Suchergebnisse

Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden an zwei Insektenarten, dem Laufkäfer Calathus erratus (Sahlberg 1827) und dem Sandohrwurm Labidura riparia (Pallas 1773), Untersuchungen zur genetischen Diversität und Populationsstruktur durchgeführt, um Rückschlüsse auf die Entwicklung der genetischen Variabilität in gestörten und fragmentierten Landschaften zu ziehen. Auch Aussagen über das Besiedlungsgeschehen in der Lausitz wurden getroffen. Dabei wurden Calathus erratus-Individuen von 13 Untersuchungsstandorten in Bergbaufolgelandschaften und von ehemaligen Truppenübungsplätzen populationsgenetisch mittels Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP) untersucht. Bei Labidura riparia erfolgten populationsgenetischen Untersuchungen an 21 Populationen. Hier wurden Sekundärhabitate (Bergbaufolgelandschaften, ehemalige Truppenübungsplätze und eine Kalihalde) sowie Primärhabitate (Ostseeküste, Binnendüne) beprobt. Als molekulares Markersystem kamen Mikrosatelliten zum Einsatz. Es wurde gezeigt, dass Insekten als Pionierbesiedler relativ schnell großflächige, gestörte Offenlandbereiche im Gebiet der Lausitz besiedeln können. Der Sukzessionstyp (Primär- oder Sekundärsukzession), sowie das Alter der Flächen seit Beendigung des Störungsvorganges, spielten dabei nur eine untergeordnete Rolle. Wichtig für den Besiedlungsprozess ist das Vorhandensein geeigneter Habitatbedingungen, welche besonders durch Standortfaktoren wie Vegetation und anderen strukturellen Komponenten beeinflusst werden. Bei beiden Arten, dem Laufkäfer Calathus erratus und dem Sandohrwurm Labidura riparia, wurden hohe Gen-Diversitäten und eine starke genetische Ähnlichkeit der Populationen auch über größere geographische Entfernungen hinweg festgestellt. Mit hoher Wahrscheinlichkeit fand bei beiden Untersuchungsarten im Gebiet der Lausitz kein einzelnes Besiedlungsereignis, sondern eine kontinuierliche Immigration von Individuen statt, bzw. findet immer noch statt. Flächen der Bergbaufolgelandschaften und der Truppenübungsplätze, auf denen die Arten rezent auftreten, können als Ausgangshabitate für die Kolonisation neuer Habitate in der Lausitz dienen. Beide Arten weisen eine hohe Mobilität auf. So waren alle untersuchten Sandohrwürmer geflügelt. Es ist von einem Flugvermögen auszugehen. Für die Laufkäferart Calathus erratus wurde ein hoher Anteil makropterer Individuen überwiegend auf jungen Untersuchungsflächen in der Bergbaufolgelandschaft nachgewiesen und damit ein aktiver Kolonisationsprozess dokumentiert. Weiterhin wiesen beide Arten eine geringe, auf eine räumliche Populationsstruktur zurückzuführende Populationsdifferenzierung auf. Bei Labidura riparia wurde, im Gegensatz zu Calathus erratus, eine räumliche Populationsstruktur festgestellt, die dem isolation-by-distance Modell folgte. Die Sandohrwurmpopulationen der Untersuchungsstandorte der Küste unterschieden sich genetisch von den Festlandspopulationen. Als Ausgangspunkt der Besiedlung der Bergbaufolgelandschaften diente mit hoher Wahrscheinlichkeit die Binnendüne bei Dömitz. Die Kolonisation der Offenstandorte der Lausitz durch Calathus erratus und Labidura riparia erfolgte auch aus umgebenden Habitaten. Bergbaufolgelandschaften und ehemalige Truppenübungsplätze verfügen über eine wichtige Habitatfunktion für Tierarten, die auf offene, sandige Habitate angewiesen sind. Diese Standorte sind besonders wegen ihrer Großflächigkeit als Refugialräume geeignet. Mit fortschreitender Sukzession wird sich der Anteil von Offenlandflächen in den Bergbaufolgelandschaften und auf Truppenübungsplätzen verringern. Während der Laufkäfer Calathus erratus durch sein breiteres Habitatspektrum auch im Bereich von Ruderalfluren eine hohe Überlebenswahrscheinlichkeit hat, ist der Sandohrwurm Labidura riparia auf bestehende natürliche Standorte und anthropogen geschaffene Sekundärstandorte angewiesen. Beide Insektenarten sind jedoch in der Lage, eventuell neu entstehende Habitate zu besiedeln. ; Within the framework of this thesis, I carried out molecular investigations of genetic variation and population structure of two insect species, the ground beetle Calathus erratus and the earwig Labidura riparia, to confirm the development of genetic variability in disturbed and fragmented landscapes. Also statements on colonisation of the insect species in Lusatia have been made. Investigations of population genetics of Calathus erratus were carried out on 13 sites in post-mining landscapes and former military training areas applying Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP) method. In total, 21 populations of Labidura riparia were investigated. Populations from secondary habitats (post-mining landscape, former military training areas and a potassic heap) and primary habitats (coast of Baltic See, inland dune) were included. Microsatellites were used as a molecular marker system. It was demonstrated that insects quickly colonise large disturbed open-landscapes in Lusatia. Succession type (primary or secondary succession) and age of sampling sites (time since dumping) were of less importance for colonisation. On the other hand, suitable habitat conditions, for instance sparse vegetation and structural components, are important for the colonisation process. For the ground beetle Calathus erratus and the earwig Labidura riparia, high gene-diversity and low genetic differentiation among populations were found, also over larger geographical distances. For both species the data suggest that there was no single colonisation event, but continuous immigration of individuals. The post-mining landscape itself and former military training areas with current populations of the species can have served as sources for colonisation of new habitats in Lusatia. Both species are highly mobile. All sand-earwigs were winged, thus flight ability can be assumed. For beetle species Calathus erratus large proportions of macropterous individuals were found on young investigation sites in the post-mining landscape. Both species show only weak differentiation among the populations. In contrast to Calathus erratus in Labidura riparia an isolation-by-distance pattern was found. The earwig populations from coastal sites were genetically differentiated from mainland populations. Colonisation of post-mining landscape by Labidura riparia started obviously from an inland-dune near Dömitz. Colonisation of Lusatia by Calathus erratus and Labidura riparia took place from surrounding habitats. Post-mining landscapes and former military training areas are important habitats for species mainly restricted to open sandy landscapes. The significance of the habitats as refuge sites is especially due to the comparatively huge size of the landscape. With ongoing succession the amount of open land areas in post-mining landscapes and former military training areas will decrease, making the habitat unsuitable for these species. The ground beetle Calathus erratus is able to use also ruderal sites as habitats, the earwig Labidura riparia is reliant on natural and secondary sites created by man. However, both species are able to colonise new developing habitats.

Поощрение семей в рождении детей и повышение уровня рождаемости объявлены в числе приоритетов государственной социальной политики. Несмотря на экономический рост, фиксировавшийся в последние 7лет, доходы семей с детьми продолжают оставаться на относительно низком уровне. В результате семьи с детьми имеют риск бедности, двукратно превышающий среднероссийский показатель. Правительство Российской Федерации предприняло ряд финансовых мер с целью повышения рождаемости денежные пособия нацелены на улучшение материального благосостояния семей с детьми и на рождение большего количества детей. В статье представлены результаты моделирования эффектов влияния мер в области поддержки материнства и детства на уровень жизни семей с детьми и анализируется потенциал их воздействия на рождаемость. ; The tendencies of decreasing fertility and growing number of families with one or no children are a natural demographic phenomenon for all developed countries. But in Russia in 1990s the process of decreasing fertility has been highly accelerated by the difficulties of transition economy. Russian society and Russian government, which is promoting measures against such unfavourable tendencies, are getting much concerned about such development. In December 2006 a set of documents has been produced, which define new measures of state social policy to support families with children, aimed, as it says, at stimulating fertility. In order to join the discussion on efficiency of such measures from economic point of view, first, we must assess the situation before such measures have been accepted and also understand, how such new resources may broaden the opportunities of the targeted population. According to our estimation, in 2006 children had a risk of poverty almost twice as higher as the average ail-Russian level. If a complex look over poverty has to be done, after using the indicators of scale and intensity it can be maintained, that babehood (up to year and a half) are the most vulnerable group. Moreover it is obvious, that other age groups of children also do not feature so higher living standards, and the problem of raising income and housing provision of all children is still very up-to-date. Let's get to the results of model, where we estimate, how the child home care allowance (for children up to year and a half) affects the living standards of the population before it has actually been introduced. According to our calculations, by the end of 2006 this programme has involved 1,5% of all the households. This allowance has accounted for 0,1% in the general income of all households and 4,1% in the income of the households, who were subject to such allowance. Therefore the macroeconomic effects of such influence are barely significant. They increase substantially after considering just the targeted population, but are still an insignificant part of their incomes. Since January 2007 this allowance is given to all women, which means, that the number of targeted households, which are subject to the allowance, will increase almost twofold (2,5% of all households). The share of this allowance in the incomes of the whole population will account for 0,3%, i.e. its influence is still very insignificant. Nevertheless the corresponding share within the targeted group will increase from 4% to 11% of its total income. Do such allowance actually affect the reproductive behaviour? It is accepted in the relevant literature, that it works only, when their share in the total household income is no less than 10% and the allowances persist in the long run. Therefore the increased amount of such aid has Summaries175 made it a significant resource, especially in the poor families with children, where it accounts for 25% of their incomes. This may also decrease the risk of poverty in the targeted group for almost 25%. Although it should be noted, that there have been no firm guarantees that such family support will be available in future and cover the life cycle of the families. Together with the income provision, housing is also an important part of the living standards. After introducing new measures of family-oriented policy the attention has been drawn to families with two or more children. It must be stated, that almost all families from this category are in the need of better housing facilities (98,1%), and 46,2% live in uncomfortable conditions, below the social standard. Our calculations show that only 6% of the targeted groups can actually solve their housing problems through the use of federal family subsidies. 40% will be able to make their first mortgage payment and 50% will even not be able to participate in mortgage programmes. The only option for such families is investing these subsidies in the accomplishment of their current housing facilities. The results of our consequence model provide enough evidence, that the current federal family support programme is just the first step in the series of modernization processes, which can provide the compatibility of women employment and a boost in fertility.

