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VTT Technology 130 ; Recently more and more Public Sectors have been paying close attention to save cost and, at the same time, improve efficiency. Usually, the Construction Industry has a relevant annual turnover, which represents an important part of the GDP for most of the EU countries and concerns in a large part the Public Sector. Thus, some Public Clients, such as UK, are adopting new strategies in order to improve the current situation. One of these strategies is Building Information Modelling (BIM), which forces all the parties involved in the process to adopt a collaborative approach reducing inefficiencies. Moreover, also the European Parliament is going to encourage the BIM adoption to 'modernise the procurement process and ensure greater efficiencies'. The EU Directive will be an important push to reform the EU Members' Public Construction Procurement. The aim of this M. Sc. Thesis is to analyse the possible implementation of BIM within the Public Procurement, especially how Model Checking can be applied within Tendering to verify the compliance between the Client's requirements and the bid's contents. The first part presents both the most widespread Public Procurement Methods, such as Design-Bid-Build (DBB), Design-Build (DB), Construction Management (CM), Design-Build-Operate (DBO) and Design-Build-Finance-Operate (DBFO), as well as innovative kinds of Procurement Procedures, such as Integrated Project Delivery (IPD), Project Alliancing (PA), Cost Led Procurement (CLP), Integrated Project Insurance (IPI), Two Stage Open Book and Early BIM Partnering (EBP). A paragraph is dedicated to the drivers and the barriers of e-Procurement, which should be part of the Public Procurement strategy. Later, the main issues related to BIM are shown, such as current BIM Authorised Uses and Permitted Purposes, Interoperability and OpenBIM, along with BIM implementation in Public Sector of several countries (Singapore, USA, Finland, UK, Norway, Denmark, Netherlands, South Korea, Hong Kong, Australia, New Zealand, Iceland, Estonia, Sweden, Germany, China, Ireland, Taiwan and Italy) and the relation between e-Procurement and BIM. Additionally, the principal possibilities and challenges dealing with BIM adoption are presented. The following chapter is dedicated to the investigation of the possible BIM implementation in Tendering. Even if integrated procedures, such as IPD, seem to be the most suitable with BIM, a discussion of the BIM role in DBB and DB or Design Competitions is carried out, showing the main Client's requirements, benefits for Bidders and Clients, together with limitations and possibilities. Thereafter, a paragraph illustrates Model Checking in the evaluation of design proposals. First, a short description of the main commercial software, which can support BIM-based tendering (such as Solibri Model Checker (SMC), EDM Model Server, dRofus, Affinity, dProfiler, Autodesk NavisWorks, Tekla BIMsight, Bentley Projectwise Navigator, Riuska, Autodesk Ecotect, EasyBIM, Vico Cost Planner and Mitchell Brandtman) is provided. Later, a list of the most common operations, which nowadays a Client could check in a BIM tender together with the main commercial software available, is shown. More emphasis has been given to the software SMC, since this study was mostly carried out testing it and some new rules have been created. Moreover, a comparison between the published version of Statsbygg Building Information Modelling Manual and the translated rule-sets in SMC is carried out to understand the possibilities and limitations of the software in order to check Client's requirements. Another paragraph describes five case studies presented in literature to investigate the possible implementation of BIM in Tendering (cluster of University Buildings in Denmark, National Museum at Vestbanen in Oslo, Synergy Building in Helsinki, Office and Shopping Space in Canada and prison Cookham Wood in Rochester). Finally, the possible implementation of BIM in Tendering is tested on an Italian case study, a Theatre in Rimini, and a simulation of e-Tendering, adopting i-Faber e-Procurement platform, is investigated. This study shows that nowadays BIM, and especially Model Checking, can be a useful support for Public Construction Procurement only if the Public Clients hold the control of the process and they are able to define clear requirements. ; Recently more and more Public Sectors have been paying close attention to save cost and, at the same time, improve efficiency. Usually, the Construction Industry has a relevant annual turnover, which represents an important part of the GDP for most of the EU countries and concerns in a large part the Public Sector. Thus, some Public Clients, such as UK, are adopting new strategies in order to improve the current situation. One of these strategies is Building Information Modelling (BIM), which forces all the parties involved in the process to adopt a collaborative approach reducing inefficiencies. Moreover, also the European Parliament is going to encourage the BIM adoption to 'modernise the procurement process and ensure greater efficiencies'. The EU Directive will be an important push to reform the EU Members' Public Construction Procurement. The aim of this M. Sc. Thesis is to analyse the possible implementation of BIM within the Public Procurement, especially how Model Checking can be applied within Tendering to verify the compliance between the Client's requirements and the bid's contents. The first part presents both the most widespread Public Procurement Methods, such as Design-Bid-Build (DBB), Design-Build (DB), Construction Management (CM), Design-Build-Operate (DBO) and Design-Build-Finance-Operate (DBFO), as well as innovative kinds of Procurement Procedures, such as Integrated Project Delivery (IPD), Project Alliancing (PA), Cost Led Procurement (CLP), Integrated Project Insurance (IPI), Two Stage Open Book and Early BIM Partnering (EBP). A paragraph is dedicated to the drivers and the barriers of e-Procurement, which should be part of the Public Procurement strategy. Later, the main issues related to BIM are shown, such as current BIM Authorised Uses and Permitted Purposes, Interoperability and OpenBIM, along with BIM implementation in Public Sector of several countries (Singapore, USA, Finland, UK, Norway, Denmark, Netherlands, South Korea, Hong Kong, Australia, New Zealand, Iceland, Estonia, Sweden, Germany, China, Ireland, Taiwan and Italy) and the relation between e-Procurement and BIM. Additionally, the principal possibilities and challenges dealing with BIM adoption are presented. The following chapter is dedicated to the investigation of the possible BIM implementation in Tendering. Even if integrated procedures, such as IPD, seem to be the most suitable with BIM, a discussion of the BIM role in DBB and DB or Design Competitions is carried out, showing the main Client's requirements, benefits for Bidders and Clients, together with limitations and possibilities. Thereafter, a paragraph illustrates Model Checking in the evaluation of design proposals. First, a short description of the main commercial software, which can support BIM-based tendering (such as Solibri Model Checker (SMC), EDM Model Server, dRofus, Affinity, dProfiler, Autodesk NavisWorks, Tekla BIMsight, Bentley Projectwise Navigator, Riuska, Autodesk Ecotect, EasyBIM, Vico Cost Planner and Mitchell Brandtman) is provided. Later, a list of the most common operations, which nowadays a Client could check in a BIM tender together with the main commercial software available, is shown. More emphasis has been given to the software SMC, since this study was mostly carried out testing it and some new rules have been created. Moreover, a comparison between the published version of Statsbygg Building Information Modelling Manual and the translated rule-sets in SMC is carried out to understand the possibilities and limitations of the software in order to check Client's requirements. Another paragraph describes five case studies presented in literature to investigate the possible implementation of BIM in Tendering (cluster of University Buildings in Denmark, National Museum at Vestbanen in Oslo, Synergy Building in Helsinki, Office and Shopping Space in Canada and prison Cookham Wood in Rochester). Finally, the possible implementation of BIM in Tendering is tested on an Italian case study, a Theatre in Rimini, and a simulation of e-Tendering, adopting i-Faber e-Procurement platform, is investigated. This study shows that nowadays BIM, and especially Model Checking, can be a useful support for Public Construction Procurement only if the Public Clients hold the control of the process and they are able to define clear requirements.

En la última década hemos asistido a un debate repetido sobre la conveniencia de reinventar las instituciones de Bretton Woods. Hay un consenso bastante amplio sobre el fin de ciclo que enfrenta el Fondo Monetario Internacional en un mundo que ha cambiado radicalmente desde aquel encuentro en un paraje olvidado en el Estado de New Hampshire, en el verano boreal de 19441.Sin embargo, siguiendo al Profesor Kurt Schuler, podemos preguntarnos si la relevancia que ha adquirido en el debate la necesidad de reinventar Bretton Woods no estaría reflejando el grado de influencia que han tenido desde esa fecha instituciones como el Fondo Monetario Internacional y el Banco Mundial. Sostiene Schuler que nadie debate sobre la conveniencia de reinventar el Tratado de Viena o el Tratado de Versailles ya que, por distintas razones, se encuentran obsoletos como conceptos o han fracasado en sus objetivos. En cambio, se discute sobre la necesidad de reformular Bretton Woods porque, al menos en un punto, esas instituciones formaron parte de un mundo que ha prosperado como nunca en la historia humana2. Es que cualquiera sea el método utilizado, desde el extraordinario trabajo de Magnus Anderson hasta la serie histórica aparecida en "Economic Growth in the 90s: Learning from a decade of reform", publicada por el Banco Mundial, es claro que desde el fin de la Segunda Guerra hasta el presente la economía mundial ha experimentado el mayor período de prosperidad de la historia3.Paso seguido, la necesidad de reinventar Bretton Woods debiese pensarse desde una doble perspectiva. Por un lado, la mencionada inédita prosperidad que la condición humana, particularmente en Occidente, ha experimentado en los últimos 65 años. Por otro lado, la creencia, en un punto casi certeza, sobre la pronta llegada de un epílogo para la supremacía occidental.Como es ampliamente reconocido, la economía china superará en tamaño a la economía de EE.UU. en 2018, es decir, en 5 años. Paso seguido, ¿Cuál es la dinámica global que ocupa en parte el lugar que el sistema de Bretton Woods ha debido dejar? Por ejemplo, ese lugar ha sido ocupado en la última década por la compleja relación comercial entre EE.UU. y China. Esta relación tiene una lógica conocida: la rica economía americana compra mucho más de lo que le vende a China y ello no repercute en una apreciación cambiaria de la moneda de este país. Ello no sucede porque el gobierno chino lo impide. ¿Cómo lo hace? A través de la compra de bonos emitido por el Tesoro de los EE.UU.Paso seguido, esta dinámica que se ha consolidado en la última década ha generado duros cruces entre las partes y conflictos de diversa índole. Particularmente en el debate doméstico en EE.UU., los exportadores se quejan de la debilidad de la moneda china y algunos industriales protestan por la desleal competencia. Sin embargo, ¿Es ello así o es sólo una parte de la explicación? Más aún, ¿En qué medida la compleja e inédita relación comercial y financiera entre EE.UU. y China no ha devenido en una política espontánea que reinventa Bretton Woods?Analicemos el problema en sus diversas partes. Primero, ¿Es un problema para EE.UU. que China financie a tasas cercanas a cero su alto nivel de vida? No necesariamente. Segundo, ¿Es un problema para China comprar deuda de su principal socio comercial en la moneda que emite ese socio y a tasas de interés cercanas a cero? No. ¿Por qué no sería un problema? Porque el Banco Central Chino no está comprando sólo deuda (consumo presente) sino, principalmente, productividad futura de los EE.UU. Es decir, al permitirle endeudarse a tasas cercanas a cero China está financiando las futuras innovaciones en la economía de los EE.UU. que le permitirán, a esa sociedad que se mantendrá en la abundancia, proseguir comprando bienes y servicios producidos en China.Paso seguido, aquello que es percibido como un problema estructural de la economía mundial es en realidad una relación comercial y financiera que supone que un actor financia la compra de otro actor a tasas bajas y en un papel denominado en la moneda del deudor. El acreedor lo hace porque cree que el deudor ha sido lo suficientemente innovador en el pasado como para hacer frente a sus deudas en el futuro. Es claro que esa relación no es en si mismo problemática. No hay en esa dinámica un riesgo.¿Dónde se encontraría el riesgo? Obviamente, en la eventualidad que China no esté comprando deuda (consumo presente) y productividad futura sino sólo deuda, es decir, sólo consumo presente. Paso seguido, la pregunta debe dirigirse en cambio a investigar el estado de la innovación en EE.UU. ¿Cuál es el estado de la innovación en los EE.UU? Dicho de otra manera: ¿Es el estado de la innovación mayor, similar o menor al supuesto proceso de deterioro del Estado de Derecho? Podemos recurrir para ello a indicadores comparados. Por ejemplo, en el año 1985 las publicaciones científicas en EE.UU. fueron 137.701 y en China 1943. En 1990 fueron 191.556 y 6302. En el año 2000, EE.UU. había publicado 192.701 y China 18.498 trabajos. Por último, en 2009 en EE.UU. se publicaron 208.601 trabajos científicos y en China 74.019. La fuente es el Banco Mundial, que define este indicador como "Scientific and technical journal articles refer to the number of scientific and engineering articles published in the following fields: physics, biology, chemistry, mathematics, clinical medicine, biomedical research, engineering and technology, and earth and space sciences".En Segundo lugar, podemos recurrir a comparar Patentes o derechos de invención. Aquí, EE.UU. ha obtenido en 1985 63.663 y China 4065. En 1990, EE.UU. obtuvo 90.643 y China 5832. En 1995, EE.UU. obtuvo 123.987 y China 10.011. En el año 2000, EE.UU. obtuvo 164.795 y China 25.346. En 2005, EE.UU. obtuvo 207.878 y China 93.485. Por último, en el año 2011 EE.UU. obtuvo 247.750 y China 415.829. Para el Banco Mundial, "Patent applications are worldwide patent applications filed through the Patent Cooperation Treaty procedure or with a national patent office for exclusive rights for an invention--a product or process that provides a new way of doing something or offers a new technical solution to a problem. A patent provides protection for the invention to the owner of the patent for a limited period, generally 20 years".Por su parte, debemos comparar el "estado de la innovación" en EE.UU. con la evolución de las instituciones. El Índice de Estado de Derecho refleja que en 1996 EE.UU. obtenía un 92.3 y China 36.4, mientras que en el año 2000 EE.UU. obtuvo 93.3 y China 35.9. En el año 2005 EE.UU. alcanzó 91.4 y China 38.3, mientras que en 2008 EE.UU. obtuvo 91.8 y China 44.2. por último, en el año 2011 EE.UU. obtuvo 91.1 y China 41.8.La pregunta principal que desarrollaremos en la segunda parte es si China ha estado financiando fundamentalmente el consumo presente o, fundamentalmente, la innovación futura de los EE.UU.1- Ben Steil ha escrito un gran trabajo sobre el tema: "The Battle of Bretton Woods: John Maynard Keynes, Harry Dexter White and the MAking of a New World Order", publicado por el Council of Foreign Relations en 2013.2- Ver http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/survey/so/2013/BOK051513A.htm.3- Ver e trabajo de Anderson en http://www.theworldeconomy.org/ y la serie histórica del Banco Mundial en http://www1.worldbank.org/prem/lessons1990s/chaps/01-Ch01.pdf. Pedro Isern - Universidad ORT-Uruguay

