The global lockdown to mitigate COVID-19 pandemic health risks has altered human interactions with nature. Here, we report immediate impacts of changes in human activities on wildlife and environmental threats during the early lockdown months of 2020, based on 877 qualitative reports and 332 quantitative assessments from 89 different studies. Hundreds of reports of unusual species observations from around the world suggest that animals quickly responded to the reductions in human presence. However, negative effects of lockdown on conservation also emerged, as confinement resulted in some park officials being unable to perform conservation, restoration and enforcement tasks, resulting in local increases in illegal activities such as hunting. Overall, there is a complex mixture of positive and negative effects of the pandemic lockdown on nature, all of which have the potential to lead to cascading responses which in turn impact wildlife and nature conservation. While the net effect of the lockdown will need to be assessed over years as data becomes available and persistent effects emerge, immediate responses were detected across the world. Thus, initial qualitative and quantitative data arising from this serendipitous global quasi-experimental perturbation highlights the dual role that humans play in threatening and protecting species and ecosystems. Pathways to favorably tilt this delicate balance include reducing impacts and increasing conservation effectiveness. ; The Canada Research Chairs program provided funding for the core writing team. Field research funding was provided by A.G. Leventis Foundation; Agence Nationale de la Recherche, [grant number ANR-18-32–0010CE-01 (JCJC PEPPER)]; Agencia Estatal de Investigaci; Agência Regional para o Desenvolvimento da Investigação Tecnologia e Inovação (ARDITI), [grant number M1420-09-5369-FSE-000002]; Alan Peterson; ArcticNet; Arkadaşlar; Army Corp of Engineers; Artificial Reef Program; Australia's Integrated Marine Observing System (IMOS), National Collaborative; Research Infrastructure Strategy (NCRIS), University of Tasmania; Australian Institute of Marine Science; Australian Research Council, [grant number LP140100222]; Bai Xian Asia Institute; Batubay Özkan; BC Hydro Fish and Wildlife Compensation Program; Ben-Gurion University of the Negev; Bertarelli Foundation; Bertarelli Programme in Marine Science; Bilge Bahar; Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation; Biology Society of South Australia; Boston University; Burak Över; California State Assembly member Patrick O'Donnell; California State University Council on Ocean Affairs, Science & Technology; California State University Long Beach; Canada Foundation for Innovation (Major Science Initiative Fund and funding to Oceans Network Canada), [grant number MSI 30199 for ONC]; Cape Eleuthera Foundation; Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales; Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique; Charles Darwin Foundation, [grant number 2398]; Colombian Institute for the Development of Science and Technology (COLCIENCIAS), [grant number 811–2018]; Colombian Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development, [grant number 0041–2020]; Columbia Basin Trust; Commission for Environmental Cooperation; Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Cultural practices and environmental certification of beaches, Universidad de la Costa, Colombia, [grant number INV.1106–01–002-15, 2020–21]; Department of Conservation New Zealand; Direction de l'Environnement de Polynésie Française; Disney Conservation Fund; DSI-NRF Centre of; Excellence at the FitzPatrick Institute of African Ornithology; Ecology Project International; Emin Özgür; Environment and Climate Change Canada; European Community: RTD programme - Species Support to Policies; European Community's Seventh Framework Programme; European Union; European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme, Marie Skłodowska-Curie, [grant number 798091, 794938]; Faruk Eczacıbaşı; Faruk Yalçın Zoo; Field research funding was provided by King Abdullah University of Science and Technology; Fish and Wildlife Compensation Program; Fisheries and Oceans Canada; Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, [grant numbers FWC-12164, FWC-14026, FWC-19050]; Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional; Fonds québécois de la recherche nature et technologies; Foundation Segré; Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT Portugal); Galapagos National Park Directorate research, [grant number PC-41-20]; Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation, [grant number GBMF9881 and GBMF 8072]; Government of Tristan da Cunha; Habitat; Conservation Trust Foundation; Holsworth Wildlife Research Endowment; Institute of Biology of the Southern Seas, Sevastopol, Russia; Instituto de Investigación de Recursos Biológicos Alexander von Humboldt; Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais (INPE), Brazil; Israeli Academy of Science's Adams Fellowship; King Family Trust; Labex, CORAIL, France; Liber Ero Fellowship; LIFE (European Union), [grant number LIFE16 NAT/BG/000874]; Mar'a de Maeztu Program for Units of Excellence in R&D; Ministry of Science and Innovation, FEDER, SPASIMM,; Spain, [grant number FIS2016–80067-P (AEI/FEDER, UE)]; MOE-Korea, [grant number 2020002990006]; Mohamed bin Zayed Species Conservation Fund; Montreal Space for Life; National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Earth and Space Science Fellowship Program; National Geographic Society, [grant numbers NGS-82515R-20]; National Natural Science Fund of China; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; National Parks Board, Singapore; National Science and Technology Major Project of China; National Science Foundation, [grant number DEB-1832016]; Natural Environment Research Council of the UK; Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC), Alliance COVID-19 grant program, [grant numbers ALLRP 550721–20, RGPIN-2014-06229 (year: 2014), RGPIN-2016-05772 (year: 2016)]; Neiser Foundation; Nekton Foundation; Network of Centre of Excellence of Canada: ArcticNet; North Family Foundation; Ocean Tracking Network; Ömer Külahçıoğlu; Oregon State University; Parks Canada Agency (Lake Louise, Yoho, and Kootenay Field Unit); Pew Charitable Trusts; Porsim Kanaf partnership; President's International Fellowship Initiative for postdoctoral researchers Chinese Academy of Sciences, [grant number 2019 PB0143]; Red Sea Research Center; Regional Government of the Azores, [grant number M3.1a/F/025/2015]; Regione Toscana; Rotary Club of Rhinebeck; Save our Seas Foundation; Science & Technology (CSU COAST); Science City Davos, Naturforschende Gesellschaft Davos; Seha İşmen; Sentinelle Nord program from the Canada First Research Excellence Fund; Servizio Foreste e Fauna (Provincia Autonoma di Trento); Sigrid Rausing Trust; Simon Fraser University; Sitka Foundation; Sivil Toplum Geliştirme Merkezi Derneği; South African National Parks (SANParks); South Australian Department for Environment and Water; Southern California Tuna Club (SCTC); Spanish Ministry for the Ecological Transition and the Demographic Challenge; Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness; Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation; State of California; Sternlicht Family Foundation; Suna Reyent; Sunshine Coast Regional Council; Tarea Vida, CEMZOC, Universidad de Oriente, Cuba, [grant number 10523, 2020]; Teck Coal; The Hamilton Waterfront Trust; The Ian Potter Foundation, Coastwest, Western Australian State NRM; The Red Sea Development Company; The Wanderlust Fund; The Whitley Fund; Trans-Anatolian Natural Gas Pipeline; Tula Foundation (Hakai Institute); University of Arizona; University of Pisa; US Fish and Wildlife Service; US Geological Survey; Valencian Regional Government; Vermont Center for Ecostudies; Victorian Fisheries Authority; VMRC Fishing License Fund; and Wildlife Warriors Worldwide.
El objeto principal de este trabajo de investigación es el debate sobre la justificación de la pena en el pensamiento de Jorge Enrique Zavala Baquerizo (1922-2014), como el autor más representativo de las ciencias penales y criminológicas y ponderado como "el más destacado penalista de la segunda mitad del siglo XX" y uno de los más altos valores de la democracia ecuatoriana. En primer lugar, abordamos la cuestión desde la perspectiva que exige este tipo de investigación. Para ello, exponemos algunas cuestiones particulares sobre la selección y definición del tema, planteamiento y formalización del problema, hipótesis, pregunta de la investigación o punto de partida, objetivos generales y específico, justificación metodológica, justificación práctica, una pincelada del Ecuador como un país intercultural y pluricultural, un resumen profesional del doctorando, el marco teórico y metodológico de la investigación, antecedentes, estado del arte o de la cuestión, definiciones conceptuales, bibliografía preliminar y cronograma. En segundo lugar, presentaremos este tema en la formación y progreso de la figura vital de Zavala como punto de partida, incluyendo sus manifestaciones, como heredero de la cultura liberal radical ecuatoriana, analizando las causas del mismo, su desarrollo y consecuencias; trataremos de establecer cuáles son los factores que inciden en la construcción de su ideario, en concreto, aquellos procedentes de la académica, de la docencia, de la doctrina jurídica, de la política, entre otros. En tercer lugar, expondremos el desarrollo de este tema en Zavala y la cuestión analítica de académico y docente, producción intelectual y publicaciones, jurista y político, presentando algunas tesis de su concepción del derecho, del individuo y de la sociedad. Finalmente, abordamos unas breves conclusiones en las que pretendemos revelar y dar más voz a nuestro autor, dar más a conocer y promocionar su obra ante la comunidad científica internacional, para esclarecer algunas cuestiones centrales sobre el problema de la justificación de la pena desde la perspectiva del autor. La finalidad perseguida en esta investigación que se presenta como tesis doctoral es sobre todo la de exponer el pensamiento jurídico y político de Jorge Enrique Zavala Baquerizo, respetado como el más eminente jurista y político de la segunda mitad del siglo XX en Ecuador. No hemos pretendido realizar un estudio de todo su pensamiento sino que nos centramos en ciertos aspectos esenciales de su filosofía jurídica como son el concepto, el fundamento y los fines de la pena. Lo primero que tratamos es la relación que para Zavala se da entre el castigo y la pena, observándose que para él coexiste una continuidad entre ambos saberes considerados en la sistematización de su aquilatada obra jurídicopenal, que merece ser rescatada de los garfios del olvido, tanto por su valor ético, como por su valor histórico. Dentro de este contexto, la ciencia jurídica y la filosofía del derecho también son para el maestro ecuatoriano dos formas necesarias y complementarias para comprender la realidad de los fines de la pena. Luego del abordaje de este itinerario, nos introducimos en la cuestión sobre el concepto, el fundamento y los fines del castigo o pena defendidos por el autor. El trabajo intelectual y político de Zavala se distingue por sus valores éticos fundamentales y su defensa de la racionalidad, así como por un gran bagaje epistémico y cultural que, sin duda, le permitió adoptar posiciones nada comunes en el liberalismo radical de su época, así como comprender los problemas del velasquismo y de las dictaduras emergidos antes, durante y después de los años 70. En la misma se pone al descubierto la axiología jurídica en relación con su formación humana dentro del contexto de una estructura lógico-filosófica, cuya expresión se manifiesta a través de una relación armónica en el seno de la actividad humana y su concreción e inserción en la cultura jurídica, política y académica ecuatoriana. En esta propuesta académica partimos de la premisa mayor de que la obra científica, académica y política de Zavala tiene un propósito, el de vislumbrar una imagen más evidente de él y su argumento humanista. De esta forma hay que revelar y dar voz a Zavala, dar a conocer y exponer su obra, como objetivos específicos de esta investigación. Por último, hemos prestado mucha atención a los autores y doctrinas que consideramos influyeron de una manera decisiva en el pensamiento de nuestro autor. El trabajo de investigación sobre el itinerario jurídico y político de Jorge Enrique Zavala Baquerizo, está estructurado en cinco capítulos bien diferenciados, a saber: En el capítulo primero se muestran los aspectos en concreto que han motivado el desarrollo de este estudio partiendo de la situación del problema que se presenta en la comunidad científica al reconocer al profesor Jorge Enrique Zavala Baquerizo, como el más destacado penalista de Ecuador en la segunda mitad del siglo XX y uno de los valores más altos de la democracia ecuatoriana. Se presentan las preguntas y los objetivos de la investigación, así como las decisiones metodológicas realizadas para diseñarla. Y, además, cuenta con el cronograma y organización de esta tesis doctoral. En el capítulo segundo centramos una mirada poliédrica a la biografía de Zavala Baquerizo como punto de partida, incluyendo una referencia de su itinerario personal e intelectual: grandes cosas; una breve caracterización social, política y económica del Ecuador durante el siglo XX y algo del XXI; el pensamiento político-social de Jorge Enrique: ideología y política social, posición ideológica y la quinta parte del siglo XXI, una caracterización económica, aproximación a los valores e influencia de Alfaro en Zavala. Se examinan aspectos relevantes sobre la sistematización de la obra científica del autor de nuestro estudio. En el capítulo tercero se expone la justificación axiológica de la pena, en el que se sistematiza la obra del autor. Esta relación ofrece nuevos elementos enriquecedores del debate gracias al análisis de distintas variables y factores que inciden en la problematización del contenido, fundamentación crítica y el discurso iusfilosófico-penal sobre el fundamento y las finalidades de la pena, que se constituyen en componentes ineludibles. En el capítulo cuarto se realiza el análisis teórico del capítulo anterior y se construye una formulación teórica atribuida al autor. Aquí se estudian algunas cuestiones generales en el ideario de Zavala Baquerizo, el concepto castigo-pena y su finalidad, y se concluye con los enfoques de los juristas Nicolás Castro Benites, Edmundo Durán Díaz y Guillermo Bossano Valdivieso, distinguidos profesores y contemporáneos del ilustre profesor ecuatoriano. En el capítulo quinto se discuten resultados y reflexiones finales con lo que se deja constancia de las conclusiones y aprendizajes obtenidos de la investigación, permiten avizorar futuras líneas de investigación. Y, finalmente, optamos por una exposición axiológica del discurso que promueva en lenguaje sencillo el itinerario del ilustre autor ecuatoriano –como jurista, docente, publicista y político–, capaz de generar la atención de lectores hispanoparlantes que, a fin de cuentas, son aliados estratégicos para, sin duda, dar voz a Zavala Baquerizo en la comunidad científica. Como bien se sabe, las conclusiones son constructos teóricos a través de los cuales se exponen aquellos datos confirmatorios o limitaciones finales de la investigación, es decir, son las ideas de cierre de la investigación ejecutada a fin de colaborar con el acervo académico. Por lo tanto, de acuerdo con la discusión de resultados que se constaron entre en el capítulo segundo, tercero y cuarto de esta tesis doctoral y de acuerdo con la metodología empleada y particularmente el diseño de la investigación, las conclusiones son las que se exponen a continuación. A pesar de la falta de información, es posible vislumbrar la inteligencia poliédrica de Jorge Enrique Zavala Baquerizo en su itinerario personal e intelectual que incide positivamente en su formación individual, razón por la cual se destaca como buena persona, ciudadano ejemplar, maestro de las ciencias penales y criminológicas, publicista, excelente padre, ecuatoriano ilustre. No obstante, nosotros compartimos como discípulo sus enseñanzas; mucho más que simples enseñanzas, en realidad son un torrente impresionante de ideas que parecen liberarse luego de un largo cautiverio para apoderarse de nuestras mentes, como aquel hombre modelado en la mística suprema que llega a la profundidad de las cosas y de los hechos. De este modo, se identifica que las cuestiones y los escenarios que incidieron en el pensamiento y obra de Jorge Enrique Zavala Baquerizo objeto de estudio, demuestran con mayor seguridad y frecuencia que son la docencia universitaria, el ejercicio profesional de penalista y criminólogo, la publicación de su obra aquilatad y la política lo que le permite ocupar diversos cargos públicos de elección popular, tales como consejero, diputado, vicepresidente de la república y presidente del H. Congreso Nacional, entre otros cargos importantes. De igual forma, creemos importante tener en consideración la descripción de la sistematización de la obra jurídica y científica del profesor Jorge Enrique Zavala Baquerizo, especialmente, La pena, en donde no es evidente únicamente el penalista, sino que razona y escribe el iusfilósofo. En definitiva, se percibe que la pena es un mal, y debe ser administrada con prudencia, con mesura, sin perder jamás el punto de vista imprescindible de que vaya dirigida contra seres humanos e impuesta por otros seres humanos, de manera que el autor tiene interés por los mensajes de humanización patrocinados por Voltaire y Montesquieu, que se yuxtaponen a su pasión y erudición de escribir sobre las ciencias penales y criminológicas. Es apasionante decir que el castigo es tan antiguo como la humanidad y la historia del castigo es historia también de la crueldad humana. En consecuencia, la crueldad humana es tan antigua como la humanidad. Así, el autor en su obra desarrolla y sustenta su teoría que bautizamos como castigo-pena. Dentro del análisis expuesto, es posible percibir las revelaciones de juristas como León Roldós Aguilera, Alfonzo Zambrano Pasquel, Hernán Pérez Loose, Víctor Hugo Sicouret Olvera, Lenin Arroyo Baltán, entre otros, cuyas orientaciones jurídicopenales son consecuencias de las enseñanzas de Jorge Enrique Zavala Baquerizo, que lo distinguen y posicionan de modo individual como el más destacado penalista ecuatoriano. No obstante, nosotros compartimos por experiencia y convicción las revelaciones hechas por los juristas en el presente informe. En conclusión, todos podemos realizar un itinerario personal e intelectual si contamos con las herramientas adecuadas para ello, en este caso, es posible indicar que a través de los instrumentos metodológicos de investigación se determina que Jorge Enrique Zavala Baquerizo es el más destacado penalista ecuatoriano de la segunda mitad del siglo XX y uno de los valores más altos de la democracia ecuatoriana, debido a su larga trayectoria académica como docente de derecho penal y derecho procesal penal en las universidades ecuatorianas, el libre ejercicio profesional, la publicación de su abundante obra jurídica y científica, así como la política. Efectivamente, se cumple con la expectativa trazada en los cinco objetivos específicos de esta investigación, lo que nos permite establecer la construcción del objetivo general y la demostración de las preguntas iniciales o hipótesis de investigación. Como consecuencia de lo expuesto en el informe, hemos de refutar las hipótesis o preguntas iniciales de investigación, afirmando que las cuestiones específicas que influyen en el reconocimiento del profesor Jorge Enrique Zavala Baquerizo como el más destacado penalista de la segunda mitad del siglo XX y uno de los más altos valores de la democracia ecuatoriana, son las de jurista, docente, publicista y político, todo cuanto se encuentra debidamente documentado. Y fue un penalista modelado en la mística suprema que lo llevó al fondo de las cosas y de los hechos. Para lograr este cometido queda en evidencia la relación causa efecto, las pruebas que son analizadas de manera lógica y se verifica las consecuencias deducidas a partir de la hipótesis de esta investigación. Se delimita con cuidado las generalidades respaldadas en las pruebas pertinentes, por lo tanto, en el informe final no existen contradicciones, incongruencias o enunciados confusos, vagos o exagerados. En efecto, se aprecia también que las opiniones, inferencias y contrastación de la hipótesis, no se confunde con los hechos investigados. Las referencias bibliográficas que más contribuyen en las contrastación de los hechos son la obra de Jorge Enrique; la obra escrita sobre Zavala, particularmente, las opiniones de los juristas contemporáneos de Zavala como Nicolás Castro Benites, Edmundo Durán Díaz y Guillermo Bossano Valdivieso, así como también las obras y opiniones afectivas de los juristas discípulos y amigos del profesor ecuatoriano: Roldós Aguilera, León (2014); Pérez Pimentel, Rodolfo (2014); Zambrano Pasquel, Alfonzo (2014); Pérez Loose, Hernán (2014); Rodríguez Vicéns, Antonio (2014); Echeverría Gavilanes, Enrique (2014); Sicouret Olvera, Víctor Hugo (2014); Solís, Jeremy (2014); y, Arroyo Baltán, Lenin T. & Albert Márquez, José J. (2018), entre otros. Además, para comprobar este objetivo se relacionaron los hallazgos del Análisis de la teoría de la pena en la obra de Jorge Enrique Zavala Baquerizo. Un enfoque desde el saber criminológico y su influjo dogmático en el foro jurídico penal ecuatoriano (Trabajo Final de Máster, presentado en la Universidad de Córdoba, en septiembre de 2016), realizado por el autor de estas líneas y dirigido por el Dr. José J. Albert Márquez –profesor de Filosofía del Derecho de la Universidad de Córdoba–. Y, finalmente, logramos establecer un nexo cognoscitivo entre el profesor Jorge Zavala Baquerizo, y los profesores Luigi Ferrajoli y Juan Bustos Ramírez, por cuanto, entre ellos confluye derecho penal (garantismo penal), filosofía del derecho, derechos humanos y, además, son de izquierda, tal como hemos señalado en el devenir del discurso de esta tesis doctoral. ; The main purpose of this research paper is the debate on the justification of the penalty in the thinking of Jorge Enrique Zavala Baquerizo (1922-2014), as the most representative author of criminal and criminological sciences and weighted as "the most prominent criminalist of the second half of the twentieth century" and one of the highest values of Ecuadorian democracy. First, we address the issue from the perspective required by this type of research. To do this, we present some particular questions about the selection and definition of the topic, approach and formalization of the problem, hypothesis, research question or starting point, general and specific objectives, methodological justification, practical justification, a brushstroke of Ecuador as a country intercultural and pluricultural, a professional summary of the doctoral student, the theoretical and methodological framework of the research, background, state of the art or issue, conceptual definitions, preliminary bibliography and schedule. Secondly, we will present this theme in the formation and progress of the vital figure of Zavala as a starting point, including its manifestations, as heir to the Ecuadorian radical liberal culture, analyzing its causes, its development and consequences; We will try to establish what are the factors that influence the construction of your ideology, specifically, those coming from academics, teaching, legal doctrine, politics, among others. Thirdly, we will present the development of this topic in Zavala and the analytical question of academic and teacher, intellectual production and publications, jurist and politician, presenting some theses of his conception of law, of the individual and of society. Finally, we discuss some brief conclusions in which we intend to reveal and give more voice to our author, to make his work more known and promoted before the international scientific community, to clarify some central questions about the problem of justification of punishment from the perspective of the author. The purpose of this research presented as a doctoral thesis is above all to expose the legal and political thinking of Jorge Enrique Zavala Baquerizo, respected as the most eminent jurist and politician of the second half of the twentieth century in Ecuador. We have not intended to conduct a study of all your thinking but we focus on certain essential aspects of your legal philosophy such as the concept, the basis and the ends of the penalty. The first thing we are dealing with is the relationship that Zavala has between punishment and punishment, observing that for him a continuity coexists between both knowledge considered in the systematization of his quarrelsome legal work, which deserves to be rescued from the hooks of oblivion, both for its ethical value, as for its historical value. Within this context, legal science and the philosophy of law are also for the Ecuadorian teacher two necessary and complementary ways to understand the reality of the ends of the sentence. After approaching this itinerary, we introduce ourselves to the question about the concept, the basis and the purposes of the punishment or punishment defended by the author. The intellectual and political work of Zavala is distinguished by its fundamental ethical values and its defense of rationality, as well as by a great epistemic and cultural background that, without a doubt, allowed it to adopt positions not common in the radical liberalism of its time, thus how to understand the problems of Velasquism and the dictatorships that emerged before, during and after the 70s. In it, legal axiology is revealed in relation to its human formation within the context of a logical-philosophical structure, whose expression is manifests through a harmonious relationship within human activity and its concretion and insertion in the Ecuadorian legal, political and academic culture. In this academic proposal we start from the main premise that the scientific, academic and political work of Zavala has a purpose, to glimpse a more evident image of him and his humanist argument. In this way we must reveal and give voice to Zavala, publicize and expose his work, as specific objectives of this research. Finally, we have paid close attention to the authors and doctrines that we believe had a decisive influence on the thinking of our author. The research work on the legal and political itinerary of Jorge Enrique Zavala Baquerizo, is structured in five distinct chapters, namely: The first chapter shows the specific aspects that have motivated the development of this study based on the situation of the problem that arises in the scientific community by recognizing Professor Jorge Enrique Zavala Baquerizo, as the most prominent criminal in Ecuador in the second half of the twentieth century and one of the highest values of Ecuadorian democracy. The questions and objectives of the research are presented, as well as the methodological decisions made to design it. And, in addition, it has the schedule and organization of this doctoral thesis. In the second chapter we focus a polyhedral look at the biography of Zavala Baquerizo as a starting point, including a reference to his personal and intellectual itinerary: great things; a brief social, political and economic characterization of Ecuador during the twentieth century and some of the twenty-first; Jorge Enrique's political-social thought: ideology and social policy, ideological position and the fifth part of the 21st century, an economic characterization, approximation to the values and influence of Alfaro in Zavala. Relevant aspects of the systematization of the scientific work of the author of our study are examined. In the third chapter the axiological justification of the sentence is exposed, in which the author's work is systematized. This relationship offers new enriching elements of the debate thanks to the analysis of different variables and factors that affect the problematization of the content, critical foundation and the iusphilosophical-criminal discourse on the foundation and the purposes of the penalty, which are inescapable components. In the fourth chapter the theoretical analysis of the previous chapter is carried out and a theoretical formulation attributed to the author is constructed. Here some general questions are studied in the ideology of Zavala Baquerizo, the punishment-punishment concept and its purpose, and it concludes with the approaches of jurists Nicolás Castro Benites, Edmundo Durán Díaz and Guillermo Bossano Valdivieso, distinguished professors and contemporaries of the illustrious Ecuadorian professor. In the fifth chapter, final results and reflections are discussed, which records the conclusions and lessons learned from the research, allowing us to anticipate future lines of research. And, finally, we opted for an axiological exposition of the discourse that promotes in simple language the itinerary of the illustrious Ecuadorian author -as a jurist, teacher, publicist and politician-, capable of generating the attention of Spanish-speaking readers who, after all, are allies strategic to undoubtedly give voice to Zavala Baquerizo in the scientific community. As is well known, the conclusions are theoretical constructs through which those confirmatory data or final limitations of the research are exposed, that is, they are the closing ideas of the research carried out in order to collaborate with the academic heritage. Therefore, according to the discussion of results that were recorded in the second, third and fourth chapters of this doctoral thesis and in accordance with the methodology used and particularly the design of the research, the conclusions are those that are exposed to continuation. I. In spite of the lack of information, it is possible to glimpse the polyhedral intelligence of Jorge Enrique Zavala Baquerizo in his personal and intellectual itinerary that positively affects his individual training, which is why he stands out as a good person, exemplary citizen, teacher of criminal and criminological sciences, publicist, excellent father, illustrious Ecuadorian. However, we share his teachings as a disciple; much more than simple teachings, in reality they are an impressive torrent of ideas that seem to be released after a long captivity to seize our minds, like that man modeled on the supreme mysticism that reaches the depth of things and facts. II. In this way, it is identified that the issues and scenarios that influenced the thinking and work of Jorge Enrique Zavala Baquerizo object of study, demonstrate with greater security and frequency that they are university teaching, the professional practice of criminal and criminologist, the publication of his aquilatad work and the This policy allows him to hold various public positions of popular election, such as counselor, deputy, vice president of the republic and president of the H. National Congress, among other important positions. III. Similarly, we believe it is important to take into account the description of the systematization of the legal and scientific work of professor Jorge Enrique Zavala Baquerizo, especially, La Pena, where not only the criminalist is evident, but he reasons and writes the iusphilosopher. In short, it is perceived that the penalty is an evil, and must be administered with prudence, with restraint, without ever losing the essential point of view that it is directed against human beings and imposed by other human beings, so that the author has interest in the humanization messages sponsored by Voltaire and Montesquieu, which juxtapose their passion and erudition to write about criminal and criminological sciences. It is exciting to say that punishment is as old as humanity and the history of punishment is also history of human cruelty. Consequently, human cruelty is as old as humanity. Thus, the author in his work develops and supports his theory that we baptize as punishment. IV. Within the above analysis, it is possible to perceive the revelations of jurists such as León Roldós Aguilera, Alfonzo Zambrano Pasquel, Hernán Pérez Loose, Víctor Hugo Sicouret Olvera, Lenin Arroyo Baltán, among others, whose legal orientations are consequences of the teachings of Jorge Enrique Zavala Baquerizo, which distinguish it and position it individually as the most prominent Ecuadorian criminalist. However, we share from experience and conviction the revelations made by the jurists in this report. V. In conclusion, we can all make a personal and intellectual itinerary if we have the appropriate tools for this, in this case, it is possible to indicate that through the methodological investigation instruments it is determined that Jorge Enrique Zavala Baquerizo is the most prominent criminalist Ecuadorian of the second half of the twentieth century and one of the highest values of Ecuadorian democracy, due to his long academic career as a teacher of criminal law and criminal procedural law in Ecuadorian universities, free professional practice, the publication of his abundant legal and scientific work, as well as politics. Indeed, the expectation set in the five specific objectives of this investigation is fulfilled, which allows us to establish the construction of the general objective and the demonstration of the initial questions or research hypotheses. As a result of what is stated in the report, we have to refute the initial hypotheses or research questions, stating that the specific issues that influence the recognition of professor Jorge Enrique Zavala Baquerizo as the most prominent criminal of the second half of the 20th century and one of the highest values of Ecuadorian democracy, are those of jurist, teacher, publicist and politician, everything is properly documented. And he was a criminal modeled on the supreme mysticism that took him to the bottom of things and facts. To achieve this task, the cause-effect relationship, the evidence that is analyzed in a logical way and the consequences deduced from the hypothesis of this investigation are evidenced. The generalities supported by the relevant evidence are carefully defined, therefore, in the final report there are no contradictions, inconsistencies or statements that are confusing, vague or exaggerated. Indeed, it can also be seen that the opinions, inferences and contrast of the hypothesis are not confused with the facts investigated. The bibliographical references that contribute most to the contrast of the facts are the work of Jorge Enrique; the written work on Zavala, particularly the opinions of Zavala's contemporary jurists such as Nicolás Castro Benites, Edmundo Durán Díaz and Guillermo Bossano Valdivieso, as well as the works and emotional opinions of the jurist disciples and friends of the Ecuadorian professor: Roldós Aguilera, León (2014); Pérez Pimentel, Rodolfo (2014); Zambrano Pasquel, Alfonzo (2014); Pérez Loose, Hernán (2014); Rodríguez Vicéns, Antonio (2014); Echeverría Gavilanes, Enrique (2014); Sicouret Olvera, Víctor Hugo (2014); Solís, Jeremy (2014); and, Arroyo Baltán, Lenin T. & Albert Márquez, José J. (2018), among others. In addition, to verify this objective the findings of the Analysis of the theory of the penalty in the work of Jorge Enrique Zavala Baquerizo were related. An approach from the know criminological and its dogmatic influence in the Ecuadorian criminal legal forum (Master's Final Project, presented at the University of Córdoba, in September 2016), carried out by the author of these lines and directed by Dr. José J. Albert Márquez –professor of Philosophy of Law of the University of Córdoba–. And, finally, we managed to establish a cognitive link between professor Jorge Zavala Baquerizo, and professor Luigi Ferrajoli and Juan Bustos Ramírez, because, among them, criminal law (criminal guarantee), philosophy of law, human rights and, in addition, are on the left, as we have pointed out in the future of the discourse of this doctoral thesis.
Yukarı Dicle bölgesi, Güneydoğu Anadolu dağ sistemi içerisinde önemli bir alanı temsil etmekte olup, söz konusu özellik Mezopotamya çukur bölgesini hem kuzey hem de doğu Anadolu alanlarına bağlayan bir rol oynamasına imkan sağlayan coğrafi konumu ile ilişkilidir. Dicle nehrinin yukarı çığırında son otuz yılda gerçekleştirilen arkeolojik araştırmalar sayesinde, yerel bir kültürel sistemin tanımlanmasını sağlayacak yeni önemli göstergelere ek olarak, gerek bölge içerisinde gerekse ötesinde zamandizinsel ayrımlar ve eşzamanlılıklara açıklık getirmekte kullanılabilecek kapsamlı bir veri bütüncesi de elde edilmiştir. Bu kitap, Erken ve Orta Tunç Çağı'nın son kısmına ilişkin yakın dönemde yürütülen arkeolojik etkinliklerin sonuçlarını araştırmayı amaçlamaktadır. Yayımlanan verilerin ayrıntılı bir çözümlemesinden başlayarak yerleşkeler, stratigrafi, mimari, çanak çömlekler, bölgesel bağlantılar ve zamandizine ilişkin temel konular ele alınmıştır. Ṭūr ʿAbdīn tepelerinin kuzeyinde, yüksek Güneydoğu Torosların eteklerinde yer alan Yukarı Dicle bölgesi, arkeolojik bulgular açısından tutarlı ve uyumlu bir görüntü çizmektedir. Yürütülen araştırma ve kazılar, vadideki kayda değer bir yerleşim döneminin, ufak boyutlu yerleşimlerin Dicle taşkın ovası kenarındaki akarsu taraçalarında ve ana akarsu kolları boyunca kurulma eğilimi içerisinde oldukları M.Ö. III. binyılın sonu ile M.Ö. II. binyılın ilk yarısı arasında tarihlendirilmesi gerektiğini belgelemektedir. Bunların çoğu, iri yapılar ya da yapı bütünleri ile komşu bölgelerdeki eşzamanlı seramik geleneklerinden farklı nitelikteki yerel bir seramik topluluğu tarafından karakterize edilmektedir. Ağırlıklı olarak kırmızı-kahverengi astarlı ve boyalı çömleklerden oluşan seramik topluluğu, yerel sistemin tanımlanması ve Yukarı Dicle bölgesindeki sahalararası kültürel bağlantıların belirlenmesi açısından önem taşımaktadır. Alanda ele geçirdiğimiz buluntuların büyük kısmını teşkil eden çanak çömlek parçalarının yaygın olarak yer alışı, halihazırda araştırmaların temelini oluşturmalarını sağlamaktadır. Özellikle son dönemdeki araştırmaların üzerinde yoğunlaştığı Yukarı Dicle bölgesinde ele geçirilen çanak çömlekler, diğer buluntu kategorileri ve alandaki varlıklarına kıyasla, yalnızca farklı katman bağlamları dahilinde değil aynı zamanda henüz kazılmamış alanların yüzeylerinde de dikkat çekici nitelikte olup; bu belirgin coğrafi alandaki maddi üretimin belirleyici özelliklerini saptamak ve Yukarı Dicle bölgesindeki kültürel gelişimi daha geniş bir yelpazede yorumlayabilmek adına en güvenilir araçlardan biri olma özelliğine sahiptir. Coğrafi ve tarihi nitelikli kısa önsöz hariç (Bölüm 1), kitabın esas içeriğini bölgede yürütülan arkeolojik araştırmalar ve çözümlemeleri olusturmaktadır (Bölüm 2 & 4). İkinci bölümün konusu, araştırılan alanlar ve kazılan verleşimler olup (Bölüm 2); söz konusu alanlar, bugün itibarıyla sahip olduğumuz arkeolojik bilgilerin en üst seviyesine ışık tutmaktadır. Bu konuda bir diğer önemli katkı sunan Hirbermerdon Tepe'deki kazılar kitabın üçüncü bölümünün ana konusunu teşkil etmekte ve yerleşim evreleri ve ilgili çömlek buluntularını (3.4) da içeren arkeolojik bağlam (3.2) üzerine çoğunluğu yayımlanmamış akla yatkın önermelerde de bulunulmaktadır. Çanak çömlek parçalarının gerek teknolojik gerekse biçimsel açıdan sınıflandırılması (3.3) ile, alandaki varlıklarının mekansal ve zamansal devamlılık özellikleri ve çanak çömlek çeşitlerinin analizine geniş yer ayrılmıştır. Ayrıca temel küçük buluntular da gerek bölgesel gerekse zamandizinsel çerçeve açısından yorumlanmış ve ilgili ögelerle birlikte değerlendirilmiştir (3.5). Seramik buluntularının ayrıntılı bir analizini gerçekleştirebilmek adına yararlandığımız temel bilgi kaynağı Hirbemerdon Tepe höyüğünde gün ışığına çıkarılan yapılar bütünü olmakla birlikte, yerleşimde açılan sondajlardan elde edilen bulgulardan da yararlanılmıştır. Dicle nehrinin sağ kıyısında yer alan Hirbermerdon Tepe'de gerçekleştirilen ilk kazı dönemi (2005-2007), yararlı arkeolojik verileri göz önüne sermenin ötesinde, çoğunluğu M.Ö II. binyılın ilk kısmına tarihlendirilen bol miktarda çanak çömlek buluntusu ve buluntu elde edilmesini de sağlamıştır. Farklı katmanlara ait yeni veriler sunan Hirbermerdon Tepe, böylece Yukarı Dicle vadisinin kültürel profilini belirlemek adına önemli bir katkıda bulunmaktadır. Kazılar, her biri form ve teknolojik özellikleri sayesinde belirlenen üç ana seramik evresi sıralamasını gün ışığına çıkarmıştır (3.6). Yaklaşık olarak Erken Tunç Çağı'nın sonlarına, yani Erken Tunç Çağı III-IV'e (Erken Cezire III-V'in sonu) tarihlendirilen erken evre (1. Evre), kırmızı-kahverengi boya astarlı çanak çömlekler (RBWW) ve koyu turuncu ağızlı çanaklar (DROB) tarafından; Orta Tunç Çağı'na tarihlendirilen orta evre (2. Evre), çoğunlukla kırmızı-kahverengi boya astarlı çanak çömlekler ve şerit boyama çömlekler (band painted ware) tarafından karakterize edilmektedir. Son evre ise (3. Evre) Orta Tunç Çağı ile kırmızı-kahverengi boya astarlı çömleklerden oluşan karmaşık bir repertuvarı gözler önüne sermekte ve Geç Tunç Çağı'na tarihlendirilen Habur ile Nuzi çömlek parçalarını da içermektedir. Hirbemerdon'da Geç Tunç Çağı'na ait kırmızı-kahverengi boya astarlı çömlek bulunup bulunmadığı henüz kesinlik kazanmamıştır. Seramik repertuvarının teknolojik ve biçimsel özellikleri kapsamında tartışılması ve bölgesel bir bağlama yerleştirilmesine ayrıca bir bölüm ayrılmış (3.7) olup; yerel seramik sistemi ile komşu bölgelerdekiler arasındaki ilişkinin altını çizebilmek adına, eldeki veriler diğer sit alanları ve bölgelerden elde edilenlerle karşılaştırılmıştır. Bölümün sonunda ise, bölgesel dönemlendirmeye ilişkin yorumlar yer almakta ve repertuvar için bir tarihlendirme önerisi sunulmaktadır. Bölüm 4, Yukarı Dicle bölgesindeki yerleşim düzeninin gelişimi, yapılar ile elde edilen çanak çömlekler ve önemli küçük buluntulara ilişkin bazı genel yorumlar sunmaktadır. Halihazırda yayımlanmış ve mevcut veriler ile Hirbemerdon Tepe'den elde edilen bulgulara dayanan bu araştırmanın sonuçlarına göre, yerel Orta Tunç Çağı kültürünün yükselişinin M.Ö. III. ile II. binyıl arasındaki geçiş dönemine tarihlendirilmesi gerekmektedir. Yukarı Dicle topluluklarının en etkin oldukları dönemin ise M.Ö. 19. ile 17. yüzyıllar arasına tarihlendirilmesi gerekmekte olup, söz konusu dönem kırmızı kahverengi astarlı/ boyalı çömleklerin ana üretim dönemiyle örtüşmektedir. Yukarı Dicle bölgesine özgü ortak bir seramik repertuvarı tespit edilebilmekte ve özellikle kırmızı-kahverengi boya astarlı çömlekler (RBWW), kırmızı-kahverengi perdahlı çömlekler (RBBW), koyu turuncu ağızlı çanaklar (DROB/DROW) ve çömleğin yüzünü tamamen ya da kısmen örtmek ve dekore etmek amacıyla kullanılan kırmızı-kahverengi astarların karakterize ettiği şerit boyama çömleklerin (BD) varlığı dikkat çekmektedir. Çömlek şekillerinin münferit parçalarını ile paralellik gösteren unsurlara Anadolu ve Suriye'deki Yukarı Fırat bölgesi, Belih Vadisi, Yukarı Habur ve Kuzey Irak düzlük arazileri ve bazen yüksek Anadolu arazilerini de içine alan yaygın bir coğrafyada rastlanmak olsa da, çanak çömleklerin maruz kaldığı yüzey işlemlerinin kendine özgü yerel bir özellik taşıması nedeniyle Dicle vadisi kültürünün belirgin bir ifadesi olarak kabul edilmesi gerekmektedir. Kırmızı-kahverengi astarlı ve boyalı çömleklerin hayli yüksek bir yüzdeye sahip oluşu, Güneydoğu Toros sıradağları ile Van dağ sırasının güneybatısında yer alan Ṭūr ʿAbdīn yüksek arazileri arasında yerel geleneğe yakından bağlı kalmış kendine özgü bir seramik bölgesinin varlığını ileri sürer niteliktedir. Kırmızı-kahverengi çömlekler (DROB/DROW, RBWW, BD), Dicle nehri bölgesindeki aynı imalat geleneğinin ürünleridir. Büyük olasılıkla koyu turuncu ağızlı çanaklar (DROB) M.Ö. II. binyılın başlarında bazı sınırlı istisnalar hariç kullanımdan kalkmış olduğu halde, kırmızı-kahverengi boya astarlı çömlekler (RBWW) ise Orta Tunç Çağı'nın tamamı boyunca ve muhtemelen Geç Tunç Çağı'nın başlarına kadar var olmaya devam etmiştir. Dicle çanak çömlek seçkisi, Fırat bölgesinden Cezire'ye kadar uzanan farklı akımlardan etkilenmiş olup; etkileşimin bazı dönemlerle oldukça yoğun, bazen ise daha seyrek nitelikte olduğu belirlenmiştir. Sonuç kısmını teşkil eden Bölüm 5'te ise, türdeşliğin Dicle Bölgesi'ndeki maddi kültür bağlamında toplumsal ve kültürel değeri araştırılmakta ve belki de siyasi oluşumlarla ilintili bir genel örgütlenmenin varlığına ilişkin görüşler ileri sürülmektedir. Kırmızı-kahverengi seramik tarafından karakterize edilen sit alanları, Erken ve Orta Tunç Çağı arasındaki kültürel devamlılığa dair kanıtlar sunmaktadır. Verilerden hareketle, yerel toplumsal ve siyasi düzenin bir noktada değişime uğradığı ve çok işlevli yapılar barındıran küçük yerleşkeler etrafında odaklanan yeni bir yerleşim düzenine geçildiği ve bu değişimin başta kırmızı-kahverengi boya astarlı çömlekler (RBWW) ve koyu turuncu ağızlı çanaklar (DROB) olmak üzere, kırmızı-kahverengi çömlek gruplarının üretildiği yerleşim alanlarının gelişimiyle özdeşleştirilebileceği varsayımında bulunmak mümkündür. Erken Tunç Çağı dönemine dair fazla bir yorumda bulunmak mümkün değildir. M.Ö III. binyılın ikinci yarısına ait ya da son yüzyıllarına tarihlendirilen buluntular ve katmanlar, birkaç sit alanında gün ışığına çıkartılmasına rağmen, hiçbiri açık bir stratigrafik sıralama ya da nispeten bütünlüklü bir bağlamlar topluluğu sunmamaktadır. Kalıntılar, bir sonraki dönem olan Orta Tunç Çağı'ndakilere kıyasla cılız kalmakta ve sit alanının kenar noktalarında yer almaktadır. Vadi bu dönemde önemli yerleşimlerden neredeyse tamamen yoksun olup, bunun nedeni muhtemelen yerleşim düzeninin Orta Tunç Çağı'ndakinden hayli farklı ve/veya arkeolojik açıdan kolayca tespit edilemez nitelikte oluşudur. Bazı sit alanlarından oldukça seyrek bulgular elde edilmiş (gömütler, duvar ve zeminlerin bazı bölümleri, çanak çömlek parçaları), fakat bugün itibarıyla kayda değer herhangi bir katmana rastlanmamıştır. Gel gelelim ince katmanların kısa ve aralıklı yerleşim dönemlerine işaret etmesi mümkündür. Elbette bazı ana höyüklerin altında henüz gün ışığına çıkartılmamış kayde değer M. Ö III. binyıl yerleşimlerinin yer alma olasılığı bulunmakla birlikte, henüz bu yönde somut herhangi bir kanıt ele geçirilmemiş, Pornak ve Pir Hüseyin'deki olası geniş yerleşke buluntuları da nehir boyunca ilerleyen vadi bağlamında neredeyse fark edilmeyecek kadar ufak yerleşkelerden ibaret kırsal bir arazi şeklinde beliren genel görüntüyü değiştirecek nitelikte değildir. Muhtemelen M.Ö III. ile II. binyıl arasında geçiş döneminde vadideki yerleşke ve topluluklar, yerleşim alanlarının artması suretiyle bir yeniden yapılanma süreci yaşamış; söz konusu süreç, Yukarı Dicle bölgesinde yaşayan gerek yerleşik gerekse yerel toplumun parçası olan hareketli grupların toplumsal karmaşıklığının gelişmesini tetikleyen ve bu sayede topluluklar arasında yeni etkileşim, kontrol ve idare yöntemleri meydana getiren, niteliği henüz belirsiz fakat önemli bazı değişiklikleri takiben hayata geçmiştir. Bu dönemde, muhtemelen M.Ö III. binyıl sosyopolitik düzeninin belirgin özelliği olan gevşek köy örgütlenmelerine kıyasla daha karmaşık bir toplumsal yapı geliştirilmiştir. Örneğin Giricano, Salat Tepe, Hirbemerdon Tepe'de bulunan ve Orta Tunç Çağı'na tarihlendirilen yapılara ve birleşik mimari komplekslere ait bölümler ile benzer mimari özellikler taşıyan Kavuşan ve Üçtepe kalıntıları, muhtemelen üretim kaynakları üzerinde belirli denetim yöntemlerinin uygulandığı bir toplum planlaması düzenine ya da yerel ekonomik yaşantı yapılanmasına işaret etmekle birlikte, merkezi bir güce biat edildiğini ima etmek için yeterli bir karmaşıklık seviyesinde olmadığı görülmektedir. Yapı ve buluntular elit bir sınıfın varlığını doğrulamamakta olup, yerel ekonomi yönetimini mütevazı ölçekte organize eden ufak toplulukların varlığını ortaya koymaktadır. Söz konusu sitler arasında bir hiyerarşi olduğunu iddia etmeye yetecek bulguya sahip olmamamıza rağmen, eşgüdüm bağlamında önemli bir rol üstlendiklerini ve toplulukları kendilerine çeken, üretilen ürünlerin işlendiği, hayvancılık, tarım, avcılık ve dağlar arası ticaretten elde edilen malların depolandığı ve aynı zamanda toplumsal ve dini nitelikli eylemlerin gerçekleştirildiği önemli birer merkez teşkil ettikleri görülmektedir. Yerleşim yoğunluğundaki artış, yöreye özgü grupların sosyoekonomik anlamdaki yeniden yapılanmasının göstergesi olarak kabul edilebilir. Bu yenilenme süreci, ticari bir ağın kurulmasına ve/veya temel geçim etkinlikleri arasındaki dengede meydana gelen bir değişime ya da bölgeye yeni toplulukların gelişi gibi diğer dış etkenlere de bağlantılandırılabilir. Aynı şekilde önemli olabilecek bir başka faktör ise, aynı grup veya kabile içerisindeki iki farklı kesim, diğer bir deyişle yerleşikler (çoğunlukla çiftçi) ve seyyar (yaylacı çobanlar ve göçebeler) arasındaki ilişkinin değişmesi ve bu sayede bütünleşik bir ekonomi ile genişlemiş bir sosyo-politik düzenin gelişmesine neden olmasıdır. Şimdilik yerli toplumun gelişiminin olası nedenleri üzerine tahmin yürütmekle yetinmek zorundayız. Söz konusu iki kesim, yani aynı grup ya da kabile içerisindeki yerleşikler ve seyyarlar arasındaki ilişki ve bu ilişkinin yol açtığı bütünleşik bir ekonomi ile genişlemiş bir sosyopolitik düzenin gelişmesi olguları, Yukarı Dicle bölgesinde M.Ö III. binyılda hayat bulan yeni bir toplum yapısının temellerini teşkil etmekteydi. Daha karmaşık bir süreci basite indirgemek suretiyle zihnimizde bir senaryo canlandırmak gerekirse, bu bölgede yaşadıkları antik metinler ve modern araştırmalarca doğrulanan göçebe ya da yarı göçebe çoban gruplarının farklı gerekçelerle tarımsal etkinlikler ve köy yaşantısına geçmeye karar verdiklerini ve bu amaçla dağlar, vadiler ve stepler arasında önceleri yüzyıllar boyunca mevsimlik göç ve yaylacılık çerçevesinde yararlandıkları alanlardan birine yerleşmeyi seçtiklerini; grubun diğer kısmının ise sürülerle geleneksel rotaları izleyerek ilerledikleri ve yerleşik topluluklarla etkileşime devam ettiklerini düşünmek mümkündür. Eldeki mevcut yazılı belgeler yetersiz olup, güney şehir devletleriyle etkileşim ve ticaret ağlarına katılım yöntemlerinin belirlenmesine henüz imkan sağlamamaktadır. Yerel toplulukların sosyal ve ekonomik yapılarının yeniden düzenlenmesi olgusu Orta Tunç Çağı toplumlarının belirgin bir özelliği olarak öne çıkmakta; nitekim söz konusu toplumların önce M.Ö II. binyıl ve takiben M.Ö I. binyıl boyunca yerel niteliklerine sıkıca bağlı kaldıkları ya da güney imparatorluklarının sabit sömürgeleştirme girişimleri ve baskılarına rağmen, zaman zaman Anadolu'nun doğusuna yöneldikleri görülmektedir. Bu durumun toplumsal ve tarihsel değerinin önemli çıkarımlarından birine, yerel toplumun farklı unsurları ve üyelerinin bu arkeolojik arazi kapsamında üstlendikleri roller üzerinden ulaşmak mümkündür. Oluşturduğumuz taslak doğru ise, M.