Introduction -- 1 Concepts, Labels and Limitations -- A Introduction -- B Retroactivity -- C Retrospectivity -- D Confusing Usage -- E Problematic Usage -- 1 Waldron on Criminal Sentencing -- 2 Fuller on Tax Liability -- F The Scope of this Book -- G Illustrations of Conceptual Distinctions -- 1 Cases Relating to Contractual Rights -- 2 Cases Relating to Personal Status -- H Conclusion -- 2 Historical Review -- A Introduction -- B General History and Statutory Construction -- C Adjudicative Retroactivity -- D Conclusion -- 3 Rationales for a General Presumption Against Retroactivity -- A Introduction -- B Certainty -- 1 The Meaning of Certainty -- 2 Certainty and Reliance -- (a) The Case for Actual Reliance -- (b) Evaluation of the Role of Actual Reliance -- (c) Certainty and the Ability to Rely on the Law -- 3 Certainty and Autonomy -- C Negative Liberty -- 1 Negative Liberty Generally -- 2 Deprivation of Security Relating to Past Events -- 3 Removal of an Actual Freedom -- 4 Negative Liberty and Criminal Law -- (a) Nullum Crimen Sine Lege Antea Exstanti -- (b) Nulla Poena Sine Lege Antea Exstanti -- D Fair Warning -- E Defeasibility -- 1 Introduction to Defeasibility -- 2 A General Principle of Fairness -- 3 Where Uncertainty is Inevitable -- 4 The Exceptional Nature of Retroactivity -- F Conclusion -- 4 The Presumption Against Retroactivity in Statutory Construction -- A Introduction -- B The Nature of the Presumption Against Retroactivity -- C Applications of the Presumption Against Retroactivity -- D Fairness as a Determinant of the Applicability of the Presumption -- E A Presumption of Variable Strength? -- F Rebuttal of the Presumption Against Retroactivity -- 1 Express Words or Necessary Intendment -- 2 Validating Statutes -- 3 Importance of Subject Matter -- G Detailed Studies -- 1 The Intertemporal Effect of the Human Rights Act 1998 (UK) -- (a) Was Retroactivity in Issue? -- (b) Treatment of the Presumption Against Retroactivity -- (c) Applicability of the Presumption Against Retroactivity -- (d) Fairness and a Presumption of Variable Strength -- (e) Statutory Language -- 2 Retroactive Sentencing -- (a) Article 7 of the ECHR and the Common Law Presumption Against Retroactivity -- (b) The Common Law Presumption Against Retroactive Sentencing -- (c) Retroactive Changes in Favour of the Defendant -- H Conclusion -- 5 Adjudicative Retroactivity -- A Introductory Matters -- 1 What is Adjudicative Retroactivity? -- 2 The Declaratory Theory -- 3 The Scope of this Chapter -- B The Doctrine Of Precedent and Judicial Attachment to Existing Principle in Novel Cases -- C The Marital Rape Cases -- 1 Outline of the Facts, Decisions and Issues -- 2 Foreseeability of Legal Change -- 3 Heinous Conduct -- 4 Changed Status of Women -- 5 An Illogical Immunity -- 6 Conclusions on the Marital Rape Cases -- D Restitution of Money Paid under a Mistake of Law -- 1 The Facts and Issues in Kleinwort Benson v Lincoln County Council -- 2 Reasons for Retroactivity -- E Private Law -- 1 The Creation of New Law without Overruling Prior Authority -- (a) Existing Authorities in Disarray Making a Degree of Retroactivity Inevitable -- (b) Ability to Rely on the Law not in Issue -- (c) Gradual Development of New Law -- (d) Moral Obloquy -- (e) Use of Obiter Dicta to Signal a Change in the Law -- 2 The Creation of New Law by Overruling a Prior Authority -- (a) Ability to Rely on the Law not in Issue -- (b) Prior Authority Wrong in Principle -- (c) Response to Changed Legal Circumstances -- (d) Response to Changed Factual Circumstances -- (e) Absence of Effect on Litigants before the Court -- (f) Refusal to Overrule a Decision because of Potential Retroactive Effects -- 3 Overruling a Prior Judicial Interpretation of a Statute -- 4 Conclusions on Private Law -- F Public Law -- 1 The Creation of New Law without Overruling Prior Authority -- 2 The Creation of New Law by Overruling Prior Authority -- (a) Judicial Review of Questions of Law -- (b) Judicial Review of Questions of Fact -- 3 Overruling a Prior Judicial Interpretation of a Statute -- 4 Conclusions on Public Law -- G Criminal Law -- 1 The Creation of New Law without Overruling Prior Authority -- (a) Judicial Response to New Factual Circumstances -- (b) Perceived Immorality -- 2 The Creation of New Law by Overruling Prior Authority -- (a) Prior Authority Wrong in Principle -- (b) Retroactivity in Favour of a Defendant -- 3 Overruling a Prior Judicial Interpretation of a Statute -- 4 Conclusions on Criminal Law -- H Overruling and the Age of a Decision -- 6 Prospective Overruling -- A What is Prospective Overruling? -- B The Status Quo -- 1 England -- 2 Australia -- 3 New Zealand -- 4 Canada -- C Evaluation of Prospective Overruling -- 1 Inconsistency with the Proper Scope of the Judicial Function in Common Law Systems -- 2 Arbitrariness -- 3 Prospective Overrruling of Decisions about Statutory and Constitutional Construction -- D Conclusion -- 7 Conclusions -- A Foundations -- B Comparison of Cases of Statutory and Adjudicative Retroactivity -- C Approaching Rebuttal of the Presumption -- D Legislative and Ju

