3 st allvädersjackor. Kläderna tvättades i en vanlig tvättmaskin 2 gånger efter varandra utan att torka mellan och allt tvättvatten samlades upp. Delprov av tvättvattnet togs ut och analyserades för 126 utvalda ämnena på tre olika laboratorier (Miljökemiska Laboratoriet, Umeå Universitet, Svenska Miljöinstitutet (IVL) och Stockholms Universitet (ACES)). Ämnena var processkemikalier såsom pentaklorfenol, och triklosan, funktionskemikalier såsom ftalater och organofosfater samt oönskade kemikalier såsom dioxiner, klorfenoler och klorbensener. 2 Resultat Studien visar på att det mängdmässigt främst är funktionskemikalier som släpper från kläderna vid tvätt. Det här var väntat då dessa kemikalier är avsiktligt och oftast inte kemiskt bundet till tyget. Processkemikalier avges i mindre mängd och oönskade kemikalier såsom till exempel klorerade fenoler och bensener hittades i väldigt små mängder i tvättvattnet oavsett vilken typ av klädesplagg som tvättats. Vare sig processkemikalierna eller de oönskade kemikalierna borde finnas i plaggen och därför var det väntat att dessa kemikalier inte skulle hittas i samma utsträckning som funktionskemikalierna. Om man ser till detektionsfrekvensen, d.v.s. hur ofta de ämnen som ingår i en ämnesklass påträffas, blir bilden delvis en annan. Mer än 75% av de funktionskemikalier (38 av 50), ca 50% av funktionskemikalierna (26 av 49) och ca. 30% av processkemikalierna (8 av 27) detekterades i tvättvattenproverna. T-tröjor och skaljackorna var de klädtyper som avgav störst mängd kemikalier per kg 47 mg/kg (0.005% w/w) för t-tröjor följt av 23 mg/kg (0.002% w/w) för skaljackor. Jeans, arbetsbyxor och fleecetröjor släppte mycket mindre mängd kemikalier 0.001, 0.001 and 0.0005% vid tvätt till tvättvattnet. De fem klädtyperna släppte alla bisfenol AF, organofosfater, ftalater, formaldehyd, bromerade och klorerade fenoler samt klorerade bensener till tvättvattnet vid de två första tvättarna. Några föreningar som inte kunde detekteras i tvättvattnet var 4 stycken siloxaner, 9 stycken olika aniliner och majoriteten av de 17 dioxinerna och furanerna som ingick i studien. T-tröjor släppte mer textilfibrer (0,85 mg/kg) jämfört med de andra klädtyperna. De andra klädtyperna släppte betydlig mindre fibrer vid tvätt: jeans 0,46 mg/kg, skaljackor 0,02 mg/kg, arbetsbyxor 0,07 mg/kg och fleecetröjor 0,1 mg/kg. Diskussion Om man tar hänsyn till den årliga användningsvolymen av de olika klädestyperna avger t-tröjorna den största mängden kemikalier (469 kg funktionella kemikalier, 0,5 kg processkemikalier och 0,07 kg oönskade kemikalier) vid de två första tvättarna av plaggen. Arbetsbyxor var den klädestyp som släppte minst kemikalier (30 kg funktionella kemikalier, 7 kg processkemikalier och 0,9 g oönskade kemikalier). Ftalater och organofosfater frigjordes i stora mängder från kläderna (302 kg och 7,6 kg) och bidrar med 50% respektive 5% vardera till vad som återfinns i utgående vatten och slam från avloppsreningsverken. Klorfenoler och perfluorerade ämnen frigjordes i betydligt mindre mängder (430 g och 300 g) men bidrar i teorin med mer (167% respektive 223%) än vad som återfinns i utgåendevatten och slam från avloppsreningsverken för respektive grupp, vilket är orealistiskt. Brister i dataunderlaget eller degradering av föroreningar i reningsprocessen kan vara möjliga orsaker till överskattningen. Det är dock klart att tvätt av kläder ger ett betydande bidrag till vad som återfinns i reningsverksvatten och slam. 3 Slutsatser Kemikalier som är förbjudna enligt t ex Reach ska naturligtvis inte förekomma i kläder. Trots det så hittas de ändå ibland vid inspektion. Det är ett stort problem eftersom kemikalierna fortfarande kan vara lagliga att använda i visa länder. Exempelvis är det förbjudet att använda arylaminer inom EU, ändå återfinner vi en av dessa 4,4'-diaminodiphenylmethane i tvättvatten från alla typer av kläder i denna studie. Idag sker produktion av kläder över hela världen och det är svårt att få information om vilka kemikalier som har använts för ett visst plagg. Denna spårbarhet skulle behöva förbättras. I den här studien har vi hittat 72 av 126 föreningar, alla icke-naturliga föreningar, i tvättvattnet. De föreningar som frigjordes i störst mängder till tvättvattnet i den här studien var BPS, ftalater (DBP, BBP, DEHP, DINP, DIDP), DINCH, organofosfater (TPP, TCEP, TCPP, TEHP, TBEP) och formaldehyd. Med hänsyn taget till nettotillförseln av nya kläder kommer den mängden kemikalier på årlig basis som avges från nya kläder som tvättas de två första gångerna att vara betydande. Även om en del av de föreningar som avges från kläderna kommer att brytas ner under behandlingen av avloppsvattnet i avloppsreningsverken så kommer många av dem att hamna i det utgående vattnet eller i slammet. Dessa kommer hamna i recipienten eller där slam används för att tillföra näringsämnen. Fortsatt arbete För att få en ännu bättre bild av hur mycket kemikalier som frigörs från kläder vid tvätt skulle det vara intressant att studera fler klädtyper. Det skulle också vara av intresse att analysera kläderna i sig för att kunna avgöra hur stor andel av det som finns i kläderna som avges vid tvätt, men också vad som finns kvar i kläderna när de så småningom blir textilavfall. Slutligen skulle det vara intressant att genom så kallad "non-target analysis" av både kläder och tvättvatten få veta vilka andra föreningar som förekommer i både kläder och tvättvatten. Rätt använt skulle "non-target anaysis" kunna fånga upp ett brett spektrum av kemikalier och ge en "totalbild" av substansflödet från textilier, via tvättvatten och reningsverk, till olika recipienter. ; Water from household laundry has been estimated to make up about 2% of the total volume flowing into municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Records of the chemicals used in the manufacture of textiles/clothing and analyses of both washed clothes and laundry wastewater indicate that a large number of environmentally harmful substances can potentially reach treatment plants. These substances, including fibers and micro plastics fromlaundry, may contribute to the pollution of sewage sludge used for fertilization of arable land, or pollute the receiving waters downstream of wastewater treatment plants. Textiles are one of the groups of consumer goods that the Environmental Objectives Committee proposed (SOU 2012: 38) be subject to a government mandate regarding the use of hazardous chemicals, environmental risk reduction measures and voluntary eco-labeling. The government has also decided (Ds 2012: 23) on interim measures aimed at removing toxic material from the environment, including providing information on hazardous substances in clothing. The Swedish environmental objectives system also includes the so-called "Generation target", that states that material life cycles should be as free as possible from hazardous substances and that consumption of goods should produce as few health and environmental problems as possible, including in all the countries where they were manufactured. The Generation target means that the Swedish government needs to take into account environmental and health impacts that Swedish consumption may cause in other countries. The EU Waste Framework Directive (2008/96 / EC) defines a waste hierarchy that puts the recycling of old products, such as clothing, before the recycling of waste. This study may inform those working on developing such directives. Aim The purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which laundering of five types of clothing (cotton t-shirts, cotton jeans, work trousers, fleece sweaters and weatherproof jackets) contributes to the presence of toxic pollutants in sludge and effluent water from a representative sample of treatment plants. Experimental The choice of clothing was based on the study "Kartläggning av kemikalieanvändning i kläder" (Swerea IVF, Report 09/52) and were purchased in Umeå during January 2014. The different categories of clothing were washed twice in a washing machine, without drying them in between and all wastewater was collected from the washer. Immediately after washing, samples of this water were transferred into 2 L glass containers and were analyzed for 126 compounds by three different laboratories (Miljökemiska Laboratoriet, Umeå Universitet, Svenska Miljöinstitutet (IVL) och Stockholms Universitet (ACES)). 