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Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Indargi-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 558 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 81 per cent is covered by soils, 10 per cent is covered by rock outcrops and 9 per cent is covered by others (Habitation and Waterbody). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 19 soil series and 30 soil phases (management units) and 12 Land Management Units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  About 8 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 50 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 23 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  An area of about 34 per cent area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 19 per cent area of the microwatershed has nearly level (0-1% slope) lands and 62 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1- 3% slope) lands.  An area of about 48 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded and about 33 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded.  An area of about 56 per cent soils are neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) and 25 per cent soil are slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is 0.75%) in 72 per cent area and medium (0.5-0.75%) in 9 per cent area of the microwatershed.  An area of about 48 per cent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 32 per cent is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area of about 48 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 33 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is medium (10 -20 ppm) in 36 per cent area and low (4.5 ppm) and 22 per cent is deficient (1.0 ppm) in the available manganese content.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is sufficient (>0.2 ppm) in the available copper content.  An area of about 52 per cent is deficient (0.6 ppm) in available zinc content.  The land suitability for 31 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 3(1) 374(67) Sapota 16(3) 215(38) Maize - 377(68) Pomegranate 16(3) 360(64) Bajra 41(7) 377(68) Guava 16(3) 215(38) Groundnut 26(5) 222(40) Jackfruit 16(3) 215(38) Sunflower 3(1) 345(62) Jamun 3(1) 241(43) Cotton 117(21) 227(41) Musambi 16(3) 360(64) Red gram 3(1) 345(62) Lime 16(3) 360(64) Bengal gram 117(21) 43(8) Cashew 16(3) 215(38) Chilli 3(1) 374(67) Custard apple 41(7) 404(73) Tomato 3(1) 229(41) Amla 41(7) 401(72) Brinjal 3(1) 346(62) Tamarind 3(1) 124(22) Onion - 232(42) Marigold 3(1) 374(67) Bhendi 3(1) 374(67) Chrysanthemum 3(1) 374(67) Drumstick 16(3) 357(64) Jasmine 3(1) 254(46) Mulberry 13(2) 218(39) Crossandra 3(1) 229(41) Mango 3(1) 99(18)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 12 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Indargi-1 is located at North latitude 150 27' 22.468" and 150 25' 37.556" and East longitude 760 19' 50.998'' and 760 18' 8.704" covering an area of about 607.66 ha coming under Indargi, Ballary and Kukanapalli Villages of Koppal taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Indargi-1 micro watersheds of Indargi sub-watershed, Koppala taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 36 total respondents, 8 (22.22 %) were marginal, 14 (38.89%) were small, 6 (16.67 %) were Semi medium and 3 (8.33 %) were medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 100 (58.14%) men and 71 (41.28 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (45.35%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 36.63 per cent illiterates, 0.58 percent were functional literates, 64.54 per cent pre university education and 6.40 per cent attained graduation.  About, 86.11 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 16.67 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 54.65 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 91.67 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 0.00 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 66.67 per cent possess TV, 13.89 per cent possess mixer grinder, 88.89 per cent possess mobile phones and 47.22 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 16.67 per cent of the households possess plough and 5.56 per cent possess bullock cart.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 11.11 per cent possess local cow and 0.00 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 10.65, women available in the micro watershed was 5.58, hired labour (men) available was 29.88 and hired labour (women) available was 26.72.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 71.71 per cent (52.70 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 28.29 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 10.00 live bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 27.78 per cent of the households. 2  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Maize, Bajra, Groundnut and Paddy and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Maize, Bajra, Groundnut and Paddy was Rs.29227.55 , 37545.91, 78126.52 and 69194.53 with benefit cost ratio of 1:2.00, 1: 1.01, 1: 1.10 and 1: 1.40 respectively.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 105055.56 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 94972.22 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 57 horticulture trees and 92 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 7833.33 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 58.33 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 86.11 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants.  Further, 86.11 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (52.78%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 77.78 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 100.00 per cent of the households.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 97.22 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 91.67 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (100.00%), pulses (77.78%) and oilseeds (5.56%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (86.11%) wild animal menace on farm field (5.56%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (77.78%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (86.11%), low price for the agricultural commodities (86.11%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (86.11%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (75.00%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Mokadampur-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 729 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 591 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 79 ha by forest, 15 ha by rock outcrops and about 43 ha by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 15 soil series and 16 soil phases (management units) and 7 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 69 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep to very deep (75 - >150 cm) and 12 per cent soils are very shallow to moderately shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 13 per cent medium (101-150 mm/m), 10 per cent area low (51-100 mm/m) and 8 per cent area very low (0.75%) and 80 per cent is medium (0.50-0.75%) in organic carbon content.  About 16 per cent area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in an area of 38 per cent and deficient (>4.5 ppm) in 43 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 62(9) 347(47) Guava - 21(3) Maize 21(3) 449(62) Sapota - 21(3) Bajra 21(3) 388(53) Pomegranate - 212(29) Groundnut 12(2) 37(5) Musambi 53(7) 159(22) Sunflower 53(7) 159(22) Lime 53(7) 159(22) Redgram - 381(52) Amla 21(3) 81(11) Bengal gram 53(7) 138(19) Cashew - 12(2) Cotton 53(7) 156(21) Jackfruit - 21(3) Chilli 21(3) 219(30) Jamun - 53(7) Tomato 21(3) 28(4) Custard apple 65(9) 175(24) Brinjal 21(3) 28(4) Tamarind - 53(7) Onion 21(3) 28(4) Mulberry - 21(3) Bhendi 21(3) 219(30) Marigold 21(3) 219(30) Drumstick - 74(10) Chrysanthemum 21(3) 219(30) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and sub marginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Mokadampur-1 is located at North latitude 160 49' 1.466" and 160 46' 28.457" and East longitude 770 18' 34.68" and 770 16' 16.844" covering an area of about 728.28 ha coming under Pasapoola, Mugadhamapoora and Arakera.K villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Mokadampur-1 micro watersheds of Mokadampur subwatershed, Yadagiri taluk, Yadagiri District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 total respondents, 19 (54.29 %) were marginal, 11 (31.43%) were small, 2 (5.71 %) were Semi medium farmers .  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 99 (59.64%) men and 64 (38.55 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents 80 (48.19%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 54.22 per cent illiterates, 43.38 percent pre university education and 5.42 per cent attained graduation.  About, 88.57 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  In the study area, 60.00 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 31.43 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 91.43 per cent possess TV, 20.00 per cent possess mixer grinder, 100.00 per cent possess mobile phones and 28.57 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 11.43 per cent of the households possess plough, 11.43 per cent possess bullock cart and 8.57 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 5.71 per cent possess local cow and 5.71 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own men labour availability in the micro watershed was 1.87 and own women labour availability in the micro watershed was 1.29, while the hired labour (men) availability was 8.87.  Further, 5.71 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 100.00 per cent (32.50 ha) of the area is under dry condition.  There were 1.00 live bore wells and 1.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 2.86 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Cotton, Groundnt, Green gram, Jowar and Ridge gourd and cropping intensity was recorded as 101.23 per cent.  Out of the sample households 82.86 percent possessed bank account and 77.14 per cent of them have savings in the account. 2  About 60.00 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 4.76 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial and co-operative banks and 33.33 per cent from Grameena Bank bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 88.89 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Cotton, Groundnt, Green gram, Jowar and Ridge gourd was Rs.50084.32 , 46337.94, 39244.54, 73380.16 and 46501.51 with benefit cost ratio of 1: 1.8, 1:1.3, 1:1.9 , 1:1.6 and 1:1.2 respectively.  Further, 34.29 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 112200.00 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 80257.14 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 5 horticulture trees and 43 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 7085.71 for land development.  Regarding marketing channels, 48.57 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 17.14 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Majority of the farmers (48.57 %) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 82.86 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 97.14 per cent of the households.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 97.14 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 100.00 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (97.14%), pulses (94.29%) and oilseeds (54.29%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (100 %) wild animal menace on farm field (100.00%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (100.00%), inadequacy of irrigation water (94.29%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (100.00%), high rate of interest on credit (97.14%), low price for the agricultural commodities (100.00%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (2.86%), inadequate extension services (2.86%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (74.29%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Katarki West-6 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 473 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 95 per cent is covered by soils and 5 per cent by water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 4 soil series and 6 soil phases (management units) and 1 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm) soils.  Entire area of about 95 per cent has clayey soils at the surface.  Entire area of about 95 per cent of the soils has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 56 per cent is nearly sloping (0-1%) and 39 per cent area has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 63 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 32 per cent moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 39 per cent strongly alkaline (pH 8.4 to 9.0) and 56 per cent are very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils is 337 kg/ha) in available potassium content.  Available sulphur is low (320 ppm) in 37 per cent soils.  Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 83 per cent area and 13 per cent area is medium (0.5-1.0 ppm).  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in 63 per cent and deficient (<4.5 ppm) in about 33 per cent area.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in about 95 per cent area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 429 (91) 21(5) Sapota - - Maize - 450 (95) Pomegranate - 450 (95) Bajra - 327 (69) Musambi 429 (91) 21 (5) Groundnut - - Lime 429 (91) 21 (5) Sunflower 429 (91) 21 (5) Amla - 450 (95) Red gram - 450 (95) Cashew - - Bengalgram 429 (91) 21 (5) Jackfruit - - Cotton 429 (91) 21 (5) Jamun - 450 (95) Chilli - - Custard apple 429 (91) 21 (5) Tomato - - Tamarind - 450 (95) Brinjal - 450 (95) Mulberry - 28 (6) Onion - - Marigold - 450 (95) Bhendi - 450 (95) Chrysanthemum - 450 (95) Drumstick - 450 (95) Jasmine - - Mango - - Crossandra - 424 (90) Guava - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 1identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Katarki West-6 is located at North latitude 150 16' 25.782" and 150 18' 28.116" and East longitude 750 59' 48.936" and 760 1' 42.863" covering an area of about 421.25 ha coming under Alawandi, Mynahalli and Kavalura villages of Koppal taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Katarki West-6 micro watersheds of Katarki subwatershed, Koppala taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 farmers were sampled in Katarki West-6 micro-watershed among households surveyed 15 (42.86%) were marginal, 8 (22.86%) were small, 4 (11.43 %) were semi medium, 2 (5.71 %) were medium and 1 (2.86 %) were large farmers. 5 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 78 (54.93%) men and 64 (45.07 %) were women. The average population of landless was 4.4, marginal farmers were 3.9, small farmers were 4, medium farmers were 5 and large farmers were 6.  Majority of the respondents (41.55%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 38.73 per cent illiterates, 58.45 per cent pre university education and 2.82 per cent attained graduation.  About, 45.71 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 51.43 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 30.99 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 100.00 per cent of the households possess katcha house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 48.57 per cent possess TV, 74.29 per cent possess mobile phones and 31.43 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 5.71 per cent possess tractor, 2.86 per cent possess bullock cart.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 5.71 per cent possess local cow.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.4, women available in the micro watershed was 1.23, hired labour (men) available was 10.3 and hired labour (women) available was 10.57.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 94.98 per cent (56.42 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 5.02 per cent area is irrigated land. 2  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Maize, Sorghum, Bengal gram, Cotton and Sunflower and cropping intensity was recorded as 79.76 per cent.  Out of the sample households 37.14 percent possessed bank account and 37.14 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 37.14 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 15.38 per cent from cooperative/ Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Maize, Sorghum, Bengal gram, Cotton and Sunflower was Rs.22224.16, 23560.78, 28196.92, 35252.92 and 37589.57 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.80, 1: 2.10, 1: 1.90, 1: 1.70 and 1:1.30 respectively.  Further, 5.71 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.86 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 64828.57 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 54057.14 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 7 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 5114.29 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 68.57 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 94.29 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 5.71 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 100 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (85.71%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 85.71 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 97.14 per cent of the households and 8.57 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 82.86 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 60.00 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 97.14 per cent of the households possessed BPL card and 2.86 per cent of the household's were not having ration cards.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (100.00%), pulses (100.00%) and oilseeds (100.00%) are adequate for consumption. 