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Introduction: criminology and the digital society -- At the crossroad: cyber, critical and cultural criminologies -- A global context: networks, corporations and states -- Crime in real time: immediacy, immersion, and engagement -- Liminal images: criminality, victimisation and voyeurism -- Networked hate: racism, misogyny and violence -- Informal justice: digilantism, victim participation and recognition -- More than a hashtag: crime and social justice activism -- Conclusion: crime and justice in digital society

The infusion of digital technology into contemporary society has had significant effects for everyday life and for everyday crimes. Digital Criminology: Crime and Justice in Digital Society is the first interdisciplinary scholarly investigation extending beyond traditional topics of cybercrime, policing and the law to consider the implications of digital society for public engagement with crime and justice movements. This book seeks to connect the disparate fields of criminology, sociology, legal studies, politics, media and cultural studies in the study of crime and justice. Drawing together intersecting conceptual frameworks, Digital Criminology examines conceptual, legal, political and cultural framings of crime, formal justice responses and informal citizen-led justice movements in our increasingly connected global and digital society. Building on case study examples fromacross Australia, Canada, Europe, China, the UK and the United States, Digital Criminology explores key questions including: What are the implications of an increasingly digital society for crime and justice? What effects will emergent technologies have for how we respond to crime and participate in crime debates? What will be the foundational shifts in criminological research and frameworks for understanding crime and justice in this technologically mediated context? What does it mean to be a 'just' digital citizen? How will digital communications and social networks enable new forms of justice and justice movements? Ultimately, the book advances the case for an emerging digital criminology: extending the practical and conceptual analyses of 'cyber' or 'e' crime beyond a focus foremost on the novelty, pathology and illegality of technology-enabled crimes, to understandings of online crime as inherently social.

Abstract
Technology-facilitated abuse (TFA) is a growing problem. This article explores lifetime victimization experiences of TFA, presenting findings from the first study to establish a reliable national prevalence estimate for victimization in Australia, using a general adult population sample (n = 4,562) and 20 qualitative interviews with adults who have experienced TFA. Key findings include an overall high lifetime victimization prevalence (one in two Australians), high negative emotional impacts and severe mental distress among some marginalized groups. Our findings lend support for the utility of marginalization and intersectional theories in understanding the prevalence and negative impacts of TFA and address gaps in knowledge of how TFA victimization may differentially impact marginalized groups within an adult population. We argue that TFA research, policy and practice must be more attentive to intersecting and marginalized identities including and beyond gender.

This report presents findings from Stage I of a larger national project examining the extent and nature of, and responses to, technology-facilitated abuse (TFA) within the Australian community. Consistent with the current Australian policy focus of the National Plan to Reduce Violence Against Women and their Children 2010–2022 (Council of Australian Governments, 2011), the project focuses on TFA in gendered, partner and sexualised violence. Stage I of the project, on which this report focuses, seeks to inform the development of Stages II and III through recognition of the vital practice-based knowledge that is held by those who work directly with clients experiencing TFA within the support services sectors, including domestic and family violence, sexual assault, health, legal services and specialist diversity services. In this report, we discuss the results of a national survey of support services stakeholders in which they reported their experiences in responding to or preventing TFA, as well as the barriers and challenges to responding to or preventing TFA, and priority areas for future professional development and policy change. These important insights will be utilised to develop Stages II and III of the research, which comprise in-depth interviews with victims and perpetrators of TFA as well as a representative national survey of TFA victimisation and perpetration.

mage-based sexual abuse (IBSA) is a term used to describe a pattern of behaviours involving the non-consensual creation, distribution, or threats to distribute, nude or sexual images (photographs or videos). Also known as 'revenge pornography' or 'non-consensual pornography', IBSA affects a significant proportion of the population and has wide-ranging and significant impacts. This report provides an empirical account of IBSA in Australia, including documenting the prevalence, nature and impacts of victimisation and perpetration, and analysing the effects of existing and proposed laws governing IBSA in Australia. The study addresses three key questions: 1. What is the nature and prevalence of IBSA in Australia, and what are the impacts on victims? 2. What are the merits and limitations of existing Australian and comparative legislative models for responding to IBSA? 3. What are the perceptions of key legal, policy and support stakeholders regarding the effectiveness of existing legislation and the need for new legislative models for responding to IBSA in Australia? The study involved a mixed quantitative and qualitative methodology comprising the first- ever national online survey of IBSA victimisation and perpetration; legislative analysis of criminal offences in Australia and internationally; stakeholder engagement; and 44 in-depth interviews conducted with 52 key stakeholders across three states (New South Wales, South Australia and Victoria).

The opportunities afforded through digital and communications technologies, in particular social media, have inspired a diverse range of interdisciplinary perspectives exploring how such advancements influence the way we live. Rather than positioning technology as existing in a separate space to society more broadly, the 'digital society' is a concept that recognises such technologies as an embedded part of the larger social entity and acknowledges the incorporation of digital technologies, media, and networks in our everyday lives (Lupton 2014), including in crime perpetration, victimisation and justice. In this article, we explore potential for an interdisciplinary concept of digital society to expand and inspire innovative crime and justice scholarship within an emerging field of 'digital criminology'.