5 Results The results show that the main types of chemicals that were released when the clothing was washed, regardless of the type of clothing, were process and functional chemicals. This was expected since functional chemicals are added to the garment and are usually not chemically bonded to the fabric, whilst the process chemicals should not be present in the final product at all. Chemicals belonging to the group unwanted chemicals were released in very small amounts to the wastewater whatever type of clothing washed. The functional chemicals represented 30 % of the analyzed target compounds but accounted for up to 99% (for t-shirts) of the release when the clothing was washed. The lowest contribution of functional chemicals to the total release of chemicals was from weatherproof jackets. Process chemicals dominated those released from weatherproof jackets (90%) and fleece sweaters (72%); for working pants, the contribution was 41%. The unwanted chemicals were present in much lower amounts in the laundry wastewater than the functional and process chemicals: they represented 1% or less of the chemicals detected. T-shirts is estimated to release the largest amount of chemicals (469 kg functional chemicals, 0.5 kg process chemicals and 0.07 kg unwanted chemicals) based on the yearly net supply and the first two washing cycles. Fleece sweaters released the least amount of chemicals; 1.8 kg functional chemicals, 2.9 kg process chemicals and 3 g unwanted chemicals. Phthalates, DINCH (a phthalate substitute), bisphenols, formaldehyde, and organophosphates were the groups of chemicals estimated to be released in largest amounts from the five types of clothing included in the study, contributing 47%, 25%, 12%, 12%, and 3%, respectively, to the total amount. Based on the yearly net supply of clothing included in this study, the estimated release of textile fibers varies between 100 kg for fleece sweaters up to 8,500 kg for t-shirts. T-shirts released 0.85 mg fibers per kg, jeans released 0.46 mg/kg, weatherproof jackets 0.02 mg/kg, working pants 0.07 mg/kg and fleece sweaters 0.1 mg/kg. Discussion Phthalates and organophosphates were estimated to be released in large amounts (302 kg and 7.6 kg) contribute with 50% and 5% respectively to the amounts found in effluents from wastewater treatment plants. Chlorophenols and perfluorinated compounds were estimated to be released in very low amounts (430 g and 300 g respectively). This is however still more, 167% and 223% respectively, than what is found annually in the effluents and sewage sludge of all Swedish WWTPs. The estimated contribution to sewage sludge for the different compound classes was far higher than the calculated contribution to effluent. The estimation produced a contribution figure of over 100% for some compound groups. Short chain chloroparaffins and chlorophenols were estimated to contribute to the amount found in sewage sludge to such a large degree that it exceeded what is actually found in the sewage sludge. Chlorophenols are distributed between both effluent and sewage sludge, but reference data was only found for sludge, so this could be the reason for the overestimation of the amount that ends up in the sewage sludge. It can also not be excluded that the selection of clothing was not representative of what is on the market. 6 Conclusions Chemicals that are banned according to legislation such as Reach should, in principle, not be present in clothing. Even so, they are sometimes found during inspections of manufacturing facilities and analyses of clothing. This is a large problem since the use of a chemical can be banned in some countries but not in others. Arylamines are, for example, forbidden within the EU, but one of those 4,4'-diaminodiphenylmethane could still be detected in all types of clothing. Now, the clothing that we wear comes from all over the world, and it is difficult to find information on which chemicals have been used in its production since that can take place in many different countries. This tractability needs to be improved. In this study, we detected 72 out of 126 compounds that are non-naturally occurring compounds, in the laundry wastewater. Among the compound groups that could not be detected were anilines, triclosan, triclocarban, and siloxanes. The compounds released in large amounts into the laundry wastewater in this study were the process chemical bisphenol S (BPS), and the functional chemicals phthalates (DBP, BBP, DINP, DIDP), DINCH, organophosphates (TPP, TCEP, TCPP, TEHP, TBEP) and formaldehyde. Considering the net supply of new clothing to Sweden, the estimated annual contribution of the release of such compounds from new clothing being washed for the first time will be substantial. Even though some of these chemicals will be degraded during the treatment process in the WWTP, many of them will end up in effluent or sewage sludge and, to different degrees, contribute to the compounds that risk ending up in WWTPs or where nutrients are recycled from sewage sludge. Future work To obtain a better picture of the volume of chemicals flowing to the WWTPs and, potentially, the environment, originating from the laundering of clothing, it would be of interest to study the release of chemicals from a broader range of clothing types. It would also be interesting to include analysis of the fabric to see what proportion of chemicals are released during laundry, and what proportion remain and are then potentially released during later washing or enter the textile waste stream. It would also be of great interest to carry out non-target analysis on both the textiles and the wastewater to form an even broader picture of which chemicals are present in the textiles and the wastewater.

Dottorato di ricerca in Economia e territorio ; L'oggetto della tesi è la ricerca e la sperimentazione in campo di un modello interpretativo degli impatti prodotti dal cambiamento climatico sulla sicurezza alimentare e nutrizionale delle popolazioni residenti del Nicaragua. L'obiettivo specifico è lo sviluppo e la sperimentazione di una metodologia di analisi della vulnerabilità/stabilità all'insicurezza alimentare dei sistemi agroalimentari locali in Nicaragua in relazione agli effetti del cambiamento climatico, finalizzata alla identificazione di politiche di mitigazione. Il raggiungimento di questo obiettivo ha comportato un'amplia ricerca bibliografica e un'indagine di campo in Nicaragua di circa due mesi tra il Marzo e l'Aprile del 2010. Durante la permanenza in Nicaragua sono state realizzate numerose interviste e focus group con stakeholders sia istituzionali che del settore privato. L'analisi degli impatti generati dal cambiamento climatico sull'ambiente e sulle attività economiche è tanto più difficile e incerta quanto più si procede all'interno di un ambito territoriale ristretto. A livello locale, le dinamiche sociali e l'incidenza dell'azione antropica sull'ambiente possono risultare infatti determinanti nella creazione di condizioni favorevoli o avverse rispetto al benessere della popolazione insediata, ben più della variabilità climatica. La complessità dei fenomeni che legano il clima alle attività umane è ancor più manifesta quando si pretende di mettere in relazione i cambiamenti del clima indotti dal riscaldamento globale col tema della sicurezza alimentare di una determinata comunità. Quest'ultimo tema infatti riunisce aspetti sociali ed economici molto diversificati, come la produzione degli alimenti, la loro conservazione e l'accessibilità in base ai redditi familiari, le condizioni igienico-sanitarie e la proporzione con cui gli alimenti stessi vengono consumati. Investigare sulla relazione economica tra sistemi complessi, come il sistema climatico da una parte e la sicurezza alimentare dall'altra, comporta quindi l'attivazione di modelli interpretativi altrettanto complessi, così come di strumenti analitici di tipo sia quantitativo che qualitativo, tanto più preponderanti questi ultimi, quanto maggiore è la carenza di dati e serie storiche attendibili. Lo spunto iniziale della tesi consiste nella ricostruzione critica a posteriori del modello di interpretazione dell'impatto del cambiamento