3  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (97.14%) wild animal menace on farm field (85.71%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (85.71%), inadequacy of irrigation water (11.43%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (88.57%), high rate of interest on credit (77.14%), low price for the agricultural commodities (80.00%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (82.86%), inadequate extension services (8.57%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (88.57%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Yakehalli-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 493 ha in Yakehalli-1 Microwatershed of Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as droughtprone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 426 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils and about 68 ha by rock outcrops. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 3 soil series and 4 soil phases (management units) and 2 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 1 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep (75 - 100 cm) and 85 per cent soils are very shallow to shallow (0.75%) and 22 per cent is medium (0.50-0.75%) in organic carbon content.  About 59 per cent area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 27 per cent is high (> 57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus of the microwatershed.  An area 52 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha) and 34 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in available potassium of the microwatershed.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in 71 per cent and deficient (0.6 ppm) in 67 per cent area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 6(1) Guava - 6(1) Maize 6(1) - Sapota - 6(1) Bajra 6(1) - Pomegranate - 6(1) Groundnut 6(1) - Musambi - 6(1) Sunflower - 6(1) Lime - 6(1) Redgram - 6(1) Amla 6(1) - Bengal gram - - Cashew - 6(1) Cotton - - Jackfruit - 6(1) Chilli 6(1) - Jamun - - Tomato 6(1) - Custard apple 6(1) - Brinjal 6(1) - Tamarind - - Onion 6(1) - Mulberry - 6(1) Bhendi 6(1) - Marigold 6(1) - Drumstick - 6(1) Chrysanthemum 6(1) - Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and sub marginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Yakehalli-1 is located at North latitude 160 54' 41.246" and 160 53' 0.287" and East longitude 770 10' 46.228" and 770 8' 51.112" covering an area of about 493.09 ha coming under Yakehalli, Baggalamadu and Samanapura Villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Yakehalli-1 micro watersheds of Yakehalli sub-watershed, Yadagiri taluk, Yadagiri District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 total respondents, 14 were marginal, (40.00 %) were small 10 (28.57%), 4 (11.43 %) were Semi medium and 2 (5.71 %) were medium.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 89 (59.33%) men and 61 (40.67 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (51.33%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 62.00 per cent illiterates, 29.32 per cent pre university education and 4.67 per cent attained graduation.  About, 60.00 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 28.57 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 58.00 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 60.00 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 25.71 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 82.86 per cent possess TV, 20.00 per cent possess mixer grinder, 85.71 per cent possess mobile phones and 37.14 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 2.86 per cent possess tractor and 2.86 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 11.43 per cent possess local cow.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own men and women labour availability in the micro watershed was 9.19 each, while the hired labour (men) availability was 2.52.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 55.80 per cent (35.98 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 23.28 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 4.00 live bore wells and 3.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Groundnut, ridge gourd, Cotton, Green gram and Jowar and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  Out of the sample households 77.14 percent possessed bank account and 54.29 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 37.14 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources. 2  Among the credit borrowed by households, 16.67 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 33.33 per cent from grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 16.67 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Cotton, Groundnut, Green gram, Jowar and Ridge gouard was Rs.67020.33, 75701.54, 33109.11, 40710.07 and 40779.68 with benefit cost ratio of 1:2.9, 1: 0.8, 1: 2.3, 1: 1.6, and 1: 0.7, respectively.  Further, 22.86 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 144040.00 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 80211.43 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 24 horticulture trees and 55 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 2948.57 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 45.71 per cent depends on own funds and 2.86 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 42.86 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 20.00 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Majority of the farmers (31.43%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 57.14 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 48.57 per cent of the households and 62.86 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 82.86 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 28.57 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 97.14 per cent of the households possessed BPL card, 2.86 per cent of the household's possessed APL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (34.29%), pulses (28.57%) and oilseeds (54.29%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (60.00%) wild animal menace on farm field (31.43%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (54.29%), inadequacy of irrigation water (54.29%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (60.00%), high rate of interest on credit (54.29%), low price for the agricultural commodities (57.14%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (60.00%), inadequate extension services (48.57%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (62.86%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Introduction Recent epidemiological studies reveal associations between exposure to environmental pollutants and cardiovascular disorders in humans. Elevated serum concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) have for instance been associated with cardiovascular risk factors such as hypertension (1-3). Exposure to the carbonate plastic monomer bisphenol A (BPA) has been associated with an increased incidence of cardiovascular disease and atherogenic changes in the vascular wall (4-6). The contention that the human cardiovascular system is a sensitive target for toxic chemicals gain support from our earlier and recent experimental studies in rodents, birds and fish, as well as in cultured human primary endothelial cells. It is also compatible with earlier observations that certain polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are environmental carcinogens that may also contribute to atherosclerosis in mice and birds (7,8). In this presentation we will briefly discuss effects of Ah receptor (AhR) agonists (e.g. the coplanar PCB126 or BNF, ß-naphthoflavone) on the expression of cytochrome P450 (CYP)1 enzymes in various endothelia in rodents in vivo or ex vivo, as well as in cultured human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC). The CYP1-dependent bioactivation and irreversible binding of prototype polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and heterocyclic amines such as benzo(a)pyrene (BaP), 7,12-dimethyl- benz(a)anthracene (DMBA) and 3-amino-1,4-dimethyl-5H-pyrido- [4,3-b]indole (Trp-P1) in these endothelia will be reviewed. We will also report how PCB126 affects vasoactive factors in HUVEC, and how these effects are modulated by physiological 17ß-oestradiol concentrations. Some effects of PCB126, 1-nitropyrene (1-NP) and bisphenol A (BPA) on biomarkers for endothelial dysfunction, cell stress and DNA damage in HUVEC will finally be presented. Material and methods Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) were purchased from Science Cell Research laboratories, Carlsbad, CA. C57Bl mice and Wistar or Sprague Dawley rats were purchased from various suppliers. All animal experiments were approved by the Local Ethical Committee for Research on Animals in Uppsala and the studies followed the guidelines laid down by the Swedish and European Union legislation on animal experimentation. Rodents, tissue-slices and cultured cells were treated with model chemicals as previously described. Tape section and light microscopy autoradiographic imaging using 3H-labelled BaP, DMBA and Trp-P-1 and immunohistochemistry was performed as previously described (9-19). Precision-cut tissue slices for in vitro autoradiography were prepared as described in (14) and the slices were incubated with various 3H-labelled chemicals. HUVEC were exposed to various compounds and the detection of biomarkers of endothelial dysfunction, DNA damage were performed as described (20-22). Finally, female Fischer rats were exposed to BPA (0.025, 0.25 and 2.5 mg/l) and fructose (50 g/l) in the drinking water from 5 to 15 weeks of age to mimic human exposure (unpublished data). Results and discussion Co-localization of CYP1A1 expression and BaP, DMBA and Trp-P-1 adduct formation in endothelial linings As demonstrated by immunohistochemistry, a high CYP1A immunoreactivity occurred in capillaries of the heart, skeletal muscle, uterus and in blood-brain interfaces such as the leptomeninges and plexus choroideus, whereas no expression was observed for instance in cerebral capillary endothelial cells of mice treated with AhR agonists (9-11). No, or very low constitutive immunoreactivities were observed in these endothelia in vehicle-treated animals. No basal or induced CYP1B1 expression was observed in endothelial cells, while a weak CYP1B1 immunostaining was detected in the muscle layer of small arteries. It should be noted that in subcellular preparations of whole organs, e.g. heart and brain, the CYP1A1 in endothelial cells is diluted due to cells that do not express high levels of CYP1A1, for examples myocytes or neurons, in excess. A cell-specific metabolism in endothelial cells may therefore remain undetected due to the presence of metabolically inactive cells. In order to detect minor sites of bioactivation such as endothelial linings we employed light microscopic autoradiographic imaging to examine the bioactivation and subsequent irreversible binding of the radiolabelled prototype toxicants in tissues of animals pretreated with AhR-agonists. As determined by light microscopic autoradiography of AhR-agonist-treated mice exposed to 3H-labelled BaP, DMBA or Trp-P-1 and birds exposed to 3H-Trp-P-1 a significant accumulation of non-extractable radioactivity occurred in endothelial linings (9-18). The bound radioactivity occurred in the nuclei and the perinuclear cytoplasm, suggesting that the autoradiograms depict both DNA- and protein-bound adducts. Since the binding sites of 3H-labelled BaP, DMBA or Trp-P-1 corresponded with the sites of CYP1A1 induction, we concluded that rodents express a constitutively low but highly inducible and functional CYP1A1 in endothelial cells. The binding of reactive metabolites in endothelial cells exceeded the binding in all other cell types in AhR-agonist treated mice and was abolished by pretreatment with the CYP1A1 inhibitor ellipticine, supporting a CYP1A1-catalysed metabolic activation in situ to a reactive species (9, 10,12). These findings imply that there is a preferential CYP1A1-catalysed formation of reactive metabolites from all three carcinogens in endothelial cells expressing high CYP1A1 levels. Interestingly, however, carcinogenesis in endothelial cells is a relative rare finding, suggesting that degenerative lesions and cell death may be more prevalent responses to metabolism-activated carcinogens/mutagens in these cells. Experiments with 3H-DMBA and 3H-Trp-P-1 in HUVEC confirmed that AhR-agonists induced an increased bioactivation, suggesting that also human endothelial cells should be targets for toxicity of reactive intermediates formed from CYP1A1- activated carcinogens/mutagens (17-18). This conclusion is supported by immunohistochemical studies on the heavily vascularized human endometrium demonstrating an expression of CYP1A1 and CYP1B1 protein in and around human endometrial blood vessels, although a large interindividual variation was observed (19). None of the endometrial biopsy samples displayed vascular expression of CYP2A6, CYP2B6, CYP2C8/2C9/2C19, CYP2D6, or CYP3A4/5 protein. Effects of PCB 126, 1-NP, and BPA on biomarkers of endothelial dysfunction and cell stress in endothelial cells In vitro studies demonstrated that PCB126 increased the levels of vasoconstriction factors and decreased the levels of vasodilating factors in cultured HUVEC in a fashion that is characteristic for endothelial dysfunction related to human hypertension. The study showed that the co-planar PCB126 induced expression of the endothelium-derived vasoconstriction factor COX-2 and stimulated formation of the vasoconstrictor prostaglandin PGF2 via the AhR in HUVEC (20). COX-2 is known to play a role in hypertension by catalysing the formation of vasoconstriction prostaglandins and by stimulating reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. Further studies demonstrated that PCB126 increased the production of the vasoconstriction prostaglandin PGF2 and ROS in HUVEC. The relationship between increased ROS production and human hypertension is well established, ROS promotes vasoconstriction by stimulating the production of vasoconstriction prostaglandins and by reducing bioavailability of the vasorelaxing factor NO. Indeed, exposure to PCB126 slightly reduced the production of NO in HUVEC. Furthermore, the PCB126-induced mRNA expressions of CYP1A1, CYP1B1 and COX-2 in HUVEC were enhanced in the presence of physiological levels of 17- estradiol. This suggests that increased levels of oestrogen stimulate AhR-dependent transcription of genes previously associated with endothelial dysfunction and hypertension. In another study we have examined the effects of a nitrated PAH, 1-nitropyrene, that is abundant in diesel exhausts (21). The results revealed that 1-NP induced DNA damage, increased levels of ROS and increased protein expression of the endoplasmic reticulum stress chaperone GRP78 in cultured HUVEC. Induction of CYP1A1 by PCB126 as well as inhibition of nitroreductive metabolism by dicoumarol attenuated the induction of DNA damage, intracellular ROS levels and GRP78 expression. This suggests that the effects of 1-NP on HUVEC were mediated by metabolites mainly formed at nitroreduction and not by CYP1-dependent bioactivation to reactive intermediates. Recent in vitro studies demonstrated that bisphenol A increased the mRNA expression of genes that regulate vasoconstriction and angiogenesis in HUVEC (eNOS, VEGF, VEGFR2, connexin 43 and ACE1) and in human cardiomyocytes (eNOS and ACE1) (22). The results also showed that BPA increased the expression of P-eNOS(ser1177) and the production of NO in HUVEC. NO is the main effector molecule in angiogenesis downstream of VEGF. Based on the findings that BPA increase the expression of proangiogenic factors we investigated whether BPA could stimulate in vitro angiogenesis in HUVEC using the endothelial tube formation assay. The results demonstrated that BPA increased HUVEC tube formation suggesting that BPA can act directly on the endothelium and stimulate angiogenesis. Long-term exposure in rats revealed that environmentally relevant levels of BPA, increased the cardiac mRNA expression of genes that regulate vasoconstriction and angiogenesis. Ten weeks exposure of rats from preadolescence to adulthood to BPA in the drinking water increased the expression of eNOS, VEGF, VEGFR2 and ACE1 in the heart. Taken together, the genes that were upregulated in rat cardiac tissues in vivo were also upregulated in human endothelial cells and cardiomyocytes in vitro. The heart is a heavily vascularized tissue that consists mainly of cardiac endothelial cells and cardiomyocytes and although cardiomyocytes dominate the volume of the myocardium the number of endothelial cells exceeds the number of cardiomyocytes by approximately three to one. Thus, the effects of BPA on eNOS VEGF, VEGFR2 and ACE1 mRNA expression in rat cardiac tissues are most likely to be related to an effect of BPA on endothelial cells but may also involve cardiomyocytes. We conclude that endothelial cells may be targets for bioactivation and toxicity of environmental pollutants. The immunohistochemical and autoradiographic data demonstrated a differential expression of CYP1 enzymes and metabolic activation of pollutants in various endothelial linings suggesting that some but not all endothelial linings may be targets for xenobiotics metabolised by AhR-regulated enzymes. Studies on the effects of PCB126, 1-nitropyrene and BPA in cultured human primary endothelial cells demonstrated up-regulation of various biomarkers for endothelial dysfunction and cell stress suggesting that the human endothelium may be a sensitive target for these pollutants. The bioactivation and effects of environmental pollutants in endothelial cells should be further studied in order to unravel the role of these chemicals in human cardiovascular disease.

