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The Martial Law regime which came into power in Pakistan on
July 5, 1977 after a political crisis undertook a comprehensive scheme
of Islamizing the political, legal, economic and educational areas of
the Pakistani society. Ordinances and Laws on Zakat (poor-due), 'Ushr
(tithe), elimination of riba (interest/ usury), profit and loss scheme,
mudaraba (profit-sharing), and twelve modes of Islamic finance, were
promulgated with the avowed aim of transforming the Pakistani economy
into an Islamic economic system. In this article we shall confine
ourselves to an examination of the Islamization of the economy only;
that is, the article shall focus on the relationship between religion
and economics in general, and Islam and economics in particular. Since
the times of Adam Smith (1720-1790), and especially after the works of
Lionel Robbins (1898-1984) the modern economy is generally taken by the
economists as an autonomous economic system and modern economics, an
important branch of the social sciences, has gradually become
independent from religion. In both capitalist and socialist versions,
economics is generally defined as the "study of the social laws
governing production and distribution of the material means of
satisfying human needs" [Lange (1963)].

Webster v. Reproductive Health Services throws down the gauntlet on the "most politically divisive domestic legal issue of our time," imperiling women's progress in securing reproductive freedom and power in society. The battle over abortion rights is likely to splinter an already deeply divided country. After fierce fighting in many statehouses, some legislatures will pass statutes further restricting abortion. The major battleground, however, will quickly shift to the federal courts, where plaintiffs seeking to protect procreative freedom will challenge these measures. Judges, parties, and lawyers participating in this litigation will rigorously analyze the issues of "substance" that Webster and the new state laws implicate-questions involving the Constitution, privacy, women's rights, precedent, statutory construction, medicine, science, religion, and morality. In their haste to evaluate these critical issues, they must not overlook the procedural questions and process values at stake. Indeed, if certain procedural problems receive insufficient attention, they may preclude efforts to protect reproductive rights. Issues involving intervention under Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 24 pose significant difficulties and typify the procedural problems that will pervade the anticipated abortion cases. Two protracted pieces of litigation that challenged restrictive abortion laws passed after Roe v. Wade illustrate the complications that may ensue.

The attacks of September 11, 2001 (9/11) caused thousands of deaths, national and global panic, and immediate action by the federal government to protect the borders of the United States of America (USA) from terrorism. In response to these attacks, the United States (U.S.) government enacted laws for law enforcement agencies to protect against terrorist activities. Law enforcement agencies are effective in combating terrorism, but their measures contain a major flaw - the improper use of race in profiling to address national security and public safety concerns. Racial profiling is an ineffective measure for preventing terrorism. There are solutions to correct this flaw through reconstructing training and implementing policies for all law enforcement agencies. The intent of this thesis is to discuss the history and the effectiveness of profiling in U.S. post-9/11 counterterrorism through theoretical research of peer-reviewed journals and articles, relevant laws, and United States Supreme Court cases to offer solutions to the problems racial profiling presents. The discussion will generate a search for new ways law enforcement agencies could conduct daily counterterrorism operations. ; 2016-05-01 ; B.S. ; College of Health and Public Affairs, Legal Studies ; Bachelors ; This record was generated from author submitted information.

Law as it is made by the courts, interstitially as suggested by Mr. Justice Holmes, and interpreted in the cases that arise during a year, covers only a portion of the law-making process of the American states. Judicial interpretation and judicial legislation are determined largely by the types of controversies which arise involving the interpretation and application of constitutions and laws, and by the personnel of the courts before whom the issues are litigated. It is difficult to discover the tendencies or trends which are in the molding during a decade or more of legal history; for such a short term as a year, generalizations or conclusions may be attempted only with great caution and with well understood reservations.The significant decisions affecting state constitutional law in 1931-32 in the state supreme courts or courts of appeal and in the inferior federal courts may conveniently be grouped under the following headings: (1) the separation and delegation of powers; (2) the protection of civil rights; (3) due process of law and equal protection of the laws; (4) due process and public utility regulations; (5) due process and the police power; (6) taxation; and (7) miscellaneous decisions.