Una breve recorrida por los titulares de la prensa internacional permite aquilatar la dificultad existente en la opinión mundial para evaluar el significado y las reales repercusiones de la renuncia de Fidel Castro a no …"aspirar(é) ni aceptar(é) el cargo de Presidente del Consejo de Estado y Comandante en Jefe" en su país.Con fecha 20 de febrero, para el New York Times "Castro may not be exiting the stage completely", Le Monde editorializa bajo el título "L´éclipse d´un mythe", El País de Madrid publica, sin mayor destaque, una nota de corresponsal algo desconcertante "La Habana: De espaldas al "Granma", para The Times: "Fidel Castro bows to illness and age as he quits centre stage after 50 years", la Folha pregona "Renúncia de Fidel causa impacto na populacao, diz jornal cubano", La Stampa titula, insólitamente. "Cuba, ambiente a rischio nel dopo Castro" y La Nación alega: "El fin de una era en Cuba. La conmoción por la dimisión en la prensa".Los referidos artículos expresan interpretaciones, a veces, totalmente contradictorios del acontecimiento. Mientras para Le Monde, Castro "…renuncia al poder…", para el New York Times eso está claramente en duda. Cuando la nota del Pais de Madrid está dedicada a subrayar la prescindencia absoluta de la población cubana ante el acontecimiento, la Folha y La Nación hablan de "impacto" y "conmoción" en la población y en la prensa y, por su parte, La Stampa parece preocuparse por los efectos en el medio ambiente del mayor acontecimiento de la vida política cubana en los últimos 50 años. El Times prefiere destacar la importancia de la enfermedad en la decisiòn de Castro.Quizás esta cacofónica interpretación del evento no sea simplemente el resultado de la novedad ni de un " estado de confusión" política particular de lo acontecido en Cuba. Es posible hacer la hipótesis que esta situación responde, al menos, a 2 razones diferentes.En primer lugar, por mas que el régimen cubano haya sido estudiado, denostado y alabado, hasta el hartazgo por tirios y troyanos, no es menos cierto que el mundo conoce poco y mal cuales son las verdaderas fuerzas políticas internas que lo atraviesan –(¿lo conocerán los "insiders"?)-. La información oficial no es creíble y las distintas oposiciones al régimen no han podido nunca emitir señales claras sobre la realidad de la isla. Desde luego que la oposición interna enfrenta dificultades reales vinculadas a la represión y la oposición externa tampoco consigue producir discursos convincentes. En ese sentido el régimen cubano no es mas conocido en Occidente que el de Myanmar o el de Korea del Norte.En segundo lugar, es necesario recordar que, tanto ayer como hoy, en el seno mismo del concierto de las democracias del mundo, el régimen cubano ha logrado ser mirado -(por razones que, en realidad, resultan ser bastante ininteligibles)-, con mas benevolencia que la enorme mayoría de los demás regímenes comunistas y totalitarios. Hay una suerte de implícito consenso, en amplios sectores de opinión de los países democráticos, que parece pensar que las cárceles y reclusorios cubanos son más benignos que los campos stalinistas o que las ejecuciones someras en China o en determinados países musulmanes o africanos.En todo caso, poco hay de concreto que pueda concluirse de la decisión del longevo Comandante. Su carta -(relativamente breve considerando la percepción de Castro del tiempo del que disponen sus escuchas o lectores)- permite cualquier lectura. Para Andrés Oppenheimer, en El Pais de Montevideo, Fidel Castro se ha autoproclamado "Columnista en Jefe" del régimen; Anthony DePalma, desde el New York Times, destaca una idea parecida resaltando que Castro "…was not ready to completely exit the stage…"Desde el domingo 24 de febrero, Raul Castro ha sido elegido Presidente del Consejo de Estado y ostenta, ahora con carácter definitivo, el mando en el país. Nada puede parecerse más a una opción por la continuidad política e ideológica del régimen aunque, cualquier analista político prudente sabe que, muchas veces, los acontecimientos que aparecen como menos significativos terminan generando cambios impredecibles.Quizás una sola cosa sea cierta: los cambios en marcha en Cuba poco o nada tienen que ver con algún avance de la democracia. El paso al costado de Fidel Castro tiene mas que ver con su avanzada edad y su condición de salud que con cualquier cambio político del régimen. En ese sentido, lo sucedido en Cuba no es sino una nueva derrota de la democracia: una y otra vez el régimen totalitario cubano logra sortear los obstáculos en su decrépita carrera hacia la Eternidad.Catedrático de Ciencia PolíticaFacs - ORT- Uruguay

[spa] El objetivo del presente estudio es la contextualización histórica del Carmen de prouidentia Dei, composición poética cristiana escrita en época de las primeras grandes oleadas de pueblos germánicos sobre territorio galorromano y comúnmente atribuida al cálamo del historiador y teólogo Próspero de Aquitania. Hemos reexaminado el valor de esta obra como testimonio del impacto de las invasiones bárbaras sobre lo que hemos dado en llamar la "conciencia colectiva" de la época y, en esta misma línea, analizado la contribución de su autor a la reflexión coetánea sobre la vigencia de los principios de la teología política diseñada por Eusebio de Cesarea un siglo antes, fundamento ideológico del Imperio Romano Cristiano. Nuestro estudio pone de relieve que el autor de este carmen, posible lector de primera hora del De ciuitate Dei agustiniano, sintió la necesidad de separar los destinos de la Iglesia y del declinante Imperio Romano de Occidente. A partir de un genuino universalismo cristiano de raíz estoica, el poeta defiende el alcance universal del designio salvífico divino, el cual se extiende por igual a romanos y bárbaros. De este modo, trata de preparar a la comunidad eclesiástica para continuar su camino una vez desaparecida la estructura política del Imperio, bajo cuyo amparo había experimentado un crecimiento sin precedentes. Por otra parte, analizamos la aportación del poema al conocimiento de las controversias teológicas que convulsionaron las iglesias galas durante este período, debates centrados en los grandes temas de la libertad humana y de la cristología. Creemos haber demostrado que el Carmen de prouidentia Dei debe considerarse vehículo de expresión de las críticas que algunos sectores monásticos y eclesiásticos de Provenza vertieron contra la teología predestinacionista forjada por Agustín de Hipona. En cuanto a su cristología, subyace en el poema la voluntad de desmarcarse en este punto de las polémicas teorías formuladas por el monje marsellés Leporio. Dedicamos también un capítulo de nuestra obra a analizar la diatriba antiastrológica del carmen: en efecto, las prácticas astrológicas vivieron en la Galia de la época un momento de particular apogeo, hecho que atestigua la incertidumbre y la angustia existencial en que la crisis derivada de las invasiones germánicas sumió a muchos cristianos galorromanos.Finalmente sometemos a análisis crítico las principales hipótesis formuladas hasta el momento respecto a la autoría del poema, el ámbito geográfico de su composición y su cronología. A partir de nuestro examen de la tradición manuscrita del poema y de los paralelismos textuales que lo relacionan con algunas obras de Próspero de Aquitania creemos haber ofrecido argumentos suficientes para descartar definitivamente su atribución a este autor. Cabe pensar más bien, y así lo hemos defendido, que su autor fue un monje del monasterio de San Víctor de Marsella y presbítero de la iglesia local, el cual, hacia finales de 426, sintió la necesidad de escribir una obra que diera respuesta a la crisis ideológica y religiosa que, en muchos de sus contemporáneos, estaba generando el hundimiento de un Imperio que habían creído eterno. ; [eng] This work aims to set in the proper historical context.the composition of the Carmen de Prouidentia Dei, a Christian-inspired poem published short after the first great Barbarian invasions of Galorroman territory (beginnings of the Fifth-Century) and usually attributed to the historian and theologian Prosper of Aquitaine (as does its last editor, M. Marcovich). As I show in the first part of my dissertation, the carmen witnesses the impact of the Germanic invasions over what I call the "collective consciousness" of the age. The poet, who was an "engaged Christian", felt that in those critical years for the Roman Empire it was necessary to re-examine the political theology of Eusebius of Caesarea and to make out a clear distinction between Catholic Church and Roman State.Parts II-IV of this work deal with the theological controversies in the Gallic Church of the Fifth-Century as reflected in the carmen. By means of this poem, its author set forth his opposition to Augustine's views on Grace and Predestination and to Leporius' Christological tenets. Many verses of the poem are also devoted to a diatribe against astrology, which flourished in the hard years of German invasions of Gaul.Finally, in part V I re-examine several hypothesis on the authorship of the Carmen the prouidentia Dei, its place of composition and its chronology. As I argue, several arguments support the hypothesis that it was written around 426 by a monk of Saint Victor of Marseilles who was also a priest of the local church.