Ö III. binyıla tarihlendirilen sitlerin azlığı ya da başka bir ifadeyle bu yerleşim alanlarının sınırlı görünürlükte oluşlarının, dengesiz bir yerleşme düzenine işaret ediyor olabilir. Zira nüfusun büyük bir kısmı, bölge şartlarına en iyi uyum gösterme yöntemi olarak seyyar, yarı göçmen ya da göçmen bir yaşam tarzını tercih etmiştir. Yukarı Dicle vadisi örneğinde ise, sistemin karmaşıklaşması ve yerel toplumdaki dönüşümün tetiklenmesinde ticaret ağlarının mı yoksa yerel gruplar arasındaki belki de Akkadların bölgedeki etkilerini artırmaları sonucu doğan dinamiklerin mi etkili olduğunu sorgulamamız mümkündür. Vadi, maddi kültürü ve özellikle de çanak çömlek geleneği açısından kendisini çevreleyen diğer bölgelerden ayrılan bir niteliğe sahiptir. Aslında Dicle kültürünün kendine has ve özel konumu, birçok yüzyıl boyunca metinsel herhangi bir ize rastlanmaması, Mezopotamyalıların bölgeyi kontrol altına almakta yaşadıkları zorluklar ve maddi kalıntıların özellikleri, bu alanın iyi tanımlanmış ve belirgin bir kültürel ve belki de siyasi oluşuma ev sahipliği yaptığını düşündürmekte ve bunun bağlantılı olarak, kırmızı-kahverengi seramiklerin varlığı ile karakterize edilen yerleşkelerin gelişiminden de anlaşıldığı üzere, M.Ö III. binyılda gerçekleşen değişimlere de yön verdiği ihtimalini güçlendirmektedir. Yukarı Dicle'deki kazılarda gün ışığına çıkartılan kalıntıların Hurri medeniyetinin doğrudan bir ifadesi olarak kabul edilip edilemeyeceği ise, şimdilik ilginç fakat metinsel kanıtların yokluğunda ispat edilemeyecek bir varsayımın ötesine geçememektedir. Ancak Yukarı Dicle bölgesinde yakın dönemde yürütülen araştırmalar, M.Ö. III. binyılın sonu ile M.Ö. II. binyılın başı arasında Anadolu'nun güneydoğusunda yaşayan ve Antik Yakın Doğu'nun tarihsel arka planı kapsamında henüz tam anlamıyla belirlenememiş de olsa önemli bir rol oynayan toplulukların daha iyi tanımlanabilmeleri adına yeni ve önemli bazı kanıtlar elde edilmesini sağlamıştır. ; La regione attraversata dal corso superiore del fiume Tigri, in Turchia sud-orientale, è stata per molto tempo un'area poco conosciuta dal punto di vista archeologico. L'intensificarsi delle ricerche sul campo, a partire dagli anni novanta del secolo scorso, ha prodotto le evidenze su cui basare una prima ricostruzione della storia dell'insediamento e della cultura materiale di questi territori, tra le alte terre anatolico-orientali e le pianure mesopotamiche. I risultati degli scavi e le ricognizioni indicano che tra la fine del Bronzo Antico e l'inizio del Bronzo Medio giunge a maturazione un processo di trasformazione e riorganizzazione delle comunità locali. La comparsa di ampi complessi architettonici ed edifici in siti di medio-piccole dimensioni, caratterizzati da un particolare repertorio di oggetti e da ceramiche rosso-brune, potrebbe nascondere la formazione di realtà socio-politiche più strutturate rispetto a quelle del periodo precedente ed essere espressione di quel mondo khurrita che avrebbe avuto proprio nella regione del Tigri, secondo le ricostruzioni storiche, una delle zone di insediamento principale. ; The Upper Tigris region represents an important area within the mountainous system of south-eastern Anatolia and its relevance is related to its geographical position that plays a role in connecting the Mesopotamian lowlands to both northern and eastern Anatolian areas. Archaeological researches carried out during the last thirty years along the upper course of the Tigris river have provided new important evidence for the definition of a local cultural horizon and a large corpus of data that may be used to clarify chronological divisions and synchronism within the region itself and beyond. The aim of this book is to investigate the results of the recent archaeological activities concerning the final part of the Early and the Middle Bronze Age. Starting from a detailed analysis of the published data, central issues concerning settlements, stratigraphy, architecture, pottery, regional links, and chronology have been treated. The region of the Upper Tigris river, north of the Ṭūr ʿAbdīn hills and at the foot of the high south-eastern Anatolian mountains, show a coherent picture in terms of archaeological evidence. Surveys and excavations have documented that an important occupational period of the valley should be dated back to the end of the 3rd and the first half of the 2nd millennium BC, when mainly small sized settlements tend to be established on the river terraces on the edge of the Tigris floodplain and along the main river tributaries. Many of them are characterized by large buildings or architectural complexes and the presence of a typical ceramic assemblage which appears to be distinct from the other contemporaneous ceramic traditions of the neighbouring regions. The assemblage of pottery, mainly red-brown slipped and painted wares, is important for the definition of a local horizon and for the identification of intersite cultural connections in the upper Tigris region. The ubiquity of pots sherds, essentially representing the bulk of what we found in the field, make them currently the basis of this investigation. In the particular case of the Upper Tigris, area of recent investigation, the pottery is remarkable when compared with other categories of finds and their presence, not only in stratified contexts but also on the surface of non-excavated sites, makes one of the most reliable tools for characterizing the material production of this specific geographical area and interpreting wider features of the cultural development in the Upper Tigris. A part a brief geographical and historical introduction (Chapter 1), the core of the book is represented by the results of the archaeological researches in the region and their analysis (Chapters 2 and 4). Surveyed areas and the excavated sites are the subjects of the second chapter (Chapter 2) that provides also the current state of the art for our archaeological knowledge. An important contribution is offered by the excavations at Hirbemerdon Tepe and to this site is dedicated the Chapter 3 where is reasoned argument of the archaeological context (3.2) with its phases of occupation and associated pottery (3.4), mainly unpublished. Much space is given to the classification of pottery sherds (3.3) both in technological and morphological terms and the analysis of spatial and diachronic occurrence of wares and types. Also main small findings are interpreted and contextualized in the regional and chronological frameworks (3.5). Our primary source of information for a detailed analysis of the pottery is the architectural complex, discovered on the mound of Hirbemerdon Tepe but also the evidence from other soundings opened on the site. The first excavations campaigns (2005-2007) carried out at Hirbermerdon Tepe, on the right bank of Tigris river, yielded good archaeological contexts and a conspicuous amount of pottery and artefacts mainly dating back to the first part of the 2nd millennium BC. Providing a new set of stratified data, Hirbemerdon Tepe offers an important contribution to defining the cultural profile of the Upper Tigris valley area. The excavations provided us with a sequence of three main ceramic phases, each individuated by morphological and technological attributes (3.6). The early phase (Fase 1), dating to the end of the Early Bronze Age, approximately to Early Bronze Age III-IV (end of Early Jazirah III-V), is characterized by the presence of an early version of RBWW and DROB; the middle phase (Fase 2), dated to the Middle Bronze Age, is characterized mainly by RBWW and band painted ware. The last phase (Fase 3) comprises a mixed assemblage with RBWW types of MBA date and others in common ware together with some Khabur and Nuzi sherds of Late Bronze Age date. It is not ascertained that at Hirbemerdon exists RBWW of LBA date. A section is dedicated to discuss the pottery repertoire, its technological and morphological characteristics, and in the regional context (3.7), comparing data with those from other sites and regions in order to underline the relationship between the local ceramic horizon and those of the neighbours. The end of the chapter concerns remarks on the regional periodization and propose a date for the repertoire. Chapter 4 offers general remarks about the settlement developments, architecture, pottery and significative small finds recovered in the Upper Tigris region. According to the results of this study, based on the published data currently available and the evidence from Hirbemerdon Tepe, the rise of the local Middle Bronze Age culture has to be dated to the passage between the 3rd and the 2nd millennium. The floruit of the Upper Tigris communities has to be dated to the period between the 19th and 17th centuries that coincides with the main phase of production of the red-brown slipped/painted pottery. A common pottery horizon is widely recognizable in the Upper Tigris region, marked specifically by the presence of categories known as Red Brown Wash Ware (RBWW), Red Brown Burnished Ware (RBBW), Dark Rimmed Orange Bowls/Ware (DROB/DROW) and Band Painted Ware (BD) which are characterized by a layer of red/brown slips used to cover, entirely or partially, the surface of the pot and to decorate it. Parallels of single components of the pottery shape are geographically widespread, encompassing the Upper Euphrates in Anatolia and Syria, the Balikh area, the Upper Khabur and the northern Iraqi lowlands, sometimes the Anatolian highlands, but the particular surface treatment is a specific local characteristic and has to be considered as a distinctive expression of the Tigris valley culture. The high percentage of red-brown slipped and painted wares suggests that a proper ceramic region existed between the South-Eastern Taurus fringes and the Ṭūr ʿAbdīn uplands, south-west of the Van mountain system, resting firmly within a local tradition. Red-brown wares (DROB/DROW, RBWW, BD) are products of the same manufacturing tradition, centred on the Tigris river area. It is likely that the DROB were out of use at the beginning of 2nd millennium, a part some marginal exceptions, whereas the RBWW continued for the entire span of the Middle Bronze Age and probably until the beginning of the Late Bronze Age. The Tigris pottery assemblage experienced the effects of different influxes, from the Euphrates area and to the Jazirah, with a period of major interaction and others of less intensive contacts. In conclusion, Chapter 5 explores the social and cultural value of the homogeneity in material culture within the Tigris region, suggesting the existence of a communal organization maybe connected with political entities. The sites characterised by red-brown wares represent evidence of cultural continuity between the Early and Middle Bronze Ages. It may be assumed that at a certain point a transformation of the local social and political system occurres, with the conversion to a new settlement pattern organized around little sites with multifunctional buildings and this change is also identified by the growth of settled sites producing red-brown pottery, like DROBs and principally RBWW. Not much can be said as regards the end of the Early Bronze Age period. Findings and strata of the second half of 3rd millennium or dating to the last centuries have been exposed at few sites but none provides a clear stratigraphic sequence or fairly well articulated contexts. In general, the remains are poor compared with those of the following Middle Bronze Age and cover marginal areas of the site. The valley was almost devoid of significant settlements during this period, probably because the settlement pattern was substantially different from the Middle Bronze Age pattern and/or not easily recognizable archeologically. Some sites produced very sparse evidence (tombs, portion of walls and floors, pot-sherds) but no substantial layers have been found up to now. In fact the thin layers could indicate brief and intermittent periods of occupation. Of course there might have been considerable 3rd millennium sites not yet excavated beneath some of the major and important mounds but as yet there is no evidence for them and the possible finding of large settlements in Pornak and Pir Hüseyin do not change the general picture of a rural landscape with evanescent presence of very small sites, as for the valley along the river. Probably during the passage between the 3rd and 2nd millennium there was a reorganization of settlements and populations in the valley with an increase of settled sites, after important but unclear changes in the whole region that stimulated the growth of the social complexity among the groups inhabiting the Upper Tigris, both sedentary and mobile segments of local society, producing new forms of interaction between the communities, control and management of the resources. In this period a social structure more complex than loose village organizations that probably characterized the sociopolitical landscape of the 3rd millennium was developed. The portions of buildings and composite architectural complexes, dating to the Middle Bronze Age, found for example at Giricano, Salat Tepe, Hirbemerdon Tepe, but also the remains of Kavuşan and Üçtepe showing similar architectural features, suggest a community planning with the possible existence of a form of control over productive resources or organization of the local economic life, but not a level of complexity implying the subordination to a centralizing power. Architecture and artifacts do not confirm the presence of elites but indicate small communities organizing the management of local economy on a modest scale. We do not have elements to recognize a hierarchy between these sites yet but it seems that these played a role of coordination and were centers of attraction for populations; for processing products and storing commodities coming from herds, agriculture, hunting and intermountain trade as well as for communal and ritual performances. The growing of settlement density can be considered as an indicator of a socio-economic reorganization of indigenous groups. This regenerative process can be linked to the establishment of a commercial network and/or to a change in the balance between main subsistence activities or to other external stimuli as the arrival of newcomers. Not less important could have been the changing relation between the two segments, settled (mainly farmers) and mobile (transhumant shepherds and nomads) of the same group or tribe, developing an integrated economy and an enlarged socio-political system, At present we can only speculate about what the development of the indigenous society holds. The relation between these two segments, settled and mobile of the same group or tribe, developing an integrated economy and an enlarged socio-political system, was at the base of a new society inaugurated at the end of the 3rd millennium in the Upper Tigris. It is possible to imagine a scenario, simplifying a more complex process, where groups of shepherds, nomadic or semi-nomadic, who have lived in this area as ancient texts and modern studies confirm, decided to convert to agricultural activities and village life, for different motives, settling in one of the areas that for centuries they had used during the seasonal migrations and transhumance between mountains, valleys and steppes; whereas the other part of the group continued to bring herds along traditional routes interacting with the sedentary communities. The available textual documentation is meager and does not permit to establish yet the modalities of interaction with the southern city states as well as the involvement within commercial circuits. This new organization of the social and economic structure of the local community is a trait of the Middle Bronze Age society that in the course of the 2nd millennium and then during the 1st millennium, will keep firmly a local character or will be occasionally oriented towards eastern Anatolia in spite of the pressure and attempts at stable colonization by southern empires. An important implication of social and historical significance is involved in the role assumed by the different components and members of the local society in this archaeological landscape. If this outline is correct, the scarcity of sites dated to the 3rd millennium or otherwise, the low visibility of these settlements, might point to unstable occupation: a mobile, semi-nomadic or nomadic style of life was for most of the population the best adaptation to the surrounding regional environment. We can question if in the case of the Upper Tigris river valley it has been the trade network to generate the rise of complexity or dynamics internal to local groups (maybe stimulated after the Akkadians established their influence over the region) have had been more effective to prompt the transformation of local society. The valley represents a distinct unit from the surrounding regions with regard to its material culture and particularly its pottery tradition. Actually, the particular setting of Tigris culture, the lack of textual records for several centuries, the difficulties met by Mesopotamians to control these territories, and the characteristics of the material remains could suggest that the area was a place of a well-defined cultural and maybe political entity and resulting in the changes at the end of 3rd millennium that we can recognize in the growth of the settlements characterized by the presence of red-brown ceramics. If the archaeological remains emerged through the excavation in the Upper Tigris have to be considered direct expression of the Khurrian world is at the moment an intriguing hypothesis that in absence of textual evidence cannot be demonstrated. However the results of the recent research in the Upper Tigris provide new fundamental evidence for a better definition of the communities inhabiting the south-eastern Anatolia between the end of 3rd and the beginning of 2nd mill. BC that played an important, yet poorly defined role within the historical scenario of the Ancient Near East.
La tesi tratta delle forme della generalizzazione normativa ed è suddivisa in tre capitoli. La prima questione che si è affrontata riguarda il rapporto tra norma e valore. Nell'ottica prescelta – quella neoistituzionalista – il sistema-diritto appare come un insieme unitario di scopi, privo di quel relativismo assiologico che caratterizza la prospettiva contrattualista, alcuni dei quali – quelli fondamentali per la civile convivenza – preselezionati dal legislatore e resi evidenti nella Carta costituzionale, altri ancora – quelli strumentali alla cooperazione interindividuale – declinati all'interno di norme gerarchicamente inferiori. Gli scopi del diritto, però, non sono finiti e non si identificano, pertanto, in quelli incorporati nelle disposizioni normative. Poste le premesse fondamentali, l'ordinamento predispone, infatti, una serie di meccanismi per mantenersi "cognitivamente aperto" rispetto alle esigenze della collettività i cui bisogni è chiamato a soddisfare. In quanto risultanti di un processo di oggettivizzazione e astrazione storica degli interessi individuali, i valori o scopi del diritto non seguono la logica escludente tipica degli insiemi conchiusi. La rispondenza o meno di determinate condotte ad un valore ben può mutare (come normalmente muta) al mutare del tempo in cui il giudizio di verosimiglianza viene svolto. Tale la ragione per cui la positività della norma non è un attributo originario della stessa ma le si accosta nel momento in cui la norma passa dalla dimensione statica e astratta di ius positum a quella dinamica e vivente del decisum. La positività del diritto, in altri termini, non nasce con il perfezionarsi dell'iter legislativo formalmente necessario ai fini della sua validità ma deriva dall'operazione ermeneutica, intesa come atto finale di creazione della norma demandato (ab origine ed in ogni caso) ad un soggetto giuridicamente educato ma appartenente alla stessa dimensione storica e concreta in cui il decisum è destinato ad incardinarsi. Tant'è che, quando interprete non è il giudice ma il consociato e non si verifica un conflitto circa il modo di intendere il modello di condotta preferito dall'ordinamento la norma è comunque positiva. In questo caso, infatti, non vi è la necessità di ricorrere alla tutela giurisdizionale dei diritti poiché vi è consenso tra le parti interessate e la norma è per ciò solo positiva ossia di fatto vigente. Si tratta, però, di una positività precaria perché affidata al mero consenso attuale sul modo di intendere il comando legislativo e sempre esposta alla eventuale decisione contraria dell'organo istituzionalmente preposto ad accertarla in modo definitivo, almeno fintanto che non subentrino meccanismi automatici di stabilizzazione di quello che chiameremo "decisum diretto", primi tra tutti la prescrizione e la decadenza. Questa dinamica conferma ulteriormente la nozione in questa tesi sposata circa il fondamento volontario del diritto (svincolato, cioè, dal principio dei rapporti di forza che rappresentano, al più, una contingenza negativa) che è corollario dell'ulteriore nozione di diritto come scienza pratica e, infine, dell'idea della protezione come "minimo assiologico giuridico". La fisiologia osmotica tra diritto e realtà si ricava intendendo i valori in senso oggettivo e sostanziale ossia come idealità che, acquistando senso solo se calate nella dimensione storica e concreta degli atti (come componenti dei fatti), necessariamente corrispondono a interessi epurati del corredo fattuale e selezionati (ex ante o ex post) come giuridicamente rilevanti. Per onestà intellettuale, è opportuno precisare che tale nozione di valore, coincidente con lo standard mengoniano, è però mediata dal riconoscimento di un dualismo dei valori al pari di quanto può dirsi, in generale, per il fenomeno giuridico, la cui natura è statica e quindi ideale nel suo essere jus positum e dinamica e quindi concreta nel suo traslare a directum. Si è ritenuto, così, di poter individuare quale tratto fondamentale del rapporto tra norma e valore la dialetticità che identifica anche il senso del sistema giuridico riguardato in un'ottica non già sostanziale ma funzionale, come congegno di riduzione della complessità secondo la logica dell'utile o dannoso. La seconda questione che si è tentato di sviscerare è se, poste queste premesse iniziali, sia possibile distinguere le generalizzazioni normative non solo (o non tanto) a seconda del loro modo di incidere sulla realtà ma anche (e soprattutto) sul tipo di procedimento cognitivo che le stesse impongono all'interprete per dotare lo ius positum della dovuta positività. Una prima distinzione si è operata con riferimento alle regole e ai principi da un punto di vista strutturale, secondo la nota distinzione forte – che non lega cioè la differenziazione tra le une e gli altri al maggiore o minore grado di vaghezza concettuale-descrittiva della norma ma riconosce (con varie soluzioni) differenze sostanziali. L'idea proposta è quella di una generalizzazione puramente assiologica nel caso dei principi e di una generalizzazione (immediatamente) descrittiva e (mediatamente o implicitamente) assiologica nel caso delle regole, le quali poi, sotto il primo profilo (concettualedescrittivo) possono essere più o meno vaghe con ciò non richiedendo un'operazione diversa all'interprete ma solo un maggiore o minore sforzo ricognitivo in punto di fatto. Una seconda distinzione si è tentata, dal punto di vista funzionale, riconoscendo quali destinatari primari dei principi il legislatore e l'interprete e quali destinatari primari delle regole i consociati. Tale circostanza si è desunta dalla diversità di struttura: i principi, in quanto norme incondizionate, identificano gli scopi del diritto e indicano a livello astratto e oggettivo le condotte (da selezionare come) preferibili al fine di darvi attuazione ma, in quanto norme non precettive, dispiegano i loro effetti solo all'interno del sistema-diritto essendo destinate ad orientare la condotta dei soggetti istituzionalmente qualificati ad edificarlo e manutenerlo. Il giudizio di verosimiglianza sulla preferibilità o meno della condotta posta in essere in forza dei principi generali riguarda, pertanto, principalmente la condotta del legislatore (in quanto primo interprete) e del giudice (in quanto ermeneuta), investendo eventualmente solo la condotta interpretativa del consociato in relazione ad una regola capace di dispiegare i suoi effetti direttamente nei confronti dello stesso. Le regole, in quanto norme condizionate e immediatamente precettive, sono destinate a regolare le umane vicende e si orientano naturalmente in senso estroflesso verso i consociati. Esse non indicano, se non a livello implicito, lo scopo perseguito dall'ordinamento (in ragione del quale sono state emanate e continuano a ricevere attuazione) ma solo la condotta attesa dal consociato e gli effetti che si ricollegano alla sua violazione. Questa distinzione funzionale fondata sulla diversità di struttura autorizza una partizione ulteriore tra principi, regole e clausole generali. Queste ultime, infatti, sono forme della generalizzazione puramente assiologiche, come i principi, ma essendo normalmente incardinate all'interno di una fattispecie completa della descrizione del fatto e corredata dall'effetto condividono la destinazione d'uso delle regole. L'avverbio normalmente è d'obbligo perché esula da questa normalità la clausola generale per eccellenza ossia la buona fede che merita, pertanto, una classificazione a sé e su cui si tornerà parlando del terzo capitolo. La natura ibrida delle clausole generali, quindi, pur implicando una certa elasticità assiologica, è mitigata dall'essere le stesse clausole dotate dell'effetto tipico della norma, quello performativo-semplice ossia teso a performare le condotte dei consociati. Diversamente, i principi esplicano i loro effetti solo all'interno delle dinamiche ordinamentali e sono, pertanto, norme di tipo performativo-costitutivo, laddove, però, la performance è attesa non tanto da parte dei consociati ma dello stesso ordinamento giuridico. Da questa stessa destinazione (unitamente alla priorità della componente assiologica del diritto su cui oltre) possiamo ricavare il criterio ermeneutico primario – sia per ragioni temporali che per ordine di importanza – della unità o coerenza assiologica del diritto che fa il paio al principio di uguaglianza sostanziale tale per cui l'introduzione all'interno dell'ordinamento giuridico di valori contrastanti con quelli già incorporati nell'architettura assiologica dello stesso è consentita solo quando vi siano contingenze tali da giustificare l'adozione di un sistema di governo delle stesse secondo rationes diverse da quelle già in uso. A titolo esemplificativo si riporta la vicenda dell'anatocismo bancario e la sua ultima fortunata svolta (con l'introduzione del divieto di cui all'art. 1283 c.c. anche nel nuovo art. 120 Tub) che ha messo bene in luce come il legislatore abbia per molto tempo violato il criterio di unità o coerenza assiologica senza poter invocare la necessità di trattare in modo diverso i diversi, poiché niente giustificava il maggior favore dimostrato fino a ieri alle banche e agli intermediari finanziari rispetto al creditore pecuniario comune. Sotto l'ulteriore profilo dell'attività richiesta all'interprete al fine di dare applicazione alle forme della generalizzazione così individuate, la differenza è notevole. Mentre, infatti, le regole richiedono di norma una mera operazione sussuntiva – di riconduzione del fatto alla fattispecie sotto il profilo fattualedescrittivo – le clausole generali e i principi implicano un attività diversa e più complessa, dovendo in primo luogo l'interprete riempire di senso il valore dalle stesse incorporato per poi procedere ad una verifica di compatibilità tra il fatto com'è e il fatto come doveva essere. Questa operazione si sostanzia: 1) nella comprensione dello scopo perseguito dal soggetto con la condotta posta in essere; 2) in una presa di coscienza della propria idea del valore (ossia di quei comportamenti verosimilmente rispondenti alla finalità incarnata dal valore); 3) in una verifica preventiva circa la conformità della propria idea a l'idea oggettiva di quel valore; 4) ad un giudizio di preferibilità o meno della condotta posta in essere dal consociato rispetto al valore sulla base di un criterio di verosimiglianza; 5) ad una verifica di condivisibilità degli effetti che discendono dall'applicazione della norma così ricostruita. I passaggi 1), 2) e 3) sono (o dovrebbero essere) normalmente assorbiti dalla previa educazione della precomprensione dell'interprete; il passaggio 4) quando il giudice interpreta una regola è caratterizzato non dalla logica della preferibilità ma da quella della doverosità risultandone di molto diminuito il margine di verosimiglianza della qualificazione giuridica del fatto e, di conseguenza, il lasso di controvertibilità della decisione; il passaggio 5) nelle regole non è quasi mai necessario ferma restando la possibilità che un fatto astrattamente riconducibile a diverse fattispecie venga inquadrato all'interno di quella produttiva degli effetti maggiormente condivisibili. Questa ricostruzione aiuta a mettere in luce come componente minima essenziale del diritto sia non la componente descrittiva propria delle regole e neppure quella performativa-semplice associata alle stesse ma la componente assiologica. Come a dire che l'ordinamento ben potrebbe reggersi solo su indicazioni di massima, orizzonti di scopo, ma non potrebbe definirsi tale senza di essi. E, poiché il valore risiede nel fatto (o, meglio, in quella sua componente caratterizzata dalla volizione umana ossia l'atto), quest'opera di riconduzione ad unità del Sein e del Sollen dal punto di vista finalistico non può che partire dal fatto per estrapolarne la componente valoriale (o, meglio, la "natura") e verificarne la rispondenza rispetto all'architettura assiologica dell'ordinamento sulla base del logos. Da ciò l'idea del diritto come scienza analogica che opera, cioè, attraverso (ana) il linguaggio (logos). Questa caratterizzazione essenziale del modo d'essere del diritto non va intesa nel modo attualmente in voga presso i linguisti – fin troppo inclini al nichilismo e alla mortificazione del dover essere, ridotto a mero argomento – ma è utile a risolvere alcune tematiche di rilevanza pratica come, esemplarmente, la questione della dicotomia tra regole di validità e regole di responsabilità in uno con la riconducibilità alla violazione della buona fede di rimedi invalidatori. Perché alla buona fede non sono associabili effetti invalidanti? Non per ragioni formalistiche ma perché gli stessi effetti – che fanno sparire ciò che fino ad un attimo prima c'era – sono il frutto del "linguaggio della magia" cioè di quel linguaggio che realizza sia l'intrinseco che l'estrinseco del detto nell'atto del dire. Il linguaggio della magia è tipico dei soli performativi-costitutivi, di quelle norme, cioè, che sono destinate a produrre effetti nel solo sistema a cui appartengono, come i principi generali, le norme abrogatrici, quelle relative all'iter legislativo, le norme attributive della personalità giuridica, etc. Questi i confini dell'ambito di operatività delle varie forme della generalizzazione che è indispensabile rispettare ai fini della sopravvivenza del sistema perché la praticità, che pure è attributo fondamentale del diritto, non può tradursi in fenomeni autodistruttivi della sua architettura. La buona fede, dunque, al pari delle altre clausole generali è destinata a mantenere l'apertura cognitiva del sistema giuridico dal punto di vista valoriale, introitando bisogni che, pur non riconcettualizzati dal legislatore, presentano nel sistema di appartenenza "naturale" (morale, mercantile, religioso, etc.) quel grado di oggettivizzazione ed astrazione che deriva loro dalla larga condivisione del giudizio di preferibilità delle condotte che li concretizzano e che ne integrano il senso. Così, potremmo dire, l'intercomunicazione tra sistemi avviene sempre su di un piano che lungi dal soffrire l'incertezza dell'arbitrio garantisce una coerenza di massima tra le scienze umane organizzate a sistema nei limiti di interferenza reciproca. Ciò che non significa che per il tramite delle clausole si introitano nel diritto elementi che questo a inteso escludere, al contrario: quando si ha a che fare con queste forme della generalizzazione la giuridica rilevanza di valori extrasistemici è in re ipsa poiché le clausole (al pari dei principi) svolgono originariamente proprio questa funzione (essendo però destinate – al contrario dei principi – ad orientare in prima battuta le condotte dei consociati). Chiaro è che quest'opera di ricezione giuridica è possibile nei limiti in cui la stessa non si traduca in una negazione di valori già inglobati nel sistema-diritto poiché, diversamente ragionando, si finirebbe per legittimare un'opera di decostruzione ex post (cioè ad opera del giudice chiamato a concretizzare le clausole stesse) del complessivo impianto assiologico o finalistico del sistema in violazione del criterio primario di unità o coerenza assiologica, che legittima questa operazione solo al ricorrere di esigenze di uguaglianza sostanziale. Il contenuto minimo inderogabile delle clausole generali è, pertanto, un contenuto riflesso rispetto alla carica valoriale dei principi che, secondo le circostanze del caso, ben può esaurirsi (ma non necessariamente si esaurisce) in una "mera" ripetizione dell'uno o dell'altro secondo il meccanismo proprio della c.d. indirekte Drittwirkung. La particolarità della buona fede risiede nell'essere la stessa priva del corredo performativo che, abbiamo detto, essere caratteristica finalistica essenziale del diritto. Ciò che comunque non vale ad escluderne l'immediata precettività. In altri termini: stando al dettato positivo i consociati sanno che devono comportarsi secondo buona fede ma non sanno né cosa ciò esattamente significhi né cosa la violazione dell'obbligo comporti. Dottrina e giurisprudenza hanno elaborato delle funzioni tipiche della buona fede, sussumibili in tre macrocategorie: integrativa, valutativa e interpretativa, affrontate nel terzo capitolo. La prima è destinata ora a indirizzare la poiesi del debitore verso la permanenza della possibilità della prestazione ora a forgiare il rapporto obbligatorio secondo un modello minimo inderogabile dello stesso che è essenzialmente votato alla protezione. La seconda è finalizzata ora ad evitare condotte opportunistiche (abuso del diritto) ora a sospendere l'efficacia coercitiva dell'obbligo dinnanzi a preminenti esigenze della persona debitrice (inesigibilità). La terza è, infine, deputata ora ad orientare in senso antiformalista la condotta dell'interprete di quel sotto-sistema normativo (o a normazione derivata) che è il contratto, coerentemente con l'impianto assiologico derivato dello stesso, ora a risolvere in via principale ed immediata il problema delle sopravvenienze. Queste le funzioni a cui si associano altrettanti rimedi, tutti operanti direttamente sul rapporto obbligatorio: ampliamento dell'area della coercibilità, paralisi del diritto, illegittimità della condotta, etc. Ciò che non significa che la buona fede non rilevi anche in punto di fattispecie ma, per far ciò, la stessa deve coincidere con l'uno o con l'altro elemento della stessa. Abbiamo visto più sopra il rapporto tra neoformalismo e buona fede e la possibilità di una coincidenza di soluzioni tra i giudizi di valore operati per il tramite dell'elemento causale e quello operati per il tramite della buona fede. Senz'altro tra regole di fattispecie e regole di responsabilità rimane ferma la distinzione finalistica primaria tale per cui le prime sono funzionali all'edificazione del regolamento contrattuale (performativi-costitutivi) e le seconde sono dirette ad orientare le condotte dei privati in un'ottica di tipo programmatico (performativi semplici). Tuttavia, tale distinzione né vale ad escludere che il valore evocato dalla causa (come scopo del contratto) e quello evocato dalla buona fede coincidano; né, quando si tratti di obbligazione senza prestazione, appare così marcata, posto che in tale contesto la buona fede dismette la sua veste di performativo semplice per assumere le sembianze di un performativo-costitutivo. Al fine di una esatta comprensione del fenomeno, la prima domanda a cui è necessario rispondere è perché sussiste quest'obbligo di comportarsi secondo buona fede ossia qual è il bisogno cui la buona fede è destinata a dare risposta. Al contrario delle altre clausole generali, che identificano con sufficiente chiarezza il sistema all'interno del quale nasce il bisogno rilevante anche per il sistema-diritto (ad es. il buon costume che individua il sistema-costume al fine di ricavare il criterio di preferibilità) la buona fede è più sfuggente inducendo a ritenere che il sistema di riferimento possa essere ora l'uno ora l'altro a seconda del contesto in cui si colloca il rapporto obbligatorio. Tratto essenziale della buona fede è, quindi, la sua pertinenza all'obbligazione il cui substrato materiale è indice rivelatore del luogo in cui attingere il valore ossia l'astrazione oggettivizzata di quelle condizioni positive d'esistenza che sono gli interessi individuali, selezionati come utili o dannosi sulla base di un criterio di preferibilità delle condotte rispetto al buon esito del rapporto obbligatorio cui inerisce espresso dalla più parte degli individui operanti nel sistema di riferimento. Dal punto di vista funzionale, l'istituto "buona fede" fondante l'obbligazione senza prestazione è, quindi, deputato a proteggere le persone coinvolte in una relazione (stabile e orientata ad uno scopo) essendo la protezione stessa il minimo finalistico del diritto; dal punto di vista assiologico, il valore "buona fede" atto ad indicare il criterio di preferibilità ben può variare a seconda del contesto fattuale in cui matura la relazione, ferma restando la pertinenza della buona fede al rapporto obbligatorio e, dunque, la sua natura di "programma di scopo". Quando la buona fede opera in senso costitutivo la sua differenza rispetto alla causa sfuma nel senso che l'istituto "buona fede" sta all'obbligazione senza prestazione come l'istituto "causa" sta al contratto. Resta fermo, però, il rapporto di reciproca esclusione tra l'una e l'altra (poiché dove c'è contratto non c'è obbligazione senza prestazione) e la duplice natura della buona fede che, anche quando costituisce, rimane pur sempre (anche) norma programmatica. Infatti, se l'analogia regge con riferimento alla funzione dell'istituto giuridico non vi sono margini di sorta per appiattire la buona fede sulla causa (o viceversa) posto che l'una è naturalmente proiettata verso il futuro e vive esclusivamente in una dimensione dinamica, sia quando si fa portatrice di valori incarnati dai principi giuridici (anch'essi ontologicamente dinamici) sia quando recepisce valori extra-giuridici; l'altra (la causa) è funzionale a fotografare una data situazione indicando una volta e per sempre lo scopo cui condotte predeterminabili a priori devono orientarsi. Per quanto attiene allo scopo incarnato nella buona fede, la questione è diversa. Non c'è un tempo o una situazione di fatto che la buona fede cristallizza una volta e per sempre indicando le condotte "dovute" e quelle escluse dall'alea di coercibilità. La buona fede opera a ridosso del bisogno nel momento in cui lo stesso bisogno emerge e, in quanto tale, è norma autenticamente rimediale. Essa buona fede – tramite costitutivo di quel minimo giuridico rappresentato dall'obbligazione in funzione protettiva "pura", senza il corredo della prestazione – veste di dignità giuridica quei valori che, in quanto tali, pur non ancora giuridicizzati hanno già subito una oggettivizzazione secondo le logiche del sistema cui naturalmente appartengono. Questa traslazione della "tensione verso un fine" dalla sua forma soggettiva e concreta di interesse a quella oggettiva e ideale di valore ne garantisce l'epurazione perché è sintomatica di condivisione sociale (che a sua volta esclude l'arbitrio) condizione primaria di esistenza della normatività. Quanto detto induce una ulteriore considerazione per quanto attiene alla diversa problematica del bilanciamento. Ci si chiede, cioè, se il bilanciamento possa riguardare i valori o se sia un fenomeno relativo ai soli interessi: nell'un caso, infatti, la nozione di valore come entità oggettiva non vale ad escludere l'arbitrio del giudice, chiamato a "bilanciare" e quindi, in buona sostanza, a "creare" il criterio discriminante tra condotte utili o dannose; nell'altro caso, viceversa, l'arbitrio riguarderebbe i soli giudizi in cui vengono in rilievo gli interessi nella loro soggettività ossia quelli equitativi. Senz'altro gli interessi subiscono un'opera di bilanciamento che, ricorrendo le stesse condizioni di fatto, permette di distinguere tra interessi condivisi, tramutabili in valori, e interessi particolari, destinati a rimanere tali perché incapaci di superare il vaglio della condivisione. Tale discernimento, però, lo si è detto più volte, non compete direttamente all'interprete ma è in re ipsa posto che i valori partecipano della natura oggettiva propria di ogni forma di decisione collettiva. Gli interessi possono essere bilanciati dall'interprete solo quando è chiamato a decidere secondo equità, compiendo in prima persona l'opera di selezione che normalmente compete alla "più parte" degli individui appartenenti ad un sistema. I valori possono anch'essi essere bilanciati solo quando si tratti di interpretare secondo i principi generali dell'ordinamento poiché, in questo caso, la giuridicità dei valori incorporati nella forma della generalizzazione in parola non consente di discriminare tra l'uno e l'altro principio. Quando, invece, l'opera ermeneutica si compie per il tramite di una clausola generale il bilanciamento non entra in gioco poiché l'assenza di veste giuridica rispetto al valore extra-sistemico impone al giudice di compiere una scelta tra l'uno e l'altro fine in base alla maggiore o minore condivisione dello stesso da parte dei consociati ossia in forza della maggiore o minore capacità inclusiva dei valori rispetto agli interessi individuali in gioco. Così, l'interazione sistemica può avvenire senza il rischio di arbitri e soggettivismi garantendo al sistema-diritto una costante tensione evolutiva assieme ad un'apertura cognitiva estesa tanto ai fatti (apertura cognitivo-descrittiva) quanto ai valori portati dagli atti (apertura cognitivo-assiologica). Ciò che non implica un abbandono a qualsivoglia pretesa dirigista: il diritto, sia chiaro, in una certa misura dirige poiché altrimenti (verrebbe da dire) sarebbe privo di "personalità". La personalità, le idee del diritto sono i suoi valori, espressi nei principi generali, che non sono confinati in una forma della generalizzazione posta in posizione apicale solo per essere privata di ogni effetto performativo in una sorta di maestosa solitudine. I principi generali, pur non immediatamente precettivi nei confronti dei consociati, manifestano tutta la loro forza performativa nei confronti del diritto stesso e di chi è chiamato ad operarvi. Legislatore e giudice, primo e secondo interprete, sono entrambi chiamati a darvi attuazione, l'uno ponendo il jus in conformità agli scopi delineati dai principi (potendo discostarsi da essi o introdurne di nuovi solo in presenza di ragioni di uguaglianza sostanziale, in virtù del canone ermeneutico primario dell'unità o coerenza assiologica); l'altro creando il directum attingendo al substrato assiologico complessivo del sistema giuridico (ossia interpretando la norma in conformità al valore portato da essa riguardato in un'ottica sistematica). Ciò è tanto più vero proprio quando l'interprete è chiamato a maneggiare forme della generalizzazione puramente assiologiche immediatamente precettive: in questo caso, infatti, i principi si frappongono all'opera di giuridicizzazione ex post del valore tutte le volte in cui questo stesso valore si traduca in una finalità contrastante con quelle espresse dai principi. Il diritto, cioè, per il tramite di quella che abbiamo chiamato indirekte Drittwirkung opera in autotutela negando l'ingresso a valori che frustrerebbero quelli già incorporati nel sistema. Ma vi è un'altra applicazione della indirekte Drittwirkung che è resa particolarmente evidente proprio dalla buona fede: ossia la sua capacità di dotare la relazione nata da un affidamento qualificato della struttura dell'obbligo in funzione protettiva della persona. Il riferimento è, ovviamente, alla categoria della obbligazione senza prestazione in cui la stabile relazionalità tra individui, caratterizzata dalla comunanza dello scopo, ingloba le ragioni della persona all'interno delle dinamiche dell'obbligazione riconoscendogli giuridica rilevanza. In questo caso: i) in origine vi è una relazione; ii) la quale relazione assurge a stabile relazionalità quando vi è una comune tensione verso un fine; iii) dalla stabile relazionalità deriva un legittimo reciproco affidamento; iv) il quale legittimo affidamento solletica la buona fede; v) una volta attiva, la buona fede giuridicizza gli interessi delle parti in gioco a patto che questi siano compatibili con il complessivo impianto assiologico giuridico; vi) la lesione degli interessi così giuridicizzati genera responsabilità. Il rapporto obbligatorio così nato è privo del corredo della prestazione e non segue, perciò, le logiche incrementative che gli sono proprie. Tale è la ragione per cui l'obbligazione senza prestazione svolge una funzionalità meramente protettiva degli interessi in gioco, in linea con lo scopo minimo del diritto che è quello di "proteggere" individui interagenti. Quindi, se l'obbligazione è priva della prestazione la buona fede la caratterizza assiologicamente in senso conservativo; se invece l'obbligazione è complessa ed arricchita della prestazione, la dimensione assiologica della buona fede identifica come preferibili le condotte finalizzate non solo alla protezione del valore riferibile alla stessa ma anche al suo accrescimento. Il che ci suggerisce di ritenere che, in effetti, la logica protettiva della buona fede fondate l'obbligazione senza prestazione risieda nell'art. 1175 c.c. e che tale obbligazione si distingua da quella complessa rispetto alla quale l'integrazione ex fide bona, seguendo le logiche incrementative del contratto, ben può spingersi oltre alla mera protezione includendo nel parteur degli obblighi a carico delle parti anche condotte preferibili non nell'ottica precauzionale (rispetto al potenziale danno) propria dell'art. 1175 c.c. ma nell'ottica incrementativa ricavabile dalla prestazione, ferma restando la regola di verosimiglianza comune tanto all'obbligazione senza prestazione quanto agli obblighi accessori alla prestazione. In questo senso, quindi, l'integrazione del contratto passa attraverso il criterio selettivo naturale della causa dello stesso in quanto identificativa del valore perseguito dalle parti inquadrato, però, in una logica di accrescimento delle sfere individuali e non di mero mantenimento delle stesse, come accade invece nell'obbligazione senza (ossia a prescindere dalla) prestazione. Se poi vi debba essere una necessaria coincidenza tra il minimo costitutivo dell'obbligo di protezione ed il minimo performativo del risarcimento (per danni) è un'altra storia. L'assenza di una esplicita previsione positiva in tal senso in uno con le caratteristiche già viste della buona fede induce a ritenere che la stessa sia qualificabile come una forma della generalizzazione ad attitudine rimediale e che, quindi, individuato il valore di riferimento lo stesso possa essere coperto da ogni tutela normalmente posta a corredo dell'obbligo. Perché altrimenti sforzarsi tanto di sottrarre alle logiche aquiliane ambiti che tradizionalmente gli sarebbero propri? L'inversione dell'onere probatorio è poca cosa, specie se si considera che la stessa inversione si verifica anche in materia extracontrattuale in tutte quelle ipotesi, tutt'altro che residuali, di c.d. responsabilità oggettiva. Vero è che il giudizio di verosimiglianza, per sua stessa natura, presuppone la presenza di più alternative tra le condotte preferibili (in quanto non dannose) e, quindi, la coercibilità delle stesse non può assurgere ad attributo astratto e generale dell'obbligazione senza prestazione ma dipende dalla incontrovertibilità del giudizio di verosimiglianza che è, però, un ossimoro poiché la verosimiglianza incontrovertibile è certezza. Potremmo quindi azzardare la seguente conclusione: l'obbligazione senza protezione che si fonda sulla buona fede in funzione protettiva si presume assoggettata alle regole di verosimiglianza e non è, perciò, coercibile; questa presunzione può però essere superata in base ad un giudizio in concreto che, in relazione a tutte le circostanze specifiche del caso, accerti come preferibile un'unica condotta che diventa, perciò, coercibile. Certo è che questa soluzione è praticabile solo a patto di ritenere la "pretesa" attributo non della prestazione ma dell'obbligo, con le inevitabili ricadute sociali in termini restrittivi delle liberta individuali che questo slittamento comporta e sul presupposto che criterio distintivo tra l'una (prestazione) e l'altro (nella sua forma autonoma di obbligazione senza prestazione) sia non tanto la maggiore o minore "debolezza" in termini rimediali ma la sola funzionalità, rispettivamente incrementativa o conservativa della sfera personale dei soggetti agenti. L'etimo in questo caso ci offre indicazioni contrastanti, posto che prae (avanti) tendere (tendere) da un lato richiama quella tensione verso uno scopo che è la caratterizzazione propria dell'affidamento "fecondo" ossia capace di generare l'obbligazione senza prestazione; dall'altro lato identifica proprio quell'aspirazione all'avere che discende dall'essere, la cosa desiderata, oggetto di una forma della generalizzazione strutturata secondo il tipo "diritto soggettivo". D'altronde, abbiamo visto come la buona fede in funzione valutativa sia capace di paralizzare temporaneamente la pretesa o di contenerne la tensione finalistica ma non di farla venire meno. Una volta costituita, pertanto, la pretesa prevale rispetto alla tensione performativa della buona fede, salvo adeguamenti sincronici tra forma e sostanza; di conseguenza, in assenza della stessa pretesa, ritenere che la buona fede costituisca ciò che altrove non è capace di destituire sconta una certa dose di contraddizione ed è, quindi, più saggio mantenere una corrispondenza tra l'essenzialità costitutiva del diritto – che si manifesta per il tramite della buona fede come fonte dell'obbligazione senza prestazione – e l'essenzialità performativa dello stesso – garantita dalla tutela risarcitoria.
