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18 pages, 3 figures, 2 tables, supplementary information https://doi.org/10.1186/s40168-021-01141-7 ; Background: Ecological interactions among microorganisms are fundamental for ecosystem function, yet they are mostly unknown or poorly understood. High-throughput-omics can indicate microbial interactions through associations across time and space, which can be represented as association networks. Associations could result from either ecological interactions between microorganisms, or from environmental selection, where the association is environmentally driven. Therefore, before downstream analysis and interpretation, we need to distinguish the nature of the association, particularly if it is due to environmental selection or not. Results: We present EnDED (environmentally driven edge detection), an implementation of four approaches as well as their combination to predict which links between microorganisms in an association network are environmentally driven. The four approaches are sign pattern, overlap, interaction information, and data processing inequality. We tested EnDED on networks from simulated data of 50 microorganisms. The networks contained on average 50 nodes and 1087 edges, of which 60 were true interactions but 1026 false associations (i.e., environmentally driven or due to chance). Applying each method individually, we detected a moderate to high number of environmentally driven edges—87% sign pattern and overlap, 67% interaction information, and 44% data processing inequality. Combining these methods in an intersection approach resulted in retaining more interactions, both true and false (32% of environmentally driven associations). After validation with the simulated datasets, we applied EnDED on a marine microbial network inferred from 10 years of monthly observations of microbial-plankton abundance. The intersection combination predicted that 8.3% of the associations were environmentally driven, while individual methods predicted 24.8% (data processing inequality), 25.7% (interaction information), and up to 84.6% (sign pattern as well as overlap). The fraction of environmentally driven edges among negative microbial associations in the real network increased rapidly with the number of environmental factors ; Conclusions: To reach accurate hypotheses about ecological interactions, it is important to determine, quantify, and remove environmentally driven associations in marine microbial association networks. For that, EnDED offers up to four individual methods as well as their combination. However, especially for the intersection combination, we suggest using EnDED with other strategies to reduce the number of false associations and consequently the number of potential interaction hypotheses ; This project and IMD received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement no. 675752 (Singek: http://www.singek.eu). RL was supported by a Ramón y Cajal fellowship (RYC-2013-12554, MINECO, Spain). This work was also supported by the projects INTERACTOMICS (CTM2015-69936-P, MINECO, Spain), MINIME (PID2019-105775RB-I00, AEI, Spain) and MicroEcoSystems (240904, RCN, Norway) to RL. We thank the CSIC Open Access Publication Support Initiative through the Unit of Information Resources for Research (URICI) for helping to cover publication fees ; With the institutional support of the 'Severo Ochoa Centre of Excellence' accreditation (CEX2019-000928-S) ; Peer reviewed

Intro -- WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS, DISTRIBUTION AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS -- WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS, DISTRIBUTION AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS -- CONTENTS -- PREFACE -- WATER RESOURCES AND TECHNOLOGIES IN SUDAN -- ABSTRACT -- 1. INTRODUCTION -- 2. WATER RESOURCES -- 2.1. The Nile System -- 2.2. Ground Water -- 3. USES OF WATER -- 4. WATER QUALITY AND SANITATION MANAGEMENT -- 4.1. Groundwater and Environment -- 5. WATER MANAGEMENT, POLICIES AND LEGISLATION RELATED TO WATER USE -- 5.1. Institutions -- 5.2. Water Management -- 5.3. Legislation -- 5.4. Finances -- 5.5. The Policy Regime in Water Quality Management -- 5.6. Sustainable Development -- 6. SMALL WATER ENTERPRISES (SWES) -- 6.1. Problems -- 7. SAFE WATER FOR NEW MILLENNIUM -- 8. ECONOMY, AGRICULTURE AND FOOD SECURITY -- 8.1. Water Management -- 8.2. Evolution of Irrigation Development -- 8.3. Perspectives for Agricultural Water Management -- 9. POLLUTION FROM RIVER NILE -- 9.1. Environment and Health -- 9.2. Status and Evolution of Drainage Systems -- 10. THE CHALLENGE OF OVERCOMING THE COUNTRY'S DIVERSITY -- 10.1. Water Scarcity Impacts and Potential Conflicts -- 11. PROSPECTS FOR WATER RESOURCE PLANNING IN NILE BASIN -- 11.1. Common Language and Culture -- 11.2. Factors Promoting Data and Information Exchange -- 11.3. Sufficient Levels of Economic Development -- 11.4. Increasing Water Resources Stress -- 12. DISCUSSIONS -- 12.1. Water Stress in Sudan -- 12.2. The Role of Agriculture in Water Stress -- 12.3. Water Supply Problems in the Butana Region - Central Sudan with Special Emphasis on Jebel Qeili Area -- 12.4. Southern Sudan -- 12.5. Beja People's Problems -- 12.6. Western Sudan -- CONCLUSION -- REFERENCES -- APPENDIX 1. MAJOR RIVERS, AND HYDROELECTRICITY SITES -- ADAPTING WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS IN A CHANGING CLIMATE -- ABSTRACT -- 1. CLIMATE CHANGE AS EMERGING PRESSURE ON WATER SUPPLY.