climatico sui sistemi ecologici e sociali sul quale si fonda l'attuale assetto delle politiche promosse dal governo nicaraguense in tema di sicurezza alimentare e di mitigazione dell'impatto del cambiamento climatico. In questo quadro si è analizzato in particolare l'Indice Aggregato di Insicurezza Alimentare e Nutrizionale elaborato da un'agenzia delle Nazioni Unite (il Programma Mondiale per l'Alimentazione), attualmente utilizzato in Nicaragua nella identificazione delle aree più esposte al rischio di sicurezza alimentare. A fronte delle critiche che si avanzano nei confronti di questo indice, si propone un modello di riferimento più completo per la misurazione della vulnerabilità delle realtà locali, ovvero l'Indice Aggregato Dinamico di Insicurezza Alimentare e Nutrizionale (IADIAN). Questo indice utilizza variabili dinamiche (tassi di variazione) riferite ai fattori socio-economici che determinano l'insicurezza alimentare e al tempo stesso cattura i fattori ambientali locali che maggiormente incidono sulle potenzialità produttive. Purtroppo una esemplificazione applicativa dell'IADIAN è impedita dalla mancanza dei necessari dati in serie storica, ma la sua formulazione fornisce comunque una direttrice operativa che si ritiene utile alla pianificazione della raccolta dei dati statistici (attualmente scarsi e mal organizzati) e all'ordinamento delle fonti statistiche. A fronte delle criticità metodologiche emerse nel corso delle analisi precedentemente illustrate, si passano in rassegna modelli interpretativi alternativi accreditati in letteratura, identificando nel modello concettuale classico, il "DPSIR" (Drivers, Pressures, State & Trends, Impacts and Responses) il più adatto allo sviluppo del tema in oggetto. Il DPSIR è finalizzato, oltreché all'interpretazione dei fenomeni, all'elaborazione di policies volte alla prevenzione e alla mitigazione degli effetti del cambiamento climatico. L'applicazione del modello DPSIR, una volta adattato al tema specifico della sicurezza alimentare e nutrizionale, si è rivelato particolarmente utile alla identificazione delle attuali carenze conoscitive, soprattutto per quanto riguarda gli impatti (impacts), e le risposte (responses). Nel quadro dell'analisi degli impatti si è sviluppato una Matrice Multicriteriale degli Impatti e della stabilità dei sistemi agro-alimentari rispetto al cambiamento climatico di due regioni agrarie del Nicaragua. Questa matrice disaggrega i sistemi agro-alimentari nelle loro componenti strutturali (produzione, distribuzione e consumo), mettendole in relazione con gli elementi ("pilastri") costitutivi della sicurezza alimentare e nutrizionale, ovvero: la disponibilità, l'accessibilità e l'uso biologico degli alimenti. La matrice è costruita sulla base di valutazioni di tipo prevalentemente qualitativo, ma offre anche un sistema si "scoring" che consente una priorizzazione dei problemi e, per via comparativa, anche una priorizzazione dei sistemi più vulnerabili. La regione dove si sono potuti apprezzare processi di adattamento e mitigazione degli effetti del cambiamento climatico non è tanto quella che dispone di maggior capitale naturale bensì quella che, contando su comunità di più antico e stabile insediamento, ha sviluppato nel tempo un maggior capitale sociale (come la Regione Agraria delle "Pianure agro-industriali della Costa Pacifica"). La regione agraria della "Nuova Frontiera Agricola e Costa Caraibica", pur contando su un elevato capitale naturale e su un alto potenziale produttivo, è caratterizzata invece da tipologie produttive altamente distruttive e sostenute da una popolazione pioniera che non ha sviluppato ancora modelli di aggregazione comunitaria stabili né un tessuto sociale collettivamente reattivo. L'analisi delle "risposte" si è concentrata su 6 modelli di intervento adottati attualmente dalle istituzioni nazionali (centrali e locali) con l'appoggio della comunità internazionale. Questa analisi ha evidenziato come nessun modello di intervento, considerato isolatamente, riunisca tutte le caratteristiche di efficienza ed efficacia necessari a innescare processi sostenibili di "resilienza" e sviluppo. Nessun intervento si può considerare dunque come una "buona pratica", soprattutto se non inserito in un quadro coordinato e coerente di interventi identificati in ragione di un contesto locale specifico. La durata di tutti gli interventi analizzati è inoltre insufficiente a garantire il successo delle azioni intraprese, tantomeno la loro sostenibilità. In molti casi infatti le iniziative analizzate sollevano aspettative di continuità che nella maggior parte dei casi restano frustrate. E' emersa dunque la necessità di promuovere azioni di sostegno alla sicurezza alimentare e alla mitigazione degli effetti del cambiamento climatico che assumano come criteri guida: - l'integralità, ovvero l'inserzione del tema della sicurezza alimentare nei processi di sviluppo del territorio, evitando che queste rimangano sganciate da una strategia di lotta contro la povertà, di rimozione delle sue cause strutturali e di tutela ambientale, - la coerenza istituzionale, in modo che le azioni di sicurezza alimentare e di mitigazione si coordino sempre con le istituzioni di riferimento, per armonizzare le metodologie di lavoro in vista di una possibile continuità delle azioni intraprese, - coerenza spaziale, ovvero una focalizzazione delle azioni in base a criteri che mettano in relazione le priorità di sicurezza alimentare con quelle ambientali. Dall'insieme delle analisi condotte sembra che si possa affermare dunque che l'insostenibilità ambientale delle pratiche agricole attuali (deforestazione, avanzamento incontrollato della frontiera agricola mediante l'uso del fuoco e dell'apertura di pascoli estensivi, agricoltura nomadica, ecc.) e la debolezza del capitale sociale siano le cause determinati del perpetuarsi di condizioni croniche di insicurezza alimentare. Anche se non suffragata da misurazioni quantitative, sembra credibile inoltre l'ipotesi che le variazioni micro-agro-climatiche a livello locale, originate dalla cattiva gestione delle risorse naturali, incidano attualmente molto più sulla insicurezza alimentare di quanto non facciano gli effetti del cambiamento climatico dovuto al riscaldamento globale. Le attuali politiche di intervento nel campo della sicurezza alimentare e le strategie di mitigazione degli effetti del cambiamento climatico non considerano sufficientemente gli aspetti sopra richiamati e la loro integrazione operativa è ancora insufficiente. Per evidenziare questa discrepanza si è elaborato una matrice degli interventi di mitigazione dell'impatto del cambiamento climatico sulla sicurezza alimentare e nutrizionale. La matrice proposta mette in relazione le carenze politiche e le priorità emerse dall'analisi DPSIR con una serie di proposte di azione politica, riferite in particolare alle due regioni agrarie selezionate. La comunità internazionale dei donanti (UE in primis), che sostiene le politiche ambientali e di sicurezza alimentare del governo nicaraguense, ha la responsabilità di promuovere interventi sinergici e coordinati, volti soprattutto a rimuovere gli ostacoli di carattere strutturale che impediscono l'equità d'accesso al capitale terra e all'alimentazione. Nell'ambito dell'aiuto internazionale dovranno essere inoltre maggiormente considerati gli studi volti al miglioramento delle conoscenze dei fenomeni che legano la variabilità climatica, la sicurezza alimentare e lo sviluppo economico. Il coinvolgimento della società civile nella gestione delle reti di solidarietà (ad esempio le reti di allerta precoce) e nella raccolta dei dati socio-economici e agro-climatici locali è inoltre di cruciale importanza. Solo uno sforzo congiunto delle comunità locali, delle istituzioni nazionali e della comunità internazionale, col supporto di adeguate conoscenze e di più efficaci strumenti di analisi, potrà invertire il processo di riproduzione delle condizioni ambientali e socio-economiche che determinano oggi l'esposizione al rischio di insicurezza alimentare per vasti strati della popolazione nicaraguense. ; The thesis deals with a research and an on-field testing of an impact interpretation model of climate change on food security in Nicaragua. The specific purpose is the development