Das vorliegende Dissertationsprojekt wurde im Rahmen des DAAD Graduiertenprogramms mit einem drei-jährigem Stipendium unterstützt. Die Pflicht zur Kartierung der Biotope in den Schutzgebieten wurde in der Türkei durch neue Verordnungen im Rahmen der EU-Integration verankert. Das Hauptziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war demgemäß die Konzipierung eines landesweit einsetztbaren effizienten Verfahrens für die Biotoptypenkartierung in der Türkei. Ein solches Ziel erfordert die methodische Entwicklung einer systematischen Inventarisierung und Kartierung der Biotoptypen. Des weiteren benötigte man ein exemplarisches Gebiet, in dem die Klassifizierung und Bewertung der Biotoptypen, besonders als naturschutzfachliche Planungs- und Managementgrundlage, ausgeführt werden konnte. Als Untersuchungsgebiet wurde der Nationalpark Köprülü Kanyon ausgewählt. Er umfasst ein Gebiet von 35.672,72 ha liegt nordöstlich der Stadt Antalya und grenzt an den westlichen Teil der taurischen Gebirgskette Südanatoliens an. Die natürliche Beschaffenheit des Untersuchungsgebietes weist eine gut erkennbare Differenzierung in unterschiedliche Landschaftsbereiche auf. Besonders die klimazonale Höhengliederung, der geologische Untergrund, die Tektonik sowie die darauf entstandene Geländemorphologie spielen eine wichtige Rolle bei der Ausprägung dieser taurischen Landschaftsteile. Die Vegetation des Untersuchungsgebietes ist wegen der geographischen Lage und der herrschenden Klimaverhältnisse als mediterran zu bezeichnen. Die Vegetationszonen und stufen, die durch drei phytogeographische Florenregionen wie irano-turanisch, euro-sibirisch und meistens mediterran gekennzeichnet sind, kommen entsprechend der Höhenstufen (zwischen 110 2505 m) vor. Ein solcher Strukturenreichtum des Untersuchungsgebietes war für die Entwicklung eines Biotoptypenkartierungsverfahrens sehr entscheidend. Im Rahmen des entwickelten Biotopkartierungsverfahrens wurden die Biotoptypen im Untersuchungsgebiet mit Hilfe der GIS-gestützten Fernerkundungstechnik flächendeckend erfasst, klassifiziert und kartiert. Hierbei bekamen wir auch Einblick in die vorhandene Datenlage und -struktur in der Türkei. Diese Informationen waren, in verarbeiteter Form, die Grundlage der Klassifizierung und Bewertung der Biotoptypen. Die bestehende Datenlage war unstrukturiert und unübersichtlich. Dieser Umstand erforderte eine übersichtliche Strukturierung, Kennzeichnung und Einordnung der Daten, was als ein wichtiger Teil der Arbeit gesehen werden muss. Deshalb mussten die Merkmale und deren Parameter festgelegt werden, um die Biotopeigenschaften bestimmen bzw. definieren zu können, da diese auch für die GIS-Verarbeitung und -Operationen tauglich sein müssten. Durch ein digitales Höhenmodell wurden wertvolle Informationen für die geländemorphologischen Standorteigenschaften bei der Charakterisierung und Typisierung der Biotoptypen gewonnen. Diese lieferten auch wichtige Grundlagen für die Bestimmung der Zugänglichkeit für die Landnutzung, und damit auch für die Bestimmung der Naturnähe. Die IKONOS Satellitenbilddaten wurden sowohl für die visuelle Interpretation als auch für die digitale Auswertung in der vorliegenden Arbeit verwendet. Es war einige Objekte von IKONOS-Bildern visuell sehr gut zu unterscheiden. Die digitalen Klassifikationsmethoden wurden besonders für die Bestimmung von Waldtypen und für Hartlaubgebüsche verwendet. Die durch die Fernerkundungsverfahren gewonnenen Informationen bzw. Klassen mussten allein oder zusammen mit anderen Daten gekoppelt werden, um sie weiter mittels GIS verarbeiten zu können. Dazu benötigte man die Ergebnisse der digitalen Bildklassifizierung als GIS-Daten, was zur Erstellung einer GIS-Datenbank führte. Alle Arten von Dateien müssen durch Datenbanken in einem System zusammen eingeführt werden, welche später zur Erstellung der Arbeitslayer im GIS verwendet werden. Damit hat die Erstellung einer Datenbank eine zentrale Bedeutung, um die GIS in die Arbeit zu integrieren. Die zentrale Bedeutung der GIS-Analyse und Bewertung liegt für diese Arbeit bei der Bildung der Biotoptypen und bei der Klassifizierung der Naturnähe und floristischen Schutzbedürftigkeit sowie bei der Bewertung der Biotoptypen für die Vogelarten. Die GIS-Analysen dienen grundsätzlich zur Anordnung der Polygon- bzw. Objektklassen auf dem Biotoptypenlayer, die durch visuelle Interpretation oder digitale Bildauswertung klassifiziert wurden. Der Biotoptypenlayer ist damit ein endgültiges Layer für alle biotoptypbildende Shape-Dateien, die zur Übertragung der Grenzziehung der nebeneinander vorkommenden Polygonklassen dienen. Für die Übertragung wurden drei verschiedene Vorgehensweisen entwickelt. Die Klassifizierung der Biotope erfolgte durch die Verschlüsselung der homogenen Biotopfläche auf der Grundlage ihrer charakteristischen Merkmale. Die Einstufung der Biotoptypen ermöglicht die Biotoptypenansprache über ihre in hierarchischen Ebenen vorkommenden Eigenschaften. So kann die hierarchische Typisierung und Beschreibung der Biotope durch Klassifikation erfolgen. Die Charakterisierung und Bewertung der Naturnähe erfolgte über die schrittweise Klassifizierung der Nutzungsattribute und der Merkmale des Standorts. Im ersten Schritt wurde angenommen, dass die Kombination der Nutzungsattribute auf den Beeinträchtigungsgrad eines Landnutzungstyps bzw. auf die Naturnähe direkt einwirkt. Im zweiten Schritt wurden die für die Landnutzung zugänglichen Bereiche im Untersuchungsgebiet durch die Gegenüberstellung der Standortsmerkmale dargestellt. Schließlich wurden die Bereiche beider Schritte mittels GIS Bearbeitung gegenüberstellt, um die Naturnähe der Biotoptypen zu bewerten. Die hierarchisch eingestuften Biotoptypen bzw. Landschaftseinheiten mit ihren ausgeprägten Merkmalen wurden bei der Bewertung der Vogelarten über ihre Verbreitung in den Biotoptypen verwendet. So wurde die Vielfältigkeit und Schutzbedürftigkeit der Biotoptypen für die Vogelarten bewertet. Die Biotoptypen und deren Beschreibung wurden nach ihrer hierarchischen Kodierung in einer Liste als Ergebnisse aufgezeigt. Die Beschreibung der Biotoptypen enthalten die Informationen, die bei deren Klassifizierung verwendet wurden. Dabei unterscheiden sich die Klassifizierungsmerkmale nach hierarchischen Ebenen. Das führt zu einer eigenständigen Beschreibung ihrer Besonderheiten bzw. Eigenschaften. Die Biotoptypen, die in einer hierarchischen Ebene gebildet wurden, wurden für jede Ebene kartiert. Die in dieser Arbeit entwickelten Methoden und Ergebnisse wurden in einem Kapitel gemeinsam bewertet und in Hinsicht auf die landestypischen Verhältnisse diskutiert. Daraus resultierend wurden vom Verfasser einige Empfehlungen sowohl für technisch-methodische und auch landesweit umsetzbare naturschutzfachliche Aspekte bei der Biotoptypenkartierung gegeben. Bewertung des methodischen Vorgehens aufgestellt und anhand einer Ableitung von Spezifikationen für die Entwicklung eines landesweit anwendbaren Biotoptypenkartierungsverfahrens wird eine zusammenfassende Bewertung möglicher Aufgabenfelder für die Satellitenfernerkundung und GIS geliefert. Schließlich wird eine zusammenfassende Bewertung der Ergebnisse und ihrer Umsetzungspotentiale für einen effizienten naturschutzfachlichen Erfassungs- und Planungsprozess sowie für die Naturschutzpolitik in der Türkei beschrieben. ; This dissertation project was supported by DAAD (German Academic Exchange Service) by granting a three-year graduate school scholarship. The main objective of this dissertation is the development of an efficient nation-wide procedure for biotope type mapping. This requires the methodical development of a systematic biotope type mapping, which is also required by new regulations in connection with EU integration. In preparation an exemplary region was chosen, with special consideration of nature protection planning and management requirements: The Köprülü Canyon National Park, which covers an area of 35,672.72 ha, lies to the north east of the city Antalya and borders on the Western Taurus mountain range. Due to its natural composition the various landscapes are easily differentiated. The altitudinal climate zones, the geological structure, the tectonics and morphology of the terrain are manifold and distinct. The vegetation can be classified as Mediterranean due to the geographical location and the climate conditions. Irano-turanic, euro-siberian and mostly Mediterranean vegetation zones and levels are present at various altitude levels (110 - 2505 m) and the geo-morphology is clearly distinguishable. This richness of structure was a major factor in our choice of this region. The first step in the project was to define the goals. The biotope types in the area were recorded, classified and mapped using GIS-supported remote technology. Data and stuctures from various administerial sources were evaluated. This data was however unstructured and confusing. An important part of our work therefore consisted of classification of the existing data. This required that the properties and their parameters be defined in order to determine the biotope characteristics and thus make the data available to the GIS-equipment. By incorporating a digital elevation model during the biotope type classification valuable information could be obtained concerning the morphological characteristics of the terrain. This information was also the basis for determining accessibility for land use, and in consequence for determining naturalness. IKONOS satellite imagery was used for visual interpretation as well as digital analysis. Some objects in the IKONOS images could be easily distinguished visually. Methods of digital classification were utilized in determining forest types and maquis. The remotely acquired information and the classes determined had to be combined with other information in order to be processed via GIS. The classified image data had to be converted to GIS data, which facilitated the establishment of a GIS database. Numerous kinds of data had to be collected in a database and then used to create the working layer of the GIS. Thus the creation of the database was central to our work. The analysis and evaluation using GIS was the basis for establishing the biotope types, the classification of naturalness and floristic vulnerability, as well as the evaluation of the importance of biotope types for bird species. The GIS analysis served to place the polygon and object classes which were classified by visual or digital image evaluation on the biotope type layer. Thus the biotope type layer is a final layer for all biotope-forming shape files that serves the transferring of adjoining polygon classes. Th ree approaches to this transferring were developed. The biotopes were classified by coding the homogenous biotope surfaces according to their characteristics. This made it possible to address the biotope types via their properties in various hierarchical levels. The hierarchic typification and description of biotopes can be achieved through hierarchic classification. Naturalness was characterized and evaluated by incrementally classifying the usage attributes and characteristics of the terrain. In a first step it was assumed that the combination of usage attributes has direct influence on the degree of impact of a certain land usage type and respectively on the naturalness. In a second step the areas accessible for land use in the terrain being examined were displayed bei juxtapositioning their site characteristics. In a final step the results of the previous steps were combined in a GIS processing step in order to establish the naturalness of the biotope types. The characteristics of the hierarchically grouped biotope types, and respectively of the landscape units were used to obtain information regarding the distribution of bird species in the biotope types. After hierarchically coding them the biotope types were presented as a list together with their descriptions, which contained information used during classification. The characteristics for classification are distinguished by hierarchical level which entails a discreet description of the particularities and characteristics. The biotope types were mapped for each layer in a hierarchical level. The methods developed in the course of our research and the results obtained were evaluated together and discussed in the context of the conditions specific to Turkey. In conclusion, the author presents some recommendations concerning aspects of biotope type mapping of technical and methodical nature as well as regarding nature-conservation on a national level.