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Goudgera Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 493 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 456 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils and about 37 ha by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 8 soil series and 16 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 64 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep to very deep (100 to >150 cm) and 29 per cent soils are shallow to moderately shallow (25-75 cm).  About 39 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils, 37 per cent clayey soils and 17 per cent are sandy soils at the surface.  Entire area of the microwatershed has non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  Entire area in the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  An area of about 91 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded and 1 per cent is severely eroded (e3).  An area of about 7 per cent soils are slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5), 47 per cent soils are neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) in soil reaction, 21 per cent soils are slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8), 12 per cent soils are moderately alkaline (7.8 - 8.4), 6 per cent soils are strongly alkaline (8.4-9.0) and 1 per cent soils are very strongly alkaline (>9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire area of the microwatershed is dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon.  About 60 per cent area is medium (23-57 kg/ha), 27 per cent area is high (>57 kg/ha) and 5 per cent low in available phosphorus.  About 74 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in available potassium, 8 per cent high (>337 kg/ha) and 11 per cent low.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in an area of 87 per cent.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 26 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 422(87) Sapota - - Maize - 107(22) Pomegranate - 315(64) Bajra - 422(86) Musambi - 315(64) Groundnut - 87(18) Lime - 315(64) Sunflower - 315(65) Amla - 422(86) Redgram - 233(47) Cashew - - Bengal gram 82 (17) 340(70) Jackfruit - - Cotton 82 (17) 340(70) Jamun - 315(64) Chilli - 422(86) Custard apple - 422(86) Tomato - 107(22) Tamarind - 315(64) Drumstick - 315(64) Mulberry - - Mango - - Marigold - 422(86) Guava - - Chrysanthemum - 422(86)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Goudagera is located at North latitude 160 39' 31.328" and 160 38' 0.861" and East longitude 770 15' 4.974" and 770 13' 17.424" covering an area of about 492.85 ha coming under Gowdagera and Killanakera Villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Goudagera micro watersheds of Nagalapur subwatershed, yadgir taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 36 total respondents, 6 (16.67 %) were marginal, 10 (27.78%)were small, 10 (27.78 %) were Semi medium and 5 (13.89 %) were medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 99 (48.53%) men and 105 (51.47 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (42.16%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 57.35 per cent illiterates, 40.19 per cent pre university education and 1.47 per cent attained graduation.  About, 83.33 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 16.67 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 51.96 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 97.22 per cent of the households possess katcha house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 83.33 per cent possess TV, 5.56 per cent possess mixer grinder, 91.67 per cent possess mobile phones and 13.89 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 47.22 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.78 per cent possess tractor, 41.67 per cent possess bullock cart and 16.67 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 33.33 per cent possess local cow and 33.33 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own men and women labour availability in the micro watershed was 11.68 each, while the hired labour (men) availability was 2.13.  Further, 2.78 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 58.10 per cent (51.19 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 41.90 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 11.00 live bore wells and 2.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households. 2  Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 30.56 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Redgram, Cotton, Greengram, Sorghum and Greengram and cropping intensity was recorded as 97.56 per cent.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Redgram, Cotton, Greengram, Sorghum and Greengram was Rs.27664.31, 39010.47, 28479.44, 25585.40 and 28479.44 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.50, 1: 2.50, 1: 0.90, 1: 0.50 and 1:0.90 respectively.  Further, 50.00 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 50.00 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 139136.11 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 60108.33 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 83 horticulture trees and 185 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Regarding marketing channels, 100.00 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants.  Further, 100.00 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 102.78 per cent of the households.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 97.22 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 100.00 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 105.71 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (100.00%), pulses (19.44%) and oilseeds (8.33%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (86.11%) wild animal menace on farm field (5.56%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (77.78%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (75.00%), high rate of interest on credit (5.56%), low price for the agricultural commodities (80.56%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (83.33%), inadequate extension services (2.78%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (80.56%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Goudgera Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 493 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 456 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils and about 37 ha by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 8 soil series and 16 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 64 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep to very deep (100 to >150 cm) and 29 per cent soils are shallow to moderately shallow (25-75 cm).  About 39 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils, 37 per cent clayey soils and 17 per cent are sandy soils at the surface.  Entire area of the microwatershed has non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  Entire area in the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  An area of about 91 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded and 1 per cent is severely eroded (e3).  An area of about 7 per cent soils are slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5), 47 per cent soils are neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) in soil reaction, 21 per cent soils are slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8), 12 per cent soils are moderately alkaline (7.8 - 8.4), 6 per cent soils are strongly alkaline (8.4-9.0) and 1 per cent soils are very strongly alkaline (>9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire area of the microwatershed is dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon.  About 60 per cent area is medium (23-57 kg/ha), 27 per cent area is high (>57 kg/ha) and 5 per cent low in available phosphorus.  About 74 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in available potassium, 8 per cent high (>337 kg/ha) and 11 per cent low.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in an area of 87 per cent.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 26 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 422(87) Sapota - - Maize - 107(22) Pomegranate - 315(64) Bajra - 422(86) Musambi - 315(64) Groundnut - 87(18) Lime - 315(64) Sunflower - 315(65) Amla - 422(86) Redgram - 233(47) Cashew - - Bengal gram 82 (17) 340(70) Jackfruit - - Cotton 82 (17) 340(70) Jamun - 315(64) Chilli - 422(86) Custard apple - 422(86) Tomato - 107(22) Tamarind - 315(64) Drumstick - 315(64) Mulberry - - Mango - - Marigold - 422(86) Guava - - Chrysanthemum - 422(86)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Goudagera is located at North latitude 160 39' 31.328" and 160 38' 0.861" and East longitude 770 15' 4.974" and 770 13' 17.424" covering an area of about 492.85 ha coming under Gowdagera and Killanakera Villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Goudagera micro watersheds of Nagalapur subwatershed, yadgir taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 36 total respondents, 6 (16.67 %) were marginal, 10 (27.78%)were small, 10 (27.78 %) were Semi medium and 5 (13.89 %) were medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 99 (48.53%) men and 105 (51.47 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (42.16%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 57.35 per cent illiterates, 40.19 per cent pre university education and 1.47 per cent attained graduation.  About, 83.33 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 16.67 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 51.96 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 97.22 per cent of the households possess katcha house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 83.33 per cent possess TV, 5.56 per cent possess mixer grinder, 91.67 per cent possess mobile phones and 13.89 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 47.22 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.78 per cent possess tractor, 41.67 per cent possess bullock cart and 16.67 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 33.33 per cent possess local cow and 33.33 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own men and women labour availability in the micro watershed was 11.68 each, while the hired labour (men) availability was 2.13.  Further, 2.78 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 58.10 per cent (51.19 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 41.90 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 11.00 live bore wells and 2.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households. 2  Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 30.56 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Redgram, Cotton, Greengram, Sorghum and Greengram and cropping intensity was recorded as 97.56 per cent.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Redgram, Cotton, Greengram, Sorghum and Greengram was Rs.27664.31, 39010.47, 28479.44, 25585.40 and 28479.44 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.50, 1: 2.50, 1: 0.90, 1: 0.50 and 1:0.90 respectively.  Further, 50.00 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 50.00 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 139136.11 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 60108.33 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 83 horticulture trees and 185 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Regarding marketing channels, 100.00 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants.  Further, 100.00 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 102.78 per cent of the households.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 97.22 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 100.00 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 105.71 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (100.00%), pulses (19.44%) and oilseeds (8.33%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (86.11%) wild animal menace on farm field (5.56%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (77.78%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (75.00%), high rate of interest on credit (5.56%), low price for the agricultural commodities (80.56%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (83.33%), inadequate extension services (2.78%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (80.56%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Blockchain technology has been one of the most promising technologies of the past decade, with Ethereum and Bitcoin being the two most popular Blockchains today. Both do not provide data protection and privacy by default. The former allows for Decentralized Applications (DApps) to be built, with zero chance of downtime or censorship and is the main focus of this dissertation. The European Union approved a law in 2016, the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), with severe penalties being enforced since May 25th, 2018. It is considered a massive step toward protecting user data. Not only does it affect companies with offices in the EU, but also organizations throughout the world that have users from EU territories. Further, it stipulates key obligations for organizations handling user data, in addition to introducing new rights to individuals, such as the right to erasure. This represents a major challenge towards achieving GDPR compliance in DApps, as Blockchains such as Ethereum, are immutable by design. This dissertation's work attempts to comply with the GDPR and its conflicting right to erasure, by developing an Ethereum proof-of-concept DApp: DFiles, which also aims to provide some form of data privacy and protection. It also allows its users to upload encrypted files in addition to their download and decryption. It was developed using an Agile methodology in an iterative approach with mainly decentralized technologies, such as the Interplanetary File System (IPFS) and Ethereum smart contracts, with a centralized component for user authentication, while adhering to Blockchain Software Engineering. Due to the GDPR's complexity, some parts were selected, namely the rights to erasure, data portability, access and rectification. DFiles GDPR compliance was then evaluated with a statistical analysis on user encrypted and unencrypted uploaded files in the DApp, with its elapsed upload times and Ethereum transaction costs measured for files separated into four categories: small (1KB-1MB), medium (1MB-20MB), large (20MB-200MB) and extra-large (200MB-2GB). However, due to hardware limitations, this statistical analysis could only be performed for files up to 14.2MB. It concluded that transaction costs for unencrypted files are slightly higher, although this increase is not significant. As for elapsed upload times, it found that the elapsed upload time in encrypted files was overall significantly higher. Data from files larger than 14.2MB was still recorded which determined that the last two elapsed upload times for unencrypted files up to 800MB, are less than the last two upload elapsed times for encrypted ones up to 14.2MB. In conclusion, encrypting files to comply with the General Data Protection Regulation's right to erasure is a valuable option only for small to medium files up to 14.2MB. From there, without considering hardware encryption limitations, upload times tend to grow exponentially. Ethereum and the IPFS must advance to allow better privacy techniques. Recently, there have been major new improvements to Ethereum and its smart contracts; the world of DApp development is always changing at a fast rate. In the future, Ethereum might evolve to a newer version which may bring new and enhanced privacy controls which may allow its complete GDPR compliance. ; A tecnologia de Blockchain tem sido uma das mais promisoras da última década, com Ethereum e Bitcoin como as duas Blockchains mais conhecidas atualmente, em que ambas têm o problema de não fornecer, por defeito, a proteção de dados e a sua consequente privacidade. O Ethereum, o principal foco desta dissertação, permite desenvolver Aplicações Descentralizadas (DApps) com a impossibilidade de estarem offline ou serem alvos de censura. A União Europeia (EU) aprovou o Regulamento Geral sobre a Proteção de Dados (RGPD) em 2016, com penalizações apenas a serem aplicadas no dia 25 de Maio de 2018. Este regulamento é considerado um passo gigante para proteger a informação e os dados dos utilizadores, visto que este não afeta apenas organizações com escritórios na EU, mas também empresas no mundo todo que tenham clientes em territórios da União Europeia. Além disto, o regulamento estipula novas obrigações para organizações que manuseiam dados dos seus utilizadores, além de introduzir novos direitos para os mesmos, como o direito de apagamento dos dados. Este direito representa um desafio enorme para conseguir cumprir estritamente com o RGPD nas DApps, visto que as Blockchains como o Ethereum são, no seu design, imutáveis. O trabalho desenvolvido nesta dissertação tenta cumprir com o RGPD e o seu direito problemático ao apagamento dos, ao desenvolver uma prova de conceito, uma DApp em Ethereum: DFiles, em que esta visa fornecer alguma maneira de proteger os dados dos seus utilizadores e também a sua privacidade. Além disto, também permite que os seus utilizadores submetam ficheiros encriptados além de os conseguirem desencriptar quando o seu download é efetuado. Foi também desenvolvida com uma metodologia Agile, com uma abordagem por iterações usando na maioria tecnologias descentralizadas, como por exemplo o Interplanetary File System (IPFS) e os contratos inteligentes do Ethereum, contando também com uma componente centralizada para efeitos de autenticação de utilizadores, ao mesmo tempo que adere à Engenharia de Desenvolvimento de Software para Blockchain (BOSE). Devido à complexidade do RGPD, apenas alguns dos seus aspetos foram selecionados para a sua implementação no DFiles como os direitos de apagamento dos dados, portabilidade, acesso e retificação. O cumprimento do RGPD na DFiles DApp foi avaliado com recurso a uma análise estatística nos ficheiros encriptados e não encriptados submetidos pelos seus utilizadores, em que foram medidos o tempo gasto no seu upload e o custo total de transação em Ethereum, em ficheiros de quatro categorias diferentes: pequenos (1KB-1MB), médios (1MB-20MB), grandes (20MB-200MB) e muito grandes (200MB-2GB). No entanto, por limitações de hardware, esta análise estatística apenas foi feita para ficheiros até 14.2MB de tamanho. Pode ser concluído que os custos de transação para ficheiros não encriptados são ligeiramente superiores, apesar deste aumento não ser significativo. Além disto, esta análise também concluiu que o tempo gasto nos ficheiros encriptados é substancialmente maior. Os dados dos ficheiros com tamanho superior a 14.2MB foram também registados. Ao compararmos os últimos dois registos dos ficheiros desencriptados, até 800MB de tamanho, concluímos que o seu tempo gasto é inferior aos útlimos dois registos para ficheiros encriptados até 14.2MB de tamanho. Finalmente, pode-se concluir que encriptar ficheiros para cumprir com o direito ao apagamento de dados do RGPD é uma possível abordagem apenas para ficheiros pequenos e médios até 14.2MB de tamanho. A partir desta fase, e sem considerar limitações de hardware, os tempos gastos para upload de ficheiros encriptados tendem a aumentar exponencialmente. Assim sendo, o Ethereum e o IPFS têm obrigatoriamente que melhorar a sua tecnologia num futuro próximo para permitir novas e melhores técnicas de privacidade dos dados. Recentemente, têm existido melhoramentos significativos no Ethereum e os seus contratos inteligentes que fazem com que o mundo do desenvolvimento de DApps se faça a um ritmo muito elevado. No futuro, o Ethereum poderá evoluir numa nova versão que poderá também trazer novos melhoramentos e controlos de privacidade que poderão permitir o cumprimento na totalidade do RGPD.