OBJECTIVE: In this study, we conducted a survey of all the institutions that provide treatment for psychoactive substances in the state of Espirito Santo, Brazil during the period 2004-2005. METHOD: We used a snowball sampling technique to include all the treatment facilities in our State in which we employed a semi-structured interview instrument for key informants at each institution. We present descriptive results and test differences between groups using the Chi-square test. RESULTS: In Espirito Santo, 250 institutions provide treatment for psychoactive substances and are distributed as follows: governmental (17.6%), nongovernmental (22.8%), and self-help groups (59.6%). Of these 250 institutions, 85 provide direct care, with the majority found in the Central region (70.6%) and followed by the Northern (15.3%) and Southern (14.1%) regions. The majority of those that provide direct care are private nonprofit centers (16.8%) institutions with ties to religious organizations make up nearly one-third (30.6%) of direct care providers. The drugs most consumed by those seeking care are alcohol (82.4%), tobacco (81.2%) and marijuana (68.2%). The institutions generally give assistance to people in the 26-45 years age group (89.4%); with regard to gender, the institutions take care of: men (31.8%), women (5.9%), and both sexes (56.5%). The treatment models most used are psychosocial (58.8%), therapeutic community (47.1%) and biomedical (43.5%) and the work is evaluated through the team technique (72.9 %). CONCLUSIONS: In the state of Espirito Santo, indirect care services are many times greater than those that offer direct care and the majority of all services are in the Central region. The populations in the mainland have a comparative disadvantage when it comes to treatment options for psychoactive substance use. We observed that a significant number of institutions that provide drug abuse treatment have financial support from religious organizations. The Espirito Santo State survey demonstrates the necessity of a decentralized provision of specialized care for psychoactive substance users, with substantially more services directed to the Northern and Southern regions of the state. Moreover, the emphasis of these new institutions should be on outpatient care. ; OBJETIVO: Foi realizado um levantamento de todas as instituiçõesque proporcionam tratamento para dependência de substâncias psicoativas no Estado do Espírito Santo, Brasil, durante o período de 2004-2005. MÉTODO: Foi utilizado o método de amostragem bola-de-neve para incluir todos os estabelecimentos de tratamento no Estado e empregada uma entrevista semi-estruturada para informantes-chave em cada instituição. Os resultados descritivos foram apresentados e as diferenças testadas entre os grupos, utilizando o teste de qui-quadrado. RESULTADOS: No Espírito Santo, 250 instituições proporcionam tratamento para dependência de substâncias psicoativas e se distribuem da seguinte forma: governamentais (17,6%), não-governamentais (22,8%) e grupos de auto-ajuda (59,6%). Destas 250 instituições, 85 proporcionam assistência direta e a maioria se encontra na região Central (70,6%), seguido pela região Norte (15,3%) e Sul (14,1%). A maioria daquelas que fazem o atendimento direto são instituições privadas e sem fins lucrativos (16,8%); as que possuem vínculos com organizações religiosas compõem quase um terço do total (30,6%) de prestadores de serviços diretos. As drogas mais consumidas pelos que buscaram atendimento são álcool (82,4%), tabaco (81,2%) e maconha (68,2%). As instituições geralmente atendem pessoas na faixa etária entre 26 e 45 anos (89,4%); com relação ao sexo, as instituições que atendem somente homens perfazem 31,8%; as que só atendem mulheres, 5,9%; e ambos os sexos, 56,5%. Os modelos de tratamento mais utilizados são o psicossocial (58,8%), a comunidade terapêutica (47,1%) e o biomédico (43,5%), sendo o trabalho avaliado por meio da técnica de grupo (72,9%). CONCLUSÕES: No Estado do Espírito Santo, os serviços de atendimento indireto são muito maiores do que os que oferecem atendimento direto; a maioria dos serviços está na região central do Estado. As populações do interior do Estado estão em desvantagem quanto às opções de tratamento para o uso de substâncias psicoativas. Foi observado que um número significativo de instituições que provêem tratamento para o abuso de drogas tem apoio financeiro de organizações religiosas. A pesquisa no Estado do Espírito Santo demonstra a necessidade da descentralização do atendimento especializado para os usuários de substâncias e de consideravelmente mais serviços direcionados às regiões Norte e Sul do Estado. Além disso, a ênfase dessas novas instituições deve ser o tratamento ambulatorial. ; Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) ; Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) ; Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo Núcleo de Estudos sobre o Álcool e outras Drogas ; Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP) Programa de Pós-Graduação em Enfermagem ; Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP) Unidade de Pesquisa em Álcool e Drogas ; University of Texas Unidade de Pesquisa em Álcool e Drogas Population Research Center ; UNIFESP, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Enfermagem ; UNIFESP, Unidade de Pesquisa em Álcool e Drogas ; SciELO

This working paper assesses the durability of Chinese-American political participation in the San Francisco Bay Area between 1996 and 2004. We are interested in this durability, which we call "survival," for two reasons. First, because it gives us a better understanding of the universe of the population we are trying to study. Our survey was culled from those members of the 1996 cohort who are on the most recent registration rolls, which means that it contains information on only those members of the 1996 cohort who remained politically active. It is therefore useful for us to learn more about the characteristics of this group, and to determine what characteristics contribute to their continued political action. In particular, we want to know if the continued Chinese-American participation is a specifically ethnic phenomenon; that is, if the durability of the Chinese-American registration is owed to their being Chinese American, rather than to other factors (such as income or age or gender). If the continued Chinese-American registration is ethnic in nature, this would lend credence to our hypothesis that the large surge in political activity in 1996 by Chinese Americans was a defensive reaction, and one that remains influential today. Our second reason for performing this analysis is more academic: the data themselves tell an interesting story about the durability of political involvement. Political scientists have long concerned themselves with patterns of electoral participation, and in efforts to determine why political participation increases for some individuals and declines for others. Thus while our primary purpose in this duration analysis is to better understand this Bay Area Chinese-American population, a secondary benefit is that it yields us a useful experiment that can contribute to the more general literature in political science. We use registration to vote as our proxy for political activity, and the sample is, again, drawn from the 1996 cohort of first-time Chinese-American registers. The 1996 cohort is a useful one to study because, as we have noted in previous sections, 1996 marked a significant upsurge in Chinese-American political activity in the Bay Area, largely as a reaction to anti-immigrant legislation. The 1980s and early 1990s witnessed an increase in anti-immigrant sentiment in both American politics at large and California in particular—a number of anti-immigrant measures were either proposed or passed by voters in California. The threat to immigrants posed by these measures prompted a significant increase in naturalization rates and voting on the part of Bay Area Chinese Americans, culminating in a large cohort of Chinese Americans that voted in the national elections of 1996. Naturalization was an understandable and predictable reaction for Chinese Americans. Naturalization not only provided protection against anti-immigrant measures, but also provided a voice with which the newly naturalized could help shape future policies. The durability of Chinese-American political engagement, however, is less easy to predict. Two conflicting dynamics are at work. On the one hand, ethnic mobilization, and particularly defensive mobilization, can be short-lived. Political activity spawned by a particular issue or threat also tends to be transitory; once the threat subsides, levels of political participation can also decay. Evidence also suggests, however, that political activity tends to predict itself—that once the initial foray into politics is made, subsequent involvement becomes easier and more common. In this framework ethnic mobilization, regardless of its root cause, would set in motion a positive cycle that leads to continued involvement. Lastly, of course, we should also include the possibility that the perceived threat has not subsided; if anti-immigrant sentiment remains strong, so too might the political participation of immigrant groups. We should note that Chinese Americans who registered for the first time in 1996 did not necessarily naturalize and register that year. Certainly some of them may have. But the sample may also include Chinese Americans who naturalized earlier but did not become impelled to register until 1996. Either way would represent a significant step toward political activity, and makes 1996 a useful starting point for our study. Anecdotal and descriptive data suggests that Chinese Americans have remained politically active in the Bay Area, and that indeed they have emerged as an important swing voting bloc in municipal elections (Lee, 2003). Chinese Americans have been credited with helping Gavin Newsom win the San Francisco mayoral race in 2004. In this study we use a survey and duration analysis to determine whether Chinese-American voting activity has in fact endured in the ten years since the 1996 cohort. Our results suggest that this is the case; Chinese Americans from the Bay Area cohort remain politically active.

In this report future annual emissions amounts of gaseous pollutants, particulate matter (PM10) and noise from the non-road mobile machinery sector in Sweden were estimated. The estimates over future emissions amounts were conducted for each year from 2006 to 2020. Special focus has been taken to the impact of European and national legislations, the age distribution of different types and sizes of machinery and measures to reduce the annual emissions. Besides different measures to reduce emissions, corresponding costs were also estimated. The study comprises fuel consumption and emissions of CO2, carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), nitrogen oxides (NOx), particulate matter (PM), and noise from non-road mobile machinery equipped with diesel engines with a rated engine power of 37 to 560 kW. Non-road mobile machinery for example includes tractors, wheel loaders, excavators, articulate haulers, mobile cranes, combined harvesters, forestry machinery and trucks. The current report was a supplementary study to a report describing a methodology for estimating annual fuel consumption and emissions from the non-road mobile machinery sector in Sweden for year 2006. Inventory data of the year 2006 study was obtained from the Swedish machinery testing institute's machinery inspection operation, statistics of sale returns from trade organisations and the Swedish motor-vehicle register. The number of machinery and annual fuel consumption and emissions amounts for year 2006 is presented in table S1. Besides estimates of annual fuel consumption and emissions amounts, emissions of noise was also derived both at a national level and for a specific construction site. For the case study the results showed that it was possible to reduce the average noise level with more than 3 dB(A) compared with the base scenario just by choosing the machinery fulfilling the strictest noise limits, i.e. Stage II which was mandatory for most machinery from 2006. Other measures simulated included various types of retrofit of noise reduction packages. The specific cost for the different measures to reduce average noise emissions from the specific construction site varied from 4 000 up to more than 500 000 SEK dB-1. For the estimate of future fuel consumption and emissions amounts various simulations were conducted, each with a different measure for reducing the annual amounts. Five main emission reduction measures or programs were studied: - Scrappage program - Alternative fuel program - Voluntary emission regulation program - Retrofit of aftertreatment program - Noise reduction program The impact on engine exhaust gas emissions and noise of the current European emission and noise regulations, Stage I to IV and Stage I to II for emissions and noise respectively were common for all simulations or programs. Besides the impact of European regulations, annual work was set to a fixed value for each type of machinery and year simulated, thus eliminating any potential changes of the state of the market. The result of the baseline scenario "Business as usual" (BAU), i.e. only taking account to the impact of European regulation, is presented in table S2 for four different years Both fuel consumption and emissions of CO2 remains fairly constant as an effect of the assumption that the annual work was set at a fixed value. However, emissions of especially NOx and PM showed a major reduction due to the tighter and tighter regulations. All programs simulated were able to reduce the emissions compared with the BAU scenario with exceptions for emissions of nitrogen oxides, which increased in some of the alternative fuel programs. Both the absolute reduction and cost varied significantly between and within the various programs. Reduction of NOx varied from an accumulated increase in emissions of 25 000 tonne to an accumulated reduction of 22 000 tonne for the studied period from 2006 to 2020. At the same time the accumulated cost for the programs varied from a few hundred million SEK to more than 60 000 million SEK. In table S3, specific reduction cost for each pollutant in SEK kg-1 for eight typical emission reduction programs are presented. The results showed that the most economically favourable alternative for reducing emissions from non-road mobile machinery was the voluntary emissions regulation program, i.e. early introduction of machinery fulfilling coming emission limits. Another important result was that the introduction of alternative fuels as a mean of emissions reduction was associated with rather high costs compared to the actual reduction in emissions. For emissions of nitrogen oxides the specific reduction cost varied from almost 100 SEK kg-1 up to a few hundreds of SEK kg-1 except for the alternative fuel programs, which resulted in a considerable higher cost.