PERILAKU MEMILIH MASYARAKAT BOLAANG MONGONDOW UTARA PADA PEMILIHAN UMUM KEPALA DAERAH TAHUN 2013 (Suatu Studi di Kecamatan Bolangitang Barat)[1] OLEH : Abdul Halil Pontoh[2] NIM : 100814011 ABSTRAK Sebelum adanya demokrasi terdapat sistem pemerintahan yang di kuasai oleh negara.Hal ini yang menyebabkan rakyat tidak boleh ikut campur dalam urusan penyelenggaraan negara.Demokrasi merupakan jawaban atau solusi dari keinginan untuk menciptakan negara yang tidak berpihak pada siapapun, tetapi rakyat yang menjadi penentu kemajuan suatu negara Dalam negara demokrasi, pemerintahan berlangsung atas persetujuan dari yang di perintah.Dalam negara demokrasi, rakyat paling berhak dan paling mengetahui tentang siapa yang layak menjadi penyelenggara negara ataupun daerah.Oleh karena itu suatu negara dapat di katakan negara demokrasi, kalau di negara tersebut terdapat pemilihan umum yang bebas.mekanisme dalam pemilihan kepala daerah secara langsung diatur dalam UU No.32/2004 tentang Pemerintah Daerah dalam Pasal 56 ayat (1) yang mengatakan bahwa "Kepala Daerah dan Wakil Kepala Daerah dipilih dalam satu pasangan calon yang dilaksanakan secara demokratis berdasarkan asas langsung, umum, bebas, rahasia, jujur, dan adil. Dalam sistem politik yang menganut paham demokrasi, rakyat dipandang sebagai pemegang kedaulatan tertinggi.hal ini terlihat dimanifestasikan melalui pemilihan umum, dimana rakyat memilih langsung orang yang akan duduk memimpin pemerintahan sesuai dengan periode yang berlaku. Seperti halnya Pemilihan Umum Kepala Daerah di Kabupaten Bolaang Mongondow Utara yang dilaksanakan pada tanggal 8 Mei 2013. Pemilihan tersebut di ikuti oleh 4 ( Empat ) pasangan calon Bupati dan Wakil Bupati. Yang pada Akhirnya Pemilihan Umum Kepala Daerah di Kabupaten Bolaang Mongondow Utara tersebut di menangkan oleh pasangan Depri Pontoh – Suriansyah Korompot yang hanya di usung oleh partai PPP.Padahal sebelumnya bapak Depri Pontoh pernah menjabat sebagai wakil Bupati dari bapak Hamdan Datunsolang periode yang lalu, yang dalam hal ini bapak Hamdan Datunsolang juga mencalonkan diri sebagai bupati. Pemilihan Umum Kepala Daerah di Kabupaten Bolaang Mongondow Utara tersebut sedikit maupun banyak tentunya dipengaruhi oleh faktor-faktor yang berkembang di masyarakat, mulai dari latar belakang partai politik, ekonomi, agama, ketokohan dari pada kandidat, sampai pada kondisi sosial budaya. Hal ini yang akan membentuk perilaku politik masyarakat dalam menentukan pilihannya. Penelitian ini Menggunakan menggunakan pendekatan penelitian kualitatif.Dengan menggunakan tekhnik pengumpulan data berupa wawancara, observasi, studi pustaka dan tekhnik analisa data.Data-data tersebut di ambila dari informan yang dalam hal ini masyarakat Kecamatan Bolangitang Barat Kabupaten Bolaang Mongondow Utara yang sudah termasuk sebagai wajib pilih.Dan data tambahan lainnya di ambil dari PPK Kecamatan Bolangitang Barat. Kata Kunci : Perilaku Memilih Masyarakat, Pemilukada PENDAHULUAN Latar Belakang Masalah Sebelum adanya demokrasi terdapat sistem pemerintahan yang di kuasai oleh negara.Hal ini yang menyebabkan rakyat tidak boleh ikut campur dalam urusan penyelenggaraan negara.Rakyat hanya menjalankan apa yang sudah di gariskan negara[3]. Dalam negara demokrasi, pemerintahan berlangsung atas persetujuan dari yang di perintah.Penyelenggaraan negara, khususnya pimpinan eksekutif dan anggota legislatif di pilih langsung oleh rakyat dalam pemilihan umum.Oleh karena itu suatu negara dapat di katakan negara demokrasi, kalau di negara tersebut terdapat pemilihan umum yang bebas. Pemilihan umum memiliki beberapa fungsi yang tidak dapat di pisahkan antara satu dengan yang lain. Fungsi tersebut yaitu :Pertama : sebagai sarana legitimasi politik. Kedua : fungsi perwakilan politik. Ketiga : sebagai mekanisme sirkulasi elit politik. Keempat : sebagai sarana pendidikan politik rakyat.[4]. Ramlan Surbakti menjawab pertanyaan mengapa kepala daerah dan wakil kepala daerah di pilih secara langsung oleh rakyat melalui pemilihan umum.Jawabannya yang pertama agar lebih konsisten dengan system pemerintahan presidensial.Kedua, untuk menciptakan pembagian kekuasaan yang seimbang dan saling mengecek antara DPRD dan kepala daerah/wakil kepala daerah.[5]. Bagi masyarakat umum, pilkada langsung sering juga di tafsirkan sebagai kesempatan bagi-bagi uang.Mereka tahu bahwa tiap-tiap kandidat menyediakan anggaran yang cukup besar untuk memenangkan kompetisi.[6] Seperti halnya Pemilihan Umum Kepala Daerah di Kabupaten Bolaang Mongondow Utara yang dilaksanakan pada tanggal 8 Mei 2013. Pemilihan tersebut di ikuti oleh 4 ( Empat ) pasangan calon Bupati dan Wakil Bupati. Yaitu nomor urut 1 adalah pasangan dari Drs. Hi. Depri Pontoh bersama Suriansyah Korompot, SH yang diusung oleh Partai Persatuan Pembangunan (PPP), nomor urut 2 adalah pasangan Hamka, SH, MAP bersama Fellix Adri Mende, ST yang diusung partai gabungan (Hanura, PKB, Republikan, PBB, PBR, PMB), nomor urut 3 adalah pasangan Karel Bangko, SH-Mohamad Irianto Ch. Buhang, S.Sos yang diusung oleh partai Golkar dan PDIP, serta nomor urut 4 adalah pasangan Drs. Hi. Hamdan Datunsolang, MM bersama Hi. Farid Lauma, SE yang di usung PAN, PKS, Demokrat dan Gerindra. Yang pada Akhirnya Pemilihan Umum Kepala Daerah di Kabupaten Bolaang Mongondow Utara tersebut di menangkan oleh pasangan nomor urut 1 yaitu pasangan dari Drs. Hi.Depri Pontoh bersama Suriansyah Korompot, SH yang diusung oleh Partai Persatuan Pembangunan (PPP). Pemilihan Umum Kepala Daerah di Kabupaten Bolaang Mongondow Utara tersebut sedikit maupun banyak tentunya dipengaruhi oleh faktor-faktor yang berkembang di masyarakat, mulai dari latar belakang partai politik, ekonomi, agama, ketokohan dari pada kandidat, sampai pada kondisi sosial budaya. Berdasarkan uraian di atas, maka penulis tertarik untuk melakukan penelitian dengan judul Perilaku Memilih Masyarakat Bolaang Mongondow Utara Pada Pemilihan Umum Kepala Daerah Tahun 2013. Dan yang menjadi pokok permasalahan yang akan di angkat adalah Faktor-faktor apa yang mempengaruhi perilaku memilih masyarakat Bolaang Mongondow Utara Pada Pemilihan Umum Kepala Daerah Tahun 2013.Dengan tujuan penelitian untuk mengetahui faktor - faktor yang mempengaruhi perilaku memilih masyarakat Bolaang Mongondow Utara pada pemilihan Umum Kepala Daerah tahun 2013.manfaat dari penelitian ini terbagi atas dua. Yang pertamaManfaat Teoritis yang Diharapkan dapat menambah wawasan ilmiah bagi mahasiswa khususnya mahasiswa Jurusan Ilmu Pemerintahan, Program Studi Ilmu Politik maupun akademis umum lainnya, yang melakukan penelitian yang berhubungan dengan perilaku memilih. Dan juga dapat dijadikan model atau acuan dalam melakukan penelitian tentang pemilukada yang berkaitan dengan perilaku memilih, serta dapat memberikan kontribusi bagi perkembangan ilmu pengetahuan khususnya bidang politik. Dan manfaat yang kedua yaitu manfaat Praktis. Yaitu Penelitian ini diharapkan agar penulis lebih dapat meningkatkan kemampuan dalam menulis karya ilmiah tentang perilaku memilih masyarakat Bolaang Mongondow Utara dalam Pemilihan UmumKepala Daerahtahun 2013di Kabupaten Bolaang Mongondow Utara.Dan dapat dijadikan konsepdalam penyusunan strategi pelaksanaan Pilkada pada masa yang akan datang. TINJAUAN PUSTAKA Perilaku Politik Secara bebas perilaku politik dapat di artikan sebagai keseluruhan tingkah laku politik para aktor politk dan warga negara yang dalam manifestasi kongkritnya telah saling memiliki hubungan[7]. Perilaku politik di nyatakan sebagai suatu telaah mengenai tindakan manusia dalam situasi politik.interaksi antara pemerintah dan masyarakat antara lembaga- lembaga pemerintah dan antara kelompok dan individu dalam masyarakat[8]. Perilaku politik pada umumnya di tentukan oleh faktor internal dari individu sendiri seperti idealisme, tingkat kecerdasan, kehendak hati dan oleh faktor eksternal (kondisi lingkungan) seperti kehidupan beragama, sosial, politik, ekonomi dan sebagainya yang mengelilinginya[9]. Perilaku Memilih Menurut Affan Gaffar, dalam menganalisis voting behavior dan untuk menjelaskan pertimbangan-pertimbangan yang digunakan sebagai alasan oleh para pemilih dalam menjatuhkan pilihannya, dikenal dua macam pendekatan, yaitu Mazhab Columbia yang menggunakan pendekatan sosiologis dan mazhab Michigan yang dikenal dengan pendekatan psikologis[10]. Selain itu terdapat pula pendekatan rational choice yang melihat perilaku seseorang melalui kalkulasi untung rugi yang didapatkan oleh orang tersebut. Menurut V. O. Key, masing- masing pemilih menetapkan pilihannya secara retrospektif, yaitu dengan menilai apakah kinerja partai yang menjalankan pemerintahan pada periode legislatif terakhir sudah baik bagi dirinya sendiri dan bagi negara, atau justru sebaliknya[11]. Perilaku pemilih di Indonesia, di pengaruhi oleh beberapa faktor antara lain : orientasi agama, faktor kelas sosial dan kelompok social lainnya, faktor kepemimpinan dan ketokohan, faktor identifiikasi, orientasi isu, orientasi kandidat, kaitan dengan peristiwa , rekonfigurasi papan catur politik[12]. Pemilihan Umum Pemilu merupakan cara yang terkuat bagi rakyat untuk berpartisipasi di dalam sistem demokrasi perwakilan modern. Sebuah instrumen yang di perlukan bagi partisipasi ialah system pemilu.Jika system ini tidak memperbolehkan warga Negara untuk menyatakan pilihan-pilihan dan preferensi politik mereka, maka pemilu bisa menjadi kegiatan yang hamper tidak bermakna[13]. Pemilihan Umum Kepala Daerah Otonomi selalu dilihat sebagai suatu hak atau kewenangan dari suatu daerah untuk mengatur dan mengurus daerahnya sendiri.Otonomi yang di pergunakan adalah otonomi nyata dan bertanggung jawab yang merupakan saahh satu prinsip untuk mendukung terwujudnya sistem penyelenggaraan pemerintahan di daerah. Sebagai mana tertuang dalam pasal 18 ayat 4 UUD 1945 sebagaimana telah di amandemen berdasarkan TAP MPR pada tanggal 18 agustus tahun 2000 yang menyebutkan bahwa " Gubernur, Bupati dan Walikota masing-masing sebagai kepala pemerintahan propinsi, kabupaten dan kota dipilih secara demokratis"[14]. Seiring dengan itu pemerintah juga telah mengeluarkan PP No. 17 tahun 2005. Sebagai pengganti PP Nomor 6 tahun 2006 tentang pemilihan, pengesahan, pengangkatan dan pemberhentian Kepala Daerah dan Wakil Kepala Daerah. Salah satu isu penting dalam UU bahwa adalah berkaitan dengan pengaturan pemilihan kepala daerah secara langsung.dengan pemilihan kepala daerah secara langsung kepala daerah seperti gubernur dan bupati akan di pilih oleh rakyat[15]. METODOLOGI PENELITIAN Penelitian ini akan di laksanakan selama kurang lebih 1 bulan, yaitu mulai tanggal 16 April s/d 16 Mei 2014. dengan lokasi penelitian terletak di Kecamatan Bolangitang Barat, Kabupaten Bolaang Mongondow Utara. Penelitian ini merupakan jenis penelitian deskriptif analitis yang bertujuan untuk menggambarkan gejala atau kenyataan yang ada sehingga data yang disimpulkan dalam penelitian akan dijelaskan dengan metode kualitatif.Yang menjadi sumber data pada penelitian ini terbagi atas dua yaitu data primer data sekunder.Pada penelitian kualitatif ini, informan atau narasumber yaitu yang memiliki pengetahuan yang cukup serta mampu memberikan informasi dan menjelaskan keadaan sebenarnya tentang obyek penelitian. tehnik pengumpulan data dalam penelitian ini terdiri dari wawancara ( interview ), observasi, dan studi pustaka.Dalam analisa kualitatif, terdapat tiga alur keegiatan yang terjadi bersamaan. Yaitu : menelaah sumber data, reduksi data, verifikasi[16]. HASIL PENELITIAN DAN PEMBAHASAN HASIL PENELITIAN Pasangan Calon dan Partai Pengusung. Pemilihan Umum Kepala Daerah secara langsung oleh rakyat yang di selenggarakan di Kabupaten Bolaang Mongondow Utara pada tanggal 8 Mei 2013 di ikuti oleh empat (4) pasangan calon. Nomor urut 1 adalah pasangan dari Drs. Hi. Depri Pontoh bersama Suriansyah Korompot, SH yang diusung oleh Partai Persatuan Pembangunan (PPP), nomor urut 2 adalah pasangan Hamka, SH, MAP bersama Fellix Adri Mende, ST yang diusung partai gabungan (Hanura, PKB, Republikan, PBB, PBR, PMB), nomor urut 3 adalah pasangan Karel Bangko, SH-Mohamad Irianto Ch. Buhang, S.Sos yang diusung oleh partai Golkar dan PDIP, serta nomor urut 4 adalah pasangan Drs. Hi. Hamdan Datunsolang, MM bersama Hi. Farid Lauma, SE yang di usung PAN, PKS, Demokrat dan Gerindra. Jumlah TPS dan DPT di Kecamatan Bolangitang Barat. Adapun jumlah Tempat Pemungutan Suara (TPS) dan Daftar Pemilih Tetap (DPT) di Kecamatan Bolangitang Barat, Kabupaten Bolaang Mongondow Utara pada Pemilukada tanggal 8 Mei 2013 yang terdiri dari 16 Desa dan 28 TPS yang di gunakan untuk memilih Bupati dan Wakil Bupati. Dari 16 Desa dan 28 TPS tersebut terdapat sebanyak 10.284 pemilih. Namun pada kenyataannya pada pemilihan Bupati dan Wakil Bupati yang di selenggarakan pada tanggal 8 Mei 2013 itu tidak semua yang menggunakan hak pilihnya, yaitu hanya 9.169 jiwa yang memilih dan 1.118 jiwa yang tidak memilih. Rekapitulasi Hasil Pemilukada Kabupaaten Bolmut di Kecamatan Bolangitang Barat. Pasangan Depri Pontoh - Suriansyah Korompot yang di usung oleh satu partai saja yaitu Partai Persatuan Pembangunan (PPP) mengungguli perolehan suara dengan memperoleh 5.800 suara, sedangkan pasangan Hamdan Datunsolang - Farid yang di usung oleh partai PAN, PKS, Demokrat dan Gerindra memperoleh 1.599 suara, kemudian di susul oleh pasangan Karel Bangko - Mohamad Irianto Ch. Buhang yang di usung oleh Golkar dan PDIP memperoleh 1.478 suara, dan terakhir pasangan Hamka - Fellix Adri Mende yang di usung oleh Partai Hanura, PKB, Republikan, PBB, PBR, dan PMB memperoleh 135 suara. Mengenai jumlah pemilih yang hadir di TPS sebanyak 9.186, dengan perhitungan suara yang tidak sah yaitu berjumlah 174, dan suara yang sah berjumlah sebanyak 9.012 suara. PEMBAHASAN Menurut Afan Gaffar (1992) tentang perilaku pemilih secara garis besar di dasarkan pada tiga model pendekatan, yaitu : yang pertama pendekatan sosiologis ( Mazhab Columbia) yang meliputi faktor sosial, ekonomi, afiliasi etnik, tradisi keluarga, keanggotaan terhadap organisasi tertentu, jenis kelamin, pekerjaan, dan tempat tinggal. Yang kedua pendekatan psikologis (Mazhab Michigan) yang meliputi faktor partai, sikap seseorang terhadap isu-isu politik, dan faktor kandidat.Dan pendekatan yang ketiga yaitu pendekatan Pendekatan Rasional (Rasional Choice) yaitu rasionalitas perilaku pemilih. Adapun faktor-faktor yang dimaksud antara lain: 1. Faktor Identifikasi Partai Partai politik tidak memberi jaminan seorang kandidat akan lebih banyak dipilih masyarakat pemilih. Seperti yang di katakan oleh salah satu informan : Wawancara dengan M. P. alias Mulyadi. "Awalnya partai memang memegang peranan penting dalam pemilihan, tapi sekarang tidak seperti itu lagi.Karena kenyataannya di seluruh wilayah nusantara ini hanya di Bolmut saja Partai PPP bisa memenang dan mampu mengalahkan partai- partai besar yang sebelumnya pernah menjadi pemenang pada pemilu-pemilu sebelumnya.itu menunjukan bahwa partai sudah tidak terlalu berpengaruh terhadap masyarakat untuk menentukan pilihannya. Ada juga yang menjatuhkan pilihannya karena faktor partai, namun itu tidak seberapa.Jadi menurut saya masyarakat Bolmut menjatuhkan pilihannya pada Pemilukada 2013 itu bukan karena faktor partai namun karena figur". Sebagian besar informan yang ditemui di lapangan tidak ada yang mengatakan alasan mereka menjatuhkan pilihan politiknya karena factor partai.Mungkin ada juga sebagian masyarakat yang menjatuhkan pilihannya karena latar belakang partai, namun hitungannya hanya dalam skala kecil. Karena mesin partai saja ternyata tidak cukup untuk memenangkan seorang calon dalam Pemilukada. Kapasitas intelektual, kepribadian, dan karya nyata sang calonlah yang sekarang menjadi pertimbangan utama para pemilih. Artinya, kualitas dan performa individu berada di urutan pertama dan kedua, di atas afiliasi dengan partai. 2. Faktor Kandidat Person adalah profil dari kandidat yang akan dipilih melalui suatu kontestasi politik, yang secara otomatis dapat membentuk sikap politis pemilih dalam menetapkan pilihannya. Bahkan person atau figur kandidat seringkali menentukan keputusan pilihan dibandingkan dengan partai. Hal ini berkaitan dengan proses pembentukan keyakinan para pemilih, bahwa para pemilih lebih mudah diyakinkan dengan menawarkan figur. Seperti yang di katakan oleh salah satu informan : Wawancara dengan U. P. alias Udin yang merupakan salah satu anggota masyarakat… "Alasan saya memilih pasangan DP-SYAH( Depri dan Suriansyah ) pertama karena hubungan emosional, dan yang kedua karena menurut saya kandidat ini memiliki karakter yang baik atau kharisma. Bukan kandidat lain tidak memiliki kharisma, namun menurut penilaian saya pasangan kandidat yang saya pilih ini berbeda dengan kandidat yang lain". Wawancara dengan E. H. alias Evan yang merupakan salah satu pemuda yang tergolong dalam ikatan pemuda imfordes … "Alasan saya memilih pasangan DP-SYAH( Depri dan Suriansyah ) bukan karena partai, melainkan karena figur pasangan calon. Karena semua itu saya lihat dari kedekatan pasangan kandidat dengan masyarakat dan mampu menjalin komunikasi yang dengan masyarakat.bukan hanya itu, menurut saya pasangan ini merupakan pasangan yang cocok, karena sebelumnya Bapak Depri sudah pernah menjabat sebagai Wakil Bupati dan Bapak Suriansyah pernah menjadi Anggota Dewan. Hal inilah yang membuat saya sampai menjadikan pasangan ini sebagai idola.Dan saya yakin pasangan ini bisa memberikan yang terbaik untuk kemajuan Bolmut". Komunikasi yang paling efektif antara kandidat dan rakyat pemilih adalah komunikasi langsung/tatap muka.Penekanannya adalah bagaimana kebutuhan komunikasi dan aspirasi rakyat pemilih bisa tersalurkan serta mendapat respon dari kandidat kepala daerah, yang tentunya ditindak lanjuti dengan program dan aksi nyata. Wawancara dengan Bapak Ebi yang merupakan salah satu anggota masyarakat… "Alasan saya memilih kepada salah satu pasangan kandidat yang menjadi pilihan saya yaitu, dari segi penyampaian ataupun kampanye itu termasuk memperhatikan masyarakat.memang dari semua calon itu tidak ada yang tidak baik, semuanya baik dan visi misinya hamper sama. Jadi yang mendorong saya menjatuh pilihan saya sampai menjatuhkan pilihan politik saat itu bukan karena factor partai, hubungan emosional ataupun ego wilayah, melainkan karena figure". Hal ini menunjukan bahwa masyarakat Kabupaten Bolaang Mongondow Utara khususnya Kecamatan Bolangitang Barat dalam menjatuhkan pilihannya, sebagian besar masyarakat tersebut menilai bahwa dengan sifat dan karakter yang di miliki oleh kandidat yang menjadi pilihan mereka menjadi faktor utama dalam menentukan pilihan politiknya. Mereka yakin dan percaya karena kedekatan dengan masyarakat dan kepedulian terhadap masyarakat yang dimiliki oleh para kandidat tersebut bisa mensejahterakan masyarakat dan mampu mewujudkan cita- cita seluruh masyarakat Bolmut, yaitu Bolaang Mongondow Utara yang sejahtera. 3. Isu-Isu Program Pilkada secara langsung tidak hanya sekadar dimaksudkan sebagai instrumen untuk memperbaiki kualitas demokrasi di daerah.Lebih dari itu adalah agar kebijakan-kebijakan yang dibuat oleh Kepala Daerah dirumuskan berdasarkan selera dari masyarakat, demikian pula implementasinya.Seperti yang di ungkapkan oleh salah satu informan : Wawancara dengan K. P. alias Kisman yang merupakan tokoh masyarakat "Alasan saya memilih pada Pemilukada 2013 karena saya menilai kandidat yang saya pilih memiliki kepedulian terhadap rakyat bawah. bagaimana perubahan warna Kabupaten Bolmut sebelum-sebelumnya seperti apa dan itu lebih dia tumbuh kembangkan dan lebih dia tingkatkan. Itu semua disampaikan dalam penyampaian kata hati politik dari kandidat ini.Misalnya bagaimana ekonomi bisa meningkat, pendidikan, kesehatan yang otomatis ini menyentuh kita semua. Bukan di kandidat lain tidak seperti itu, sama juga. Namun kita harus melihat realisasinya, Karena itu baru kata hati politik yang di sampaikan". Berbagai program tersebut disosialisasikan kepada pemilih melalui kampanye-kampanye yang dilakukan para pasangan calon sehingga menarik minat pemilih melalui tawaran program-program yang atraktif dan populis. 4. Faktor Agama. Seperti kita ketahui bersama masyarakat Bolaang Mongondow Utara mayoritas masyarakatnya Bergama muslim dan hanya sebagian kecil yang Bergama non muslim. Namun dalam hal menjatuhkan pilihannya masyarakat tersebut tidak terlalu melihat faktor agama.Hal ini terlihat pada pelaksanaan pemilukada Kabupaten Bolmut tahun 2013. Masyarakat yang menjatuhkan pilihannya kepada pasangan Depri Pontoh-Suriansyah Korompot bukan hanya masyarakat yang memiliki latar belakang agama muslim saja, namun ada juga masyarakat yang beragama non muslim. Padahal saat itu ada kandidat lain yang beragama non muslim yaitu pasangan nomor urut 2 Hamka-Fellix yang dalam hal ini Felix memiliki latar belakang agama kristen. Dan ada juga masyarakat yang memiliki latar belakang agama muslim menjatuhkan pilihannya kepada pasangan Hamka-Fellix. Jadi pada Pemilukada Kabupaten Bolaang Mongondow Utara tahun 2013, faktor agama tidak berpengaruh dalam menentukan perilaku memilih masyarakat. Faktor Etnis/Wilayah Faktor Etnis/wilayah juga memiliki hubungan dengan perilaku pemilih.Adanya rasa kedaerahan mempengaruhi dukungan seseorang terhadap partai politik atau kontestan tertentu.Seperti yang di katakan oleh salah satu informan : Wawancara dengan W. G. alias Wawan yang merupakan salah satu anggota masyarakat… "Dari pengamatan saya, kandidat calon kepala daerah yang di pilih oleh sebagian besar masyarakat Bolangitang Barat bukan pada pilihan partai, akan tetapi isu-isu putra daerah. Karena sebagian besar masyarakat Kecamatan Bolangitang Barat selalu membanding-bandingkan dengan kemajuan Kecamatan lain seperti Kecamatan Bintauna, Karena sebelumnya Kabupaten Bolmut di pimpin oleh putra asli Bintauna". Selain itu, argumen yang sama juga dikatakan oleh : Bapak A. T. alias Alimin salah satu tokoh agama. "Alasan saya, karena saya menginginkan agar supaya putra Bolangitang yang mendapat giliran memimpin daerah ini.Karena menurut saya ini lebih memudahkan masyarakat Bolangitang dalam menyampaikan aspirasi.Siapa tahu dengan terpilihnya putra asli Bolangitang bisa memberikan perubahan yang lebih baik untuk Kecamatan Bolangitang ini.Jadi menurut saya, kalau ada yang dekat, buat apa kita memilih yang jauh". Masyarakat Bolangitang Barat lebih tertarik dengan kepala daerah yang merupakan warga Bolangitang itu sendiri. Mereka melihat perkembangan pembangunan yang ada di wilayah atau Kecamatan lain, yang kemudian mereka bandingkankan dengan kemajuan yang terjadi di wilayah atau Kecamatannya sendiri. Wawancara dengan U. P. alias Udin yang merupakan salah satu anggota masyarakat… "Alasan saya memilih pasangan DP-SYAH karena berbagai suku bangsa, Dimana Bapak Depri Pontoh merupakan putra asli Bolangitang, jadi hal yang tidak mungkin saya orang Bolangitang memilih kandidat yang bukan orang asli Bolangitang". Masyarakat Bolangitang Barat yang sebagian besar adalah penduduk asli Bolangitang, yang sejak turun-temurun tinggal, menetap dan mencari nafkah di Kecamatan Bolangitang memiliki ikatan psikologis yang kuat dengan wilayahnya, bukan hanya karena kandidat yang akan dipilihnya. Mereka mengidentifikasikan dirinya dengan lingkungan yang sudah ditinggalinya sejak turun-temurun. Wawancara dengan A. B .alias Awal yang merupakan salah satu anggota masyarakat… "Bagi saya ego wilayah itu penting, karena saya berfikir dari pada saya memilih orang lain yang di luar dari wilayah saya dan hanya memperbaiki wilayah mereka sendiri, lebih baik saya memilih orang yang wilayahnya sama dengan saya". Dari wawancara tersebut maka terlihat jelas adanya sifat loyalitas yang ada di masyarakat Kecamatan Bolangitang Barat bila mereka dipimpin oleh warga daerahnya sendiri.Loyalitas tersebut dikarenakan orientasi mereka terhadap kandidat dari daerah sendiri yang tercermin dalam kebanggaan mereka terhadap kandidat yang mereka pilih. 5. Politik Uang (Money Politics) Penerapan demokrasi seringkali dinodai dengan penyimpangan-penyimpangan pada proses demokrasi (Pemilihan Umum) antara lain adanya praktik Money Politics (Politik Uang). Salah satu usaha yang dilakukan oleh para kandidat maupun partai politik dalam pemilihan umum agar memenangkan perolehan suara di pemilihan menggunakan cara yang kotor, cara kotor tersebut yaitu dengan transaksi jual beli suara atau dikenal dengan istilah money politics. Wawancara dengan Ibu Ratna : Money Politics sangatlah berpengaruh terhadap perilaku politik masyarakat.hal ini bisa di buktikan dengan apa yang telah banyak di katakan oleh masyarakat"bahwa masyarakat sekarang sudah tidak bisa di bodohi, kalau ada uang pasti ada suara". Namun hal itu tidak bisa menjadi patokan.karena ada juga masyarakat yang meskipun sudah di berikan uang atau barang, tapi tidak menjatuhkan pilihannya kepada kandidat yang memberikan uang atau barang tersebut. Melainkan memilih kandidat yang jauh sebelumnya sudah menjadi pilihannya. Di dalam prakteknya money politicsternyata tidak selalu berhasil, karena belum tentu rakyat yang mencicipi uang benar-benar mau memilih calon kandidat yang memberi uang atau mereka hanya mau menerima uang tanpa adanya tindakan yang pasti sebagai timbal baliknya. Seperti yang di katakan oleh salah seorang ibu RT yang tak ingin namanya di sebutkan. Bahwa pada Pilbup Bolmut 2013 yang lalu saya menerima uang dari Tim Sukses salah satu kandidat, namun Tim Sukses tersebut mengatakan "napa doi, terserah ngoni mo pilih pa sapa. Yang penting doi yang pa kita, kita so kase salur". Jadi saya menerima uang itu, saya merasa tidak punya hutang apa-apa kepada kandidat tersebut, dan memang kandidat tersebut bukan calon yang menjadi pilihan saya. Jadi Berdasarkan hasil pembahasan di atas, dapat ditarik sebuah kesimpulan bahwa faktor yang paling dominan dalam perilaku memilih kepala daerah secara langsung bagi masyarakat Kabupaten Bolaang Mongondow Utara, khususnya Kecamatan Bolangitang Barat dalam menjatuhkan pilihan politiknya selain di pengaruhi oleh faktor kandidat dan isu-isu politik juga di pengaruhi oleh faktor etnis/wilayah. Karena bagi mereka pemimpin yang memiliki etnis/wilayah yang sama saja sudah cukup mewakili selera dan harapan mereka guna memimpin daerah yang mereka cintai. PENUTUP KESIMPULAN Pada penelitian tentang faktor- faktor yang mempengaruhi perilaku memilih masyarakat Bolaang Mongondow Utara pada Pemilihan Umum Kepala Daerah tahun 2013, di Kecamatan Bolangitang Barat dapat di simpulkan sebagai berikut : Sesuai dengan uraian di atas maka dapat di simpulkan bahwa faktor identifikasi partai memiliki pengaruh yang rendah terhadap perilaku memilih masyarakat Kecamatan Bolangitang Barat pada Pemilukada Kabupaten Bolaang Mongondow Utara tahun 2013. faktor kandidatternyata memiliki pengaruh besar terhadap perilaku memilih masyarakat Kecamatan Bolangitang Barat pada Pemilukada Kabupaten Bolaang Mongondow Utara tahun 2013.isu program memiliki pengaruh besar terhadap perilaku memilih masyarakat Kecamatan Bolangitang Barat dalam menjatuhkan pilihan politiknya pada Pemilukada Kabupaten Bolaang Mongondow Utara tahun 2013.Ternyata faktor agama memiliki pengaruh yang rendah terhadap perilaku memilih masyarakat Kecamatan Bolangitang Barat pada Pemilukada Kabupaten Bolaang Mongondow Utara tahun 2013. Dalam menjatuhkan pilihan politiknya selain di pengaruhi oleh faktor kandidat dan isu-isu program, masyarakat Kecamatan Bolangitang Barat pada Pemilukada Kabupaten Bolaang Mongondow Utara tahun 2013 juga di pengaruhi oleh faktor etnis/wilayah.Politik uang atau Money Politic ternyata memiliki pengaruh yang rendah terhadap perilaku memilih masyarakat Kecamatan Bolangitang Barat pada Pemilukada Kabupaten Bolaang Mongondow Utara tahun 2013. A. SARAN Jadi saran saya sebagai penulis menuliskan beberapa saran yaitu : Demi menumbuhkan kembali citra partai politik di tengah-tengah masyarakat, maka partai politik tersebut harus dapat mengevaluasi beberapa hal, di antaranya evaluasi karakter dan agenda partai serta penerapan standar kualifikasi yang tinggi untuk merekrut kader yang berkualitas.Dalam studi perilaku memilih, faktor figur merupakan salah satu faktor yang dapat mempengaruhi keputusan politik masyarakat untuk memberikan dukungannya kepada seorang kandidat. Hal ini karena dipengaruhi oleh bagaimana kualitas seorang kandidat terlihat dimata masyarakat, yang dalam hal ini sebagai pemilih. Jadi seorang kandidat harus dan perlu menjaga dengan baik kepercayaan dan dukungan yang di berikan oleh masyarakat. dan menunjukan kualitasnya sebagai seorang pemimpin untuk memperjuangkan aspirasi masyarakat demi kesejahteraan bersama.Program yang di tawarkan oleh kandidat saat kampanye tersebut harus di perhatikan dan direalisasikan dengan baik. Dan masyarakat juga harus bisa ikut serta dalam pengawasan program tersebut. Agar supaya program tersebut benar-benar bisa sampai dan di rasakan sepenuhnya oleh masyarakat.Dalam rangka menyukseskan proses demokrasi di Indonesia sekaligus dalam rangka memilih wakil rakyat dan pemimpin yang amanah serta menolak segala bentuk praktik money politics,maka diperlukan kerjasama dari berbagai pihak.Perlunya sosialisasi politik berupa komunikasi politik dan pendidikan politik bagi masyarakat sehingga masyarakat dapat menggunakan hak pilih dan hak politiknya dengan baik. Untuk itu, tugas kitalah baik ilmuwan, kalangan akademisi, pers, politikus, lembaga-lembaga politik baik yang berasal dari kalangan pemerintah maupun non-pemerintah untuk mensosialisasikan hal ini.Karena dengan membentuk masyarakat yang rasional dalam berpolitik, maka cita-cita sebagai negara demokrasi dapat berjalan dengan baik. DAFTAR PUSTAKA Amirudin dan zaini bisri, pilkada langsung problem dan prospek, Penerbit Pustaka Peelajar. Januari 2006 Arifin Rachman. System politik Indonesia, Penerbit SIC : 2001 Adman, Nursal. 2004. Politikal Marketing : Strategi Memenagkan Pemilu sebuah pendekatan baru kampanye DPR, DPD, Presiden. Jakarta : P.T. Gramedia Pustaka Utama. Dr. Jazim Hamidi dan Mustafa Lutfi. Civik Education, Antara Realitas Politik dan Implementasi Hukumnya.Penerbit PT. Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta : 2010. Dr. H. M. Busrizalti, S. H., M. H., 2013. Hukum Pemda. Yogyakarta : Total Media. Dr. Husaini Usman, M.P.d., dan Purnomo Setiady Akbar, M. Pd., 2006. Metodologi Penelitiian Sosial.Jakarta : Bumi Aksara Gaffar, Afan, 1992. Javanese Voters :A Case Study Of Election Under A Hegemonic Party System, Gajahmada University Press, Yogyakarta Efriza.Political Explore, Sebuah Kajian Ilmu Politik. Penerbit Alfabeta. Bandung 2012 Merphin panjaitan.Logika demokrasi. Rakyat Mengendalikan Negara. Penerbit Permata Aksara, Jakarta : 2011 Muhammad Asfar. Mendesain manajemen pilkada.Pusdeham.Surabaya : 2006 Prof. Roth Dieter. Studi Pemilu Empiris. Jakarta : Friedrich- Naumann- Stiftung Furdia Freiheit Ramlan surbakti.Pilkada Langsung dan Kepemimpinan Daerah Yang Efektif, Surabaya : Java Pustaka Media Utama Ramlan Surbakti. Memahami ilmu politik.Gramedia : Jakarta : 1992 [1] Merupakan Skripsi penulis [2] Mahasiswa Program Studi Ilmu Politik FISIP Unsrat [3]Dr. Jazim Hamidi dan Mustafa Lutfi. CIVIK EDUCATION, Antara Realitas Politik dan Implementasi Hukumnya.Penerbit PT. Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta : 2010. Hal 183-184 [4]Merphin Panjaitan. Logika Demokrasi. Rakyat Mengendalikan Negara. Penerbit permata aksara, jakarta : 2011. Hal 158, 159, 160 [5]. Ramlan surbakti. Pilkada langsung dan kepemimpinan daerah yang efektif, surabaya : java pustaka media utama. Hal 5 [6]. Amirudin dan zaini bisri, pilkada langsung problem dan prospek, penerbit pustaka peelajar.Januari 2006. Hal 1 [7]. Arifin Rachman. System politik Indonesia, penerbit SIC : 2001 [8]. Ramlan Surbakti. Memahami ilmu politik. Gramedia : Jakarta : 1992 [9]Arifin Rachman. System politik Indonesia, penerbit SIC : 2001 [10]Prof. Dr. Afan Gaffar, MA. [11]. Prof. Roth Dieter, 23- 54 [12]. Nursal, Adman. 2004. Politikal Marketing : Strategi Memenagkan Pemilu [13]. Efriza. Political Explore, Sebuah Kajian Ilmu Politik. Penerbit Alfabeta. Bandung 2012 : hal. 355 [14]. Dr. H. M. Busrizalti, S. H., M. H., 2013.HUKUM PEMDA.Yogyakarta : Total Media. Hal 5 [15]. Muhammad Asfar. Mendesain manajemen pilkada.Pusdeham.Surabaya : 2006 hal. 2 [16]. Dr. Husaini Usman, M.P.d., dan Purnomo Setiady Akbar, M. Pd., 2006 : 4- 54- 57
"Self-preservation is the first duty of a nation"Alexander Hamilton "The whole point of the doomsday machineis lost if you keep it a secret!!"Dr. Strangelove I) Introducción: El realismo, la moral y la condición humana El realismo político ha sido la teoría de filosofía política de referencia por más de dos mil años y el programa de investigación dominante en las relaciones internacionales en el siglo XX. A pesar de todos sus defectos e imprecisiones, es el paradigma a partir del cual todas las corrientes rivales se han desarrollado. Tanto Holsti (1984) como Viotti y Kauppi (1993) identifican tres grandes paradigmas en RR.II: los enfoques clásicos o realistas, los enfoques pluralistas (ej. liberalismo) y los enfoques globalizadores o neo-marxistas. El paradigma realista ha sido, sin lugar a contestación, la teoría dominante. De manera más que sucinta es posible afirmar que las dos principales escuelas en RR.II, el realismo y el liberalismo, fundan toda su filosofía sobre concepciones opuestas de la condición humana. En última instancia cualquier filosofía política no es más que un "acto de fe", porque, más allá de cualquier validación heurística o de encadenamiento lógico, ser "realista", "liberal" o "marxista", implica una concepción particular del individuo, una forma de creer y ver al Hombre sobre la cual construiremos nuestra visión de la sociedad. El liberalismo es principalmente una filosofía positiva de la condición humana, basada en la libertad, en la racionalidad, en el libre albedrío y en la perfectibilidad social y humana. La perspectiva realista, como se verá a lo largo de este trabajo, parte de suposiciones radicalmente diferentes. Un supuesto central del realismo, mas no el único, es que el hombre anhela, ansía el Poder por encima de todas las cosas. Pero, ahí donde el liberalismo ve un defecto moral destinado a ser reparado o dominado, el realismo no reconoce más que una característica inmanente al individuo. El ansia de poder, para los realistas, no es ni buena ni mala, simplemente es. He aquí una distinción central entre ambas corrientes filosóficas, mientras el liberalismo anhela un mundo como "debería ser", el realista se contenta de observar cómo es el mundo. Esto ha derivado en un par de críticas importantes hacia la escuela realista. La primera es su ausencia de "compás moral"; la segunda, más relevante para este estudio, es su incapacidad para pensar o explicar el cambio. Algo así como si en la teoría realista el individuo (o el sistema internacional para los neorrealistas), careciese de pasado y futuro y estuviese destinado a vivir el presente encorsetado por una fuerza que lo domina: su apetito de poder para los realistas clásicos y la estructura del S.I en el caso de los neorrealistas. Conviene aquí incorporar una primera distinción, así como una aclaración con respecto a la centralidad del argumento depredador de la condición humana presente en el realismo. Con respecto a la aclaración, varios teóricos que han revisado exhaustivamente el "catalogo de pensadores realistas", refutan la idea que el ansia por el poder sea un argumento central al realismo (sí puede ser subsidiario). Tanto Viotti y Kauppi (1993: 6-7) como Vasquez (1983: 18) no encuentran que la naturaleza humana depredadora sea una suposición fundamental del realismo político. Con respecto a la distinción, he aquí una primera diferenciación entre el realismo clásico y el neorrealismo (o realismo estructural). Si bien es cierto que en el neorrealismo, preocupado únicamente por un análisis estructural (distribución de fuerzas y reglas que gobiernan el S.I), la naturaleza humana está ausente de todo análisis, en el realismo clásico, ya sea el de Tucídides, Hobbes o Morgenthau, es difícil edificar cualquier base teórica sin tener recurso, por lo menos como axioma no declarado, a la condición humana. Así lo expone Shimko (1992: 288): "Assumptions about human nature were not merely afterthoughts, excess intellectual baggage, or flowery rhetorical flourishes; they were the cornerstone of the classical realist analysis of political conflict". Y en palabras de George Kennan, sobre si la divina providencia había protegido o no al pueblo estadounidense de las tentaciones del fascismo propias a otros pueblos: "Unfortunately, I know that is not true…the fact of the matter is that there is a little bit of totalitarian buried somewhere, way down deep, in each and every one of us" (Kennan, 1967:319 en Shimko, 1992:289). El realismo clásico no asume que la moral está ausente de las RR.II, como erróneamente a menudo se expone, sino que argumenta que toda acción basada en la moral es contraproducente a los intereses del estado, principalmente a su seguridad y supervivencia. Es su fundamental oposición al idealismo moral lo que ha en parte dado su nombre al realismo clásico, que se inscribe antes que nada como un enfoque teórico reaccionario al idealismo (Forde, 1995: 143). La manipulación de principios morales sólo puede debilitar la política exterior y conducir a situaciones catastróficas porque, plantean los realistas, las normas que gobiernan el S.I nada tienen que ver con la moral y, con respecto a la condición humana, negar su naturaleza es un acto de ceguera. Así lo explica Morgenthau cuando critica la intervención de los Estados Unidos en la primera guerra mundial "The invocation of abstract moral principles was in part hardly more than an innocuous pastime; for embracing everything it came to grips with nothing. In part, however, it was a magnificent instrument for marshaling public opinion in support of war and warlike policies- and for losing the peace to follow. The intoxications with moral abstractions…has become the prevailing substitute for political thought, is indeed one of the great sources of weakness and failure in American foreign policy" (Morgenthau, 1950: 834). Para Morgenthau, los intereses morales están totalmente divorciados del interés nacional. El único acto verdaderamente inmoral, para los realistas clásicos, es actuar en contra de los intereses racionales del estado. II) El núcleo duro del realismo político Antes de lanzarse al estudio de la escuela realista, de sus principales aportes así como de las críticas que se le han realizado, conviene detenerse brevemente en los postulados centrales que han hecho del programa de investigación del realismo político uno de los más fecundos de las RR.II . En complemento al falsacionismo popperiano, Imre Lakatos (1980) desarrolla la idea del programa de investigación como medio para hacer avanzar el conocimiento científico. Lakatos afirma que el progreso científico no se alcanza únicamente a través de la refutación, sino igualmente, y sobretodo, a partir de la confirmación de conjeturas audaces. La ciencia no progresa automáticamente a través del rechazo de teorías, es más, Lakatos avanza que, para que un programa de investigación pueda progresar es necesario preservar un "núcleo duro" de supuestos fundamentales que serán centrales en el desarrollo de cada programa. Este núcleo duro del programa de investigación es, por decisión metodológica, infalsificable (Lakatos, 1980:112). El núcleo estará rodeado por una "cintura protectora", un conjunto de teorías e hipótesis (derivadas de los supuestos del núcleo duro), destinada a explicar los hechos observados así como predecir nuevos. La validación de estas teorías fortalecerá el núcleo, pero su rechazo, y he aquí una de las innovaciones metodológicas de Lakatos, no invalidará el conjunto del programa de investigación. Un programa será rechazado únicamente cuando un programa rival demuestre un mayor "poder heurístico". ¿Cuál es entonces el núcleo duro del realismo político?, ese conjunto de supuestos infalsificables que, a la manera de axiomas o dogmas, sustentan toda la construcción teórica del programa de investigación del realismo y que están más allá de cualquier cuestionamiento ontológico. Dependiendo de los autores, 3, 4 o hasta 5 son los "dogmas" realistas. Sin embargo, conviene aclarar que no todos los autores realistas adhieren ciegamente a la integralidad de estos supuestos a la manera de un tipo ideal weberiano. Como ya dije, el supuesto de la "naturaleza humana", por ejemplo, es cuestionado. Asimismo, algunos autores resaltan algunos principios por sobre otros. Sin embargo, a pesar de ciertas disensiones entre teóricos sobre el tratamiento y alcance de cada uno de estos axiomas, existe un consenso sobre la centralidad de estas cuestiones en la teoría realista. A mi entender, el realismo político se sustenta en los siguientes principios. A) Los estados son los actores principales de las RR.II; B) El estado es unitario y racional; C) El interés nacional, entendido en términos de seguridad nacional, debe ser la principal preocupación del estado y guiar su política exterior (Los estados buscan el poder); D) La anarquía es la norma que regula el accionar de los estados en el Sistema Internacional. Los tres primeros principios resurgen en prácticamente todos los teóricos realistas como los tres axiomas centrales (y únicos para algunos) del realismo político. Por otra parte, la centralidad del argumento de la anarquía dependerá en gran medida de si la consideramos o no como una característica secundaria o derivada del primer supuesto (el mundo es anárquico porque está compuesto sólo por estados soberanos). Veremos igualmente que si bien la anarquía no es un principio central para la mayor parte de los realistas clásicos como Tucídides o Hobbes, ya que no existiría "de por sí", la anarquía sí representa para los neorrealistas un supuesto fundamental. Ciertos teóricos, inclusive dentro de la escuela realista, han considerado que la anarquía del S.I ha sido por momentos "exagerada" y que existen en los hechos ciertas reglas, normas y mecanismos de cooperación que limitan y regulan el accionar de los estados. En este caso, el concepto de anarquía no sería un supuesto central del realismo. Vasquez (1883: 18) propone que otra suposición central al realismo es que existe una clara distinción entre la política doméstica y la política internacional, y que las relaciones internacionales representan una lucha por el poder y la paz. Entender como funciona esa dinámica, y encontrar formas o normas para dominarla, debe ser el propósito de la disciplina de las relaciones internacionales. Los estados son los actores principales de las RR.II: Otros actores no estatales, transnacionales o internacionales no son tan importantes, principalmente porque no ejercen el monopolio de la violencia interna o no tienen la capacidad de representar una amenaza física a la integridad del estado. Actores como las organizaciones internacionales (N.U, OTAN), no son sujetos de análisis importante ya que están compuestas por estados soberanos e independientes y, por lo tanto, no son autónomos de las partes que los componen. El estado es unitario: Por unitario se entiende que el estado es una única unidad política, soberana sobre su propio territorio. Independientemente de los diferendos internos o de los procesos de negociación políticos o burocráticos que puedan existir, el estado sólo tiene una posición en el concierto internacional. El estado es racional: Los realistas asumen que el estado siempre adoptará la decisión más eficiente, dados los recursos y capacidades disponibles y en un contexto de incertidumbre e información incompleta, para alcanzar sus objetivos (Legro y Moravcsik, 1999: 12). La racionalidad del estado pasa, para los realistas, casi exclusivamente por garantizar su seguridad y buscar el poder. La racionalidad del estado no puede desasociarse de la naturaleza de anarquía