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The case for climate action has never been stronger. Current weather extremes, including storms, floods and drought, affect millions of people across the world. Climate change is putting water security at risk; threatening agricultural and other supply chains as well as many coastal cities. The likelihood of severe pervasive and irreversible impacts will grow without action to limit and reverse the growth of GHG emissions globally. Last year's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report makes clear the overwhelming need to take action now on climate change and that the costs of inaction will only rise. The challenge is to decarbonize our economies by 2100 with action in the next decades being critical. The choices made by government, the private sector, and civil society as part of the transition to a decarbonized economy will determine the extent of future climate impacts but also provide an opportunity to unlock investment and build an innovative, dynamic low-carbon economy.

This paper analyzes the poverty and inequality implications of removing agricultural and non-agricultural price distortions in the domestic market of the Philippines and abroad. Liberalization in the rest of the world is poverty and inequality reducing, whereas full domestic liberalization increases national poverty and inequality. Poverty declines while inequality increases marginally in the combined scenario of both global and domestic agriculture reform. Although the reduction in the national poverty headcount is small in the latter scenario, the poorest of the poor, particularly those living in the rural areas, emerge as 'winners', given their strong reliance on agricultural production and unskilled labor wages.

Das Weiterbildungsverhalten der erwachsenen Bevölkerung ist ein Thema, das im Rahmen bildungspolitischer Zielvorstellungen einen hohen Stellenwert erlangt hat. Es besteht Einvernehmen darüber, dass diese Diskussion eine fundierte empirische Datenbasis benötigt, um die vielfältigen Formen des Lernens im Erwachsenenalter (adult learning) sichtbar zu machen und die Entwicklung der Weiterbildungsbeteiligung beobachten zu können. Die europäische Rahmenverordnung über statistische Erhebungen im Bildungsbereich verpflichtet alle europäischen Länder zur Durchführung eines Adult Education Surveys im Abstand von jeweils fünf Jahren. Vor diesem Hintergrund beauftragte das BMBF bisher zwischen den europäischen AES-Erhebungen zusätzlich rein nationale AES-Erhebungen. Zielgruppe des deutschen AES 2018 ist die deutschsprachige Wohnbevölkerung in Deutschland von 18 bis 69 Jahren. Die Zielpersonengruppe der rein nationalen AES-Erhebung 2018 ist somit analog angelegt zur letzten deutschen AES-Erhebung 2016. Computergestützt wurden insgesamt 5.836 Personen mündlich-persönlich befragt (CAPI: Computer Assisted Personal Interviews). Die Auswahl der Befragungspersonen erfolgte mit Hilfe einer mehrfach geschichteten, Zufallsstichprobe mit drei Auswahlstufen nach ADM-Standard.

Ausgehend von der ´Classification of Learning Activities´ (CLA)6 werden im AES folgende Bildungs- und Lernaktivitäten unterschieden: (a) formal education: formale/reguläre Bildung, (b) non-formal education: non-formale Weiterbildung, (c) informal learning: informelles Lernen. Die Aktivitäten werden einzeln erfasst und durch Nachfrageblöcke näher beschrieben. Im AES kann die Analyse daher von einer personenbezogenen Perspektive (Weiterbildungsbeteiligung) zu einer systembezogenen Perspektive (Strukturen der Gesamtheit von Weiterbildungsaktivitäten) wechseln. Insofern liegen drei Datensätze für den AES 2018 vor: (1) Datensatz auf Basis der Befragungspersonen von 18 bis 69 Jahren (AES-Personendatensatz), (2) Datensatz auf Basis der von den Befragungspersonen genannten Weiterbildungsveranstaltungen (NFE-Datensatz) und (3) Datensatz auf Basis der von den Befragungspersonen genannten informellen Lernaktivitäten (INF-Datensatz).

Im Rahmen der AES-Erhebung 2018 wurde auch die Zusatzstudie Digitalisierung in der Weiterbildung (AES-Digi) umgesetzt, bei der es um den Einsatz und die Nutzung von Digitalisierung im Zusammenhang des Bildungsverhaltens Erwachsener ging.

Themen:
1. Berufsbezogene Informationen: Erwerbsstatus; berufliche Situation; Bezug von Arbeitslosengeld; Art des Arbeitslosengeldes; Praktikum; Dauer des aktuellen Erwerbsstatus (Monat, Jahr); berufliche Situation im Befragungsmonat; berufliche Situation im Befragungsmonat minus 1 Monat bis minus 12 Monate; Ausüben einer bezahlten Tätigkeit; frühere und derzeitige Erwerbstätigkeit; Jahr und Monat der letzten Erwerbstätigkeit; frühere Erwerbstätigkeit endete im Referenzzeitraum (z.B. im Befragungsmonat); betriebliche Ausbildung oder bezahltes Praktikum in den letzten 12 Monaten; Grund für das Praktikum (im Rahmen einer betrieblichen Ausbildung, im Rahmen eines Studiums, im Rahmen einer anderen schulischen oder beruflichen Bildung oder aus einem anderen Grund).

2. Charakteristika der beruflichen Haupttätigkeit: Erwerbstätigkeit in den letzten 12 Monaten; Wochenarbeitszeit; Vollzeit/Teilzeit; Beruf; abgeschlossene Berufsausbildung erforderlich; Tätigkeit entspricht dem erlernten Beruf; berufliche Stellung (gruppiert); sozialversicherungspflichtig Beschäftigte bzw. abhängig Beschäftigte; differenzierte berufliche Stellung; Laufbahngruppe; Gruppe der Selbständigen; Beschäftigung festangestellter Mitarbeiter; Anzahl der Mitarbeiter im Betrieb; weniger als 10 oder mehr als 10 Personen im Betrieb tätig (Betriebsgröße, gruppiert); Wirtschaftsbereich (NACE-Code); Art des Betriebes; Öffentlicher Dienst; Branche; Betrieb ist Teil eines größeren Unternehmens; Anzahl Beschäftigte im Gesamtunternehmen; Zeitpunkt des Beschäftigungsbeginns beim aktuellen bzw. beim letzten Arbeitgeber; früherer Erwerbstätigkeit endete im Referenzzeitraum; befristeter oder unbefristeter Arbeitsvertrag; Erfordernisse der beruflichen Tätigkeit; Arbeitslosigkeit im letzten Jahr; Dauer der Arbeitslosigkeit in Monaten; Einstellung zur eigenen Schulzeit (Spaß am Schulunterricht, schlecht gefühlt, gerne länger zur Schule gegangen, Lernen fiel schwer, angestrebten Schulabschluss erreicht, Angst vor Lehrern, viel Interessantes gelernt); Schulschwänzen; Klasse wiederholt).

3. Bildungshintergrund: Besuch regulärer Bildungsgänge

a) Schulbildung: besuchte Schulform; keine Schule besucht; besuchte Klassenstufe derzeit bzw. bei Verlassen der Schule; angestrebter Schulabschluss; Schule mit Abschluss beendet oder ohne Abschluss verlassen; Art des Schulabschlusses; Schulbesuch im Ausland: Klassenstufe bei Verlassen der Schule; ausländische Schule mit Abschluss beendet oder ohne Abschluss verlassen; Art des Schulabschlusses; angestrebter Schulabschluss bei Schulabbruch im Ausland; erfolgreiche Anerkennung des ausländischen Schulabschlusses in Deutschland; wichtigster Grund für den Schulabbruch ohne Abschluss; Zeitpunkt (Jahr und Monat) des Verlassens der Schule; Schule innerhalb der letzten 12 Monate mit oder ohne Abschluss beendet.

b) Ausbildung: Art der beruflichen Ausbildung (berufsvorbereitende Maßnahme, Anlernausbildung oder berufliches Praktikum, Berufsgrundbildungsjahr (BGJ), Berufsfachschule, betriebliche Lehre, Vorbereitungsdienst für Beamte des mittleren Dienstes, Berufsfachschule, die einen Berufsabschluss vermittelt, Schule des Gesundheitswesens, Ausbildungsstätte bzw. Schule für Erzieher/-innen, Fachschule der DDR, Fachakademie (Bayern), Fortbildung zum Meister oder Techniker, Fachwirt/Fachkaufleute; Fachschule oder Fachakademie, Studium an einer Berufsakademie, Studium an einer Verwaltungsfachhochschule, Studium an der Fachhochschule oder Universität, Promotionsstudium, anderer Bildungsgang (offen), keine berufliche Bildung bzw. Hochschulbildung); derzeit in einer Ausbildung; Ausbildung mit Abschluss oder ohne Abschluss beendet; letzte abgebrochene Ausbildung; Jahr der Beendigung der beruflichen Ausbildung ohne Abschluss; mehr als eine Ausbildung begonnen; andere berufliche Ausbildung vor der derzeitigen; Abschluss der vorangegangenen Ausbildung bzw. des Studiums; Art des Hochschulabschlusses; Beruf oder Fachgebiet der derzeitigen Ausbildung; Zeitpunkt (Monat und Jahr) des Ausbildungsabschlusses; Erwerb des Abschlusses in Deutschland oder im Ausland; erfolgreiche Anerkennung dieses im Ausland erworbenen Abschlusses in Deutschland; Qualifikationsniveau; höchster beruflicher Abschluss

4. Beteiligung an verschiedenen Lernformen in den letzten 12 Monaten: Formal Education (FED) - Reguläre Bildungsgänge: Gesamtzahl der in den letzten 12 Monaten besuchten regulären Bildungsgänge; Besuch regulärer Bildungsgänge in den letzten 12 Monaten; Beteiligung an formalen Bildungsgängen (FED); durchgängig in schulischer oder beruflicher Ausbildung in den letzten 12 Monaten und Zeitumfang der Ausbildung; ausgewählter Bildungsgang für FED-Fragen; bezogen auf die derzeitige bzw. zuletzt beendete Ausbildungsmaßnahme wurde gefragt: Jahr und Monat, in dem FED beendet wurde; derzeitiger Besuch des Bildungsgangs; Monat und Startjahr des Bildungsgangs; Erwerbsstatus vor Beginn des Bildungsgangs; Erstausbildung oder Teil einer weiterführenden Bildungsphase; Voraussetzungen für den Bildungsgang; Art des Bildungsgangs; Gründe für die Teilnahme; Zufriedenheit mit dem Bildungsgang; FED Digitalisierung: Häufigkeit der Bereitstellung von Lernmaterialien oder Dokumenten im Internet; die im Internet bereitgestellten Materialien beinhalten in erster Linie Textdokumente; der Kurs umfasste (auch) Ton- oder Videodokumente; die im Internet bereitgestellten Materialen werden in bestimmen zeitlichen Abständen freigeschaltet; bei Nutzung des bereitgestellten Internetangebots Rückmeldung vom Computer erhalten; Häufigkeit der Internetnutzung für den Austausch mit Lehrenden oder anderen Teilnehmern; Art des Austausches per Internet: Häufigkeit virtueller Treffen zu festgelegten Zeiten, Hinterlassen von Anmerkungen oder Kommentaren, Austausch mit anderen Teilnehmenden, die Teilnehmenden wenden sich bei Fragen online an Lehrende oder andere; Bildungsaktivität findet rein online/ überwiegend online im Internet statt vs. überwiegend/ vollständig in einer Veranstaltung vor Ort; Bereiche der Computer- bzw. Internetnutzung bei den Bildungsanbietern (z.B. im Vorfeld Informationen über das Bildungsangebot im Internet gelesen, Online-Test durchgearbeitet, etc.).

5. Non-formal Education(NFE) - non-formale (Weiter-)Bildungsaktivitäten): NFE-Teilnahme im letzten Jahr; Anzahl der NFE-Aktivitäten; in den letzten 12 Monaten Teilnahme an Kursen, Lehrgängen, Seminaren oder Schulungen, kurzzeitigen Bildungs- und Weiterbildungsveranstaltungen, Schulungen am Arbeitsplatz, Privatunterricht in der Freizeit; Anzahl und Inhalt (Thematik) dieser Kurse.