Before considering the new concepts in cataloguing which are likely to govern bibliographic control in the future, it is important to look back at the way in which the migration of the card catalogue to a networked environment has affected the organization of libraries. In many ways, the implementation of the National Library Service (SBN) has played a decisive role in "the slow and painstaking process of standardising the catalogues, with respect to cataloguing rules and record formats", which is among the main concerns of the Italian library authorities and therefore marked as one of the objectives of a national action plan as early as 1959. The production of the tapes containing the National Bibliography records in 1975 is the first episode of some importance in the history of library automation in Italy. Used for the photomechanical processing of the bibliography in its printed version, those tapes provided data in machine readable form which could be exchanged within the framework of the Universal Bibliographic Control programme strongly endorsed by IFLA. These records were given the ANNAMARC format structure, a local variant of the MARC format in use at the Library of Congress at the time. It was Maltese who recommended the adoption of MARC on the assumption that this would facilitate the integration of the Italian agency in the international bibliographic circuit. For several years only a few libraries, if any, could benefit from the availability of the national bibliography records. Copy cataloguing was in fact not a traditional procedure in Italian libraries the way it had been since the beginning of the 20th century in North-American libraries. The success of bibliographic utilities such as OCLC, RLG, WLN and UTLAS as well as the adoption of MARC and AACR2 as standards can easily be explained with the practice of importing the records produced at the Library of Congress into the various local catalogues. Most Italian developed cataloguing systems, instead, did not even include an import-export module, making it therefore impossible for Italian librarians to consider copy cataloguing as a promising, cost-effective option. Technology is not the only explanation for such a scarcity of cooperative efforts. Other factors include the non existence of library schools and the absence of an overall coordination policy at a national level. The first task to be undertaken by the National Library Service was therefore of an educational nature: the systematic training of librarians towards the use of standard cataloguing criteria. This required the adoption of a closed, centralised architecture, which replaced the distributed model initially envisaged by Vinay and Boisset. In joining the network each library or group of libraries added its existing records to the union catalogue through successive migrations of data. As a consequence of such a process, the quality of the records became rather uneven, forcing the national library as a routine to merge the duplicates and clean up the indexes. Most important, the project led to the creation of a database consisting of over 4.5 million records, contributed day by day by a thousand libraries of all shapes and sizes. The sense of cooperation, resulting in a general refinement of the acquisitions strategies as well as in the improvement of the exploitation of existing bibliographic resources, is particularly important in view of the development of the Italian digital library, as was emphasized during the 3rd National conference of libraries held at Padua last February. Descriptive cataloguing should become a minor concern for libraries as a consequence of the improved coverage offered by the various bibliographic utilities, in conjunction with the increasing number of digital documents. This has nothing to do with the idea that digital entities will catalogue themselves and that cataloguing standards are becoming unimportant since they do not apply to web sites and the rest. Such views, according to Gorman, are "not only wrong but also noxious because, though masquerading as progressive, they are impeding progress". Instead cataloguers should aim at developing linking devices to connect packages of recorded knowledge and information, using their titles, edition statements, issuers, dates and any other known data, and adding formalized names and titles to those descriptions and to those digital entities that allow library users to retrieve and collocate those documents, and relating them to a location either physical or virtual. However, it proves difficult for most librarians to abandon a system of bibliographic control that has been so successful and to adopt an entirely new set of concepts that will take full advantage of the new digital environment. The professional debate at an international level seemed so far more concerned with improvements needed within the established framework and hardly looked in any great depth at new concepts in cataloguing which are required if one wants to benefit from the intrinsic feature of a computer which resides in the ability to "establish, coordinate and connect syntaxes of signs", as suggested by Serrai. The need for a reassessment of the foundations on which cataloguing is based appeared with great evidence in the theoretical activities leading to the publication of the Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records in 1998. On the one hand it was felt that many inconsistencies were caused by bibliographic representations heavily relying on ISBD, a standard which uses principles having little relevance in an electronic environment, having been defined with a concern for the printed versions of the national bibliography and the exchange of bibliographic record at an international level, rather than as a data model for the needs of the individual library catalogue. On the other hand, it is evident that because of the large size of many databases and the number of hits that most searches produce, users tend to be frustrated in attempting to use a catalogue and sometimes wonder if the complexity is really necessary, especially if compared to the apparent user-friendliness of the general web search engine. The difference, according to Ayres, is a conceptual one which is already to be found in information retrieval where two basic types of searching have become established. These are pre-coordinate and post-coordinate. Cataloguing has so far always been a pre-coordinate operation and is based on what cataloguers do at the input phase, both as regards the description and the access terms. In particular, authority control (or "entry point control" as Gorman termed it already in 1977) in its present form is expensive to set up, to maintain and to use. Nevertheless, it is the foundation stone of sound cataloguing and a key factor in information retrieval and digital resources management. Again Ayres suggests that authority control be used to provide the link rather than the preferred heading, bearing in mind that from the user's viewpoint the preferred heading is the heading that he/she searches by and that in searching he/she wants the heading that he/she has thought about to be linked to the headings that he/she has not thought about. This means that the present authority control files will become linking files and that the entire procedure will implicitly be a post-coordinate operation. A fully developed electronic catalogue should be able to function in two ways, according to the specific needs of the user, providing "intellectual" (that is, access to the contents of library resources) as well as "bibliographic" control (that is, access to the physical packages in which content appears). Eventually, catalogues should give access to cultural heritage information, not just of a bibliographic nature, which is now under distributed control, bridging the barriers to access that have been created by specific traditions of custody and documentation. The feasibility of such a vision largely depends on the capability of the system within which they are stored to interoperate with those around them, but above all it relies on the intellectual effort dedicated to build up some kind of semantic, political, human and legal interoperability, both nationally and internationally.

Loše reakcije na krize koje su izazvane ljudskim ili sistemskim greškama mogu značajno uticati na zaustavljanje ili prekid radnih procesa u okviru organizacije. Ove greške moguće je minimalizovati korišćenjem metoda koje su zasnovane na primeni agentnog modelovanja, odnosno agentne tehnologije. Osnovu agentnog modelovanja čini softverska i/ili hardverska realizacija sistema koji je sačinjen od nezavisnih, ali ne i izolovanih komponenti – agenata, koji imaju mogućnost samostalnog odlučivanja i komunikacije sa okruženjem, zbog realizacije zadatog cilja. Princip agentnog modelovanja primenjen je na proces edukacije, odnosno uspostavljanja, održavanja i nadogradnje sistema zasnovanog na informacionim tehnologijama (IT sistemi), i na obučavanje personala s ciljem smanjenja uticaja grešaka koje nastaju tokom krize. U radu je prikazan originalni model agenta edukacije koji je namenjen prevenciji, suzbijanju i smanjenju uticaja kriza koje nastaju kao posledica spore reakcije na incidente, neadekvatnog odlučivanja ili loše komunikacije. Agent edukacije sadrži agent indikatora stanja koji reaguje na incidente i agent menadžmenta koji je namenjen smanjenju vremena trajanja i intenziteta krize. Kroz primer fiktivne vojne organizacije VORG predočene su funkcije agenata edukacije za konkretan slučaj. ; Introduction Crises caused by human or system errors vary in intensity and duration, and may cause adverse changes in the functioning of an organization. The prevention as well as a good response to incidents and fast reaction to the crisis when it escalates are essential. Therefore, all decisions during the crisis must be precise and concise, and the reaction of the information and communication systems as well as that of personnel must be adequate. The agent technology described in this paper is used to model the education agent for establishing, maintaining and upgrading IT systems, as well as for the staff training. The education agent consists of an indicator of changes in the environment (status indication agent) and a management system (management agent) for the reaction to crises. Through an illustrative example of the VORG organization, the functions of these agents are described. Causes of IT Crises IT crises are generally caused by human or system errors. The intensity and duration of the crisis vary and cannot be predicted. Still, problems that may arise as a result of the crisis may be far-reaching for an organization. However, well educated staff and a high-quality IT infrastructure can minimize errors and reduce the consequences for the organization. Agent-Based Modeling An agent is a software or hardware memory-based component that can be implemented in an information system. It can independently make decisions and communicate with the environment. It also receives, processes and transmits information in accordance with existing protocols, and its validity is determined by the ability to adapt to changes. In carrying out the activities it is characterized by a certain form of intelligence, which enables the agent's response to be directed towards the realization of objectives. Agent-Based Modeling of Education With proper education, there is a possibility for employees to avoid some mistakes that lead to crises. However, crises can occur due to unforeseen events. If the crisis management and incident indication are the parts of a business plan, then a proper training increases resistance to human and system errors. Therefore, the management agent and the status indication agent, i.e. the education agent, are used to train personnel, make information concise and decisionmaking faster when a crisis hits. Moreover, the education agent also monitors, controls and upgrades IT-based systems. The status indication agent is realized as a software module for a rapid response to the occurrence of incidents. High speed indicates a need for the selection of one of the options defined in advance in the initial phase of the education agent. The indication is based on symbolic logic. If the agent does not recognize one of possible options, it reacts by alarming the person in charge. The management agent is a synonym for the crisis management processes. When setting the initial conditions for the management agent, it is necessary to define how and when to use the information needed in a given situation, which is performed by forming the matrix of responses to the if-then kind of questions. In that way, it is possible to reduce the duration and intensity of the crisis. Education agent: Education includes the establishment, maintenance, upgrading IT systems and staff training. The initial settings of an organizational structure also mean that the basic parameters of an education agent and its functions are also initalized in order to provide a proper reaction to the incident and, consequently, the crisis. As a part of the education agent, the status indication agent is used to notify and recognize incidents, while a proper reaction to the crisis is a function of the management agent. After the crisis ends, the education agent is used to return the operational capabilities and make changes in the organizational structure. Example of an Error Impact Reduction for the Vorg Military Organization THE VORG, An imaginary military organization, is a three-level structure consisting of managers, executives and employees. The VORG's functions include implementing new IT systems and maintaining the existing ones, co-operating with other organizations and scientific research. In that way, the sources of crises in the VORG can be inadequate response to incidents, poor communication and education following the inadequate decision-making. The crisis caused by an inadequate response to the occurrence of incidents: The reaction to the occurrence of incidents is important for each function in the organization. A reaction to the crisis depends on the quality of IT systems, and the way the employees cope with crises. In this case, the education agent functions are primairly a periodic check up (announced or unannounced) on the employees and the incident-response systems as well. The crisis caused by an inadequate communication and education: In organizations with an inflexible hierarchy, the employees have to recognize a crisis, but they are also required to respect the rules when addressing the superiors. An organization has to be prepared for the events that could cause a crisis. This is enabled by the initial state activities. In this example, the education agent is used to forward only important information to the collegium. The crisis caused by an inadequate decision making: Decision making is mostly related to the supervisors and the executive staff. During the crisis it is necessary that the supervisors let the emergency teams make decisions. It is also essential that the decision-making staff is tested and that their work is revised by accredited experts. One way of checking the competence is to introduce certain deadlines and demands for the personnel that should be a part of the top management. Conclusion Many different errors can cause crises that vary in intensity, duration and consequences. Educating staff, checking their skills and a qualitative structure of an organization represent the basis of a quick and accurate response to a crisis. Nevertheless, human errors as well as system failures may happen. These errors can be prevented by the functions of the education agent which consists of a status indication agent and a management agent. The education agent is realized as a software or hardware-based module which functions at a basis for the IT system activities before, during and after the crisis. The causes of crises are inadequate responses to the occurrence of incidents, inadequate communication and education as well as inadequate decision making, which is explained in details in the illustrative example of the VORG organization.