ABSTRAKPenelitian ini dilakukan di Pasar Teratai Kecamatan Bengkayang ini memiliki tujuan untuk mengetahui sejauh mana faktor modal usaha, jam kerja, dan variasi menu terhadap pendapatan pedagang makanan dan minuman di Pasar Teratai Kecamatan Bengkayang. Sumberdata dalam penelitian ini ada 2(dua) macam yaitu data primer dan data sekunder, dan beberapa hasil penelitian literature lainnya. Tehnik analisis data dalam penelitian ini menggunakan analisis regresi linear berganda. Jumlah sampel yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini sebanyak 43 pedagang makanan dan minuman.Dari hasil penelitian yang telah dilakukan diketahui bahwa: (1). Variabel modal usaha berpengaruh positif dan signifikan terhadap pendapatan pedagang makanan dan minuman yang ditunjukan oleh nilai koefisien regresi sebesar 0,699 dimana nilai signifikannya sebesar 0,000 dimana nilai signifikan ini lebih rendah dari 0,05. (2). Jam kerja berpengaruh negatif dan tidak signifikan terhadap pendapatan pedagang makanan dan minuman yang ditunjukan oleh nilai koefisien regresi sebesar 0,063 dimana nilai signifikannya sebesar 0,609 dimana nilai signifikan ini lebih tinggi dari 0,05. (3). Variasi menu berpengaruh positif namun tidak signifikan terhapat pendapatan pedagang makanan dan minuman yang ditunjukan oleh nilai koefisien regresi sebesar 0,171 dimana nilai signifikannya sebesar 0,137, dimana nilai signifikan ini lebih tinggi dari 0,05.Kata kunci: Pendapatan, modal usaha, jam kerja, variasi menuDAFTAR PUSTAKA. Undang - Undang Nomor 9 Tahun 1995. Usaha Kecil.Arikunto S, (2006). Prosedur Penelitian Suatu Pendekatan Praktik, Ed Revisi VI, Penerbit PT Rineka Cipta, Jakarta.Ahmad, Firdaus ,. Dan Abdulah , Wasilah , (2012)."Akuntansi Biaya". Edisi 3. Salemba Empat.A. Firdaus. 2013. Dunia Buku Pengantar Akutansi, Penerbit Fakultas Ekonomi Universitas Indonesia.Afriyanti. 2017. 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Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Mundragi-3 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 598 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 453 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 25 ha by mining/industrial area, 74 ha by rock outcrops and about 46 ha by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 8 soil series and 10 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 5 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep to very deep (75 - >150 cm) and 71 per cent soils are very shallow to moderately shallow (0-75 cm).  About 52 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 24 per cent clayey soils.  About 53 per cent area is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 3 per cent area low (51-100 mm/m) and 69 per cent area very low (0.75).  About 26 per cent area is low (4.5 ppm) in the whole area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 23 per cent of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 3(<1) 40(7) Guava - 3(<1) Maize - 43(7) Sapota - 3(<1) Bajra - 43(7) Pomegranate - 28(5) Groundnut - 3 (<1) Musambi 22(4) 6(1) Sunflower - 28(5) Lime 22(4) 6(1) Redgram - 27(5) Amla 3 (<1) 40(7) Bengal gram 24(4) 15(3) Cashew - - Cotton 24(4) 15(3) Jackfruit - 3(<1) Chilli - 21(3) Jamun - 25(4) Tomato - 18(3) Custard apple 27(5) 15(3) Brinjal 3(<1) 40(7) Tamarind - 25(4) Onion 3(<1) 18(3) Mulberry - 3(<1) Bhendi 5(<1) 37(7) Marigold - 42(7) Drumstick - 27(5) Chrysanthemum - 42(7) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and sub marginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Mundragi-3 is located at North latitude 160 46' 39.624" and 160 45' 25.814" and East longitude 770 12' 9.516'' and 770 9' 33.277" covering an area of about 598.12 ha coming unde Mundaragi and Yadhagiri B villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Mundragi-3 micro watersheds of Belagiri subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 36 total respondents, 18 (50.00 %) were marginal, 10 (27.78%)were small, 2 (5.56 %) were Semi medium and 2 (5.56 %) were medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 78 (57.35%) men and 58 (42.65 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (47.06%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 66.91 per cent illiterates, 29.41 per cent pre university education and 3.68 per cent attained graduation.  About, 61.11 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 36.11 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 37.50 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 91.67 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 2.78 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 88.89 per cent possess TV, 8.33 per cent possess mixer grinder, 86.11 per cent possess mobile phones and 2.78 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 22.22 per cent of the households possess plough and 5.56 per cent possess bullock cart.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 16.67 per cent possess local cow and 2.78 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.97, women available in the micro watershed was 1.41, hired labour (men) available was 7.62 and hired labour (women) available was 6.79.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 56.78 per cent (26.96 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 43.22 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 11.00 live bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 30.56 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut, Sorghum and Green gram and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent. 2  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut, Sorghum and Green gram was Rs.37056.78, 53774.67, 76635.07, 39040.33 and 108930.93 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.90, 1: 1.60, 1: 1.10, 1: 2.10 and 1:1.02 respectively.  Further, 33.33 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 16.67 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 114444.44 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 57250.00 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 8 horticulture trees and 78 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 2555.56 for land development and Rs. 833.33 for irrigation facility.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 8.33 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 83.33 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 2.78 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 86.11 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (86.11%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 80.56 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 100.00 per cent of the households.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 97.22 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 77.78 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (100.00%), pulses (83.33%) and oilseeds (2.78%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (88.89%) wild animal menace on farm field (8.33%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (77.78%), inadequacy of irrigation water (8.33%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (77.78%), high rate of interest on credit (5.56%), low price for the agricultural commodities (80.56%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (75.00%), inadequate extension services (8.33%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market(80.56%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Nicholas Onuf on the Evolution of Social Constructivsm, Turns
in IR, and a Discipline of Our Making