del S.I. Es sólo a través de la respuesta racional del estado ante las condiciones de anarquía internacional, que el realismo puede pretender establecer pautas y regularidades en el comportamiento, necesarias al establecimiento de una ciencia que explique comprensivamente el accionar de los estados (Forde, 1995: 145). Un concepto interesante es el de la naturaleza de las preferencias del estado o, dicho de otra manera, del interés nacional. Se tratará este tema en detalle más adelante, pero valga aquí una primera aclaración. El realismo, al asumir que las preferencias de los estados son fijas y mutualmente excluyentes o conflictivas (la seguridad o la búsqueda del poder), se aleja de la "tentación reduccionista" de buscar las causas de la acción del estado en los procesos domésticos de formación y negociación de preferencias, así como de las interpretaciones moralistas, utópicas o legalistas de la naturaleza de la política internacional (Legro y Moravcsik, 1999:14). El realismo propone entonces que las RR.II son un perpetuo proceso de negociación sobre la conquista, distribución y redistribución de recursos y bienes escasos. III) Poder, Sistema y Seguridad Dos cuestiones son centrales al pensamiento realista: el Poder y el Sistema. Ambos conceptos pueden ser pensados desde una perspectiva estática o dinámica. El poder estático representaría el conjunto de atributos o capacidades, militares, económicos, tecnológicos, diplomáticos y otros que posee un estado. El Poder dinámico debe ser pensado, no como un absoluto, sino como la capacidad de influenciar el accionar de otros estados. En este sentido, la influencia de un estado en el plano internacional no depende únicamente de su dotación objetiva de poder, sino de a) su voluntad de usar dicho poder, b) la percepción que los otros estados tengan de su voluntad a utilizar dicho poder, c) su influencia efectiva sobre otros estados (Viotti y Kauppi, 1993: 44). Es innegable que para muchos realistas el poder es la principal herramienta de presión para influenciar el resultado de la negociación interestatal y que este resultado es proporcional al total de las capacidades materiales (Legro y Moravcsik), 1999: 17). En otras palabras, en un mundo entre iguales (estados soberanos) los poderosos tienen más opciones que los débiles, cuya única opción a menudo es sufrir la dominación del más fuerte. El primero en expresar esta idea, dos mil años antes que Maquiavelo, fue Tucídides en su Historia de la Guerra del Peloponeso, en el famoso diálogo de los Melios, cuando los emisarios atenienses advierten a los melios (libro V: verso 89): "…lo saben ustedes tan bien como nosotros, la justicia sólo forma parte del razonamiento humano cuando las fuerzas en presencia son iguales, de lo contrario, los fuertes ejercen su poder y los débiles deben inclinarse ". En relación al concepto de sistema, una corriente minoritaria (principalmente behaviorista), ve al sistema como un conjunto de interacciones entre el estado y otros actores no estatales. La corriente mayoritaria, entiende el sistema como las diferentes distribuciones de capacidades o de poder entre los estados y las normas que regulan dichas relaciones, principalmente: la anarquía y la incertidumbre (Viotti y Kaupi, 1993: 45-46). Por los tanto, los realistas ven el mundo como una competencia constante por recursos limitados. Lo que cuenta no son las capacidades absolutas, sino el cambio relativo en las capacidades de los actores (Schweller, 1997: 928). Para reflexionar sobre la idea de seguridad y como ésta resulta indisociable de las nociones de poder y sistema, conviene profundizar sobre la brevemente mencionada noción de anarquía, para así reconstruir el encadenamiento lógico del realismo. La anarquía, pieza clave en el entendimiento de la teoría realista implica que, en un sistema internacional compuesto por estados soberanos y autónomos, no existe autoridad superior a la de los estados. La anarquía conlleva que no existe jerarquía entre los estados en el S.I. Si bien es cierto que hay estados más poderosos que otros, y he aquí la diferencia entre autoridad y poder, ningún estado tiene una autoridad superior, ningún derecho legal a gobernar a otro por el solo hecho de ser más poderoso. De esta visión de un mundo anárquico, podemos extrapolar por lo menos dos aspectos importantes que se relacionan con la falta de confianza, o la desconfianza preventiva en la que incurren los actores de las RR.II. y que afectará la seguridad de los estados y del sistema. El primero es que el estado sólo puede contar consigo mismo ya que no existe una autoridad central (a la imagen del Leviatán de Hobbes), capaz de hacer respetar las reglas y compromisos acordados a nivel internacional. Por lo tanto, los estados se encuentran en una situación de self-help. El segundo punto derivado de la anarquía del sistema es lo que ha pasado a denominarse como el dilema de seguridad, que funciona de la siguiente manera: en un contexto de desconfianza y self-help, un estado procederá a armarse para preservar su seguridad frente a cualquier posible amenaza. El dilema radica en que mientras un estado más se arma (aunque sus intenciones sean puramente defensivas), más amenaza la seguridad de terceros estados, quienes, desde una óptica puramente racional, recurrirán a un proceso similar para defenderse de cualquier posible amenaza del primer estado (es la lógica detrás de cualquier carrera armamentística). Así lo expone Waltz (1988: 619): "The uneasy state of affairs is exacerbated by the familiar security dilemma, wherein measures that enhance one state´s security typically diminish that of others. In an anarchic domain, the source of one´s own comfort is the source of another worry". En virtud de la anarquía del sistema internacional, por más que todos los actores conscientemente busquen la paz, la racionalidad del estado (salvaguardar su seguridad) lo conducirá a la única alternativa posible: igualar o superar el armamento rival. Así es como Tucídides explica la guerra entre Atenas y Esparta. Esparta, temerosa del aumento del poder militar ateniense se lanzó en su propia campaña de alianzas para contrarrestar cualquier cambio desfavorable en el balance de poder. Dadas las condiciones del sistema y la naturaleza de los actores que acabo de enunciar, los teóricos, realistas y otros, han pretendido siempre encontrar la fórmula mágica que garantice un S.I más seguro. Parte de esos esfuerzos tienen que ver con el estudio de la teoría de juegos que, aplicada al estudio de las relaciones internacionales, intenta descifrar los diferentes escenarios de cooperación y conflicto, las normas, los incentivos o las amenazas que provocarán determinados comportamientos (siempre entendidos desde la perspectiva de un actor racional) y promoverán la seguridad o la inseguridad en el S.I. Los escenarios más conocidos son los de la "caza del ciervo" de J. J Rousseau, y el dilema del prisionero. El problema de aplicar la teoría de juegos a las relaciones entre estados radica en que, para que la estrategia sea exitosa (o sea, que todos los casos posibles de "jugadas" puedan ser previstos), la información con que cuentan los actores debe ser perfecta (Wagner, 1983: 345). Sin embargo, para los realistas, y en particular para los neorrealistas, la incertidumbre es parte central de la estructura en el S.I. A menudo, los estados actúan como "cajas negras" que proveen escasa o nula información otra que el resultado directo de sus políticas exteriores (Glaser, 1997: 195). Una pregunta interesante es la de saber si ¿el dilema de seguridad es una resultante de la naturaleza del sistema o, si por el contrario, es construido por los estados? Para Alexander Wendt (1995: 73), uno de los principales teóricos de la escuela constructivista, el dilema de la seguridad, así como la idea de anarquía, no están dados por el sistema o por la "naturaleza", sino que son construcciones sociales. Para él, el dilema de seguridad es producto de percepciones intersubjetivas de los estados que, impregnados de una desconfianza generalizada, asumen siempre lo peor en las intenciones de los otros actores. Si, como asume Wendt, el dilema de la seguridad es una creación, o más bien una percepción de los estados, estaría también en ellos la posibilidad de llevar adelante políticas que eviten crear dicho dilema. La respuesta realista ha sido en parte de argumentar que los constructivistas, así como los liberales, magnifican el nivel de competición y conflicto en la teoría realista. Sería más correcto afirmar que muchos realistas (principalmente los realistas defensivos) no ven a los estados como entidades ontológicamente agresivas e identificadas negativamente con la seguridad de otros, sino más bien como actores egoístas, y, por lo tanto, indiferentes a la seguridad ajena, salvo en los casos en que esta los afecte negativamente (Glaser, 1997: 197). La anarquía y la incertidumbre del S.I, ligadas al dilema de la seguridad, han provocado un quiebre de la escuela neorrealista entre los defensores de un realismo ofensivo y los que apoyan un realismo defensivo. Tanto los neorrealistas ofensivos como defensivos parten de los mismos supuestos, algunos de los cuales comparten con los realistas clásicos: los estados poderosos son los principales actores de las RR.II (en esto difieren de los realistas clásicos); los estados son racionales (maximizan sus recursos para alcanzar sus objetivos, en este caso su seguridad) y, producto de la anarquía y de la incertidumbre del S.I, nunca pueden estar del todo seguros de las intenciones de los otros estados y se encuentran entonces en una situación de sef-help; por lo tanto, la principal preocupación de los estados es asegurar su seguridad y supervivencia (security seekers), es decir, minimizar la probabilidad de ser conquistados o destruidos por otros actores; por último, para asegurar su seguridad en el contexto de self-help, los estados procederán a armarse y contarán con capacidades ofensivas y defensivas. Los realistas ofensivos mantienen que los estados intentarán siempre maximizar el poder, mientras que los realistas defensivos proponen que los estados buscan antes que nada mantener el status quo y, por lo tanto, buscarán balancear el poder dentro del sistema internacional. John Mearsheimer (2001) ha sido el principal proponente del realismo ofensivo, mientras que Kenneth Waltz y Stephen Walt del realismo defensivo. Este debate ha provocado la emergencia de una teoría relacionada con el balance entre las estrategias defensivas y ofensivas. Los teóricos se han abocado a estudiar si es posible separar ambas estrategias (en particular en un contexto de supremo desarrollo tecnológico) y si las variaciones entre ofensa-defensa pueden alterar las probabilidades de la guerra y de la competencia en materia de seguridad. Esta teoría, desarrollada en los años 70, ha sido utilizada exhaustivamente para explicar los diferentes escenarios de cooperación y conflicto, las carreras armamentísticas o el control del armamento, la formación de alianzas o las formas óptimas de disuasión, e igualmente para estudiar si los estados buscan ganancias absolutas o relativas. La teoría ofensa/defensa (Offense-Defense Theory ) plantea que existe un balance entre ofensa y defensa que determinará la eficacia relativa de las estrategias de seguridad ofensivas y defensivas. Las variaciones en las dotaciones de ofensa y defensa afectarán los patrones de las relaciones internacionales y de la política exterior. La teoría avanza que el conflicto internacional y la guerra son más factibles de ocurrir cuando la ofensiva lleva la ventaja, mientras que la paz y la cooperación más factibles cuando la defensa tiene ventaja (Lynn-Jones, 1995: 660-661). En materia de seguridad y de relacionamiento internacional, los estados tiene dos estrategias básicas (o una combinación de las dos) para maximizar su seguridad: ofensivas o defensivas. La opción defensiva implica que el estado intenta defender el territorio y los recursos que controla e imposibilitar así cualquier tentativa de conquista sobre su territorio. La estrategia defensiva asume igualmente que dicho estado no busca expandirse, conquistar o destruir un estado rival. La estrategia ofensiva, por el contrario, utiliza la conquista militar para aumentar los recursos del estado, conquistar, intimidar o someter a otros estados que puedan representar una amenaza para el primero. Igualmente, a través de la expansión agresiva, el estado busca cimentar su fortaleza defensiva Lynn-Jones, 1995: 665). Para los ofensivos, la incertidumbre de las acciones contrarias, así como la capacidad de cualquier estado de contar en cualquier momento con determinadas capacidades ofensivas, lleva a que la mejor manera para sobrevivir en un estado de anarquía, sea la de ganar poder a expensas de un estado contrario (Mearsheimer, 2001: 31). El realismo ofensivo parte del supuesto que los estados buscan antes que nada (o exclusivamente) garantizar su seguridad y supervivencia (security seekers) y consideran a los otros estados rivales como agresores en potencia y deben por lo tanto asegurarse ganancias de poder relativas. Mearsheimer argumenta que los estados buscan maximizar su posición de poder relativa ya que la seguridad depende grandemente de la ventaja militar de un estado sobre otro (Mearsheimer, 1994: 11). Esto tiene dos consecuencias, la primera es que la noción de poder es relacional (o dinámica) para los neorrealistas y la segunda es que bajo esta suposición, el dilema de la seguridad corre el riesgo de agravarse. Para los neorrealistas defensivos, esta visión es errónea. Argumentan que el nivel de inseguridad se reduce cuando los estados adoptan una posición defensiva, o más precisamente, cuando el ratio defensa/ofensa aumenta. Una clara ventaja ofensiva hará que la expansión o la conquista sea más factible, provocando el comportamiento agresivo de los estados "codiciosos" y aumentando el dilema de la seguridad. Contrariamente, una fuerte posición defensiva hace de la conquista una posibilidad más remota y aumenta la seguridad colectiva (Montgomery, 2006: 156). Ciertos autores han criticado la offense-defense theory porque consideran que es imposible determinar el balance entre ofensa/defensa porque todas las armas modernas pueden ser utilizadas, casi sin excepción, tanto en una estrategia ofensiva como defensiva (Mearsheimer, 1994: 23). Por lo tanto, si no es posible determinar el ratio ofensa/defensa, la teoría carecería de aplicación práctica. En respuesta a estas críticas, los defensores de este enfoque han argumentado que resulta irrelevante el tipo de arma utilizado (ofensiva o defensiva), lo que cuenta y debe ser objeto de medida o evaluación, es la capacidad de las fuerzas atacantes de derrotar a las fuerzas defensivas (Glaser, 1997:199). En ese caso, podríamos preguntarnos ¿qué pasa, o qué es necesario para que una fuerza defensiva superior se transforme en fuerza ofensiva? *Este artículo fue presentado en la 9° sesión el Seminario Interno de Discusión Teórica 2013, organizado por el Departamento de Estudios Internacionales de la Universidad ORT Uruguay. Germán Clulow es Licenciado en Estudios Internacionales por la Universidad ORT –Uruguay, Master en Ciencia Política por la Université de Genève – Suiza, y Master en Estudios de Desarrollo por el Instituto de Altos Estudios Internacionales y de Desarrollo (IHEID-The Graduate Institute) Ginebra, Suiza.
L'ensemble des travaux présentés, réalisés entre 1990 et 2006, trouve sa cohérence dans un parcours qui se propose d'analyser les traitements, la place et le regard réservés par la société valencienne des XVe-XVIIe siècles à deux catégories de marginaux souvent associés dans les mentalités valenciennes d'alors et désignés conjointement sous le nom d'Innocents (Ignoscents dans l'ancien dialecte valencien): les fous et les orphelins. Nous avons analysé les traitements qui leur étaient réservés, tant en ce qui concerne les réalités historiques que les représentations sociales qui en étaient offertes. Enfin, nous nous sommes intéressée aux représentations littéraires du microcosme de l'hôpital des fous.Nos travaux comprennent quatre volets : -attitudes de diverses institutions face à la marginalité ;-représentations sociales des fous et des orphelins ;-représentations de l'hôpital des fous par Lope de Vega Carpio ;-représentations allégoriques sur le même thème.I.L'assistance aux fous et aux orphelins à Valence aux XVe-XVIIe siècles : les attitudes institutionnelles face à la marginalitéA. Les institutions d'assistanceUn premier groupe de travaux a été consacré à l'étude des deux institutions qui assistaient ces marginaux : d'une part, les fous, pris en charge par l'Hôpital des Innocents, fondé en 1409 et devenu en 1512, lors de la fondation de l'Hôpital général, Maisons des fous et des folles de ce dernier ; d'autre part, les orphelins, éduqués par le Collège des orphelins Saint-Vincent-Ferrier, également fondé au début du XVe siècle.Locura y sociedad, notre premier livre, publié à Valence (Espagne) en 1994, est l'adaptation à l'espagnol de notre thèse de doctorat, soutenue à l'Université de la Sorbonne Nouvelle (PARIS III) sous la direction du Professeur Augustin Redondo le 13 février 1993. Il en va de même pour les deux articles ci-dessous mentionnés. L'un est le texte de la communication que nous avons lue au Colloque qui s'est tenu à Valence en mai 1997 en Hommage à l'historien espagnol de la psychiatrie, le Dr. Vicente Peset Llorca. L'autre est le texte publié dans l'ouvrage collectif paru il y a quelques mois à Valence (2007) sur l'histoire de l'Hôpital des fous de cette ville. Conformément aux recommandations pour la constitution du dossier scientifique qui figurent sur le livret du Conseil scientifique de Paris III (Vade-mecum), nous n'avons inclus ni notre thèse, ni ces trois adaptations, qui en découlent très directement, dans la liste des travaux présentés en vue de l'obtention du diplôme d'Habilitation à Diriger des Recherches. Toutefois, les ayant utilisées pour rédiger notre document de synthèse (qui, toujours selon ces mêmes instructions, doit « retracer le parcours de recherche accompli par le candidat en y incluant par conséquent les recherches engagées dans le travail antérieur de doctorat »), nous les mentionnons également ici. Il s'agit de :Travaux réalisés dans le cadre de notre thèse et directement dérivés de cette dernière :1. LIVREHélène TROPÉ, Locura y sociedad en la Valencia de los siglos XV la XVII: los locos del Hospital de los Inocentes (1409-1512) y del Hospital General (1512-1699) [Traduit par l'auteur de : Folie et société à Valence (XVe-XVIIe siècles): les fous de l'Hôpital des Innocents (1410-1512) et de l'Hôpital général (1512-1699) (thèse de doctorat sous la direction du professeur Augustin Redondo), Paris: Université de la Sorbonne Nouvelle – Paris III, 723 p.], Valencia: Diputación de Valencia, Centre d'Estudis d'História Local, 1994. 433 p.2. ArticleHélène TROPÉ, «Locura y sociedad en la Valencia de los siglos XV al XVII: los locos del Hospital de los Inocentes (1409-1512) y del Hospital General (1512-1699)», en : La locura y sus instituciones (Actas de las II Jornadas de Historia de la Psiquiatría. Homenaje al Dr. Vicente Peset Llorca, Valencia, 9 y 10 de mayo de 1997), Valencia: Diputación de Valencia, 1997, pp. 141-154.3. Participation à un OUVRAGE COLLECTIFHélène TROPÉ, Del Hospital de los Inocentes (1409-1512) a la Casa de los locos del Hospital General (1512-1699), in : Lorenzo Livianos, Conxa Císcar, Ángeles García, Carlos Heimann, Miguel Ángel Luengo, Hélène Tropé, El manicomio de Valencia del siglo XV al XX, Paterna (Valencia) : Ajuntament de Valencia, colección « Científicos valencianos », n° 8, 2006, pp. 13-117.2) Le Collège des orphelinsNous avons consacré un livre et deux articles au Collège des Orphelins Saint-Vincent-Ferrier :LIVRE Hélène TROPÉ, La formation des orphelins à Valence: le cas du Collège Impérial Saint-Vincent-Ferrier de Valence (XVe-XVIIe siècles), Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, Presses de la Sorbonne Nouvelle, Collection «Textes et documents du Centre de Recherche sur l'Espagne des XVIe et XVIIe siècles (CRES)», vol. VIII, 1998. 416 p.Article«La formation des orphelins au Collège Saint-Vincent-Ferrier de Valence aux XVIe-XVIIe siècles», in: A. REDONDO, [Études réunies et présentées par], La formation de l'enfant dans l'Espagne des XVIe-XVIIe siècles (Actes du Colloque International, Sorbonne-Collège d'Espagne, octobre 1995), Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne Nouvelle, collection «Travaux du Centre de Recherche sur l'Espagne des XVIe et XVIIe siècles» (CRES - Directeur: Augustin REDONDO), vol. XI, 1996, pp. 215-230.Article Hélène TROPÉ, « Le mystère médiéval de saint Christophe, passeur de gué, dans la Fête-Dieu de Valence (Espagne) », in : DELPECH, François [dir.], Imaginaire des espaces aquatiques, Paris, Presses de la Sorbonne Nouvelle, Collection «Textes et documents du Centre de Recherche sur l'Espagne des XVIe et XVIIe siècles (CRES)» (à paraître).Ce livre, ainsi que le premier des deux articles mentionnés, portent sur la formation des orphelins dans ce Collège. Nous avons commencé par y retracer l'historique de cette institution, exceptionnelle par sa longévité : créée en 1410, elle existe toujours. Par son histoire et ses finalités, elle est l'homologue d'autres institutions semblables de l'Europe moderne. Fondée par des ecclésiastiques, à partir de 1593, elle devient un établissement contrôlé par trois notables de la cité et passe donc dans les faits sous contrôle de la municipalité. En 1624, elle hérite des locaux du Collège impérial destiné jusqu'en 1609 à l'éducation des enfants morisques de la ville. Après l'expulsion de ces derniers, le Collège reprend, avec les biens de cet établissement, ses armes impériales. Le Collège était destiné aux enfants issus de mariages légitimes dont un ou les deux parents étaient décédés. Par contre, les enfants abandonnés, péjorativement dénommés borts (bâtards), dès lors qu'ils étaient présumés illégitimes, devaient se contenter de l'Hôpital général. Le Collège avait clairement pour mission d'intégrer les orphelins qu'il admettait dans l'espace de la cité tout en les protégeant des milieux délinquants. Il s'agissait donc de les récupérer comme main d'œuvre pour le commerce et l'artisanat, alors en pleine expansion. L'éducation religieuse, notamment l'apprentissage de la doctrine, était le moyen de les former aux valeurs dominantes. Le catéchisme était donc au fondement même de leur apprentissage. Seuls les garçons apprenaient à lire. Les filles, reçues en moins grand nombre que les garçons —sans doute parce qu'elles trouvaient à s'employer comme servantes dès leur plus jeune âge—, apprenaient seulement à prier et à réaliser des travaux ménagers. Une fois éduqués et instruits dans la doctrine, les garçons vers l'âge de 12 ans, étaient mis en apprentissage auprès des marchands et des artisans des corporations afin d'apprendre un métier. Quant aux collégiennes, elles étaient placées comme servantes auprès d'un maître. Vers l'âge de 20 ans, considéré comme adéquat pour le mariage, l'apprentissage prenait fin et le maître d'apprentissage des garçons, ou pour les filles, l'employeur, devaient leur verser un salaire, modeste, en général de 7 livres valenciennes, afin que garçons et filles puissent se faire confectionner un habit.Le second article mentionné porte sur le mystère médiéval valencien de saint Christophe qui le représente en passeur de gué. Ce mystère a été mis en scène à Valence depuis des temps très anciens, conjointement à d'autres mystères, dans le cadre de la fête du Corpus Christi. Nous avons effectué cette recherche car nous avions connaissance de la participation des orphelins du collège, au début du XVIIIe siècle, à sa représentation et nous désirions savoir s'ils y avaient participé antérieurement. Il semble que non. Néanmoins nous avons choisi de publier tout de même nos recherches sur ce mystère, qui constitue une autre manifestation théâtrale valencienne, religieuse cette fois, et offre donc un point de comparaison pour étudier l'univers du théâtre valencien examiné dans le versant littéraire de notre dossier. D'autre part, il a trait à la célébration du Corpus Christi et donc à cet aspect des fêtes célébrées dans la ville, également important dans notre dossier.B. La protection des rois et le contrôle de l'Inquisition1. Les rois d'Aragon accordent des privilèges aux fondateurs de l'Hôpital des InnocentsLe second volet de notre étude des attitudes institutionnelles vis-à-vis de ces marginaux a été consacré à l'examen des textes des privilèges accordés aux fondateurs de l'Hôpital des Innocents par les monarques aragonais. Il s'agit du texte de la communication que nous avons lue en septembre 1993 à Jaca au XVe Congrès d'Histoire de la Couronne d'Aragon.Hélène TROPÉ., «Poder real, locura y sociedad: la concepción de los locos en los privilegios fundacionales otorgados al Hospital de Inocentes de Valencia por los monarcas aragoneses (1409-1427)», in: Actas del XV Congreso de Historia de la Corona de Aragón (Jaca, 20-25 de sept. 1993), Zaragoza: Diputación General de Aragón, Departamento de Educación y Cultura, tomo I y volumen 5°, 1996, p. 307-318.Il ressort de cette étude que la première justification donnée par les monarques à l'assistance hospitalière aux fous a trait à l'affirmation selon laquelle ces derniers sont les pauvres du Christ et qu'il convient de leur porter secours. Les assister permet ainsi au chrétien de gagner la miséricorde divine. En second lieu, leur hospitalisation est envisagée comme une mesure d'ordre public destinée à préserver la cité des troubles et des dommages que ces derniers peuvent causer. En troisième lieu, ils sont comparés aux invalides, incapables de pourvoir à leurs besoins. Le Privilège de 1427 s'élève contre la croyance selon laquelle les « insensés » expieraient leurs fautes ou celles de leurs ancêtres et affirme qu'il n'en est rien : leur folie est une manifestation de la puissance divine. 2) Les inquisiteurs du Tribunal de Valence face à la folie des accusésDans un article pour l'Hommage à Pierre Vilar rendu par l'Association des Catalanistes de France à ce très grand historien, nous avons étudié les stratégies mises en œuvre et les enquêtes diligentées par les inquisiteurs valenciens face à a folie alléguée ou présumée des accusés : Hélène TROPÉ, «Folie et Inquisition à Valence (1580-1699)», in : Hommage à Pierre Vilar / Association Française des Catalanistes, Paris: Éditions Hispaniques - AFC, 1994, p. 171-185.Nous y exposons que lorsque la réalité de la folie de l'accusé au moment des faits délictueux était avérée, elle constituait devant les tribunaux inquisitoriaux une excuse absolutoire. Dans ce cas, le procès était suspendu et il était relâché s'il avait été arrêté. Diverses enquêtes étaient donc diligentées auprès de ses proches et des témoins des faits. La folie avérée au moment du délit était très certainement prise en compte comme circonstance atténuante tout simplement parce que les inquisiteurs étaient alors convaincus que l'accusé était irresponsable et donc, qu'il n'avait pas eu l'intention de porter atteinte à la foi. En le discréditant aux yeux des tiers, la folie « annulait » aussi la dangereuse portée des propos hérétiques qu'il avait tenus. L'affaire était dès lors classée : on l'absolvait et on le renvoyait à sa famille ou, lorsqu'il n'en avait pas, on l'adressait à l'hôpital des fous. Lorsque la folie de l'accusé n'était ni évidente ni notoire et qu'il était établi qu'il avait même joui d'un certain crédit auprès de la population, une peine pouvait tout de même être appliquée dans le but de le punir et de le discréditer. Dans les cas où les accusés devenaient fous dans les prisons de l'Inquisition, les faits étaient jugés mais l'on sursoyait à l'application de la peine, on les envoyait à l'hôpital des fous afin qu'ils y soient reclus et pris en charge et l'on attendait qu'ils guérissent afin de pouvoir les punir. Le second volet de nos travaux analyse l'ensemble des efforts réalisés par les Autorités de la ville afin de réintégrer ces marginaux, symboliquement cette fois, dans le corps social en les représentant de façon rassurante à la population comme des assistés pris en charge par la ville. Nous nous sommes donc intéressée aux représentations sociales. II. Les représentations sociales des fous et des orphelins : quêtes et fêtesLes Autorités de la ville, conscientes de l'image négative que ces marginaux —les fous en particulier— pouvaient avoir dans les mentalités, ont mis en œuvre diverses stratégies afin de modifier leurs représentations. Ils ont mis en scène fous, orphelins et, plus rarement, enfants exposés, comme des figures de l'Innocence.Nous avons consacré plusieurs travaux à l'étude de ces représentations. Et d'abord un article :Hélène TROPÉ, «Les relations entre hommes et femmes dans l'univers hospitalier valencien de la folie des XV-XVIIè siècles», in: A. REDONDO, [Études réunies et présentées par], Les relations entre hommes et femmes dans l'Espagne des XVIe-XVIIe siècles, Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, collection «Travaux du Centre de Recherche sur l'Espagne des XVIe et XVIIe siècles » (CRES - Directeur Augustin REDONDO)», vol. IX, 1996, p. 105-116.Dans celui-ci, nous avons commencé par rappeler que les administrateurs avaient édicté une règle de stricte séparation des hommes et des femmes au sein de l'hôpital. Nous avons ensuite montré que tout au long de la période, cette règle a été transgressée comme le prouvent les enfants mis au monde par des folles depuis longtemps hospitalisées. Enfin, nous avons étudié les diverses mises en scène que les administrateurs de l'hôpital eux-mêmes ont effectuées des relations entre fous et folles à l'extérieur de l'établissement dans le cadre des processions festives, au XVIIe siècle en particulier. Puis, dans notre contribution à l'Hommage que le CRES a rendu au Professeur Augustin Redondo, nous avons analysé les représentations sociales des fous et des orphelins, d'abord à l'intérieur de leurs institutions d'assistance respectives, puis à l'extérieur :Hélène TROPÉ, «Fêtes et représentations des marginaux à Valence aux XVIe et XVIIe siècles», in: Écriture, pouvoir et société en Espagne aux XVIe et XVIIe siècles. Hommage du CRES au Professeur Augustin Redondo, Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, Presses de la Sorbonne Nouvelle, 2001, p. 347-363.Nous y avons notamment étudié comment chroniques, mémoires et journaux privés attestent qu'à l'occasion de diverses manifestations collectives publiques, festives ou expiatoires, les Autorités de la ville ont ainsi fait paraître en tête des processions au moins trois catégories de marginaux assistés dans les institutions évoquées, le plus souvent les fous de l'Hôpital général et les orphelins du Collège Saint-Vincent-Ferrier et, moins fréquemment, les enfants exposés de l'Hôpital général. Ces marginaux étaient chargés d'incarner des rôles, ce qui, symboliquement, permettait de les réinsérer dans le tissu social. Ils furent notamment convertis en figures de l'Innocence.Montrer sur les chars de la ville ces enfants ainsi « récupérés » et préservés de la délinquance, exhiber sous un jour drôle et plaisant les fous de l'Hôpital, grâce, finalement, à une efficace politique d'assistance municipale, ne devait pas manquer d'avoir un certain impact, sans doute voulu et même recherché, sur la population et devait constituer une sorte de publicité vivante à la louange du puissant patriciat gouvernant les affaires de la cité et qui montrait ainsi qu'il savait aussi réintégrer les marginaux dans le tissu social. Ces mises en scène des assistés contribuaient à rassurer le public et, en dernière instance, offraient l'image d'une société valencienne idéalement parfaite.Les deux volets suivants de notre dossier concernent le système de représentations littéraires suscité par l'existence de cet hôpital de Valence, et plus largement, les images littéraires de l'hôpital, notamment de fous, incurables, insensés, etc. Nous avons étudié exclusivement les images correspondant à la première des deux institutions étudiées car, à notre connaissance, aux XVe, XVIe et XVIIe siècles, ni les enfants exposés de l'Hôpital Général, ni les orphelins de Saint-Vincent-Ferrier n'ont fait l'objet de représentations littéraires. Concernant les représentations littéraires construites à partir du motif de l'hôpital, l'historicité des hôpitaux représentés permet de distinguer deux types de productions. D'une part, des œuvres où un hôpital de fous, explicitement nommé, sert de référent et de cadre à tout ou partie de l'action. C'est le cas en particulier de trois œuvres de Lope de Vega Carpio qui effectuent des variations sur ce thème.Elles font l'objet du troisième volet de notre dossier.III. L'hôpital des fous selon Lope : trois variations sur un même thèmeHélène TROPÉ, édition critique de Los locos de Valencia de LOPE DE VEGA CARPIO, Madrid, Castalia, « Clásicos castellanos » n° 275, 2003, 352 p. Hélène TROPÉ, Traduction française de Los locos de Valencia de Lope de Vega Carpio (à paraître).Hélène TROPÉ, « La representación dramática del hospital del microcosmos del Hospital de los locos en Los locos de Valencia de Lope de Vega », Anuario Lope de Vega V (1999), Prolope, Departament de Filologia Espanyola de la Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, pp. 167-184.Hélène TROPÉ, « Menosprecio de Aragón y exaltación de Castilla en El loco por fuerza, comedia atribuida a Lope de Vega », comunication lue dans le cadre du Colloque International organisé par l'Universitá degli Studi di Parma et l'Université de la Sorbonne Nouvelle – Paris III (Parme, 2-3 mai 2002) sur El texto y su marco : La representación del espacio en el Siglo de Oro español, (à paraître dans Criticón), Après avoir réalisé l'édition critique de la comedia de Lope de Vega Los locos de Valencia, nous l'avons traduite en français. Dans ces deux livres, nous avons présenté le texte et nous l'avons très soigneusement annoté afin d'éclairer le sens de multiples allusions littéraires ou médicales qui peut échapper au lecteur contemporain. Nous nous sommes donc efforcée de rendre le texte accessible.Nous avons consacré un premier article à l'étude de la représentation dramatique de l'hôpital des fous par Lope de Vega Carpio. Nous y avons mis en regard les stylisations réalisées par cet auteur avec ce que nos études antérieures sur l'histoire de cet hôpital nous avaient appris. Nous avons conclu que la pièce Los locos de Valencia ressemble plus à l'image que les administrateurs offraient de leurs hospitalisés, lorsqu'ils les mettaient en scène sur les chars lors des grandes processions dans la ville, qu'à ce qu'a été au quotidien la Maison des fous et des folles. L'hôpital reflété dans Los locos de Valencia ne conserve qu'une ressemblance illusoire avec l'hôpital historique. Il s'agit plus en fait d'une pièce sur le théâtre construite sur la rencontre du topos érasmien de la folie universelle avec celui du Grand Théâtre du Monde. Dans l'article suivant « Menosprecio de Aragón… », nous avons étudié comment, selon la méthode de « l'argumentation casuistique » qui serait propre à Lope de Vega, ce dramaturge présenterait dans une comedia une solution opposée à celle proposée dans une autre œuvre ayant pourtant la même intrigue et comportant les mêmes personnages. C'est le cas des deux œuvres où Lope a représenté l'hôpital : Los locos de Valencia, El peregrino en su patria, ainsi que El loco por fuerza, pièce qui lui a été attribuée et dont nous pensons personnellement qu'elle est bien de lui. Il nous est apparu que la question du genre détermine les variations entre les trois pièces. Ainsi, logiquement, dans la comedia Los locos de Valencia, l'hôpital des fous devient le microcosme de la folie comique. Dans les scènes asilaires du roman byzantin, il est par contre un espace sinistre où la folie, tragique, signe l'accomplissement du destin dramatique des amants soumis à d'incessantes tribulations. Quant à El loco por fuerza, il s'agit d'un drama, mot que nous employons ici pour désigner, avec le professeur Joan Oleza, un macro-genre caractérisé par sa mission transcendante, son prosélytisme et son contenu panégyrique. Dans cette pièce, l'hôpital est tragi-comique. La question des genres présiderait donc bien à ces variations et les expliquerait.D'autre part, nous avons étudié comment cette pièce, probablement écrite par Lope de Vega entre 1597 et 1608, met en scène de très conflictuelles relations entre castillans et aragonais dans le cadre de la ville de Saragosse et de la montagne aragonaise. Nous l'avons analysée à la lumière du contexte historique des révoltes aragonaises de 1591 et avons émis l'hypothèse selon laquelle l'internement forcé du personnage principal pourrait peut-être renvoyer aux poursuites intentées par Philippe II contre son Secrétaire Antonio Pérez, accusé d'assassinat, lequel se réfugia à partir d'avril 1590 en Aragon où il provoqua deux soulèvements à Saragosse en mai et en septembre 1591. Enfin, concluant dans cet article sur l'ensemble du dossier des représentations de l'hôpital par Lope de Vega, nous avons proposé des hypothèses de lecture conjointe de El loco por fuerza et de Los locos de Valencia en rapport avec l'affaire Pérez et les Relaciones (éditions de 1594 et 1598) écrites par ce dernier. Nous avons tenté de montrer que Lope de Vega inverse radicalement les perspectives idéologiques favorables aux aragonais depuis lesquelles Pérez a écrit son texte. Dans El loco por fuerza, la Castille apparaît à travers les membres du couple d'amoureux originaires de Tolède comme une terre de vertu menacée par ce qui est montré dans la pièce comme perversion morale et politique aragonaise : exaltation de Castille et mépris d'Aragon. Le monarque qui rétablit l'ordre à la fin de l'œuvre est un parangon de justice. La pièce est orientée idéologiquement vers une exaltation de la Castille comme véritable centre de l'Empire et une condamnation des révoltes aragonaises.Si les « hôpitaux lopesques » se caractérisent par la forte illusion référentielle qu'ils génèrent en dépit de leur historicité finalement assez faible, d'autres représentations d'asiles n'autorisent plus du tout la moindre confusion du signe théâtral avec le simulacre de référent : ce sont les représentations allégoriques, objet du quatrième volet de nos travaux.IV. Les fous défilent. Représentations allégoriques de l'hôpital des fousLa tradition littéraire de « l'hôpital » paraît ancienne et elle est profuse. Dans la dernière partie de notre dossier, nous avons étudié deux de ces représentations allégoriques : la tragi-comédie de Charles Beys L'Hospital des fous (1635), modifiée en 1653 sous le titre Les illustres fous, et un texte attribué à Quevedo, mais qui serait en réalité du poète et musicien sévillan Melgarejo : La Casa de los locos de amor. Le texte d'origine est conservé dans un manuscrit du début du XVIIe siècle et a été publié, dans une version toutefois expurgée et fort édulcorée, dans l'édition des sueños de Quevedo parue à Saragosse en 1627, puis dans presque toutes les éditions successives. Dans la plupart de ces représentations allégoriques, dont nous avons offert un panorama (toutefois non exhaustif) dans notre synthèse, on observe un certain nombre d'éléments récurrents qui autorisent à considérer l'hypothèse selon laquelle ces représentations formeraient peut-être un sous-genre ou à tout le moins, une tradition : narrateur personnel en position de témoin, figures allégoriques correspondant aux membres de l'hôpital visité, défilé de fous.Le texte de la communication que nous avons lue au XIVe Congrès de l'Association Internationale des Hispanistes (New York, juillet 2001) est consacré à l'étude du procédé dans Los locos de Valencia et El peregrino en su patria de Lope de Vega :Hélène TROPÉ, « Desfiles de locos en dos obras de Lope de Vega : Los locos de Valencia y El peregrino en su patria », Actas del XIV Congreso de la Asociación Internacional de Hispanistas [Nueva York, 16-21, Julio, 2001], edición de Isaías Lerner, Robert Nival y Alejandro Alonso, Newark, Delaware, Juan de la Cuesta, col. « Hispanic Monographs », 2004, t. II, p. 555-564.Dans notre synthèse, nous avons exprimé qu'il nous semble que cette étude pourrait être étendue valablement et avec profit à d'autres représentations ; mais que l'extension du corpus conduirait probablement à un élargissement du point de vue. On serait alors probablement amené à conclure que le rire que suscite cette revue d'insensés dans les œuvres de Lope peut se transmuer en franche amertume et déboucher sur une vision désabusée du monde dans d'autres œuvres telles que La casa de los locos de amor. Lu au VIe Congrès de la Asociación internacional Siglo de Oro (AISO) à Burgos en juillet 2002, le texte de notre communication montre que cette dernière œuvre est un rêve allégorique parodique qui débouche sur une satire du mariage et de l'amour représentés comme folie. Dans la version manuscrite, La casa de los locos de amor est une censure sévère des mœurs dépravées et brosse un noir tableau de la société espagnole du temps. Paradoxalement, dans sa version expurgée et édulcorée parue avec d'autres textes de Quevedo dans les Sueños de 1627, son éloge du mariage lui aurait certainement valu d'être reniée par l'auteur des Sueños. Telles sont les conclusions qui ressortent du texte de l'article correspondant :Hélène TROPÉ, « Los 'Hospitales de locos' en la literatura española del siglo XVII: la representación alegórico-moral de la Casa de los locos de amor atribuida a Quevedo », en: Actas del VI Congreso de la Asociación internacional Siglo de Oro (AISO) [Burgos, Universidad de Burgos, 15-19 de julio de 2002], Madrid : Iberoamericana Vervuert.Enfin, dans l'article consacré à la tragi-comédie de Charles Beys L'Hospital des fous, publiée en 1635, reprise et modifiée en 1653, sous le titre Les Illustres fous, nous avons confronté l'image de la folie hospitalière, offerte respectivement par l'Italien Garzoni, l'Espagnol Lope de Vega et le Français Charles Beys, de ce même microcosme de la folie hospitalière et montré que les représentations de l'Italien et de l'Espagnol se rapprochent sur des points qui les opposent à celle du Français. L'hôpital représenté par Lope de Vega, comme celui de Garzoni, est un microcosme séparé du monde. L'hôpital de Beys, au contraire, dont les frontières s'étendent au fur et mesure de la représentation, a vocation à figurer tout l'univers et sa folie. D'autre part, dans l'hôpital des fous de l'Italien et de l'Espagnol, les frontières entre le personnel et les hospitalisés restent stables, plus hermétiques cependant chez le premier que chez le second, alors que dans l'hôpital du Français elles tendent peu à peu à s'effacer jusqu'à ce que soit révélé au spectateur que le Concierge, censé garder les fous, l'est autant qu'eux et que la pièce à la représentation de laquelle le spectateur est en train d'assister a même été écrite par lui. En conséquence, alors que ni la pièce du Phénix ni celle de Garzoni ne tendent jamais véritablement de miroir au spectateur afin qu'il s'y regarde et conclue qu'il est un fou parmi les fous mis en scène, chez le Français au contraire, le spectateur est explicitement invité à se reconnaître parmi les rôles de fous défilant devant lui. La folie est univoque et irréversible dans l'ouvrage de Garzoni. Elle l'est aussi en grande partie dans la pièce de Lope de Vega. Par contre, dans celle de Beys, elle est équivoque, ambiguë, constamment réversible et surtout elle est universelle :Hélène TROPÉ, « Variations dramatiques espagnoles et françaises sur le thème de l'hôpital des fous aux XVIe et XVIIe siècles : de Lope de Vega Carpio à Charles Beys », Bulletin Hispanique (à paraître).