6. Angaben zu ausgewählten Weiterbildungsaktivitäten: Veranstaltungsart; Form der Weiterbildungsaktivität; Anzahl der Unterrichtsstunden (Kursvolumen) in den letzten 12 Monaten; Bezeichnung der Weiterbildungsaktivität; Andauern der Aktivität; Dauer der Aktivität; Anzahl Tage, Wochen, Monate der Weiterbildungsaktivität; Umfang der Weiterbildung in Stunden, Erwerbsstatus bei Beginn der Aktivität und bei Stattfinden der Aktivität; Voraussetzungen für die Teilnahme (z.B. bestimmter Bildungsnachweis, Berufserfahrung, etc.); Art des verlangten Bildungsnachweises (Nachweis über einen akademischen Abschluss/ einen Studienabschluss oder einen anderen Nachweis); Kriterien bei der Wahl des Angebotes; Durchführung der Weiterbildungsaktivität während bezahlter Arbeitszeit oder Freistellung für Bildungszwecke; Anteil der Weiterbildung während der Arbeitszeit; Grund für Freistellung für Bildungszwecke; Grund für Teilnahme an der Weiterbildung: betriebliche Anordnung, Vorschlag von Vorgesetzten oder aus eigenem Antrieb; Teilnahme aus beruflichen oder privaten Gründen; Digitalisierung (NFE-Teilnehmer): Weiterbildungsaktivität hat den Erwerb von Kenntnissen und Fähigkeiten zum Gegenstand, die aufgrund der zunehmenden Digitalisierung im Rahmen der Arbeit benötigt werden, wollte lernen, wie ich das Internet zur Informationsbeschaffung nutzten kann, wollte den Umgang mit bestimmten digitalen Technologien erlernen (z.B. einer Software), wollte mehr über soziale, ethische oder rechtliche Aspekte der Digitalisierung (z.B. Datenschutz) lernen; Organisator oder Auftraggeber der Aktivität (z.B. Arbeitgeber, andere Firma, Arbeitsagentur, etc.); Aktivität selbst organisiert oder beauftragt; Einrichtung oder Person, die die Aktivität angeboten und durchgeführt hat; im Rahmen der Aktivität Prüfung abgelegt; Erhalt eines Zeugnisses oder einer Bescheinigung und Art dieses Zeugnisses; Leistungspunkte bzw. ECTS auf dem Zeugnis, dem Zertifikat oder dem sonstigen Leistungsnachweis und Anzahl der Leistungspunkte; Zeugnis oder Bescheinigung gesetzlich vom Arbeitgeber verlangt für bestimmte Tätigkeiten; Aktivität war ein anrechenbarer Bestandteil eines modular gegliederten Bildungsgangs; Abschluss der Aktivität; bereits andere Teile dieses Bildungsgangs besucht oder Besuch weiterer Teile geplant; angefallene Kosten für Weiterbildung; volle oder teilweise Kostenübernahme der Teilnahme- und Prüfungsgebühren bzw. von Lernmaterialien durch den Befragten; Kostenübernahme der Weiterbildung erfolgte durch den Arbeitgeber, das Arbeitsamt, eine andere öffentliche Einrichtung, Nutzung der Bildungsprämie, Nutzung regionaler Bildungsgutscheine, Eltern, Partner oder Familie, Finanzamt, sonstige, keine davon, es fielen keine Kosten an; Kostenübernahme der Weiterbildung durch die eigene Firma bei Selbstständigen; Weiterbildungsart: Teilnahme an betrieblicher Weiterbildung, an individueller berufsbezogener Weiterbildung oder an nicht berufsbezogener Weiterbildung; Zufriedenheit mit der Weiterbildung insgesamt; Bewertung des Nutzens der Kenntnisse der Weiterbildung insgesamt; erwarteter zukünftiger Nutzen der erworbenen Kenntnisse der Weiterbildung; Häufigkeit der Internetnutzung für Materialien oder Dokumente für die Weiterbildungsaktivität; die im Internet bereitgestellten Materialien beinhalten in erster Linie Textdokumente; der Kurs umfasste (auch) Ton- oder Videodokumente; die im Internet bereitgestellten Materialen werden in bestimmen zeitlichen Abständen freigeschaltet; bei Nutzung des bereitgestellten Internetangebots Rückmeldung vom Computer erhalten; Häufigkeit der Internetnutzung für den Austausch mit Lehrenden oder anderen Teilnehmern; Art des Austausches per Internet: Häufigkeit virtueller Treffen zu festgelegten Zeiten, Hinterlassen von Anmerkungen oder Kommentaren, Austausch mit anderen Teilnehmenden, die Teilnehmenden wenden sich bei Fragen online an Lehrende oder andere; Bildungsaktivität findet rein online/ überwiegend online im Internet statt vs. überwiegend/ vollständig in einer Veranstaltung vor Ort; Non-formale Weiterbildungsaktivität mit digitalen Medien; Teilnehmer an Bildungsaktivität mit digitalen Medien (FED/NFE); Art der Nutzung digitaler Geräte für die Weiterbildungsaktivitäten (computergestützte Vorträge, eigene Internetrecherche, Software oder App vorgestellt, wird selbst Software entwickelt, arbeite alleine oder mit anderen mit einer Software, kommen computergestützte Programme oder Lern-Apps zum Üben zum Einsatz, wird mit Computersimulationen, - spielen oder spielerischen Ansätzen gearbeitet, nichts davon); Grund für die Nutzung digitaler Geräte für die Aktivität (im Vorfeld Informationen über das Bildungsangebot im Internet gelesen, Online-Test über eigene Stärken und Schwächen durchgearbeitet, im Vorfeld über das Internet über das Bildungsangebot beraten lassen, Bildungsangebot über das Internet gebucht, Bildungsangebot über das Internet bezahlt (z.B. per Online-Banking), im Vorfeld Materialien und Dokumente zum Kurs aus dem Internet abgerufen, Teilnahme an einer Prüfung am Computer, nichts davon).

7. Transparenz und Beratung: Zugang zur (Weiter-)Bildung: Überblick über Weiterbildungsmöglichkeiten; Suche nach Informationen über Weiterbildung in den letzten 12 Monaten; erfolgreiche Informationsbeschaffung; Wunsch nach mehr Informationen und Beratung über Weiterbildungsmöglichkeiten; Art der Information und Beratung über Bildungs-und Weiterbildungsmöglichkeiten (kostenlose Informationen von einer Einrichtung oder Organisation bzw. Informationen gegen Bezahlung, kostenlose Beratung von einer Einrichtung oder Organisation bzw. Beratung gegen Bezahlung, nichts davon); Einrichtung bzw. Informationsquelle für das kostenlose Informations- oder Beratungsangebot (z.B. Bildungseinrichtung, Weiterbildungseinrichtung, Arbeitsagentur, Arbeitgeber, Arbeitnehmervertretung, Kammer bzw. Berufsverband, spezielle, unabhängige Beratungseinrichtung, Infotelefon Weiterbildungsberatung); Zweck des kostenlosen Informations- oder Beratungsangebots (bessere Kenntnis der Weiterbildungsmöglichkeiten, Einstufung der Kompetenzen und Fähigkeiten durch z.B. einen Test, Möglichkeiten einer Anerkennung eigener Kompetenzen oder früherer Lernleistungen kennenlernen, anderer Zweck); Art der kostenlosen Beratung (persönliches Gespräch, Telefonat, Austausch mit anderen Personen im Internet oder per E-Mail, Nutzung einer interaktiven IT-Anwendung über das Internet oder Apps auf dem Smartphone, Bücher, Zeitschriften, Broschüren, Flyer, Programme von Weiterbildungsanbietern, Websites, TV-Sendungen zum Thema, nichts davon); Zufriedenheit mit der Beratungsstelle, mit dem Beratungsergebnis, mit der Kompetenz des Beraters, und mit der Beratung insgesamt; Nutzen der Beratung.

8. Informelles Lernen (INF) bzw. Selbstlernen in den letzten 12 Monaten: Lernweg (Lernen von Familie, Freunden oder Kollegen, Lesen von Büchern oder Fachzeitschriften, Nutzung von Lehrangeboten am Computer oder im Internet, Wissenssendungen in anderen Medien, Führungen in Museen oder historischen Orten, Besuche von Büchereien oder offenen Lernzentren, nichts davon); für bis zu zwei Lernaktivitäten wurde erfragt: Thema der informellen Lernaktivität; wichtigster Lernweg; Motivation für das Selbstlernen (berufliche oder private Gründe); Zeitpunkt des informellen Lernens (in der Arbeitszeit bzw. in der Freizeit).

9. Digitalisierung: Häufigkeit der Internetnutzung zu verschiedenen Zwecken (kurzfristig Information abrufen, Lernen, Einschätzung anderer erfahren, Austausch mit anderen in Chats, andere Menschen kennenlernen, Posten, Meinungsäußerung, Spielen, Videos ansehen); Unterstützung beim Lernen durch verschiedene Aspekte der Internetnutzung (Bereitstellung von Material im Internet, Aufforderung zur eigenständigen Recherche im Internet, arbeite selbst mit einer bestimmten Software, gemeinsame Arbeit an einem digitalen Projekt); Einstellung zu digitalen Medien beim Lernen (z.B. Bildungsaktivitäten ohne den Einsatz von digitalen Medien nicht mehr denkbar, etc.); Bewertung verschiedener Aspekte im Hinblick auf einen erleichterten Zugang zu Lern- oder Informationsangeboten im Internet (Angebote teilweise auf Englisch, kostenloser Zugang zu den Inhalten, barrierefreie Inhalte, Inhalte in leichter Sprache, selbst entscheiden, wann und wo man lernt, Datenschutz gewährleistet).

Demographie: Geschlecht; Alter (Geburtsjahr, Geburtsmonat, Alter offen und gruppiert); erste gelernte Sprache in der Kindheit (Muttersprache); Muttersprache(n) bei Zweisprachigkeit mit und ohne Deutsch; deutsche Staatsangehörigkeit; Migrationshintergrund; andere Staatsangehörigkeit; Erwerb der deutschen Staatsbürgerschaft; Staatsangehörigkeit vor Erwerb der deutschen Staatsbürgerschaft; in Deutschland geboren; anderes Geburtsland; durchgängig in Deutschland in Jahren; Anzahl der Jahre in Deutschland; 11 und mehr Jahre in Deutschland, und zwar; Alter bei Zuzug nach Deutschland; Aufenthaltsstatus (unbefristete/ befristete Aufenthaltsgenehmigung, geduldet); Haushaltsart; Zusammenleben mit einem Partner; Alter des Partners/der Partnerin (gruppiert); Familienstand; Kinder; Gesamtzahl der Kinder; Anzahl und Alter (gruppiert) der Kinder im Haushalt; Kinder unter 5 Jahren im Haushalt; Kinder von 5 bis 13 Jahren im Haushalt; weitere Personen im Haushalt; Altersgruppe weiterer Personen im Haushalt (Haushaltszusammensetzung); Haushaltsgröße; Haushaltsnettoeinkommen; Zufriedenheit mit dem Haushaltseinkommen; Selbsteinschätzung der Sprachkenntnisse in Deutsch und in Englisch.
Angaben zu den Eltern: Geburtsland Deutschland; Geburtsland der Eltern; deutsche Staatsangehörigkeit; Erwerb der deutschen Staatsangehörigkeit; Migrationshintergrund Generationen 1 und 2.

Zusätzlich verkodet wurde: ID (Befragter, informelle Lernaktivitäten, Kurse); West-Ost; Ortsgröße (BIK); politische Gemeindegrößenklasse; Gewichtungsfaktoren und Hochrechnungsfaktoren; Teilnahme an FED und/oder NFE in den letzten zwölf Monaten; Breitbandverfügbarkeit über leitungsgebundene/ drahtlose Technologien im Haushalt; Definition Migrationshintergrund bis AES 2016; Haushaltsgröße: Gesamt AES (Anzahl Personen im Haushalt zwischen 18 und 69 Jahren), Trend AES (Anzahl Personen im Haushalt zwischen 18 und 64 Jahren), EU-Kern-ZP (Anzahl Personen im Haushalt zwischen 25 und 64 Jahren); Hilfsvariablen (z.B. zur Bestimmung des Bildungsgangs); FED-Teilnehmer 1./2. Phase; Matrix der NFE-Aktivitäten genannt; Aktivitäten für Nachfragen in Schleife x genutzt; ausgewählte Aktivität (Kurs); Kurs; Kurse insgesamt in den Nachfrageschleifen 1 bis 12; Weiterbildungsform(en) in Nachfrageblock 1 bis 12.

Der AES-2018-Datensatz enthält eine Reihe von Informationen, die nach internationalen Klassifikationssystemen vercodet werden können. Die im Fragenprogramm erfassten Bildungsaktivitäten werden nach ISCED-Level 2011 (Fragen zum Bildungshintergrund) und nach ISCED-Fields 2013 (FED-, NFE- und INF-Aktivitäten) vercodet. Hierfür wurden von Kantar Public die im AES 2007 entwickelten Prozesse im Rahmen des AES 2016 überarbeitet und die erforderlichen Variablen-Definitionen grundlegend (für ISCED-Level) bzw. ein computergestütztes Vercodungssystem (für ISCED-Fields 2013) neu entwickelt.