Solare Kühlung ist eine Technologie, die sich noch auf dem Weg in die Wettbewerbsfähigkeit zu herkömmlichen, in der Regel mit Strom angetrieben Kompressionskältemaschinen befindet. Ein Schlüssel für die angestrebten Primärenergieeinsparungen und Kostenvorteile ist ein effizientes Betriebsverhalten der Solarkollektoren über einen Zeitraum von 20-25 Jahren. Die vorliegende Arbeit untersucht daher verschiedene thermische und hydraulische Eigenschaften von Solarkollektoren für solare Kühlung. Das übergeordnete Ziel ist es, wichtige Faktoren, die zu Leistungsminderung führen, zu identifizieren und Methoden und Techniken für eine detaillierte thermische und hydraulische Analyse der Solarkollektoren in Bezug auf diese Faktoren zu entwickeln, um schließlich praktische Richtlinien für Auslegung und Betrieb der Kollektoren vorzuschlagen. Ein beispielhaftes System ist im Bundespresseamt der Bundesregierung in Berlin installiert. Es besteht aus zwei LiBr/H2O Absorptionskältemaschinen mit je 35 KW Kühlleistung, einem Feld aus Vakuumröhrenkollektoren mit einer Gesamtfläche von 348 m2 und zwei 800-Liter-Heißwassertanks als Wärmespeicher. Zunächst wurde eine Analyse der Betriebseigenschaften des Systems auf der Grundlage von Messdaten für die thermischen Energieumsätze der verschiedenen Heiz- und Kühlanlagen und für den Stromverbrauch der elektrischen Komponenten durchgeführt. Ein spezielles Bewertungsverfahren wurde angewendet, bei welchem verschiedene zentrale Leistungsgrößen für den Betrieb des Systems wie der thermische und elektrische COP (Coefficient of Performance, entspricht Wirkungsgrad), solare Deckungsgrad und Primärenergieeinsparung im Vergleich zu einer nicht solar basierten Klimaanlage bestimmt werden. Die Ergebnisse wurden für verschiedenen Monate des Jahres 2007 bis 2009 ausgewertet und die Ergebnisse werden in Form von Kennzahlen dargestellt. Die Ergebnisse zeigen einen sehr niedrigen thermischen Wirkungsgrad der Solarkollektoren und sehr geringe Primärenergieeinsparungen. Mögliche Ursachen hierfür und Optionen zur Verbesserung werden ebenfalls diskutiert. Weiter wurde eine einfache experimentelle Vorgehensweise entwickelt, um im Labor den Einfluss des Druckes der Restgase im Inneren der evakuierten Glasröhre auf den Wärmeverlustkoeffizienten (U-Wert) einer einzelnen Vakuumröhre des Kollektors zu finden. Eine Reihe von Kollektorröhren gleicher Geometrie wurden nach dem Zufallsprinzip aus der genannten Solaranlage ausgewählt und einzeln getestet. Die Messergebnisse zeigen, dass die meisten der untersuchten Kollektorröhren höhere Wärmeverlustkoeffizienten haben als erwartet und sich entsprechend eine erhebliche Menge an Gas im Inneren der Glashülle befinden muss. Für gleiche Bedingungen wurde ein theoretisches Modell für die näherungsweise Berechnung der U-Werte entwickelt. Das theoretische Modell wurde mit den experimentellen Ergebnisse für eine bei Atmosphärendruck mit Luft gefüllte Röhre verglichen und eine gute Übereinstimmung wurde festgestellt. Dann wurde der Einfluss des Gasdruckes für verschiedene Gase untersucht. Mögliches Vorhandensein von Luft, Wasserstoff, Helium und Argon wird diskutiert. Eine CFD-Analyse (Computational Fluid Dynamics) wurde durchgeführt, um die Druckverluste von den Verteiler- und Sammlerelementen (T-Stücke) zu finden, die die parallel geschalteten Vakuumröhren im Solarkollektor wärmeträgerseitig verbinden. Simulationen wurden für eine Reihe von Strömungsverhältnissen und Reynolds-Zahlen durchgeführt und für die sich ergebenden Druckverlustkoeffizienten wurden Näherungsgleichungen entwickelt. Mit Hilfe der Ergebnisse für den laminaren Bereich wurde die isotherme und nicht-isotherme Strömungsverteilung im Kollektor, bestehend aus 60 parallelen Vakuumröhren, die entweder in U-Konfiguration oder in Z-Konfiguration verbunden sind, abgeschätzt. Die Ergebnisse der U-Konfiguration konnten mit experimentellen Daten verglichen werden und es ergibt sich eine gute Übereinstimmung. Ein stationäres Modell wurde entwickelt, um die thermische Leistungsfähigkeit einer einzelnen Vakuumröhre eines Solarkollektors mit koaxialer Wärmeträgerführung (Direct Flow-Typ) sowohl bei einphasiger als auch bei zweiphasiger Strömung (partial stagnation) zu studieren. Ein System von Gleichungen, welches die verschiedenen Wärmeübertragungsmechanismen und Strömungsverhältnisse beschreibt wurde aufgestellt, diskretisiert und iterativ gelöst. Für den Fall eines intakten Vakuums (10-5 mb) weicht die berechnete Wirkungsgradkurve für einphasige Strömung bei steigender Kollektortemperatur wesentlich von Experimenten ab, während sie für den Fall von Wärmeleitung durch Restgas innerhalb des Glaskolbens bei geringem Druck (< <1mb) durch die entsprechende Erhöhung der Wärmeverlustkoeffizienten mit den Experimenten übereinstimmt. Die Ergebnisse der Modellierung zeigen, dass der Kollektorwirkungsgrad mit abnehmendem Durchfluss abnimmt. Bei den dann erreichten hohen Temperaturen kann lokal Zweiphasenströmung durch Sieden und Rückkondensation auftreten. Sobald die Flüssigkeit den Siedepunkt bei einem bestimmten Massenstrom erreicht ist keine signifikante Reduktion des Wirkungsgrades mehr zu beobachten, was in Übereinstimmung mit Experimenten ist. Schließlich werden für optimale Leistungsfähigkeit eines ganzen Kollektorfeldes aus parallel geschalteten Vakuumröhrenkollektoren eine Reihe von Leitlinien und Regeln aufgestellt, die während Auslegung und Betrieb des Kollektorfeldes zu beachten sind. ; Solar cooling is an emerging technology and in a process of development to be competitive with the conventional systems generally based on electricity driven vapor compression cooling machines. Efficient performance of the solar collectors consistently over a time span of 20-25 years is the key towards achieving the required primary energy savings and cost benefits. The present research work investigates various thermal and hydraulic aspects of the solar collectors used for a solar cooling application. The overall aim is to identify major factors contributing to solar collector's performance reduction and to develop methods and techniques for a detailed thermal and hydraulic analysis of solar collectors pertaining to these factors, in order to suggest the optimal operating guidelines to be implemented in practice for solar collector design and operation. An exemplary system is installed at the Federal Press Information Center, Berlin. It consists of two LiBr/H2O absorption chillers with 35 KW cooling capacity for each one, a collector field made up of vacuum tube collectors having a total gross area of 348 m2, and two 800 liters of heat storage tank. Initially, the overall performance monitoring of the system was carried out, based on the on-field measured data for thermal energies of the various heating/cooling components of the system and electricity consumption of the electrical components. A monitoring procedure was then implemented and various key performance factors related to the system operation are determined such as total electrical COP, solar heat management efficiency, fraction of primary energy savings compared to a non-solar based air-conditioning system. The results are evaluated for various months of year 2007 to 2009, and the outcomes are presented in the form of performance figures. The results showed quite a low thermal efficiency of the solar collector and primary energy savings. Possible causes of the reduced collector performance and options for improvement are discussed also. A novel simplified experimental strategy is devised to find the overall heat loss coefficient (U-value) of an individual vacuum collector tube in the laboratory, with regard to the pressure of the remaining gas inside the evacuated glass envelope. A number of collector tubes of same geometry are randomly selected from an installation of a solar based air-conditioning system and tested individually in the laboratory for the determination of the U-value. Measurement results indicate that most of the examined collector tubes have higher overall heat loss coefficients than expected corresponding to a significant amount of gas inside the glass envelope. For the same conditions, an approximate theoretical model is developed for the evaluation of the U-value. The theoretical model is validated against the experimental results for a collector tube having air inside the glass cover at atmospheric pressure and found to be in close agreement. Then, the influence of gas pressure is studied for various gases. Possible presence of air, hydrogen, helium and argon is discussed. A computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis has been conducted to find the pressure losses for dividing and combining fluid flow through a tee junction of a solar collector manifold. Simulations are performed for a range of flow ratios and Reynolds numbers and equations are developed for pressure loss coefficients at junctions. A theoretical model based on successive approximations then is employed to estimate the isothermal and non-isothermal flow distribution in laminar range through a collector consisting of 60 vacuum tubes connected in parallel in a reverse (U-configuration) and parallel (Z-configuration) flow arrangement. The results are in reasonable agreement with the available experimental results for U-configuration. An analytical steady state model is developed to study the thermal performance of an individual vacuum tube solar collector with coaxial piping (direct flow type) incorporating both single and two-phase flows. A system of equations which describe the different heat transfer mechanisms and flow conditions was established, discretized, and solved in an iterative manner. For the case of good vacuum condition (10-5 mb) the calculated efficiency curve for single phase flow deviates significantly from the experiments with increasing collector temperature, but agrees well for the case of gas conduction inside the glass envelope at very low pressure (« 1mb) due to the corresponding increase in overall heat loss coefficient (U-value). For two-phase flow, the occurrence and propagation of flow boiling and condensation inside the collector piping under saturated condition is hypothesized. The modeling results indicate that for all-liquid-single-phase fluid flow, the collector efficiency decreases with decreasing mass flow rate. Once the fluid reaches the boiling point at a certain mass flow rate, no significant reduction in efficiency is observed anymore, which is in accordance with the experimental study. Finally, performance predictions are made for the whole collector consisting of a number of vacuum tubes connected in an array. This leads to devise a set of guidelines and strategies, which needs to be taken care off during design and/or operation phase to optimize the collector operation.