Can we really go on speaking about International Relations
as a 'discipline'? Even if social constructivism is often presented as a robust
theoretical cornerstone of the discipline, one of the thinkers that established
this theoretical position challenges the existence of IR. Surely, Nicholas Onuf
argues, we have a disciplinary machinery—institutions, journals, conferences
and so forth—but these form an apparatus built around a substantive void—in his
words, 'a discipline without an 'about''. In this Talk, Nicholas Onuf—among others—weaves an appraisal of
disciplinary boundaries through a discussion of social constructivism's birth
and growth, tells the material turn to get serious and provides a bleak
assessment of IR's subservient relation to political order.





Print version of this Talk (pdf)





What is (or should be), according to you, the biggest challenge /
principal debate in current International Relations? What is your position or
answer to this challenge / in this debate?



In my view, the
biggest challenge for IR is making good on claims (I'd say pretensions) that IR
is a discipline in its own right.  Such
claims presume that IR has a reasonably well-bounded subject matter and a body
of theory uniquely suited to that subject matter.  For 25 years I have been saying that IR fails
miserably in meeting this challenge. 
Much less do we acknowledge the challenge—there is no debate.  As it is, we have institutionalized a
so-called discipline (journals, conferences, workshops, PhD programs) that
reaches far beyond (lower case) international relations.  In short:  a discipline without an 'about.'  Were we to acknowledge the challenge, we
might be content to say:  Forget disciplines,
it's all about 'the social' and social theory belongs to us—too.  Or we might say, it's all about 'the
political,' and legal, political and
social theory also belong to us.  I'm not
sure there's much difference.  I am sure
that it's not enough to say our 'about' is 'the international.'  And I have said as much publicly, though
intemperate terms that I instantly regretted.



Given such a
negative assessment of IR, you might wonder why I stuck with it all these
years.  Why didn't I just call myself a
social theorist and (try to) publish in the few journals in which theorists
gets a hearing?  Actually, I did try a
few times, to no avail (just as I put 'social theory' in the subtitle of World of Our Making (1989) to no
discernible effect).  I think there's a
status issue lurking here.  Once
identified with IR, it's hard to get acknowledged outside IR.  Nobody reads
or cites us; we 'don't get no respect'; status ordering condemns us to be
consumers rather than producers of big ideas.  If (just perhaps) the era
of big ideas is over, then the next generation in IR may feel a little
braver than I was about jumping ship.  Not that I'm betting on it,
especially since publishing in a host relatively new, expressly interdisciplinary
journals, such as Global
Constitutionalism, International
Political Sociology and International
Political Theory, offer a safer alternative.





How did you arrive at where you currently are in your thinking about International
Relations?



I have to say
that events have never inspired me.  In
my callow youth, Hans Morgenthau's Politics
among Nations (1948) inspired me to think about spending a lifetime doing
IR, as did my teachers Robert Tucker and George Liska—both realists with a taste respectively for
international law and international institutions.  Working as Tucker's assistant in revising Hans Kelsen's Principles of International Law (1952) prompted
a longstanding interest in legal theory. 
As a doctoral student, I got hooked on systems theory à la Hoffmann, Kaplan, Rosecrance; the
special issue of World Politics (vol.
14, no. 1) on the international system left an indelible mark, as did Waltz's Man, the State and War (1959).  Working with Richard Falk a few
years later affected me a great deal—he remains one of my very few heroes.  So did Fritz Kratochwil,
briefly a student of mine and friend ever since.



In the 1980s
I got to know a number of mavericks: 
Hayward Alker, Rick Ashley, Dick Mansbach, John Ruggie and Rob Walker
are by no means the only ones on this list. 
More important, I think, were my feminist doctoral students, who changed
my life in a great many ways and were largely responsible for my turn to social
theory.  It was in that context that I
took the so-called linguistic turn to Wittgenstein, J. L. Austin et al. 
World of Our Making is pretty
clear about its many sources of inspiration. 
The big trick was fitting everything together.  Since then (and to keep the story manageable),
working with my brother Peter is responsible for my interest in Aristotle and in the making of the modern world; republican
theory links these two concerns.  I
cannot blame Peter for my ongoing fascination with Foucault.  





What would a student need to become a specialist in IR or understand the
world in a global way?



For me at least, this is a tricky question.  As I said earlier, I am not very much
interested in events—either as theoretical fodder or as a matter of what's
happening in the world at any given moment. 
Most of my friends and colleagues are fascinated by current events—how
often I find them glued to one news source or another.  Students are too, and it seems pretty obvious
they should be.  Most people in the field
engage in the skillful assembly of events, whether in 'cases' or as
statistically manipulated patterns. 
Learning the appropriate skills takes a great deal of time and
training.  At the same time, students
also need an exposure to theory—big picture thinking—and, in my view, the
philosophical issues that lurk behind any big picture.



Theory is a seductive.  I was seduced at the age of 19 and never
gotten over it.  Shifting metaphors, I always
told my doctoral students not to succumb to the theory bug, at least to the
exclusion of what I just called 'the skillful assembly of events.'  In other words, don't do it my way—I was lucky
to get away with it.  Disposition is a different
matter.  Students must love to work hard
for extended intervals with little immediate gratification.  Machiavelli said that warriors must be
disciplined and ardent.  I used to tell
my doctoral students, you have to be 'warrior nerds.'  If you don't fit this profile, find another
vocation.





You were immensely influential in
constructing the theoretical pillar of social constructivism in IR, starting
over 25 years ago. Looking back, has social constructivism delivered on the
promise you etched out in World of Our
Making?



No way, and for all kinds of
reasons.  This was all too clear within a
decade, as I intimated in a review of Peter Katzenstein's
The Culture of National Security (1996,
read introduction here)
and spelled out in Don Puchala's Visions of International Relations (2003).
To simplify unduly and perhaps unjustly, the constructivists who came to
prominence in the 1990s made three mistakes. First, they took for granted that a
norm (as in 'the norm') is normative without asking whether, to what degree, or
how this might be so.  I'm pretty sure this
mistake came from a mindless appropriation of functional sociology and utter
indifference to legal and political theory. Second, they substituted identity
('who am I?' questions) for agency ('who acts for what or whom?' questions) in
guessing at the implications of the end of the Cold War.  In doing so, they compounded the felony by
leaping from personal identity to collective identity and unreflectively
imputing agency to imagined collectivities. Third, they treated culture as an
aggregate residual and then assigned it enormous causal significance. Had any
of them taken the linguistic turn seriously, they might have extricated those
elements of 'culture' that (one might guess) are most consequential for social
construction.



More generally, I
came to see the constructivist surge of the 90s as a liberal-institutionalist
renaissance.  Standing in for legal
rules, formal institutions and corporate personality, norms and identity look
like a conceptual breakthrough to a generation of scholars who had been taught
to dismiss old-time liberal IR.  In the
2000s, a shifting panorama of events (genocide etc.) prompted a straight-on
liberal institutionalist revival with lots of help from lawyers.  Meanwhile, a much more diverse range of
scholarship has come to be styled constructivist for lack a better label.  Finally, there has emerged a gang of 'third
generation' constructivists who now actively repudiate their predecessors from
the 90s.  They speak my language, but
I'll let them speak for themselves.





How, do you think, do 'turns' in IR
relate to the broader context of real-world historical events? If the origins
of social constructivism have been located in the end of the Cold War, is there
some kind of dialectic whereby social constructivism then impacts on the course
of history? For instance, social constructivism is by now so established that a
big part of newer generations of practitioners in IR are probably social
constructivists. How does that influence international politics? In other
words, does social constructivism as an illocutionary theoretical approach hold
perlocutionary effect on its object of study?



I have some reservations
about the metaphor 'turn.'  Do we imagine
IR as a colossal ship that turns, however slowly, all of a piece?  I've already used the ship metaphor, but in
this context it's not appropriate—we're not that put together, and, besides, no
one is steering (not even those legendary gate-keepers).  Or a herd of wildebeests, in which all the members
of the herd turn together by keying off each other once one senses danger and
turns?  I don't think so, even if we do
sometimes see signs of a herd mentality. 




Back in the late 60s, Karl
Deutsch suggested that the field had even then experienced a succession of
waves.  I like this metaphor better
because it captures both the messiness of what's going on and a sense that
perhaps not much is changing in deeper water. 
You yourself switch metaphors on me when you mention a new generation of
constructivists.  As it happens, I like
this metaphor a lot (and have a piece entitled 'Five Generations of International
Relations Theory' forthcoming in a new edition of International Relations Theory Today, which Ken Booth and Toni
Erskine are editing).  It suggests a
dynamic internal to any field of study rather than one prompted by external
events.  Inasmuch as constructivism got
its start before the Cold War ended but afterwards changed its profile
significantly tells us the story is actually rather complicated.