and testing of a vulnerability/stability analysis method of the effects of the climate change on two sample food systems in Nicaragua. The method is also aimed at the identification of prevention and mitigation policies. The achievement of this objective is based on a wide bibliographical research and a two months field survey in Nicaragua (March and April 2010). During the field survey a large number of interviews and focus groups with both private and institutional stakeholders was carried out. The more an impact analysis of climate change on environment and economic activities is focused on a restricted area, the less it results easy and reliable. Social dynamics and human action on environment at local level can be more crucial in creating adverse or favourable living conditions to people than climate variability. The complex relationship between climate and human activities is even more apparent when attempting to relate climate changes and food security of a specific community. Food security concept gets together different meanings, such as food production and conservation, income based food accessibility and biological use of food (diet patterns and hygienic conditions of food consumption). Therefore, dealing with economic relations between complex systems, as climate and food security, involves the use of articulated interpretation models as well as quantitative and qualitative analytical tools, being the latter prevalent in a condition of scarce or unreliable data and time series. The starting point of the thesis is a critical analysis of the current interpretation model of the impact of climate change on ecological and social systems on which the present food security and climate change impact mitigation policies of the Government of Nicaragua are based. In this framework the Aggregated Food and Nutritional Insecurity Index - elaborated by the World Food Programme and presently adopted in Nicaragua in the identification of the areas mostly exposed to food insecurity – is also analysed and discussed. As a consequence of this analysis a more complete model is proposed, named Dynamic Aggregated Food and Nutritional Insecurity Index. This index uses dynamic variables (rates of variation) referring to socio-economic factors which determine food security. At the same time this index captures the most production-related environmental factors at local level. Unfortunately a sample application of this index is impeded by the lack of the necessary time series. Nevertheless its formulation offers a useful operational direction to data collection planning and organization. As a consequence of the critical methodological issues emerged in the previous analysis, a review of alternative interpretation models is proposed and discussed. The "DPSIR" (Drivers, Pressures, State & Trends, Impacts and Responses) model is then identified as the most suitable for the achievement of the thesis objective. The DPSIR model is aimed at interpreting environmental and human contexts as well as at focusing policies makers on prevention and mitigation measures. Once specifically adjusted to food and nutritional security issues, the DPSIR model resulted particularly useful to identifying the existing knowledge deficiencies, about impacts and responses in particular. The "impact analysis" is complemented with a multi-criteria matrix of impacts of climate change on food systems of two different agricultural regions of Nicaragua (stability analysis). This matrix relates the food systems components (food production, distribution and consumption) to the corresponding pillars of the food security concept (availability, accessibility and biological use). The matrix converts quantitative and qualitative assessments into a scoring system allowing for identifying the most relevant problems and comparing stability / vulnerability levels of different food systems. The agricultural region where adjustment and mitigation processes are more visible is not the one counting with a more consistent natural capital (New Agricultural Frontier and Caribbean Cost) but the one relying on old and stable human settlements and more consistent social capital (Agro-industrial lowlands of the Pacific Cost). The first agricultural region, even if provided with a consistent natural capital and a high production potential, is characterised by the highly destructive production patterns of a pioneer population which has not yet developed either aggregative community models or collective resiliency experiences. The "response analysis" is focused on 6 different prevention/mitigation models presently adopted by the national authorities (both central and local) with the support of the international donors community. This analysis stresses that none of the models gets together all the necessary characteristics of efficiency and effectiveness for trigging resiliency and development processes. None of the models can be considered as a "good practice" per se, mainly if not included in a locally focused, coordinated and coherent framework of measures. Furthermore, the duration of the institutional actions applying these models is generally too reduced for ensuring their success and sustainability and fulfilling the expectations of the beneficiaries. From the "response analysis" clearly emerged the need to adopt the following general criteria in the effort to support food security and mitigate the effects of climate change: - Wholeness of the approach: the insertion of any food security action (programme, project, initiative) in the framework of land development process, including actions against poverty and environmental protection, - Institutional coherence: both food security and climate change impact mitigation actions should be always coordinated with the competent institutions, in order to harmonise working methods, - Spatial coherence: the identification of priority action areas should consider food security problems and environmental vulnerability simultaneously. The environmental unsustainability of the present agricultural practices (deforestation, advance of the agricultural frontier by slashing and burning the natural cover, nomadic agricultural patterns, etc.) and the weakness of the social capital perpetuate chronic food insecurity conditions. Even though not supported by quantitative evaluations, it seems apparent that micro-agro-climatic changes due to the mismanagement of local environmental resources affect food security much more than the effects of global climatic change. Present food security policies and climate change impact mitigation strategies do not consider the analysis above and their harmonisation is insufficient and not operational. In order to highlight this discrepancy a comparative policy matrix is presented ad discussed. This matrix shows a comparative analysis between the political deficiencies and priorities emerged thanks to the DPSIR approach and a number of action proposals referred to the two sample agricultural regions. The international donors community (UE first) supporting both food security and environmental policies of the Government of Nicaragua has the responsibility to cooperate in order to remove the structural constraints impeding an equitable access to fertile farming land and food. In the framework of the international aid, more investments in research should be considered in order to improve the knowledge of all factors relating climatic variability to food security and economic development. The involvement of civil society in the management of social solidarity networks (i.g.: food crisis early alarm networks) and the collection of basic socio-economic and climatic data at local level ore of crucial importance. Only a joint effort of the local communities, the national institutions and the international donors' community, supported by adequate knowledge and more effective analytical tools, will revert the process that determines the adverse environmental and socio-economic conditions which currently expose a large number of Nicaraguan people to food insecurity.