Moving back to the land is, from different perspectives, a fascinating topic that has been on stage since the sixties. Since then, new forms of rurality have become an upcoming phenomenon on the media, still today we often hear of unexpected success of rural entrepreneurs who reinvented their life, they represent their triumph as reaction to market failure and city-life depression. From a sociological point of view, it is an exciting counter-cultural subject. How to study neo-rurality nowadays? Speaking in contemporary terms, we can talk about changes in rurality, taking Rural Social Innovation as our approach. As we'll see, social innovation is as appropriate as ambiguous when it comes to the research implementation, lacking in the specificity of the definition. Therefore, I decided to integrate the conceptual framework with two more solid theoretical approaches: social capital and moral market, which may analytically help understand and investigate the topic. From that, a research question rises, followed by an intense fieldwork. Let's go step by step, starting by introducing the study. a) The topic: Neo-rurality In the first chapter I explain the topic. Rurality studies connect different disciplines: sociology (marginality, mobility, market dynamics); geography (distance and periphery); policies and normative discourse (inner areas and rurality). 'Back-to-the-land' generally refers to the adoption of agriculture as a full-time vocation by people who have come from non-agricultural lifestyles or education. Originated in the 1960s, it situates back-to-the-landers as part of broader counterculture practices (Belasco, 2006). The back-to-the-land movement of the 1960s and 70s is often framed in relation to general cultural currents that encouraged "dropping out" of mainstream society in search of alternatives. "Multiplying fivefold between 1965 and 1970" writes Belasco (1989: 76) of communal back-to-the-land projects, "3,500 or so country communes put the counterculture into group practice". During the 1970s, the "protestant neo-ruralism" (neoruralismo protestatario, Merlo, 2006) conceives rural areas as the place where an alternative way of life can be experienced through the creation of an alternative agricultural production process. That approach refuses completely the Green Revolution (GR) paradigm (Shiva, 2016). Later, the development of alternative agricultural production was embedded in the agro-ecological paradigm, then absorbed by the global industrial system through the creation of organic certifications. Such a process of integration has developed a new critical reflection on food production and market relations. Neo-rurality is the frame that collects different approaches which are changing rural areas on different levels. It calls for attention to the relation between environmental issues, rural crisis and territorial issues (Ferraresi, 2013). Neo-rural farmers try a new model that is economically, socially and environmentally sustainable, protects biodiversity and promotes local quality food. In fact, production of quality food is key for the activation of practices and community relationships within the horizon of agro-ecological values. In Italy, pioneers of the alternative movements came from different backgrounds: the radical left, the ecologist movement and the anti-conformist or alternative movements. Also, a pioneering phase was characterized by a multiplicity of regional-level and often unconnected initiatives (Fonte, Cucchi, 2015). Ferraresi (2013) describes 'Neo-rurality' as a new, social and complex economy. Born partly in response to expansion of industrial food and partly due to the survival of some systems that resisted to conversion, we see emerging new or resurgent forms of production, trade and consumption, latterly conceptualised by academics as 'Alternative Agro-Food Networks' (AAFNs) or 'Alternative Food Networks' (AFNs). Movements become key players in the definition of new market places (Friedmann, 2005). Food movements act as an engine of awareness in consumption, and address issues that are core for social and media consensus, for instance health, environment, quality of life (Goodman, 1999), and also social justice and fair trade (Elzen et al., 2010). A second important effect of AAFNs is the empowerment of consumers, a leverage on citizenship action for the transformation of consumption behaviours into political action (Goodman, DuPuis, 2002). Exponents of neo-rural economy, as part of AAFNs, have promoted participation in alternative infrastructures contrasting the conventional market system, developing specific organisational forms, negotiating new forms of collaborative economy (Kostakis, Bauwens, 2014). They thus blur the distinction between public sphere and private sphere (Tormey, 2007). The AAFNs, as shown in the article by Murano and Forno (2017), has three main drivers shaping the form of development of this type of collective action: 1. Greater citizen awareness around economic, social and environmental sustainability issues; 2. The loss of purchasing power within important portions of the middle class, due to the increasing unemployment rates following the recession which started in 2007-2008; 3. General loss of meaning, due to the consumerism and the depletion of social relations, along with the decoupling of GDP growth and happiness (as suggested by the paradox Easterlin, 1974), people's search for a meaning in their life (Castells, Caraça, Cardoso, 2012) which seems to have been lost in a consumer society threatened by an economic, environmental and social crisis (D'Alisa et al., 2015). Tradition of local governance studies focuses on central areas, hi-tech districts, city-regions, overlooking the role of less industrialized areas, that actually represent two thirds of Italy. Northern Italy has been considered as a cluster of industrial development. Given current globalization forces, taking for granted recent government interest in undeveloped areas, inner areas have a stake in getting involved in wider market dynamics and renewed resources. An important contribution to the EU debate on territorial marginalisation has been provided by the Italian government's innovative approach to 'Inner Areas' (DPS, 2014). The government mapped all municipalities and categorized them according to their degree of remoteness from services, consistently with criteria that the debate on Foundational Economy indicates as key factors of spatial (in)justice. The emerging picture offers a polycentric connotation of the Italian territory. The geography of the inner peripheries includes mountain and coastal areas, as well as hilly and lowland areas, but provides no conclusive evidence to establish correlations between morphological conditions and degree of remoteness. The second chapter is dedicated to theoretical approaches: Rural Social Innovation, Social Capital and Sociology of Markets. b) Rural Social Innovation The neo-rurality phenomenon is strictly connected to Rural Social Innovation. Social innovation is a term on everyone's lips, indicating change and development, including social effects. Social Innovation is not specifically mentioned in literature on regional development, but in the more nuanced models we find that most important features are trust among actors, informal ties and untraded interdependencies between actors, which are key factors determining positive differentials in economic performance. Rural Social Innovation is helpfully used in many studies (Bock, 2012). Still, even though it is currently a very relevant phenomenon, Social Innovation itself is a critic concept, it is both one of the most common and ant the most unclear concepts nowadays. Because of its credits to local development, social networks and economic outcomes, I decided to use two more analytical sociological concepts to understand the phenomenon: social capital and sociology of markets. c) Social Capital Individuals generally pursue major life events—marriage, occupational choice—as part of a social network or group. As an exemplum, engaging in the creation of a new firm is generally done in a network of social relationships (Aldrich, 2005; Reynolds, 1991; Thornton, 1999); in that sense entrepreneurship can be considered a social phenomenon, rather than solely one of individual career choice. Social capital is a conscious use of embeddedness, the use of relations and resources for a purpose. According to Coleman (1988), social capital is defined by its function. It is not a single entity but a variety of different entities, with two elements in common: they all consist of some aspects of social structures, and they facilitate certain actions of actors within the structure. Coleman refers to the social structure that enables access to resources. Additionally, we can also recall Bourdieu, who sees social capital as the aggregate of actual or potential resources which are linked to possession of a durable network of more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance or recognition. And Putnam pointing at three components: moral obligation and norms; social values (trust); and social networks (voluntary association). d) Sociology of Markets The structure of markets can be reduced to its minimal components, that are a buyer and two sellers which compete according to some defined rules (Aspers, 2006b). Relations among actors can be of exchange, as between buyers and sellers, or of competition, as between producers. In the structure of markets, people also mobilize beliefs, ethics, values and views of the common good to talk about the effects of market processes (Boltanski, Thevenot, 2006). As pointed in the recent book published by Granovetter "Society and Economy" (2017:28) The fact that people seek simultaneously economic and non-economic goals is an unprecedented challenge for that economic analysis that focuses only on one of the two horns, as for sociology that focuses only on the other. Current theories of action in social sciences offer little knowledge of how individuals mix these goals. We can therefore recall Zelizer (2007) highlighting that economists and sociologists face a common presumption: the twinned stories of separate spheres and hostile worlds. Separate spheres indicate a distinction between two arenas, one for rational economic activity, a sphere of calculation and efficiency, and one for personal relations, a sphere of sentiment and solidarity. The companion doctrine of hostile worlds affirms that contact between the spheres generates contamination and disorder: economic rationality degrades intimacy, and close relationships obstruct efficiency. Moral economy is based on this attack on the common presumption. According to these considerations on ways that shape relationships and market, the main question that rises is: "Are values and social relationship separate from the market?". e) The Research During my PhD studies I worked on an answer to this question. In the third chapter I present the case of alternative agro-food movements and neo-rurality in urban and inner areas in the region of Campania (southern Italy). The study is based on qualitative research design, composed of fieldwork and interviews, undertaken in Campania during 2014-2016, where inner and central areas are the scenery of innovative development processes, founded on structural and territorial resources, as well as on individual and social capitals. Here I present you with a quote from an Italian journalist, Alessandro Leogrande, recalling the most important anthropologist of southern Italy, Ernesto Demartino: In a complex society, old elements and new elements continue to coexist, traits of modernity and traits of archaisms, pre-Christian segments and post-Christian segments, or entirely de-Christianised ones. It seems to me that the [Italian] South of these years, precisely in the light of a Demartino's analysis, fully returns the overlapping of these various layers. (Leogrande, 2016) I wish you a pleasant journey throughout my pages, at the discovery of neo-rural dynamics in southern Italy, a special place for meeting contradictions, traces of ancient and futuristic art, holy and desacralized behaviours, traditional and innovative practices.

Die pädagogischen Ideen von Jan Amos Komenský/Comenius begründen sich ausgehend von seinem pädagogischen Leitmotiv, als Emblem mit lateinischer Aufschrift auf dem Titelblatt des Buches Comenius, Johann Amos: Orbis sensualium pictus. In lateinischer Sprache lautet das pädagogische Leitmotiv von Jan Amos Komenský/Comenius "Omnia sponte fluant, absit violentia rebus!", in deutscher Sprache "Alles fließe von selbst, Gewalt sein ferne den Dingen!". Die pädagogischen Ideen von Jan Amos Komenský sind in der Tschechischen Republik lebendig, seine literarischen Schriften, vor allem sein Roman "Labyrint sveta a raj srdce" Labyrinth der Welt und Paradies des Herzens" werden im Literaturunterricht am Gymnasium gelesen, damit werden seine Gedanken, Ideen und Zukunftsperspektiven an tschechische Schüler und Schülerinnen vermittelt. Die Institutionen Národní pedagogické muzeum a knihovna JA Komenského Praha, Gedenkstätte Fulnek, das Muzeum Jan Amos Komenského Přerov und das Muzeum Jan Amos Komenského Uherský Brod gestalten die Erinnerung an den Pädagogen Komenský/Comenius durch Ausstellungen, Konzerte und Tagungen und bieten Pädagogische Weiterbildungen für Lehrer und museumspädagogische Erlebnisprogramme für Schüler. Das Schul- und Bildungswesen der Niederlande orientiert sich an den pädagogischen Ideen von Jan Amos Komenský/Comenius. Die pädagogische Wertschätzung von Comenius in den Niederlanden wird deutlich durch die Einführung eines neuen fälschungssicheren Schuldiploms durch das Ministerium für Bildung, Kultur und Wissenschaft mit dem Stellenwert eines Zeugnisses für den Hochschulzugang. Als Schuldiplom für den voruniversitären Bildungsgang zur Aufnahme an einer niederländischen Universität besitzt das Zeugnis mit den Porträtabbildungen von Jan Amos Komenský/Comenius, Hugo Grotius und Baruch de Spinoza einen hohen Stellenwert. Durch die gute Verbundenheit mit dem tschechischen Gelehrten Jan Amos Komenský/Comenius und durch die Drucklegung seiner pädagogischen Werke in Deutschland, besteht für das deutsche Schul- und Bildungswesen ein kontinuierlicher Gedankenaustausch zur Erforschung und Anwendung der pädagogischen Ideen von Jan Amos Komenský/Comenius. Die Deutsche Comenius Gesellschaft vollzieht in ihren Tätigkeiten, Aufgaben, Veröffentlichungen und Veranstaltungen den Auftrag, die pädagogischen Ziele des tschechischen Gelehrten, Theologen, Philos- Bernhard Josef Stalla 188 ophen und Pädagogen Jan Amos Komenský/Comenius zu verwirklichen. Ein zentrales Anliegen des Comenius-Expertenforum an der Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München besteht darin, den aktuellen Europäischen Bildungsauftrag hinsichtlich seiner historischen Grundlagen und der von Comenius erarbeiteten geistig-politischen Wurzeln des Europäischen Bildungsgedankens offenzulegen und professionell zu fördern. Die Comenius-Forschungsstelle an der AlanisHochschule Alfter und die ihr zugehörige Forschungsbibliothek.versteht sich in erster Linie als eine wissenschaftliche Forschungseinrichtung, weiß sich aber auch dem kulturellen Erbe des Comenius verpflichtet ; Idee edukacyjne Jana Amosa Komeńskiego / Comeniusa można podsumować w duchu strony tytułowej jego książki Orbis sensualizm pictus. Edukacyjną myślą przewodnią Jana Amosa Komeńskiego / Comeniusa jest Omnia sponte fluant, absit violentia rebus! ("Wszystkie rzeczy płyną spontanicznie, jeśli nie ma przemocy!"). Idee edukacyjne Jana Amosa Komeńskiego w Czechach są żywe, jego pisma literackie, a zwłaszcza jego powieść Labyrint świata a raj serca, czytane są na lekcjach literatury w gimnazjum, aby jego myśli, idee i perspektywy były przekazywane czeskim uczniom i studentom. Państwowe Muzeum Pedagogiczne im. Jana Amosa Komeńskiego w Pradze, Memoriał Fulnek, Muzeum Jan Amosa Komeńskiego w Przerowie i Muzeum Jana Amosa Komeńskiego w Uherskim Brodzie pielęgnują pamięć o pedagogu Komeńskim / Comeniusie poprzez wystawy, koncerty i konferencje oraz zapewniają szkolenie edukacyjne dla nauczycieli i muzealne programy praktyk edukacyjnych dla studentów. System edukacji w Holandii opiera się na pedagogicznych ideach Jana Amosa Komeńskiego/ Comeniusa. Pedagogiczne uznanie dla Komeńskiego w Holandii wzrosło dzięki wprowadzeniu przez Ministerstwo Edukacji, Kultury i Nauki nowego dyplomu ukończenia szkoły zabezpieczonego przed fałszerstwami certyfikatem z portretem Jana Amosa Komeńskiego / Comeniusa. Dyplomy z portretami Komeńskiego, Hugo Grotiusa i Barucha de Spinozy mają wysoki priorytet. Dzięki dobrym relacjom z czeskim naukowcem Janem Amosem Komeńskim / Comeniusem oraz publikacją jego dzieł edukacyjnych w Niemczech, istnieje ciągły dialog koncepcji badań i zastosowanie idei pedagogicznych Jana Amosa Komeńskiego / Comeniusa w edukacji szkolnej w Niemczech. Niemieckie Towarzystwo Komeńskiego w Berlinie organizuje działania, zadania, publikacje i wydarzenia, aby osiągnąć edukacyjne cele Komeńskiego. Główną ideą Forum Comenius-Expert na Uniwersytecie Ludwika Maksymiliana jest obecny europejski porządek edukacyjny w zakresie historycznych, teologicznych, filozoficznych i pedagogicznych idei Jana Amosa Komeńskiego. Polityczne korzenie europejskiego myślenia o edukacji wpłynęły na przygotowanie mentalne w kierunku uświadomienia oraz promowania międzynarodowej współpracy dla pokojowego świata bez granic. Centrum Badawcze Comeniusa na Alanus-University w Alfter i związana z nim badaniami Biblioteka Badawcza Komeńskiego zgłębiają zagadnienia związane z życiem, pracą i wpływem Jana Amosa Komeńskiego (*1592-†1670) w kontekście nowożytnego rozwoju, ale także dziedzictwa kulturowego Jana Amosa Komeńskiego dzisiaj. ; The educational ideas of John Amos Komenský/Comenius can be summarized in the motif of the title page of his book Orbis sensualium pictus. In the Latin language, the educational keynote of John Amos Komenský/Comenius is "Omnia sponte fluant, absit violentia rebus!", in the English language, "All things flow spontaneously, if violence is absent!". The educational ideas of Jan Amos Komenský in the Czech Republic are alive, his literary writings, especially his novel "Labyrintsveta a raj srdce" are read in literature classes at secondary school, so that his thoughts, ideas and perspectives are conveyed to Czech pupils and students. The National Pedagogical Museum of John Amos Comenius in Prague, the Memorial Fulnek, the Museum of John Amos Comenius in Přerov and the Museum of Jan Amos Comenius in Uherský Brod keep the memory of the pedagogue Komenský/Comenius alive through exhibitions, concerts and conferences, and provide educational training for teachers and Museum educational experience programs for students. The School and education system in the Netherlands is based on the pedagogical ideas of John Amos Komenský/Comenius. The pedagogical appreciation of Comenius in the Netherlands was promoted through the introduction of a new tamper-proof school diploma by the Ministry of education, culture and science, with the importance of a high school certificate. As a school diploma of pre-university education, when submitted for admission to a Dutch University, the certificate with portrait illustrations of John Amos Komenský/Comenius, Hugo Grotius and Baruch de Spinoza has a high priority. By the good relationship with the Czech scientist John Amos Komenský/Comenius and by the publication of his educational works in Germany, there is a continuous dialogue of ideas for the research and application of the pedagogical ideas of Jan Amos Komenský/Comenius for the school education in Germany. The German Comenius Society in Berlin organizes activities, tasks, publications and events in order to achieve the educational intentions of Komenský/Comenius. A central idea of the Comenius-Expert Forum at the LudwigMaximilians-University of Munich is the current European education order in terms of its historical foundations, and of the theologian, philosopher and pedagogue John Amos Comenius, political roots of the European thinking of education prepared mentally to be disclosed, and to promote international cooperation for a peaceful world without borders. The Comenius Research Centre at the Alanus-University in Alfter and the associated Comenius Research Library explore the issues of life, work and influence of John Amos Comenius (*1592-†1670) in the context of early modern development, but also of the cultural heritage of Comenius today.