Maatalouden ympäristöongelmien ratkaisu on joutunut vastakkain institutionaalisen epämääräisyyden kanssa. Maatalouden ympäristötuki, joka on merkittävin maatalouden ympäristöpolitiikan keino Suomessa, ei ole kyennyt tuottamaan lupaamiaan ympäristöhyötyjä. Vaikka ympäristötuen keinovalikoimaa on uudistettu useaan otteeseen, vesistöjen ravinnekuormituksessa ei ole havaittu haluttuja vaikutuksia. Ympäristötuki on ollut myös hidas reagoimaan maatalouden tuotantorakenteessa tapahtuneisiin muutoksiin. Kun politiikkaa tehdään institutionaalisen epämääräisyyden tilassa, politiikan toimeenpanovaihe voi osoittautua merkitykselliseksi monessakin mielessä. Ympäristötuen toimeenpanon aikana eri toimijat eivät ainoastaan etsi parhaita sovellusmahdollisuuksia politiikkakeinoille; samanaikaisesti he myös neuvottelevat ympäristönhoidon merkityksestä ja tavoista sekä uudistavat käsityksiä oikeudenmukaisesta ympäristöpoliittisesta interventiosta. Tämä tuli selkeästi ilmi väitöstutkimuksessani, jossa tarkastelin maatalouden ympäristötuen toimeenpanokäytäntöjen merkitystä politiikan toteutuksessa. Tutkimusta varten seurasin toimeenpanon eri vaiheita käytännössä ja haastattelin hallinnon ja viljelijöiden edustajia Etelä-Pohjanmaalla ja Varsinais-Suomessa vuosina 2000-2006. Toimeenpanosta saatuja kokemuksia on kuunneltava herkällä korvalla nyt kun maatalouden ympäristötukea taas uusitaan osana EU:n yhteistä maatalouspolitiikkaa. Tutkimustulosten mukaan ympäristötuen toimeenpano on synnyttänyt poliittisen tilan missä keskustellaan siitä mitä sitoutuminen ympäristönhoitoon merkitsee. Korostamalla standardoituja ympäristönhoitomenetelmiä sekä tulotuellisia elementtejä, ympäristötuet ovat kyseenalaistaneet perinteiset arvot hyvästä maataloudesta, tulonmuodostuksesta ja viljelyyn tarvittavasta tiedosta. Näistä arvoista on tullut uhanalaisia asioita, jotka vaativat viljelijöiltä aktiivista sitoutumista ja uudelleen tulkintaa. Viljelijöiden uudelleen tulkinnat eivät tyhjene ympäristönhoidon ja tuotannon väliseen kahtiajakoon vaan korostavat ympäristönhoidon tilanteista luonnetta. Tällä hetkellä ympäristötuen keinot eivät tue ja motivoi viljelijöitä ympäristönhoidon tilakohtaiseen kehittämiseen. Ympäristötuen toimeenpanon aikana on kuitenkin syntynyt käytäntöjä, joissa ympäristönhoidon tilannekohtaisuus on pyritty huomiomaan paremmin. Tulokset korostavat kunnallisten maaseutusihteerien ja neuvojien merkitystä politiikan ja käytännön välisinä tulkkeina sekä paikallisten suunnitelmien ja projektien merkitystä eri toimijat yhteen tuovina käytäntöinä. Nämä käytänteet ovat osoittautuneet tärkeiksi kohdennettaessa toimia ympäristön kannalta kriittisille alueille, mutta myös rakennettaessa luottamusta eri toimijoiden välille. Tutkimustulokset korostavat myös rutiinien merkitystä politiikan toimeenpanossa. Suomen maatalouden ympäristötuen toimeenpanosta saadut tulokset osoittavat, että maataloushallinto on ottanut vastuun perustuen toimeenpanosta, kun taas ympäristöhallinnon toimet ovat keskittyneet erityistukien toimeenpanoon. Keskittyessään perustuen toimeenpanoon maataloushallinto vahvistaa ympäristötuen tulonjakoon ja kansalliseen tasavertaisuuteen liittyviä tavoitteita, kun taas erityistukien toimeenpano keskittää ympäristöhallinnon toimet irrallisten peltolohkojen tasolle. Rutinoituessaan toimeenpanotehtävät tuottavat tämän jaon tuotannollisten ja ympäristönhoidollisten intressien välille aina uudelleen ja uudelleen samalla vahvistaen maatalouden ympäristöpolitiikassa vallalla olleita toimintamalleja ja toimijoiden välisiä suhteita. Tulevaisuuden ympäristöpolitiikkaa kehitettäessä on tärkeää tunnistaa miten vallalla olevia ympäristöhallinnan toimintamalleja uudistetaan, kyseenalaistetaan tai voimistetaan osana politiikan toimeenpanoa. Näiden elementtien välisten jännitteiden kriittinen arviointi on herkän ja refleksiivisen ympäristöpolitiikan edellytys. Tämän tutkimuksen tulosten mukaan tärkeintä on uudistaa politiikkakeinoja siten, että tuotannon ja ympäristönhoidon välisestä dikotomiasta päästään eroon. Ympäristönhoidon tilannekohtaisuus voi tarjota yhden lähtökohdan politiikkauudistuksille. Samalla on tunnistettava, miten maataloustuotannon rakenteelliset muutokset vaikuttavat ympäristönhoidon ehtoihin tiloilla. ; Finnish agri-environmental policy has not met the environmental goals it has set for itself. The agri-environmental schemes, which came into force in 1995 upon Finland s accession to the European Union, introduced a major shift in Finnish agri-environmental policy. They promised a new approach to agri-environmental governance, suggesting that farmers should be paid for providing environmental goods and practicing environmentally sound farming. They also introduced a new form of cross-sectoral and multi-level practice to policy implementation. However, despite the changes in cultivation practices, the nutrient loads have not decreased as was hoped for. The resolution of agri-environmental problems seems to have run aground on institutional ambiguity. Currently established political institutions lack the power to deliver the required policy results on their own; new institutions, practices and systems of meaning are needed. Maarten Hajer has stressed that where policy making and politics takes place in an institutional ambiguity, we should pay attention to a double dynamic: actors not only deliberate to get to favourable solution for particular problems, but while deliberating they also negotiate new institutional rules, develop new norms of appropriate behaviour and devise new conceptions of legitimate political intervention . If we are to understand the failures experienced within agri-environmental policy, we need a careful analysis of how doing politics as well as governing environment, are being (re)negotiated and experimented alongside policy deliberation. In this study, I take up this challenge by examining the following empirical questions 1) how actors in charge of implementation translate the agri-environmental policy objectives into practice, how these practices depend on one another and co-evolve as they interact; 2) how farmers translate agri-environmental schemes into farming practices and how commitment to agri-environmental management emerges; and 3) how various actors are brought together during implementation, to deliberate upon agri-environmental management. In order to analyse the confronted institutional mbiguities, I bring together discussions from environmental policy analysis and Science and Technology Studies (STS). The empirical studies brought to bear on this synthesis are based on case studies carried out in South Ostrobothnia and Southwest Finland during the years 2000 2006. The empirical results of this study highlight that the implementation of the schemes has become a central site of politics. By emphasising standardised management procedures and income support, the agri-environmental schemes have questioned the values of good farming, livelihood bases, farmers experiential knowledge and care for the land. These values have become endangered attachments, which require active commitment. Something new has arisen as a result of the implementation of the agri-environmental schemes: political action, which deliberates on commitments. These commitments treat environmental management as something which builds upon the potentials available at a particular farm in a given socio-material environment. During implementation, I detected several moments and practices which were responsive to commitments. The results stress the role of local rural officials and advisors as buffers between policy and practice, and the importance of local plans and projects in bringing the various actors together to deliberate on agri-environmental management. These practices have become important to building trust among multiple actors and linking individual actions to environmentally effective collective action. Furthermore, they propose rather different scales and institutional rules of action for effective agri-environmental management, compared to existing policy measures. They suggest that the more fl exibly policy measures and technologies can move across various policy levels, and become part of various actors commitments, the more powerful they can evolve. Empirical results gained from the implementation practice highlight that if we are to understand the institutional ambiguities posed by the resolution of agri-environmental problems, we should not only analyse how new institutional rules and commitments are deliberated upon, but also how new policy requirements become routines, and how these routines relate to past policies, practices and actor positions. The results gained from the implementation of Finnish agri-environmental policy are interesting in this respect. The results highlight how, in practice, the agricultural sector has taken ownership of the General Protection Scheme (GPS), which stresses the welfare effects on a national scale; whereas the actions of the environmental sector focus on the Special Protection Scheme implemented on a plot scale. During routinised implementation tasks, the tight association between vertical policy measures and the horizontal implementation network enacts the division between agricultural and environmental concerns in agri-environmental policy, whilst maintaining continuums with past policies, practices and actor positions. In agri-environmental policy, many policy tools and technologies are explicitly developed to maintain their form and stability as they travel from the ministry to the farms. This is seen as affi rming the justness and equity of the policy instruments. The results of this study have shown how such standardisations may enact strong rigidities within the policy system as they are implemented in practice, and consequently restrain the policy from renewal. An open and active examination of various policy phases is needed if we are to understand the institutional ambiguities posed by the resolution of agri-environmental problems. Implementation practices may enact both rigidities and novelties within the system of governing. A constant (re)evaluation of these should be an integral part of an attentive environmental policy. I hope the methodological tools developed in this study can help social sciences in taking more active role in this major endeavour.