Dottorato di ricerca in Scienze e tecnologie per la gestione forestale e ambientale ; La definizione di biodiversità può avere diverse interpretazioni, ma generalmente con questo termine si indica l'insieme delle specie presenti in un ecosistema: ad una maggior numero di esse, corrisponde una maggiore stabilità del sistema. A livello di specie, la biodiversità è principalmente correlata alle differenze genetiche tra individui; un ricco patrimonio genetico intra-specifico garantisce un ampio spettro di risposte alle pressioni ambientali. D'altro canto, popolazioni con scarsa biodiversità genetica tendono a rispondere in maniera univoca a condizioni di stress, dunque presentandosi più vulnerabili ad essi. Questo fenomeno è particolarmente enfatizzato in contesti di pressione antropica e climate change, specialmente a scala regionale o locale. Individui, popolazioni ed ecosistemi sono strettamente collegati tra loro, ed interagiscono nel mantenimento degli equilibri dei macro sistemi, sia paesaggistici, che socio-economici. Di conseguenza, il mantenimento della biodiversità deve essere garantita attraverso misure attive di conservazione implementate dalle più recenti ed innovative tecniche e politiche di settore. Per molte specie forestali, questo significa sollecitare la sensibilità sullo sviluppo di nuovi ed efficienti strumenti operativi da integrare con le tradizionali strategie di gestione, ad esempio la conservazione in situ ed ex situ del patrimonio forestale. Considerando queste premesse, un tale strumento potrebbe certamente essere identificato nella definizione e delimitazione delle Regioni di Provenienza, promosse dall'Unione Europea attraverso la Direttiva 105/99. I principali metodi finora utilizzati si riferiscono all'utilizzo di parametri ecologici (pedologici, fitoclimatici, ecc.), come descrittori di contesti ecologici omogenei a livello spaziali, quindi identificanti eco provenienze per ogni specie forestale come conseguenza della differenziazione evolutiva secondo i principi della selezione naturale. Tali eco regioni forniscono un quadro di sintesi relativo ad un territorio che, suddiviso in aree ecologicamente omogenee, garantisce l'identificazione dei soprassuoli idonei dai quali prelevare il materiale di propagazione di base, ossia coni, frutti e sementi, parti di piante ottenute da propagazione agamica, embrioni, ecc. Tra i soprassuoli vengono anche contemplati i cosiddetti boschi da seme, le piantagioni, il materiale parentale derivante da incroci, nonché i cloni. Ad oggi molti Paesi dell'Unione Europea hanno promosso dei metodi per determinare le Regioni di Provenienza, basandosi principalmente sulla suddivisione del territorio secondo criteri chimico-fisici; questa scelta è intrinsecamente motivata dal fatto che di tali parametri si ha un ricco database informativo derivante dai molti anni di studio del territorio. Come risultato, ogni Paese ha delimitato con rigidi confini le proprie zone ecologicamente omogenee. Tale approccio rappresenta sicuramente un primo passo fondamentale nel soddisfare appieno i requisiti presenti nella Direttiva 105/99, per quanto uno studio più approfondito viene incoraggiato per identificare le Regioni di Provenienza per ogni specie forestale. Alcuni Paesi come la Francia, la Spagna o la Germania stanno lavorando in questa direzione da circa 15 anni, mentre l'Italia è ancora qualche passo indietro. In particolare, la posizione italiana è anche condizionata dal regime giuridico che demanda le competenze in tema di ambiente dal governo centrale alle Regioni. Il risultato è che la suddivisione del territorio italiano in Regioni di Provenienza per le specie forestali è ancora incompleto o fermo allo stadio preliminare. Lo scopo principale di questo lavoro è stato, quindi, l'applicazione del metodo ampiamente utilizzato in Europa, adeguatamente arricchito con nuovi parametri chimico-fisici e fitoclimatici, per definire le Regioni di Provenienza valide per le specie forestali della Regione Lazio. Un primo passaggio ha interessato la raccolta e l'analisi dei dati presenti circa la caratterizzazione territoriale, in modo da poter selezionare le variabili ecologiche ed ambientali maggiormente rappresentative nel definire delle eco provenienze. Successivamente, in accordo con l'Allegato I della L.R. 39/2002, 28 specie di interesse forestale sono state scelte e mappate sul territorio. Tra queste, 10 specie sono state descritte con una puntuale carta della distribuzione, mentre per le rimanenti 18 specie un areale quantitativo è stato ricostruito dalle informazioni raccolte secondo un criterio di presenza/assenza applicato ad una scala 1:10000. A causa della necessità di identificare dei boschi da seme per queste specie, tali per cui vi fossero già delle condizioni di tutela a livello legislativo, solo la superficie forestale regionale che insiste all'interno delle aree protette è stata presa in considerazione. Un dossier cartografico di 432 mappe è stato realizzato a partire dalle informazioni precedentemente illustrate e correlato con delle informazioni di carattere statistico circa l'estensione ed il numero di siti per ogni specie, per ogni area protetta del Lazio. Allo stesso tempo, uno studio pilota è stato condotto sul pino domestico (Pinus pinea L.) in modo da completare il processo richiesto dalla Direttiva Europea e giungere dall'individuazione delle Regioni di Provenienza fino alla selezione dei soprassuoli candidati ad essere inseriti nel Registro regionale dei Boschi da Seme. Lo sviluppo di questa parte del lavoro ha richiesto un monitoraggio di tutte le principali pinete litoranee laziali, con la raccolta delle informazioni di carattere strutturale e dendrometrico. I risultati hanno composto un ulteriore dossier cartografico, questa volta dedicato al pino domestico, con informazioni relative alle singole pinete studiate. La sovrapposizione della distribuzione puntuale del pino domestico con la carta precedentemente realizzata delle Regioni di Provenienza, o più precisamente "Regioni di Raccolta", unitamente alle considerazioni derivanti dalle indagini in campo, ha permesso di identificare due zone (denominate "Litorale" e "Lauretum caldo") dalle quali sono stati scelti rispettivamente i boschi di Castelporziano e della Foresta Demaniale del Circeo come migliori candidati a boschi da seme. Di questi soprassuoli sono state altresì redatte delle proposte di gestione, da indirizzare all'Assessorato all'Ambiente della regione Lazio, in modo da completare le linee guida per la conservazione, amministrazione e certificazione del materiale di base da utilizzare nei piani di restauro ambientale o di rimboschimento. Infine, la multidisciplinarietà del presente lavoro ha offerto degli spunti di indagine paralleli ma strettamente inerenti le problematiche descritte in precedenza, che hanno condotto a delle ulteriori sperimentazioni confluite in altrettante pubblicazioni di carattere internazionale. In particolare, prendendo spunto dalle metodologie impiegate per la definizione delle Regioni di Provenienza secondo parametri chimico-fisici, è stata testata la possibilità di giungere ad un simile risultato partendo però dall'analisi di alcune risposte biologiche. In tal senso, uno studio ha interessato l'utilizzo combinato della dendroecologia e dell'attività fenologica delle foreste laziali per arrivare alla delimitazione di quattro Regioni di Provenienza, attraverso le analisi PCA e di cluster, basate solo sulle risposte bioclimatiche. Per la caratterizzazione dendroecologica dei soprassuoli forestali si è fatto riferimento ad una network che ha il faggio come specie pilota, mentre i modelli fenologici sono stati quantificati utilizzando il segnale espresso dall'attività fotosintetica attraverso l'NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index). Attraverso uno studio da remoto con sistemi GIS si è ottenuto una corrispondenza tra risposte dendroecologiche e fenologiche tale per cui è stato possibile delimitare delle Regioni di Provenienza basate sulla risposta delle piante al clima. Un secondo approfondimento ha interessato la possibilità di includere in un innovativo strumento operativo per il rimboschimento ed il restauro ambientale, i principi teoretici alla base delle Regioni di Provenienza. Tale tecnica di rimboschimento è stata identificata nel metodo Miyawaki, la quale, mai testata in Europa, è stata oggetto di indagine per verificarne la reale efficacia nel contesto Mediterraneo. L'esperimento è stato condotto in Sardegna