Mit Hilfe staatlicher Aktionsprogramme versuchen seit Mitte der 90er Jahre die Regierungen fast aller industrialisierter Länder ihre jeweiligen Volkswirtschaften auf die Erfordernisse des Informationszeitalters vorzubereiten und den gesellschaftlichen Wandel hin zur Informationsgesellschaft zu steuern. Ziel der staatlichen Maßnahmen ist es dabei vor allem, günstige Rahmenbedingungen für die Entwicklung neuer Medientechnologien zu schaffen und die Verbreitung interaktiver Medien in der Bevölkerung zu unterstützen. In dieser Arbeit werden die klassischen nationalen Initiativen für die Informations-gesellschaft in Deutschland und den USA einem systematischen Vergleich unterzogen und daraufhin untersucht, inwieweit sie ihre selbst gesteckten Ziele erreichen konnten. Bei den Initiativen handelt es sich zum einen um "Info 2000. Deutschlands Weg in die Informationsgesellschaft" (1996-1998) und zum anderen um die "National Information Infrastructure"- Initiative (1994-1997) der Clin-ton/Gore-Administration. Bei der Untersuchung der Initiativen stehen jene Maßnahmen, Regulierungs- und Förderstrategien im Zentrum, die sich auf die Entwicklungen im Bereich des interaktiven Fernsehens beziehen. "Interaktives Fernsehen" wird dabei als Oberbegriff für interaktive TV-Dienste (Enhanced TV, WebTV, t-commerce), Breitband-Internet (DSL und Kabelmodemsysteme) und Video on Demand verwendet. Staatliche Handlungsmöglichkeiten ergeben sich in diesem Bereich vor allem bei der Regulierung der Telekommunikation, der Anpassung der inhaltlichen Regulierungsvorgaben und durch Vorgaben für die Umstellung auf das digitale Fernsehen Um die Auswirkungen und damit die Paßgenauigkeit der jeweiligen staatlichen Maßnahmen auf die Entwicklung des interaktiven Fernsehens zu beurteilen, wird der in der politikwissenschaftlichen Implementationsforschung entwickelte Ansatz der Synthese von Top-down- und Bottom-up-Analyse verwendet. Das heißt, es wird zunächst gezeigt, wie die Aktionsprogramme im jeweiligen staatlich-institutionellen Kontext umgesetzt wurden (Top-down) und anschließend dar-gestellt, welche konkreten Auswirkungen die einzelnen Maßnahmen auf die Handlungsbedingungen von Medienanbietern und Mediennutzern vor Ort hatten (Bottom-up). Für die Bottom-up-Analyse wurden sechs Medienentwicklungsprojekte bzw. Einführungsversuche von interaktivem Fernsehen anhand von Interviews und Expertengesprächen erhoben. Detailliert werden in diesen Fallstudien die konkreten technischen, wirtschaftlichen und regulatorischen Potenziale und Barrieren dargestellt. Bei den Projekten, die stellvertretend für die Entwicklung des inter-aktiven Fernsehens in Deutschland und den USA stehen, handelt es sich im Einzelnen um: · DVB Multimedia Bayern · InfoCity NRW · IVS Stuttgart · WebTV · Excite@Home · Full Service Network Orlando Die Untersuchung kommt zu dem Schluß, daß staatliche Programme zur Förderung von interaktiven Medienanwendungen vor allem dann erfolgreich sind, wenn ihnen eine intelligente Kombination von "harten" (Regulierungsvorgaben im Telekommu-nikations- und TV-Bereich) und "weichen" Faktoren (Agenda-Setting, symbolische Politik, Glaubwürdigkeit) gelingt. Weiterhin wirkt sich ein offener, partizipativer Implementationsprozeß sowie die Fähigkeit der politischen Spitze, die jeweiligen Implementationsstellen entsprechend einzubinden, positiv auf den Um-setzungs-erfolg aus. Der Vergleich mit den USA zeigt, daß die Politik hierzulande stärker auf Infrastrukturwettbewerb zwischen den verschiedenen Zugangstechnologien setzen sollte und flankierende Maßnahmen zur Medienqualifizierung erforderlich sind. ; Since the mid 90s, governments in almost all industrialized countries have been attempted to prepare their national economies for the information age and to support the change towards the information society via action programs. Governmental measures predominantly aim at favorable legal conditions for the development of new media technologies and try to support the spreading of interactive media applications in the society. In this study, the exemplary national initiatives for the information society in Germany and the U.S. are systematically compared and evaluated in terms of how successful they were in achieving their goals. The examined initiatives are: "Info 2000. Deutschlands Weg in die Informationsgesellschaft" (1996-1998) and the "National Information Infrastructure-Initiative" (1994-1997) of the Clin-ton/Gore administration. The study focuses on measures, regulation issues, and support-strategies which apply to the development of interactive television, whereas "interactive TV" is used as a generic term for the specific development in three sectors: interactive TV-Services (enhanced TV, WebTV, t-commerce), broadband-Internet (DSL and cable modem systems), and video on demand. Governmental actions which are specifically effecting these sectors can be identified within the regulatory regime of the telecom-regulation, certain provisions of the content regulation, and specific measures to coordinate the switch from analog to digital TV. In order to determine the effects and the appropriateness of governmental measures, a synthesis of top-down- and bottom-up-approach, as it was developed in implementation research, is utilized. This means that the respective action programmes are examined in a first step with regard to their implementation within the administrative and institutional context (top-down) and in a second step it is asked, which were the specific effects of theses measures in the local context of content and technology providers as well as users? (bottom-up). The bottom-up-anaysis is based on six media-development ("pilot"-)projects respectively commercial introductions of interactive applications which were extensively researched by way of expert interviews and document analysis. The individual projects were chosen as examples for the general development of interactive TV in Germany and the U.S. The case studies show in great detail the technical, economic and regulatory barriers and potentials, new interactive TV-applications face today. The following projects are described: · DVB Multimedia Bayern · InfoCity NRW · IVS Stuttgart · WebTV · Excite@Home · Full Service Network Orlando The study concludes that it takes an intelligent combination of "hard" (regulation of telecommunications and broadcasting sector) and "soft" factors (agenda-setting, symbolic politics, awareness) for governmental programs to succeed in the field of interactive media development and expansion. Also important for the implementation success is an open and participative implementation proccess and the ability of the political leaders to integrate the respective administrative bodies and interest groups. The comparison with the U.S. shows that Germany has to set up specific provisions to guarantee infrastructure competition between the different access technologies and that special governmental actions are required to improve the media competence of its citizens.