Book Reviews in This Article:R. H. Hilton. A Medieval Society: the West Midlands at the End of the Thirteenth Century.R. I. Jack (Ed.). The Grey of Ruthin Valor. The Valor of the English lands of Edmund Grey, Earl of Kent, drawn up from the ministers' accounts of 1467‐8.Roger Howell. Newcastle upon Tyne and the Puritan Revolution. A Study of the Civil War in North England.J. D. Marshall (Ed.). The Autobiography of William Stout of Lancaster 1665‐1752.Naomi Riches. The Agricultural Revolution in Norfolk.Frank Booker. Industrial Archaeology of the Tamar Valley.Francis E. Hyde with contributions from J. R. Harris and A. M. Bourn. Shipping Enterprise and Management, 1830‐1939: Harrisons of Liverpool.David L. Smith. The Dalmellington Iron Company. Its Engines and Men.J. R. Vincent. Pollbooks: How Victorians Voted.Maurice Cowling. 1867: Disraeli, Gladstone, and Revolution. The Passing of the Second Reform Bill.E. D. Mackerness (Ed.). The Journals of George Sturt, 1890‐1927.Bentley B. 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The Intergenerational Justice Review (www.igjr.org) is a peer-reviewed English language journal, reflecting the current state of research on intergenerational justice. The IGJR publishes articles from humanities, social sciences, and international law. The journal is released biannually and employs a double-blind peer review process. Its editorial board consists of about 50 internationally renowned experts from ten different countries. IGJR is indexed under Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ). The topic of issue 1/2020 (which is planned to be the first part of a double issue) will be"Housing crisis: How can we improve the situation for young people?" We welcome submissions to the issue 1/2020 that analyse the housing situation of the young generation. Topic outlineIn many European countries, and especially in large cities and university towns, affordable housing is a pressing and sometimes explosive issue. In the debate about such questions as home ownership or rent increase caps (Mietpreisbremse – German: rent brakes), the intergenerational perspective is often forgotten. But different generations are affected in noticeably different ways. Rising rent and purchase prices and the failure of housing construction programmes make it ever more difficult for young people to access the housing market. The quality of housing is a key factor in living standards and wellbeing, as well as an integral element of social integration, yet in 2014 a total of 7.8% of young people in the European Union (aged between 15 and 29) were in severe housing need, 25.7% of the young people in the EU lived in overcrowded households, and 13.6% lived in households that spent 40% or more of their equivalised disposable income on housing (Eurostat 2016).In response to the 2008/9 financial crisis, government programmes for public and social housing aimed at the poorer parts of the population were cut back, leading to diminishing access to affordable housing, especially in urbanised areas. For young people, this means that they have to pay higher rents. Today, therefore, they often live longer in their parental homes, or in the private rental sector, than previous generations (Ronald/Lennartz 2018).What is often referred to as a "housing crisis" can certainly be seen as a question of intergenerational justice, because the baby boomers had easier access to housing or to the means to finance it. Today, the baby boomer generation benefits from housing inequality in two ways: through property values and rental income. At the same time, with pension systems under pressure because of ageing populations, the ownership of residential property has become an important component of old-age provision (Helbrecht/ Geisenkauser 2012).Younger generations, on the other hand, are disadvantaged in two respects: today's increased demand leads to further pressure on the housing market in the low-price segment, which in turn leads to an increase in the rent burden for lower and middle income groups, and also makes the purchase of residential property more difficult. In many parts of Europe, such as the Southeast of the UK, in the 1980s the average cost of a first home was three to four times the annual average salary; today it can be ten or twelve times the annual average salary.From this perspective, it can certainly be argued that the housing market situation is not intergenerationally fair. And in many European countries, ownership of real estate has become a much greater source of wealth inequality between generations than salary differentials.This gloomy picture of housing and home ownership is, however, by no means universal. Statistics point to significant differences between countries, and international comparisons show that successful housing policies are possible. An EU comparison shows that the percentage of households managed by a person aged 18–29 who spends 40% or more of their disposable income on housing costs ranges from 1.3% (in Malta) to 45.4% (in Greece) (Leach et al. 2016). It is clear that some countries perform significantly better than others in providing affordable housing for the next generation.Articles could approach the topic through a broad range of questions, including:How did the housing crisis come to be and how can housing inequality for young people be improved?Why are some countries better than others at providing affordable housing for the next generation? What are the similarities and differences? What lessons can be drawn from cross-country comparisons?What political levers, such as subsidies, could be introduced to help the younger generation achieve more affordable and long-term housing security? Is the German Mietpreisbremse a successful instrument for this and how does it affect the young generation?Planet vs. people: It is often suggested that the solution to the housing crisis is to build more homes, but this raises the question of encroaching on green spaces and the environmental impact that this implies. How can that tension be resolved? How can urbanisation and the housing market become more environmentally friendly?Another solution is to use existing housing stock more efficiently. Can government policy help to bring this about, for example by incentivising the fuller occupation of large houses with unused spare bedrooms, or by discouraging the ownership of second homes through higher taxation? What is the potential of new forms of housing, such as shared housing, multi-generational housing, homeshare (housing for help)?How does homelessness affect young people in particular and how can it be combated?How can those who work in the media be encouraged to address this topic?Submission RequirementsSubmissions will be accepted until 31 December 2019.Articles may be submitted electronically through the IGJR homepage (see "Submissions").Articles should be no more than 30,000 characters in length (including spaces but excluding bibliography, figures, photographs and tables). For details, see the author guidelines: http://www.igjr.org/ojs/igjr_doc/Author_Guidelines.pdfDemography PrizeNote that this topic is closely related to the subject of the next Demography Prize promoted by the Foundation for the Rights of Future Generations (FRFG) and the Intergenerational Foundation (IF). The prize is endowed with 10,000€ and has 1 December 2019 as its deadline. Young researchers may also wish to participate in this essay competition, and it is hoped that this edition of the IGJR will contain a selection of the best prize submissions in English. More information is available on www.if.org.uk under Research Prizes and on www.intergenerationaljustice.org under Academic Awards Demography Prize.ReferencesEurostat (2016): Young people – housing conditions. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/pdfscache/46039.pdf. Viewed 27 September 2018.Ronald, Richard / Lennartz, Christian (2018): Housing careers, intergenerational support and family relations. In: Housing Studies, 33 (2), 147-159.Helbrecht, Ilse / Geilenheuser, Tim (2012): Demographischer Wandel, Generationeneffekte und Wohnungsmarktentwicklung: Wohneigentum als Altersvorsorge? In: Raumforschung und Raumordnung, 70 (5), 425–436. Recommended literatureDorling, Danny (2015): All That is Solid: How the Great Housing Disaster Defines Our Times, and What We Can Do About It. London: Allen Lane.Dustmann, Christian / Fitzenberger, Bernd / Zimmerman, Markus (2018): Housing Expenditures and Income Inequality, Cream Discussion Paper 16/18, London: Centre for Research and Analysis of Migration, URL: http://www.cream-migration.org/publ_uploads/CDP_16_18.pdf. Viewed 24 October 2018.Eurostat (2016): Young people – housing conditions, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/pdfscache/46039.pdf. Viewed 27 September 2018.Eurostat (2015): Housing cost overburden rate. http://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do?dataset=ilc_lvho07alang=en. Viewed 27 September 2018.Helbrecht, Ilse / Geilenheuser, Tim (2012): Demographischer Wandel, Generationeneffekte und Wohnungsmarktentwicklung: Wohneigentum als Altersvorsorge? In: Raumforschung und Raumordnung, 70 (5), 425–436.Hills, John / Cunliffe, Jack / Obolenskaya, Polina / Karagiannaki, Eleni (2015): Falling behind, getting ahead: the changing structure of inequality in the UK, 2007-2013. Social Policy in Cold Climate. London: LSE.Leach, Jeremy / Broeks, Miriam / Østenvik, Kristin / Kingman, David (2016): European Intergenerational Fairness Index: A Crisis for the Young. London: Intergenerational Foundation: http://www.if.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/European-Intergenerational-Fairness-Index_Final-2016.pdf. Viewed 27 September 2018.Lennartz, Christian / Helbrecht, Ilse (2018): The housing careers of younger adults and intergenerational support in Germany's 'society of renters'. In: Housing Studies, 33 (2), 317-336.Morton, Alex (2013): Housing and Intergenerational Fairness. London: Policy Exchange.National Housing Federation (2014): Broken Market, Broken Dreams. London: NHF.Ronald, Richard / Lennartz, Christian (2018): Housing careers, intergenerational support and family relations. In: Housing Studies, 33 (2), 147-159.Rugg, Julie J. / Quilgars, Deborah (2015): Young People and Housing: A Review of the Present Policy and Practice Landscape. In: Youth and Policy. Issue 114.Shaw, Randy (2018): Generation Priced Out. Who Gets to Live in the New Urban America, Oakland, CA: University of California Press.Shelter (2010): The Human Cost: How the Lack of Affordable Housing Impacts on All Aspects of Life. London: Shelter.