The more interesting question
is whether constructivism will, as you say, impact the course of history.  The quick and dirty answer is, yes, but in
ways too subtle to document.  We already
know how difficult it is to establish any impact from IR as a scholarly pursuit
on world affairs.  That is, any impact
beyond realism and raison d'état.  As we become more specialized in what we do
and so does everyone else, it seems ever less likely that we'll be able to pin down
extended causal chains.  But I suspect
that you have something more like 'mood' in mind.  Once liberal institutionalists adopted a
slick kind of constructivism, they were pretty much in sync with the Zeitgeist, at least for a decade or
so.  So, yes, as a not very helpful
generalization, we can surmise that some degree of co-constitution was then at
work.  Always is.



One last point.  I don't have even the slightest sense that my
own scholarly work has had anything have much to do with large-scale world-making,
or that it will in any near-term.  I
don't have to be told that my work is too austere and forbidding to reach very
many people—though I am told this often enough. 
Years from now, who knows?  Yet my
teaching career convinces me that there's more co-constitution going on in the
classroom than anywhere else we're likely to find ourselves.  Interacting with hundreds of MA and PhD
students in Washington DC over 28 years—during which I noodled through what
would become World of Our Making—affected
me and them in ways beyond measure.  Some
of those students became scholars, but many more have spent their lives in
public service.





What has been, to you, the biggest
surprise or exciting move in IR since social constructivism saw the light?



The biggest and most
surprising 'move' has been the move offshore. 
I speak of course as someone raised, trained and employed in the US when
IR was 'AnAmerican Social Science.'  For the
last twenty years, IR has not so much left the US as gained strength everywhere
else.  Better to say, its center of
gravity has moved.  In the process, IR
has transformed, both as a claimant discipline and as a theory-driven
enterprise.  As a participant-observer, I
see IR as an institutional beneficiary of globalization and, to a lesser
degree, those of us in IR as agents in this hugely complicated process. 



Globalization has meant,
among much else, the extraordinary growth of higher education and its
institutional apparatus.  The
proliferation of universities is an acknowledgment of cosmopolitan imperatives and an accommodation of national needs, exemplified
in programs for the grooming of managerial elites.  For IR, this large process has been colored
by an ostensible rejection of American hegemony.  One expression of this anti-hegemonial
sentiment is the fashion for post-positivist scholarship and the sort of constructivism
that is now conventionally ascribed to Fritz Kratochwil and me.  For me personally, it's just wonderful to be
taken seriously everywhere but my own country.





You recently have turned attention
towards cognitive and evolutionary psychology. This is a pretty
underrepresented field, in terms of its being mined in IR. What challenge has
this literature to pose, in your view, to dominant IR?



Long ago, I ventured into cognitive
studies as a consequence of casting a broad net in social theory.  Since then, several disciplines have
converged in making cognitive studies just about the most exciting game in
town.  I cannot imagine anyone not being
fascinated (but then I am also fascinated by advances in cosmology, however
little I understand the technical stuff).  In recent years, I have developed a more
specific interest in what cognitive and evolutionary psychology might tell
about my mind, any mind, in relation to a world that my mind cannot access
directly, the world of appearances.  As
you can see, I'm a philosophical idealist—with many qualifications, a Kantian
idealist.  Most people in IR are
philosophical realists, for whom such issues are less compelling.  



Let me comment briefly on any
challenge the cognitive revolution might pose for IR in the philosophical
realist mode.  IR's substantive concerns
are so far removed from the stuff of cognitive science (neurons and such) that I doubt scholars in IR will ever feel
obliged take the latter into account. 
Nor should they.  Positivist
science is reductive—it always pushes down levels of analysis to explain what's
going on at higher levels.  But anyone
pushing down risks losing touch with what seems to be substantively distinctive
about one's starting point, and IR and its event-manifold are a long way up
from the synchronized firing of neurons. 
I would qualify this bald statement somewhat to account for the recent interest
of emotions in IR.  At least some of the
psychological literature on emotions taps into a deep pool of research where
the age-old cognition-emotion binary has finally been put to rest.





You have a broad experience in IR.
How do you see the evolution of the field? Is it a tragedy of unfolding
rationalization and increasing division of labor, or is something else going
on?



As I intimated earlier, IR has
failed as a disciplinary project.  I'm
almost inclined to say, there's no hope for IR 'as we know it.'  Better to say, IR has lost its self-told coherence.  A hundred flowers bloom, but just barely, and
there are a lot of weeds.  I don't see
this as a bad thing (your weeds may well be my flowers), although other
disciplines, such as sociology and a resuscitated geography, cast shadows on
our scraggly garden.  I do think larger
societal processes—modern rationalization and modernist functional
differentiation—have conjoined to impose a coherence we don't see.  Crudely, we are servants to other servants,
all of us ultimately minions to run-away capital and victims of its
techno-material seductions.  I guess you
could call this phenomenon a tragedy, though its very impersonality undercuts
the sense of the term.  I have no doubt,
however, that it will eventuate in a catastrophe from we moderns will never
recover.  I have been saying this ever
since the 1970s, when the debate over The Limits to Growth
persuaded me that we would never turn the ship around.





A new 'turn' seems to be developing
in the social sciences, possibly a swing of the ontological pendulum back to
materialism—this time with a more postpositivist undertone. How do you relate
to such a turn?



I am skeptical.  It looks like a fad to me—people casting
about for something new and interesting to say. 
Moreover, the vitalist, Bergsonian tenor of so
much of the new materialism turns me off—I cannot see the case for ascribing
agency (and thus purpose) to things when the language of cause suffices.  (And I am not among those constructivists who
will not speak of cause for fear of positivist contamination.)  But there's another issue that troubles
me:  the continued power of the
materialist-idealist binary.  In IR, we
call realists materialists and liberal institutionalists/soft constructivists
idealists when it should be obvious that whatever separates them (in my view,
not as much as they think) has nothing to do with idealism and materialism as
philosophical stances.  Security dilemmas,
arms races and terrorist plots are not ideationally informed?  Norm diffusion, identity crises and human
rights are not materially expressed?  Get
serious.



 I argued in World of Our Making that the material and the social are bound
inextricably bound together.  Rules do
the job.  They turn the stuff of the
world into resources that we, as social beings, put to use.  I think I got it right then.  Needless to say, I also think students afflicted
with mindlessly linked binaries can only benefit from reading that book.





Nicholas Greenwood Onuf is renowned
as one of the founders of constructivism in International Relations. He is also
known for his important contributions to International Legal Theory,
International History, and Social Theory. Onuf's most famous
work is arguably World of Our Making: Rules and Rule in Social
Theory and International Relations (published in 1989), which
should be on every IR student's must-read list. His recent publications
include Nations, Markets, and War: Modern History and the American
Civil War (2006, co-authored with his brother Peter Onuf) and International
Legal Theory: Essays and Engagements, 1966-2006 (2008). Onuf is
currently Professor Emeritus of International Relations at Florida
International University and is on the editorial boards of International
Political Sociology, Cooperation and Conflict, and Contexto
Internacional. Professor Onuf received his PhD in International Studies at
John Hopkins University, and has also taught at Georgetown University, American
University, Princeton, Columbia, University of Southern California, Pontifícia
Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro, and Kyung Hee University in Korea.





Related
links


FacultyProfile at the Florida International University 
Read Onuf's Rule and Rules in International Relations
(2014 conference paper) here (pdf) 
Read Onuf's Fitting Metaphors: the Case of the European
Union (New Perspectives, 2010) here (pdf) 
Read Onuf's Institutions, intentions and international
relations (Review of International Studies, 2002) here (pdf) 
Read Onuf's Levels (European Journal of
International Relations 1995) here (pdf) 












Print version of this Talk (pdf)