Multinational companies whose importance has increased or improved depending on global capitalisation and travelling around the world without knowing borders have activities in developing countries due to suitable conditions (e.g. cheap workers costs, flexible legal arrangements). In this study, the precautions set forth to prevent environmental troubles, to obliterate or to minimise it, are the activities undertaken by the multinational companies which are considered. In the study, Turkey as a case country in which this subject was studied. Globalisation is the last step of economical sovereignty set up by means of multinational companies all over the world by capitalism which affects our age deeply. Unlimited capital stocks of capitalism and its economical development aim "whatever the result is" fastens the problems internationally as a result of not recognizing the social developments and justice, inequality, poverty and unsocializing people in developing countries. As a result of this, we're having environmental problems, the speed of nature's being consumed has been increased and there have been troubles almost every field of the social lives. However there is no one else who accepts the responsibilities of cost and social policies in the global economies in which international capital and global corporations decide on the rules; there is also no one else who accepts the responsibilities of environmental pollution and natural possessions' destruction as the result of the activities of international capital and global companies. The reason for this is that it is assumed that the government must take the responsibility "to protect and to development the environment". According to this idea, protecting and developing the environment has been supplying public use and public service. Thus public service is the duty of the state. Environmental rights subject, known as third generation rights or corporation rights, is to protect the environment and to development it. People who have the environmental rights are those actors who will make use of these rights and who will have the responsibilities of these rights. The people who will make use of these rights and who will have the responsibilities are generally the same actors. These are not only the people but also public and special institutions including communities; states and public; and the next generation. In this case, all the right owners who have the rights to live in a healthy and well balanced environment are obliged to protect and to development the environment at the same time, including the multinational companies. Every economic activity has an effect on the environment. Multinational companies have activities in the fields like gold mining, petrol, chemicals and food industry which have high potential effects on the environment in developing countries like Malaysia, Indonesia and Nigeria. On this point the question why multinational companies choose these countries should be answered. The answer doesn't only help to explain the issue's political sides but also it could show that the most dirtying foreign capital activities take place in developing countries. Why multinational companies have chosen these developing countries was studied under two titles. (1) Dirtying industries are choosing the countries which don't have severe legal arrangements, (2) The public opinion in developing countries is unconscious of the harms that economical activities give to the environment. If the first finding hadn't been true, the activities in most polluting sectors wouldn't have been directed to the countries where environmental laws are flexible/flexibly practised. Besides, the public opinion in these low educational level countries doesn't have enough knowledge about the environmental problems and importance of environment. This information also gives assurance to the multinational companies that they don't face with the opposing activities of the public there. Nevertheless, foreign capital is wanted by these countries to supply new technologies, to supply the political and economical support of the countries which export development and capital, to open their economy to other countries and to protect the environment of the country. But, in practice, these countries which are under pressure to pay their debts don't pay attention to the ecological defects of the activities let the multinational companies to settle in the country, import the wastes which supply currency entrance, to be stored in the national borders and to be reused without evaluation. Foreign capital entrance in gold mining fields is a small example about being served and defended as a gold opportunity to pay Turkey's foreign debts. As a result, multinational companies are unsuccessful in sharing environmental responsibilities in the developing countries. Multinational companies have been making use of the opportunities that the environment presents but they don't do their duties to environmental rights. The efforts by multinational companies have been improving as prevention of increasing the environmental standards. Related to this, in the countries mentioned and also in Turkey, where economical activity fields like ecological sensitivity isn't assured enough by law and isn't protected wholly is a kind of great danger for Turkey.

A lo largo de la vida, trabajando tanto en el sector público como en el privado, como arquitecto municipal o en el ejercicio libre de la profesión, me he encontrado con la problemática de la accesibilidad, intentando resolverla, consultando el tema y profundizando en él. Y he comprobado su importancia creciente: hay entre 60 y 80 millones de personas discapacitadas en la Unión Europea, número que va a crecer por envejecimiento de la población. Para el año 2020 se estima que ¼ de la población tendrá más de 60 años. Hay que tener en cuenta que hoy un 70 % de los discapacitados tienen esa edad. Durante un tiempo me he dedicado a recopilar todo el material posible, desde las escasas publicaciones dedicadas al tema hasta artículos de prensa, de divulgación, de Cursos de Accesibilidad, de Internet. También he visitado numerosas ciudades, como Édmonton, Copenhague, Berlín, Curitiba o Barcelona, y entrevistado a responsables de las políticas correspondientes, acompañado por un cuaderno de notas, una cámara fotográfica y un block de dibujo.Al cabo de varios años, y una vez reunido un amplio y variado material, me he planteado aproximarme al tema de manera sistemática y rigurosa, respecto a la Accesibilidad, considerando la integración social de las personas discapacitadas en la ciudad, al objeto de que me pudiese facilitar el inicio del camino para elaborar una investigación sobre la "accesibilidad al espacio público de la ciudad", muy poco tratado y con utilidad para otras personas.El análisis del material estudiado ha dado lugar a la PRIMERA PARTE de este trabajo, de contenido más denso, más conceptual, con la intención de establecer un marco teórico de referencia. Y en una SEGUNDA PARTE, he investigado una serie de casos prácticos de estudio donde los principios teóricos de la Accesibilidad son de aplicación, en la ciudad, en su entorno urbano o natural, en sus calles, plazas o parques. Esta labor de campo ha consistido en analizar "in situ" los distintos entornos seleccionados, buscando las realizaciones ejemplares que puedan ser aleccionadoras, más que la crítica de los errores o insuficiencias. Al terminar la Tesis Doctoral, me he detenido en unas CONCLUSIONES sobre la problemática de la Accesibilidad al espacio público en la ciudad, contemplado las necesidades de movilidad de las personas discapacitadas, y cómo debe ser enfocada su atención. Se presenta un resumen de la misma en esta publicación.Abstract:During the course of my life, working in both the public and the private sector, as local architect or freelance, I have found the problem of Accessibility; trying to solve it, consulting the matter and getting into it. I have realized its increasing importance. There are between 60 and 80 million disabled people in the European Union, the number of which is going to grow due to the ageing of the population. For the year 2020, it is foreseen that ¼ of the population will be over 60 years. We have to take into account that, nowadays, 70% of the disabled are of that age. For a period of time I have devoed myself to compiling all the material I could, from scant publications about the matter to articles of press circulating from Accessibility Courses, and from the Internet. I have also visited many cities, like Edmonton, Copenhagen, Berlin, Curitiba and Barcelona, and I have interviewed those responsible for the corresponding policies, accompanied by a notebook, a photographic camera and a drawing pad.After several years, and once I had collected a wide and varied material, I have considered approaching the matter in a systematic and rigorous way, regarding Accessibility, and the social integration of disabled people into the city, with the aim that this could facilitate the start of the way to carry out research about the Accessibility to the public spaces of he city, which has been studied very little and which can be very useful to other people.The analysis of the studied material has given place to the FIRST PART of this work, with a denser and more conceptual content, with the intention of establishing a Theoretical Frame of Reference. In the SECOND PART, I have researched a series of practical cases studies where the theoretical principles of Accessibility are applied, in the city, in its urban or natural environment, in its streets, squares or parks. The work in this field has entailed analyzing, in situ, the different selected environments, looking for the exemplary executions that can be instructive, more than criticizing the mistakes or inadequacies. At the end of this Doctoral Thesis, I have stopped to consider some CONCLUSIONS about the Problem of Accessibility to the public space of the city, studying the mobility needs of disabled people and how its attention must be approached.