The original justification for Directive 98/44/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 6 July 1998 on the Legal Protection of Biotechnological Inventions (the Directive) was to promote the growth of the European life science sector by harmonizing and clarifying European biotechnology patent laws. As early as 1985, the European Commission had identified the fragmentation of European patent laws as a potential problem. The Directive thus aimed to address obstacles to the unity of the internal market, which would arise if national Member States adopted divergent and uncoordinated policies and legislation in a field of economic activity that had been earmarked as poised for spectacular growth. The Commission further identified the lack of guidance within the European Patent Convention 1973 (EPC) on how its provisions were to be applied to biotechnological inventions meant that researchers were unsure if their work could be legally protected within Europe. The Commissions concerns were lent greater political urgency by three significant events that combined to establish the dominance of the United States (U.S.) biotechnology industry. First, biology researchers in the U.S. were increasingly developing new techniques that had substantial commercial application. Second, the U.S. Congress created the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit to promote greater uniformity in the application of patent law and to reduce the possibility of forum shopping by parties seeking favorable courts. Thirdly, the landmark Supreme Court ruling in Diamond, Commissioner of Patents and Trademarks v Chakrabarty, took an important step towards patent liberalization by stating that living matter was not excluded as a 'product of nature' and that patents shall be available for 'anything under the sun made by man'. It was not long after the Chakrabarty decision that the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) began issuing patents on gene fragments, transgenic bacteria, and cell lines expressing DNA sequences producing therapeutically useful proteins. A trend had been for European companies to move their biotechnology research from the European Union (EU) to the U.S. because they regarded the commercial and legal climate there as more encouraging. The Commission concluded that European biotechnology patent laws should be clarified and harmonized in order to provide the incentives and legal certainty required for the biotechnology industry to flourish. Given the nature of the objectives pursued, one might have expected that the drafting of the Directive would be a relatively straightforward administrative exercise in harmonizing the legal criteria of novelty, inventive step, and industrial application in the context of biotechnological inventions. Indeed, the first draft of the Directive framed the problem solely in these terms with the legal standards proposed largely reflecting the more permissive approach of the USPTO. The project soon ran into difficulties. The Directive differs in a key way from the approach of the U.S., as it establishes a prominent role for 'morality' as an evaluative criterion within European patent law. This unique stance emerged during extensive discussions between the Parliament, the Commission, and the Council, and was a political concession to the view expressed by the Parliament that the patenting of biological materials, in particular those of human origin, raises important ethical and social concerns. Attempts to address these anxieties resulted, inter alia, in the inclusion of a 'morality clause' in article 6 of the Directive. article 6(1) provides that inventions shall be considered unpatentable where their commercial exploitation would be contrary to ordre public or morality. article 6(2), intended to clarify how the general morality exclusion in article 6(1) should be applied, contains a list of specific examples of biotechnology inventions that are excluded from patentability on moral grounds. Ironically, it has been article 6(2) that has been the source of great uncertainties in the years since the Directive was enacted. In particular, questions regarding how article 6(2)(c), which excludes 'uses of human embryos for industrial or commercial purposes' from patentability, should be applied in relation to patent applications for inventions concerning human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) have given rise to long-running legal, ethical, and policy debates. The debate revolves around the fact that article 6(2)(c) is silent with regard to hESCs. This is because the first ever isolation of hESCs from an embryo was reported four months after the adoption of the Directive. Although the Directive was 'addressed' only to EU Member States, the European Patent Office (EPO), which is independent of the EU, voluntarily incorporated the Directive's rules within the EPC. Thus moral exclusions are now a fixture of European patent law. Most patents in Europe are granted via the EPO; however, European patents must still be enforced in individual Member States who may interpret the Directive differently. Whereas the EPO has not granted any patents on hESC claims, an overview of EU Member States interpretation of article 6(2)(c) reveals a patchwork of permissive and restrictive regulatory policies towards the patentability of hESCs. In contrast to Europe, U.S. patent law contains no statutory basis for the USPTO or a court to deny patent protection to morally controversial biotech subject matter. The U.S. has adopted probably the most liberal patenting policies on stem cell research, with the USPTO granting in excess of forty-one patents that claim hESCs in their title and front pages. The purpose of this paper is to consider whether the inconsistent application of the EU Biotechnology Directive's moral exclusion clause could undermine investor confidence in Europe, providing a competitive advantage to the U.S. Understanding the science is essential for engaging in knowledgeable debate about the ethical issues surrounding hESCs. Part II provides an analysis of the biology that underpins the human embryo setting out the crucial distinction between totipotent and pluripotent hESCs. In Part III our attention turns to pre Directive jurisprudence under article 53(a) EPC, where the EPO showed a willingness to interpret the moral exclusion clause in a narrow manner that afforded patent protection to controversial biotechnology inventions. It was against the EPC framework and the jurisprudence emerging from the EPO that the Commission conceived the need for European biotechnology patent laws to be clarified and harmonized. Part IV charts the troublesome enactment and transposition of the Biotechnology Directive that exposed inherent European conflicts regarding patent protection for biotechnological inventions concerning 'living matter' of human origin. In Part V our focus turns to the subsequent emergence of hESC technology, providing an analysis of the post Directive EPO decision in Edinburgh Patent which set a precedent for the recent decision in Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation (WARF) where the EPO moved away from its pre Directive narrow approach embracing a broad interpretation of the moral exclusion clause setting out a restrictive policy on the patentability of hESCs. Part VI analyses the patentability of hESCs at the national level, comparing the relatively permissive United Kingdom (UK) and Swedish regulatory approaches to the more restrictive German regime, a comparison that raises interesting questions as to the legal certainty of biotechnology inventions claiming hESCs within Europe. In Part VII our attention turns to the patentability of hESCs in the U.S. This section of the paper begins with an analysis of the Constitutional basis of U.S. patent law prior to setting out the link between 'utility' and 'morality' in U.S. patent law. Part VII then considers the liberation of U.S. patent law, the application of the Thirteenth Amendment to biotechnological inventions, along with the rejection of the doctrine of moral utility before finally examining the recent full frontal attack on biotechnology patents in the U.S. and the reinstatement of federal funding for hESC research.

XXXII, 612 p. ; 24 cm ; Libro Electrónico ; En este documento se plantea un tema de interes general mas como lo es especificamente el tema de la evolucion de la sociedad en materia de industria y crecimiento de las actividades humanas en el aspecto de desarrollo de la creatividad enfocada a los mercados ; edited by Mark Tovey ; foreword by Yochai Benkler (re-mixed by Hassan Masum) ; prefaces by Thomas Malone, Tom Atlee & Pierre Levy ; afterword by Paul Martin & Thomas Homer-Dixon. ; The era of collective intelligence has begun in earnest. While others have written about the wisdom of crowds, an army of Davids, and smart mobs, this collection of essays for the first time brings together fifty-five pioneers in the emerging discipline of collective intelligence. They provide a base of tools for connecting people, producing high-functioning teams, collaborating at multiple scales, and encouraging effective peer-production. Emerging models are explored for digital deliberative democracy, self-governance, legislative transparency, true-cost accounting, and the ethical use of open sources and methods. Collective Intelligence is the first of a series of six books, which will also include volumes on Peace Intelligence, Commercial Intelligence, Gift Intelligence, Cultural Intelligence, and Global Intelligence. ; Table of Contents Dedication i Publisher's Preface iii Foreword by Yochai Benkler Remix Hassan Masum xi The Wealth of Networks: Highlights remixed Editor's Preface xxi Table of Contents xxv A What is collective intelligence and what will we do 1 about it? (Thomas W. Malone, MIT Center for Collective Intelligence) B Co-Intelligence, collective intelligence, and conscious 5 evolution (Tom Atlee, Co-Intelligence Institute) C A metalanguage for computer augmented collective 15 intelligence (Prof. Pierre Lévy, Canada Research Chair in Collective Intelligence, FRSC) I INDIVIDUALS & GROUPS I-01 Foresight I-01-01 Safety Glass (Karl Schroeder, science fiction author 23 and foresight consultant) I-01-02 2007 State of the Future (Jerome C. Glenn & 29 Theodore J. Gordon, United Nations Millennium Project) I-02 Dialogue & Deliberation I-02-01 Thinking together without ego: Collective intelligence 39 as an evolutionary catalyst (Craig Hamilton and Claire Zammit, Collective-Intelligence.US) I-02-02 The World Café: Awakening collective intelligence 47 and committed action (Juanita Brown, David Isaacs and the World Café Community) I-02-03 Collective intelligence and the emergence of 55 wholeness (Peggy Holman, Nexus for Change, The Change Handbook) I-02-04 Knowledge creation in collective intelligence (Bruce 65 LaDuke, Fortune 500, HyperAdvance.com) I-02-05 The Circle Organization: Structuring for collective 75 wisdom (Jim Rough, Dynamic Facilitation & The Center for Wise Democracy) I-03 Civic Intelligence I-03-01 Civic intelligence and the public sphere (Douglas 83 Schuler, Evergreen State College, Public Sphere Project) I-03-02 Civic intelligence and the security of the homeland 95 (John Kesler with Carole and David Schwinn, IngeniusOnline) I-03-03 Creating a Smart Nation (Robert Steele, OSS.Net) 107 I-03-04 University 2.0: Informing our collective intelligence 131 (Nancy Glock-Grueneich, HIGHEREdge.org) I-03-05 Producing communities of communications and 145 foreknowledge (Jason "JZ" Liszkiewicz, Reconfigure.org) I-03-06 Global Vitality Report 2025: Learning to transform I-04 Electronic Communities & Distributed Cognition I-04-01 Attentional capital and the ecology of online social 163 conflict and think together effectively (Peter+Trudy networks (Derek Lomas, Social Movement Lab, Johnson-Lenz, Johnson-Lenz.com ) UCSD) I-04-02 A slice of life in my virtual community (Howard 173 Rheingold, Whole Earth Review, Author & Educator) I-04-03 Shared imagination (Dr. Douglas C. Engelbart, 197 Bootstrap) I-05 Privacy & Openness I-05-01 We're all swimming in media: End-users must be able 201 to keep secrets (Mitch Ratcliffe, BuzzLogic & Tetriad) I-05-02 Working openly (Lion Kimbro, Programmer and 205 Activist) I-06 Integral Approaches & Global Contexts I-06-01 Meta-intelligence for analyses, decisions, policy, and 213 action: The Integral Process for working on complex issues (Sara Nora Ross, Ph.D. ARINA & Integral Review) I-06-02 Collective intelligence: From pyramidal to global 225 (Jean-Francois Noubel, The Transitioner) I-06-03 Cultivating collective intelligence: A core leadership 235 competence in a complex world (George Pór, Fellow at Universiteit van Amsterdam) II LARGE-SCALE COLLABORATION II-01 Altruism, Group IQ, and Adaptation II-01-01 Empowering individuals towards collective online 245 production (Keith Hopper, KeithHopper.com) II-01-02 Who's smarter: chimps, baboons or bacteria? The 251 power of Group IQ (Howard Bloom, author) II-01-03 A collectively generated model of the world (Marko 261 A. Rodriguez, Los Alamos National Laboratory) II-02 Crowd Wisdom and Cognitive Bias II-02-01 Science of CI: Resources for change (Norman L 265 Johnson, Chief Scientist at Referentia Systems, former LANL) II-02-02 Collectively intelligent systems (Jennifer H. Watkins, 275 Los Alamos National Laboratory) II-02-03 A contrarian view (Jaron Lanier, scholar-in-residence, 279 CET, UC Berkeley & Discover Magazine) II-03 Semantic Structures & The Semantic Web II-03-01 Information Economy Meta Language (Interview with 283 Professor Pierre Lévy, by George Pór) II-03-02 Harnessing the collective intelligence of the World- 293 Wide Web (Nova Spivack, RadarNetworks, Web 3.0) II-03-03 The emergence of a global brain (Francis Heylighen, 305 Free University of Brussels) II-04 Information Networks II-04-01 Networking and mobilizing collective intelligence (G. Parker Rossman, Future of Learning Pioneer) II-04-02 Toward high-performance organizations: A strategic 333 role for Groupware (Douglas C. Engelbart, Bootstrap) II-04-03 Search panacea or ploy: Can collective intelligence 375 improve findability? (Stephen E. Arnold, Arnold IT, Inc.) II-05 Global Games, Local Economies, & WISER II-05-01 World Brain as EarthGame (Robert Steele and many 389 others, Earth Intelligence Network) II-05-02 The Interra Project (Jon Ramer and many others) 399 II-05-03 From corporate responsibility to Backstory 409 Management (Alex Steffen, Executive Editor, Worldchanging.com) II-05-04 World Index of Environmental & Social 413 Responsibility (WISER) By the Natural Capital Institute II-06 Peer-Production & Open Source Hardware II-06-01 The Makers' Bill of Rights (Jalopy, Torrone, and Hill) 421 II-06-02 3D Printing and open source design (James Duncan, 423 VP of Technology at Marketingisland) II-06-03 REBEARTHTM: 425 II-07 Free Wireless, Open Spectrum, and Peer-to-Peer II-07-01 Montréal Community Wi-Fi (Île Sans Fil) (Interview 433 with Michael Lenczner by Mark Tovey) II-07-02 The power of the peer-to-peer future (Jock Gill, 441 Founder, Penfield Gill Inc.) Growing a world 6.6 billion people would want to live in (Marc Stamos, B-Comm, LL.B) II-07-03 Open spectrum (David Weinberger) II-08 Mass Collaboration & Large-Scale Argumentation II-08-01 Mass collaboration, open source, and social 455 entrepreneurship (Mark Tovey, Advanced Cognitive Engineering Lab, Institute of Cognitive Science, Carleton University) II-08-02 Interview with Thomas Homer-Dixon (Hassan 467 Masum, McLaughlin-Rotman Center for Global Health) II-08-03 Achieving collective intelligence via large-scale argumentation (Mark Klein, MIT Center for Collective Intelligence) II-08-04 Scaling up open problem solving (Hassan Masum & 485 Mark Tovey) D Afterword: The Internet and the revitalization of 495 democracy (The Rt. Honourable Paul Martin & Thomas Homer-Dixon) E Epilogue by Tom Atlee 513 F Three Lists 515 1. Strategic Reading Categories 2. Synopsis of the New Progressives 3. Fifty-Two Questions that Matter G Glossary 519 H Index 525