ed i risultati incoraggiano l'uso di tale metodo nel nostro contesto ambientale, in particolare perché risponde appieno alle raccomandazioni circa il reperimento del materiale di base della Direttiva Europea, inoltre, è stato verificato come il suo utilizzo possa essere efficace anche in zone dove le tradizionali tecniche di rimboschimento hanno fallito in precedenza. I principali vantaggi interessano il mantenimento di un alto tasso di biodiversità rispetto ai tradizionali metodi e la capacità delle cenosi vegetali che vengono a costituirsi di evolversi senza l'intervento assistito dell'uomo. Questo si traduce in un'interessante riduzione del costo di gestione dei siti rimboschiti, oltre ad una possibilità operativa aggiuntiva per tutti gli esperti di settore che operano nell'ambiente Mediterraneo. ; The definition of biodiversity can have many interpretations, but generally refers to the amount of species occurring in an ecosystem: more species, greater stability. At species' level, biodiversity is mainly related to the genetic differences between individuals; a rich intra-specific gene pool means a wide range of responses to environmental strains. On the other hand, populations with low genetic diversity tend to respond evenly to stress conditions, thus having more difficulties to face currently growing disturbances driven by anthropic pressure and climate change, especially on local and regional scales. Individuals, populations and ecosystems are tightly linked and interact to maintain landscape stability, large socio-economic systems and man's health. As consequence, biodiversity maintenance should be carried out with active conservation measures implemented with the most recent progress in techniques and policies. For forest species, this implies awareness of the availability of new and efficient tools to comply with traditional strategies, such as tree populations management at their natural sites within the environment to which they are adapted (in situ) and artificial, but dynamically evolving populations, elsewhere (ex situ). Under these circumstances an operative tool could certainly be the definition and delimitation of Regions of Provenance, promoted by the European Directive 105/99. The main methods involved the use of ecological parameters (e.g. pedological, phytoclimatic), presumed to be homogeneous within each area, thus identifying ecoprovenances for a species as a consequence of evolutionary differentiation according to the effects of natural selection. They provide a framework for specifying sources of forest reproductive material, i.e. cones, fruits and seeds, all parts of plants obtained by vegetative propagation, including embryos and plants produced from any of these. The plant material from which the forest reproductive material is derived includes seed stands, seed orchards, parent material held by tree breeders in archives, individual and mixtures of clones. Nowadays, many European countries are promoting methods to detect Regions of Provenance, mainly based on chemiophysical parameters, because of the data availability across years of land monitoring. As result, each country has been divided in several ecologically homogeneous sub-zones, with fixed boundaries. This could be represent a preliminary approach to full-fill the Directive's requirements, but a deeper study is encouraged to focus on each forest species for which Regions of Provenance are required. Some countries, as France, Spain or Germany are working since 15 years to provide these results, while Italy is still many steps backward. In particular, the Italian position is partially due to its jurisdiction that devolve power in terms of environmental policy from the central Government to the Regional departments. As consequence, the definition of Regions of Provenance in our country is still incomplete and in many cases at preliminary stages. In the present work, the main goal was to assess a method based on ecological parameters, like in other European scenarios, to define and delineate Regions of Provenance for Latium in order to establish seed stands for selected forest species. A first step regarded data collection and analysis to create the set of most representative chemiophysical variables to point out ecoprovenances; than, distribution ranges of 28 forest species listed as natural and/or autochthonous for Latium have been obtained from remote analysis of cartographic dataset or from previous studies. During this process, 10 species were fully mapped, and for the remaining 18 species quantitative ranges were performed at 1:10000 scale level, with information on presence/absence. Because of the need to identify seed stands of these species that could also benefit from legislative pre-existing conditions, only forest surface within protected areas was taken into account. Totally, a cartographic dossier of 432 maps was produced with information about the number of sites and hectares for study species in each protected areas of Latium. At the same time, a case study was afforded to complete the process from the definition of Regions of Provenance up to seed stands identification. Domestic pine (Pinus pinea L.) stands across Latium coasts were monitored. Forest stands were mapped, dendrometric and structural characteristics were recorded during field surveys and detailed information about each stand were summarized in a specific map set. Overlapping distribution range of domestic pine to the Regions of Provenance previously performed, two zones were identified as containing all the stands and another one was added because of the occurrence of one population on the buffer zone. Finally, two pine forests were chosen as candidate to become seed stands, in order to get one stand for each Region (Castelporziano for Region 12 "Litorale", and Foresta del Circeo for Region 9 "Lauretum caldo"). Forest management proposals were also carried out for these forests, to accomplish guide lines for the Envirnomental Directorate of Latium in order to perform the best practices to protect and maintain seed stands and provide certified base material for reforestation programs. Moreover, mutual points of interest risen up during this work gave the chance to delve into the present methodologies and theoretical ideas in order to approach innovative and practical tools, that could be considered as advanced experiments. In particular, a first investigation point out the use of combined dendroecological and phenological analysis to define Regions of Provenance by biological parameters. Previous dendroclimatic research demonstrated the relationship between plant growth and climatic parameters; in Latium, similar bioclimatic responses from different forest stands growing at similar elevations were statistically grouped into three homogeneous altitudinal belts using principal component analysis and hierarchical cluster analysis. Phenological patterns of forest species were quantified using the photosynthetic activity signals expressed in the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI). Through a beech tree-ring network, NDVI was compared with dendroecological results using Geographical Information System analysis, obtaining high correspondence in overlapping, and underlying the relevance of altitude as a main factor defining homogeneous spatial vegetation dynamics, thus delimiting ecological Regions of Provenance based on tree responses to climate. At the same time, a tentative study was assessed to find a reforestation approach that include in its theoretical principles the concept of Region of Provenance as an ecologically homogeneous well-delimited zone. The effectiveness of the Miyawaki method, never tested in Mediterranean environments was experimented in Sardinia, and point out the possibility to adopt sustainable techniques in principle with the declarations of the European Directive 105/99, in sites where traditional reforestation approach failed. The Miyawaki method has been applied in the Far East, Malaysia, and South America; results have been very impressive, allowing quick environmental restorations of strongly degraded areas. However, these applications have always been made on sites characterized by high precipitation, but never in context with summer aridity and risk of desertification. Results obtained 2 and 11 years after planting are positive: having compared the traditional reforestation techniques, plant biodiversity using the Miyawaki method appears very high, and the new coenosis (plant community) was able to evolve without further operative support after planting. Therefore, the implementation of supplementary technique along with cost reduction might provide a new and innovative tool to foresters and ecological engineering experts for Mediterranean environmental reforestation program.