This paper is focused on the problem of football hooliganism and attempts to explain some displays at football stadiums from the standpoint of extremism. Football hooliganism is a topic that has been directly addressed by an interdisciplinary approach in the social sciences, sociology, psychology, social pedagogy, social pathology, legal science, history and others. The question is to what degree politics may contribute to research into the phenomenon of football hooliganism in the context of research (political) into extremism. Football hooliganism and violence (not just) at football stadiums is primarily a social problem, which from the standpoint of political research, does not contain any political attributes and is not a political topic or even a topic for research into extremism and radicalism (cf Mareš 2003: 433). Despite this, football hooliganism has been politicised (by some actors in football hooliganism, the media, police, etc.). ; This paper is focused on the problem of football hooliganism and attempts to explain some displays at football stadiums from the standpoint of extremism. Football hooliganism is a topic that has been directly addressed by an interdisciplinary approach in the social sciences, sociology, psychology, social pedagogy, social pathology, legal science, history and others. The question is to what degree politics may contribute to research into the phenomenon of football hooliganism in the context of research (political) into extremism. Football hooliganism and violence (not just) at football stadiums is primarily a social problem, which from the standpoint of political research, does not contain any political attributes and is not a political topic or even a topic for research into extremism and radicalism (cf Mareš 2003: 433). Despite this, football hooliganism has been politicised (by some actors in football hooliganism, the media, police, etc.).

H. R. 11 and S. 11 are modest and simple legislative proposals.'They provide for no change in our antitrust laws prohibiting price discrimination except to limit somewhat the use of the "good faith" defense. The extent of this limitation goes no further than to assist the Act by providing that the "good faith" defense shall not operate as an absolute and complete bar to a proceeding by the Government against the practices of destructive price discrimination: In other words, those discriminations which would have the effect of substantially lessening competition and tending to create a monopoly may not be defended by showing that they were practiced in "good faith." It appears that those opposing H. R. 11 and S. 11 want to insure legality of price discriminations, even at the cost of lessening competition and creation of monopoly. Actually, they are arguing for those ugly results, with the concession that the ugliness my be covered with the veil of "good faith" meeting of competition. Therefore, the naked issue over whether H. R. 11 and S. 11 should be enacted into law is, like the bill, quite simple. It is this: "Shall we tolerate practices which destroy competition and create monopoly, even when those practices are based upon good intentions?" It should not be difficult for us to resolve that issue, especially in the light of our national anti-monopoly public policy. Certainly, no practice destructive of competition and creative of monopoly can be said to be consonant with our antimonopoly public policy, even though the architect of such practices had some good, though misguided, purposes in mind. For ex-ample, mergers of corporations which destroy competition violate the antimerger law even though based on good intentions and for good purposes. In criminal causes, to be sure, evidence of intent is relevant to the issue. Here, we are not discussing proposals for amending the Criminal Code. Instead, we are discussing legislative proposals out of which only civil actions may arise.

Primäres Ziel der Genfer Flüchtlingskonvention (GFK) ist zwar die Sicherstellung des größtmöglichen Schutzes der Konventionsflüchtlinge, sie bezweckt aber zugleich, ein internationales Lastenteilungssystem zu schaffen, im Rahmen dessen durch ihre einheitliche Anwendung und Auslegung nicht zumutbare schwere Belastungen für einzelne Länder vermieden werden sollen. Die restriktive Handhabung der GFK kann jedoch eine Kettenreaktion unter ihren Parteien zur Abwendung des Massenzustroms von Flüchtlingen auslösen, was im Endeffekt das ganze GFK-System unterminiert. Vor diesem Hintergrund kommt der Frage der Durchsetzung der Flüchtlingskonvention besondere Bedeutung zu. Können die Verpflichtungen aus der Konvention innerhalb des Internationalen Gerichtshofes effektiv durchgesetzt werden? Welche Rolle kommt dem UNHCR im Durchsetzungsprozess zu? Wie muss die GFK richtig ausgelegt werden? Welche Chancen bietet das Europarecht zu ihrer Durchsetzung? Der Autor erörtert diese Fragestellungen und andere mit der Umsetzung der GFK zusammenhängenden Themen. Seine Studie richtet sich insbesondere an Völkerrechtler und Europarechtler