This paper deals with the issue of regulatory reform in the airline industry, in connection with environmental externalities. Deregulation has led to shorter routes, higher frequencies, probably larger aircraft sizes and more intense peak traffic at airports. In addition, deregulation has led to lower average real fares, although various barriers to entry still allow carriers to keep prices above competitive levels. Environmental effects have thus far not received much attention in the discussion on deregulation. The paper contains a discussion of various types of environmental effects of aviation. An analytical model is developed to compare these effects in hub and spoke systems with a fully connected system. The conclusion is that for CO2 emissions private cost considerations and environmental considerations may run parallel in the choice of transport network, but that for other types of pollutants there may be a clear conflict. In addition the paper pays attention to equity aspects of externalities.

Up to now a clear theoretical and methodological framework for economic-environmental analysis of environmentally damaging subsidies is lacking. Environmentally damaging subsidies are all kinds of direct and indirect subsidies aimed at achieving a certain (often non-environmental) goal that produce negative external effects to the natural environment. This article develops a transparent method to determine the environmental impact of indirect government subsidies and derive policy lessons. This method has been applied to several major subsidies in the Netherlands, namely in agriculture, energy, and transport. The results reveal large environmental effects, which need to be taken seriously by policy makers. The method enables policy makers to evaluate the environmental impacts of indirect government subsidies.

ABSTRACTIt is common sense that refill packs can increase the repeated use of durable goods, reduce resource waste and be conducive to environmental protection. However, their existence also has an economic effect. For instance, we find that the profit of a monopolistic firm will increase as a result of selling the refill packs when the depreciation rate of the durable good is low. In an extension of the model, we point out that there is an entrant that competes with the incumbent in relation to the composite goods and the refill packs. In order to compete in terms of the prices of the composite goods, the incumbent sells the refill packs not only to increase profit, but also to reduce the amount of waste resulting from the durable goods. As for competing in regard to the prices of the refill packs, if the cost of the composite goods is small, then the incumbent's profit from selling the composite goods will increase. By comparing two extensions of the model, we find that the environmental effect of the price competition in regard to the refill packs is greater than the environmental effect of the price competition in relation to the composite goods.

Chickens are widely used by humans in both farm production and in scientific research as model organisms. In the farming industry, they total 27 billion individuals worldwide (FAO, 2013). Over 6 billion of these are laying hens in egg farms (FAO, 2013). The large majority of these animals are reared and housed in cages (Landbrug og Fødevarer Erhvervsfjerkræsektionen, 2015). However, recent governmental and scientific concern for farm animal welfare has resulted in a growing number of countries and regions banning the use of conventional cages and adopting other housing systems, such as furnished cages, aviaries, and free-range systems. These systems provide quite different and more complex environments for the laying hens than conventional cages. It is known that the environment is an important factor in the behavioural and physiological development of animals. Therefore, the different rearing and housing systems for laying hens may result in differences in the behavioural development of these birds. This would be of particular importance in the event of the rearing and housing environments experienced by the birds being different. In Norway, due to national and European legislation, laying hens are largely reared in aviaries and may be transferred to production farms that use furnished cages. There is a worry that these individuals might suffer frustration and stress due to environmental restriction compared to hens that were reared in cages and are, perhaps, adapted to such an environment. ; Verpehøner og slaktekyllinger benyttes i stort omfang av mennesker både i landbrukssammenheng og som modellorganisme innen forskning. På verdensbasis er det totale antallet individer slaktekylling og verpehøner innen landbruket 27 milliarder dyr. Over 6 milliarder av disse er verpehøner. Majoriteten av dyrene holdes i bur under oppdrett og eggproduksjon (Landbrug og Fødevarer Erhvervsfjerkræsektionen, 2015). I nyere tid har blitt mer fokus på dyrevelferd blant politikere og forskningsmiljø, og dette har resultert i at stadig flere land forbyr bruk av tradisjonelle 3-hønersbur. Dette har ført til en endring i oppstalling av dyrene som promoterer miljøbur og frittgående systemer (aviarier) med eller uten tilgang på uteareal. Disse oppstallingssystemene utsetter hønene for forskjellige miljø, særlig med hensyn på kompleksitet. Da miljøet dyrene lever i er viktig for dyrenes fysiologiske og mentale utvikling, kan oppstalling under både oppdrett og produksjon påvirke dyrenes utvikling. Dersom dyrene oppdrettes i en type miljø, for så å bli flyttet til et annet miljø for eggproduksjon, vil dette kunne påvirke dyret negativt. I Norge reguleres hold av fjørfe via regler diktert av EU, samt nasjonalt regelverk. I Norge oppdrettes de fleste høner i aviarier, men kan bli sendt enten til miljøbur eller til aviarier for eggproduksjon. For høner som er vant til å være i et miljø hvor de har stor bevegelsesfrihet og gode muligheter til å utøve naturlig atferd (aviarier), kan overgangen til oppstalling i et mer restriktivt miljø (innredede bur) medføre frustrasjon og stress. For høner som derimot er oppdrettet i bur, vil trolig overgangen til bur ikke medføre like stor påkjenning. ; Norwegian Levy on Agricultural Products ; Agricultural Agreement Research Fund of Norway ; Animalia

Cover -- Half Title -- Title Page -- Copyright Page -- Original Copyright Page -- Table of Contents -- Preface -- Acknowledgments -- Chapter 1: Introduction -- Approaches and Caveats -- Summary of the Report -- References -- Chapter 2: Projections of Production of Grains, Soybeans, and Cotton in the United States -- Introduction -- Projections to 1990 and 2010 -- Sources of Error in Projections -- Comparisons with Others -- References -- Chapter 3: Factors Affecting Farmers' Choices Among Technologies: Prices of Inputs -- Introduction -- Types of Technology