From the introduction: Global changes of the worldwide economy and free markets offer many business opportunities and advantages for multinational corporations (MNC), but also a lot of social challenges and ecological threats. In the last decades many scandals hit various industries for different casualities, for instance the oil industry for several oil spills, the mining industry for colaboration with corrupt governments and exposing workers to unsafe labor conditions, the clothing industry for exploiting employees or using child labor in sweatshops, the toy industry and other industries for importing tainted and unsecure products from China. As corporations have reaped the benefits of globalization and international trade, they are now, more than ever, demanded to take responsibility for the consequences resulting from their business activities. Due to the risk of a damaged reputation, loosing consumers and hence decreasing profits and as a result of public criticism, more and more corporations are pushed to change their business strategy in a way that fosters sustainable development. As the business world becomes smaller and more transparent, an increasing number of corporations are embracing Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) to demonstrate their stewardship. CSR is a concept that demands corporations to adress the economic, social and environmental impacts of their global operations while generating profits. The idea of CSR has become a concept that is growing in its importance and it is not only endorsed by corporations and organizations but also by individual consumer and governments. Henry Ford quoted once 'If there is any one secret of success, it lies in the ability to get the other person's point of view and see things form that person's angle as well as from your own.' This statement shows that companies striving to be economically successful are also demanded to consider the interests of all its multiple stakeholders. As corporations are gaining an increasing power and have an enourmous impact on the society in industrialized and developing countries, they are expected to respond to the societal demands and ecological concerns of all those who are affected by a company's business practices. The aim of this paper is to give a detailed overview of CSR with all its components and its implementation process into the overall business strategy. It analyzes the role corporations play or should play in fostering sustainable development and improve the welfare of the community where they operate. In the latter case, the focus will be on how CSR activities can be linked to international development and how they help to address the biggest challenge of the 21st century – to eradicate poverty. Chapter 2 describes the relation between corporations with its stakeholder versus its shareholders. Shareholders are at the same time stakeholders who have a stake in a company, but they have different interests in a corporation. This could lead to potential conflicts between short-term shareholders' expectations and long-term stakeholders' interests. An appropriate Corporate Governance (CG) practice is necessary to address these conflicts and to conciliate the interests of corporations' key stakeholders. CSR is seen as a corporation's obligation to respond to all stakeholders' expectations - not just to those of shareholders. To give a more detailed understanding of CSR, Chapter 3 outlines the historical evolution of corporate ethics and shows recent global economic trends that led to the fact that CSR has become so important in the 21st century. Furthermore, this chapter represents the main issues of CSR and the incorporation of this concept into the strategic management process. It highlights the importance of CSR communication and an effective Public Relation (PR) strategy for creating awareness about a company's CSR activities. Additionally, the different types of CSR programs – also known as Corporate Social Initiatives – are elaborated that help to support and create public awareness about social causes. Chapter 4 and 5 link CSR with international development and question corporations' role in fostering development. Chapter 4 focuses on the impact corporations have on the poor in developing countries and examines how CSR can help to create wealth and hence reduce global poverty. It further shows how corporations can address development challenges collectively by engaging in Public-Private Partnerships (PPP). It still exist a huge gap between CSR activities in industrialized and developing countries, which implies an additional challenge on promoting CSR standards on a national and international level. As the concept of CSR is often questioned by critics and free marketeers, the last chapter elaborates on the case against CSR and hightlights the different critic points that arise when companies claim to be socially responsible. These criticism has to be addressed in order to handle threats and opportunities in markets of great importance to organizations as well as in areas where problems occur.Inhaltsverzeichnis:Table of Contents: Table of ContentsI Table of IllustrationsII List of AbbreviationsIII 1.Introduction1 2.Shareholder Value vs. Stakeholder Value3 3.Corporate Social Responsibility6 3.1The Evolution of CSR6 3.2Trends in the Global Economy12 3.3Main Issues of CSR17 3.3.1Corporate Governance17 3.3.2Stakeholder Management18 3.3.3Competitive Advantage22 3.3.4Marketplace26 3.3.5Workplace28 3.3.6Environment34 3.4The Strategy Context of CSR39 3.4.1CSR Implementation Process39 3.4.2CSR as a Public Relations Strategy48 3.4.3Corporate Social Initiatives51 4.The Importance of CSR for International Development65 4.1CSR - A useful concept for poverty reduction?66 4.1.1The Supply Side67 4.1.2The Demand Side70 4.1.3The Government Side72 4.2The importance of PPP74 5.Critiques of CSR79 6.Conclusion86 AppendicesIV Appendix 1: Different ChartsIV Appendix 2: International Organizations promoting CSRX Appendix 3: International CSR Instruments and InitiativesXIII Appendix 4: International CSR StandardsXV Appendix 5: International CSR Rating InstitutionsXVII ReferencesXVIIITextprobe:Text Sample: Chapter 4.1, CSR – A useful concept for poverty reduction? Almost half of the world's population (2,7 billion people) lives on less than US2$ a day and another 1,2 billion people have not even US$1 a day to survive. Eleven million children under the age of five die every year from malnutrition and preventable diseases. Everyday over 6,000 people die from and another 8,200 people are infected with HIV/AIDS. Every minute a woman in the world dies in pregnancy or childbirth. Every 3,6 seconds a person somewhere dies of starvation and the lack of access to clean water. It is against these facts and due to the failure of governments and their international arms to address questions of underdevelopment that the corporate sector with its economic power is increasingly demanded to cope with key global challenges of the 21st century. Axel Hesse, a consultant for Sustainable Development Management, ascertained in his dissertation the 'six most important global challenges for sustainable development' are: climate change, water shortage and pollution, deforestation and desertification, biodiversity loss, population growth and migration – all which have an huge impact on poverty in the world. Altough poverty alleviation is not an explicit component of CSR, this section analyses to what extent multinational corporations are able to reduce global poverty with CSR programs. Here the focus will be on multinational corporations who have a wholly owned subsidiary, a joint venture or a major supplier in developing countries. Hence, not the private sector as such will be examinated