Einleitung: Masern, Mumps und Röteln sind weltweit verbreitete Kinderkrankheiten. Laut Zielvorgaben der World Health Organization (WHO) sollten bis 2015 die Masernviren eradiziert und die Inzidenzen für Mumps und Röteln deutlich vermindert sein. Trotz der beträchtlichen Senkung der Erkrankungszahlen nach der Einführung der jeweiligen Impfungen in den 1970 Jahren kommt es bis heute, sowohl national als auch international zu lokalen Ausbrüchen der Krankheiten. Dabei sind immer häufiger junge Erwachsene betroffen, deren Komplikationsrate bei allen drei Viruserkrankungen im Vergleich zu Kindern deutlich höher liegt. Dies erhöht die Brisanz im Falle eines Ausbruches und führt dazu, dass es auch heute noch in Deutschland vereinzelt zu Todesfällen im Fall von Masern kommt und auch dass nicht wenige Menschen an den Spätfolgen dieser drei impfpräventablen Erkrankungen leiden. Ziele der Untersuchungen: Die Zielstellung der vorliegenden Arbeit war es, die Immunitätslage von 18 bis 29 jährigen Angestellten des Universitätsklinikums Leipzig gegen diese drei viralen Erreger zu bestimmen und im Kontext mit dem Impfstatus der Probanden zu stellen. Zudem sollte untersucht werden, ob auch heute noch die historischen Veränderungen der Impfregime durch die Wiedervereinigung und die Unterschiede bei den untersuchten sogenannten "Wendekindern" nachgewiesen werden können. Des Weiteren sollten die Verlässlichkeit der diagnostischen Parameter über die Beurteilung des Immunstatus bewertet werden. Materialien und Methoden: Es standen insgesamt über 500 Serumproben zur näheren Auswertung zur Verfügung. Mittels ELISA-Test wurde die jeweils spezifische IgG-Konzentration gegen Masern, Mumps und Röteln ermittelt. Zudem wurden die virusspezifischen Aviditäten von IgG-Antikörpern bestimmt und durch die Anfertigung von Neutralisationstesten (NT) auch deren neutralisierende Wirkung untersucht. Von 326 Probanden wurde die Impfanamnese ermittelt und analysiert. Ergebnisse: Bei keiner der drei Viruserkrankungen wurde in der untersuchten Altersgruppe der 18-29 Jährigen die Seroprävalenz von 95% erreicht, welche notwendig ist, um nachhaltig eine Eindämmung der viralen Erreger in einer Population erreichen zu können. Der Immunstatus der untersuchten Probandengruppe fiel gegen Masern (90,5% IgG-positiv) am besten aus, gefolgt von dem Röteln- (87,1% IgG-positiv) und dem Mumps-Immunstatus (81,6% IgG-positiv). Eine Abnahme der Antikörperkonzentrationen in dem zeitlichen Verlauf nach einer Impfung konnte in der vorliegenden Arbeit gezeigt werden. Bei den vor mehr als 10 Jahren gegen das jeweilige Virus Geimpften sank der Anteil an Seropositiven um 7,4% (Masern und Röteln) bzw. 8,1% (Mumps) im Gegensatz zu den Probanden, die ihre letzte Impfung vor weniger als 10 Jahren erhalten hatten. Die unterschiedlich durchgeführten Impfregime vor und nach der Wiedervereinigung waren in der untersuchten Probandengruppe noch gut zu erkennen. Bei den Geburtsjahrgängen vor 1990 waren die Impfquoten um durchschnittlich 15% niedriger als bei den Jahrgängen ab 1990. Aufgrund der erhöhten Wildviruszirkulation vor 20 Jahren zeigten die älteren Jahrgänge dennoch einen ähnlich hohen Antikörperstatus, wie die Jüngeren. Auch die Auswertung der Aviditätsindices und der NT-Titer im zeitlichen Abstand zu der zuletzt erhaltenen Impfung ergab einen Hinweis auf die Boosterung der Immunität gegen den jeweiligen viralen Erreger durch den Kontakt der Probanden mit Wildvirus. Die Korrelation zwischen den diagnostischen Parametern IgG-Konzentration, Avidität und Neutralisationstiter ließen sich am besten bei den Masern- und den Rötelnwerten erkennen. Die Zusammenhänge bei Mumps waren im Vergleich zu den anderen beiden viralen Erregern gering. Die Abhängigkeit von der Impfanamnese konnte bei allen drei viralen Erregern nur bei den IgG-Konzentrationen festgestellt werden. Ein Zusammenhang zwischen Impfstatus und Höhe der Aviditätsindices bzw. Neutralisationstiter lag nicht vor. Schlussfolgerungen: Sowohl der Immun- als auch der Impfstatus der untersuchten jungen Erwachsenen (18 29 Jahre) ist für eine nachhaltige Eindämmung des Masern-, Mumps- und des Rötelnvirus nicht ausreichend. Die Bestimmung der IgG-Konzentration als Routinediagnostikum für die Erhebung eines Immunstatus ist bei allen drei Viren nur mit Einschränkungen geeignet. Die Durchführung von Neutralisationstesten, insbesondere gegen Mumps, ist Goldstandard für die Bestimmung einer Immunitätslage.:1. Einleitung 1 2. Literaturübersicht 4 2.1 Erkrankungsbilder Masern, Mumps und Röteln 4 2.1.1 Masern 4 2.1.2 Mumps 5 2.1.3 Röteln 5 2.2 Historie der Impfregime 6 2.2.1 Impfregime in der DDR und in der BRD vor 1990 6 2.2.2 Impfungen nach der Wiedervereinigung bis heute 7 2.2.3 Konzept "Gesundheit für alle" der WHO 8 2.2.4 Impfstrategien in anderen Ländern 9 2.2.5 Impfmüdigkeit und Impfgegner 10 2.3 Epidemiologische Situation in Deutschland 12 2.3.1 Meldepflicht 12 2.3.2 Erkrankungszahlen und Inzidenzen 13 2.4 Fragestellung 20 3. Material und Methoden 21 Material 21 Methoden 28 3.1 Probenmaterial 28 3.2 Zellkultur 28 3.2.1 Zellkultivierung 28 3.2.2 Zellzahlbestimmung 29 3.2.3 Einfrieren und Auftauen von Zellen 30 3.2.4 Mykoplasmentest mittels DNA-Färbung 30 3.2.5 Mykoplasmennachweis mittels PCR 32 3.2.6 Gelelektrophorese 33 3.3 Stockvirus 34 3.3.1 Herstellung von Stockvirus 34 3.3.2 Titerbestimmung mittels Plaqueassay 35 3.3.3 Titerbestimmung mittels Endpunkttitration 36 3.4 IgG-ELISA 36 3.5 Aviditäts-Bestimmung 37 3.6 Neutralisationsteste 38 3.6.1 Masern Mikroneutralisationstest 38 3.6.2 Mumps Mikroneutralisationstest 39 3.6.3 Mumps Focus Reduktions-Neutralisationstest 39 3.6.4 Röteln Plaque Reduktions-Neutralisationstest 41 3.7 Statistische Auswertung 42 3.7.1 Erfassung von Korrelationen 42 3.7.2 Erfassung von statistischer Signifikanz 42 4. Ergebnisse 43 4.1 Destriktive Auswertung der verwendeten Serumproben 43 4.2 Immunstatus der untersuchten Probanden 44 4.2.1 Spezifische Antikörper-Konzentrationen gegen Masern, Mumps und Röteln 44 4.2.2 Spezifische Aviditätsindices gegen Masern, Mumps und Röteln 49 4.2.3 Neutralisierende Antiköper gegen Masern 52 4.2.4 Neutralisierende Antiköper gegen Mumps 54 4.2.5 Neutralisierende Antiköper gegen Röteln 58 4.3 Zusammenhänge der diagnostischen Parameter 59 4.3.1 Korrelationen zwischen IgG und Avidität 59 4.3.2 Korrelationen zwischen IgG und NT 61 4.3.3 Korrelationen zwischen Avidität und NT 63 4.4 Impfstatus 63 4.5 Zusammenhang Immunstatus und Impfanamnese 67 5. Diskussion 73 5.1 Unzureichender Serostatus der Probanden 73 5.2 Geschlechterunterschiede in der Immunitätsausbildung 75 5.3 Grenzwert-Diskussion 76 5.4 Zusammenhänge zwischen den diagnostischen Parametern 77 5.5 Unzureichende Impfquoten der Probanden 79 5.6 Waning-Effekt der Antiköper-Konzentrationen 80 5.7 Unterschiede in der Effektivität der Impfstämme 83 5.8 Wildviruskontakt versus Impfimmunität 85 6. Zusammenfassung 87 7. Summary 89 Literaturverzeichnis 91 Abbildungsverzeichnis 103 Tabellenverzeichnis 107 Danksagung 108 ; Introduction: Measles, mumps and rubella are worldwide occurring childhood diseases. World Health Organization (WHO) declared the goal of measles eradication by 2015 and significant reduction of the incidence of mumps and rubella. Despite the substantial decrease after implementation of vaccination, there are still yearly outbreaks of the three infections on national and international level. At the same time, more often young adults are affected by all three viral diseases and their rate of complications is significantly higher than children. The explosive nature of the diseases leads to the fact that, even in Germany people die of measles. Further, more than a few people suffer from long-term effects of these diseases which could be prevented by vaccination. Aim of the research: The aim of the present project was to determine the immune status against the three viral diseases. Serum samples of 18 to 29 years-old employees of the Leipzig University Hospital were analyzed and connected with vaccination status. It was also determined if the historic changes of the vaccination politics in children of German reunification can still be demonstrated. Furthermore, the reliability of the diagnostic parameters, which is routinely taken for the evaluation of the immune status of a person, was considered. Material and Methods: More than 500 serum samples were available. The IgG concentration of mumps, measles and rubella was determined using routine ELISA assay. Furthermore, the specific antiviral IgG antibody avidity as well as their ability to neutralize viral infectivity (neutralization test) the vaccination history was recorded and analyzed. Results: The results show, that in none of the three diseases seroprevalence of >95% could be achieved which would be necessary for the sustainably containment of the viral pathogens in a population. In the examined cohort immunity against measles (90,5% IgG positive) was somewhat higher than against rubella (87,1% IgG positive) and mumps (81,6% IgG positive). A decrease in the antibody concentration could be demonstrated in the present paper when comparing the immune response in person with vaccination history of less than 10 years and those with last vaccination more than 10 years back. The seropositive rates decreased 7,4% (measles and rubella) or 8,1% (mumps). The different vaccination regimes before and after German reunification were still apparent. The vaccination rates from the birth cohort before 1990, was by an average of 15% lower than the cohorts from 1990. Due to the higher circulation of wild virus before 20 years ago, the older age groups had a similar status of antibodies than the younger group. Also, the analysis of the avidity and neutralization titer in the relationship of the period of time between the collection of data and the last obtained vaccination indicated booster of immunity by contact occult immunization ("stille Feiung"). The correlation between the diagnostic parameters, i.e. IgG concentration, avidity and neutralization assay, was best for measles and rubella. The relationships of mumps were lower than both the other viral pathogens. Only the IgG concentration from all three viruses correlated with the vaccination history. A relationship between the vaccination and the level of avidity or neutralization titers did not exist. Conclusion: The immune status and also the vaccination status from the investigated young adults (18 29 years) is not sufficient for the containment of measles, mumps and rubella. The determination of IgG concentration for surveillance of immunity all three viruses is of limited value. Particularly in case of mumps a neutralization assay appear indispensable.:1. Einleitung 1 2. Literaturübersicht 4 2.1 Erkrankungsbilder Masern, Mumps und Röteln 4 2.1.1 Masern 4 2.1.2 Mumps 5 2.1.3 Röteln 5 2.2 Historie der Impfregime 6 2.2.1 Impfregime in der DDR und in der BRD vor 1990 6 2.2.2 Impfungen nach der Wiedervereinigung bis heute 7 2.2.3 Konzept "Gesundheit für alle" der WHO 8 2.2.4 Impfstrategien in anderen Ländern 9 2.2.5 Impfmüdigkeit und Impfgegner 10 2.3 Epidemiologische Situation in Deutschland 12 2.3.1 Meldepflicht 12 2.3.2 Erkrankungszahlen und Inzidenzen 13 2.4 Fragestellung 20 3. Material und Methoden 21 Material 21 Methoden 28 3.1 Probenmaterial 28 3.2 Zellkultur 28 3.2.1 Zellkultivierung 28 3.2.2 Zellzahlbestimmung 29 3.2.3 Einfrieren und Auftauen von Zellen 30 3.2.4 Mykoplasmentest mittels DNA-Färbung 30 3.2.5 Mykoplasmennachweis mittels PCR 32 3.2.6 Gelelektrophorese 33 3.3 Stockvirus 34 3.3.1 Herstellung von Stockvirus 34 3.3.2 Titerbestimmung mittels Plaqueassay 35 3.3.3 Titerbestimmung mittels Endpunkttitration 36 3.4 IgG-ELISA 36 3.5 Aviditäts-Bestimmung 37 3.6 Neutralisationsteste 38 3.6.1 Masern Mikroneutralisationstest 38 3.6.2 Mumps Mikroneutralisationstest 39 3.6.3 Mumps Focus Reduktions-Neutralisationstest 39 3.6.4 Röteln Plaque Reduktions-Neutralisationstest 41 3.7 Statistische Auswertung 42 3.7.1 Erfassung von Korrelationen 42 3.7.2 Erfassung von statistischer Signifikanz 42 4. Ergebnisse 43 4.1 Destriktive Auswertung der verwendeten Serumproben 43 4.2 Immunstatus der untersuchten Probanden 44 4.2.1 Spezifische Antikörper-Konzentrationen gegen Masern, Mumps und Röteln 44 4.2.2 Spezifische Aviditätsindices gegen Masern, Mumps und Röteln 49 4.2.3 Neutralisierende Antiköper gegen Masern 52 4.2.4 Neutralisierende Antiköper gegen Mumps 54 4.2.5 Neutralisierende Antiköper gegen Röteln 58 4.3 Zusammenhänge der diagnostischen Parameter 59 4.3.1 Korrelationen zwischen IgG und Avidität 59 4.3.2 Korrelationen zwischen IgG und NT 61 4.3.3 Korrelationen zwischen Avidität und NT 63 4.4 Impfstatus 63 4.5 Zusammenhang Immunstatus und Impfanamnese 67 5. Diskussion 73 5.1 Unzureichender Serostatus der Probanden 73 5.2 Geschlechterunterschiede in der Immunitätsausbildung 75 5.3 Grenzwert-Diskussion 76 5.4 Zusammenhänge zwischen den diagnostischen Parametern 77 5.5 Unzureichende Impfquoten der Probanden 79 5.6 Waning-Effekt der Antiköper-Konzentrationen 80 5.7 Unterschiede in der Effektivität der Impfstämme 83 5.8 Wildviruskontakt versus Impfimmunität 85 6. Zusammenfassung 87 7. Summary 89 Literaturverzeichnis 91 Abbildungsverzeichnis 103 Tabellenverzeichnis 107 Danksagung 108