In 1928, Utah Construction Company completed its first project outside of the United States with the 110 mile railroad for Southern Pacific of Mexico. Over the next 30 years, UCC continued to work on projects in Mexico including dams, roads, mining, and canals. The collection contains several booklets and correspondence along with approximately 500 photographs. ; 8.5 x 11 in. paper ; ENGLISH TRANSLATION OF ING. LUIS DE LA PEA PORTH'S SPEECH INAUGURA-TING THE NINTH NATIONAL CONVENTION OF THE ASSOCIATION OF MINING, ME-TALLURGICAL AND GEOLOGICAL ENGINEERS OF MEXICO. Preamble by the Press, as published in the Hermosillo Daily ""Imparcial"" De la Pea Porth Demands Unity of Endeavor and Unity of Resources for Mexican Mining. Taking the speaker's stand to expound his concept of the general pa-norama of mining in Mexico, the Deputy-Minister of ""Recursos Natura-les No Renovables', Luis de la Pea Porth, delivered a vibrant mes-sage to more than 1,600 delegates of different entities of Mexico, to whom he delineated the Mining Policy of the present Administration. The official from the Federal Government, demanded the participation of all parties in the difficult task of the resurgance of the mining-metallurgical industry of Mexico and cited concepts of great signifi-cance which are presented during his speech which is published com-pletely as follows: VERBAL TEXT OF ING. LUIS DE LA PEA PORTH'S INAUGURAL ADDRESS TO THE NINTH NATIONAL CONVENTION OF THE ""ASOCIACION DE INGENIEROS DE MINAS, METALURGISTAS Y-GEOLOGOS DE MEXICO"" October 25, 1971 - Hermosillo, Sonora Mr. Governor of the State of Sonora; Mr. President of the Board of Directors of the National Association of Mining, Metallurgical and Geological Engineers of Mexico; Honorable Members of the Presidium; Ladies and gentlemen. It is a great honor for me and one of the greatest satisfactions of my professional life to be present in this ceremony with the most ho-norable representation of Mr. Lic. Luis Echeverra, Constitutional President of the Mexican United States, as well as to transmit to you, on his behalf, a warm greeting and his best wishes for the suc- cess of this Ninth National Convention. Considering the foregoing and knowing that the Asociacin de Ingenie-ros de Minas, Metalurgistas y Gelogos de Mxico, to which I'm proud to belong, includes the majority of Mexican mining technicians and that one of their main objectives is to collaborate with the Govern-ment in the development of the mining activities of the country, I feel it is very appropriate to take advantage of this opportunity to present to you some of the main components of the present mining policy of the Mexican Government. An adequate mining policy, aside from purely technical and economic factors, must consider, very specially, social, cultural, political factors and in some cases aspects of national sovereignity. It is not acceptable, under any circumstance, to believe the thesis that the exploitation of mineral resources with which the Country has been endowed should be developed with exclusively economic objectives, no - 2 - matter how justifiable and apparently favorable they may be. It is indispensable, in our opinion, that this exploitation be developed in such a way that a maximum contribution be made toward the achieve- ment of the highest national objectives. Undoubtedly, one of the fundamental aspects of the mining policy of the Mexican Government during the last years, has been the so-called ""mexicanization of mining"". This process, consisting in the majority participation in Mexican mining enterprises by Mexican capital, be it state or private, is backed in the precepts of Article 27 of the 1917 Constitution, which clearly states that the exploitation and use of the mineral resources will only be able to be developed in the Coun-try, under the protection of concessions given by the Mexican state and that these concessions will be given only to Mexican citizens or Mexican enterprises. I consider it very important to clarify that ""mexicanization"" is not equivalent to nationalization, nor does it constitute in itself, a first step in this direction. On the contrary, we understand mexica-nization to be an alternative between a mining industry in Mexico controlled by foreign interests, separated from the economic life of the country, and a nationalized mining industry, separated from its natural markets and from its most accessible sources of capital and tecnology. Considered in this manner, mexicanization of mining may not be a so-lution thoretically ideal for the difficult dilemma with which we are faced, but we sincerely believe that, within the general frame-work of realities of our national circumstances, as well as interna-tional, it is the best practical solution that, at the moment, we can find for this dilemma. The basic objectives of mexicanization are: a) To ensure that the private interests of mining enterprises be kept, in all cases, subordinate to national interests; b) To achieve a true integration of mining activities with the e-conomic life of the country, and c) To avoid, as much as possible, and without resort to coercive measures, the exit of economic resources from the country, ge-nerated by the exploitation of our mineral resources. It is undoubtable that in the first stages of the mexicanization of mining enterprises that were already in operation, this process, which the President of the Republic himself has claimed a ""national conquest of great importance"", has been successful. Nevertheless, it is necessary to recognize also that, unfortunately, there still exist doubtful ""mexicanizations"" that only obey the let-ter of the Law but not its spirit. Also, facts and negative tenden-cies in mining are occuring which require corrective measures which will perfect and make more real and effective the mexicanization of mining. Among the negative aspects of the present disposition of Mexican mi-ning, we are particularly concerned about the following: 3 a) The insufficient investments presently being made both by the State as well as by private enterprise, in mining exploration and in the development of new mining ventures. b) The weakness of the small and medium mining entities, and the dan-gerous concentration of the national mining production by a small number of large companies. c) The vulnerability of the Mexican mining industry to international prices, to the extent that when prices are unfavorable they not only affect present production, but they have a large impact on future production and impede taking adequate advantage of periods of good prices. d) The abuse in the incorporation of enterprises that, with purely promotional or speculative ends, obtain mineral concessions over large surfaces of land. e) The existance of many inactive mining properties or on which only the minimum legal work is carried out, even though some of them are located in zones with no other natural resources, and in which. zones mining is vital for employment. f) The disequilibrium which exists between the degree of mexicaniza-tion achieved in the productive phase of mining and the scarse progress obtained in other phases, such as the commercial (market- ing) phase and with reference to the utilization of mineral pro-duction, and g) Finally, the precarious situation due to international factors be-yond our control, which affect mining in general, and which ef-fects we are just beginning to feel. The first phase of mexicanization, namely the mexicanization of enter-prises that were already in operation, was almost completed with the mexicanization of Cananea, which event was announced by the President of the Republic on August 27 of this year. With pride we can state that at the present, more than 98% of mining production in Mexico is generated by enterprises in which the majority of share capital is Mexican. Nevertheless, it is appropriate to note that the foregoing fact also implies a great challenge for the future. In other words, we can say that the simple phase, relatively certain and inexpensive to attain, of buying operating enterprises, has ended, and we now enter a much more difficult and expensive stage; namely, to create and organize new enterprises and new mining/metallurgical ventures. This is a phase that requires great technical and administrative know-how and in which there is no room for improvisations or lack of preparation. With reference to mining, the Mexican Government considers that the small, medium, and large enterprises are the parties who are responsa-ble for the principal tasks and work involved, but the Government is also conscious that its promoting function must be intensified by means of its direct participation in enterprises dedicated to the ex-ploration, exploitation, and refining of minerals, as well as to the transformation and marketing of mineral products. It is undoubtable. -4- in our opinion, that the association of the State with private enter-prise has already demonstrated to be a positive factor in the develop-ment of the Mexican mining industry, and that it can be much more so in the future. Another very important aspect of the mining policy of the Government is that which consists in achieving the maximum transformation or in-dustrialization economically possible of the mining products of the country. We consider that, except for some cases in which special circumstances have resulted in unfortunate and prejudicial consequen-ces, Mexico has had considerable success in its objective of reducing the exportation of its raw minerals or concentrates with a low degree of refining. To conciliate and stimulate, as much as possible, the development and the modernization of foundries, refineries and metal industries in Me-xico, is (and we are sure that it will continue to be) a fundamental tenet of the mining policy of the Mexican Government. Another of the basic aspects of the Mexican mining policy is the de-cisive support and encouragement of the existence and development of the small and medium mining enterprise, which has been emphatically ratified on numerous occasions by the President of the Republic him-self. ""We conceive the development of mining in Mexico"", the Presi-dent has said, ""basing it not only on large enterprises, but especially on thousands and thousands of small and medium size mining enterprises and producers"". In addition to the aspects of a social nature, which in themselves would suffice to justify this policy, we consider that there exist also in this respect solid justifications both technical and economic. The particular characteristics which are found in many of our mineral deposits; the low unit value of some of these minerals or great varia-tions in their prices, make their exploitation marginally attractive, or frankly uneconomic for large enterprises. We believe that Mexico, under no circumstances, can afford to waste or ""freeze"" for an indefi-nite period of time, resources that, even without large profits, can be exploited which permit the generation of productive employment to our fellow citizens. Whichever the state of development of a country, it is undoubtable, that one of its most important resources is constituted by the existence and availability of technical and administrative personnel well trained Therefore, another of the important aspects of the Mexican mining policy is to achieve the objective that in these activities, the services of Mexican personnel be used and developed at maximum levels in all fields of mining. Adapting to our case an old Chinese proverb, we could affirm that if we want to have mining for a few years, mexicanization of these mining enterprises actually existent is sufficient, but if we wish to achieve the development of a prosperous mining industry of unlimited duration, we will have to be able, with our own technical and administrative skills to discover new mineral deposits, to develop those which are being discovered, and to create and organize new enterprises and enti-ties to exploit them, new industries that use the minerals that are thusly obtained, and to establish marketing enterprises able to -5- place our mineral products In international markets. During the last few years, and as a result of the combined work of the Government, the Universities, and mining enterprises, the number of students that have enrolled and graduated in the field of Mining Engineering, Metallurgy and Geology in Mexico, has increased notably. It would be sad indeed if, due to conditions, which are undoubtedly of a transitory nature, the Mexican mining industry did not take advantage of the work developed to date and left without employment some of the technicians who egress from our universities. I consider it my duty to specifically mention this, problem, which may become a serious situa-tion next year and for the adequate solution of which I consider indis-pensable, the cooperation and good-will of all mining enterprises working in Mexico, and which will require the decisive intervention of the Asociacin de Ingenieros de Minas, Metalurgistas y Gelogos de Mxico. Another of the basic functions of the Mexican Government with regard to mining, is the colaboration and the publication of basic information such as topographic and geologic maps, statistics, economic studies, etc., and that, within these efforts, attention should be given to the study and the evaluation, not only of large mineral deposits, ame-nable to exploitation on a large scale, but also, particularly to the very numerous small deposits that, within our special circumstances, can give employment and economic independence to many Mexican citizens. Mexico should not, and must not, continue to be a country of great eco-nomic contrasts. The adequate distribution of wealth implies as a first step, a more homogeneous development of the different regions of the Country. Mining, one of whose special characteristics is that it cannot choose its location, as this is predetermined by the loca- tion of mineral deposits, can be an important factor in the develop-ment of zones which do not contain other resources; a great help to di-minish economic regional differences, which in some cases are so drastic and so unjust, similar to economic differences between the di-verse sectors of the population. Due to their nature, minerals are non-renewable resources; in other words, they tend to necessarily diminish. In some cases, and above all, when the mine exploiter lacks the necessary social conscience, and does nothing to aleviate and facilitate the transition when mi-neral reserves are exhausted, serious social problems develop that re-quire solutions, even though they may only be temporary solutions, based on operations subsidized by the State. These operations cause the inefficient use of available capital resources, employment and technology, without, in most cases, adequate solutions being found to the problem. It is also undoubtable that the safety in the workings of the mines and the metallurgic instalations are an important part of our mining policy. The life and health of our miners are factors to which top priority must be given. Honorable Mining Engineers, Metallurgists and Geologists of Mexico: When the directors of the Association invited the President of the -6- Republic to attend the Inauguration of your Ninth Convention, Lic. Echeverra emphasized that economic development always implies the combination of natural resources and human resources and that with regard to raining, Mexico is willing to continue making large invest-ments of patience and money to consolidate and perfect the mexicani-zation of mining in Mexico. It is certain that the ideas that I have taken the liberty to explain regarding the mining policy of the Mexican Government do not include all the various important aspects that one might consider within the scope of this topic. Nevertheless, gentlemen, the dialogue has been initiated on the highest level and it only remains for me to request that you continue it, always having as the fundamental objective, the benefit and the progress of our Country and of our profession. Thank you very much. Ing. Luis de la Pea Porth October 25, 1971 Translation FMGS/ebh