but rather multinational corporations and the impacts of their FDIs on poverty in the developing world. A direct relationship between FDIs and poverty allevation cannot be established as FDIs in host countries create economic growth which in turn is recognized as a powerful force to fight global poverty. However, MNCs foreign direct investment in developing countries depends on prevailing conditions in the host country in terms of stability, tax regulations, corruption, infrastructure and local foreign policies, laws and regulations. Even if corporations decide to make their investments in developing countries, the location of investment is a crucial factor for development since investments are often made in wealthier regions of host countries. The opportunities for and impacts on poor countries resulting from investments by MNCs and the incorporation of CSR in all their worldwide operations are analyzed in the following from the supply side (poor as producer) and the demand side (poor as consumers) as well as the government side of host countries. The Supply Side: Considering the poor as producer, MNCs can contribute to poverty alleviation by having both a direct effect on the poor through supplying jobs and income opportunities in their foreign affiliates and an indirect effect through creating a linkage to local firms and suppliers. First of all, an association will be drawn between MNCs and their direct impacts on poor communities. In the later case, it will be elaborated on the indirect impact MNCs have on the private sector in developing countries. Even if the total number of people employed in foreign affiliates of MNCs has increased three times, from more than 25 million in 1990 to 73 million workers in 2006, these numbers account only for a small proportion of the total number of poor people living on less than US$2 or US$1 a day. The problem with this is, furthermore, that mainly skilled workers are in these employments which means that the poor do not benefit from FDIs to such an extent. So, in which way can CSR contribute to address poverty considering that just some of the poor work directly for MNCs? MNCs can help to tackle poverty and development issues through carrying out core business activities in a proactive and responsible way which decreases negative impacts of business activities and increases its positive impacts. This can be done by generating income through creating jobs, developing capabilities of human resources, building local business linkages and other economic multipliers that are directed to poor communities in host countries. Other CSR strategies which companies can apply in their core business activities and which address poverty issues include the compliance with international norms, standards, codes of conduct and principles throughout the value chain. These principles include amongst others to treat employees fairly, to cover minimum marketplace standards if government laws are not available, to take actions that do no harm to the environment and to contribute to the welfare of the (poor) community. However, as the poor benefit more from jobs that are created indirectly by suppliers and suppliers of suppliers of MNCs, it is more essential to focus attention on the linkages of MNCs to the private sector of developing countries. The private sector is also the main area of economic growth which provides most job opportunities in developing countries. These are often jobs provided to the poor by small and medium-sized entreprises (SMEs), agricultural smallholders or those in self-employment. MNCs and international agencies have realized the SME potential in developing countries and have begun in their development efforts to contribute to SME development by providing credit and entrepreneurial training as well as by enhancing responsible business practices in supply chains. CSR in the supply chain of MNCs plays an important role for development as suppliers are the main connection between a corporation and the developing world. This is because many corporations outsourced or 'offshored' services and the manufacturing operations, which were usually produced onshore, to suppliers in developing countries. Many designer clothes and branded goods, for example, are basically produced in developing countries. Similarly, basic IT Services, back-office work and call centres were transfered to developing (emerging) countries like India or China. As a great impact of MNCs on the poor takes place through its supply chains, it is more essential to question: how far down the supply chain MNCs should go to ensure responsible business practices in all stages of the product buying process? As supply chains are long and complex, it poses real ethical challenges to corporations to identify abuses of any kind in suppliers' operations. MNCs often demand that their direct suppliers apply the same standards as they do, however, do not go farer down the supply chain. In this new business environment, where corporations and retailers face operational and reputational risks, if exploitative practices are discovered in their supply chains, MNCs have begun to map out their supply chains and to identify countries, suppliers that pose the greatest risk. More and more corporations establish auditing systems and adhere to international standards for their supply chains such as AA1000, SA8000 or FLA. These standards and the ILO core labor standards (ICLS) cover mainly labor issues typically included in corporate codes of conduct. In addition, the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises and Supply Chain Responsibility, an expansion of the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises are standards for responsible business practices in the supply chains of MNCs. They are voluntary instruments promoted by governments among MNCs operating in their countries and serve as a tool to hold companies accountable for their global business and supply chain operations. Since these standards are voluntary, many companies still ignore to apply such standards in their supply chains. This was the result of a survey by Integrity-Interactive, a risk consultancy where 2000 big companies where surveyed on their supply chain practices. More than half of the respondents admitted that they are still lacking to apply ethic codes in their supply chains, but 42 % asserted that they are regularly assessing ethical risks in their supply chain. However, it more crucial to ask if not corporate buying practices and their expectations for greater efficiency put pressure on suppliers in the developing world to meet buying requirements which in turn cause exploitation of labor? For example, suppliers are often confronted with issues around flexibility (to respond quickly to costumers' demand) and seasonality (to cover demand for certain seasonal products) on the one hand, and price pressure on the other hand. Are not these factors drivers that lead to coercive and exploitative labor practices where workers have to work excessive overtime hours for minimal wages? The CSR aspect here is to ensure an ethical sourcing or trading by following the subsequent steps. In the first place, it is necessary to review a corporation's own purchasing and pricing practices which have negative effects on suppliers who then in turn cannot meet supply chain labor standards. Key labor standards in the supply chain could be covered by establishing a code of conduct developed by the corporation on its own or by an external organization such as the Ethical Trading Initiative (ETI). The ETI is an initiative that sets minimum standards for labor and human rights practices within supply chains. By offering on-going training programs, buyers and employees can be trained on ethical buying practices. At the same time, it is necessary to carry out a risk assessment which identifies suppliers who do not comply with ethical standards. An audit management systems that involves visiting suppliers on side helps to assess suppliers' compliance with the established code of conduct. By drawing up improvement plans, corporations can ideally work together with their suppliers to implement the required standards. Finally, it is important to be transparent and to disclose responsible supply chain practices openly.