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Lingadahalli-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 522 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 62 per cent is covered by soil,12 per cent by rockout crops, 21 per cent by Mining/ Industrial area, 4 per cent by water bodies, settlements and 150cm) soils.  About 200mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 23 per cent has nearly level (0-1%), 38 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3%) and 1 per cent has gently sloping (3-5%) lands.  An area of about 49 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 13 per cent is moderately eroded (e2).  An area of about 16 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3 to 7.8), 30 per cent moderately alkaline (pH 7.8 to 8.4), 16 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) and 9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are 0.75%).  Available phosphorus is medium (57 kg/ha) in 14 per cent area of the soils.  Available potassium is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in 62 per cent and high (>337 kg/ha) in 20 ppm)in 7 per cent area of the soils.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in 25 per cent of the area.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 45 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 102(20) 140(27) Sapota 159(30) 55(11) Maize 13(3) 229(44) Pomegranate 159(30) 83(16) Bajra 171(33) 83(16) Guava 138(27) 76(14) Redgram 107(21) 136(26) Jackfruit 159(30) 55(11) Bengal gram 38(7) 216(41) Jamun 140(27) 102(20) Groundnut 156(30) 112(21) Musambi 162(31) 80(15) Sunflower 111(21) 132(25) Lime 162(31) 80(15) Cotton 100(19) 142(27) Cashew 138(27) 80(15) Chilli 144(28) 70(13) Custard apple 217(42) 95(18) Tomato 144(28) 70(13) Amla 214(41) 98(19) Brinjal 177(22) 196(38) Tamarind 140(27) 47(9) Onion 73(14) 239(46) Marigold 98(19) 144(28) Bhendi 73(14) 242(46) Chrysanthemum 98(19) 144 (28) Drumstick 159(30) 137(26) Jasmine 98(19) 116(22) Mulberry 159(30) 141(27) Crossandra 98(19) 119(23) Mango 140(27) 19(4) - - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plans have been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Lingadahalli-1 is located at North latitude 150 21' 19.059" and 150 19' 36.146" and East longitude 760 17' 34.1'' and 760 15' 51.247" covering an area of about 522.55 ha coming under Rudrapura, Lingadhahalli, Bevinahalli & Kanakapura Villages of Koppal taluk.  Socio-economic analysis indicated that, out of the total sample of 42 respondents, 10 (23.81%) were marginal, 9(21.43%) were small and 13 (30.95%) were semi medium, 6 (14.29%) were medium.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 126 (57.01%) men and 95 (42.99%) were women.  Majority of the respondents (47.51%) were in the age group of 35-60 years. Education level of the sample households indicated that, majority there were 37.10 per cent illiterates and only 3.62 per cent attained graduation.  About, 52.38 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 45.24 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 29.86 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 73.81 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 11.90 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 97.62 per cent possess TV, 85.71 per cent possess mixer grinder and 90.48 per cent possess mobile phones.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 52.38 per cent of the households possess plough and only 26.19 per cent sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 26.19 per cent possess local cow and 7.14 per cent possess buffalo respectively.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own men and women labour availability in the micro watershed was 15.79 each, while the hired labour (men) availability was 1.79.  Further, 2.38 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents (48.47 ha), 25.37 per cent of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 74.63 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 26 bore wells functioning among the sampled households. Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 61.90 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Maize, Bajra, Paddy, Groundnut, sunflower, sugarcane and Cotton and cropping intensity was recorded as 81.30 per cent.  The sample households possessed 47.62 per cent bank account. About 47.62 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources. 2  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Maize, Bajra, Paddy, Groundnut and Cotton was Rs.36977.13, 36057.14, 116723.68, 23534.65 and 34381.09 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.80, 1: 1.40, 1: 1.10, 1: 3.20 and 1:2.20 respectively.  Further, 23.81 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 7.14 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 87967.86 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 57396.43 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown horticulture trees are 104 coconut and 3 mango trees in the fields and 38 neem, 2 banyan and 1 peepul trees have grown forest species in their field  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs 69.05 for land development. Rs 1000 for irrigation facility creation.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 69.05 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 104.76 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 4.76 per cent have sold by Agents/Traders.  Further, 104.76 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (73.81 %) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 71.43 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Firewood connection was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 83.33 per cent of the households and 14.29 per cent households has LPG.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 66.67 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 95.24 per cent of the households. In the study area, 61.90 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 90.48 per cent of the households possessed BPL card and 4.76 per cent do not possess PDS card and Cereals (92.86%), pulses (90.48%), oilseeds (85.71%) were adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (71.43%) wild animal menace on farm field (73.81%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (78.57%), inadequacy of irrigation water (9.52%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (73.81%), high rate of interest on credit (69.05%), low price for the agricultural commodities (73.81%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (71.43%), inadequate extension services (4.76%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (66.67%) and Less rainfall (16.67%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Bandehalli-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 1015 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 883 ha (87%) ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, about 58 ha (6%) by rock outcrops and about 73 ha (7%) by others (Habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 15 soil series and 22 soil phases (management units) and 7 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  An area of about 87 per cent is suitable for agriculture in the microwatershed.  About 38 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep to very deep (100- >150 cm), 26 per cent soils are moderately deep (75-100 cm), 10 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50-75 cm) and about 14 per cent soils are very shallow and shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity. About 26 per cent area of the microwatershed is medium (101-150 mm/m) and about 23 per cent soils are low (51-100 mm/m) and very low (0.75%), about 68 percent is medium (0.50-0.75%) and 17 per cent is low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area of about 11 per cent is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium in the microwatershed.  Available sulphur is high (>20 ppm) in an area of about 2 per cent, about 45 per cent is medium (10-20 ppm) and about 40 per cent is low (1.0 ppm) in about 4.5 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  An area of about 83 per cent is deficient (0.6 ppm) in available zinc content in the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 286(28) 305(37) Guava - 261(26) Maize 252(25) 410(40) Sapota - 261(26) Bajra 252(25) 410(40) Pomegranate - 395(39) Groundnut - 335(33) Musambi 35(3) 360(35) Sunflower 35(3) 360(35) Lime 35(3) 360(35) Redgram - 588(57) Amla 252(25) 118(12) Bengal gram 35(3) 99(10) Cashew - - Cotton 35(3) 359(35) Jackfruit - 261(26) Chilli 126(12) 342(34) Jamun - 35(3) Tomato 126(12) 208(20) Custard apple 35(3) 433(43) Brinjal 126(12) 208(20) Tamarind - 35(3) Onion 126(12) 208(20) Mulberry - 261(26) Bhendi 126(12) 342(34) Marigold 126(12) 342(34) Drumstick - 296(29) Chrysanthemum 126(12) 342(34) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Bandehalli-2 is located at North latitude 160 50' 6.06" and 160 46' 4.614" and East longitude 770 8' 20.378'' and 770 6' 35.654" covering an area of about 1014.53 ha coming under Bheemanagara, Chamanahalli. Yadhagiri. B and Horunacha villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Bandehalli-2 micro watersheds of Yadgiri subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 farmers were sampled in Bandehalli-2 micro-watershed among households surveyed 2 (5.71%) were marginal, 23 (65.71%) were small and 5 (14.29 %) were semi medium farmers. 5 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 86 (56.21%) men and 67 (43.79 %) were women. The average population of landless was 3.2, marginal farmers were 4, small farmers were 4.7 and semi medium farmers were 4.  Majority of the respondents (33.33%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 40.52 per cent illiterates, 49.02 per cent pre university education and 7.84 per cent attained graduation.  About, 85.71 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 14.29 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 56.86 per cent of the household members.  In the study area and 94.29 per cent of the households possess katcha house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 80.00 per cent possess TV, 54.29 per cent possess mixer grinder, 97.14 per cent possess mobile phones and 22.86 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 28.57 per cent of the households possess plough, 5.71 per cent possess bullock cart and 2.86 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 8.57 per cent possess local cow.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.43, women available in the micro watershed was 1.48, hired labour (men) available was 14.5 and hired labour (women) available was 10.83.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 100.00 per cent (43.62 ha) of the area is under dry condition.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton, Sorghum, Groundnut and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent. 2  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton, Sorghum and Groundnut was Rs.24826.29, 23996.08, 17039.52 and 43988.83 and with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.80, 1: 1.40, 1: 1.90 and 1: 0.90 respectively.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 70237.14 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 48865.71 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 1 horticulture trees and 164 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1257.14 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 8.57 per cent depends on own funds and 22.86 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 85.71 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants.  Further, 85.71 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (34.29%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 85.71 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 97.14 per cent of the households and 2.86 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 91.43 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 94.29 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (100.00%), pulses (65.71%) and oilseeds (2.86%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (85.71%) wild animal menace on farm field (2.86%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (85.71%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (80.00%), low price for the agricultural commodities (82.86%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (80.00%), inadequate extension services (8.57%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (65.71%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

A pioneering account of the surging global tide of market power-and how it stifles workers around the worldIn an era of technological progress and easy communication, it might seem reasonable to assume that the world's working people have never had it so good. But wages are stagnant and prices are rising, so that everything from a bottle of beer to a prosthetic hip costs more. Economist Jan Eeckhout shows how this is due to a small number of companies exploiting an unbridled rise in market power-the ability to set prices higher than they could in a properly functioning competitive marketplace. Drawing on his own groundbreaking research and telling the stories of common workers throughout, he demonstrates how market power has suffocated the world of work, and how, without better mechanisms to ensure competition, it could lead to disastrous market corrections and political turmoil.The Profit Paradox describes how, over the past forty years, a handful of companies have reaped most of the rewards of technological advancements-acquiring rivals, securing huge profits, and creating brutally unequal outcomes for workers. Instead of passing on the benefits of better technologies to consumers through lower prices, these "superstar" companies leverage new technologies to charge even higher prices. The consequences are already immense, from unnecessarily high prices for virtually everything, to fewer startups that can compete, to rising inequality and stagnating wages for most workers, to severely limited social mobility.A provocative investigation into how market power hurts average working people, The Profit Paradox also offers concrete solutions for fixing the problem and restoring a healthy economy