Au moment où nous rédigeons ces pages, à deux décades près de l'an deux mille, Freud a déjà réhabilité le rêve, Breton l'instinct, Durand l'imaginaire, Mabille le merveilleux, Todorov le fantastique ; Otto, Bataille, Caillois, les historiens Éliade et Dumézil ont réévalué depuis longtemps le sacré et le religieux. Jean-Charles Falardeau écoute ces « maîtres » avec un talent critique dont nous voudrions rendre compte ici pour mieux nous interroger avec lui sur d'autres perspectives possibles de l'étude du phénomène religieux dans le milieu canadien-français.
Rappeler ce qui, à notre point de vue, constitue l'essentiel du message de notre distingué compatriote dans ces matières pourtant ardues, vérifier dans la mesure du possible les avenues que nous ouvrent déjà plusieurs de ses intuitions sur l'imaginaire et le merveilleux, voilà une entreprise pour le moins audacieuse. Au premier abord, il est difficile d'imaginer que cet homme raffiné et distingué au possible, sociologue en plus et conduit comme tel à scruter des systèmes de valeurs fermes et à inspecter le champ bien concret des structures sociales de la paroisse, du village, de la famille, puisse un jour rêver de merveilleux et d'espaces spirituels inédits. Prêtons-nous à ce frère amical, vénéré et admiré depuis plus de quarante ans, des considérations que seule une amitié excessive pourrait justifier? Quand on s'est longtemps occupé de l'univers religieux de ses ancêtres médiévaux et de sa translatio studii en Amérique française, n'est-ce pas témérité et gratuité pure que toutes ces préoccupations retrouvées dans une problématique moderne? Pourtant, ce n'est pas l'amour obsessif du Moyen Âge qui nous rapproche de Falardeau : ce sont plutôt les effets de l'héritage religieux en milieu nord-américain. Les mêmes quêtes spirituelles et les mêmes hésitations face aux changements culturels de notre temps nous conduisent à relire J.-C. Falardeau. L'académisme universitaire, l'aventure du surréalisme, l'affaire Borduas vingt ans plus tard, l'intervention courageuse de notre ami Robert Élie, des amitiés parallèles, tout ceci, nous l'avons partagé chacun à notre façon et sans même en discuter entre nous. Nous nous étions à divers degrés consacrés au service des étudiants.
Il nous est aussi arrivé d'occuper successivement la même chaire de civilisation franco-québécoise à l'Université française de Caen. Dans de telles circonstances, il est presque normal que nos imaginations se soient souvent croisées. Où et quand? Mais quelque part, ne fût-ce que dans cet univers intérieur judéo-chrétien qui a enveloppé nos enfances respectives. Autant de prétextes qui nous amènent aujourd'hui à rejoindre Falardeau sur le terrain qu'il habite et défriche avec un acharnement digne de son sens du bien savoir et du bien faire. Surtout, l'occasion nous est enfin offerte de penser « sacré », « mystère », «imaginaire», «merveilleux» en compagnie d'un pionnier de la sociologie religieuse en Amérique française. Stimulus d'autant plus efficace que nous avons eu, au moins à trois reprises, l'occasion d'entendre les propos de notre collègue, avant qu'il ne les livrât à l'impression. La première fois, en avril 1962, ce fut à l'occasion du colloque de Recherches sociographiques ; la seconde fois, le 17 octobre 1971, à l'Institut supérieur des sciences humaines de l'Université Laval, lors du deuxième colloque sur les religions populaires. En 1973, le même J.-C. Falardeau proposait aux membres de l'Académie québécoise des sciences morales et politiques, à Montréal, une communication intitulée Problématique d'une sociologie du roman et publiée en 1974 dans Imaginaire social et littérature sous le titre déjà plus signifiant : « Le roman et l'imaginaire». Nous le revoyons encore assis à la table de conférence, sérieux et digne, ferme dans ses mots, bien aligné sur son texte ; nous l'entendons dire dans une langue froidement impeccable des paroles qui nous rassurent et nous interrogent tous. Sans qu'il le sache toujours, J.-C. Falardeau aura, par ses travaux autant que par la direction de ses recherches en matières religieuses, profondément influencé le Canada français depuis plus de vingt ans. Ses nombreuses études de sociologie et sa participation à l'évaluation périodique des croyances, rituels et agirs du plus grand nombre, ce que nous appelons provisoirement la religion populaire, restent de première importance. En somme, c'est presque un acte de piété, entendu au sens médiéval, que nous accomplissons en rendant hommage à celui dont nous avons si souvent relu les textes et pillé les bibliographies.
Notre propos exact est de considérer tour à tour l'imaginaire, le merveilleux et le sacré pour mieux entrevoir, si possible, et toujours en compagnie de Falardeau, l'accès aux mystères qui définissent le sacré judéo-chrétien dans lequel la majorité de nos compatriotes canadiens-français ont vécu jusqu'à la limite de la pensée magique.

The phenomenon of power is implicit in numerous critiques of modern sciences and their methods, resulting in the crisis of rationality. Our analyses will follow two intentionalities, the vertical and the horizontal, showing that the modern scientific rationality assumes principles which exclude the vertical. By "intentionality" we mean a way of experiencing the world at the exclusion of other ways. Thus, intentionality is not a private affair but can be carried from generation to generations. For example, scientists invariably will say "let us look at the world mathematically," proposing a quantitative mode of perception over poetic, ritualistic, etc. The latter, while equally intentional, will be discarded by science.Thus the scientific conception of mathematical method, as a way of mastering the material world, intimates also a restriction of linguistic sign systems and uses to specific modes, mathematical discourse, at the expense and exclusion of other discursive forms. If not deliberate, there is a specific "bracketing" that was performed by the philosophies and sciences of the modern age that allotted the primacy of all understanding to language, and indeed to a specific language. The result of this development is manifested in the current claims by the semiotics and the deconstructionists that language or discourse is the primary power in all domains of human experience and praxis. While at first sight outlandish, this claim is well justified on the basis of most concrete analyses of modernity, with its ontology and scientific method.Our approach will trace out "bracketing" and show what phenomena become discarded and what phenomena remain in order to be constitutive of power. It is hoped that the result of this investigation will reveal specific formations which belong to no one, are nowhere, and yet comprise the very modalities of our modern awareness. What is meant here by awareness consists of specific noetic practices ruled by, and expressive of, a set of intentionalities. In addition, the noetic practices constitutive of power are also ruled by a specific form of transcendence lending such practices their autonomy. The latter is expressed in numerous ways across various socio-political, economic and scientific formations, aims, and imageries. It lends an appearance of a total transcendental arbitrariness to the noetic practices at all levels. The phrase "noetic practices" encompasses what the human actually does in relationship to the world of objects of whatever type and at whatever level of posited objectivity. ; Šiame straipsnyje glaustai nagrinėjami galios sampratos formavimosi ypatumai modernioje Vakarų mokslo kultūroje. Teigiama, kad kitų tradicijų įtraukimas į intelektinę diskusiją suteikia pagrindą platesniam ir gilesniam požiūriui į diskursyviosios galios raišką ir politinės retorikos kilmę. Galios samprata neatsiejama nuo moderniųjų mokslų ir jų metodų kritikos, kuri baigiasi racionalumo krize.Todėl čia vadovaujamasi dviem intencionalumo kryptimis – vertikalia ir horizontalia, parodant, kad modernusis mokslinis racionalumas įtvirtina principus, kurie atmeta vertikalumą. Teigiama, kad mokslinė matematinio metodo koncepcija, kaip būdas konstruoti medžiaginį pasaulį, teikia kalbinių ženklų sistemų suvaržymo pavyzdį. Kad ir nesąmoningai, moderniosios filosofijos ir mokslo formos "išskliaudžia" kalbinės raiškos formas suteikdamos pirmenybę specifinei kalbai.Šio straipsnio paskirtis – atskleisti specifinius darinius, kurie lyg ir niekam nepriklauso, tačiau jie sudaro moderniojo supratimo modalumus. Modernioji galios samprata remiasi savita duotybės sandara, pateikiama kaip transcendencija, kuri yra neprieinama tiesioginei intuicijai. Modernusis filosofinis ir mokslinis mąstymas teigia, kad matematika, ar kiekybinės procedūros, yra ne tik metodologinės gairės, bet pagrindžia teorinį mąstymą. Specifinė tokių procedūrų sandara rodo, kad jos apima struktūras ir taisykles, kurios gali būti formuluojamos neatsižvelgiant į santykį su intuityvia, t.y. kokybine, tiesioginio suvokimo sritimi.Kad šios procedūros ir struktūros įgytų pagrįstumą, remiantis šiomis procedūromis, turi būti sukurtas objektyvus pasaulis. Pirma, procedūros turi būti indiferentiškos suvokimo intuicijos atžvilgiu; jos perteikia visus įvykius kaip iš esmės homogeniškus. Antra, pagal šiuos reikalavimus – teoriškai-metodologiškai reikalaujamo homogeniškumo vardu – apibrėžiama intuicijos, tiesiogiai duotos suvokimui, sritis. Moderniojo amžiaus mąstytojai, siekdami rasti vietą formaliai sričiai, išranda "talpyklą", pavadindami ją protu. Čia tariamai gyvena minėtikiekybiniai ir formalūs komponentai, kurie priklauso subjekto imanencijai.Postmodernioji semiotika daro prielaidą, kad, viena vertus, nėra "vietų", kuriose įsikūrusi galia, tačiau, kita vertus, ji visur ir visada įgyvendinama pasitelkiant diskursą. Nors tokia prielaida yra tinkama, vis dėlto svarbu suprasti pagrindžiamuosius galios suvokimo principus. Kaip įrodinėja Edmundas Husserlis, technologizacija numato formalias operacijas, visiškai nepaisydama gyvenamojo pasaulio prasmės struktūrų. Toks formalizmas, suporuotas su homogeniška ir indiferentiška tikrove, galiausiai baigiasi dviem struktūriniais procesais. Pirma, visiškai nepaisoma konkrečių gyvenamojo pasaulio prasmių ir jų horizontų, o antra, formalūs ir technologiniai principai atsiejami nuo konkrečių intencionalumo formų, kurios susieja subjektą su gyvenamojo pasaulio morfologijomis.Kultūra gali stiprinti savo šeimininkavimą ir praktinę kontrolę plėsdama formaliosios diferenciacijos žymenis ir technologinį aplinkos suvaržymą, stiprindama materialiųjų išteklių vartojimo efektyvumą. Tačiau tai – krizės pagrindas, nes mokslas įtraukiamas į žmonių gyvenimą remiantis technologiniu materialiųjų išteklių "vartojimu", įgyvendinant tas pačias operacijas, kaip ir gamtos pasaulio atžvilgiu.