J'ift. mi pL.»,i.u r»4 CHORUS.-L'-pMee-i-dee-i-da! etc. ff •' i»75 Her voice is clear as a soaring lark's. jjt-J !i! A""herv,it is like those trolley-car sparks! tT'l ilvi i e" '""ss * """1'ly street she flits, >1- '. ft TI The boys u.l have conniption fits I M*- f tyjl Tlic turn of licr head turns all ours. too. ». > Ti TT There s always a strife to sit in her pew- *$>',* ."•Wt J l!! """I.'1' "> make a parson drunk, ftVfy To hear her sing old co-ca-che-lunk I jbf tiUu The above, and three other NEW verses to U-PI-DEE . .' TTTT "I'.'' "P WORDS, catchy, up-to-date, to manv ftb> ill 1! ".j" "' the POP'-'ar OLD FAMILIAK TUNES; be- TT if «Mf s,d"OLD FAVORITES: and also many NEW SONGS. UUi SONGS OF ALL THK COLLEGES. TTtf WV. Copjithi. Price, lr.so. postpaid. imi. jjk'i Jjuj HINDS & NOBLE, Publishers, New York City, it? ft tf Schoalbooks of all publishers at one stare W' MPT THE MERCURY. 9 a day long to be remembered. But when they marched down the street, when they sat on the stage and listened to their own praises, the boy was not there. No one had seen him. He was missing. His mother, in spite of all attempts to shield her, had heard of his troubles and was broken-hearted. But that night, silently as a thief, the boy crept home. Then while his tormentors listened to farmer politicians shout and rage heroic, the boy laid his head on the shoulder of a mother broken-hearted no longer, knowing and caring nothing for his so-called disgrace. The boy, kneeling at his mother's knee, wept, and she, also weeping, knew only now that she had her boy again. Here we leave them. A GLIMPSE OF LIFE. '07. DEATH follows life in every path ; Rest follows toil, peace follows wrath ; Spring follows winter, day follows night; Joy follows sorrow, wrong turns to right. Song breaks the springtime, life floods the earth. Buds fill the forest, flowers spring to birth ; Hope now abideth, hate turns to love, Clouds flee from sunshine, radiant above. Take thou a lesson, take it and go, Scatter thy sunshine, check not its flow ; Shape then your doings, mould them aright, Build thou with vigor, build with thy might. . - IO THE MEKCURV. I HOW DO WOMEN IN GENERAL INFLUENCE POLITICS ? •07. WHEN woman's influence in politics is mentioned imme-diately there comes to our mind the thought of the work of a Harriet Beecher Stowe or of the mothers of the men preeminent in our political history. Certainly the influence of these women was (and we may say, is) far-reaching and bene-ficial. But the woman in general seems to feel that she has very little to do with politics. She concludes that since the right of suffrage is denied her, she is totally absolved from political re-sponsibility. There are two classes of women who deny that they have any appreciable influence with respect to the politics of our country—one of which clamors for the power of the bal-lot as a means of securing such influence, the other does not deign " to bother about politics" but complacently lays the re-sponsibility of our national welfare upon the shoulders of the men. And yet as surely as did the mother of a Washington, a Lincoln or a McKinley, cast a positive influence over the poli-tics of our country, so surely does every mother, whether that influence be beneficial or detrimental. Character is the founda-tion upon which our national welfare rests. We need have no apprehensions of any lack of brains for carrying on our govern-ment, but brains are just as effectual in tearing down as in building up a government. We need men at the ballot-box and in office who are courageous to do what they know to be for the best interests of our country, and such characters are formed largely through the influence of women. Yet, frankly, if we wish to attribute the honesty, couraget and other essentials of noble characters, to the influence and training of women, then we must also admit that they are per-haps responsible for some of the indifference, cowardice, sloth, and greed that are menacing our government. May not a mother who receives into her home those whom she knows to be unworthy or even immoral, merely because they are " so talented " or "come from such a fine old family " or are " so influential," be held in a measure responsible when THE MERCURY. I I her son fawns and cringes to political magnates," at one instant considering the " Boss" the epitome of all evil, and the next, worthy to fold his legs underneath his mahogany." Again, the woman who constantly excuses herself from her duties to church or society, on the ground that she will not be missed or that the organization will get along without her, would doubt-less be surprised at any suggestion that any blame accrued to iher when her sons neglect their privileges of citizenship, if the weather is bad or they are busy on election day or if their party is hopelessly in the minority, do not take the trouble to vote. But woman need not depend alone on this watchful and pains-taking upbuilding of a strong character for her political influence. She may directly teach her children the nature and grandeur of our government and their responsibility for sup-porting its best interests, in short instill in them true patri-otism. Futhermore she may, and very often does, teach them her own political views. Here also comes in the opportunity of the public school teachers, a majority of whom are women, for exercising influ-ence. They come in contact with the children before ignorant prejudices have entirely closed their minds to reason, and while their characters are being formed, so that if the opportunity is .seized no little influence may be theirs. Then too, the power of the pen and of the press is as freely granted to women as to men and the opportunity for influence thus afforded has been recognized and taken advantage of. Even the platform has not been denied them and the woman of hrains, eloquence and patriotism, need not feel herself seriously handicapped in her ambition for influence. Organizations too, exert a certain influence in politics. Il-lustrations of this may be had in the increased agitation of the slavery question by women's anti-slavery leagues, previous to the Civil War; and at present, by the material gain to the Pro-hibition party, resulting from the work of the W. C. T. U. And so, although so little power is granted them, certainly no woman need complain, or even take comfort in, her lack of political influence. For we hold that so great is their influence that we might well feel assured of the future welfare and pros-perity of our country, had we many such women as that Roman matron who was content to be known as "The Mother of the •Gracchi." 12 THE MERCURY. THE UNCERTAINTY OF LIFE. Ci T^fAN born of a woman is of few days and full of ■L JL trouble." Never was this better illustrated than today when life is so complex both in living and dying. Every day we read of some unfortunate hurled to his death by an agency strange and novel. But let us to our story and tell in a simple, straight-forward way how many and sudden are the forms of death. Several years ago in a town near Pittsburg four men lived together like brothers. All had seen life not as it is written in story books but the genuine unadulterated article as it is handed, out to men who toil. The four had seen their days of pros-perity, days of adversity, had been over this broad land from coast to coast and one at least had lived across the " Duck Pond" as they have so fittingly nick-named the Atlantic. Frank Valentine a man of probably thirty-five, slow of speech, quick in action, honest, hard-working and fearless, is the first we will mention. In his youth he had gone West, and there before the railroad had penetrated every hamlet, he had driven stage-coach over sixty of the roughest, steepest and most nerve-destroying miles in these United States. In summer the hot winds from the deserts swept across the plains scorching vege-tation like the hot breath of a furnace; in the winter he braved the blizzards which filled the gulches with snow until only the tallest pine trees showed their evergreen tops above the snowy waste. Many and stirring were the tales he told of privation and want, of men virile and strong. The hearer could see as he spoke the Rockies lifting their snow-crowned peaks thousands of feet in the air, could tremble as he looked into the abyss from the top of the stage coach, could feel the winds as they then swept the pines bearing a message of earth unfurrowed by plow, and forests virgin in their growth. The second of the roommates was Duncan, a Virginian, with his pleasant Southern speech drawling over his " r's," easy-going, gentle in thought and word. He had also wandered far from " Ole Virginy," and his eyes had gazed on much that is denied the stay-at-home. But far and away superior to these two both in age and experience, was the little old Englishman THE MERCURY. *3 Sammy Day. Born of parents who believed that all sport was) the invention of the devil, yet from boyhood up he' had evef. had an absorbing love of things athletic. Himself an athlete of no mean ability, a six day walker, one time champion of England, yet his great charm lay in the fact that for thirty-five years he had followed sport in all its forms. As a trainer of prizefighters, runners, boatpullers and cyclists, he had lived iotr thirty-five years knowing and known to all lovers of sport the country over. His reminiscences of the days when Heenam and Sayers pounded one another down to Fitzsimmons and* Jefferies, in San Francisco, would have filled a book and no small' book at that. Yet in spite of this strenuous life he was still at fifty five a hale and hearty man, ready and able to jump into a 9ix-day race and out-distance men young enough to be his children. The fourth member of the quartet was a boy of eighteen who had been a year in college and disappointed in that had started to see the world. Often of an evening would they sit the little old Englishman and the boy, and go over together the incidents of the Briton's strange career. Sometimes the story would be of England, land of roast beef and misplaced " h's," again of Milwaukee, perhaps of Frisco. But wherever it was there was a charm about the stories which has kept them green in memory and always will. Here on the banks of the muddy Ohio in that smoky, sweating town, they lived those four; not a square from their room ran the P. & L. E., the Little Giant of railroads, just beyond were the mills of iron and steel with their thundering rolls and ponderous hammers which knew not rest night or day, and the river a noisy thoroughfare with its coal barges and steamboats which made the night hideous with their " forty-wildcat-power " whistles Troubles they had none. Honest toil, however dangerous and unpleasant has no terrors; and they lived careless of what a morrow might bring forth. All were hourly in danger of their lives for their work was not the kind in which kid gloves were essential. Three of them never knew when they went in the morning whether they would return that night alive or dead. It was a time of unexampled prosperity and human life was J4 THE MERCURY. the cheapest commodity purchasable. Yet they drank light-hearted all except the boy whom they had nick-named "Johnny the Kid," and him they would not allow to touch, taste or handle. Now the besetting sin of " Sammy the Walker," was drink. Drink he would both to drown his sorrows and to in-crease his joys. While in this condition he fell down stairs one Hay and cut his arm so badly that he almost bled to death. A fjw days later while he lay in bed Duncan and the boy held a little converse with him which was as follows. " Ere's ow hit was" said Sammy. " Hi was going down the steps when they hups and its me hon the heye. The blooming bottles brake hand hi cuts me harm drefful." " Well Sammy" laughed Duncan, " you'll be up against it yet, you'll break your " bloom-ing" neck some day. "Yes" the boy said, "next pay day Duncan you buy a new black suit and I'll buy the flowers, and we'll lay old Sammy away to rest." "Aw me boy," said Sammy, "hi'll live to see ye both hunder ground." Sammy being fifty five and they being twenty eight and eighteen re-spectively, they laughed heartily at the old man's prophecy. But youth is not shielded from death any more than old age. For a few days after that they went about their work almost forgetting the joking prophecy. But one evening as the boy came in swinging his dinner pail he bucked right into Samrtiy at the side door of the hotel. " Ello Jack, ave you eard the news ?" he said " No ? Well Duncan is killed " he said, and the sadness in the old man's voice caused a choking sensation in the boy's throat. "Yes" Sammy said, and the tears welled up in his honest blue eyes, "E was struck by the 10.25 Flyer hand every bone in is body bruck, E just got hoff the freight to give them ha ighball when E was it." The news filled the boy with sorrow for only that morning he and Duncan had wrestled in bed to see which would get up first, and now Duncan lay in the morgue a mass of broken clay. His body was taken to his home in Virginia and never did these friends see his face again. But accidents such as this are common in the Pittsburg district and after a while he was almost forgotten. Nevertheless the boy remembered Sammy's prophecy, and was mighty careful around trains and the like after that. Today the old man is living, so is the boy and time alone will show whether the old man was right in his prediction. - II; ill: THE MERCURY. I 5 SHE was a Christian maiden fair, He was a lad of courage weak, And though he longed, he would not dare To kiss her rosy dimpled cheek. "What would you do," at last he cried, "If I should kiss you on the cheek ?" The flushing Nazarene replied "Like Him, I'd turn the other cheek." B. A. S. '06. MORE FORTUNATE ENDING TO ROMEO AND JULIET. STROHMEIER, '06. SCENE : Churchyard ; Tomb of the Capulets ; Juliet lying in an open bier. Enter Paris and a Page bearing a torch and flowers. PARIS—Give me thy torch and flowers; go and watch. If any man come hither, signal word. {Exit Page.) O fairest maiden of a fair found race, O Venus incarnated Juliet, Thou hope of Paris, pride of Capulet, Lift up the drawbridge of thy eyes and let Me look into their limpid, profound depths; Move thy sweet lips to their delightful office, And charm me with one long divine embrace. My love, my all, O hear me, Juliet; O vain and agonizing fancy, hold. Methinks I ne'er saw death so finely housed. Would I were death that I might live with thee ! Thou'rt made of more celestial clay than man, And death, love-smitten, can not injure thee. Faint roses struggle still upon thy cheeks And dewy freshness lingers with thy corse, Here will I strew these flowers o'er thy form, Intended to bedeck thy bridal bed, turn. I L. 16 THE MERCURY. That they may learn of thee what beauty is And by thy sweetness be alway preserved. {Page signals) A signal that. What interruption now ? Enter Romeo bearing a torch. By the Eternal! It is Romeo, That bloody leech, detested Montague! What makest thou here, thou loathed midnight ghoul? Art thou not satisfied with killing Tybalt ? With driving to her grave fair Juliet ? With striking anguish to a noble house? With stabbing to the heart Verona's peace ? But must thou from thy place of banishment Crawl like a serpent to this sepulchre To mutinous practice on these lifeless forms ? By Heaven ! 'tis too much. I'll have thy life. A churchyard. Ah, thou walk'st to thine own grave. Out upon thee. Montague, thy time has come ! {Draws his sword) ROM.—Peace be to Paris, and put up thy sword. What cause have 1 to free thy surging blood ? I love thee, though thou scorn'st my love, I love thee. Prithee, get thee hence; let me alone; Test not my full endurance. I am mad With desperation and am like to rend Both friend and foe, all who my way oppose. PARIS—Base coward; thou vile sneaking coward, thou ! Thy blade cries shame to thee— I'll hear no more. ROM.—Thy cloak is dearer to me than thy shroud; But since thou put'st a thorn into my flesh My nature strongly bids me pluck it out. {Druws his sword) Lay on. If fight thou wilt, then fight I must And no cessation till the one be dust! (Theyfight{ Juliet awakes. Enter servants to Paris and Romeo. Fighting still. JUL.—O dismal purgatory! Where am I ? What confused noise is this ? {Paris is wounded) i THE MERCURY. 17 Hold, Paris ; marry, what strange freak is this ? Is't judgment day that coffins spew their food ? Behold! see how the living dead arise, Art thou a spectre born of flesh and blood Or art thou what thou seemest, Juliet ? PAR.—Tis Juliet! 'tis she, my life, 'tis she ! Not dead! alive ! Run, boy, tell Capulet; If e'er thou ran, run now; be gone. Exit Servants to Romeo and Paris. JUL.—O, Romeo, thou'rt come and Paris, too, O frightful dreams of death and solitude, The narrow house, black night, vast boundless space. Methought that Paris too had died and sought My soul. Why, Romeo, why stand'st thou dumb ? PARIS.—Dear Juliet, say'st thou thou dreamt me dead ? O dire presage of this fatal night. O agonizing thought; my love returns Arid I must go! My wound, my wound. Tis not o'er wide nor deep, Yet through this mouth death drinks me up apace. 0 Juliet, my precious virtuous one, Permit my waning strength to succor thee. Ah, now thou stand'st in perfect loveliness. Would in the contemplation of thyself 1 could forget away grim Atropos! ROM.—Art thou real Juliet ? Give me thy hand, 'Tis warm and has the touch of Juliet! By heaven, doubting Thomas now believes ! Thy death was but a sleep, and God has tried The deep and concentrate devotion of My love. This dark, damp vault as vile as blackest hell Is now become a paradise to me. Foul smelling vial, spill thyself on earth. My Juliet lives, she lives, she lives ! JUL—O Romeo, that was my all in all, O Paris whom I pledged to substitute, _>-". I 18 THE MERCURY. How can I speak! My mind is but a blank Whereon my future must be writ in blood. 0 Paris, marvel not that Romeo, Should seem so kindly dispositioned toward My welfare. I will tell for thou shalt know; My husband stands before thee, Paris, he And I vowed mutual life devotion ere That fiery Tybalt fell in deadly fray Slain by 'th unwilling hand of Romeo. And this my death was but a drugged sleep To 'scape—O Paris thou art pale as death, 1 cannot tell thee more— PAR.— Enough ! enough ! My reeling brain will bear no more. O death Come quick and end this agony that tears My body and my grieved soul apart Stitch by stitch. (Sinks to the earth) ROM.—O joyous woe, O happy cursed night! Man's freedom is fast bound to fate like kite To boy ; and when th' ecstatic breath of joy Lifts him to soar the azure sky above, Some monstrous woe of fate pulls on the string. Fair Juliet renewed—there is my joy ; Another murder charged to Romeo— There is my grief. JUL.—But, Romeo, remember that the kite Sails only by the strong resisting hand Of him who governs it. And this our life, Were woe unknown, could never feel true joy. ROM.—Thou say'st well. I still hope there be good. But come ; let's hence away. If I am found Within Verona's limits I am nought. Come quick, I hear a noise ! Enter the Prince, Capulet, Lady C, Mantague, Lady 21. and Servants. LADY C.—That cheats the grave. O Juliet my dear where, where is she. My precious daughter, never knew I how --»-»ptf— --■ t -»- THE MERCURY. 19 *> I loved thee till thou failed my presence late. My child, my child, my precious child ! (Embraces Juliet.) CAP.—By Heaven ! Tis a fact. We'll take her straight To church. Where's Paris? Zounds ! upon the floor All bathed in blood ! By God, here's Romeo! That damned Montague. Hi! close the door, We'll keep this rat awhile. PRINCE.—Have peace, good Capulet. Compose yourself. Content thy feelings with rejoicing o'er Thy daughter, Juliet. Let's probe this strange and mystic scene. Who's there? (Enter Friar Lawrence with iron rod.) How now, good friar, wherefore art thou come So oddly armed to this unusual place ? FRIAR.—Good prince, my lord, let me defer reply To a more fitting place. I heard you speak Of probing this mysterious affair. Grant you me hearing and I'll dissipate The mist. This Romeo and Juliet are man and wife And wife— CAP. What sayest thou ? PRINCE. Peace, Capulet. FRIAR L.—Joined in my cell by me in marriage bond The very day that Tybalt met his doom. Then Romeo to banishment was sent, And Juliet pressed hard to marry Paris In sore distress to me came for advice. The matter was indeed most delicate And called for subtle treatment. Wherefore I Proposed a sly concoct of artful drugs' The taking which o'erpowers the drinker eight And forty hours, in which time she must Perforce of custom to the vault be borne. Meantime the news to Romeo I would send Jp- . 20 THE MERCURY. And he by night should come and take her hence Upon the hour of her awaking time. The maiden liked the plan and so 'twas done. But I failed in my word to Romeo And of myself came to unprison her. How Romeo and Paris happen here I know not. This is the truth of Romeo's fair wife And I will answer for it with my life. PRINCE.—Thou hast a name for truthfulness, good friar; Thy story seems a likely one and needs But only be confirmed. y ' I He speaks the truth. Paris.—(faintly) My kinsman, and my friends, give ear to me, Hear what a dying man has to request. First to the prince: my lord, bear no ill will To Romeo that he has here slain me, 'Twas in defence 'gainst my attack he drew His sword. And pardon him ofTybalt's death. I have whereof I know his cause was just. Would'st thou please me, restore good Romeo. O Capulet, O Montague, heads of Two feudal houses, let my last dull sight Behold how enemies can full forgive ; Entomb your grievances where Juliet Has left a casket unemployed. O Romeo and Juliet, my breath, Hard gasping, scarce will drag out slow my words. You have my benediction—fare you well! Friends all, good friends, do not my plea reject. Forgive, forget, love, cherish, and protect. ROM.—Beseech you, father, bury this vile hate. JUL.—For my sake, father, do what Paris bids. MON.—What say you, Capulet? CAP. Good, Montague! They clasp hands. The ladies embrace. Romeo embraces Juliet. 1 '* 1 W*Jf-< ■ - , -. - - THE MERCURY. PAR.—Now heaven take my soul; farewell, farewell! PRINCE.—Our blessing on you tor this deed of good. Like poisoned arrows in our heart have been The feuds of Montague and Capulet. And in the whirling vortex of your wrath That spread to fair Verona's utmost part, Two of our kinsmen perished ere their time. But if that now your peace be well performed The death of Paris is a blessing to our soul. This solemn charge I utter, then adieu : Let Romeo to Juliet be true And likewise Capulet to Montague. 21 (Dies.) WHEN ADAM AND EVE WERE KING AND QUEEN. B. A. S. '06. The Lord made Adam in a day, He did the best he could, And when he hung him up to dr3' He looked and said "'tis good." But Adam was a lonely chap, He pined all day at best, And even when he took a nap He found but little rest. Dame Eve to cheer him up was sent, His helpmate fair and tall, But then where'er poor Adam went He found no rest at all. JL 22 THE MERCURY. DEMOCRACY CAN EXIST WITH SOCIAL DIS-TINCTIONS. H. M. W., '06. IT is rather difficult to determine just what we mean by democracy, which is a term used to denote very many things, or rather very many degrees of the same thing. There are almost as many ideas of what really constitutes democracy as there are people in this grand product of it. We have it defined as "political and social equality in general;" as "a state of society in which no hereditary differences of rank or privilege are recognized." As to the latter part of the defi-nition there is no trouble in verifying it from our own experi-ence or observations. It is the law of our land and virtually rings true. The first part of the definition seems to be more concerned with the spirit of democracy than with the state or condition itself, as is the latter part, but even it slips over the vital point by adding " in general." The " political equality" we pride ourselves as a nation upon having, but the "social equality" is another question—in it we have the spirit of de-mocracy, and that is really the point at issue, for that this nation, the greatest example of democracy, is democratic in every letter of the law, and also that social equality does not really exist in the land, are two indisputable facts. Therefore, shall we conclude that the spirit of democracy cannot exist along with social distinctions simply because of the seeming contradiction in terms, especially when in this su-premely democratic nation two such apparently antagonistic conditions are calmly flourishing side by side ? Yes, this nation is supremely democratic in every letter of the law, but how about the spirit of the law ? Can such a thing exist, or is there such a thing as democracy, pure and simple? And are social distinctions in the way of an ideal state of democracy ? Is there such a thing as democracy—real democracy ? In answer, we may bring up all the so-called democracies of our day and those of the past as illustrations. They all have, or had, broad democratic principles as the bases of their constitu-tions— their foundation, equality in all things. For the posses- "MW" ~*WT- ■'»'/ ^*m •i WtiH1#*M THE MERCURY. 23 sion of which privilege and blessing, men sacrificed their all— home, dear ones, life. But in the very beginning of things there were social distinctions. No movement can progress without a leader. Leaders are men in some degree superiors of those they lead. They are made leaders because men recog-nize their superiority, which their elevation does not dim, but accentuates. It is in the very nature of things—they are made of finer clay than some other men—and " porcelain remains porcelain, and earthen, earthen" whether in democratic or aristocratic surrounding. Environment and heredity are always at work, and while they work, social distinctions must follow as an inevitable re-sult. Would men pay with their life blood for a thing which does not really exist, a mere idle sound, an empty symbol for equality ? What would citizenship mean in our nation today, if it were not for the democratic spirit and life at the very foun-dation ? The inward harmony, the result of real brotherly love, and the outward strength and glory, must have their root in the true democratic spirit at work in the heart, in spite of the superficial, social distinctions which nature herself has drawn. 24 THE MERCURY. MISTAKEN IDENTITY. •06. I. THERE was a small boy named Jeremy Brown, And he had a sister called Sue ; There was a young man named Levery Crown, The sister he came to woo. II. A brave little boy was Jeremy Brown, With burglars he wanted to fight,' So he bought a strong bow and sharp arrows in town, And slept with them every night. III. Young Jeremy's room was on the third floor, Right under was sister Sue's ; One night this brave lad had just started to snore, When a noise woke him up from his snooze. IV. He leaped from his bed, to the window he ran, With his bow and his arrows keen, Approaching the house he beheld a big man, And he wondered what it could mean. V. Something like a big squash the man held in his arm, With a stick stuck into the end, " With dynamite filled," thought the boy with alarm, " To blow up our house he intends!" VI. He fitted an arrow and drew back the bow, Then followed a twang and a whirr, " Ow ! Ow !" yelled the man who was coming below, For he thought he was jagged by a burr. VII. Faster and faster the arrows they flew, One cheek, then another was struck, And madder and madder the poor victim grew As he cursed his abominable luck. THE MERCURY. 25 VIII. He threw down his burden and started to run, Repulsed by his youthful foe ; When safely away he plucked one by one Thejarrows which pained him so. IX. When morning had come and the family had gazed On an object which they had found, This brave little lad was greatly amazed, For a guitar lay smashed on the ground. X. When Levery Crown came to call the next night, A plaster adorned each cheek, But Jeremy Brown did'nt think it quite right When Sue called him a " mean little sneak." ■ ODE TO THH PONY. Friend of our fathers, known of old, Steed of student of every clime, We fain would have thy praises told, Thy foot prints left in sands of tirne. Friend of our fathers, bear us yet, Lest we forget, lest we forget. The college halls grow gray with age, The president and profs depart; Few still live on, save thou and Page— Thou idol of the Freshman's heart, Pride of our course, trot with us yet, Lest we forget, lest we forget. The cribber bold that puts his trust In printed cuff, or pony's word— No tough exam by him is cussed, No vain regret fjom him is heard ; And ages still to come, you bet, Will ride on thee, lest we forget. —Knox College Annual.—" The Gali." THE lyrERcuRY Entered at the Postoffice at Gettysburg as second-class Matter VOL. XIII GETTYSBURG, PA., MARCH, 1905 No. 1 Editor-in-ch ief HARRIET A. MCGILL, '06 Exchange Editor MARY B. MCGILL, '06 Business Manager H. B. GALBRAITH, '07 Asst. Business Manager THOMAS FAUST, '07 E. VICTOR ROLAND, '07 Associate Editors H. F. SMITH, '07 CLIFFORD HARTMAN, '07 FRANK MOSER, '07 Advisory Board PROF. J. A. HIMES, LITT.D. PROF. G. D. STAHLEY, M.D. PROF. J. W. RICHARD, D.D. Published each month, from October to June inclusive, by the joint literary societies of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg) College. Subscription price, one dollar a year in advance; single copies 15 cents. Notice to discontinue sending the MERCURY to any address must be accompanied by all arrearages. Students, Professors and Alumni are cordially invited to contribute. All subscriptions and business matter should be addressed to the Busi-ness Manager. Articles for publication should be addressed to the Editor. Address THE MERCURY, GETTYSBURG, PA. ALL HAIL. EDITORIALS. The messenger of the gods enters once more upon the race course of another year. We of a new staff greet for the first time those who will be favored by his visits during the coming months. It has been said that no man can serve two masters, but we have great faith in the ex-ceeding cleverness of the messenger. Through him we hope to please two classes of our patrons; those who desire an in-tellectual journal in which the essay is more or less prominent and others who are crying out for something " in lighter vein." That our task will be difficult cannot be denied. Pardon our inexperience it is against us, but we are going to do our best, profiting by the example of the out-going staff, to whom we offer most hearty congratulations. /- THE MEKCURV. 27 THE PEN AND SWORD. It has been suggested that the " Pen and Sword " prize be given in a dif-ferent way. The competitors handing in to the MERCURY as many contributions during the year as they desire, each man of course retaining the same nom de plume for every produc-tion, and the prize at the end of the year being awarded to him who has done the most satisfactory work altogether. This method would give the competitors as many chances for the prize as they desired and would also be a great help to the MERCURY. It seems worthy of consideration. The articles handed in under these circumstances would be varied, short :stories and poetry being especially welcome, while the only condition laid upon the contributors would be that of original work for the MERCURY. We desire to publish no productions which have been read before a class or the public; twice told tales are rarely interesting. Upon the night of installation the editor had a strange dream which when told in all kind-ness may interest the future friends of the MERCURY. In col-leges as in the best regulated of families we know that accidents sometimes occur, and of course it is but an accident that ours is sometimes used as a shelter for certain kinds of quadrupeds. Unlike all their predecessors however, were those which in a ghostly herd loomed before the eyes of the terrified editor. They were grey in color with eyes of burning fire, and for lack of a better name can be called " Night Mares." Upon these animals rode the editors of our MERCURY'S past, headed by the recent editor who led a riderless horse. The editors seemed to be in a pretty bad condition, their garments were torn and they were bruised from the missiles which an expectant crowd in the distance had only ceased to hurl dur-ing the time when a new editor should mount the waiting steed. On close examination these missiles were found to be produc-tions which the editors of the MERCURY had been forced for various good reasons to reject or re-write, and in dread antici-pation the editor-in-chief awoke. A story with a moral is generally tiresome, how much more 50 must be a dream, yet for protection from a like fate we of 28 THE MERCURY,. the staff want to begin the new year with a statement and s request. We are your friends, contributors; we are also your servants and desire to please you. If the productions which you yield us could be better, could do you more justice, will you not be willing to try again ? Do not be hard on us, for the steed is not easy to mount and the missiles hurt. EXCHANGES. We are glad to see so many exchanges on our table this-month, and have read them all with pleasure. Keep up the good work. We will always welcome you. In this month's issue, the Durry " Mirror" has an attractive cut in red and white. The " Buff and White " publishes an excellent story, " Fay's Crystal," also a good essay on " Sailor life, as it is." The reading matter of the " Juniata Echo " is good but is-not the exchange editor a trifle too critical ? The girls' number of the " Bucknell Mirror " is well gotten up. The poems are especially good. The " Yale Scientific Monthly " has an instructive article on " Modern Railway Signal Practice." We are always glad to-see the " Scientific American " on our table and read " The queerest of animals" with great interest. The "Touchstone" is good. The underclass men seem to be doing the work in this paper. " The Red and Blue " contains some excellent stories and' essays, as do the " Argus " and " Lesbian Herald." We acknowledge with pleasure the receipt of the following papers—" The State Collegian," " The Manitou Messenger,"' "The Dickinsonian," " Grove City Collegian," " The Ursinus- Weekly," "The Student," "The Midland," "The Vialonian " and " The Purple and White." I'ATKONIZE OUK Ain'KKTlSEKS. FURNITURE '.vlaUresses, Bed Springs, Iron Beds, Picture Frames. Repair Work done promptly. Under-taking a specialty. * Telephone No. 97. IS. IB. Bender 37 B tltlmore St., Gettysburg, Pa. THE STEWART & STEEN CO, Jollege Engravers and (Printers 1024 Arch St., Philadelphia, Pa, MAKERS AND PUBLISHERS OF Commencement, Class Day Invitations and Programs, Class Pins and Buttons in Gold and Other Metals, Wedding Invitations and Announcements, At Home Cards, Reception Cards and Visiting Cards, Visiting Cards—Plate and 50 cards, 75 cents. Special Discount to Students. A Complete Encyclopedia of Amateur Sport Spalding's Official Athletic Almanac FOR 1905. EDITED BY J. E. SULLIVAN (Chief of Department of Physical Culture. Louisiana Purchase Exposition). Should be read by every college student, as it contains the records of all college athletics and all amateur events in this country and abroad. It also contains a complete review of Olympic Games for the official report of Director Sullivan and a resume of the two days devoted to sports in which savages were the only contestants, in which it is proved conclusively that' savages are not the natural born athletics we have heretofore supposed them to be. This is the first time in which the athletic performances of savages have ever been systematically recorded. This is the largest Athletic Almanac ever published, containing 320 pages. Numerous illustrations of prominent athletes and track teams. Price 10 Cents. For sale by all newsdealers and A. G. SPALDING
Issue 13.6 of the Review for Religious, 1954. ; Review for Religious NOVEMBER 15, 1954 Xaverian Pioneers . Brother Alois Address to Mothers General Arcadio Larraona ' Psychology .and Judging Others . Just November~r Always7 . Sister Mar~ Joseph N. Tylenda News and Views Book Reviews Communications Questions and Answers A Good Superior Index for 19S4 VOLUME XIII NUMBER 6 REVIEW FOR RELIGIO.US VOLUME XlII NOVEMBER, 1954 NUMBER CONTENTS XAVERIAN PIONEERS---Brother Alois, C.F.X .2.81 SOME SPECIAL PUBLICATIONS . 289 A GOOD SUPERIOR . 290 VOCATIONAL LITERATURE REQUESTED . 296 ADDRESS TO MOTHERS GENERAL-- Most Reverend Arcadlo Larraona, C.M.F. 297 OUR CONTRIBUTORS . 305 FATHER LARRAONA'S ADDRESS. . 306 FAMILY DAY . 306 THAT 'JUDGING OTHERS' HABIT IN THE LIGHT OF MODERN PSYCHOLOGY~ister Mary, I.H.M .307 NEWS AND VIEWS-- American Founders' Series; Congress in Canada; Notre Dame, 1953 310 JUST NOVEMBER---OR ALWAYS?~oseph N. Tylenda, S.J. 311 COMMUNICATIONS . ~ . 315 BOOK REVIEWS-- The Promised Woman; Pio Nono; These Came Home; Mediaeval Mystical Tradition and Saint 3ohn of the Cross . 317 BOOK'. ANNOUNCEMENTS . 321 NOTICE FOR PUBLISHERS . 324 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS-- 31. Establishing Dowry after Solemn Profession . 325 32. Plenary Indulgence "in the form of a Jubilee" . . 325 33. Relatives on General Council . 326 34. Mistress of Novices as General Councilor ." . . . 327 35. Retaining Office because of New Constitutions . 327 36. Books on Obedience . 328 INDEX FOR 1954 . 332 REVIEW FOR R~LIGIOUS, November, 1954. Vol. XIIL No. 6. Published bi-monthly: January, March, May, Ju!y, September, and November at the College Press, 606 Harrison Street, Topeka, Kansas, by St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas, with ecclesiastical approbation. Entered as second class matter January 15, 1942, at the Post Office. Topeka, Kansas, under the act of March 3, 1879. Editorial Board: Augustine G. Ellard, S.J., Adam C. Ellis, S.J. Gerald Kelly, S.J., Francis N. Korth, S.J. Copyright, 1954, by Adam C. Ellis, S.J. Permission is hereby granted for quota-tions of reasonable length, provided due cre~tit be given this review and the author. Subscription price: 3 dollars a year: 50 cents a copy. printed in U. S. A. Before writing to us, please consult notice on Inside beck cover. Xaverian Pioneers Brother A1ois, C.F.X. THE motto ,,o,f the Xaverian Brothers, Concordia res parvae crescunt--by harmony little things grow"--has been so perfectly fulfilled and demonstrated in [the history of the con-gregation that it is difficult to signal out o,ne Brother who was in any large way responsible for the growth ~f the order. It had no Saint Francis or Saint Bernard to attract !followers by the very force of his magnetic sanctity, no counterp.art of Mother Cabrini or Saint Teresa to solve financial difficultie~ with a holy wizardry and bring forth numerous foundations at ithe touch of his wand of faith. Theodore Ryken (Brother Francis Xavier), the founder of the institute, was indeed a man of gr~at holiness and of the deepest faith. To him alone must be the hqnor and glory for hav-ing conceived the idea of the Brotherhood land having brought it into actuality despite difficulties that wer~ unusually great even when compared with the hardships religio~,s founders have gener-ally met. But it cannot be said that he large!y influenced the growth of the congregation. In the plan of God tl~e very existence of the new foundation was insecure as long as Brother Francis Xavier ruled it and it became firmly established onl~r after BroW:her Vincent had succeeded him as superior general. The growth and spirit of the congregation can really be accredited only to a cooperative ef-fort. Down through the years and even n'ow it has been and is difficult to select many Xaverians who stan~d out from the others. Yet the body religious has achieved a certain prominence and has developed a particular spirit of~ Which it can be proud¯ Still it cannot be said that like a spiritual Topsy the Xaverian Brothers just grew. In this centennial year ih America the members of the congregation pay tribute not only to~ the group but also to some specific predecessors¯ And characterlstxcally most of the honor ~ . goes tO tWO heroic souls who were outstanding for neither their learning nor influence nor high positions no~ great achievements but only because they were holy, humble, obedi,ent, and loyal: Brother Francis Dondorf and Brother Stephen ~Sommer. To understand these men we must re)giew the not-too-well-known story of the foundation of the congregation. Theodore James Ryken was born in Elshout, North Brabant, 281 BROTHER ALOIS Review for Religious Holland, in 1797. Left an orphan at an early age he was brought up by a.pious uncle who instilled into theboy's character a great zeal for souls. He seems always to have been drawn to the work of Christian education, for he worked in his native land as a cate-chist and a lay.teacher in an orphanage. In 1828 Mr. Ryken entered th~ Trappist monastery at Stras-bourg, France, but in 1829 the monks there had to disband and abandon their monastery because of the anticlerical laws of the time. He did not choose to return to Holland for a long period, however, fo~ in 1831 he journeyed to America, planning to act as a lay cate-chist in this country. What he did during all of his three-year stay in the United States has not been completely established. We do know from extant letters that he spent at least three months work-ing with the renowned missionary Father Stephen Baden among the Potawatomi in the area around what is now South Bend. In private papers left by Brother Ignatius, th~ founder's first' disciple, we learn that Mr. Ryken supported himself at one time by work-ing as a porter on a lumber barge, carrying planks from dawn until dusk; at another time he sold oil as a street peddler in New York City. At still another time he served as an attendant on a bishop, probably Bishop Edward Fenwick of Cincinnati. In private papers that he left Brother Ignatius sums up this period thus: "Though his vicissitudes were many and great, he still took delight in structing those about him in the truths and practices of our Holy Religion whenever a favorable opportunity presented itself." The Founding Seeing the great need for Catholic teachers, Mr. Ryken con-ceived the idea of a brotherhood devoted to this work. He returned to Belgium and laid his plans before Bishop Boussen of Bruges. The latter favored the idea but seems to have required the founder to get the approval of the American bishops, because in 1837 Mr. Ryken again went to the United States for that purpose. In six months he had obtained letters of. approval from seven members of the American hierarchy and several prominent priests and he re-turned with these to Europe. He journeyed to Rome and from Pope Gregory XVI he obtained a blessing on his p~oposed foun-dation. He then went to Bruges, secured the necessary episcopal approval, and entered the novitiate of the Redemptor!sts at Saint Trond to prepare himself for his work. At the end of his probationary period the Redemptorists re- 282 November, 195~ XAVERIAN PIONEERS ported.favorably on Mr. Ryken's fitness, and on June 5, 1839, he established himself in a house on Ezel Street in Bruges and began to seek disciples. This date is celebrated as Fo'undation Day. But for a year Mr. Ryken was a founder without an order. Then on June 9, 1840, one, Anthony Melis, joined him and, as Brother Ig-natius, was always considered by the founder as his eldest son. But growth continued to be slow; in 1842 there were seven members, in 1846 only ten. In the original plan he drew for the foundation of the order, Mr. Ryken had innocently written: "Ten or twelve months after the foundation of the Congregation in Belgium, one of the Brothers is to proceed to America to prepare the house, buy ground and ar-range everything for the arrival of the first Brothers sent to Amer-ica . " Those "ten or twelve months" were actually to extend to fifteen years before the aim of the order could begin to be realized, but in the long meantime Ryken's faith, courage, and determination wavered not a bit. Brother Ignatius gives us a picture of the destitution the little group endured. "House furniture of any kind and the merest home comfortg were luxuries they enjoyed not. Even the very necessaries of life were sometimes wanting. The floor was for some time their only bed, old clothes their covering; an old deal box, their table; old bed-sheets, their curtains; and an empty, stove their winter's warmth." The founder made shoes to. obtain some income but for the most part they existed entirely on charity. They lived in an unpaid-for house hourly expecting eviction. The free school they opened in 1840 prospered but only added t.o the financial burden. Bitter criticism and strong opposition even from quarters where they had a right to expect encouragement added to the difficulties. Yet the band did grow. Another primary school was opened at Bruges and men were sent to a normal school at Saint Trond for professiohal training. In 1848 a school was opened in Bury, England, not to take the place of the American mission but be-cause Catholic education in England at that time was a true mis-sionary work and because the Brothers could improve their English there before being sent to America. In 1853 the Bishop of Louisville, Kentucky, Martin John Spalding, visited the Bishop of Bruges and through him met Brother Francis Xavier Ryken. Learning of his desire to send men to the United States, the Bishop contracted then and there for six 283 BROTHER ALOIS Reoieto [or Religious Brothers to teach in the parochial schools of Louisville. But when the Brothers reached Louisville they found that all their previous training in enduring hardships, and more, was needed to withstand the difficulties they encountered in the new country. Here they met a new kind of opposition, bigotry. Anti-Catholicism, instigated and spread by the "Know-nothings" and members of kindred organizations, was strong and active. In Louisville the fanatics who a year later, on August 5, 1855, were to instigate the terrible riots that resulted in the butchering of twenty-two Catholics and the burning of numerous Catholic homes, were thoroughly aroused by the coming to the city of these six mysterious-looking foreigners. Reports were circulated and even published in the news-papers that these men had come to train up an army to wage a bloody war on Protestants, that they had ammunition and arms stored in" their school. A thorough search of the place was demanded. After hiding their altar vessels in a cemetery, the Brothers dispersed. and lived a while with private families. Only after their school and living quarters were ransacked and the utter simplicity of their mode of life was proved to even the most fanatic opponent, could they reassemble. In contracting for the Brothers' services, Bishop Spalding had agreed to pay one hundred and thirty dollars a year for each Brother. This proved to be too little and it was impossible to get more; hence after four years the Brothers had to be recalled. But because funds were not available for passage for all and because--so tradi-tion goes--they were the most expendable, Brother Francis Don-doff and Brother Stephen Sommer were left in Louisville. Brother Francis That Brother Francis Dondorf was a Xaverian Brother was a miracle of grace--a flood of grace that attracted him to a very unat-tractive institute when he could have joined many more promising ones, and which maintained and developed that attraction when even the congregation itself misunderstood and rejected him. He was born in 1816 in Aix-la-Chapelle. His family was well off; his home and school training were good. At twenty-six he held a good position in the post office of his native city. But his heart was not at rest and he prayed for light to know what God had in store for him. Always most devoted to the Blessed Sacra-. ment, he was accustomed to make a visit when he passed a church. One day in 1842 on leaving the Cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle after 284 November, 1954 XAVERIAN PIONEERS one of these visits he struck up .a conversation with another man leaving at the same time. This was Brother Ignatius, Theodore Ryken'g first disciple, sent by him to Catholic- centers to seek re-cruits. As a result of this providential meeting, Francis Dondorf shortly after presented himself to the founder seeking admission to the new congregation. He was accepted and, following a pro-bationary period of a year and a half, received the habit on Easter of 1844. For two years Brother Francis attended the normal school at Saint Trond but was recalled then because of a shortage of teach-ers at Bruges. With Ryken and nine others he pronounced his temporary vows on October 22, 1846, but. when these vows ex-pired he was considered by the founder to be unsuitable for the life and told to leave the congregation. What later proved to be char-acteristic unobtrusiveness in community had been taken as morose-ness; what was only inexperience was judged to be lack of ability in the classroom. Grief-stricken, but with a wonderful courage and an unslackened devotion to and love for the congregatio.n, Fran-cis Dondorf returned home. Resolutely he enrolled at the normal school at Langenhorst in Rhenish Prussia to fit himself for his chosen and determined vocation. Two years later, without previous arrangement, he presented himself again to the founder for readmis-sion. He was accepted and pronounced his perpetual vows on De-cember 3, 1853. The next July he was chosen as one of the pioneer band emigrating to America. Brother Stephen Brother Stephen was born andreared in Attendorn, Westphalia. At fifteen he was apprenticed to a tailor and after four years took up that trade in Muenster. Attracted to youth work, even then, he formed a club for the young men of his area. He interested others in the work and they formed similar groups in other cities. Their achievements came to the attention of a priest, Father Adolph Kolp-ing, who offered to take over the direction of the work. The well-known and widespread Kolping Institute grew from this beginning. A chance reading of a newspaper story of the taking of vows by the founder of a new education society,in Bruges was the instru-ment of grace that awoke in Stephen Sommer a desire to make a like immolation of himself. He pondered the decision prayerfully for a year and at length applied for admission. He was accepted and arrived at Bruges on December 8, 1848, a very significant.date in view of his deep love of and abiding devotion to Our Blessed 285 BROTHER ALOIS Revleu~ for Religious Mother. He received the habit on April 2, 1850, and pronounced his vows on February 2, 18521 A man of great humility, Brother Stephen at first gave no ~n-. dication of the keen mind he possessed and was put to work as a tailor. The discoverer.of his intellectual ability--so the story goes-- was by one of those incidents that seem to be repeated in the histgry of every religious order. He was scrubbing a floor one day when two Brothers who were unable to solve a mathematical problem asked him jokingly whether he could help them. He arose from his knees, quickly and nonchalantly solved the problem, and returned to his menial work. When Brother Francis Xavier was informed of the incident, Brother Stephen was enrolled immediately at the normal school. In 1854 he was not chosen to accompany the band that set out for America but in 1856, when one of the original six died in Louisville, Brother Stephen was sent as a replacement. However, after Brother Stephen had left Bruges, the founder had written to Louisville recalling two of the men. The letter ar-rived before Brother Stephen and when he got there he found only three where he had expected five. Then, in 1858, because of the im-possibility of getting an increase in the annual, salary, two more Brothers were recalled. Brother Stephen and Brother Francis were assigned to Immaculate Conception school. They took up their abode in two small rooms at the rear of the classrooms and settled themselves to carry on in the face of any difficulties that could present themselves and for as long as obedience required them. For two years these valiant souls held the fort alone. Both humble, quiet, prayerful men, they must have been a pleasing sight in the eyes of heaven as they went through.their daily spiritual ex-ercises, did their househoId chores, cooked and ate their meager re-pasts, prepared their lessons and taught their classes. Heroically ig-noring every cause of discouragement; steadfastly resisting those who tried to persuade them to cast themselves off from the European foundation, which was precarious in itself and so very distant, and to join the priesthood or another band of Brothers; humbly living on the charity of a kind curate of the parish, they kept burning the flame of Xaverianism in America. In 1860 the pastor of Immaculate Conception parish visited Bruges to try to obtain an addition to the.community of two which was doing such fine work at his school. Brother Francis Xavier had by this time handed over the reins of government of the congrega- 286 No~embet', 1954 XAVER/)kN PIONEERS tion. By offering a salary of two hundred and fifty dollars a year instead of the one hundred and thirty, the priest won Brother Vin-cent's, promise of eight more Brothers; and soon these set out for the new land. It does not require much power of imagination to picture the joy of Brothers Francis and Stephen when they were again united with their Brothers in Christ. God was good, their faith had been justifie!! As His instruments they had labored as He saw fit, and great things could now come of His work. Of course a great new day did not dawn bright and clear at once. The Brothers still had to undergo numerous hardships. The ten of them, with several additions that came later, lived in ex-tremely cramped and poor quarters for four years. Knowing that financial conditions in Bruges were worse (in twenty years not a cent had been paid on the mother house), they made every sacrifice to save. Their usqal lunch was coffee and bread with molasses. They fasted on non-school days. Ultimately they were able to send to Brother Vincent the money needed to establish the congregation firml~ in its birthplace. On March 19, 1861, Michael Sullivan (later Brother 3oseph) entered the congregation as the first American postu-lant. 3ohn Quill (Brother 3ohn) entered before the year was over and others followed. Never startling, the growth nevertheless con-tinued steady. Brother Francis lived thirty-two years in religion; Brother Ste-phen sixty-six. They both had terms as novice master, but in those days that was hardly more than a side line. Brother Stephen, for instance, besides being novice master, was house tailor and a full-time teacher, too! They were both very successful teachers in class and in community. But it was their example as religious that, as far as we can judge, bad its greatest effect and for which they are held most in esteem in the congregation today. Closing Years Brother Francis was a stern character. One of the Brothers who taught with him as a young man tolff how, as they walked the half mile to school every morning, Brother Francis would ask him how he intended to teach his classes that day, would give him valu-able suggestions on the lessons, and supply him with anecdotes on 'the subjects involved. As a man of prayer and recollection he spoke only when good would be the result. In fact the Brother used to tell how a little, boy who had frequently seen them pass hollered one 287 BROTHER ALOIS Review for Religious day: "Look! that old man and his son never talk!" In class he was a model of efficient activity. Outside of class his only pleasure was in more work. On both Saturdays and Sun-days he gathered his boys for Mass just as he did on school days. The only difference was that Sodality and games rather than classes filled in the remaining time of the week-end days. He possessed a. good voice and delighted in teaching the boys hymns and songs, not.for the music's sake but because he loved the hymns and had a fund of songs that inculcated virtue and lauded goodness. Brother Francis, we are told, grew always in that love and de-votion to the Blessed Sacrament which we saw was the occasion of his first contact with a Xaverian Brother. In chapel he was an inspiration to all; after Holy Communion so rapt in love was he that he almost seemed to be in ecstacy. In. singing hymns the deep devotion of his soul was evident in his sincere voice, his intense expression, in the tears that frequently flowed down his cheeks. The Blessed Sacrament was the core of his existence, and the Brothers spoke often of how their own devotion to the Eucharist increased through just living with him. Like Brother Francis, Brother Stephen had a passion for work. A little man, weighing less than a hundred pounds, he nevertheless was always active. Even at the age of eighty-six he was the treasurer and bookkeeper for the large community in Louisville; he had charge of the bookstore of the high school and was tailor as well--"tailor" meaning not only that he repaired all the Brothers' clothing but made their habits too. This latter duty he had for fifty-one years in Louis-ville, Performing the tasks far into the night after a full day of teach-ing, paper-correcting, and lesson-planning. He was tenderly devoted to our Blessed Mother. One had only to see him recite her rosary or say her office to realize his heart was consumed with love for her. It is said that at the mention of her name such a look suffused his face that one would think he really saw her in glory. Brother Stephen possessed an excellent memory until the time of his death. He was extremely modest, refusing always to acknowl-edge he had done anything great in the obedience he had performed. Above all he was humble. Even as an old man past eighty, when-ever he thought he had been uncharitable to another he would kneel in the dining room before meals and publicly accuse himself and ask pardon of the one he thought he offended. Scrupulously conscious 288 No~ember, 1954 X&VERIAN PIONEERS of his vow of poverty, he opposed any innovation that smacked of luxury or worldliness. Even on his deathbed he was so distressed at the use of an electric fan which the Brothers rented to offset the terrible Louisville heat that it had to be sent back. He. objected, too, to a screenthey put in the window, fearing he would suffer in p,ur-gatory for the softness it indicated. He wanted to die as be had lived, a poor man of prayer. And so he did, breathing his last on September 19, 1911, revered by all as a saint. Brother Julian, the historian of the American Province of the Xaverian Brothers from whose work most of the information here is taken, fittingly sums ~ap the work of these two pioneers: "With the knowledge of saints, Brothers Francis and Stephen knew that God works silently and slowly: that perseverance in a cause, holy in itself, must bring success in time if faith but dominates the works. Today proclaims that they were right; and the present success and standing of the Community in AmeEca may be traced to these two holy men, who had naught but faith to sustain them, but hav-ing that had all that was necessary." (Men arid Deeds, by Brother Julian, C.F.X. [Macmillan, New York, 1930], p. 20.) SOME SPECIAL PUBLICATIONS Some twenty years have n.ow elapsed since Father T. L. Bouscaren, S.J., pub-lished the first volume of Canon Law Digest. The purpose of this work was t~ present the busy priest with all the official decisions on matters pertaining in some way to the canons in the Code of Canon Law and to present these in readable Eng-lish. The material was arranged in the order of the canons, and everything w~is carefully indexed and--wherever useful-~cross-indexed. After the publication of Volume I, supplements were published periodically: and finally, about ten years after the appearance of the first volume, the second ~,ol-ume was published. This second volume contained not only the material of the supplements but other new material as well. It is a pleasure for us to announce that Volume III of this interesting and valu-able collection of documents is now available. (Bruce: Milwaukee, 1954 Pp. xii+ 762. $11.) A special feature of this new volume is that it contains cumulatioo "indices, both chronological and general, of all three volumes. For religious, in par-ticular, we might note that the present volume contains the complete texts of the Allocution of Pope Plus XII on the religious life (Dec. 8, 1950), the quinquen-nial report, and the annual report. It also contains the text, without the foot-notes, of the Apostolic Constitution Sponsa Christi, together with the "General Statutes for Nuns" that were included in the papal document and the Instruction of the Sacred Congregation of Religious "for putting into practice the Constitu-tion Sponsa Christi.'" These are merely indications of the valuable material con-tained in the present volume of Canon Law Digest. (Continued on Page 306) 289. A ood perior ]N our March number (.pp. 61-62) we suggested that superiors and subjects pool their experiences regarding things that they had found to be of genuine help in the proper governing of a religious community. Response to this suggestion was very slow; and even up to this time we have hardly begun to get what we really wanted. Yet we have had some responses: one in the form of actual experiences, and two in the form of suggestions to print por-tions of notes that were found to be particularly helpful. We are publishing these now, with the hope of stimulating further re-sponses. A. Tributes of~ a diocesan communitg to a former superior general: Two years ago death claimed one of our sisters. She had been ~uperior general (for twelve years), mistress of novices, and a local' superior in our young diocesan community. We .asked our sisters to send us tributes to c6mpile a memory book, to be signed or not as preferred. ~ The traits that made this sister a successful superior, to judge by frequent mention in the tributes, were: Her kindness and under-standing, her personal interest in each individual, her respect for con-t~ dences, her punctuality and observance of rule, her sense of humor, her personal neatness. The following are some extracts from the sisters' tributes: "She was always keenly interested in every detail of the mis-sions, and she never forgot to ask about any of our dear ones at home who were iII or unfortunate. How she could remember about such details was amazing when one recalls how busy and overbur-dened with cares she was, and it shows the love and tenderness of her heart. "No matter how busy Mother was she wa~ always ready to listen to any 6f us--at any hour--when we approached her with problems and difficulties. Her words of comfort and encouragement have helped man~ a one over trying times. When an apology was made for taking up her time, she said, 'My time is for my sisters first of all.' " . . . "For various reasons Mother will ever be an inspiration, to me. Her great spirit of self-forgetfulness, her resignation and calm-ness in meeting with trials, and her great courage in facing diffi- 290 November, 1934 A GOOD SUPERIOR culties will be an incentive to all the sisters who wish to imitate her virtues ahd to some extent her great zeal for the honor and glory of God. "Her love and admiration for perfection in church music and singing will also be an inspiration to the sisters who appreciate the privilege and opportunity of practicing or teaching sacred music and liturgical chant. "Mother fully understood the meaning of the words, 'There is a time for work, and a time for play,' for she ever took a keen interest in the sisters' recreations, adding much to them herself. Indeed, her cheerfulness and hearty laughs would help make a sister forget her little trials and helped many a one to go back to her duties with new courage and vigdr." . . . "Nothing was too small for Mother's attention and consider-ation. When a sister had any kind of problem, she could feel that Mother would be sympathetic and would tell her candidly what she thought was best. She always showed the greatest prudence and discretion in each individual case and did not attempt to destroy what God and nature had begun, but tried to build upon it and perfect it." . . : "Mother was a shining example to us. In all her trials she set us an example to smile an'd be cheerful no matter what troubles we had. She practiced a holy resignation and child-like trust in God. It-was when the angel of death visited us and took from us one of our family that she showed her true spirit of charity and sympathy. In her conversation she would talk to you just the same as if they were her own." . . . "What I liked most in Mother was her interest in each siste) and her work. She was always ready and willing to listen to a tale of woe and sometimes made you laugh at. yourself. Her love for Our Lord in the Blessed Sacrament was clearly shown in the manner in which she prayed; and to listen to her read the medi-tation aloud was a real incentive to devotion to all." . . . "Thoughtfulness is a virtue that everyone admires. I think Mother's life Was a shining example of thoughtfulness. She never forgot nor overlooked the simple, little things. She seemed to take a personal interest in even the unimportant things about the sisters' life. She always remembered to ask about loved ones who were. absent or ill. She never gave the impression of being too busy with more important things to bother with a.ny sister's small worries. 