The chosen topic is relevant due to the proclamation of vector of Ukraine's accession to the EU on the state level. This defines modernization of social and economic life in a single internal space. The key to successful solution of this global goal is the ability to take over and meet the high standards of social and economic model of the European Union.Aim. To study the problem of Ukraine's education transformation in connection with the entry to the European educational space. To study the experience of countries that have already passed this way, to analyze the advantages and features that distinguish modern European education policy.Methods and results. Through such research methods as a comparative and analytical study demonstrated the usefulness and application of the experience of the Czech Republic. In the Czech Republic teaching of legal disciplines at the Faculty of Pharmacy is carried out in accordance with the requirements of the Bologna process, but at the same time taking into account the features and capabilities of a particular educational institution.Conclusion. Most knowledge of the legal subject meets Ukrainian medical (pharmaceutical) universities. In the study of discipline "Pharmaceutical Law" focuses on the issues of legal regulation of drugs trafficking, the legal status of pharmaceutical workers, legal liability. Until recently, special attention to the European Union pharmaceutical legislation was not given. ; Актуальность выбранной темы обусловлена тем, что провозглашённый на государственном уровне вектор вступления Украины в Евросоюз определяет модернизацию социально-экономической жизни в условиях единого внутреннего пространства. Залогом достижения этой глобальной цели является способность перенять высокие стандарты социально-экономической модели Евросоюза и соответствовать им.Цель работы – изучение проблемы трансформации образования Украины в связи с вхождением в европейское образовательное пространство. Изучен опыт стран, которые уже прошли этот путь, проанализированы и обобщены преимущества и особенности, отличающие современную европейскую образовательную политику.Материалы и методы – нормативно-правовая база, которая регулирует просветительский процесс в Чешской Республике, организация правового просвещения на фармацевтических факультетах. Методы исследования – сравнительно-правовой, анализа и синтеза.Результаты. Доказана полезность изучения и применения опыта Чешской Республики, где преподавание правовых дисциплин на фармацевтических факультетах осуществляется согласно требованиям Болонского процесса, но одновременно с учётом особенностей и просветительских возможностей конкретного вуза. Выводы. Большинство тем правовых знаний отвечает тематике украинских медицинских (фармацевтических) вузов. При изучении дисциплины «фармацевтическое правоведение» основное внимание уделяется вопросам правового регулирования оборота лекарственных средств, правового статуса фармацевтических работников, юридической ответственности. До недавнего времени особенного внимания вопросам фармацевтического законодательства Европейского Союза не уделялось. ; Актуальність теми зумовлена тим, що вектор вступу України до Євросоюзу, котрий проголошено на державному рівні, визначає модернізацію соціально-економічного життя в умовах єдиного внутрішнього простору. Запорукою досягнення цієї глобальної мети є спроможність запозичити високі стандарти соціально-економічної моделі Євросоюзу та відповідати їм.Мета роботи – вивчення проблеми трансформації освіти України у зв'язку із входженням до європейського освітнього простору. Вивчено досвід країн, які вже пройшли цей шлях, зроблено аналіз й узагальнення переваг та особливостей, котрі відрізняють сучасну європейську освітню політику.Матеріали та методи – нормативно-правова база, що регулює освітній процес у Чеській Республіці, організація надання правової освіти на фармацевтичних факультетах. Методи дослідження – порівняльно-правовий, аналізу та синтезу.Результати. Довели корисність вивчення та застосування досвіду Чеської Республіки, де викладання правових дисциплін на фармацевтичних факультетах здійснюється відповідно до вимог Болонського процесу, але з урахуванням особливостей та освітніх можливостей конкретного вишу. Висновки. Більшість тем з правових знань відповідає тематиці українських медичних (фармацевтичних) вишів. Під час вивчення дисципліни «фармацевтичне правознавство» основна увага приділяється питанням правового регулювання обігу лікарських засобів, правового статусу фармацевтичних працівників, юридичній відповідальності. Дотепер особливої уваги питанням фармацевтичного законодавства Європейського Союзу не приділяли.

В настоящее время назрела настоятельная необходимость и целесообразность особое внимание уделить соответствующим законам и иным нормативным правовым актам субъектов Российской Федерации, которые могут приобретать жизнедеятельную силу, становиться источником и формой права в общем механизме правового регулирования с другими элементами нормативных правовых актов государства основываясь на взаимодействии и взаимообусловленности различных по юридической силе актов. Оценить правовую значимость нормативного правового акта субъекта Российской Федерации необходимо на стадии правотворческого процесса, поскольку качество акта и его эффективность зависят от совокупности важнейших требований. Процесс совершенствования правотворческой деятельности субъектов Российской Федерации должен осуществляться одновременно с усилением контроля и ответственности за подготовку и принятие законных и обоснованных нормативных правовых актов. В нормативных правовых актах субъектов Российской Федерации нередки случаи придания формы закона акту типично управленческого содержания, часто отсутствуют системные связи. Цели, задачи и предмет правового регулирования акта необходимо проанализировать на предмет их соответствия основам конституционного строя Российской Федерации, соблюдения основных прав и свобод человека и гражданина. ; Currently, there is an urgent need and feasibility to pay special attention to the relevant laws and other normative legal acts of the Russian Federation, which can acquire the vital activity, and become a source of law in the form of the general mechanism of legal regulation with the other elements of regulatory legal acts of the State based on the interaction and interdependence between various legal acts. Evaluate legal significance of the normative legal act of the Russian Federation is important on stage of law-making process, as the quality of the act and its effectiveness depends on a combination of the most important requirements. The process of improving the legislative activities of the Russian Federation should be carried out simultaneously with the strengthening of control and responsibility for the preparation and adoption of the legitimate and reasonable regulations. In the normative legal acts of the Russian Federation is not unusual to make a typical management act in a shape of law, often without any systematic relationship. The goals, objectives and the subject of legal regulation of the act should be analyzed for compliance with principles of the constitutional system of the Russian Federation, the respect of fundamental rights and freedoms of man and citizen.