The process of institutional transition from one coordination mechanism to another one is an important period in the evolution of any society. Transitions are associated with fundamental political, legal, economic and social changes (Danis et al. 2010) affecting all aspects of life (Peng 2003). The transition from planned to open-market economy that has taken place in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE), East Asia, and the newly independent states of the former Soviet Union represents an institutional transition. An environment that goes through transition is characterized by high level of vulnerability and uncertainty which impacts all actors evolving in it, including the organizations (Peng 2003). The dynamic relationship environment-organization is reflected in the concept of legitimacy. Legitimacy is a pertinent concept to study the transition stage since it exists on the borderline between the organization and its environment. In transition environments, the processes of deinstitutionalization of the old structures and the reinstitutionalization of the new ones coexist. This leads to a lack of institutional framework to guide behavior of actors or a situation called institutional vacuum. Since institutions regulate economic exchanges (North 1990), the lack of them leads to elevated costs for all actors due to the proliferation of opportunistic behavior (Meyer 2001). In such environments, demonstrating legitimacy becomes crucial for the survival of structures and actors. Legitimation is sought by new elites (Raychev and Stoichev 2008), the government (Peng 2000a), the new laws, decrees and regulations (Stark 1992), and the private organizations (Peng 2000a). The success of the transition directly depends on the strategies of organizations evolving in such environments (Peng 2000). Small and medium-size enterprises (SMEs) play an important role as catalysts of the process of change (McIntyre 2003: 1) since they are expected to spur economic growth and employment (Peng 2000a), and maintain social peace (McIntyre 2003: 1). Despite their central role in transition environments, little is known about the challenges SMEs face and the actions that can be undertaken in order to overcome them (Danis, Chaburu and Lyles 2010). One of the main challenges of SMEs in transition environments is to demonstrate that they are legitimate players implying that they comply with the expectations of relevant stakeholders' groups. The main objective of this study is to shed some light on how SMEs in transition environments gain organizational legitimacy necessary for obtaining stakeholders' support. The interest of the study lies in the fact that if organizational legitimacy is problematic for all organizations due to changing norms, beliefs, and stakeholders' expectations over time (Ashforth and Gibbs 1990), it is even more problematic for small organizations in transition environments since the norms, beliefs and expectations are not clearly defined. In order to address the legitimacy needs of small organizations in transition environments, I propose a signaling theory of legitimacy, which postulates that the legitimacy-claiming entities can rely on valid signals in order to demonstrate (communicate) their adherence to the requirements of the evaluating audiences. In general, the signaling theory of legitimacy should hold for any organization facing a liability - the discount the evaluating audiences place on it in comparison to its potential competitors. Organizations in transition environments face liability of origin (Bartlett and Ghoshal 2000) – a discount that the evaluating audiences (both domestic and foreign) may place on them based on their context of origin. For small organizations , the challenges resulting from liability of origin are even bigger because of their size, they are more prone to import instability from the environment. The higher level of vulnerability of small firms encourages them to engage in opportunistic behavior. Hence, demonstrating their legitimacy is a key issue for SMEs operating in transition environments. Organizational legitimacy becomes especially important when organizations engage in long-term arrangements since this requires an assessment of the organization not only in terms of its products/services but also in terms of its ongoing access to resources and capabilities as well as its reliability as a partner. In order to address the legitimacy needs of small firms evolving in transition environments and trying to obtain long-term partnerships, a new legitimacy typology is proposed. It is comprised of two types – functional and relational legitimacy. Functional legitimacy represents the adherence to the evaluating audiences' requirements regarding relevant resources and capabilities. Relational legitimacy is the conformity with the evaluating audiences' expectations regarding the reliability of an organization as a partner. Hence, this study addresses two research questions: 1. What are the dimensions (and valid signals) of functional and relational legitimacy (for small organizations in transition environment)? 2. Does using signals of specific types of legitimacy (depending on the liability faced) enhance organizational legitimacy? This doctoral research examines the legitimacy challenges of SMEs in transition environments trying to obtain long-term arrangements. In the first part of the study, the two types of legitimacy - functional and relational legitimacy - are constructed. Similar to organizational legitimacy (Deephouse and Carter 2005), functional and relational legitimacy are also multidimensional constructs comprised of different facets. In the second part, I examine whether the signals of functional and relational legitimacy help SMEs in transition environment gain organizational legitimacy. The research model is tested on data collected from the information technology (IT) sector in Bulgaria. Based on the data analysis and results, this research has several theoretical and methodological contributions. The results also have practical implications for the managers of small organizations in transition environments as well as the public policy agents. The theoretical contributions are associated mainly with the signaling theory of legitimacy. It looks at how organizations can overcome certain liabilities by communicating their adherence to the expectations of relevant stakeholders' groups. Organizations can demonstrate their conformity to the evaluating audiences' requirements by using valid signals – organizational characteristics that can be observed, are costly to imitate and are based on shared meaning between the sending and the receiving party. In addition, the study contributes to the literature on transition environments by looking at the particular case of SMEs and their attempt to demonstrate that they are legitimate players when trying to engage in long-term arrangements. The methodological contribution lies in the way the two types of legitimacy (functional and relational) are measured via formative measurement constructs (Diamantopoulos and Winklhofer 2001; Jarvis et al. 2003) under the partial least squares (PLS) technique. Formative constructs are associated with causality that goes from the manifest (directly observable) variable to the latent construct or in other words, the manifest variables cause/build the latent construct (Diamantopoulos 1999). This made possible to match the legitimacy claims of organizations from once side based on the functional and relational signals and the legitimacy granted by relevant stakeholders' groups, on the other side. In addition, the research contributes to the growing number of studies in strategic management that use PLS as a structural equation modeling technique (Birkinshaw et al. 1995; Cool et al. 1989; Fornell et al. 1990; Johansson and Yip 1994; Tsang 2002). The practical implications of this research shed some light on which signals (organizational characteristics) are important for managers of small organizations in transition environments. Signals are costly and since all organizations (and especially small firms) have limited resources, managers have to know which signals to invest in. It is important to note that many managers disregard the relational aspect of their legitimacy claims which (based on the results of the study) are more important in the communication process between the legitimacy-claiming and legitimacy-granting entities. Overall, this study represents a fertile area for future research. Researchers can test the signaling theory of legitimacy in other contexts – i.e., other transition environments (Eastern Europe vs. China), as well as compare the signals used by organizations in transition environments and developed economies. Researchers can also test the signaling theory of legitimacy on organizations facing different liabilities (i.e. liability of market newness) and try to extend the existing legitimacy typologies. In addition, future studies can focus on issues of meaning construction (based on signals) in the communication process between organizations.

Recently many microfluidic systems are increasingly equipped with functional units for ionic controls for various applications. In this review article, we define an ion bridge as a structure that controls current or distribution of ions in a microfluidic system, and summarize the ion bridges in the literature in terms of characteristics, fabrication methods, advantages and disadvantages. The ion bridges play two basic roles, namely to ensure electrical contact in a microfluidic network and mechanically separate a liquid phase from another. More interestingly, the charged surfaces of ion bridges, which can be chemically modified, create new characteristics such as permselectivity and concentration polarization. Asymmetric ion transport as well as ionic conductivity through the ion bridges suggests a variety of applications including sample preconcentration, electroosmotic pump, electrospray ionization, electrically driven valve and many others. This review categorizes the ion bridges into several classes and describes the structures, materials, fundamental functions and applications. In Perspectives, new opportunities of microfluidics and nanofluidics provided by the ion bridges are discussed. ; This work was supported by the Korea Science and Engineering Foundation (KOSEF) grant funded by the Korea government (MEST) (No. R11-2008-012-00000-0) and by the Next Generation New Technology Development Program funded by MKE, Korea. ; Zhou KM, 2008, J AM CHEM SOC, V130, P8614, DOI 10.1021/jaS02692x ; Liu JK, 2008, ELECTROPHORESIS, V29, P2241, DOI 10.1002/elps.200700608 ; Ehlert S, 2008, MICROFLUID NANOFLUID, V4, P471, DOI 10.1007/s10404-007-0200-5 ; Lee JH, 2008, ANAL CHEM, V80, P3198, DOI 10.1021/ac800362e ; Tandon V, 2008, ELECTROPHORESIS, V29, P1092, DOI 10.1002/elps.200700734 ; Gong M, 2008, ELECTROPHORESIS, V29, P1237, DOI 10.1002/elps.200700486 ; Tandon V, 2008, ELECTROPHORESIS, V29, P1102, DOI 10.1002/elps.200800735 ; Nischang I, 2008, ELECTROPHORESIS, V29, P1140, DOI 10.1002/elps.200700727 ; Dhopeshwarkar R, 2008, ANAL CHEM, V80, P1039 ; Kovarik ML, 2008, ANAL CHEM, V80, P657, DOI 10.1021/ac701759t ; 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A side-looking sonar was constructed for military purposes during World War II as a development of forward-search sonars used for detection of foe submarines hiding motionless on a seabed. An unexpected career of sidescan sonars began with their implementation in marine geology. A sonar ability to recognise sediment roughness and consequently grain size allowed significant opportunities for sediment mapping, which were spatially more precise than the ones performed by sediment sampling. In addition, an acoustic shadow caused by close-seabed scanning over troughs and ridges allowed easier interpretation of the bottom morphology. These revolutionary features opened new ways of underwater exploration. Some multi-disciplinary applications of sonographs on continental shelves are presented in the introduction of this work after a technical description of a sidescan sonar system, and sonograph processing issues. The main objective of this work is to discuss three case studies on sidescan sonar applications in seabed dynamics research. Each of the study was constructed as a separate research paper qualified for prestigious journals and thus, the introductory part of this work is a descriptive supplement of information enclosed in the presented manuscripts. A