One of the primary purposes of The John Marshall Journal of Computer Information Law is to focus on recent developments, on an international basis, in computer and information technology law. The themes that are developed in each issue of Volume Sixteen, present problems in computer and information technology law, and hopefully help answer questions in this dynamic field of law. The first issue of Volume Sixteen is a perspective issue on cyberspace governance, standards, and control. The lead articles of this issue discusses the challenge to develop international trademark law with regard to the Internet, Internet regulatory zoning of obscene content, Internet service providers' obligations under the Telecommunications Act of 1996, electronic commerce in Taiwan, and a commentary on NBA v. Motorola and STATS, Inc. The second issue of Volume Sixteen is a symposium issue on The Uniform Commercial Code ("U.C.C.") Proposed Article 2B. U.C.C. Proposed Article 2B is a legal framework for the licensing and transfer of rights in the intellectual property of computer technology. This issue is a detailed discussion of the problems facing the computer industry and the Proposed Article 2B drafting committee. The lead articles of this issue discusses generally, the law of the information age and the path of commercial law to cyberspace. Specifically, this issue discusses the treatment of consumers, express warranties and published information content, implied warranty of merchantability, and development contacts under the Proposed Article 2B. The third issue of Volume Sixteen is a perspective issue on privacy, information technology, and the Internet. The lead articles of this issue discusses issues of encryption and liberty on an international basis, legislation and decisions as to the control of the use of social security numbers as personal identifiers, and the mapping of legal metaphors in cyberspace. Additionally, this issue featured the bench memorandum, petitioner brief, and respondent brief on First Amendment and Freedom of Information Act issues associated with Internet blocking software in a public forum from the 1997 John Marshall National Moot Court Competition in Information Technology and Privacy Law. This issue, the fourth issue of Volume Sixteen, is a general issue that presents an array of topics. First, G. Peter Albert, Jr., an intellectual property practitioner and author of a treatise on intellectual property and information technology discusses the domain name registration system. Mr. Albert examines the dispute resolution policies of the leading proposals for the registration of domain names and proposes an alternative solution to "cybersquatting" and other trademark-related domain name issues. Keith Kupferschmid, an instrumental practitioner in Washington D.C. on intellectual property issues and the Internet discusses the fist-sale exception in view of copyrighted works on the Internet. Mr. Kupferschmid argues that the first-sale exception is not applicable to network transmissions and recommends that Congress take steps to limit the applicability of the first-sale exception, and that in order to receive the correct balance between the public's fair use of the work and a copyright owner's right to exploit is the grant of a rental right to the copyright owner is in order. Rinaldo Del Gallo, III, an intellectual property practitioner, discusses the dynamics associated with web site designers and the ownership of a web site under the guise of the work for hire doctrine and joint authorship doctrine. Caroline Uyttendaele, an associate research fellow at Katholieke Universiteit Leuven reviews and analyzes from a European point of view, the need for new free speech legislation regarding the Internet. Ms. Uyttendaele addresses the need for additional legislation protecting free speech and the relevance of the present restrictions on free speech. The student Comments in this issue discuss various important topics with regard to intellectual property and information technology issues. First, Laura McFarland-Taylor proposes adopting an internationally recognized standard of due diligence in reporting lost or stolen artworks utilizing the Internet. Second, Timothy Hofmeyer analyzes and examines the legal issues surrounding the patentability of cloned organisms, yet remains silent regarding the moral issues involved with the "hot topic" of cloning. Last, Steven Hanley on an international topic of Internet regulation, proposes that every country utilizing the Internet has a right when regulating the Internet to uphold its national values, and Internet Service Providers' shall work with each country's government to provide an Internet service that is in conjunction with each country's personal values and ideals. The Global Information Infrastructure is a dynamic medium that requires legal guidance and assistance in all stages of development. As information technology advances, the law must change with these advances. It is the hope of The John Marshall Journal of Computer & Information Law that the legal insights provided by our authors in this issue and all past and future issues help to mold the legal doctrine of computer and information technology law affecting the dynamics of the Global Information Infrastructure.

A medida que pasan los años, uno reconoce la sabiduría de la liturgia de la Iglesia al repetir durante siglos, el miércoles de ceniza, esta fórmula tradicional: «Acuérdate, hombre o mujer, que eres polvo y que en polvo te convertirás». Esta frase, que hiere la sensibilidad moderna y postmoderna (y tal vez por ello ahora se puede sustituir por una formulación más evangélica: «Conviértete y cree en el evangelio»), resume la experiencia de la radical debilidad humana: polvo y barro. Frente a todas las exaltaciones humanistas modernas, la experiencia nos engaña que la realidad humana es débil, que la carne es flaca, que la fragilidad forma parte integrante del ser humano. Debilidad física que aparece con claridad a los comienzos y al fin de la aventura humana; enfermedades antiguas y nuevas (SIDA, Alzheimer.), vejez, muerte. Se añaden las debilidades psíquicas, que los psicólogos se encargan de catalogar, pero que afectan a todos los mortales; la depresión ha pasado a ser la enfermedad psicológica moderna que resume todos estos males. Pero existe una debilidad más de orden moral, la que nos hace caer en la tentación y el pecado. La historia personal y humana nos confirma en esta cruel realidad que intentamos enmascarar de mil formas, pero que está ahí: nos hemos desviado del recto camino y hemos huido de la casa paterna; somos pecadores. Y a estas debilidades más personales se suman las sociales o colectivas del momento presente. La familia atraviesa una grave crisis: infidelidad, violencia doméstica, separaciones, divorcio, madres solteras, mujeres abandonadas, hijos sin hogar. Las instituciones sociales y políticas se encuentran en un impasse: la democracia, la mejor institución política hasta ahora, no acaba de funcionar bien y se ha convertido en prebenda de unos pocos políticos que hacen y deshacen a espaldas de la sociedad civil. La corrupción todo lo invade y mancha: La violencia y la agresividad aumentan. Estamos en una especie de «Parque Jurásico» mundial. La humanidad vive en un momento de ocaso de las ideologías y de las utopías. Sólo el neoliberalismo se afianza como solución dogmática y casi religiosa para la salvación de todos los pueblos, dejando en la cuneta de la historia a la gran mayoría de la humanidad. A esto se le llama el final de la historia (Fukuyama). El desastre ecológico amenaza con la supervivencia de la misma humanidad. Nadie está dispuesto a frenar el desarrollo ni a pagar el precio de un desarrollo ecológico que no agote las reservas de la tierra para el futuro. Al grito de los pobres se une ahora el grito de la tierra (Boff). La postmodernidad, con su narcisismo que la lleva a disfrutar de la vida, es un pensamiento esencialmente débil, «light». No hay grandes relatos ni utopías, sino el día a día de la privacidad burguesa y el «carpe diem» horaciano. Hay que esperar a la constelación de Acuario para que la conspiración de la «New Age» se implante en el mundo con una nueva energía cósmica. La Iglesia no es ajena a esta situación de debilidad. Al acercarse al umbral del tercer milenio, la Iglesia hace un serio examen de conciencia de lo que ha sido el segundo milenio que fenece, y siente que tiene que pedir perdón por las divisiones internas que le han desgarrado, por las guerras de religión, por la Inquisición y por haber callado cuando debía haber denunciado proféticamente la violación de los derechos humanos. En el momento presente, se habla de noche oscura eclesial, de involución, de invierno eclesial. Estamos lejos de la primavera conciliar del Vaticano II. La debilidad eclesial confirma la profunda razón de los Padres de la Iglesia al hablar de ella con la expresión de «casta meretriz». Toda esta debilidad complexiva se vive de forma acuciante en el Tercer Mundo, desde donde escribo estas líneas. Es el basurero de la humanidad, el desecho, lo que no interesa, la masa sobrante cuya natalidad hay que frenar para que no se convierta en amenaza para los ricos países del Norte. Conviene que los «bárbaros» del Sur se mantengan en sus límites, que no pretendan llegar al Norte, que no molesten. Endeudados, empobrecidos, olvidados, analfabetos, subdesarrollados, mal alimentados, con divisiones internas fratricidas, los países del Sur son, a escala mundial, el pobre Lázaro de la parábola del rico epulón. Lo extraño es que no se den suicidios colectivos y que la gente todavía celebre fiestas y cante con esperanza. Todas estas debilidades sumadas nos ofrecen un cuadro sombrío pero real de la condición humana. Realmente, somos barro y polvo.