291 A GOOD SUPERIOR Rewiew [or Religious "Her meticulous observance of the rule was ever a source of' admiration to me, while her soul-searching gaze filled me with awe and reverence." . . . "Mother had a most profound respect, for the encyclicals of the Holy Father; and her thoughtful treatment of all employees estab-lished good customs in the community. A man who had ~vorked for her years ago made the following statement: 'When I began working for the sisters I came in a borrowed suit; Mother bought me a shirt to go on duty. She had confidence in.me; she taught me to have confidence in myself and made me feel that I could be a success in life if I really wanted to be. I hope I will always feel that she would be proud of me.' " B. From the notes of a priest, experienced as a superior and retreat-director: 1. Obedience:- Superiors interpret the will of God to their subjects: this is a fundamental tenet of the religious life. When speaking to subjects, therefore, we always insist on the necessity of both exterior and interior obedience. But when speaking to su-periors we must insist on this: "Since your subjects must see ir~ you the representative of God, see to it above all tbing~ that you do not make this unreasonably difficult. Your conduct should be always edifying and above reproach, and your orders should be such as you have prayerfully concluded to be the will of God, not an ill-considered whim of your own. Christ said to Pilate: 'Thou wouldst have no authority over me if it had not been given thee from above'--meaning: the authority you have is not to be used independently, at your good pleasure; but it is given to you by God as a sacred trust." 2. Primac~j of the spiritual:--The chief duty of the superior is, in and through his government, to maintain the spirit of the institute, the .faithful observance of the Rule, so that he can hand on to his successor a community which has suffered no diminution of the religious spirit as embodied in this particular institut6. For this reason the superior must know the Rule thoroughly, the written rules, their implications, the tradition of the community; consequently he should fre~quently meditate upon the RuJe in his' mental prayer, endeavor to pentrate the mind of.the founder, whom he should look upon as one inspired by God to lead souls to per-fection along this .particular path. This maintenance'of the religious spirit is particularly difficult 292 Nouember, 1954 A GOOD SUPERIOR in our times. A revolution is going on, not'only in politics, art, and industry, but aIso in the moral outlook of men. There is a revolt against tradition, against submission, a craving for ease and comfort, for independence in judgment. Parental authority is at a low ebb. Men are eager for news, for sights and sounds. Calm of spirit, control of the imagination are diffcult; worldliness is in the air we breathe. Hence mental prayer is extraordinarily diffcult. Self-denial, "a desire to have less rather than more," is ~qually difficult. Even if these thingsare acquired in the novitiate they are apt to be a mere veneer that does not wear well amid the worldli-ness of modern life. Yet it remains true that the two props upon which the spiritual, and therefore the religious, life ,rests are prayer (chiefly mental) and penance (self-denial). Without these there can be no religious spirit. Therefore in his government the superior must see to it above all things that the spiritual life is in a flourishing condition. The spiritual life is not self-sustaining. It is kept alive and vigorous' by the constant, faithful, .daily use of the means, which are the spiritual exerdses prescribed by rule and custom. Therefore, again, every superior, in the interests of his own government, and in the highest interest of the institute, must see to it as a sacred duty that each and every one ot: his subjects is given the full time each day to attend properly to his spiritual exer-cises. No superior may, in conscience, assign such an amount of work, or such hours to a member of the community that the orderly performance of the community spiritual exercises becomes habitually or even frequently impossible. The call to the religious life is a call to religious perfection, first and foremost, and only secondarily to perform a certain kind of work to which this community devotes itself. 3. Interest in ~lounger members:- The training of young re-ligious is not completed when they leave the novitiate. Their ear-liest years in the active labors of the community may make or mar their whole future career as religious. All too often they are left more or less to their own devices, just as long as they do their work well. A good superior should be per,sonally concerned in furthering the development of the religious spirit in these young religious. I. 4. Interest in lagt brothers and s~sters:- Also, of special con-cern to the superior should be the lay brothers or sisters, those who do the housework. They and their bard work are sometimes not 293 A GOOD SUPERIOR Reu2ieu2 For Religious sufficiently appreciated by others. The superior should, try to hav~ first-hand acquaintance, with their peculiar difficulties, "and should see to it that they baye sufficient time for their spiritual exercises, that they get their regular periods of recreation, that they get suf-ficient rest, and that their living and working quarters are ~ade attractive and hygienic. 5. Interest in the whole communit~!:- A superior should not be absent too frequently from the community, and never for long periods. His subjects should know that be is around, keenly" and intelligently interested in all the departments of the house, and, though never snooping, .yet has his eyes open to observe what is going on. The members of the community should know that at certain hours, at least, they can always find him in his room or office, where he is easily approached (without any red tape) and ready to discuss their problems with paternal interest. Very likely there will always be some (especiaIIy in a large com-munity) who find it hard to deal with the superior. He should not be surprised at this or take it amiss; let him r~ther with un-feigned and unfailing kindness try to gain the confidence of such persons. Above all, he should not be swayed by human feelings against them. They are very quick to observe this, and it will ruin his chances of doing them good. 6. Aooid undue influence and imprudent talk:--A superior should keep in mind that he has been appointed superior, and there-fore that he should govern the community, and not another. Hence, be should avoid beifig unduly influenced by anyone--e.g., a former superior, or a flatterer, or one who tries to patronize, or one who "hangs around" his room or office and would like to "discuss" higher superiors or the retiring superior and his regulations or the shortcomings of the other members of the community. Let the superior wisely suspect those who, whether consciously or uncon-sciously, are "feeling him out" and trying to gain influence over him. Let him be very discreet in what he says about others (never gossiping with busybodies, and being cautious and strictly factual in information passed on to other superiors) as be may be quite certain that what he has said will before long reach the ears of the persons spoke'n about. Subjects resent fiercely being thus "discussed" behind their backs by the superior, especially with persons who have no business whatever to be parties to such a discussion. 7. Not too long in office :--The principle, "Once a superior, 294 November, 1954 A GOOD. S.UPERIOR always a superior," is wholly wrong and where followed it does great harm to community life. Being moved around from one house to another as superior is a selfish proceeding, detrimental to the best interests o.f the institute. It forms a sort of nobility, a caste; it k.eeps down excellent talent for governing among the younger gen-eration; it makes subjects lose respe9t for superiors who all too plainly like their position of eminence and will probably manage never to return to the ranks. An unselfish, humble, spiritual-minded religious who has served at most twelve years in office will be eager to go back into the ranks and into active work. If he is too old to do active work, then he is also too old for the exercise of strong, efficient, sympathetic gov-ernment in this modern world of rapidly-changing ideas. ~ A good superior who has deeply at heart the welfare of his in-stitute should esteem it one of his chief privileges to develop govern-ing talent in such of his subjects as he observes give promise of becoming good superiors. ,By judiciously" trying out the younger members in positions of trust and .responsibility, be should pick out those that show good judgment, tact, and resourcefulness: give them helpful, constructive criticism and endeavor to make them solidly-spiritual religious, humble, prayerful, self-sacrificing, de-voted to regular observance. To have been instrumental in develop-ing two or three such sterling characters for posts of authority is perhaps the greatest single.contribution a good superior can make to the welfare of his institute. C. A section from a retreat to superiors. This material "is based upon notes taken during a retreat gfuen b~t a French Jesuit, Father Thibaut. The heading of this particular section is: "He knoa)s not boa) to gouern a)ho ttnoa)s not boa) to love.'" If one does not love he does not know bow to govern others. Our Lord is our model in this kind of love: 1) In dealing with His apostl'es He ~hows us His solicitude for their spiritual life: "Keep them from evil." 2) He defended them against the Pharisees. 3) His love for His ~postles was paternal. 4) He radiated peace. 5) He tried to bring borne to them His iove for them. 6) He corrected them, but was always kind to them. 7) His love was evident in the externals: He fed the apostles: He foresaw their needs in order to care for them. 295. GOOD SUPERIOR 8) He brought out the relationship between governing and love in His thrice-repeated question to St. Peter: "Lovest thou Me?" Our love of our subjects should be paternal-~but, of course, on a spibitual basis. It should not be based on services rendered, but on the fact that they are children of God, consecrated to Him. It should not be partial because of their attractiveness or even because of their cooperation. Then we must give ourselves to them unselfishly. This de-mands great self-sacrifice, dominated by a great love for God. Not a cold love, but also not effusive to such an extent that it would seem to call for sensible return. Our love should be universal. This calls for limitless patience. Our sanctification may lie along these lines. Pray and tr~r to imitate Our Lord's love for them. Look be-yo. nd their defects and see their good qualities and bring them out. Encouragement is more conducive to good than corrections. All this calls for a great ideal. The supernatural must always sustain the ideal and influence others too. More is expected of a superior. "He who loves Me will be loved by My Father." "My little children . . . " etc. Note the warmth in these words. Our duty "is to represent God to the community. Not even infidelity "on the part of the subject is to take that love away. Christ loved often in the face of disloyalty, e.g., Judas. Jesus gained the affection of all the eleven apostles despite their differences. A superior may have to show more love to one than another, e.g., when a subject is in sorrow, or depressed, or in case of death in a family. Do specia! things f~r subjects at such times. This is not contrary to universal love. VOCATIONAL LITERATURE REQUESTED Sisters who have vocational literature in the form of booklets, pamphlets, or leaflets are earnestly requested to send samples of their literature to: The Mother General, Presentation Convent, Clyde Road, Rawaldini, Pakistan. These mission- . ary sisters wish to prepare some literature of their own to try .to attract aspirant~ in their" missionary ~erritory, as well as in Europe. Their work is mainly teaching, with a limited amount of dispensary work and visitation i~a refugee camps. Thiey have a novitiate in Ireland; their missionary work at present is confined to Pakistan and Northern India. 296 Address !:o Mot:hers General Most Reverend Arcadio Larraona, C.M.F. [EDITORS' NOTE: This address was given' by Father Larraona at the conclusion of the meeting of mothers general in Rome, September, 1952. We are publishing it with the permission of Father Larraona. For further information about the ad-drdss and about the proceedings of the meeting, see page 306.] !,~is not without deep emotion that I address you this morning. behold in you the hundreds of thousands of consecrated souls for whom you are responsible before God. Your presence here shows that you feel the full force of this great responsibility. Never-theless the thought of it should not excludi deep and trustful feel-ings of confidence. In your administration strive to imitate those qualities which we find in God's administration of ,the world, if we may so speak, that is, the qualities of understanding, far-sightedness,. kindness, and patience. If you work in this spirit, then have con-fidence that God will work for you and in you. I. REVISION OF CONSTITUTIONS:' In 1922, the S. Congregation of Religious ordered all approved religious communities to send in their constitutions for revision and, if need be, correction in the light of the provisions of the recently published Code of Canon Law. But even after this general obliga-tory revision of some thirty years ago, the S. Congregation does not necessarily feel that all the details of all constitutions must remain forever unchanged. Rome is ready to consider the advisability of, changes on certain points, provided the individual communities show good reasons for the modifications they wish to introduce. Rome wants this" evolution to be without spurts,or shocks--a genuinely vital evolution, imitating the growth and development of a human being[ Hence, the usual procedure is to require that all proposed modifications be first submitted to a general chapter, and that the. changes be approved, not merely by an absolute majority, but even by the moral unanimity of the capitulants. In this connection, the following particular points might be mentioned: Custom-Books The custom-books of religious communities, sometimes called "directories," are not approved by the S. Congregation of Religious except in a negative sense. That is to say the S. Congregation'ex- 297" ARCADIO LARRAONA Reoiew for Religious fimines these books in order to make sure that they contain nothing theologically or canonically erroneous, but does not approve them in the strict sense of the term. In this, the custom-books differ from the constitutions. Notwithstanding all their good qualities, it.is undeniable that custom-books, because of their detailed regulating of many aspects of" daily life, can and do become oppressive, or at least embarrassing. There are superiors of all types and temperaments, and some of them are unduly'a'ttacbed to the letter of the prescription, without con-sidering the spirit, and without thinking sufficiently of the end ar which they aim, an end which frequently can be obtained through the use of different means. Superiors may therefore legitimately make known their wishes to the S. Congregation of Religious. They should not fear to request such changes on the grounds that they will be thought to be unfaith-ful to their community traditions. Change in itself is not heresy, but it goes without saying that no changes should be proposed merely because they fall in line with the caprices or personal likes of an in-dividual superior. All changes submitted to the S. Congregation must usually bare the morally unanimous approval of the general chapter. In case of urgent modifications, the S. Congregation will take action even between general chapters, but with the obligation to submit the matter to the next chapter. The Religious Habit The Holy See leaves to every individual community full freedom of action regarding all the details of its.specific habit. The S. Con-gregation is interested mainly in maintaining the peace of mind of all religious. Peace and charity are of much higher importance than the advantages to be gained through 'improvement in some detail of the habit. Rome's only question in such cases will be: "Are you all agreed?" The modifications will be approved, provided they are supported by the general chapter, and provided the minority, if there be one, is not unduly obstreperous in its opposition. If that should be so, Rome would counsel patient waiting. The Abolition of Class-Distinctions The same principles are followed when there is question of re-moving from the constitutions the articles which set up different classes among the religious of one same community. Peace is the paramount consideration. Rome will approve the elimination of 298 November, 1954 ADDRESS TO MOTHERS GENERAL class-distinction, but only on the three following conditions: (a) that the change insures absolute equality of rights and obligations; (b) that the superiors be fully empowered to appoint any religious to any office, due regard being given to the .individual capacities of each one and the needs of the community; (c) that all the religious, irrespective of the class to which they may have previously belonged, contribute their share of effort in providing for the common needs of the community. Saving these principles, the abolition of the dis-tinction between classes will be approved by Rome, but the S. Con-gregation. will never use any pressure in order to bring this about in any particular institute. II. SUBSTITUTION OF THE DIVINE OFFICE FOR THE LITTLE OFFICE OF THE BLESSED VIRGIN: Through the constantly growing liturgical movement, there is an increasing tendency among religious communities of women to introduce the recitation of the Divine Office in the vernacular instead of the Little Office of the Blessed Virgin. Needless to say, the S. Congregation is favorable in principle to all proposals which' will insure a deeper and richer participation of religious in the sacred liturgy, since such participation brings them into more living contact with the Church. Nevertheless, all innovations must be worked out in a spirit of good balance and discretion. Again, nothing is com-parable to the advantages of peace in a community. The S. Congre-gation does not grant any general permission for substituting' the Divine Office in the vernacular for the Littie Office. Each individual institute must ask for it and submit its own particular reasons for so doing. Proponents of the change oftentimes forget that it is hardly possible that an entire community will react favorably to the innova-tion, and it is the responsibility of the S. Congregation of Religious to forestall discontent and opposition as far as possible. Consequently, the permission for the Divine Office in the vernacu-lar instead of the Little Office will be granted on request, with due regard to the following conditions: (1) that the reqfiest be sup-ported by morhlly unanimous agreement of the general chapter-- what causes trouble is not from God; (2) that the request be not in opposition with either the constitutions or the tradition of the community involved--sometimes the recitation of the Little Office is in conformity with a vow or promise made by the founder or foundresss; (3) that the apostolate of the sisters allow them time 299 ARCADIO LARRAONA Re~ieto [or Religiotts for the recitation of the Divine Office without unduly 6verloading their dhy. This does not mean that the S. Congregation always . drives with its brakes on--but everyone knows that it is dangerous to drive without brakes. III. THE DIFFERENT STAGES OF FORMATION: 1. Apostolic Schools Apostolic schools are of comparatively recent origin, the earliest of them dating from about the middle of the last century. They were first introduced in institutes of men: but they have now become increasingly common in reiigious communities of women. The Holy See has issued practically no legislation on the organization of such apostolic schools. The S. Congregation is patiently awaiting, the guidance of experience. These apostolic schools are not permitted by the S. Congregation for cloistered nuns or for religious whose lives closely approgimate to that of cloistered nuns. This is not a real law of the Holy See, but rather a guiding norm, based on Rome's desire to avoid any sem-blance of pressure ' when there is question of a vocation calling for such special qualities as those required by the contemplative life. The S. Congregation regards apostolic schools as internal schools of a religious community. This point is of canonical importance in determining the degree of freedom to be allowed the community in the organization and administration of these schools: (a) those which do not require any actual, signs of vocation to the religious life; (b) those which demand at least the seeds of vocation to the religious life; (c) those which require signs of a vocation to a speci-fic type of religious life. In any case, the organizati6n and rules of an apostolic school should not lose sight of the fact, that the girls in them are young. The atmosphere as far as possible should be that of a family. The apgstolic school should not be turned into a noviciate in miniature. There should be nothing to interfere with the full freedom' of the candidates in the final determination of their vocation. The pro-gram of studies should not be so highly specialized as to make ad-justment to a different type of life outside difficult. Teach the girls, first of all, to live good Christian lives. No asceticism at the expense of the moral law. Avoid whatever might even remotely result in deformation of the natural qualities and virtues of the candidates. 30O November, 1954 ADDRESS TO MOTHERS GENERAL 2. The Postulate The postulate is obligatory for all women religiousl It must last at least six months. If .the constitutions prescribe a postulate of one year, the six months' prolongation is still permissible. The maxi-mum length of the postulate in any community is eighteen months. Rome does not want the decision as to admission to be delayed too long, and this is why the time limit is imposed. 3. TOe Noviciate Rome will easily grant permission to have two years of noviciate instead of one, if the same conditions are complied with as those pre-viously mentioned in other connections. But if such permission is granted, the chan~e becomes obligatory and superiors have no faculty to dispense from any period of this two-year noviciate. It makes a bad impression on the S. Congregation when a community advances good and cogent reasons for two years in noviciate, and then almosf immediatHy begins to ask for dispensations from the change which the community itself requested'. The S. Cgngregation permit~ the employment of novices in works of the institute during the second year of noviciate. This was a courageous step, which at first seemed to some people to be in 9pen conflict with the fundamental spiritual purpose of the noviciate. The reason is that today no formation can.be regarded as complete with-out some concrete, contact with the apostolate. During such employ-ment the novice remains a novice. She must be given to understand that she is still on probation, even though she be outside the novici-ate. She should be under the supervision and guidance of an ex-perienced sister, since the superior of the house, unless it be a small house, will ordinarily be too absorbed with administrative details to give her tbeOtime and attention required by her special situation. Tbe use of novices during the second year must be motivate~t by the wel-fare of the novice, not by the needs of the community. During this period she is given a chance to prove bet qualities, and to learn un-der supervision how to use the apostolate as a means of personal sanctification. She should be protected and safeguarded without be-ing mollycoddled. Superiors should not forget that when young religious are taken from the hothouse atmosphere of the noviciate and sent out indiscriminatdly into houses where, so to speak, all the windows hnd doors are open, they cannot fail to catch cold. 4. The duniorate In the' noviciate the formation of the religious is begun. In the 301 ARCADIO LARRAONA Review For .Religious juniorate it is continued, though not with the detailed program of the noviciate year. The juniorate is an initiation into the apostolate, while the young nun still remains under the safeguarding influence of supervision and guidance. The juniorate is intended to forestall/ the catastrophes which have sometimes befallen young professed sis-ters who were sent into the active life without any transition period to prepare them for the special problems confronting them in that life. Sisters in the juniorate are in a kind of middle stage of forma-tion, in which they are not subjected to the restrictions of the novici-ate in all their rigor nor yet allowed all the freedom of perpetually-professed religious. At the same time they are provided with an op-portunity to integrate their technical training with the demands of their religious vocation. During the juniorate, whatever may be the special form it may take, the sisters should be under the close-range guidance of experi-enced and capable religious. Unless a house is specifically set up as juniorate, the superior will ordinarily not be in a position to carry out the functions of mistress of juniors. The duration of the juniorate will depend on its intensity, the duration increasing accord-ing as the juniorate is less intense. All communities could at least provide their temporarily-professed sisters with special courses and help during the summer vacation. There is no objection to the juniorate's lasting for the entire period of temporary profession. The ideal is a specifil house, for those communities which can provide one. The threefold aim of the juniorate is: formation, practice, pro-bation. IV. RELIGIOUS PROFESSION: The S. Congregation is ready to allow up to five years of tem-porary profession, ~vith the possibility of an extension of one year. No temporary profession can be extended beyond six years, according to the Code of Canon Law. The reason is that if a sister has not succeeded in satisfying her superiors as to her vocation during the period of postulate, noviciate, and six years of temporary vows, it is hardly probable that she will be able to pro.vide this satisfaction in an extended period of probation. Rome views with favor the so-called "third year of probation," which can be organized either immediately prior to perpetual pro-fession or at some later period after time spent in the apostolate. In whatever form it is organized, the third year of probation has in- 302 ADDRESS TO MOTHERS GENERAL calculable advantages. Nevertheless, although it is highly recom-mended, it is not in any way 'imposed by the S. Congregation. V. THE VOW OF POVERTY: I should like to have time to go over with you each of the vows of religion. Time does not permit, but I cannot resist the desire to say something to you about the vow of "poverty, which is the bul-wark and safeguard of the religious spirit. At the Congress at Notre Dame, after a splendid paper on poverty and the common life in present-day America, a sister asked whether custom could justify the keeping of personal gifts, etc. The speaker, a Dominican Father, replied immediately that neither custom nor any superior could legiti-mately give a permission which might run counter to the demands of the common life. No superior can allow what is against the spirit of poverty. It is important to cultivate disinterested motives for zeal in the apostolate. The ministry, in no matter what form it is ex-ercised, should be emptied completely of all concern over personal gain. It is a fact. of experience that zeal oftentimes diminishes in proportion as interest in personal aggrandizement increases. VI. GOVERNMENT : 1. Elections Sisters often fall into one or the other of two extremes in chap-ters: either they organize a real electoral campaign for or against a religious, or they go around in a state of unconcerned passivity. Canon Law forbids electioneering or anything approximating it. But good sense demands, especially in congregations with worldwide ex-pansion, that the electors take means to assure themselves of the qualities (health, virtue, experience, ete.) bf the candidates for the various offices. The line of demarcation between asking for infor-mation and organizing a campaign is not always too clear, but it can usually be made clear by the good sense and virtue of the religi-ous themselves. It should not be forgotten that a half-vote is sufficient to con-stitute the absolute majority (for instance, 17 votes out of 33 is an al~solute majority). It is not required that the majority be con- 'stituted by one vote more than half. 2. Re-elections Canon Law sets no limit to the' terms of major superiors but leaves this to the constitutions. The S. Congregation is not only ~ 303 ARCADIO LARRAONA Reoiew for Religious not favorable to election beyond the terms provided in the constitu-tions, but it is opposed to it on principle. Superiors and capitulants should remember that they, no less than their subjects, have in ob-ligation to observe the law of the Church. Perpetuation of indi-viduals in office tends to prevent the formation "of capable superiors or makes it necessary for them to be chosen from within a closed circle. Other things being equal, the S. Congregation definitively prefers the election of a new superior rather than the re-election of the one inoffice, when the term fixed by the constitutions l~as ex-pired. In case of a superior general, this re-election is called postulation, and requires a two-thirds majority of the chapter. Some constitu-tions forbid all postulation. The fact of having the two-thirds ma-jority must be accompanied with sufficiently serious reasons to influ-' ence the judgment of the S. Congregation. The reasons will be judged with severity, and the confirmation of re-election after the term fixed by. the constitutions will constitute a rare exception. 3. Admission to Profession The freedom to refrain from perpetual profession is mutual on the part of both the institute and the subject. The sister may leave, and the community may refuse to admit h~r to perpetual profession. Such refusal may not be motivated by ill health, unless there is proof that the illness was fraudulently concealed or d~ssimulated prior to first profession. It is not necessary that this deceit or dissimulation should have come from the religious herself. A religious suffering from some hereditary disease which has been concealed from her by her parents may be refused admission to profession on this score, even though the deceit did ndt come from herself. The language of the Code is purely impersonal. There are difficult cases of ineptitude coupled with ill health. If the ineptitude is in any way connected with the ill health, then the rule is the same as for a religious in poor health; she cannot be dismissed 6r refused admission to final vows. If it be simply inepti-tude for the works of the community, then the community enjoys perfect freedom, since the period 'of temporary profession was in-tended precisely to determine whether or not the subject is able to make a' contribution to the apostolate of the institute. 4. Exclaustration An indult of exclaustration suspends the canonical obligation of 304 November, 1954 ADDRESS TO MOTHERS GENERAL the common life for an individual religious.It entails dispensation from the points of rule incompatible with the new status of the re-ligious, forbids tier to wear the religious habit, and deprives her of active and passive voice for the period of her stay outside the com-munity. If there is no scandal, and especially when the reason un-derlying. the exclaustration is not one for which the religious is re-sponsible, 'Rome may, with the recommendation of the superior, permit the religious to retain the habit. The religious, however, has "no right to demand such peimission. Exclaustration is a favor, not a right, and the religious has the obligation, to return whenever the superiors so wish. Superiors cannot allow subjects to remain outside the com-munity, except for purposes, of study, for more than six months. This residence outside the community is not the equivalentof ex-claustration and thus does not entail a.ny o'f the restrictions men-tioned in the., preceding paragraph. Such residence is not favor~l. Any situation demanding the residence of a religious outside her ~ommunity for more than six months is, generally speaking, a dan-gerous situation. Exclaustration "ad nutum Sanctae Sedis"--at the good pleasure of the Holy See--is a measure adopted to cope With those situations in which a religious shows enough malice to be impossible to live with and yet not canonically sufficient to justify dismissal. Often-times these cases involve a eertain degree of mental weakness: un-balanced enough to be impossible, and not unbalanced enough to be locked up.' In such cases the S. Congregation orders exclaustration, with all the above-mentioned restrictions, and the exclaustration perdures as long as Rome so wishes. The institute is obliged to assist in the maintenance of the religious. The present practice of the S. Congregation demands, under pain of subsequent invalidity of the rescript, that all rescripts for dispen-sation from vows be definitely accepted or rejected within ten days of the date the subject is notified of the granting of the rescript. OUR CONTRIBUTORS BROTHER ALOIS is an instructor in religion and Spanish at Archbishop Stepinac High School, White Plains, New York. SISTER MARY is professor of psychology at Marygrove College, Detroit, Michigan. JOSEPH N. TYLENDA is making his philosophical ~tudi~s at the Jesuit House of Studies, Spring Hill Sta-tion, Mobile, Alabama. 305 SOMI~ SPECIAL PUBLICATIONS ¯SOME-SPECIAL PUBLICATIONS "_. (Continued from Page 289) One further observation about Canon Law Digest. Volume III includes docu-ments published up to December 31, 1952. Hereafter an annual supplement will. be issued in loose-leaf form. The supplement for 1953 is now in the press. An exceptionally useful book for all who catalogue Catholic books is An Al-ternative Classl/ication /:or Carbolic Books. This book, originally prepared by 3eann~tte Murphy Lynn, was first published in 1937. Previous to that, libraries with large collections of Catholic literature had to fit the. books into inadeq;u~a:te' classification schedules. An Alternatit~e Classitication offered a new and satisfa~t.~ry" way of cataloguing Catholic books that could be used with 'the Dewey Decimal or, especially, the Library of Congress classifications. A second, and revised, edition, of this valuable technical work has now been brought out by Father Gilbert C. Peter-son, SJ. A special feature of this new edition is the fact that the index, originally fifteen pages, is now forty-two pages. Also the list of religious orders and coiagre-gations is extensive; in the case of institutes of women, the date and place of founding is given, and, if they came to the United States from another country, the date of the first foundation in this country is given. The price of the book (cloth, 512 pages) is $10.00. It can be,obtained from the Catholic University of America Press, 620 Michigan Avenue, N.E., Washington 17, D.C. FATHER LARRAONA'S ADDRESS Fatfier Larraona's address to the mothers general is one of the clearest and most important statements of the mind of the Church concerning the government of re-ligious. In publishing it we have followed, ~ith some slight changes, the English version that appeared in Acta et Documenta Congressus lnternationalls Superiori.s-saturn Generalium (Rome, 1952). This publication of the Sacred Congregation of Religious is printed and distributed by the Pious Society of St. Paul. which has establishments in many countries. The volume contains the proceedings of the convention of the mothers general in five languages: Italian, French, English, Spanish, and German. In this country it can be obtained from the Society of St. Paul, 2187 Victory Blvd., Staten Island 14, N.Y. For a more complete understanding of the mind of the Church, one should also read three addresses of Pope Plus XII--to religious men (Dec. 8, 1950), to tezch-ingsisters (Sept. 13, 1951), and to the mothers general (Sept. 15, 1952). The last-mentioned address was published in REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, XI (Nov. 1952), 305-308., We hope to publish the other papal addresses later. FAMILY DAY The Family Communion Crusade is again sponsoring an international Family Communion Day. The Feast of the Holy Family, ,lanuary 9, 1955, will be ob-served by hundreds of thousands of families in more than forty countries, with family group Communion and family consecration to the Holy Family. The aim this year is particularly to obtain prayers for the persecuted nations behind the Idgn Cuitain. Those who wish to join in promoting the Family Commimion Day can obtain further information, literature, etc., from: Family Communion Crusade, 10 Farm .View" Road, Port Washington, N.Y. 306. . That: ",Judging Ot:hers" Habit: In t:he Light: ot: Modern Psycholog Sister Mary, I.H.M. THE ideal of religious life suffers from many weaknesses in our | human nature, but it" probably suffers from none more than in the ever-present desire to judge the other person. Our Lord l~as warned us against l~his weakness with a threat--Judge not that ~,9u be no~ judged--and yet we persist in doing it. Sometimes it becomes so much a part of the daily fabric of life that we are no longer aware that we do jti~lge other people. Habits of judging are usually formed in childhood, long before what can really be called "social feeling" has debeloped. Only the most careful and spiritually enlightened training offsets the forma-tion of such habits--and even then probably only partially. With the dawn of conscience and still later in adolescence with the de-velopment of social insight and appreciation, charac(~r, training can do much to eradicate or, perhaps better, to supplant the "judging-others" habit. Su?ely, a realization of the doctrine of the Mystical Body and of Our Lord's own commandment which He has made the first law of living together, "that you lox~e one another as I have loved you," should sound the death-knell of unkind judgment for all Christians, and especially for r.eligious._ Yet, as we know so well, it does not. It has always seemed to me that in the pettiness of mind and interest in trivialities which follow the "judging-others" habit the devil gets in his most successful innings. How-ever, this is not the aspect of the problem I am interested in dis-cussing. This aspect is rather, what the "judging-habit" means psychologically. The understanding of. this will, I think, throw light on wbg Our Lord condemned it so rbundly and wb~t, also, He makes our judgment ofothers the norm 5ccording to which He will judge us. ¯ Modern psychiatry has a useful technique which it u~es. ih analysis. This te[chfiiqfie. is from Freud, incidentally, although" the mechanism.itself is part of even Aristotle's psychology. I refer to the mental-mechanism which w~e learned to call .association. in' psy-chology. Freud cMled his tech'nique "tYee association. His theory is that if a person allows his mind to wander freely it will con~i~ct 307 SISTER MARY Revietu for Religious up with past experiences which, though normally forgotten, are still much alive in the unconscious mind. Every religious knows this process well--it seems to be at its best durihg meditation. In setting forih his theory of analysis t'hrough free association Freud liked to start with the material of a dream. Psychiatrists today use many other types of material: daydreams, memories, emotionally toned experiences, etc., as starting points for analysis. Apparently what we start with is not too important. But all who use the tech-nique are agreed with Freud's basic principle: the person who makes the association is the person who is anal~tzed. In this connection, a story once told me by Dr. Thomas Verner Moore (now Dora Pablo Maria) will illustrate the principle. A young doctor, a fallen-away Catholic, read a paper analyzing Charles Darwin at a psychiatric meeting. The young man was well known to Father Moore as one who had repudiated all moral principles both in his professional practice and in his private life. Moreover, lie seemed to take a special delight, whenever Father Moore was present at any rate, in finding some way of ridiculing the Church and Cath-olic. beliefs. However, in his paper on Darwin he limited himself to the subject. He had taken passages from Darwin's writings and, using free association on these, bad built up an astounding picture ot: Darwin as a libertine and even a pervert. (The facts of Darwin's ¯ \ private life actually reveal him a~ a loving father and husband who devoted himself to his family through and outside of his scientific work.) Discussion was limited to remarks expressing surprise and even admiration of psychiatry's revelation of Darwin's inner soul, until the chairman called on Father Moore for his comment. He, too, expressed great surprise at the immorality attributed to Dar-win and then said: "But I must in defense of the absent Darwin call attention to the very important principle at the heart of all analysis by the method of free association which apparently Dr. X has overlooked. It is this: in an analysis the person to be analyzed must make the associations. Since in this analysis, Dr. X made all the associations, the analysis is, by definition, that of Dr. X rather than of Darwin." " Now in our judgments of one another we begin, at least usually, with some action, or look, or statement of our neighbor. Then, as we. say, we "interpret" it. Really this interpretation is.a free asso-ciation of its meaning to us. The material .for it is drawn from our own experiences, our own feelings, attitudes, and ideas, our own 308 November, 1954 JUDGII'~IG OTHERS unconscious mind. And so in the judgment, we have revealed no~ our neighbor but ourselves. The injunction of Our Lord then is intended to protect our neighbor--and He threatens that He will place the judgment back squarely upon our own shoulders. The psychiatrist would say today, "Justly so. For you have judged yourself." How much th~ little-heSS, the jealousy, the short-sightedness, the bitterness, the hostility of human nature can give vent to (and at the same time do the devil's work')" through this simple mechan-ism! It, as we said before, can become so easily a part of our every-day- way-of-doing things. We use it on equals; alas, we use it on superiors, our spiritual fathers or mothers in religious life; and--a ¯ greater alas (because of their greater grace of state), superiors use it on their subjects, their spiritual children. Snap judgments; judging a whole area of life and intention from a single fact or incident; setting in movement a whole set of causes which shape a life and its work for Christ on the personal interpretation of a word, an action, an idea, or even a fault, are ways in which the mechanism works practically. If this one principle of Our Lord's, together with the mechanism of free association whereby.we violate it with such blind security, could be understood, what a difference it could make in social living! The application of that commandment whereby all men are to know that we belong to Christ would be much easier ! Psychology would give us another helpful hint in this matter. Since, when I judge another (let us say Sister Y), I do not really judge Sister Y but rather myself, this judging-others habit becomes an open book in which I can read myself and know 'my weaknesses and strengths. Our Lord is good to let us have so simple a revela-tion' of self always handy. Used aright, that is on one's self instead of on one's neighbors, the motives and the matter for speeding along the road of virtue should be plentiful. Our Lord exhorts us in another place to "judge just judgments." A true'judgment requires not "free association" but objective.truth and sound reasoning on prir;ciples. This is probably why the Holy Spirit in Ecclesiasticus so definitely connects wisdom and justice: He that possesseth justice shall lay hold of her . . . with the bread of life and understanding she shall feed him and give him the water of wholesome Wisdom to drink. "Judging just judgments" will require: (1) that we use all natural sources of knowledge, (2) 309 NEWS. A.ND V~ IE.WS ., t.ha.t we discipline the tendency to use undisciplined association, imagining it to be understanding, and (3) that. we call upofi those g!fts of the Holy Spirit, which we all possess, supernatural knowledge, .u.nderstanding, and wisdom. So often these lie like great untapped r.e.serves of grace and power on the outskirts of an all too busy and natural life. Certainly the first step towards this final goal of "just judgment" is to master completely the "free association-- judging-~babit." News and Views American Founders' Series "Xaverian Pioneers," in our present number, is the first response to our suggestion for an American Founders' Series (cf. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, XIII- [March, 1954], 62). We should like to re-peat the suggestion that good biographies of American founders would make both interesting and profitable reading. But we must also repeat that what we want is the story of American founders: that is, religious who either founded an institute in the United States or Canada or extended an already-existing institute to these coun-tries. For instance, the Xaverian BrotBers were founded in Belgium, but stress is rightly laid in the present article on the brothers who pioneered the establishment of the congregation in this country. Of what should such biographies consist? To answer the ques-tion negatively, let us say that the objective of this series is not to have panegyrics or pious table reading. The biographies should be factual and should bring out the character of the founder and the spirit of the institute, as well as the purpose or purposes that the institute is supposed to serve in the mission of the Church. Length of biographies? For our purpose, about four or five thousand words would be ideal. Nevertheless, we do not wish to confine authors to such a strict limit; after all, the real limit of an article ought to be ~the space required in order to do justice to the subject. Hence, shorter biographies would be acceptable, and so would loffger ones--up to, perhaps, eight thousand words. It seems advisable, also, to repeat here some of our previous sug-gestions regarding the style of the manuscript. 