case study from the southern Vietnamese shelf is focused on sand dunes mapping on the basis of not mosaicked sonographs. It was the first investigation on bedforms from this area; however it contains data only from the end of the winter monsoon. The shelf area was divided into five zones grouping dunes of similar size, shape and orientation. All located sand dunes higher than 1.5 m were described, summarized in a scatter plot of height/length ratio and thus compared to dunes observed on other shelves. The dunes orientation corresponded to the overall South China Sea circulation pattern during the winter monsoon. Therefore, the possibility of dunes mobilisation was investigated with the help of empirical equations predicting sediment transport. Depth-integrated velocities necessary to put sediment forming dunes in motion were calculated for distinguished zones. The results were discussed with hydrodynamic in-situ measurements of other authors and it was concluded that most of the investigated dunes were likely to migrate actively following the monsoon circulation. A case study from the Baltic Sea is a rare example of an investigation focused on changes in the morphology of pits created by anchor hopper dredging of marine sand and gravel aggregates. By means of sidescan sonar and multi-beam echosounder data, a six-year evolution of four pits was presented. In the case of three pits dredged in a sandy seabed faster smoothing of edges and infilling rates larger than in the case of a pit dredged in gravel were clearly observed. The edges of the gravel pit were expanding due to collapsing of the side-walls. The infilling of the pit was investigated based on approximations of pit depth by single- and multi-beam echosoundings, as well as acoustic shade length in the sonographs. Earlier studies of other authors on this pit allowed plotting a curve of infilling rate over six years of pit evolution. The filling clearly slowed down over time and the reasons for that are discussed in this paper. The sand screened in the dredging process surrounded the investigated pit and its backscatter values in sonographs clearly separate it from the gravel seabed. The area covered by the screened sand fraction was monitored and appeared to be decreasing in time. Hydrological data showed the possibility of frequent mobilisation of this fraction and therefore indicated it as the main source for pit infilling. A case study from the North Sea presents a unique approach of conversion analogue sidescan sonar data into digital, geo-referenced form in order to present morphological stability and birth of sorted bedforms. The analogue mosaic was geo-coded in a DECCA navigation system in 1977. DECCA system technology was described thoroughly and a study of the spatial errors was presented for accurate geo-referencing of the mosaic. Image warping by rubber-sheeting method was performed to compare old sonographs of a sorted bedform with sonographs from 2002. A continuation study of Dr. Markus Diesing et al. additionally contains a multi-beam backscatter mosaic from 2003 as a comparison data-set. The morphological stability of the bedforms over time was discussed in the paper and compared to worldwide examples. Hydrodynamic conditions influencing the bedforms were presented and a significant role of the tidal currents in shaping the sorted bedforms was demonstrated. An asymmetry of a newly appeared sorted bedform, however, was probably related rather to high energy storm events. Even though the sidescan sonar data were collected from three different seas for three different case studies in three different scales, sonographs proved to be a valuable tool in each of the cases. Minor limitations of sidescan sonar systems and options for applying other devices for the same types of investigations are discussed in the end of this work. ; Während des Zweiten Weltkrieges wurde für militärische Zwecke zum Aufspüren feindlicher Unterseeboote, die die sich bewegungslos auf dem Meeresgrund versteckten, ein seitwärts schauendes Sonar als Fortentwicklung des vorwärts schauenden Sonars gebaut. Eine unerwartete Karriere dieses Seitensicht-Sonars begann mit seiner Einführung in der Marinen Geologie. Die Fähigkeit des Sonars, die Sedimentrauhigkeit und infolgedessen die Korngröße zu erkennen, eröffnete bedeutende Möglichkeiten in der Sedimentkartierung mit einer räumlich besseren Auflösung als sie durch Probennahmen zu erreichen ist. Zusätzlich erlaubt ein akustischer Schatten, der durch bodennahes Überfahren von Vertiefungen und Erhebungen verursacht wird, eine einfachere Interpretation der Morphologie des Meeresgrundes. Diese revolutionären Eigenschaften öffneten neue Wege der Unterwassererforschung. Einige multidisziplinäre Anwendungen von Sonographen auf Kontinentalsockeln werden in der Einleitung zu dieser Arbeit neben technischen Besonderheiten des Seitensicht-Sonar-Systems und Implikationen bei der Verarbeitung von Sonographie-Daten beschrieben. Die Hauptzielsetzung dieser Arbeit ist es, drei Fallstudien der Anwendung eines Seitensicht-Sonars in Meeresgrunddynamikstudien darzustellen. Jede der Studien wurde für anerkannte Journale verfasst oder angenommen, der einleitende Teil dieser Arbeit ist eine beschreibende Ergänzung der Informationen in den vorgestellten Veröffentlichungen. Eine Fallstudie am Südvietnamesischen Kontinentalsockel ist auf die Kartierung der Sanddünen auf der Basis nicht zusammengesetzter Sonographie-Daten ausgerichtet. Es ist die erste Untersuchung von Bodenformen in diesem Gebiet, enthält jedoch nur Daten vom Ende des Wintermonsuns. Der Schelfbereich wurde in fünf Zonen eingeteilt, um Dünen ähnlicher Größe, Form und Orientierung zu gruppieren. Alle lokalisierten Sanddünen mit einer Höhe größer als 1.5 m wurden beschrieben und in ihrem höhen/längen Verhältnis in einem Scatterplot dargestellt, und auf diese Weise mit Dünen auf anderen Schelfen verglichen. Die Düneorientierung entspricht dem allgemeinen Zirkulationsschema der Südchinesischen See während des Wintermonsuns. Die Möglichkeit der Dünenmobilisierung wurde mit Hilfe empirischer Sedimenttransportgleichungen untersucht. Tiefengemittelte Strömungs­geschwindigkeiten, notwendig um Sedimente zur Bildung von Dünen in Bewegung zu setzen wurden berechnet. Die errechneten Ergebnisse wurden mit hydrodynamischen In-Situ Messungen anderer Autoren verglichen und es wurde gefolgert, dass die meisten untersuchten Dünen aktiv entsprechend der Monsunzirkulation wandern. Eine Fallstudie in der Ostsee ist ein seltenes Beispiel einer Untersuchung von Änderungen in der Morphologie von Gruben, die durch Nassbaggern von Marinen Sanden und Kiesen entstandenen sind. Mittels Seitensicht-Sonar und Fächerecholot-Daten wurde die Entwicklung von vier Gruben über sechs Jahre dargestellt. Im Falle dreier Gruben in sandigem Untergrund konnte eine deutlich höhere Abrundungsrate der Kanten und Sedimentation in den Gruben beobachtet werden als dies bei der Grube im Kiesbett der Fall war. Die Ränder der Grube im Kies änderten sich durch Abrutschen der Seitenwände. Sedimentation in den Gruben wurde basierend auf Näherungswerten der Grubetiefe durch Single-Beam-Echolot und Fächerecholot-Messungen, sowie akustische Schattenlänge in den Sonographie-Daten untersucht. Frühere Studien anderer Autoren an diesen Gruben ermöglichten es, die Sedimentationsrate über sechs Jahre darzustellen. Die Sedimentationsrate verlangsamte sich mit der Zeit deutlich, die Gründe hierfür werden in diesem Paper dargestellt. Der Sand, der während des Nassbaggerns ausgesiebt wurde, konnte im Umkreis der untersuchten Grube nachgewiesen werden, das Echo in den Sonographie-Daten war deutlich von dem des kiesigen Meeresgrundes zu unterscheiden. Der Bereich, der durch die ausgesiebte Sandfraktion bedeckt wurde, wurde beobachtet und verringerte sich mit der Zeit. Hydrologische Daten zeigen die Möglichkeit einer häufigen Mobilisierung dieser Sandfraktion, wodurch diese als hauptsächliche verantwortliche Quelle für die Sedimentation in den Gruben ausgemacht werden kann. Eine Fallstudie in der Nordsee stellt einen einmaligen Ansatz der Umwandlung von analogen Seitensicht-Sonar-Daten in digitale, georeferenzierte Form dar, um die morphologische Stabilität und die Entstehung von sortierten Bodenformen darzustellen. Das analoge Mosaik wurde 1977 im DECCA Navigationssystem geo-kodiert. Die DECCA System Technologie wurde gänzlich beschrieben und für die genaue Georeferenzierung des Mosaiks wurde eine Studie der räumlichen Fehler präsentiert. Eine Anpassung des Bildes wurde per "rubber – sheeting" Methode durchgeführt um historische Sonographie-Daten sortierter Bodenformen mit neuen Sonographie-Daten von 2002 zu vergleichen. Eine nachfolgende Studie von Dr. Markus Diesing et al. enthält zusätzlich ein "multi-beam backscattering" Mosaik von 2003 als vergleichendes Material. Die morphologische Stabilität der Bodenformen über die Zeit wird in dem Paper besprochen und mit weltweiten Beispielen verglichen. Die hydrodynamischen Umgebungsbedingungen der Bodenformen wurden dargestellt und eine bedeutende Rolle der Gezeiten-Strömungen auf diese festgestellt. Eine Asymmetrie neu entstandener sortierter Bodenformen hing vermutlich mit Sturmereignissen hoher Energie zusammen. Obwohl die Seitensicht-Sonar-Daten in drei unterschiedlichen Meeren für drei unterschiedliche Untersuchungen und in drei unterschiedlichen Maßstäben gesammelt wurden, waren die Sonographie-Daten in jedem der Fälle ein wertvolles Hilfsmittel. Die kleineren Beschränkungen von Seitensicht-Sonar-Systemen und die Möglichkeit der Anwendung anderer Systemen für die gleichen Studien werden im Ende dieser Arbeit diskutiert.

The Doing Business data highlight the important role of the government and government policies in the day-to-day life of domestic small and medium-size firms. The objective is to encourage regulations that are designed to be efficient, accessible to all who use them and simple in their implementation. Where regulation is burdensome and competition limited, success tends to depend on whom one knows. But where regulation is efficient, transparent and implemented in a simple way, it becomes easier for aspiring entrepreneurs to compete on an equal footing and to innovate and expand. In this sense Doing Business values good rules as a key to social inclusion. Enabling growth, and ensuring that all people, regardless of income level, can participate in its benefits, requires an environment where new entrants with drive and good ideas can get started in business and where good firms can invest and grow, thereby creating more jobs. Doing Business was designed with 2 main types of users in mind: policy makers and researchers. Doing Business is a tool that governments can use to design sound policies for the creation of firms and jobs. But this tool should not be used in isolation. Doing Business provides a rich opportunity for benchmarking by capturing key dimensions of regulatory regimes. Nevertheless, the Doing Business data are limited in scope and should be complemented with other sources of information.

This paper looks at the existing tools and approaches most commonly used in developed and developing countries to review the stock of regulations. The tools reviewed can generate benefits in the short term, but they are most effective as part of a longer-term sustained initiative. This paper has a particular focus on the challenges that arise from their use in emerging and developing countries. The objectives of this paper include: 1) explaining the rationale for the use of these tools and approaches; 2) discussing each one of them in a succinct way; 3) considering the extent to which these tools can support more systemic regulatory reforms in the medium and long terms; and 4) considering the particular challenges and opportunities regarding their use in developing and emerging economies. Section one is a brief description of the rationale and context for applying tools and approaches to review the stock of regulation. It includes a reference to benefits and preconditions to make use of these tools. It also presents a categorization of the most commonly used tools and a comparative table on the way these tools can be applied. Section two presents a description of each of the different tools and approaches available, and discusses the way they are used and their main components. It includes references to international experiences in which these tools have been integrated into the regulatory reform process. Section three presents preliminary commentary about some of the potential advantages, disadvantages, and impacts of using these tools and approaches in developing countries. Some particular cases are presented to illustrate these trends. The section also includes a short description of the sequence observed in the use of some of these tools. Moreover, this section illustrates how these tools can (or cannot) generate gains in the short term and also provide a basis for further and broader regulatory reform programs.

This report examines how green growth and sustainable development policies can be incorporated into structural reform agendas. Indeed, as demonstrated in the report, many of these policies are closely linked and synergistic with the framework policies applied by G20 governments in their efforts to pursue strong and sustainable growth. The report, has been prepared in response to the request from G20 Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors in their communication of 25-26 February 2012 that asked the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), with the World Bank and the United Nation (UN), to prepare a report that provides options for G20 countries on inserting green growth and sustainable development policies into structural reform agendas, tailored to specific country conditions and level of development. The report will be an input to the G-20 leader's summit in Los Cabos and provides a toolkit of policy options from which countries may draw-upon when designing their own green growth strategies. The G20 development working group has also tasked the International Organizations with the development of a non-prescriptive toolkit of policy options to support inclusive green growth in the context of sustainable development and poverty eradication in developing countries.