The Schelde is a lowland river originating in the northern part of France (St. Quentin), and entering the North Sea near Vlissingen, The Netherlands. The estuary covers about half of its length (355 km) as the tidal influence is stopped by sluices near Gent 160 km upstream. We focused on the Zeeschelde, the estuarine part in Flanders comprising a mesohaline, an oligohaline and a freshwater tidal zone. The Zeeschelde is subject to severe eutrophication as it receives high inputs from domestic, industrial and agricultural activities. The ecological values and nature conservation interests of the Zeeschelde are taken into consideration by a series of (inter)national policy instruments, aiming at a sustainable management and conservation of this aquatic environment. As a result several management plans apply also to the Zeeschelde or to parts of it. The most far-reaching plans are the Long Term Vision for the Schelde estuary (LTVS) and the updated Sigmaplan which combine ecological rehabilitation and sustainable habitat creation with flood control measures and navigation requisites. Compliance with almost all national and international agreements requires monitoring of biota. In the WFD fish is one of the biotic quality elements to be used in order to assess the ecological status of transitional waters. Species composition, abundance and the proportion of disturbance-sensitive species should be quantified. Any distortion attributable to anthropogenic impact is calculated by means of the Ecological Quality Ratio (EQR), representing the difference between monitored data and reference conditions. The fish-based assessment tool that we developed was designed to comply with these criteria. In addition it can be used on a metric level to assess fish species of special interest under the Habitats Directive. The fish assemblages in the Zeeschelde were described based on sampling results recorded over a period of 13 years. An overview was provided of the temporal and spatial variation in those assemblages along the salinity gradient in the Zeeschelde estuary (Chapter 2). The species richness and abundance increased over these years in the different salinity zones of the Zeeschelde. Between 1991 and 2008 a total of 71 fish species were recorded within this part of the estuary. Each salinity zone is characterised by a typical fish assemblage, although some species are shared between all three zones. The observed increase since 2007 in species richness in the freshwater and oligohaline zones coincides with a remarkable increase in dissolved oxygen. Guild specific qualitative Maximal and Good Ecological Potential (MEP/GEP) lists were composed for the different zones within the Zeeschelde estuary and its tidal tributaries (Chapter 3). The geographical range and ecological demands of the detected fish species were assessed. The outcome was decisive for acceptance within these lists, which served to develop a fish-based index for the Zeeschelde. In chapter 4 the ecological goals and associated habitat needs were described for fish populations in estuaries. The Zeeschelde was presented as a case study for the description of ecological goals for the fish species listed in the MEP/GEP lists. In order to make the method more widely applicable we first classified fishes into guilds, relevant for the formulation of ecological goals. Next we described guild-specific ecological goals and defined habitat needs linked with a proper functioning of the estuarine ecosystem. The habitat needs ensure the completion of all lifecycle stages: spawning, breeding, feeding and growth to maturity. A hierarchical approach was adopted to define the goals and habitat needs: from a regional scale to habitat level. On a regional and basin wide scale the essential habitat need is connectivity, on an estuarine scale this is space and on a habitat scale diversity is most important. The proposed ecological goals need further quantification. However in general the rehabilitation of marshes and mudflats and the enhancement of flood control areas as fish habitats, with special attention for connectivity with the estuary, will significantly increase the carrying capacity of the Zeeschelde for most of the relevant populations. In Chapters 5 and 6 two essential habitat needs are discussed in detail. In chapter 5, we modelled the environmental constraints controlling the movements of anadromous and catadromous fish populations that migrate through the tidal watershed of the river Schelde. For remaining diadromous populations (flounder, three-spined stickleback, twaite shad, thinlip mullet, European eel and European smelt) a data driven logistic model was parameterized. We modelled the presence/absence of fish species in samples taken between 1995 and 2004 as a function of temperature, dissolved oxygen, river flow and season. We demonstrated that it is possible to make acceptable predictions about the future spatiotemporal distribution of migrant fishes, even if only relatively limited information is available. An important management issue that derived from our study is that it is essential to avoid at all times DO concentrations below 5 mg l-1 in the freshwater and brackish tidal estuary of the watershed. Restoration of habitats such as marshes and mudflat areas will enhance aeration of the water and help to avoid severe DO drops. The use of tidal marshes for fish and the influence of creek characteristics on the visiting fish assemblages were assessed (Chapter 6). As expected the influence of the salinity gradient is reflected in the different fish assemblages. We caught a high proportion of juveniles suggesting that the creeks are a juvenile habitat. The highest fish abundance was recorded in summer (after hatching) because then juveniles seek shelter in the creeks. It was also observed that the visit frequency was related to creek dimensions and inundation time. Larger creeks, lower in the tidal frame and with a more complex structure, as they include side creeks and permanent pools, are of higher interest for fish. We also observed a positive effect of rivulets on the mudflat adjoining the tidal marsh as they guide the fish towards the creeks. These observations are important for the design of tidal wetland restoration projects. In chapters 7 and 8 different approaches to define a fish-based evaluation tool to assess the ecological quality status of an estuary (the Zeeschelde) were described. The fish index comprises metrics which are ecologically relevant variables that are sensitive to human pressures. A first step in the selection of these metrics consisted in assessing how they evolve along a pressure gradient (graphical selection). In chapter 7 a new concept in the index development was introduced i.e. the balance between type I (false positive) and type II (false negative) errors. The magnitude of these errors was expressed as the area under the curve (AUC). Graphical screening assured the selection of metrics responsive to anthropogenic degradation. We scored metrics by judging the metric value variation in the best available site (quintiles). A forward stepwise regression selected the metric with the best balance between the type I and type II error. Metric selection was continued until the lowest AUC was obtained. To define the EBI thresholds we fixed the maximum type I error of each integrity class threshold at 10%. It was a major concern that not all quality classes can be discriminated because of unbalanced pre-classification data. Secondly the final index had a high type II error, although we believe both types of error should be small. Therefore in the next chapter a different approach was used in order to obtain a better index. In chapter 8 we described the development of a Zone specific fish-based multimetric Estuarine index of Biotic Integrity (Z-EBI) based on fish surveys data from the Zeeschelde estuary (Chapter 2). Again we pre-classified sites using indicators of anthropogenic impact and selected metrics showing a monotone response with pressure classes for further analysis. Metric values were calculated using pooled annual data within one salinity zone and expressed as catch per unit effort. Metrics were selected using a Principal Component Analysis (PCA) combined with a redundancy test. We defined thresholds for the Good Ecological Potential (GEP) from salinity zone specific references developed in chapter 3. andapplied a modified trisection for the other thresholds (moderate, poor and bad). The Z-EBI is defined by the average of the metric scores calculated over a one year period within each zone and translated into an Ecological Quality Ratio (EQR) to comply with the European Water Framework Directive (WFD). The indices integrate structural and functional qualities of the estuarine fish communities and can be used to assess the ecological quality of the Zeeschelde. We successfully validated the Z-EBI performances for habitat degradation in the various habitat zones. With this new index we encompass small temporal and spatial variations within the estuary. It accounts for the seasonal variation and covers the complete salinity zone, which is an improvement compared to the previous index. The developed indices are able to make the distinction between impacted and unimpacted (GEP) status. Our results showed that the ecological status of the Zeeschelde at present varies from bad to moderate. A comparison of the average scores obtained with EBI and Z-EBI indicated that in those cases where a different appreciation appeared, the EBI scores lower. This confirms our view that local and temporal appreciations are too sensitive to small variations, which do not necessarily represent an overall negative impact on the ecosystem functioning. Implementing rehabilitation and conservation measures will improve the ecological quality status of the Zeeschelde. At present the Z-EBI corresponds best with the demands from the different legislations and provides the most holistic information from an ecological point of view. ; De Schelde ontspringt in St. Quentin (Frankrijk) en mondt 355 km verder uit in de Noordzee nabij Vlissingen (Nederland). Tussen Gent en de monding is de Schelde over zowat 160 km onderhevig aan getijdewerking. In deze studie concentreerden we ons op de Zeeschelde (Belgisch estuarium) met haar drie saliniteit zones: een mesohaline zone, een oligohaline zone (inclusief de Rupel) en een zoetwater zone (inclusief de Durme, Dijle, Zenne, Grote en Kleine Nete). De Zeeschelde wordt vervuild door huishoudelijk en industrieel afval en ten gevolge van landbouwactiviteiten. Toch heeft de Zeeschelde een hoog ecologisch potentieel en een natuurwaarde die door nationale en internationale richtlijnen worden gewaarborgd. Voor het verzekeren van natuurherstel, gecombineerd met veiligheid en toegankelijkheid, werd gekozen voor het wenselijk alternatief van het geactualiseerd Sigmaplan. Als onderdeel van de studies die nagaan of aan de verschillende richtlijnen wordt voldaan, is in de meeste gevallen ook een beoordeling vereist van de status van biota. In de Kaderrichtlijn Water wordt vis vooropgesteld als een kwaliteitselement voor het beoordelen van de ecologische status van overgangswater. Een verschuiving tengevolge van menselijke activiteiten in de soortensamenstelling, abundantie en aantal gevoelige soorten wordt weergegeven in een ecologische kwaliteitsratio, die het verschil aantoont tussen de actuele en de referentietoestand. Daarom ontwikkelden we een visindex die gevoelig is voor dergelijke verschuivingen en die tevens elementen opneemt die van belang zijn voor de habitatrichtlijn. Op basis van vangstgegevens, verzameld over 13 jaar, beschreven we de vissamenstelling in de Zeeschelde langsheen de zoutgradiënt (Hoofdstuk 2). In totaal vingen we voor de drie saliniteitszones 71 verschillende soorten. Elke zone was gekenmerkt door een typische visgemeenschap, die we verder onderverdeelden in gildes of ecologische groepen. De toename van het aantal soorten in de verschillende zones viel samen met een verbetering van de waterkwaliteit (opgeloste zuurstof). Op basis van de recente en historische visstandgegevens stelden we referentielijsten samen diebeantwoorden aan het Maximaal Ecologisch Potentieel (MEP) en het Goed Ecologisch Potentieel (GEP) van de drie saliniteitzones in de Zeeschelde vis (Hoofdstuk 3). De geografische spreiding en ecologische vereisten van elke vissoort waren bepalend om deze al dan niet in de lijst op te nemen. Deze referentielijsten werden gebruikt voor het ontwikkelen van een zone specifieke visindex voor het Zeeschelde estuarium. We groepeerden de vissen uit de referentielijsten in gildes en expliciteerden hun ecologische doelstellingen en de ermee geassocieerde habitateisen (Hoofdstuk 4). De aanwezigheid van de vereiste habitatten garandeert dat de betrokken vissen hun levenscyclus kunnen voltooien. Op regionale en bekkenschaal houdt dat ondermeer ecologische connectiviteit in, op estuariene schaal is dat voornamelijk ruimte en op habitatniveau diversiteit. De bescherming en de maatregelen natuurherstel waarbij slikken, schorren en gecontroleerde overstromingsvlaktes worden gerealiseerd, verhogen de draagkracht van de Zeeschelde voor vis. De habitateisen beschreven in hoofdstuk 4 zijn kwalitatief. Om de connectiviteit te kwantificeren modelleerden we omgevingsvariabelen die een belangrijke invloed uitoefenen op de migratie van diadrome vispopulaties in de Zeeschelde (Hoofdstuk 5). Zo modelleerden we de aan- en afwezigheid van migratoren in de Schelde in functie van temperatuur, opgeloste zuurstof, stroomsnelheid en seizoen. We toonden aan dat met relatief weinig informatie aanvaardbare voorspellingen konden gemaakt worden van de ruimtelijke en tijdelijke verspreiding van migrerende vissoorten. Dat in het zoetwater- en brakwatergedeelte een zuurstofconcentratie van minstens 5 mg l-1 een noodzakelijke habitatvereiste blijkt te zijn, is belangrijk voor het estuariumbeheer. De realisatie en bescherming van afdoende oppervlakten slikken en schorren zijn noodzakelijk om de zuurstofuitwisseling te verbeteren. Het gebruik van schorren door vissen en het belang van kreekeigenschappen voor de bezoekende visgemeenschappen verduidelijkten we in hoofdstuk 6. Naargelang het zoutgehalte troffen we in de schorkreken andere visgemeenschappen aan. In alle schorkreken vingen we hoofdzakelijk juveniele exemplaren met een piek in de zomer. De positie van de kreek in het getijdevenster beïnvloedt de bezoekfrequentie van de vissen, dit is ook het geval bij aanwezigheid van een geul op het slik vóór het schor. Kreken die relatief lager liggen, breed zijn en vertakkingen hebben met permanente poelen worden het meest bezocht door vissen. In hoofdstuk 7 beschreven we de ontwikkeling van een op vis gebaseerd scoresysteem: de visindex (EBI). Deze visindex bevat metrieken of ecologisch relevante variabelen die gevoelig zijn voor verstoring. Een metriek die een staalnameplaats bijna altijd een zelfde status geeft als deze bepaald op basis van de omgevingsindicatoren is een goede metriek met een kleine foutenmarge. Het evenwicht tussen type I- en type II- fout kan met een curve weergegeven worden en het oppervlak onder deze lijn (AUC: area under the curve) is een maat voor de performantie van de metriek: hoe kleiner de oppervlakte hoe performanter. Met een stapsgewijze regressieanalyse selecteerden we eerst de metriek met de laagste AUC, waarna we de volgende metriek selecteerden die in combinatie met de eerste een nog kleinere AUC geeft tot uiteindelijk de AUC niet verder afnam. Finaal selecteerden we vijf metrieken en de spreiding van hun gemiddelde waarde werd gebruikt om de grenswaarden van de index te bepalen. Deze index is in staat op basis van één afvissing de kwaliteit van een staalnameplaats vast te leggen. Hij vertoont echter nog enkele tekortkomingen en daarom ontwikkelden wemet een alternatieve benadering nog een andere visindex voor de Zeeschelde (Hoofdstuk 8). Bij de alternatieve benadering opteerden we om voor het berekenen van de metriekwaarden alle gegevens per jaar binnen één zone te combineren. Dat impliceerde dat de resulterende index (Z-EBI) de Zeeschelde per saliniteitzone evalueert, gebaseerd op jaargegevens. Metrieken werden geselecteerd met behulp van statistische analyses, gecombineerd met ecologische achtergrondkennis. De referentielijsten werden gebruikt om grenswaarden voorelke geselecteerde metriek te bepalen. Het gemiddelde van de metriek scores berekend voor één jaar gaf de indexwaarde aan. Deze werd vertaald in een ecologische kwaliteitsratio (EQR) in overeenstemming met de Kaderrichtlijn Water. In elke zone beoordeelt de index structurele en functionele kwaliteiten en bepaalt hij de staat van de ecologische kwaliteit van de Zeeschelde. Door het gebruik van jaargegevens hielden we rekening met seizoensverschillen en door het beoordelen van een totale zone werden eveneens ruimtelijke verschillengeïntegreerd. De indexwaarden toonden aan dat de ecologische status van de Zeeschelde naargelang de zone varieert tussen slecht en matig. Bij een vergelijking van de EBI en Z-EBI scores stelden we vast dat bij een verschil de EBI steeds lager scoorde. Dit bevestigde onze hypothese dat het gebruik van locale en tijdelijke beoordelingen te gevoelig is voor kleine veranderingen die daarenboven niet noodzakelijk een negatieve invloed hebben op het functioneren van het ecosysteem. Momenteel beantwoordt de Z-EBI het best aan de criteria van verschillende richtlijnen en vanuit een ecologisch perspectief verschaft ze de meest holistische beoordeling.