1) Every manuscript should be neatly typed, at least double (Continued on Page 329)" 310 '.Just: November--or Always? Joseph N. Tylenda, S.J. DOWN through the centuries, the Church Militant has pr'ayed for the souls in purgatory; this is evident, above all, from' the history of the Mass. However, it is not our purpose here to discuss the historical aspect of the devotion, but rather to show that this devotion should be an. integral part of the life of every religious. All religious, by profession, strive not only for their own sal-vation and spiritual perfection, but also for that of their neigfibor~ Reality is such a mesh of complex intertwining threads, each strength-ening and supporting the other, that we cannot divorce striving for personal sanctification from working for that of our neighbor. It is not in the tradition of the saints that we should first become per-fect and then work for the neighbor; rather the two should normally proceed simultaneously. Here we wish to stress that it is by work-ing for the sanctification of all souls, not only of those on earth but also of those in purgatory, that we ourselves reach our perfection and attain our salvation. It is by giving that we receive; by leading others to sanctity we can help sanctify ourselves. The need to pray for the Church Militant and those still not members of the Mystical Body is quite apparimt, and no one ~vould deny it. Equally so, no one would deny that the ~ouls in purgatory have need of our prayers; but is the need of the latter as, apparent as that of the former? Because members of the Church Militant still run the risk of losing heaven, some may conclude that they need all our prayerful efforts. As for the members of the Church Suffering, they are assured of beatitude--they have only to wait for it. It would be idle to argue which group needs our prayers more, but we can at least point out that the members of the Church Militant can help themselves, whereas those of the Church Suffering are en-tirely dependent upon the prayers of the living. In this article, then, we are going to consider the reasons why prayer for the souls in pu.rgatory has a place in the spiritual life of a religious and, coupled with this, we shall examine the effects that such a practice has upon the spiritual life of the religious himself. ' Itcan be said that the suffering souls have a claim ~o Our prayers in their behalf. Some of them may found this claim on certain spe- 31i 'JOSEPH N. TYLENDA Review for Religious cial ties; others can appeal o61y to our charity. We are not bound by any special ties to pray for all the dead, but surely we do have such special ties to our dead relatives, fellow religious, extern friends, benefactors, students, and others; and as a consequence, we are under some sort of obligation to pray for souls, their appeal is directed rather to our ~pecifically, to our sense of pity. We offer for them out of mercy and fellow-feeling, whose image we recognize in them. them. As for the other general charity or, more prayers and good works or out of love of God Can gratitude oblige us to pray for the dead? If we are bound to show gratitude and give thanks to the living for their goodness to us, are we any less bound to be grateful to the dead for the good-ness they have shown us while living, and which we, in our pride and envy, have perhaps refused to recognize? The religious order or. congregation to which we belong is a human instrument, and its present progress and perfection is owing in great part to the dead of our order that have gone before us. We, their spiritual children, now enjoy the fruits, without ourselves hav-ing done the sowing. To give but one instance--and this of the more tangible sort--the charity shown to us by our benefactors was enkindled by those now dead; nit is because of them that the living still enjoy many favors first meant for them. Can it be denied, then, that we owe them gratitude, that our fellow religious who have al-ready gone from this life still retain a claim on our prayers? We, as members of a religious community, are supposed to help our fellow re-ligious work out their salvation. Can we say that our task is done when they have died--when as y~t we cannot be sure that their souls are enjoying the blessed vision of God? While alive they gave us generously of their love and friendship, their kindness and help; furthermore, we may reasonably presume that they prayed for us; for our sanctification, our pe.rseverance. Again, these breth-ren of ours were by the good example they set us often our incen-tives to love God and practice virtue; in fact, their very presence ~tcted as a continual reminder of God's goodness and love. Praying for them is now our only way of thanking them. And we do owe' them thanks. In the light of this it is easy to understand why re-ligious institutes require that all their members offer certain definite suffrages for those who have died. Another important reason why we owe certain particular souls prayerful remembiances is that these souls may now be suffering 312 Ploverober, 1954 JUST NOVEMBER-~OR ALWAYS? because of us. Certain actions. ~of ours, either before or after our entrance into religion, may have caused them,, when still alive, to offend the just God, and now in .purgatory they .are .suffering in atonement for those offenses. In such a case, can we derby that we are partially re]ponsible for their sufferings? Are 'we not bound to help such souls? Shouldn't we atone for those faults together? It may be that our parents themselves have already died; there is no question but that for them at least we shall pray much. They gave us our earthly life, our shelter, and our food--gratitude demands that we see to it that they now speedily attain to eternal life, sure refuge and refreshment in their heavenly home. All of us, too, have other relatives and friends for whom we wish to pray and ought to pray. Many there are, therefore, for whom we are obliged in gratitude to pray; ~nd every one of us will, no doubt, be able to think of still other groups or individuals for whom he has some obligation to pray. Besides our duty towards many Holy Souls by reason of these special ties, al! the souls in purgatory excite our charity. Charity is giving of self to others, not because we owe it to them, but simply because they are in need and we can alleviate that need. The Holy Souls cannot leave purgatory until they have been purified and made ready for the beatific vision. This can be effected only through their suffering, or through the prayers and sacrifices offered for them by the living. Not without reason are the Holy Souls often called the "Poor Souls," for they cannot merit anything for themselves. From this' point of view, they are utterly dependent upon the liv-ing. It is charity that incites us to do what we can to lessen their punishments by praying for them and suffering with them. Prayers for the dead are as alms to the poor. Of themselves the dead are helpless to hasten the end of their suffering; but through our passing charitable acts they can come more quickly to the treasure heaped up for them in heaven. The Holy Souls are our 'brethren in distress; we must not close our eyes to their misery. The pre-cept of lovi.ng one'~ neighbor applies to the dead as well as to those that are alive. The mandate is "Love thy neighbor," and, as we know, this is equivalent to "Do good to thy neighbor"; in the present case it means "Pray for thy neighbor," for prayer (with sacrifice) is now the only thing good for them. Charity is also, and primarily, the love of God; but assuredly, to pray for the dead is to love God, for has He Himself not said, "As long as you did it 313 JOSEPH N. TYLENDA ' Reoiew for "Reli~iou's for one of these, the least of my brethren, you did it for hae"? Even from these brief considerations we may come to realize that constant prayer for the Holy Souls has.a necessary place in the life of every religious. However, an obje(tion may be raised that "helping the souls out Of purgatory is a selfish and rather mer-cenarY affair, since we know that they will, both now and upofi their entry into. glory, pray in turn for us." But this objection is wholly unwarranted, for this interchange of prayers between the members of the communion of the saints is not self-seeking in any bad sense of the term;, rather it is a perfect friendship based on a community of grace and charity, and manifesting itself in an ex-change of precious gifts." For doing good there is always a reward; heaven itself is the great and final reward for all our good actions. Can we doubt, then, that there is a special reward for the religious who prays for the dead? There will, surely, be more joy for him hereafter, but is there no more immediate reward which he will receive even while still here below? We believe there is: we be~lieve, for our part, that it consists in an enlivened desire to go to God, a deepened u'ndersta~ad-ing and appreciation of those words of Saint Augustine: "Our hearts were made for Thee alone, O God, and they shall not rest until [hey rest in Thee." Another reward that should come with praying for the dead is a greater de.testation of sin, which, even when forgiven, may still deserve such punishment, and with it a clearer understanding of the sanctity of God, who may not be seen face to face by any soul not wholly pure. Finally, this devotion should inflame us with the desire to have as much as possiblg of our own "purgatory" here on earth so that after death, with little or no delay, we may enter into the joy of Our Lord. Nor is it presumption for a religious to have the desire to avoid purgatory, for it is not in God's primary providence that any soul should go there. Christ would have us be perfect as our heavenly Father is perfect, and the perfect will have no need of the cleansing fires of purgatory. We ought not close this article without recalling the means we have at hand for helping the Holy Souls. These are, to be sure, prayers and indulgences, "works of penance, and, above all, the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass with its unlimited graces. However, these means and their efficacy are so well known to all religious that we do not need to e~plain ther~ here. We conclude in the ~ords of Sacred Scripture that "it is a holy 314 Nou.ernber, 1954 COMMUNICA@IONS and a wholesome thgught to. pray :~or. ~he.de.ad:i' Eve, ry soul out. of purgatory', through:.gur pr~yers,means another saint in heaven~a deeply'consoling thoughl~. Ought we,' then," to remember the souls in. purgatory only at the very end of our almost endless li~t of in~ t~ntions and as a matter of mere routine, or should we not rather .make our petitions f0~ them an integral part of-our prayers for the salvation and sanctification of our neighbor? With all this in mind,. can we maintain that such a devotion ought to receive emphasis ~luring one month only? Can we so confine our charity and our love of God and neighbor? ommun{ca -{ons Reverend Fathers : I have just finished reading Ft. Aumann's excellent article on "Religious and Modern Needs" in the July issue. May I congratu-late him for it? ' Fr. Aumann's article answers a definite need for establishing the correct relationship between contemplation and action. Many of us are unfortunately so engrossed in teaching and the other works of the apostolate that we are fatigued and overworked and cannot give the needed efforts and time to the so necessary life of prayer and meditation. As'a result everything suffers thereby. Thus we cannot insist enough on personal sanctification as the end of religious life. However, I would like to call your attention to another as-pect of the problem which struck me in reading Ft. Aumann's article. Some religious, I am afraid, misunderstanding this primary aim of personal sanctification over the apostolate, go to the other extreme and risk believing themselves good religious if they are materially faithful to their spiritual exercises. In this regard a fellow priest of mine ironically d~fined the good religious as one "who is regularly on time for all his spiritual exercises, punctual at meal time and other community gatherings, and who obeys his superior." But, as my friend pointed out, such a religious may not have begun to under-stand the spirit 'of his vocation. Bishop Ancel, of Lyons, France, pointed out in a conference to religious that the prime purpose of any vocation is to. continue the task that Christ lived while on earth--thus the reason for the 31~5 COMMUNICATIONS oows. We are, in other words, to have at the root of our spiritual lives the building up of "the Mystical Body. We are to have in us "the sentiments that were in Christ Jesus," 'at St. Paul put it. We must eat, drink, and sleep in terms of the growth of the Whole Christ. We must make our own the words of Christ, "I am come tO cast a fire on earth and what will I but that it be enkindled.".Religious must make their own St. Gregory's warning, "Nec castitas ergo magna est sine bono opere, nec opus bonum est aliquod sine castitate." (Cf. the whole homily for Confessors; 3rd Noct.) The reason I am writing this letter is that I believe too many of us do not have the proper sense of responsibility for the Mystical Body of Christ. We are content to let the pope, bishops, and superiors.worry about that. And in the meantime we are not pool-ing our collective heads to anM~rze the current situation, the needs of the Church, whether or not we are getting anywhere with our efforts, etc. A typical example of what I mean is that although classroom teachers are working harder than ever nowadays to do their .work, the pupils seem to be groffcing in secularism, etc, Influ-ences outside the classroom seem often to be gaining the mastery of them. And we are producing practically no apostles from our schools. Thus, I think that something should be done to awaken per-sonal responsibility for the future of the Mystical Body. Each one of us should constantly be saying to himself as the late Cardinal Suhard did, "What can we do, what can we do?" Too many of us, misunderstanding what is meant by the primacy of personal sanctification, are content to do merely what we have been ap-pointed to do, forgetting that we are religious to be other Christs, to "restore all things in Him," and that we must do this. We must be the salt of the earth or we shall be trodden under fo6t. I almost forgot to mention the need of a proper understanding of the relationships between th'e spiritual life and action. All action must come from contemplation--the "contemplata tradere" of St. Dominic. The thing is that contemplation and the primacy of the personal sanctification element properly understood mean that prayer and the Mass must drive us to action, and thought, and a sense of responsibility for the Mystical Body; and that vice versa action must push us constantly to more prayer and contemplation. That has always been the rule of the saints--the more they did the more they prayed, and the more they prayed, the more they did.--A PRIEST. 316 THE PROMISED WOMAN--An Anthology of the Immaculate Concep-tion. Edited by Brother Stanley G. Mathews, S.M. Pp. 3lb. The Grail. St. Meinrad, Indian~. 19S4. $4.00. "From the beginning then and befbre all ages .God selected and set aside a mother for His Only-Begotten Son." As he penned these momentous words one hundred years ago, Pius IX began to list the arguments for Our Lady's Immaculate Conception in the long-awaited Bull Ineffabilis Deus. Not only was this solemn pronounce-ment at once the welcome climax to centuries of belief in the doc-trine and the complete,satisfaction of the ardent desires of the faith-ful and their pastors, but it proved to be the impetus for a new and brilliant age of Marian literature, inspired largely by this definition. In spite of the abundance of books about Mary in the past cen-tury, however, there has been a notable lack of English literature on the Immaculate Conception. The present outstanding work has been designed precisely to fill that need. Acquainted with the best in Mariology in his capacity as li-brarian at the remarkable Marian Library in, Dayton, Brother Mathews has selected thirty-four of the finest tributes to the Im-maculate Conception for his anthology. They are divided into five sections. The eight opening articles stress the dogmatic theology of the doctrine. We, ll-written and short enough for some stimulating per-iods of spiritual reading, they give a good cross-section of contem-porary and recent authors: Vassall-Phillips, Neubert, Sheen, Zundel, Giordani, Bourke, and Feckes. Father Connell gives a short sum-mary of the historical development of the dogma. Part two features six monographs on the inspiration and apostolic influence man has derived from the Immaculate Conception. Espe-cially interesting is Father Ralph J. Ohlman's article on the Im-maculate Conception in the history of the United States. How St.Epiphanius and Bossuet extolled Our Lady is shown in part three, as well as more recent writers like Gueranger, Knox and Leen. A valuable section, part four, gives the answers of Newman, ¯ Ullathorne, Gibbons, and others to Protestant misconceptions about 317 BOOK REVIEWS Revieu; for Religious the Immaculate Conception. ¯ ~ In the final division are included0 six important papal documents from Sixtus IV (in 1476) to Plus XII, as well as two significant Pastoral Letters from the Councils of Baltimore. The scope and worth of this volume can be seen at a glanc'e. Brother Mathews is to be commended for his short introduction to each article--pithy enough not t6 be passed over unread, and yet entirely adequate. His apt section titles, too, are cleverly chosen from among the praises of the Blessed Virgin. It would have been of advantage to the reader to indicate more precisely in the table of contents the type of material in each of the six sections. The index, too, especiaIIy in an anthoIogy which will be used for ready reference, could have been much more complete. A bibliogral~hy of the better works on the Immaculate Conception in French, German, Spanish, and Italian would be of value to the scholarly reader. A final note on typography: Though the type-face for the text is well chosen, the indented quotations would look better in a smalIer case (perhaps itaIicized) than that used. --T. ~,V. "~/'ALTERS, S.J. PIO NONO. A Study in European Politics and Rellcjion in the Nine-teenth Century. By E. E. Y. Hales. Pp. 3S2. P. J. Kenedy and Sons. 1954. $4.00. The scope of this eminently readable account of the ItaIian Risorgimento is indicated in the volume's sub-title: A Study in European Politics and Religion in the Nineteenth Century. The argument the author proposes is that prince and pope in the mind of Plus were not distinct entities. As did his opponents, Mazzini, Cavour, Napolean III, and Bismarck, so too did Pio Nono con-ceive of a close interdependence of politics and religion. Hence his intransigent attitude toward "a free church in a free.state." Mr. Hales has not written "spiritual reading" for his English readers. He is concerned to present "the other side" to his. com-patriots whose views of Pio Nono have been slanted by Dr. Tre-velyan, and who, thanks to Lord Acton and The "-Ffmes. have al-ways looked on the Vatican Council with horror, and its offspring, papal infallibility, with contempt. Gladstone's letters on the Nea-politan prisons and'Palmerston's unabashed references to the Papal Government as the "worst of governments" fanned tempers already b, oiling over the restoration of the English hierarchy in 1850. The author's point is well made: "Has sufficient allowance for English 318 Nooember, 19.54 BOOK REVIEWS' enthusiasm for the risorgimento ever been madein disciassiohs bf.tlse' reactions in this country to the P@e'sSyilabus of Errors. in 1864. or his proclamation of the Dogma of Infallibility in' 18707" Considering the readers Mr. Hales bad in mind, we are npt sur-prised to find some elab6ration of the definition of the Imrfiactilate Conception--the only spiritual accomplishment of Pio Nono treated iridependently of political repercussions. Since the book bears the imprimatur of the Archbishop of New York, the theologian will find nothing censurable here, although he may wince at the,. author's ~eflection that it was. unfortunate that Plus "thre~ his personal 15restige into the scale" at the delicate weighing of papal infallibility. The select bibliography has additional value in that the author has noted the bias of the various authors. --THOMAS N. MuNsON, S.J. THESE CAME HOME. Compiled and edited by Gilbert L. Oddo, Ph.D. The Bruce Publishing Co. Milwaukee. 19S4. Pp. 179. $3.00. The drama of life is played in the concrete struggles of the in-dividual person with the problems which are uniquely his; and the greatest act of this drama is his wrestling with God. Though our faith teaches us that God acts out His part by pouring His grace into the soul, not in many places do we see this grace visibly operating. The fight against sin, which is certainly a work of grace, is not an experience many care to expose to the public. The qdyssey of a convert, however, provides matter which few are ashamed to tell about and is an excellent manifestation of the work of grace. Fifteen university graduate converts narrate their stories in These Came Home, presenting a persistent search for truth away from the shallow and illogical eclecticism in which they were raised. The discovery of a personal .God, the realization that there could be only one true Church established by Christ, the unmasking of the falsehoods and misrepresentations which surrounded their young minds about the Catholic Church, the realization of Our Lord's presence in the Blessed Sacrament are some of the stages on their way home. Some were Protestant ministers and had to abandon their professions; others net obstacles in their families and friends; but all of them endured the mental anguish of realizing that their lives were empty because they had not properly found God. The reader of this book will better appreciate his own faith and under-stand those who do not shar~ it.:~ALBERT J. SMITH, S.J. 319 BOOK REVIEWS MEDIAEVAL MYSTICAL TRADITION AND SAINT JOHN OF THE CROSS. By aBenedic÷ine Of S÷anbrook Abbey. Pp. 161. The New-man Press, Westminster, Maryland. 19S4. $2.75. The author of this l~ook, by defining its scope with precision, has lightened the reviewer's pains. It is a historical study of medieval and sixteenth-century spirituality, culminating in that of the Mysti-cal Doctor, St. John of the Cross. After.h valuable sketch of the early Spanish period, successive chapters present Hugl~ and Richard of St. Victor, St. Bonaventure and his school, the German and Fle-mish mystics. The last chapter, "Spain Again, and Saint John of the Cross," brings the investigation to its goal. Within these bounds, the essayist has traced the theme of mysti-cal prayer. SlOe has read her sources with attentive care, and aligns their'yield with a steady eye to the main object. There is no over-load of learning, no pretentiousness whatever yet anyone, who has handled the tools of literary research will hold this specimen in high respect. The theory of the life of prayer, followed by the author, falls within a general scheme now widely accepted. The indispensable role of asceticism is pr~supposed.~ Vocal prayer, including petition, is taken for gbanted. To liturgical prayer is reserved its unique precedence. The writer's subject is mental prayer, and especially contemplation, acquired and infused. Acquired contemplation is the prayer of simple regard, and may be attained in some degree by a good will with the aid of ordinary grace. The inf.used forms of contemplation depend on God; they may be holily desired, but not counted on, in this world. Purgation, an essential process in the discipline of the senses and of the mind at every stage of pra~er~ takes a higher and severer form, if one is raised to the life of in-fused cgntemplation. What this historical essay has chiefly done for the present reader is tw6fold. It elucidates persuasively the unity of the mystical ex- ¯ perience (to adapt Gilson's phrase) in the Christian tradition, and the continuity, under a bewildering diversity of description, of the teaching of the mystics. Against this background, it sets the doc-trine of St. John of the .Cross in its proper focus as our Summa of mystical theology. In particular, it is he, as the author points out, who has studied with care the nature of acquired contemplation and of the approaches to mystical prayer, as distinguished from the great gift itself. 320 November, 1954 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS The Benedictines of Stanbrook are accustomed to give us works of solid worth. The present small volume is an honor to-their tradition.---EDGAR R. SMOTHERS, S.J. BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS BRUCE PUBLISHING CO., 400 N. Broadway, Milwaukee I, Wis. A Man Born Again. St. Thomas More. By John E. Beahn. Once you begin to read this book, you will find it diffic.ult to lay it aside. It is a fictionalized biography written in the first person: Pp. 208. $3.00. CAPUCHIN FATHERS, 220 37th St., Pittsburgh 1, Penna. The Lagbrother According to the Heart of St. Francis. The Lagbrother Manual. Both books are by Clarence Tscbip-pert, O.F.M.Cap. The first is a translation.and the second an adap-tation from the German, In the German original they have been popular for many years among German-speaking Capuchins and have led many a Capuchin brother along the ways of perfection. The first book is a brief treatise on perfection from the practical point of view. Much of the doctrine is embodied in prayers. The second book is a vade mecum for the brothers. It takes a brother through all the actions of the day. It contains both,instruction and prayers. Both books may well serve as models as to what can be done to h~lp lay brothers in their difficult vocatibn. God's honor and glory would be increased if every brother of whatever order or congregation had similar aids to lead him to perfection. THE GRAIL. St. Meinrad, Indiana. The Jogs, Sorrows, and Glories of the RosarV. By Raphael Grashoff, C.P. This is a small book. It measures only three and a half by five and a quarter inches. In mandscript form it was used for public reading during laymen's week end retreats at Holy Cross Passionist Monastery in Cincinnati. Its purpose is to help indi-viduals to say the rosary as our Lady wants them to say it. Each of the fifteen chapters is preceded by a full page pen-and-ink draw-ing depicting one of the mysteries of the rosary. The excellent drawings are by Sister Augusta Zimmer, S.C. Pp. 173. $1.00. School Teacher and Saint. A Biography of ~Saint Lucy Filippini, By Pascal P. Parente, S.T.D., Ph.D. The foundress of the Re-ligious Teachers Filippini died on March 25th, 1732. It was°not until June 22, 1930, that she was canonized: It was 1910 before 321 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS" Reoieto "[or ~ R~ligioug. ttie'first five Religious Teachers Filippini opened their first gchooI in the United States i~t Trenton, New Jersey. It is not remarkable, therefore, that she is little known in this country. The present volume, the first biography in English, should do much to bring her the honor and reco.gnition she so richly deserves. The book is generously illustrated with pen-and-ink drawings by Paul Grout. Pp. 170. $3.00. Teen-Agers' Saint. St. Maria Goretti. By Mgr. James Morelli. Edited by William Peil. The book gives a brief account of the life, martyrdom, and triumph of this "Saint Agnes of the Twen-tieth Century." The illustrations by Gertrud Januszweski add con-siderably to the attractiveness of the book. The work should prove quite appealing to teen-agers, especiall~ grade-school and early-high-school students. Pp. 84. $2.00. B. HERDER BOOK CO., 15 South Broadway, St. Louis 2, Mo. The LitanF o[ Loreto. By Richard KIaver, O.S.C. That the Litany of Loreto is beautiful, and is really a poem in blank verse, all users of this litany will admit. Many, however, may not realize that it is an epitome of MarioIogy. Father Kla~ier proves this point in l~is commentary on the Litany, for to explain the various invo-cations he draws on the whole of Marian theology. The book should contribute much to make the recitation of the Litany more meaningful. Pp. 227. $3.75. Catholic Liturg~t-~Its Fundamental Principles. By the Very Rev. Gaspar Lefebvre,O.S.B. Translated by a Benedictine of Stan-brook. Here is an old classic in a new revised edition, the third in English. It should be on the shelves of the library of every religious community. Pp. 300. $3.50. The Rosary1 in Action. By John S. Johnson. A layman who knows from experience the difficulties that laymen have in the reci-tation of the rosary, soIves those difficulties. There are sections on the history of the rosary and on mental prayer. A very useful book. Pp. 271. $1.75. Neu~ Testament Stories. By Rev. C. C. Marfindale, S. J, It is a child's l{fe of Christ. All who have the care of children will wel-come this well-written book. Pp. 140. $2.25. P. J. KENNEDY AND SONS, 12 Barclay St., New York 8, N. Y. "Marg's Part in Our Redemption. By Msgr. Canon George D. Smith, D.D., Ph.D. This is a revised edition of a book which first 322 November, 1954 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS appeared in 1937. Its author is an eminent professor and theologian, who, in this instance, writes not for theologians but for the faithful: Thi~ Rev. Wm. G. Most characterizes the book as one "that co-or-dinates and integrates the dogmatic truths behind devotion to Mary with a solid, unsentimental, and balanced application of these truths to the life of the soul." Pp. 191. $3.00. 'THE LITURGICAL CONFERENCE. Elsberry, Mo. Proceedings of the National Liturgical Conference, 1953. Th£ celebration of a National Liturgical Week, each year in a different place, is one of the most effective means employed by the Liturgical Conference to make both clergy and laity liturgical minded and so to promote a deeper and more solid piety. The present volume re2 ports the National Liturgical Week at Grand Rapids, Michigan. Its central theme was St. Pius X and Sqcial Worship. It contains not only the papers read at the conference but a stenographic report of the discussions whidh followed. Rea~ing the volume one can catch. the enthusiasm which prevailed at the meetings. Pp. 199. $2.00. THE NEWMAN PRESS. Westminster, Maryland. Talks to Teen-Agers. By F. H. Drinkwater. The book is not for teen-agers but for those who are responsible for their spiritual and gemporal welfare. It consists of outlines arranged topically, and should prove very helpful as a rich source of material for talks and discussions. Pp. 110. $2.00. " All Things ir~ Christ. Encyclicals and Selected Documents of St. Plus X. Edited by Vincent A. Yzermans. Thirteen encyclicals and ten other documents are presented in this volume. Each docu-ment is prefaced by an explanatory note which gives the theme ~f the document and its setting: it is followed by a list of pertinent references. Pp. 275. $4.00. J. S. PALUCH CO., INC., 2712 N. Ashland Ave., Chicago 14, Illinois. The Imitation of Christ. The translation' is new and into mod-ern English. The cover is a reproductic;n in color of a portrait painting of Christ by Jerome Gibbons. This is a Lumen book. Pp. 173: $0.50. THE SCAPULAR PRESS, 339 E. 28th St., New York 16, N. Y. Union With Our Lad~ . By Ven. Marie Petyt of St. Teresa. Translated by Rev. Thomas E. McGinnis, O.Carm., S.T.L. That Our Lady has a part to play in the salvation and sanctification of 323 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS each individual soul is a truth all religious accept. Some may not be aware how large that part is. The present volume of excerpts of the letters of the Ven. Marie petyt show how very large that part was for her., They show too how a religious may grow in devotion to Our,Lady and so make greater progress toward perfection. The . letters are followed by an excellent one-page outline of the Marian doctrine of Mary Petyt and her spiritual director Fr. Michael of St. Augustine. Twelve one-page meditations on the Blessed Virgin conclude the volume. Pp. 75. Paper $I.00. TEMPLEGATE, Springfield, Illinois. Guide to the Bible. By the monks of Maredsous. Translated from the French by Gerda R. Blumenthal. To read the Bible, par-ticularl~ r the Old Testament, without guidance almost inevitably means to miss the meaning intended by God its author. All that an intelligent reader must know about the Bible will be found in this volume of less than a hundred pages. It should do much to promote the reading of the Sacred Scriptures. Pp. 92. $0.85. All My Life Love. A commentary on St. Th~r~se's poem Vfvre d'Arnour. By Michael Day, Cong. Orat. The translation of the poem is by Ronald Knox. In the poem we 'have a treatise on the love of God as conceived by a saint and poet. Each stanza of the poem, together with the commentary that follows it, can very profitably be used as subject matter for meditation. Pp. 56. $1.25. NOTICE FOR PUBLISHERS Our Book Re~,iew .Editor is Father Bernard A. Hausmann, S.J., of West Baden College. Publishers fire requested to send all books intended.for review in this periodical to: Book Review Editor, Review for Religious, West Baden College, West Baden Sprlncjs, Indiana. 324 Questions and Answers m3 I~ A slsterwith solemn vows in a contemplative order was received without a dowry. It is not clear whether this dispensation was to be con-ditional at that time. The sister wishes now to establish a dowry. Will she need the perm[sslon of the Holy See, or will the superlor's permis-sion suffice? By. taking solemn vows sister gave up her right to ownership of temporal things, hence also the right to acquire anything in the future by way of inheritance, legacy or gift for herself. Here is what canon 582 of the code has to say on the subject: "After solemn profession, likewise without prejudice to any special indults of the Apostolic See, all the property which comes in whatever manner to a regular [that is, to one who takes vows in an order, can. 488, 7°]: "1 ° In an order capable of ow.nership, goes to the order, prov-ince, or house, according to the constitutions; "2° In an order incapable of ownership, it becomes the property of the Holy See." Sister, therefore, must turn over to her monastery whatever money or other temporal goods may come to her from any source whatsoever after she has made her solemn profession. Superiors will then have a free disposition of this money or other goods, since it " now belongs to the monastery. In case the monastery is incapable of ownership, superiors may ask the Holy See for permission to put aside that amount of money required for a dowry by the constitu-tions, and use it for that purpose. According to our constitutions a novice who becoms gravely ill may be admitted to profession . . . and a plenary indulgence in the form of a jubilee is also granted to her mercifully in the Lord. What is % plenary indulgence in the form of a jubilee?" As far back as 1570, Pope Saint Pius V, a member of the Order of Preachers, allowed any novice of the second order of Dominican nuns who was in danger of death to make her religious profession. In the course of time this privilege was extended to other second orders. 325 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Reoiew [or Religious In 1912 (September 3) Pope Saint Plus X extended this privi-lege to all novices of. every religious order.or congregation or society, and his grant was published in. a decree of the Sacred Congregation of Religious, dated September 10, 1912 (AAS. IV, [1912], 589- 590) which laid down detailed regulations regarding this profession of a novice at the hour of death (see REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, I, [March, 1942], 117-122). In this decree, under number 4, occur the words: "to him is granted mercifully in the Lord a plenary in-dulgence and remission of all his sins in the form of a jubilee." This phrase, "in the form of a jubilee," adds nothing to the plenary in-dulgence granted but is merely gn honorary title, so to speak, which indicates the generosity of the Roman Pohtiff in granting this extra-ordinary indulgence (se~ de Angelis: De Indulgentiis, ed. 2, Rome, 1950, p. 128 n. 176). m33m Our constitutions state: "two members of the same family, for ex-ample, two sisters, two cousins, or an aunt and a niece, may not at the same time be members of the general council." Now the father of our. newly elected mother general is a first cousin of the father of the sister elected to be the fourth general councllor. May this sister act validly and licitly as a member of the general council together with our recently elected mother general? Canori 19 of the Code.of Canon Law tells us that laws which restrict the free exercise of rights are to be interpreted strictly, that is: "the words are taken in their proper meaning, but in a narrower sense than must necessarily be attached to them; an interpretation is broad when the proper meaning of words is retained, but it is taken in a wider sense than the word bears at all times." (Lydon, Read~l Answers in Canon Law, ed. 3, 1948, p. 336.) Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary, 1950, ~lefines "cousin" as: "2. Specif: a son or daughter of one's uncle or aunt; also, a relative descended the same number of steps by a different line from a common ancestor." The first definition is the strict interpretation according to cXnon law, the second a broad interpretation. Ordinarily the term cousin is understood of persons called first cousins. Since the fathers of the recently eldcted mother general and of the newly-elected fourth councilor are first cousins, these religious are really second cousins, and hence do.not come within the strict canonical interpretation of the term "two cousins," as used in ithe 326 Nouember, 1954 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS constitutions, referred to ifi the question. Hence both sisters may continue in office as members of the general council. We should add that our interpretation is based on the assumption that the examples given in the constitutions limit the meaning of "two members 6f the same f~imily." This interpretation seems reasonable to us. We are a diocesan institute. Our constitutions read as follows: (I} "The sisters elected to the general chapter shall remain, everyone in her own office, up to the ne~t chapter. No one can be deposed,, unless for a grave cause and by the general council alone." (2) "The mistress of novices shall be appointed by the superior general and her council." The general chapter is not a month old, whe~ the second councilor is appointed to the position of mistress of novices. May she be a meml~er of the general council and mistress of novices at the same time? No pro= vision ~s made in our constitutions for an event of this kind. The Normae of 1901, in. article 300, forbade the mistress of novices to hold any other office which might impede the care and direction of the novices and explicitly mentioned the office of general councilor. This article has been written into many constitutions and must be observed in 'such cases. The Code of Canon Law merely laid down a general norm in canon 559, § 3, which says: "Both [the master of novices and his assistant] should be free }rom all other occupations which could hinder them in the care and gov-ernment of the novices." The Code does not determine in par-ticular whicfi offices are incompatible; this judgment is left to the constitutions and to the prudent judgment of superiors. Now since your constitutions have no such prohibition, superiors may determine that the office of mistress of novices is not incompatible with that of general councilor. In that case the second councilor remains a member of the general council and also assumes the office of mistress of novices. --35-- Until recently our congregation has been merely diocesan. Our con-stitutlons permitted the mother gqneral to be elected to two terms of six years each, but not to a third immediate term. Recently we have re-. ceived the Decree of Praise from the Holy See and are now a pontifical congregation. Our new constitutions, like the old, permit a sister to hold two consecutive terms of six years each as mother general, but not a third immediate term. We are to have a general chapter in January, and our 327 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Replete for Religious present mother general will have completed twelve consecutive years in office by that time. Some sisters contend that under the new con!stltu-t[ ons she will be eligible for immediate re-dection for two more terms of six years each without any special permNslon from the Holy See. Is this correct? Father Frederic Muzzarelli, S.S.P. in his book De Congregation-ibus Iuris Dioecesani, published in Rome in 1943, holds this opinion, and Father Gallen referred to this interpretation, apparently with ap-proval (REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS XII [September, 1953], 255). Father Muzzarelli gives the following reason for his opinion: "The time spent in office under the former constitutions is not to be com-puted, since these have nol/¢ lost all force." It seems to us that this in-terpretation is contrary at least to the spirit of the Letter of the Sacred Congregation of Religious dated March 9, 1920 (see Canon Law Digest, I, 276-277, for English text), and sent to all the local ordinaries of the world. The Letter stresses the years spent in of-rice, regardless c;fthe manner of obtaining .it. This likewise seems to be meaning of canon 505 which states that "higher superiors shall be temporary." Father Muzzarelli interprets "temporary" as "not perpetual" but the Letter seems to make it very clear that "tem-porary" is to be taken in the ordinary sense of the term. Twenty-four consecutive years of office certainly seems to us longer than the ordinary meaning of tempora[y. Our interpretation of the canon is confirmed by a recent state-ment of Father Anastasius Gutierrez, C.M.F., an official of the Sacred Congregation of Religious, who published a series of articles regarding the present practiceof the Sacred Congregation in Com-mentarium pro Religiosis during 1953 and is continuing the same during 1954. Here is his statement: "No matter how the mother general may have been promoted to or continued in office (by nom-ination, election, or confirmation), once twelve years of continuous regime have elapsed, she is no longer canonically eligible; she may be postulated, but cannot be re-elected" (page 90)." --36-- . Could you please give us a list of books that treat of obedience? Among rather recently-published books are the following. Valen-tine, O.P., Religious Obedience: A Practical Exposition for Sisters, (London, 1950; also, the Newman Press, Westminster, Md.). Polit, S.J., Perfect. Obedience: A Commentary on the Letter on 328 November, 1594 NEWS .AND VIEWS Obedience, translation by William Young, S.J. (Newman Press, Westminster, Md., 1947) PI~, O.P. (editor), Obedience--Volume III of series on religious .lii:e (Newman Press, Westminster, Md., 1953). Some rather recent books that contain extensive treatment of the subject are the following. Fennelly, C.S.Sp., Follow Me (Burns ~ Oates, London, 1943) ; see Part III, pp. 123-203.Msgr. Gay, Re-ligious Life and the Vows (Newman Press, 1942--reprint of an old book) ; see Part III, pp. 167-264. Brothers of the Sacred Heart, Catechism of Religious Profession (Metuchen, N.J., 1943--new edi-tion in press) ; see Section IV, pp. 159-201. Brothers of ~he Chris-tian Schools, Short Treatise on the Religious State, (Paris, 1950) ; see Chapter VIII, pp. 270-324. And, finally, see the first volume of "the series on the religious life, Religious Sisters (Newman Press, 1950): "The Vow of Obedience," by Marie-Joseph Nicolas, O.P.; and "The Adaptation of Religious Obedience," by Reginald Go-mez, O.P. In listing these, various treatises on obedience we do not neces-sarily recommend them because we have not read all of them suffi-ciently for that. Also, we list these because .we happen to have them at hand. Readers may know other treatises, and their suggestions would be welcomed. NEWS AND VIEWS (Continued from Page 310) spaced (triple is even better), with at least an inch of margin on each side of the page. It is difficult to make editorial notations on a crowded page. 2) Onion-skin paper should not be used. It is frustrating to try to make editorial notations on such paper. 3) For practical purposes, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS follows what might be called the "old-fashioned" method of printing quo-tations: that is, we print them just like the rest of the article, except for the fact that they are in quotation marks. This same system should be followed in manuscripts. 4) The use of capital letters should be very reserved. Congress in Canada Our May number (pp. 138-40) contained a great deal of pre-liminary information concerning the national congress of religious institutes to be held" in Montreal, July 26-30. The Acta of the 329 NEWS AND VIEWS Review" for Religious congress will be published: but~-we do not know the precise date of publication. In the meantime, pending the publication of th~ Acta, our readers will no doubt be interested in the following in-formation, which we have received through the kir~dness of Father Edward Sheridan, S.J., one of the Associate Secretaries of the con-gress and First Vice-President of the executive council of religious men. Interesting statistics include the following: At the inaugural general session were three cardinals and some twenty bishops. Also present at the congress were four abbots. In approximate figures, the delegates, representing some 200 religious institutes, with a total of 60,'000 members, were distributed thus: 400, representing 12,500 French-speaking religious men (of whom about 6,000 are teaching brothers); 150, representing 2,500 English-speaking religious men; 600, representing 37,000 French-speaking religious women; 250, representing 8,000 English-speaking religious women. Included among the delegates were 259 major superiors. At the inaugural general assembly Cardinals MacGuigan, of Toronto, and L~ger, of Moni~real, stressed adaptation and moderni-zation in habit and custom book. These points were also much stressed in the sessions of religious women. One fruit of the congress was the establishment of a Canadian Religious Conference--a permanent conference of all major religiou~ superiors resident in Canada, with a permanent secretariate to be established in Ottawa. This was. in resptonse to the express wish of the Sacred Congregation of Religious. Very Reverend Girard- Marie Par~, O.P., was elected the first president of this conference. The closing exercise of the congress was a torch-light procession and outdoor evening Mass, at the famous St. Joseph's Shrine. The Apostolic Delegate, the Most Reverend Giovanni Panico, was the celebrant. The physical plant was ideal for the meetings. This included St. Laurent College, conducted by the French Canadian Holy Cross Fathers; and St. Laurent Convent, of the Holy Cross Sisters--the two together constituting some five solid city blocks of religious and educational buildings, with fine grounds. The Holy Cross Fathers and Sisters were indefatigable in doing everything possible to make the congr.ess a success. The modus agendi of the sectional meetings--which especially impressed Cardinal Valeri, Prefect of the Sacred Congregation of Religious and President of the congres.s--was planned and executed 330 Nooernber, 1594 NEWS AND VIEWS x~ith remarkable ingenuity and efficiency. Before the congress, four books (one for each of the four sections) were printed. These books contained general information, outlines (some rather com-plete) of each of the papers to be given at the sectional meetings, topics for discussion and study, and the full text of the address given by Pope Plus XII to the congress of religious in Rome, December 8, 1950. Every delegate was provided with one of these books. Each of the sections had its own general session in the morning, at which four twenty-minute papers were read Jan the subjects indicated. Then each section broke up into study committees, of from twelve to twenty members, each committee discussing one of the papers read for a period of one hour. After lunch, the committees met again for an hour's discussion, 2:00 to 3:00 p.m. From 3:00 to 3:30 the speaker of the fiaorning conferred with the presidents and sec-retaries of the committee
Issue 12.6 of the Review for Religious, 1953. ; A. M. D. G. Review for Religious NOVEMBER 15, 1953 Pracfice Of ÷he H01y See, I I . Joseph F. Gallen Psychological Testing . William C. Bier The Eucharistic Fast . : . Hi~ary'R. Wer~s MOfU Proprio Jubilee . c.J. McNaspy Communications Questions and Answers News a'nd Views Book Reviews Index for 1953. VOLUME XII NUMBER 6 RI::VII::W FOR Ri::LIGIOUS VOLUME XII NOVEMBER, 1953 NUMBER CONTENTS NEWS AND VIEWS . 281 PRACTICE OF THE HOLY SEE, II--Joseph F. ~Gallen, S.'J .2.8.5 BOOK NOTICES . 290, 316, 329 LETTER ON OBEDIENCI~ . . . 290 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING OF CANDIDATES AND THE THE-OLOGY OF VOCATION---Willlam C. Bier, S.J2.91 OUR CONTRIBUTORS . 304 THE EUCHARISTIC FAST---Hilary R, Werts, S.J . 305 MOTU PROPRIO JUBILEE--C. d. McNaspy, S.J . 317 COMMUNICATIONS . 321 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS-- 29. Correction of Subject by Immediate or Mediate Superior 322 30. Guidance of Subjects by Superiors . 322 31. Local Superior at Council Meeting . 323 32. Local Superior at General Chapter . 324 33. General Council and Suggestions to General Chapter . 324 34. Postulancy and Readmission . ." . 325 BOOK REVIEWS-- Religious Men and Women in the Code; Fundamental Psychiatry; Most Reverend Anthony 'j. Schuler, S.J., D.D.; I Want to See God 326 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS . 330 INDEX FOR VOLUME XII, 1953", . 333 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, November, 1953. Vol. XlI, No. 6. Published bi-monthly: January, March, May,,July, September, and November at the College Press, 606 Harrison Street, Topeka, Kansas,, by St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas, with ecclesiastical approbation. Entered as second class matter 3anuary 15, 1942 at the Post Oflke, Topeka, Kansas, under the act of March 3, 1879. Editorial Board: Jerome Breunig, S.J., Augustine G. Ellard, S.J. Adam C. Ellis, S.J., Gerald Kelly, S.J., Francis N. Korth, S.J. Copyright, 1953, by Adam C. Ellis, S.J. Permission is hereby granted for quota-tions of reasonable length, provided due credit be given this review and the author. Subscription price: 3 dollars a year; 50 cents a copy. Printed in U. S. A. Before wrlfing to us, please consult notice on Inside back cover. News and Views Psychological Testing When we last published an article on the psychological testing of candidates, a religious superior wrote an indignant letter cancelling his subscription and asserting that such testing interferes with the work of the Holy Ghost. Thatthis is a misconception should be evi-dent to all who read Father Bier's article in the present number and a s~cond article to be phblished in January. Whatever may be said 'for or against the value of psychological tests--and we do not claim to have all the answers--it seems clear enough that their use is no more an attempt to "naturMize" religious vocation than is the use of previous medical examinations. Educating Sisters We have just received a very yaluable brochure entitled Directorg of Catholic Women's Colleges with Facilities for the Education oF Sisters. This brochure gives tabulated i'nformation on colleges and motherhouses accredited to offer degree programs, detailing the par-ticular courses provided, the number of Sisters who could be cared for, and the conditions, financial and otherwise, under which they would be received. The information was gathered by the Commit-tee on the Survey Section on Teacher Education of the N.C.E.A. The reason for gathering the information was the fact that many of the smaller religious congregations of women do not have facilities for educating their own members and find the standard costs of "sending Sisters away" prohibitive. These congregations can obtain help from the larger congregations; and this Directorg will show at a glance where and how the help can be obtained. For further information, or for copies of the Directo~g, piease address: Sister Mary Gerard, O.S.F., Chairman, Directory Project, Alverno College, 3401 South 39th Street, Milwaukee 15, Wisconsin. Poor Clares The Poor Clares of New Orleans have prepared a file of at least one hundred 2-inch slides in .black 'and white for use in a still pro-jector. The photos were taken within the cloister, and every" part of the monastery is included. Also prepared is a brief description of every picture. The nuns will send'this file to any desiring to show 281 NEWS AND VIEWS Reoiew for Religious the slides tO interested groups, particularly, young ladies among whom there might be the possibility of a contemplative vocation. They will also send ~lratis literature for distribution, a set of seven large posters, and 6-inch dolls'd~es~ed as" Poor Clar~s. The remailing of, the small slide file is the only expense they would expect the user to assume. Those interested in this vocational project shQ~Id write to: Monastery of Saint Clare, 720 Henry Clay Avenue, N~w Orleans 18, Louisiana. New Indulgence For the purpose of 'increasing devotion to the Blessed Virgin Mary ever more and more, Ou~ Holy Father, Pope Plus XII, in. an audience given to the Cardinal Major Penitentiary on March 30, 1953, granted in perpetuum an indulgence of fifty days, to be gained once a day, to those who, keeping on their person a duly blessed rosary of Our Lady, have kissed it devoutly.and at the same time have recited with a pious mind the words of the Angelic Salutation: "H~iil Mary, full of grace, the Lord is with thee: blessed art thou among women, arid blessed is the fruit of thy womb, Jesus." (Acta Apostolicae. Sedis, XXXXV [ 19 5 3 ], 31 1.) , Valuable Booklets The Grail Press, St. Meinrad, Indiana, has sent us two booklets of immense value for clerics. Both of them are re-editions. One is Rome and the Study of Scri_pture, which contains a collection of papal enactments on the study of Holy Scripture, together with deci-sions of the Biblica.1 Commission. The price is one dollar. The other booklet is The Popes and the Priesthood, which contains English translations of importgnt statements of the Holy See on the.priest-hoo. d. The price of this booklet is only fifty cents. Rural Parish I, Vorke;'s In our last number (see. p. 242) we promised a more complete account of the Rural Parish Workers of Christ the King. This apostolate was begun by Miss Alice Widmer, a graduate of.Webster College, Webster Groves, Missouri, and Miss LaDonna I-fermann, a graduate of Maryville College of the Sacred Heart, St. Louis. In the summer of 1941 they decided to devote ~heir lives to lay action for the salvation of souls and the extension of Christ's Kingdom by the igractice bf the spiritual and corporal works of mercy. That fall they heard Monsignor (later Bishop) Leo J. Steck speak of the'lick 282 Not~ember, 1953 NEWS AND VIEWS. of priests'in rural.areas, and th'ey: asked him whether they might help in one of these areas. With his assis'tance and that of Father William d. Pe~.old, they began work in the latter's parish of Cottleville, St. Charles Count'/, Mi'ssouri. During that same summer they learned to use the short breviary. The remainder of their story i~ told by tlSemselveL as follows: "Activities ir~ St. Ct~arles County, where we lived in two twelve: by-twelve-foot rooms in a portable schoolbuilding on thechurch grounds, included home visiting, care of the sick, helping the poor, Vacation schools, Sianday school for non-Catholic and pre-s~hool .Catholic children, craft classes for,, dhildren and adults, discussion Clubs in' the homes, w~rk with teen-agers, in'structions of converts'. distribution of Catholic literature and sacramentals, religious and social Welfare work. "Originally we had no thought of a continuing organizatio.n. As'we saw the needs and what could be done we went to see Car-dinal John d. Glennon of beloved memory', who had been a benefac-tor from the first. He encouraged us in our plans to £tevelop a per-manent organization and gave permission to solicit funds for~ p, er-manent home not to be located on parish grounds. Shortly there-after he died. "Sev, enteen months, later we discussed our future with Arch-bishop. Joseph E. Ritter. Three months afterwards he asked us;.to work'among.the miners and farmers of the tiff.aiea in Wash, ington County, the mbst e~ploited region in the St. Louis archdiocese. Through ,his generous assistance and that of Auxiliary Bishop: Charles tt.'Helmsing and Rev. Edward A. Bruemmer of Old Mines, we moved in September, 1949, to Fertile iri the Old Mines parish,of St. Joachim. We entered into parish, activity by beginning the in-struction of ninety-one public-school children and visitation in their homes and began extensive remodeling of an old brick residence eight miles from church. "The Rural Parish Worker program is adjusted to the,.needs of the area and is always pointed to the development of Christian homes and the strength.ening of parish life. In Washington County the following activities take precedence: ~eligiotis and social welfare work: distribution of food and ,clothing; transportation, to church, h.ospitals,_a.nd clinics; Sunday instruction classes; preparation of con-verts: home visiting, and instruction; interpretation of rights and 283. NEWS AND VIEWS duties as citizens; assistance in obtaining State and Federal benefits, doctors' care, hospitalization. "Some assistance is given to a few in adjoining parishes. HOw-ever, since.our home parish of St. ,loachim is one hundred and fifty square miles in size with poor and sometimes no roads,, it occupies most of our time. Attendance at civic meetings and participation in civic affairs are also on the agenda, as are outside works, such as land-scaping, building of small buildings, care of goats, and gardening when we can get to it. "Yearly summer sessions ~nd a year-of-service program are offered to young women thinking of the lay apostolate as a way of life or who wish to give at least part of their lives in. concentrated work for the restoration of Christ in society. "Last fall Rev. Bede Scholz, O.S.B., of Plus X Monastery in Labadie, Mo., was appointed by the Most Rev. Archbishop as our spiritual director. Father Bede, then at Conception Abbey, Concep-tion, Mo., had helped form us in the early days. (We would go for a week of spiritual refreshment to Conception.) Father Bede, Rt. Rev. Monsignor Martin B. Hellriegel, and Rev. Charles P. Schmitt were our spiritual advisers for several years when we lived in St. Charles County. "At the beginning we had literally nothing except a few dollars we had saved when working, a typewriter, phonograph and records ¯ bought for the work, our clothes and personal little belongings. Yet we have neve'r been in want and God has sent everything as it was needed for our neighbors and for us. Today many are assisting by prayer, donations of money and materials. The bills are always with us but we know that Almighty God is also, and we have no fears for the future. We know He will do with us as He wishes and that is all we want. It is with humble hearts that we look back over twelve years of labor in His vineyard and it is with confidence that we invite others--young women from all over the United States--to come to Fertile, to the Center of the Rural Parish Workers of Christ the King, and lend their talents and their labors in this rural aposto-late of service based on the spiritual arid corporal works of mercy for the glory of God and the development of Christian homes; to come to Fertile and help in the world-wide work "of the Church today-- the restoration of Christ to society." The address of the Rural Parish 'Workers of Christ the King is: Route 1, Box 194, Cadet, Missouri. 284 ¯ Pract:iceot: :he l-loly See, II Joseph F. Gallen, S.J. [The first part of this article was published in the September REVIEW, pp. 252- 72.] XII INDULTS OF SECULARIZATION New practice of the Holy See. Secularizati-on is the voluntary de-parture from religion, authorized by an indult of competent ecclesi-astical authority, in virtue of which the subject is separated com-pletely and perpetually from membership in the institute and is freed absolute.ly from all obligations contracted by. religious profession. Since secularization dispenses from all religious vows, even if solemn, it is co~nmonly also called a dispensation from the vows of religion. The Holy See alone may grant secularization in pontifical institutes; in diocesan congregations the Ordinary of the place where the, reli-gious is staying is also competent.34 .Indults of secularization granted by the Holy. See for those who are not priests now contain the following sentence: "This decree ceases to have any validity if not accepted by the petitioner within ten days after being informed of the executorial decree.'qs" It has long been a clea~ principle of canon law .that an indult of seculariza-tion, even ~hou.gh freely petitioned,, may be refused and has no effect until accepted by the religious in question,z6 If within the ten days: (a) the indult is expressly accepted, it becomes effective immediately;37 (b) the induli is neither accepted nor refused, it ceases to have any validity at the end of this period; (~') the indult is definitively refused, all validity of the indult cer-tainly ceases at the end of ten days and. at least more probably immediately upon the definitive refusal.3s In practice a new indult is to be petitioned if the religious repents of his refusal and wishes again 34Can. 638; Bouscaren. II, 173. 3s"Post decem dies a recepta comrnunicatione Decreti exsecutorialis, ex porte Oratoris (ricis), prasens Decretum, si non fuerit acceptatum, nullii~s roboris esto.'" Cf. Gu-ti& rez, CpR, XXIV (1953), 186-197. 36Bouscaren, I; 326. 37Cf. Creusen. ft. 332: Jombart, RCR, II (1926), 151; Piontek, 262 ft.: Ver-meersch, Periodica, XI (1923), 151. a8Cf. Guti~rrez. CpR, XXIV (1953),194-195: Goyeneche, CpR, XVIII (1937). 239-240:.Muzzarelli, p. 172; and Jombart, RCR, II 1926), 150-151, who ap-pears to hold the contrary. 285 ¯ JOSEPH 1:::. GALLEN for Religious to leave during the ten-davy period. ," The practice of the Holy See is not to grant the indult directly to the religious but to give to an intermediary person, for example, the local Ordinary, the f~iculty of granting the indult of secularization to the religious. The actual granting of the indult by this intermedia'ry person is called the executorial decree. The ten days begin to run -from the time the religious is officially notified of the granting of this executorial decree, not from the date of notification of the deciee of the Holy See. The day of notification is not computed. If the no-tification is given on August 1, the ten days expire at midnight of August 1 1-12. This time does not run for any period in which the religious was ignorant of or unable to exercise his right of acceptance and refusal. XII. GENERAL CHAPTER 1. Constitutions rec.ently appro~)ed by the Holy See. One congrega-tion of sisters had difficulty in persuading the S. C. of Religious to approve in a general revision of its constitutions the designation of the Secretary and Bursar General by appointment rather than by election. Appointment was approved about the same time in another general revision without any difficulty and had been permitted in some constitutions approved by the Holy See in the past. The num-ber in the grouping of the smaller houses for the election of delegates. is now rather constantly stated to be at least twelve and not more than twenty-three professed. The S. C. of Religious is consistently including in constitutions an article stating that the duties of the pre-siding local Ordinary or his delegate terminate at the proclamation of the election of the mother general.39 Some recent constitutions con-tain the prescription of the Normae of 1901: "If the Ordinary. is ac-companied by one or more priests, these may in no way take part in the election.''40 The present practice of the Holy See permits not only the secretary general but also the bursar general to be elected a general councillor but neither may be elected as the first councillor. The same practice now rather consistently gives the general chapter the right of declaring matters to be of greater importance and subject to the deliberative vote of the general council. Some recent constitu-tions. also give to the general chapter and council the'right to deter- 39Cf. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, XI (1952), 16-18. 4ONormae of 1901, n. 224. Cf. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, ibid., 17-18. 286 Nooember, 1953 PRACTICE OF THE HOLY SEE. min~ matters as subject to the deliberative vote of-the local council. The S. Congregation corrected one set of constitutions to read~ " . . .the newly elected M6.thfir General shall appoint one or seoeral. committees.to examine and arrange the'proposals to the Gerieral Cfiapter and to furnish a report concerning them." Even if not so' stated in the constitutions, several committees may be appointed be~ cause of the amount of work or for greater efficiency and lack of time, since several committees are not forbidden by the constitutions. 