A legal definition of rape that exonerates an accused who 'reasonably believes in consent' is currently in force in a number of jurisdictions in the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand. Limited empirical research has investigated community and professional perceptions of the adequacy and scope of this definition of rape. The present study contributes to qualitative research on 'reasonable belief in consent' by analysing key themes from 11 focus group discussions with professionals working in the sexual assault sector (counsellors, health professionals, victim/survivor advocates and police officers), legally trained professionals and community members interested in rape law reform. Across these backgrounds, participants expressed dissatisfaction with this definition of rape because the scope for reasonable belief in consent was seen as overly broad. In particular, participants expected that jurors would draw on a presumption of 'implied' or 'continuing' consent between former sexual partners to find that belief in consent was 'reasonable' when the victim did not protest or resist the assault. As a result, many of our participants were critical that the rape definition effectively maintains the onus on a rape victim/survivor to unequivocally demonstrate non-consent. Participants advocated further law reform to give effect to a more 'affirmative' or communicative concept of consent.

Image-based sexual abuse: beyond revenge pornography -- Victim-survivor experiences of image-based sexual abuse -- The harms of image-based sexual abuse / with Erika Rackley and Nicola Gavey -- Image-based sexual abuse perpetration: power and control -- Visual criminality: a theory of image-based sexual abuse -- The missing culture of consent: shifting social norms on image-sharing, sexual autonomy and harm -- Seeking justice for victim-survivors of image-based sexual abuse / with Erika Rackley -- Preventing image-based sexual abuse: ethics, consent and respectful relationships.

Despite apparent political concern and action – often fuelled by high-profile cases and campaigns – legislative and institutional responses to image-based sexual abuse in the UK have been ad hoc, piecemeal and inconsistent. In practice, victim-survivors are being consistently failed: by the law, by the police and criminal justice system, by traditional and social media, website operators, and by their employers, universities and schools. Drawing on data from the first multi-jurisdictional study of the nature and harms of, and legal/policy responses to, image-based sexual abuse, this article argues for a new joined-up approach that supports victim-survivors of image-based sexual abuse to 'reclaim control'. It argues for a comprehensive, multi-layered, multi-institutional and multi-agency response, led by a government- and industry-funded online or e-safety organisation, which not only recognises the diversity of victim-survivor experiences and the intersection of image-based sexual abuse with other forms of sexual and gender-based violence and discrimination, but which also enables victim-survivors to reclaim control within and beyond the criminal justice system.Despite apparent political concern and action – often fuelled by high-profile cases and campaigns – legislative and institutional responses to image-based sexual abuse in the UK have been ad hoc, piecemeal and inconsistent. In practice, victim-survivors are being consistently failed: by the law, by the police and criminal justice system, by traditional and social media, website operators, and by their employers, universities and schools. Drawing on data from the first multi-jurisdictional study of the nature and harms of, and legal/policy responses to, image-based sexual abuse, this article argues for a new joined-up approach that supports victim-survivors of image-based sexual abuse to 'reclaim control'. It argues for a comprehensive, multi-layered, multi-institutional and multi-agency response, led by a government- and industry-funded online or e-safety organisation, which not only recognises the diversity of victim-survivor experiences and the intersection of image-based sexual abuse with other forms of sexual and gender-based violence and discrimination, but which also enables victim-survivors to reclaim control within and beyond the criminal justice system.

Beyond 'scandals' and the public testimonies of victim-survivors, surprisingly little is known about the nature and extent of the harms of 'image-based sexual abuse', a term that includes all non-consensual taking and/or sharing of nude or sexual images. Accordingly, this article examines the findings from the first cross-national qualitative study on this issue, drawing on interviews with 75 victim-survivors of image-based sexual abuse in the UK, Australia and New Zealand. We adopt a feminist phenomenological approach that permits more nuanced and holistic understandings of victim-survivors' experiences, moving beyond medicalised, trauma-based accounts of harm. Our analysis develops five interconnected accounts of the harms experienced, that we have termed social rupture, constancy, existential threat, isolation and constrained liberty. Our findings shed new light on the nature and significance of the harms of image-based sexual abuse that emphasises the need for more comprehensive and effective responses to these abuses.

AbstractViolence against women (VAW) is a serious and prevalent problem globally. Societal‐level norms, practices and structures are among the factors contributing to it, sometimes referred to collectively as representing "cultures of support" for VAW. Understanding factors contributing to these cultures is important for prevention, but remains the subject of debate. Population‐level surveys of attitudes toward VAW are one means to strengthen this understanding. Although there are a number of such surveys internationally, scholarly research based on secondary analysis of data, at least from surveys in high‐income countries, is scant. This article reports on new analyses of the Australian National Community Attitudes Towards Violence Against Women survey to explore its potential to further empirical and conceptual understanding of cultures of support for VAW. To facilitate this, a scale to measure attitudes toward VAW was developed post hoc from the survey (the Violence Supportive Attitudes, or VSA‐18, Scale). Subsequent analyses investigate the relationship between this scale and relevant demographic factors and a measure of attitudinal support for gender equality (GE). The GE measure, place of birth, employment and occupation, generation, education and sex contribute to variance in the VSA‐18 Scale. Findings are discussed in the context of theoretical debates and directions for future research.