International audience ; Quality assessment of soils requires knowledge of distinct pollutant sources and process that leads the enrichment of harmful substances, by natural or anthropogenic causes. Reference values to chemical substances contents are used to characterize polluted or contaminated areas based preliminarily on background values. A background value refers to the natural concentration of an element or a substance in soils that have not been modified by anthropogenic activities aspects impacts. The establishment and distinction of these contents from different sources, regarding their strict reference values, guides normative instructions and some environmental laws in several countries, establishing the classification of areas with distinct levels of contamination. Decreasing soil quality by means of contamination and pollution by heavy metals is nowadays recognized as a serious risk for environmental quality and to the human health. Thus, the study goal consists in a reflection about the mineral nature of soils (reference values) and anthropic input in areas under pressure from agricultural frontiers, using as a case study the Southwest region of Amazonia. The study also proposes a comparison with the current situation in Europe, in order to subsidize the elaboration of public policies for the region under pressure of agricultural use in Brazil. In southwestern region of Brazilian Legal Amazon region, the land use is facing a continuous transformation, from mining activities and wood extraction to agricultural practices with intense use of fertilizers. These practices contribute with great volumes of heavy metals added to a weak tropical soil in this frontier region, characterized by land use conflicts between areas of indigenous reserves, farmlands and illegal mining activities. This work deals with the state of the art of legislation and proposals for reference values of some harmful substances suitable to the region and a preliminary delineation of conditions and vectors that allows their ...

International organizations are unusual creations: generated by and for their member states, at the same time they often have to compete with those very states that created them. This complicated relationship often leads to some uncertainty in the law relating to international organizations: the legal argument of an organization will often be counterpointed by an equally valid argument from a member state. Professor Jan Klabbers is mindful of this complex relationship in his comprehensive analysis of international institutional law. As well as describing the law as it applies to legal institutions in chapters that include dispute settlement, financing and treaty-making, Klabbers looks forward to a re-appraisal of the status of international organizations. This is a key textbook for advanced-level students of law and of international relations

International organizations are unusual creations: generated by and for their member states, at the same time they often have to compete with those very states that created them. This complicated relationship often leads to some uncertainty in the law relating to international organizations: the legal argument of an organization will often be counterpointed by an equally valid argument from a member state. Professor Jan Klabbers is mindful of this complex relationship in his comprehensive analysis of international institutional law. As well as describing the law as it applies to legal institutions in chapters that include dispute settlement, financing and treaty-making, Klabbers looks forward to a re-appraisal of the status of international organizations. This is a key textbook for advanced-level students of law and of international relations

There is an increased acceptance of youth courts grounded in restorative justice principles to divert first-time nonviolent offenders away from formal juvenile court entry. Research assessing the effectiveness of various teen/peer courts is mixed, and focuses mainly on recidivism. This study analyzes 2010 to 2016 Salt Lake Peer Court data to examine the relationship legal and extralegal variables have on the participation in and completion of this diversionary program for first-time youth offenders. Overall, legal factors affected outcomes more than extralegal factors. Gender proved insignificant in both models with race, age, and school socioeconomic status (SES) producing varied significant effects in outcome models. Offense severity produced consistent strong significant effects across model outcomes. Implications of the study point to the possibilities of peer courts for reducing disproportionate minority contact.

This paper provides a commentary on the evolution and position of petty offence law in the Polish legal system. For the sake of order, it should be noted that the nature of petty offences is ambiguous and not one-dimensional. Their status and role depend on the assumptions of the legislator, who may emphasise their various aspects. A petty offence may be an element of criminal law in the broad sense, as a "small crime" or an administrative tort. More-over, the development of Polish petty offence law and the arguments supporting the choice of specific legal solutions are presented. The probable future of Polish petty offence law was also indicated, aiming at the conclusion that the most serious petty offences would become crimes, and the rest would become administrative torts.