Ageing-in-place is the preferred way of living for older persons in an ageing society and can be facilitated through support for (instrumental) activities of daily living and support for physical activity. In addition, home in which older adults dwell can be modified in terms of architectural and technological solutions. Dementia syndrome poses additional challenges when designing, constructing or retrofitting housing facilities that support ageing-in-place. For instance, this is evident in relation to the support of (instrumental) activities of daily living, the creation of safe and secure living conditions, the optimisation of well-being, and the execution of care tasks.At present, there is a quantitative and qualitative shortage in the number of modified dwellings that support ageing-in-place in general, and for people with dementia, in particular. In order to solve the apparent gap between demand (i.e., the needs of people with dementia related to ageing-in-place) and supply (i.e., the supply of architectural and technological solutions to facilitate ageing-in-place), the domains of building and health care should cooperate more in the creation of such modified dwellings. Also, more research is needed on how housing facilities for people with dementia should be designed and built. This dissertation provides solutions to these challenges based on a theoretical and practical framework, which integrates the domains of building and health care.The research sets out to investigate the contribution of various aspects of housing facilities in relation to the needs of older adults with dementia and their family carers, in order to support ageing-in-place. Second, an integrated design for a home for people with dementia is proposed. In this dissertation housing facilities comprise architectural solutions, including the indoor environment and related building services, and emerging technological solutions, including ambient intelligence.MethodologyAn integrated approach, combining the domains of building and health care, was chosen for the research. This is reflected in the way the studies are structured and in the way that demand and supply are taken into account. A combined framework of the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) by the World Health Organization, and the Model of Integrated Building Design (MIBD) by Rutten is used for structuring and retrieving information.Moreover, to investigate demand and supply, a combination of research methodologies has been chosen. Apart from literature study, these approaches include qualitative and quantitative research methodologies, such as interviews using topic lists, focus group sessions, observations of existing homes, behavioural observations using numerical scales and physiological measurements.Summary of investigationsThe first step in research was to examine more closely the type of housing facilities in which people with dementia live in the various countries of the European Union and how family care is related to the type of housing facilities for older adults, and for people with dementia in particular. The applicability and implementation of research findings, of which the majority stems from Anglo-Saxon countries, as well as a person's living career, may differ from country to country in accordance with traditions and culture. Furthermore, political choices on a national level regarding ageing in place, dementia and ensuing legislation may also vary in this way.Thereafter, architectural and technological solutions were investigated. An overview was made of existing design principles and design goals, as well as environmental interventions implemented in the home. These environmental interventions included home modifications, assistive devices, object modifications and task simplifications. Each of these environmental interventions was studied in relation to a specific activity of daily living or a general function it supports.Existing research on dementia and housing facilities has no specific focus on the indoor environment and related building systems, whereas this domain is germane to ageing-in-place. Thus in this dissertation, the indoor environment and related building systems were studied in relation to the hindrance or support these environmental factors have on people with dementia and their family carers. Special focus was on the effects of the indoor climate and lighting systems on well-being and behaviour, as these two areas of research are most promising for future interventions in order to positively influence behavioural problems. At the same time, promising applications within the domain of lighting are not fully understood. Therefore, two clinical-controlled trials were conducted in a group setting to study the effects of ambient bright light and high colour temperature dim light on behaviour and circadian rhythmicity.Apart from architectural solutions, there are numerous technological solutions available to support ageing-in-place. Aspects of ambient intelligence technologies were explored in the context of daily living and care support, as the application of such technologies is relevant to concerns about privacy, ethics, and the inclusion of people with dementia. The contribution of ambient intelligence technology was also studied in the field among community-dwelling users of the Unattended Autonomous Surveillance system. This system is applied as a means to support ageing-in-place by improving safety and security and supporting carers.The studies on architectural and technological solutions were followed up with a design study of a conceptual dwelling for people with dementia, which incorporates the integrated view on the demand in relation to ageing-in-place and the supply of adequate housing facilities. This conceptual dwelling is an example of how the combined framework of ICF-MIBD may be used. The design is based on the most important and succinct architectural and technological solutions identified in this dissertation.Main findingsIn the European Union, living in the community is the most prevalent type of living condition for people with dementia. The Netherlands is one of the countries in which national policies explicitly stimulate ageing-in-place for older adults in general, and where care support for family carers is facilitated at the municipal level. Unfortunately, this support does not sufficiently cover modifications to the home environment.This dissertation identified a large number of environmental interventions, which find their origin in design goals and principles for dementia, and conventional home modification practice. At the moment, environmental interventions for dementia are not offered in a structural way, which means that these solutions do not yet match the needs of people with dementia and their family carers.The studies in this dissertation on the indoor environment revealed that people with dementia may have an altered sensitivity for indoor environmental conditions compared to other older adults, which may be a cause of problematic behaviour and may have a negative effect on safety and security. There are a large number of building-related solutions, particularly within the domain of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) and lighting systems. These solutions can be implemented to decrease the incidence of problem behaviours, improve the comfort and well-being of people with dementia, and support with (instrumental) activities of daily living. The two lighting studies, which are part of this dissertation, showed that ambient bright light with a high colour temperature may lead to improvements in behavioural outcomes and circadian rhythmicity. These improvements are not seen in low colour temperature lighting conditions. Higher illuminance levels are a crucial factor in establishing successful light therapy. Increasing colour temperature may contribute to the effectiveness of lighting in improving behavioural outcomes and circadian rhythmicity.This dissertation shows that ambient intelligence technologies can contribute to an increase in safety and security among clients and their family carers. People with dementia may have difficulty understanding the technology, which has implications to the way technology is designed and installed. Moreover, the use of ambient intelligence technologies is not a substitute for adequate (care) support. Additional home modifications and assistive devices are also needed. In this dissertation, privacy-related issues and ethical dilemmas were not found to be a concern in practice.The design for the dwelling for people with dementia demonstrated that integration of architectural and technological solutions can be achieved. Such a dwelling can be an added value to family carers, as a spouse with dementia is (i) more independent and (ii) is being monitored and supported by technology, (iii) feels more comfortable and (iv) expresses fewer behavioural problems.Recommendations for research and practiceThe combined framework of ICF and MIBD, which can be used for analysis and evaluation, as well as for design purposes, was shown to be a valuable tool for structuring and retrieving information. It allows for both an integrated view and an integrated process for the design and construction of new homes or retrofitting existing dwellings. During the research, extensions to the combined framework have been incorporated and proposed, for instance, to include legislation and assistive technologies.Systematic and large-scale studies should be conducted on the efficacy of environmental interventions identified in this dissertation, as evidence is often based on small-scale and non-controlled studies. Additional research is also needed for the study of optimal indoor environmental conditions and related building systems. The application of ceiling-mounted lighting systems calls for more research on the details of the lighting equipment, in particular, threshold illuminance levels and spectral composition of the light. Future evaluation studies of technologies that are used to support ageing-in-place should focus on the integration of such systems within the context of family and professional care and a person's home environment.Policies and legislation dealing with dementia and housing facilities should widen their scope to include ageing-in-place in the own home environment. This dissertation shows how demand and supply can brought closer to one another. In order to improve the current situation, it is essential that all people involved have access to relevant information. Family carers and people with dementia should have easy access to usable and understandable information about architectural and technological solutions, which can support ageing-in-place. The dissemination of knowledge should also address professional carers, professionals from the domain of building and technology, and policy makers and civil servants. This knowledge can help bridge the gap between demand and supply. Moreover, working with persons with dementia calls for a paradigm shift in the way designers and contractors operate. Civil servants at the municipal level should increase their skills and knowledge in order to adequately support people with dementia and their family carers in implementing architectural and technological solutions as people with dementia wish to age-in-place.Concluding remarksAgeing-in-place is possible for people with dementia by examining their care-based needs in relation to their home environments. To achieve this, architectural and technological solutions have been proposed in an integrated manner, which may also contribute to a lessened burden on family carers.Whether a modified dwelling is supportive in relation to ageing-in-place, and, if so, for how long, depends on the specific needs of people with dementia. There may come a time, as the dementia progresses, when architectural and technological solutions no longer offer support and institutionalisation becomes inevitable.

Tässä väitöskirjassa tutkitaan, miten yhtäältä henkilökohtaiset ja toisaalta jaetut ideat sekä ajatusmaailmat vaikuttavat ulkopolitiikan tekoon. Väitöstyön viisi itsenäistä tutkimusta tarkastelevat Suomen ulkopolitiikkaa jostain ideationaalisesta näkökulmasta. Vaikka artikkelit käsittelevät Suomen ulko- ja turvallisuuspolitiikan eri ajanjaksoja, työ on kiinnostunut erityisesti kylmän sodan loppuvuosista sekä kylmän sodan jälkeisen ajan alusta. Työn keskeinen teoreettinen väite on, että kattavan näkemyksen ideoiden vaikutuksesta ulkopolitiikkaan voidaan saavuttaa vain lähestymistavalla, joka yhdistää ulkopolitiikan analyysin subjektiivisiin sekä intersubjektiivisiin ideoihin keskittyvien teorioiden pääperiaatteet. Tutkimus korostaa, että integroiva menettelytapa on sovellettavissa eri ulkopolitiikan tutkimuksen analyysintasoilla. Yhdistävän lähestymistavan soveltaminen perustuu näkemykseen siitä, että yksilökeskeiset psykologiset teoriat ja sosiaalisuutta korostavat konstruktivistiset lähestymistavat täydentävät toistensa heikkouksia. Väitöstyö rakentaa argumenttinsa jatkamalla ja täydentämällä Vaughn P. Shannonin and Paul M. Kowertin kirjassaan Psychology and Constructivism in International Relations: An Ideational Alliance aloittamaa tutkimusohjelmaa. Ideationaalisen allianssin asemesta tutkimuksessa kuitenkin puhutaan ideationaalisesta ulkopolitiikan tutkimuksesta (Ideational Foreign Policy Analysis, IFPA). Valintaan on kaksi syytä. Ensinnäkin ideationaalinen ulkopolitiikan analyysi ottaa teoriaperinteiden väliseen dialogiin mukaan lisää teoreettisia näkökulmia sekä analyysin tasoja. Se siis toimii kattokäsitteenä ulkopolitiikan analyysin eri ideoiden merkitystä korostaville lähestymistavoille. Toinen syy valinnalle on semanttinen. Rationaalisia ja ideationaalisia teorioita ei tule nähdä täysin vastakohtaisina, ja tutkimusohjelman rakentaminen jotain käsitystä vastaan lähettää turhan vahvan viestin. Idea itsessään on käsitteenä liian epämääräinen, jotta sitä voitaisiin käyttää ulkopolitiikan tutkimuksen työkaluna. Tarkempia ja selitysvoimaisempia käsitteitä tarvitaan, jotta ideoiden maailmaa voidaan yksinkertaistaa ja tehdä ymmärrettäväksi. Väitöskirja hyödyntääkin konstruktivismin ja psykologisen ulkopolitiikan analyysin käsitteistöä. Tarkemmin sanottuna tutkimus soveltaa ideationaalisen ulkopolitiikan periaatteita neljällä eri analyysin tasolla. Samalla se tarkastelee tarkemmin neljää eri ulkopolitiikan analyysin teoriakokonaisuutta. Väitöstutkimuksen ensimmäinen teoreettinen osio selittää yksilöiden uskomusjärjestelmien merkitystä ulkopolitiikan tekemisessä ja korostaa sosiaalisen ympäristön merkitystä yksilön ajatusmaailman lähteenä. Työn toinen kumpuavaa kansallisen identiteetin mallin, jossa kollektiivisen kansallisen omakuvan perusta on yksilön identifioituminen tiettyyn kansakuntaan. Tämän lisäksi tutkimus jakaa kansallisen identiteetin kolmeen komponenttiin: maailmankuviin, poliittiseen tarkoitukseen ja statukseen. Tutkimuksen kolmas teoreettinen mielenkiinnon kohde on yleisen mielipiteen ja ulkopolitiikan suhde, ja se hahmottaa kolme julkinen mielipiteen ja ulkopolitiikan välistä dynamiikkaa. "Alhaalta ylös" –mallissa kansalaismielipide vaikuttaa selvästi ulkopolitiikan tekemiseen, siinä missä "ylhäältä alas" –dynamiikassa valtiojohto pyrkii muokkaamaan yleistä mielipidettä. Kolmannessa mallissa ulkopolitiikan tekeminen ja julkinen mielipide eivät ole yhteydessä johtuen kansalaisten kiinnostuksen puutteesta tai poliittisen johdon välinpitämättömyydestä. Käsiteltyään kolmea valtion sisäistä analyysitasoa tutkimus kiinnittää huomiota ideoiden rooliin valtioiden välisissä suhteissa. Se käsittelee valtioiden välistä luottamusta kolmesta eri teoreettisesta perspektiivistä, ja analysoi, miten erityisesti valtioiden välillä koettu epäluottamus voi vaikuttaa niiden keskinäisiin suhteisiin. Toisin sanoen osiossa tutkitaan, miten valtiotoimijan piirissä elätellyt ideat ilmentyvät kahden maan keskinäisessä kanssakäymisessä. Väitöstutkimus koostuu viidestä itsenäisestä tutkimusartikkelista, jotka käsittelevät Suomen ulko- ja turvallisuuspolitiikan eri aspekteja. Laajemman, konstruktivismia ja psykologiaa integroivan, teoreettisen tavoitteen ohella artikkeleilla on omat teoreettiset päämääränsä, jotka tukevat työn kattavampaa tavoitetta. Julkaisu I tutkii Mauno Koiviston uskomusjärjestelmää ja samalla punniskelee, miten sosiaalinen ympäristö vaikuttaa yksilön uskomuksiin. Se kutsuu Koiviston ajattelumaailmaa suurvaltaempiristiseksi. Lisäksi se väittää, että kylmän sodan loppuminen ei sanottavammin muuttanut Koiviston uskomusjärjestelmää, mikä tuki jatkuvuutta myös Suomen ulko- ja turvallisuuspoliittisessa linjassa. Julkaisu II taas yhdistää koulukuntakäsitteen ja valtioin sisäisessä diskurssissa kilpailevat käsitykset valtiolle sopivasta omakuvasta. Samalla se edistää alhaalta ylös kumpuavaa näkemystä kansallisesta identiteetistä. Tutkimus hahmottaa neljä Suomen kylmän sodan lopussa ja sen jälkeisen ajan alussa vaikuttanutta koulukuntaa – pienvaltiorealismin, integrationismin, euroatlantismin ja globalismin. Eurorealistiselle maailmankuvalle perustunut integrationismi oli koulukunnista selvästi vahvin. Suomen kylmän sodan jälkeisen ajan alkuvuosien ulkopolitiikassa oli kuitenkin elementtejä jokaisesta neljästä koulukunnasta. Julkaisu III tarkastelee yleisen mielipiteen ja ulkopolitiikan suhdetta Suomen ulkopolitiikan historiassa. Se väittää, että Suomen ulkopolitiikasta on löydettävissä kolme erilaista mallia kansalaismielipiteen ja ulkopolitiikan välillä. Itsenäistymisen alkuvuosina ja sotienvälisenä aikana ulkopolitiikka ja yleinen mielipide eivät juuri kommunikoineet. Tilanne muuttui kylmän sodan alettua, ja kyseistä aikakautta leimasikin valtiojohdon vahva pyrkimys muokata yleistä mielipidettä. Kylmän sodan loputtua julkinen mielipide voimaantui ja se alkoi vahvemmin vaikuttaa ulkopoliittisiin päätöksiin. Työn seuraava tutkimus, julkaisu IV, analysoi Suomen ja Ruotsin puolustusyhteistyössä ilmenevää epäluottamusta. Se toisin sanoen tarkastelee, miten Suomessa Ruotsia kohtaan tunnettu epäluottamus vaikuttaa maiden väliseen yhteistyöhön turvallisuus- ja puolustuspolitiikassa. Tutkimuksessa on kolme teoreettista argumenttia. Ensinnäkin tutkimuksessa on syytä erottaa tiettyjen kokemuksien aiheuttamat luottamuksen menetykset (mistrust) laajemmasta epäluottamuksen tunteesta (distrust). Toiseksi on huomioitava se, että luottamus on skaalattava ilmiö. Valtioiden välistä luottamusta on mahdollista arvioida ideaalityyppisten minimaalisen (reliance) ja täyden luottamuksen välillä. Kolmanneksi tutkimuksessa olisi syytä erottaa pettymyksen ja petetyksi tulemisen tunteet. Artikkelin keskeisin empiirinen argumentti on se, että uusi kireämpi turvallisuuspoliittinen tilanne ja lisääntynyt puolustusyhteistyö Suomen ja Ruotsin välillä on saanut suomalaisen eliitin keskuudessa nousemaan muistot vuodesta 1990, jolloin Ruotsi yllättäen päätti hakea jäsenyyttä Euroopan yhteisössä. Tällä kertaa pelkona on Ruotsin yllättävä liittyminen Natoon. Suomen ja Ruotsin puolustusyhteistyön keskeinen tavoite onkin syventää maiden välistä luottamussuhdetta, ja lisääntyvä luottamus on syvenevän yhteistyön ennakkoehto. Väitöstyön viimeinen tutkimus, julkaisu V, tutkii suomettumisen eri puolia. Tutkimuksen lähestymistapa on historiallinen, mutta se sisältää elementtejä väitöstyössä käsiteltävistä analyysin tasoista. Tutkimus ymmärtää suomettumisen ennen kaikkea poliittisena kulttuurina, joka syntyi Suomen kylmän sodan ulkopoliittisen doktriinin kylkiäisenä. Kulttuuri toisin sanoen tuki Suomen ja Neuvostoliiton välistä ystävyyspolitiikkaa. Vaikka Suomen kylmän sodan ulkopolitiikkaa voidaan pitää onnistuneena, suomettumisen kulttuuri sisälsi ylilyöntejä, jotka itse asiassa syövyttivät Suomen ulkopolitiikan keskeisiä tavoitteita kuten maan suvereniteetin säilymistä. Kuten todettua, tutkimus on kiinnostunut erityisesti kylmän sodan lopusta ja kylmän sodan jälkeisen ajan ensimmäisistä vuosista. Tarkastelemalla ja yhdistämällä viiden yllämainitun julkaisun tuloksia tutkimus pyrkii ymmärtämään, miten kylmän sodan loppuminen muutti Suomen ulko- ja turvallisuuspolitiikan ideationaalisia perusteita. äitöstyö toteaakin, että muutos tapahtui kolmessa suhteessa. Ensinnäkin Suomen turvallisuuspoliittisessa orientaatiossa tapahtui muutos. Pienvaltiorealismin ajasta siirryttiin integrationismin aikaan. Suomi lähti lopulta innokkaasti mukaan Euroopan integraatioon unohtamatta kuitenkaan geopoliittisen realismin pääoppeja. Suomen uusi ulkopoliittinen suuntaus perustuikin eurorealismille. Realismin säilymisellä oli konkreettisia vaikutuksia Suomen ulkopoliittiseen doktriiniin – erityisesti päätökseen jatkaa liittoutumattomuuspolitiikkaa. Toiseksi eritoten suomalaiset politiikantekijät ja eliitin edustajat kokivat Suomen länsimaisuuden vahvistuneen. Suomettumisen leima katosi, ja maa kykeni ajamaan intressejään täysivaltaisena länsimaana. Kolmanneksi suomalaisen ulkopolitiikan teon ideationaalisessa ympäristössä tapahtui tietynlainen vapautuminen. Yritykset kontrolloida yleistä mielipidettä ja ulkopoliittista keskustelua vähenivät, ja erilaiset ideat Suomen ulkopolitiikan perusteista saivat kilpailla vapaammin kuin kylmän sodan aikana. Kylmän sodan loppumisen jälkeen suomalaisessa keskustelussa on ollut aitoja vaihtoehtoja kulloinkin vallitsevalle ulkopoliittiselle linjalle, ja yritykset luoda ulkopoliittista konsensusta ovat vähentyneet. ; This doctoral dissertation seeks to demonstrate how personal and collective ideas affect foreign policy. The five original publications making up the dissertation all investigate Finnish foreign policy from various ideational aspects. Although the publications deal with different periods of Finnish foreign affairs, the dissertation places particular emphasis on the end of the Cold War and early post-Cold War years. The dissertation's main theoretical claim is that in order to reach a comprehensive understanding of the significance of ideas in foreign policy, one must concentrate on both individual and intersubjective ideas and that this approach is applicable at multiple levels of analysis. In other words, the dissertation suggests that one must harness the respective strengths of cognitive psychology and constructivism, and adopt an integrative approach to the analysis of foreign policy. The rationale behind the integrative approach is the viewpoint that psychology and constructivism support each other's weaknesses. The dissertation builds its theoretical argument on a research program initiated by Vaughn P. Shannon and Paul M. Kowert in their book Psychology and Constructivism in International Relations: An Ideational Alliance. However, instead of an ideational alliance, the dissertation speaks of Ideational Foreign Policy Analysis (IFPA). There are two main reasons for this choice. First, IFPA incorporates additional theoretical perspectives and levels of analysis into the realm of ideational dialogue. Thus, it serves as an umbrella for the various ideational approaches of FPA. Secondly, the decision to use another concept is a matter of semantics. To imply that a theoretical construct is against something sends a strong signal, and it is perhaps unnecessary to see material/rational and ideational views as polar opposites. Moreover, "idea" is too broad and vague a concept to be employed as an analytical tool, since ideas are practically infinite and ubiquitous. In order to conduct a sound and theoretically solid analysis, one needs more specific concepts to simplify the world of ideas and to make it understandable. This research taps into the vocabulary of constructivism and political psychology, particularly cognitive and social psychology. More precisely, the dissertation applies the principles of IFPA to four levels of analysis, and sheds light on four different theoretical approaches. The first section of the theoretical chapter explains the importance of individual belief systems in foreign policymaking, and highlights the significance of the social environment as a source of individual beliefs. The second theoretical contribution relates to national identity. The dissertation advocates a bottom-up view of national identity, in which the basis of collective national self-images is in fact individual identifications with a nation state. Furthermore, national identity is divided into three components: worldview, political purpose and status. The third theoretical question under scrutiny is the public opinion-foreign policy nexus. The dissertation outlines three dynamics between public opinion and foreign policy. In the bottom-up model, public opinion clearly influences foreign policymaking, whereas the top-down dynamic refers to a situation whereby leaders actively try to shape public views. The third model is disconnection, which describes a condition where there is either a public disinterest toward foreign policy, or where decision-makers neglect the opinions of the public. In this context, the principles of IFPA elaborate the public opinion- foreign policy link in two central ways. Firstly, the beliefs of ordinary citizens come about in a process akin to elite opinion formation – that is, in the interplay between inherent dispositions and the social environment. Secondly, the manner in which decision-makers understand the importance of public views is partly dependent on their belief systems. After treating the three intra-state levels, the dissertation moves on to inter-state relationships. More precisely, it discusses the issue of trust from three theoretical perspectives, and points out how intra-state ideas of trustworthiness may affect inter-state interaction, namely foreign policy. In other words, the section's main purpose is to show how certain ideas can affect bilateral relations between two states. The dissertation consists of five publications, which all deal with different aspects of Finnish foreign and security policy and which to a varying degree apply the principles of IFPA. In addition to the overarching theoretical objective of promoting the synthesis of psychology and constructivism, every publication has its own theoretical objectives that serve the broader goal of ideational integration. The aim of Publication I on the belief system of Mauno Koivisto is to understand the effects of the social environment on individual beliefs. It claims that Koivisto's belief system is best described as great-power empiricist. Moreover, the article argues that the great transformation caused by the end of the Cold War did not considerably change Koivisto's belief system. Publication II links the schools of thought approach to the intra-state competition between different national identities, and promotes a bottom-up view of national identity rooted in psychology. It outlines the Finnish foreign policy schools of thought at the beginning of the post-Cold War era: small state realism, integrationism, euro-atlanticism and globalism. Integrationism, which was based on a "eurorealist" worldview, was clearly the most powerful school. Finnish early post-Cold War foreign policy nevertheless contained elements from all four schools. The focus of Publication III is on the historical nexus between public opinion and Finnish foreign policy. It claims that three different models of the public opinion- foreign policy nexus have prevailed in Finland during its independence: a disconnection in the years of early independence, the top-down model of the Cold War, and a stronger bottom-up dynamic of the post-Cold War era. In other words, in the post-Cold War era, public opinion has become a stronger force in Finnish foreign policymaking. Publication IV unpacks Finnish beliefs on the untrustworthiness of Sweden as a defense cooperation partner and is thus interested in the interstate-level manifestations of individual and collective ideas. The study lays out three main theoretical arguments. Firstly, it differentiates between distrust and mistrust. The second point the article drives home is that trust is a scalable phenomenon. Thirdly and lastly, the article suggests that a sense of disappointment and a feeling of being betrayed must be separated. Its chief empirical argument is that the Finnish experiences of misplaced trust from October 1990 and Sweden's surprise announcement of its ambition to join the European Communities have now manifested as elite-level mistrust towards Sweden as a defense cooperation partner. In order to intensify mutual defense cooperation, Helsinki and Stockholm must overcome the looming mistrust in their defense relationship. The final publication, Publication V, explores different aspects of Finlandization. The analytical approach to the phenomenon is historical, but it nevertheless contains elements from the four levels of analysis. The publication treats Finlandization first and foremost as a political culture, which was born in part to support the official foreign policy line vis-à-vis the Soviet Union. One can argue that the foreign policy strategy of Finland was rather successful but that the political culture of Finlandization had excessive features. It is therefore too naïve to interpret Finlandization only as a successful foreign policy strategy, as some international commentators have done. In fact, it can be said that some of the features of the culture actually eroded the hard core, namely Finnish sovereignty, which the foreign policy strategy tried to preserve. As implied, in addition to the interests in the original publications, the dissertation has an interest in the end the Cold War and in the early post-Cold War years. More specifically, it aims at understanding what the end of the Cold War meant in terms of the ideational foundations of Finnish foreign policy. The study suggests that it signified three things in particular. First, it led to an adjustment from small-state realism to integrationism as the primary orientation of foreign policy. In other words, Finland enthusiastically adopted a pro- European integration policy, but did not forget the core tenets of geopolitical realism. Thus, the approach was based on a "eurorealist" worldview. Secondly, the end of the era vindicated Finland in terms of its Western-ness in the minds of decision-makers. To put it differently, Finland was finally released from the stigma of Finlandization, and was free to pursue its ambitions as an accepted Western nation. Thirdly, the ideational milieu of Finnish foreign policymaking became more relaxed, as the attempts to shape public opinion and control societal debate diminished and as ideas about Finland's position in the world were able to compete more freely. Ever since the end of the Cold War, there have been genuine alternatives to the existing poli attempts to impose a consensus have been less considerable.

Can leaders shape identity and legitimize new political orders? I address this question by studying the role of Mustafa Kemal, the founder of modern Turkey, in spreading a new national identity. Using a generalized difference-in-differences design, which exploits time and geographic variation in Kemal's visits to cities, I test whether exposure to a charismatic leader affects citizens' take-up of the new Turkish identity. I find that people living in cities visited are more likely to embrace the common identity, as proxied by the adoption of first names in "Pure Turkish", the new language introduced by the state. I also show that Kemal was more efficient in making people use the new language, compared to Ismet Inonu, the Prime Minister and Kemal's second man, suggesting that he had an idiosyncratic effect. I find that the effect is mostly driven by cities where he met with local elites, rather than the mass, and are not driven by places that had a nationalist club during the Ottoman Empire. Overall, the findings are consistent with the Weberian view that charismatic authority can induce others to follow and legitimize new political orders.

Can leaders shape identity and legitimize new political orders? I address this question by studying the role of Mustafa Kemal, the founder of modern Turkey, in spreading a new national identity. Using a generalized difference-in-differences design, which exploits time and geographic variation in Kemal's visits to cities, I test whether exposure to a charismatic leader affects citizens' take-up of the new Turkish identity. I find that people living in cities visited are more likely to embrace the common identity, as proxied by the adoption of first names in "Pure Turkish", the new language introduced by the state. I also show that Kemal was more efficient in making people use the new language, compared to Ismet Inonu, the Prime Minister and Kemal's second man, suggesting that he had an idiosyncratic effect. I find that the effect is mostly driven by cities where he met with local elites, rather than the mass, and are not driven by places that had a nationalist club during the Ottoman Empire. Overall, the findings are consistent with the Weberian view that charismatic authority can induce others to follow and legitimize new political orders.

Can leaders shape identity and legitimize new political orders? I address this question by studying the role of Mustafa Kemal, the founder of modern Turkey, in spreading a new national identity. Using a generalized difference-in-differences design, which exploits time and geographic variation in Kemal's visits to cities, I test whether exposure to a charismatic leader affects citizens' take-up of the new Turkish identity. I find that people living in cities visited are more likely to embrace the common identity, as proxied by the adoption of first names in "Pure Turkish", the new language introduced by the state. I also show that Kemal was more efficient in making people use the new language, compared to Ismet Inonu, the Prime Minister and Kemal's second man, suggesting that he had an idiosyncratic effect. I find that the effect is mostly driven by cities where he met with local elites, rather than the mass, and are not driven by places that had a nationalist club during the Ottoman Empire. Overall, the findings are consistent with the Weberian view that charismatic authority can induce others to follow and legitimize new political orders.