2. Indult's. One congregation of si'sters secured an indult from the Holy Se~ permitting th~ anticipation of its next general chapter by' six months. The principal reason given in the petition was the ex-~ p~nse and extensive travel that would be required foi the' capitulars' to return to the motherhouse two months after all had been present there for the annual retreat. ~ Another congregation of sisters requested a change, in its constitu- ' tions by which the novice mistress would be a member of thegeneral chapter in virtue of her offce. The S. C. of Religious replied: "It is not expedient.'" Canonical authors had stated that such a provision was not in accord with the practice of the S. Congregation,4x but a.~ similar article had been approved in a very small number of constitu-. tions in the past. A congregation of sisters was to hold in the United States an ex-traordinary general chapter,, which the delegates of the provinces be-yond the "iron curtain" would not be able to attend. The S. C. of Religious gave to a local Ordinary the faculty of permitting their votes to be sent by letter or for these provinces to choose delegates here who would cast their votes. 3. Roman meeting. The subjects touched upon at this meeting of superioresses general appear to have been the following: (a) The Holy See is opposed to the immediate re-election, or rather postula-tion., of a mother general beyond the limits prescribed in the consti-tutions. Similarly the Holy See only for serious reasons grants a dispensation permitting a local superior to be given a third successive three-year term in the same house. (b) Two excesses are verified in ~lections, an indifference that results in ignorance of the eligible and' suitable and electibneering. (c) Young religious should not be ex-. cluded from higher offices' if they have the necessary natural and spit-. itual qualifications. ., 41Basticn, n. 246, 2; Battandier, n. 352. 287. JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review/:or Religious These subjects present nothing new,4z but the. light thrown on the abuse of electioneering is very Opportune. Electioneering is the deliberate seeking of votes, directly or indirectly, to elect a particular person, or one person rather than another, or to exclude anyone from being elected. The simple seeking of information concerning the abilities or defects of those eligible and the communication of such information to. others, without any attempt at persjaasion, is not for-bidden, and is very frequently necessary and laudable. It is.:remarkable.how often the matter of elections can blind the moral sense of even very good religious. This reason alone has per-suaded the present writer to hold rigidly to the conviction, that in any general revision of the constitutions elections should, be restricted to those absolutely necessary. Only the offices of the superior gen-eral and of his or her councillors demand election. Every religious should have the permanent resolution of nevei uttering a word about future elections in his institute until after he has meditated daily for at least a week on the will of God. XIII. MONASTERIES OF NUNS I. Federations and Con/¥derations. The only federation or con-fdderation affecting American monasteries of nuns that has been made public is that of the Visitandines. The pohtifical constitution Spon~a Christi and the accompanying Instruction should be carefully studied by all nuns. Unwise and exaggerated changes are to be avoided in any state of life, "but no religious institute can reasonably exclude progress and prudent adaptation to .the times; Federations and con-federations are highly recommended by Plus XII in Sponsa, Christi. 2. Restoration o[ solemn ~ows. In 195 1-52 eighteen monasteries of nuns-in the United States secured permission from the Holy See for the taking of solemn vows.43 The restoration of solemn vows is at least strongly urged on all monasteries of nuns in Sponsa Christi. If serious reasons exist against this restoration in any monastery, such reasons are to be submitted to the S. C. of Religi6us for examina-tion. 44. The form of the decree granting solemn vows is uniform. The provisions are: (a) Papal cloister must be observed as' described in 42Cf. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, X (1951), 187-200. 43Guti~rrez. CpR, XXXIV (1953), 102-115. Cf. the list of monasteries of solemn vows in the United States, as of January, 1950. in REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, IX (19~50), 58, note 2. 44Larraona, quoted by Guti~rrez, ibid., 1"07. " '288 November, 1953 PRACTICE O~: THE HOLY SEE canon law, Sponsa Christi and the accompanying Instruction (Inter praeclara), and also the Instruction of the S. C. of Religious of Feb-ruary 6, 1924.4s (b) Nuns at present in simple perpe.tual vows and thbse who have compieted the prescribed time of temporary vows make solemn profession. The local Ordinary or his delegate receives the profession of the superioress, who then receives all the other pro-fessions. (c) Any nun in simp!e perpetual vows who does not wish to make the solemn profession may remain in simple vows but she is obliged by all the prescriptions of papal cloister.46 (d) Future per-petual professions Will be solemn except, of course, those of the ex-tern sisters, who may be admitted only to simple perpetual profession at the expiration of the prescribed peridd of temporary vows. 3. Dowr~ . Modifications in the general constitutions were granted to several monasteries of one order of nuns in the United Sta~es by the S. C. of Religious in 1950. A canonically interesting article of these modifications is: "No dowry is required for the admission of postulants." 4. Induhs concerning papa! clbister. A monastery of nuns in. the United States obtained the follov~ing permissions from the S. C. of Religious: (a) for five years--to admit into the enclosure at the funerals of nuns the clergy, acolytes, and pall bearers required to carry the body to the crypt; (b) fbr three years--to allow those taking out naturalization papers to go out to government offices as often as necessary; (c) for three years--t6 allow a nun to leave the enclosure as companion for a nun obliged to go out for bospltal treatment. Iri the case of another monastery, the local Ordinary whs given the faculty for twenty cases of permitting a nun to leave the enclosure with a companion for the reason of ill health. The rescript contained the clause, that any unbecoming circumstance was to b~ avoided. 5. Concession of Masses. A proper ordo or calendar, and thus dis-tinct from the diocesan ordo, is had by all orders of regulars, and this is to be observed also by the nuns and sisters of these orders. A proper ordo is also had in.religious congregations and societies living in common without public vows, whether of men or women, that have been approved by the Holy See,.[re constituted under one gen-eral superior, and are obliged to the divine office, even if only by 45Bouscaren, I, 314-320; .46Escudero, CpR, XXXIII (1952), 35, nota 39. 289 JOSEPH F. GALLEN reason of major orders.47 Nuns that constitute a second order, such as the Carmelites, will follow the proper ordo of the first order of men. Obviously, there-fore, they may not celebrate in the divine office and Mass feasts granted to dioceses or t6 other institutes. For this reason at least one monastery of nuns in the United States secured from the Holy See an indult permitting the celebration of the feasts of the North American Martyrs on September 26 and that of St. Frances Xavier Cabrini on December 22.48 47,SCR, 4312, ad'l-2; 4403, ad 1. 48The autlqors, documents, and abbreviations not clear from their mere citation are." Acta Apostolicae Sedis (AAS) ; Bastien, Directoire Canonique; Battandier, Guide Canonique; Bouscaren, Canon Law Digest; Cervia, De ProFessione Religiosa; Com-mentarium Pro Rell.qiosis (CpR) ; Creusen, Religious Men and Women in the Code; Decreta Authentica Congregationis Sacrorum Rituum (SCR) ; Muzzarelli, De Con-gregationibus luris Diocesani; Piontek, De Indulto Exclaustrationis necnon Saecular-izationis; Revue des Communautis Religieuses (RCR) ; Schaefer, De Religiosis. BOOK NOTICE AUX SOURCES DE LA TRADITION DU CARMEL, by Jean le Soli-taire, is a work that will be of special.interest and value, not only to Carmelites, but also to all who are concerned with understanding well the essentials and the accidentals of the contemplative life and~ with the problem of adapting it fittingly to the changes that mark modern culture and the present situation of the Church. The book is not primarily historical; rather it is conceived from the ,spiritual point of view, and would like to contribute to the best possible re-vitalization and perfection of the contemplative life in the concrete existe.ntial conditions of today and tomorrow." (Paris: Beauchesne et ses Fils, 1953. Pp. 274.) LETTER ON OBEDIENCE Father William J. Young. S.J., has made a new and very readable translation of St. Ignatius' Letter on Obedience. This translation is published in pamphlet form by the America Press. Single copies are twenty cents; special discounts are allowed on quantity orders. Write to: The America Press, 70 East 45th St., New York 17, N.Y. 290 Psychological Test:ing ot: Candida!:es and t:he Theology oF Vocal:ion William C. Bier, S.,I. [EDITORS' NOTE: This article is an adaptation of 'a paper presented at the Fordham "Institute on Religious and Sacerdotal Vocations, July, 1953. Father Bier's interest in the use of psychological tests as helps in evaluating the suitability of candidates for the priesthood and religious life goes back to graduate work in psychology at The Catholic University under Father Thomas Verner Moore, who encouraged him to plan a doctoral research on some.preliminary phases of this problem. After the completion of his doctoral work in 1948 Father Bier went to Fordham and has been teaching in the psychology department of the graduate school since that time. He developed a program of psychological tests for candidates in the New York Province of the Society of 3esus, which has been in operation for five years. This work is now spreading to other Provinces of the Society and to other religious groups. He thinks that the greatest need at the present time is the development of specific, norms on these tests, not only for religious as distinct from lay persons, but probably also for different religious groups. The development of such norms is of necessity a cooperative undertaking, and Father Bier has been serving as a clearing house for gathering the needed information from the various groups working in conjunction with him. At the present time this work is still in its initial stages, and it will have to be in operation some time longer before publishable results are ¯ available, ] THE present article is the first in a series of two dealing with the use of psychological tests in the selection of candidates for the priesthood and for the religious life. This matter receives clari-fication bydistinguishing and giving separate treatment to the two questions involved. The first concerns the role of psychological tests in the selection of candidates and raises the question of the relation-shiio between testing of this kind and the theology- of vocation. It is evident that this first question is largely theoretical, but testing must first be justified on these grounds before it is feasible to discuss the second question, namely, the practical requirements of such a testing program. The current article, therefore, will consider the theoretical basis for the psychological testing of candidates, and a second article will take up the problems involved in the development of such a pro-gram in practice. Religious Vocation Although in full accord, on theological and psychological grounds, with the modern tendency to extend the term vocation to embrace all states of Christian life, the current consideration is never-theless restricted to vocations to the religious life.and to the priest- 291 WILLIAM C. BIER Reoiew for Religi'ous hood. More specifically still, the explicit treatment is confined mostly to the religious life, leaving the priesthood as matter for reasonably evident inference. A vocation, as the nominal definition of the wor~l implies, ex-presses the action of summoning someone to move toward a definite goal; in a word, it is a call. ~n the case of a divine vocation, it is God who calls the person, and in the matte~ of religious vocation, it is a call to the voluntary practice of the evangelical counsels in an institute.approved by the Church. The question that arises in the case of every vocation is: how can we know in a given case that'God calls? How can it be determined that the vocation is real and not illusory, genuine and not deceptive? This is the question ~vhich must be answered by the candidate himself, by his director, and by the superior who accepts him. In his recent book, The Theolog~I of Religious Vocation, Father Edward Farrell, O.P.,1 indicates that St. Thomas Aquinas distin-guished between internal vocation, or desire on the part of the candi-date for the religious life, and external vocation, or acceptance by a legitimate superior. It will be helpful for our present purpose to consider vocation under both of these aspects, and in so doing we shall 9ttempt to place the psychological testing of candidates in its proper perspective and to indicate what is its legitimate function with respect to the discernment of vocation. Internal Vocation By internal vocation St. Thomas means the intention on the part of the candidate to embrace the religious life. This intention is formed by. a man under the influence of the Holy Spirit. -Such an intention is the result of grace, or rather a series of grace~ consisting of interior'andexterior helps, in virtue of which the individual is led to take the resolution to enter.religious.life. This resolution to enter religion may result from an extraordinary illumination of the mind and incitement of the will toward the reli-gious state. Some of the saints have been favored with such an un-mistakable divine call, but Pope Plus X in his decision on the book of Canon Lahitton on Sacerdotal Vocation made it clear that no such special attraction is necessary for a priestly or religious vocation. Gen-erally, the intention to enter religion is formed under the influence of what theologians would refer to as ordinary grace, i.e., a grace which " 1St. Louis: Herder, 1951. 292 o November, 1953 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING works through the reasoning processes. Theologians generally would take this to mean that the decision is the result of deliberation where-by the individual perceives, in the light of the Gospel ~ind from other considerations that, everything being taken into account, the way of the counsels is preferable for him. Consequently be experiences a corresponding rational inclination of the will toward such a life. It is Worth n'oting, however, that the proposal to enter r.eligion must be sufficiently firm considering the difficulties involved in this state of life. It is only a firm resolution which, in the opinion of theologians, is the subjective manifestation of vocation. On philo-sophical grounds it may be shown that a state of mind can be logically firm only when reasonable doubt is.excluded. We may .say, therefore, that what God's grace does in the case of vocation is to make it possible for the individual to see with a clarity which ex-cludes the reasonable fear of error that the way of ~he counsels is the preferable way of life for him. It would seem, therefore, that the applicant, whose state of mind prior to entrance is uncertain, who is not ~ure whether he has a vocation or not, but who applies "in order to give the life a try," does not hav~ a vocation, since he lacks this firm proposal which is the subjective sign of vocation. It is possible that such an applicant would become certain bf his vocation during postulancy or noviceship, but it seems more prudent, when such a doubt is known, .to postpone his acceptance until it is solved, and meantime to encour.age him to'pray and consider the matter more maturely. It is evident that such a firm decision to enter the religious state is the result of grace. "You have not chosen me, but I have chosen you" (Jo. 15:16). This is the essence of religious vocation, and it is clearly its supernatural aspect. Directly, therefore, psychology, which can touch only the natural, has nothing to do with this aspect. of vocation. Yet,. indirectly, even here, it may have something to contribute. Canon 538 indicates that the candidate for the religious life must be inspired by a "right intention." This requirement expresses in another way what has already been discussed. If the intention to enter religion has been formed under th~ influence of grace, it will be a right intention. Therefore, no purely natural motive will suffice, such.as disappointment or disillusionment with the world, or per-sonal happiness, or security; or the desire to escape an unhappy home situation. On the other hand, theologians allow that ar~y super- 293 WILLIAM C. BIER Ret~iew for Religious natural motive will suffice, for instance, the desire, to save one's soul, or to work for the salvation of others, or to serve God more per-fectly, or to render salvation more secure. It is at thi~ point, it would seem, that psychology can enter to make a contribution. Human motivasion, we know now, is a much more complex affair than was previously suspected. Our motives are seldom simple, and seldom single. Conscious motives can sometimes serve as a cloak for hidden and undetected tendencies. In the case of the motives inducing a person to apply for admission to the religious life, it will seldom happen that they are pur~ly supernatural. Natural motives invariably enter as well. What seems to be important, how-ever, is that the dominant motives should be supernatural. Granted that in the.concrete the total motive force will bepartly natural and partly supernatural, the more dominant the role of supernatural motives, the more assurance there would be that the call was truly from God. Let us illustrate the point mad~ here by an example. " Suppose a spiritual director, on inquiring why a girl wants to consecrate her virginity to God, were to discover that it is because she finds things of the flesh repugnant. Marriage would be abhorrent to her, and if ¯ the attraction to the religious lifewere in fact nomore than an adjust-ment to such a psychic inhibition, it would scarcely be genuine. Prob-ably, such a girl would have combined this fundamental motive force with some supernatural intention, but the question is how dominant, and hence how genuine, would a supernatural motive be in such a case? Would it be any more'than a case of self-deception? I can conceive of a director telling sucha young girl to thank God that she feels that way, because she is thus freed from many temptations against chastity. Yet such advice, I think, would be highly questionable. It is true, of course, that such a person would have little or no difficulty with the material observance of chastity, but absence of sin or conflict.is not a proof of virtue. In such a case the brake applied to prevent sin is not the regulating influence of rea-son, which would be the basis for virtue, but is an inhibition of the psychic order. It is God's plan that sex should be attractive, not repugnant, and it is clear from the words of Christ (Math. 19:12) and of St. Paul (I Cor. 7:6-9) that the invitation to the counsels implies.a sacrifice. The girl who finds sex repugnant has no sacrifice to make in dedicating her virginity to God. The suitable candidate for the religious life is not one who is incapable of marriage, but one 294 November, 1953 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING who freely surrenders this good for a greater. There is a further consideration in a case of this kind which should not be overlooked. The repugnance felt toward sex expression is, as we have presented it, a psychicinhibition. It is due to some psycho-logical twist or other. Suppose, "perhaps after some years of religious life, that this twist is suddenly straightened out--a not inconceivable happening. Once the psychological brake is removed, the person may, for w.ant of virtue, be defenseless against a passion whose existence she never suspected. Could it not be that something similar to this is the explanation of some of those particularl~- puzzling defections after years in religion? The masters of the spiritual life have always recognized the pos-sibility of self-deception in the service of God, and modern psychol-ogy tends to re-enforce their warnings by supplying instances of the subtle ways in which uncon'scious and undetected influences may in-sinuate themselves into human motivation. When such happens in the case of vocation, the good will of the applicant is not in ques-tion, but the genuineness of his vocation.is. He is, in this supposi-tion, deceived himself, and be may quite easily deceive others. The manifestation of virtue is sometimes ambiguous, and what externally passes for virtue may actually be no more than a cover-up for a psychological problem. Natural submissiveness and deep-seated inferiority can ~asily pass for humility, overly-conscientious strivihgs for perfection can, as a matter of fact, be no more than psy-chological defenses against fear of criticism and inability to tolerate failure, while genuine apostolic zeal is not always ea~sy to distinguish from a paranoid discontent. The discernment of spirits is sometimes difficult, and we have the scriptural warning: "Dearly beloved, be-lieve not every spirit, but try the spirits if they be of God" (I John 4:1). This admonition seems to be particularly pertinent in the matter of the discernment of vocation and especially with respect to. the motives prompting the applicant to apply for admission to reli-gion. It would surely be excessive always to question o~ur conscious motives and to see in them nothing but disguises for hidden tenden-cies, but it must be acknowledged that conscious motives are some-times deceptive, and that the dominant motives for our actions are not always the ones which consciously move us. Unconscious fear of contact with the world, for example, may be concealed by perfectly orthodox motives such as contempt for the world and desire of per-fection. For a long time the individual's actions may seem to be in- 295 WILLIAM C, BIER for Refigious spired by these traditional motives, but it may eventually appear that ~hey were in fact but the effects of neurotic tendencies. Where uhcon-scious factors are at work common sense is hardly sufficient for the discernment of vocation, and the eye of the expert, is needed to detect a latent neurosis artfully Concealed behind normal behavior. External Vocation ~ ~ Let us pass now from internal vocation where psychology has but a limit.ed and indirect contribution to make, to external vocation where its contribution is more direct and more extensive. By external ¯ vocation, as previously mentioned, St. Thomas meant the acceptance of ,'i candidate by a legitimate superior. Thus external vocation com-pletes and perfects the internal call essentially determining it to this particular institute. It is evident that before an applicant can be accepted a judgement must be made on his suitabil!ty for the religious life. Some one must 'pass on such firness, and ultimately this decision is the responsibility of the religious superior. The internal call is always subject to the possibility of self-deception, and finds a certain confirmation, there-fore, in the judgement of suitability passed by a competent superior. The junction of the two gives vocation to the religious life in the concrete. Suitability for the religious life might be treated from various-points of vie~v, but for the purposes of the present discussion it will be considered under qualities of body and mind, which in the words of Canon 538 render the individual "fit to bear the burdens of the religious state." A certain level of physical well'being is required for the exercise of religious life, and it is co~nmon practice, to require of applicafits a doctor's certificate of good health. Pertinent to the present discussion, however, is the fact that mental health is no less necessary for religious life. The idea of "mens sana in corpore san&' (a sound mind in a sound body)' seems to be a p~oper estimate of fitness f?r life in religion. The Contribution of Psychological Tests There would be no real disagreement, I think, on the fact that certain psychological qualities are required in a candidate for the reli-gious life. What these qualities are might be diff,erently expre.ssed as maturity, balance, stability, control, adjustment, but there is at least agreement that some over-all psychological integrity is needed. It might even be clearer and there would, perhaps, be even greater agree- 296 Nouernber, 1953 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING ment if the propositi6n were put negatively: certain psychologic.al conditions render an applicant unsuitable for the religious life. Con- .sequently no .superior can accept a candidate for religion without making some judgement of psychological fitness. The trouble is that such a judgement, necessary as it is, is frequently superficial and hap-hazard, because the basis for a more adequate judgement is not avail-able. Here the psychological examination of candidates can enter to make its contribution. Such an examination can offer a more ade-quate foundation for the estimate of psychological suitability which must be made. It may be valuable to point out thus early in the pre~ent discussion that the psychological testing of candidates is new only in its methods; not in its p.urpose. Its function is traditional and inescapable: namely, ~a judgement on the psychological fitness of the applicant. The psychological' examination has a function to perfwor~mth " " respect to all candidates. With the greater n~amber of them its func-tion will be negative hnd w. ill consist simply in affirming the fact that th'ey are psychologically suitable, i.e., that no psychological fac-tors are in evidence which would antecedently make it impossible for them to bear the burden of religious life. Even though the contribu' tion here is negative, it is not to be despised for it is precisely what is needed, namely, a clean bill of mental health. It should be noted that such immunity at the time of application is no necessary guar-antee that psychological difficulty ~might not subsequently ,,develop, any more than the assurance of physical health at the time of entrance is a gua.rantee against subsequent ill health, bht at the time it repre-sents what is needed and is sufficient. With ~espect to the remaining candidates the psychological exam-ination, we assume, will show positive results. Sometimes these re-sults will be extreme, for serious mental disorder cannot be a priori excluded in candidates for the religious life. .In this connection, the work of Father Thomas Verner .Moore on the. rate of insanity in priests and religious2 is pertinent. This ~tudy appeared in The Ec-clesiastical Review for 1936, and still remains the only published work on th,e subject. In connection with the investigation, Father Moore contacted all the Catholic and non-Catholic state and .private sanatoria and asyla for the insane in. the United States. On a basis '-'Thomas Verner Moore. "Insanity in Priests and Religious. Part I[ The Rate of Insanity in Priests and Religioi~s." The Ecclesia t;'ca! Reoic~', 95 (1936). 485- 498. : 297 WILLIAM C. BIER Review for Religious of his returns, Father Moo~e reports the following figures for the year 1935. The ratio per 100,000 population was as follows: for priests 446; for sisters 485; for brothers 418: for the ge,neral popu7 lation 595. He found a notable difference between active sisters with a ratio of 428 and cloistered sisters with a ratio of 1034. On a basis of these findings, therefore, the rate of insanity among priests and religious is less than it is among the general population, but the rate for cloistered sisters is more than twice what it is among the popula-tion at large. One additional point is worth noting. Although it is true that the rate of insanity among priests and religious is less than for the general population, this result is due to the fact that syphilitic types of insanity are almost completely absent among priests and re-ligious. If the latter were eliminated from the figures for the general population, the rate of insanity for priests and religious xvould rise above that for the population at large. One might be tempted at first sight to interpret these figures as meaning that religious life makes reore demands on psychological stability than life in the world, with psychological breakdown conse-quently more frequent. Although there is truth in this interpreta-tion, Father Moore is of the opinion that a more important factor in producing these results is the attraction exerted by the religious life upon certain pre'-psychotic personalities. Schizophrenia, for example, is by far the most frequent psychiatric disorder among institutional-ized priests and religious; and there can be no doubt that a consider-able number of pre-schizophrenic personalities are attracted by the retirement and seclusion of religious life, and of the contemplative life more than the active. Their schizophrenic tendencies blossom out into a full psychosis in religion, but they would undoubtedly have done so just as xvell had these persons remained in the world. Outright psychosis among applicants for the religious life is hardly to be expected, but pre-psychosis and incipient psychosis is ~ problem, as Father Moore's findings and fundamental interpretation indicate. Now, the essential point in term} of the present discussion is that pre-psychosis is not likely to be discovered in an applicant for the religious life, apart from some special testing procedur~ designed to reveal it. Sufficient proof of this statement is found in the number of such persons who secure admission to religious life. As indicated above, cases of severe mental disorder among appli-ca, nts for the religious life are relatively rare, nor do they offer too great a difficulty in evaluation. In such cases the picture is unequivo- 298 Not~erober, 1953 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING 6al, and upon examination the applicant is found to exhibit such a wealth of psychopathology as to be clearly unsuitable. There is, however, a larger number of cases in which the degree of psychologi-cal difficulty is considerably less. The evaluation of such cases is more difficult for two fundamental reasons: (1) because the degree of disorder being less it is more difficult to detect; and (2) because it is more difficult to predict the extent to which the disorder is likely to render the applicant incapable bf bearing the burdens of the religious life. It is evident that the reference here is to neurosis in 'general and to the milder forms of mental difficulty which wduld not even qualify as neurosis. Neurosis, referring in general to the non-psychotic forms of mental difficulty, is a broad term, and I am inclined to think that most responsible and informed persons would be reluctant to say that the presence of neurosis, ipso Facto, would render an applicant un-suitable for the religious life. The presence of neurosis would un-questionably create a presumption of unsuitability, but the latter might yield to the contrary fact in a given case. What then is to be taken as the norm? I would, suggest that we might distinguish 'on the basis of the kind of neurosis. It is beyond question that there are certain types of neurotic difficulty which would almost surely be accentuated by the demands of religious life, and it would be my suggestion that the presence of a neurosis of this type would render the applicant unsuitable. At the present time I would prefer to leave open the question as to whether there actually are any neuroses of the second type, i.e., which would not be aggravated by the requirements of life in religion. As an example of a neurosis the presence of which would likely preclude acceptance into' religion, I would mention hypochondriasis, an abnormal pre-occupation with bodily health. This tendency, as is well known, can grow into an exclusive pre-occupation leaving the individual with little thought or energy for religious observance. In its milder forms it s.imply interferes with ~ommunity life and regular. observance; in more advanced stages, it renders the individual com-pletely incapable of foIlowing religious routine. Experience quite well attests that the introspection of the religious life develops a cer-tain number of hypochondriacs as it is, so that the expectation seems justified that this life would aggravate such tendencies if they were already present at the time of admission. An even clearer example, to my mind, of the kind of neurosis the presence of which would 299 WILLIAM C. BIEP~ Re'view [or Religious render an indi~cidual unsuitable 'for the religious life, would be an obsessive-compulsive neur6sis, which manifests itself .in the moral sphere as scrupulosity. I have referenc~ not to an isolated instance of scrupulosity in the life of an applicant, but to scrupulosity of suffi-cient duration to have become habitual. Such a state is aggravated 'by the additional duties of religious life, by the continual self-exam-ination which is an iodispensable condition for progress t~ward reli-gious perfection, andparticularly by the obligation of the vows. In its milder forms, scrupulosity impairs efficiency, in prayer no less than in apostolic work. In its severer manifestations, it makes prayer and religious observance a torture, and any substantial measure of pro-ductive work an impossibility. Attitude to be Assumed in Doubtful Cases In connection with the matter just .discussed, a question arises which must be faced directly, and it is this: do we not go too far in excluding applicants with neurotic tendencies? Would it not be more in accord with the spirit of Christ. and the Church to accept them and to leave something to the healing effect of God's grace? In answer to this sort of a question, I would like first of all to. point out that psychological testing is finished, its work complete; its contribution made, when it has ascertained the facts, in as far as it is possible to ascertain them in the case of the applicant, and has put these at the disposal of the superior. It then becomes the superior's responsibility to act upon the facts as seems best, and, in view of them and all other available sources of information, to accept or to reject the candidate. A prudent superior will not come to a decision', of course, without taking the matter to prayer. Indeed everyone con-nected with the discernment of a vocation must pray; the applicant himself must pray, his director must pray, and the superior who acts on his application must pray. The Gospels tell us that Our Lord spent the .night in prayer before choosing the Apostles. The example. of saints teaches us that we should pray in such an important deci-sion, but also work. It was it. Ignatius' advice, for instance., that we should .work as if the entire l)utcome depended on us, buy pray as though the entire outcome depended on prayer alone. Such advice seems particularly apposite in the selection of candidates. In this case, the importance of the matter requires that the most adequate possible investigation be made, but ultimately such s~lection depends upon a judgement of the superior. This judgement should be founded in fact--as far as it is humanly possib, le to discover the truth--and 300 Noaeraber, 1953 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING should be illumined b'y grace, in as far as it is possible to invoke the divine assist~ince through prayer. Even when we have proceeded in: the manner indicated abo,~e,.the decision still remains difficult, for we are attempting in such cases just ¯ about the most difficult task in the .world, namely, to predict the interplay of divin'e grace and human freedom. "If the human mind,'r says a distinguished French contemporary, "cannot probe this mys-terious interplay +yen after the event (for when someone leaves a re-ligious institute it is often impossible to tell.whether it was through infidelity to a. real vocation or simply due to the late discovery that there was no vocation at all) still less can it see it~beforehand.'''~ We are compelled .humbly to admit that there are and will continue to be a certain number of cases which cannot be avoided, but there are others which, with a gr.eater expenditure of human effort and l~ru-dence, could be avoided. Such" is our task. When there, is, doubt about the psychological s~itability of can-didates for the religiou~ life, I would offer it as a general principle that we should be severe rather than lenient in admitting. My fun-damental reason for this recommendation is that the religious life demands more than ordinary psychological stability for. its practice. In the vows, which constitute the essence of religious life, man makes of himself a holocaust to God. owe speak also of the martyrdom of the vows. It is true that "holocaust" and "martyrdom" are meta-phorical expressions in this context, but they serve to emphasize the demands made of human nature in the practice of the religious life, " demands which are to a considerable extent psychological. Certainly the number of psychological satisfactions available to religious are considerably reduced over those possible to people in the world, while the occasion~ for frustration are greater, due to the surrender of deep human wants through the vows of religion, and by reason of the demands of day-by-day community lif~. Hence there is required more than the usual amount of psychological stability and maturity in a religious, and it would seem, therefore, to be imprudent to accet3t in religion applicants with distinctly less than the normal amount of psychological integrity. A further point seems worth) of note in this connection. The attitude is sometimes assumed that doubtful candidates should be ac-cepted in religion because religious life wotild benefit them more than 8A. Pit, O.P., "Unconscious Attraction to the Religious Life." Religious Life: H Vocation. Westminster, Maryland, Newman, 1952, p. 110. 301 WILLIAM (~. BIER Reoiew fo'r Religious it would some better individuals who are less in need of helps reli-gion would prgvide. A ~lightly different way of putting this same objection would be to say that if there is a doubt, we should give the ,applicant the benefit of the doubt. We assume that the doubt is a positive one, i.e., one in which there are positive .reasons for ques-tioning the suitability of the candidate. ¯ In such cases, I do not think that the general principle that the applicant should be given the bene-fit of the doubt is the correct one. It must not be forgotten that the religiouscommunity has rights as well, and it .seems a more funda-mental principle that the good of the community should prevail over the good of an individual, particularly when the latter is not yet a member of the community, as would be the case of an applicant. The doubtfully suitable applicant--if indeed the doubt is well founded--is likely to prove to be a problem from the very day of his arrival in the novitiate. If such is the case, he will require a dispro-portionately large amount of the novice master's time, to the detri-ment of the other novices who would profit more from his counsel and direction. Furthermore, psychologically unstable and neurotic individuals are difficult to live with, and it seems really inequitable that such persons should be permitted to enter and to. disrupt the peace and harmony of community life. One such person can be a thorn in the side of an entire community,, as experience very well at-tests. In God's Providence we shall always have enough 'difficult members of the community to make religious~life a source of virtue and sanctification, but it seems quite another thing knowingly to ¯ contribute to the difficulties of religious life by admitting psycho-logically unsuitable persons. Finally, there is always the distinct possibility, if not probability, that the defiaands of religious life will increase the difficulties of psychologically unstable persons to the point where they will ultimately be compelled to leave religion (and the institute may consider itself fortunate if the p}oblm can be solved in this way), or else they will have to be removed from the commun-ity and institutionalized. The latter can be.a tremendous financia'l burden to a c~mmunity, an, d it would seem an unjust one when the likelihood of such an eventuality could have been foreseen at the time of admission. It might be felt by" some that when there is doubt about the psy-chological suitability of a candidate, he should be admitted with the expectation that his inability to adjust to religious life would soon become evident to him through the actual attempt in a way which he 302 Noaernber, 1953 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING would never have been able to accept beforehand, and that he xvill in consequence voluntarily leave. The expectation of k, oluntary with-drawal in a case of this kited is not well founded. Even for the psy-chologically well-integrated and mature personality, readjustment to life in the world is difficult and the courage required to face the un-asked questions of family and friends is considerable. Ability to measure up to such demands is not realistically to be expected of one whose difficulty is weakness precisely in this area. Furthermore, it is assumed that the individual is suffering from personality or emo-tional disorders, and one of the main characteristics of such difficulties is a lack of insight on the part of the individual into his condition.' Hence, if the disorder" increases to a point where the individual should leave, insight is likely to decline as well, so that it is not to be ex-pected that the individual will leave voluntarily. I return, therefore, to my earlier proposition that it is a mistaken charity to accept doubt2 fully mature and questionably stable individuals into religion. In concluding the'present article I should like to refer to two quotations which seem to me to re-enforce the viewpoint presented. The first arises out of*the symposium on religious vocation held in France during the summer of 1949, and consists of the following expression of experience on the part of a religious superior: "Experi-ence has taught us one thing, and that is that when there is a doubt about any.one in the novitiate it is n~arly always confirmed later: the situation does not improve. There may be exceptions but they are few and far between.TM I would simply suggest that, under adequate investigation, we can move the process back one step further, and speak about the doubtful applicant, but that the principle remains the same. The second quotation is from our late Holy Father, Pope Pius XI, xvho expressed himself on the severity to be exercised in admitting candidates to the religious life. The occasion was an audience granted to the Capuchin general chapter after the election of Very Reverend Donatus de Welle as Minister General in June I938, at which time the Pope spoke in part as follows: "This recommendation, for which we take full responsibility, ought to be regarded as a father's instruction to his children, based simply on a desire foi the well being of all religious families. And the instruction is this: Be severe. These may be hard words but they~ 4"An Enquiry about Vocation" in Religious Life: II Vocation, Westminster]Mary-land, Newman, 1952, p. 83. 303 WILLIAM C. BIER are p~ompte~t by love, for true love, love worthy of our L.o~d's' friends, can be satisfied with nothing short of the truth . We are not alluding merely to severity of discipline, in general, but first and foremost to the seyerity v,;hich ought to be shown in accepting postu-lants. If ariyone tells you that there is too much sev.erity even now, we authorize you to reply that the Pope wants it to be that .way, be-cause he clearly sees the, need of it, in virtue of his position and.re-sponsibilities, the more so as Providence has granted him a pontifi-cate of some length and thus allowed him to acquire wide .experience in this field. Indeed, if the religious life is to be kept in all its splen-dour there must be severity, particularly with regard, to vocations, because although divine grace helps nature it does not destroy iF; the necessity fordoing battle remains, and in the religious life the stakes. are higher . "It is no exaggeration to say that whenever people unite to form a group, even in small numbers, deterioration occurs. We learn.this from experience. This does not mean that a religious family ought therefore to reduce the number of its members; quite the contrary-- the tendency should always be to increase. But it should see that its members are carefully chosen, like picked soldiers. This is a difficult task, but essential.~ When a number of men join together in some enterprise, their good qualities, and particularly the highest ones, do not become common property; each man keeps his own. Their weak-ness and. bad qualities,I on the other hand, add up and merge to-gether . " These words, coming from so high an authority, speak for them-selves. The purpose of the present article has been to demonstrate the ~)roposition that psycl~ological testing has a function to perform in theselection of candidates for the religious life, and that such,a pro- . gram is in keeping with the spirit of religious vocation as understood in the Church. The theoretical desirability.of such a program is one thing, its practicality is another, arid the latter question will be con-sidered in a second article. OUR CONTRIBUTORS JOSEPH F. GALLEN is professor of canon law at WoodstockCollege, Wood-stock, Md. HILARY R. WERTS is superior and a professo.r of moral theology at Alma College, Los Gatos, Calif. C. J. McNASPY, an authority on ~cclesiastical music, is on the faculty of St.'Charles College, Grand Coteau, La. Information on WILLIAM C. BIER is given in the prenote to his article. ' 304 \ The F:ucharis :ic Fast: Hilary R. Werts, S.3. THE. new and mitigated law of the Eucharistic fast contained in the Apostolic Constitution, Christus Dorninus; and the accom-panying Instructibn of the Holy Office, whose translations were published in this REVIEV~, last March, is a generous concession of our H01y Father the Pope who wishes to make more humanly possible the frequent and even daily reception of Holy Communion so.much recommbnded by Blessed Pope Pius X and his successors in the chair of Peter. In pro.mulgating the new law His Holiness urge~ bishops and priests to take advantage of its concessions to exhort the faithful to more frequent reception of'the Blessed Sacrament. Religious who have much contact with the faithful in schools and hospitals will find many' opportunities for their zeal to promote frequent Com~ munion by expla.ining this law'and leading people to use its condes-sions. For this purpose it is necessary that they have a clear under-standing of the conditions for the.application of these concessions. It is hoped that this article will help to this understanding. The former law for the Eucharistic fast is retained except for the particular conces~ion~ "granted in the new law. The first concession is that water does not break the fast, Water may now b.e taken at any time by anyone, right up to Communion time. The Eucharistic" fast is no longer concerned with water, and abstinence from it can no long, er properly be called fasting, though it may be an act of mortifi-cation ¯ Water here means plain water, that is, water without the admix-ture of'any other substance whatever. Water as it is found in natural conditions is plain water, even.though it be mineral water from a mineral spring, Qr ocean water with its content of salt. But minerals or salt may not be added artificially to the water that is permitted before Communion. How,ever, the chemical additions to our city water su'pplies are not to be considered, f6r otherwise we would have no water available to drink and the change in the law would be meaningless. Aside from the permitted water, the Pope confirms the former law and says that it must be observed by those who are able to do so. But this does not mean that those who c.ome under the conditions of the new concessions must worr, y as to whethe, r or not they should use .305 HILARY R. WERTS . Revieu~ for Religious them. Norm I of the Constitution says: "The law of the Eucharistic fast, to be observed from midnight, continues in force for all those who do not come under the special conditions, which We shall set forth in this Apostolic Constitution" (italics supplied). Hence there is no requirement that those who come under the concessions should rather fast from midnight if possible. Norm II of the Constitution makes concessions for the infirm. They may, without any time restriction, take something by way of drink or medicine. They may take non-alcoholic liquids and they may take medicine in either liquid or solid form at any time before the celebration of Mass or the reception of Communion. The ini~rm who enjoy this concession are either those who are sick, or thos.e who are infirm because of age. For the sick, no kind or length or degree of gravity of sickness is specified, but it is required that the infirmity be such that it is difficult to observe .the fast from midnight. The difficulty need not be extraordinary; a moderate diffi-culty will suffice. If an infirm person who desires to communicate would omit Communion because of th~ fast from mid.night, then surely he finds this fast too difficult. For example, influenza, stom-ach ulcers, diabetes, asthma, the ills of pregnancy, may be presumed to make fasting from midnight difficult. Any sickness in which the doctor recommends nourishment before Communion, or in which re-covery would be delayed by fasting, or any infirmity which causes the feeling of weakness unless nourishment is taken will suffice to permit liquid nourishment before Communion. Insomnia, severe headache, high or low blood pressure, distressing ~ough, rheumatism, arthritis, a bad cold, hay fever, may frequently make fasting rather difficult, ahd permit liquids. Some kinds of infirmity may last for a long time and permit .liquids daily before Communion; others may be tran.sitory and cause difficulty only for a day or a few days and these latter equally suffice for the use of the concession whenever ~hey occur. Since a moderately serious difficulty in fasting is required for the use of this concession, there are cases of infirmity in which the con-cession may not be used because the fast is no more difficult in these cases than it is for ordinary healthy persons; e.g., a person who has weak eyes or is blind, one who has lost an arm or leg, will have no fasting difficulty arising from his infirmity Unless other circumstances enter into the case. The difficulty in fasting required in order to permit the infirm to 306 November, 1953 THE EUCHARISTIC FAST take liquids before Communion is, according to some commentators, also required in order to permit them to take medicine. However it seems to me that a close reading of the Instruction (n. 1) reveals a distinction between liquid nourishment and medicine. There are two clauses, one concerning liquids, which are permitted fi~nder the con-dition that fasting is difficult; the other cgncerning medicine, which is permitted under the sole condition that it is real medicine. Thus [ conclude that a person with a headache, even though it is not severe enough to make fasting difficult, would still be permitted an aspirin before Communion because he is sick and aspirin is real medicine. ¯ It may happen that someone feels well on rising, but knows from exi~erience that if he fasts until he receives Communion, he will be-come ill. In this case be may take medicine or liquid under the con-cession for the infirm, in order to avoid the sickness. Sometimes a person's sickness is due to his own fault, as when one is ill the morning aft, er an evenir~g of overindulgence in food or d~ink. Nevertheless, he .may use the'concession for the sick, sup-posing that he has the .proper dispositions of body and soul for the reception of.the Blessed Sacrament. We may now examine more .in detail what is meant by liquids and medicines. The liquid permitted to the sick before Communion is anything that can be pour,ed and drunk, except alcoholic bever-ages. Thus milk, tea, coffee, broth, fruit juices, soft drinks, and. heavier liquids like egg hog, milk shake, creamed soup and raw or lightly boiled eggs. The liquid may have some° undissolved solids as lo.ng as it remains a potable liquid; e.g., broth with some bread or cracker crumbs, cereals such as cream of wheat or corn meal when diluted with suffici,ent milk to make them drinkable. But all alco-holic beverages, even with low alcoholic content, are excluded after the midnight preceding Communion. Medicine, either liquid or solid, is permitted so long as it is real medicine, and not merely something nourishing or agreeable. True medicine is somethi,ng curative, palliative, or preventive. Any medi-cine prescribed by a doctor is a true medicine, but there are also many substances that are known to be medicine and used without a pre-scription, such as aspirin, sleeping pills, cold remedie~, etc. Commen-tators dispute whether medicine containing alcohol is permitted. It may safely be said that alcoholic beverages may not be used medici-nally before Communion, but a real medicine, even if it contains alcohol, may be used. This accords with the wording of the law, 307 HILARY R. WERTS ° Review for Relioious and the law hardly requires that a sick person know the chemical con-tent of his medicine, or° be prevented from Communiofi because he must take medicine containing some alcohol. We may also note that some things which are ordinarily considered food and not medicine may in certain diseases be real medicine with curative or preventive value. Thus sugar is prescribed for diabetics who have an insulin reactidn. This concession of the use of liquids and medicines for the infirm is granted to priests or rion-priests, and to p~iests for the reception of Communion or th,e celebration of Mass, and applies whether the ¯ Mass or Communion is in the morning or in the evening. The liquids or medicine may be taken once .or several time~ after midnight, and in any quantity. The use of this concession is not directly open to all the infirm, but those who are not priests are required to first consult a confessor, that he may judge whether they may use the concessio~a. This con- ¯ sultation is required in every case, but need be made only once ,for a given cause of infirmity, and the advice of the cQnfessor maY be fol-lowed as long as the infirmity continues, even if it be life-long. When the infirmity diminishes, as during convalescence, the c6ncession may still be used until it is clear that the infirmity no longer makes fasting difficult. . The time'fo[ this consultation is any time before Comm~ion. The confessor's advice is not required to take liquids or medicines. The advice is required for Communion after having taken these things, and so .it may be asked after taking them ~but before receiving Communion. The gravity of the obligation to consult a confessor is discussed by commentators, and some hold that to use the concession without consultation would be to viOlate the law of the Eucharistic fast and commit a grave sin. Others say that a person who is sure that his case comes under the conditions of the concession would sin'venially by disobedience if he were to omit the consultation and rceive Com-munion; and that in an extra.ordinary case, when it is impossible to. consult a confessor, he could use the concession without consultation. This opinion may be followed unless the Holy See ~olves the question otherwise. Of course, if a person were not qualified to judge the matter, he would sin at least, venially b,y acting imPrudently. There is"also some discussion about the confessor who is t6 be consulted. The strictest o.pinion is that he must be a priest who 308 November, 1953 THE EUCHARISTIC FAST could h~re and now hear the confession of the one consulting, and this would be required if the advice were sbught in confession. But the law does not require that the advice be sought in confession. It may be asked in private consultation outside the confe~si6nal and, according to atenable opinion, from a priest who can hear confes-sions somewhere, even though he .has no faculties to hear confessions in the place of the consultation or of the person consulting. Certainly no one but a priest may give the required advice, though teachers and others may explain the requirements to their charges. Since the advice of the confessor may be asked out of confession, it follows'that it may be asked in personal interview, by phone or by letter, or by an int.ermediary,such as a parent or other relative, a Sister or nurse in a hospital, a teacher, etc. The advice is personal and in-dividual and could not be given to a large group together, such as Ill the people attending Mass; but.if there is a group in which the con- "fessor knows that all those present have the same reason for the use of the concession, he could advise the group together, as when all the nurses present are on night duty, or all the people present must make a long trip to Mass, and thus come under the concessions to be seen later. As seen above, a person who is not a priest must consult a con- . fessor before using the concession for the sick (and also the conces-sions to be seen below). Must the sick priest also consult a confessor before using this concession to receive Communion or to celebrate Mass? "A~ first sight the law seems to requlke this, and some com-mentators thus interpret the law., But many, i~ncluding some who are connected with the Holy Office in Rome, say that the sick priest need not consult a confessor. This seems reasonable, for if the priest can decide for others, he should be able t9 decide ~or himself. With-out entering into all the arguments, it might be well to consider one point, The Instruction of the'Holy Office concerning the sick (n. 3) says: "Priests who are ill., may likewise take advantage of the dispensation." The word likewise is a translation of the.word pariter, meaning "likewise," "in the same way." Many'commenta-tors r~fer this word to what has gone before, and understand the law to gay that priests may use the dispensation in the same way as the faithful, that is, .after consulting a confessor. It seems to be as well or even better to refer the word to what follows, and understand the sentence to mean that priests are given permission to .use the dispen-sation as well for celebrating Mass as for receiving Communion, 309 HILARY R. WERTS Review for Reliqious which is a new and very noteworthy concession, emphasized by the word pariter. The next concession is for priests in circumstances other than sickness which make fasting difficult. Three specific causes of diffi-culty are set down and the concession is grant.ed to piiests in these circumstances, without the need of consulting a confessor, and even incases where the pri, est couId fast without difficulty. The three causes are exclusive, and the concession is not to be extended to other circumstano~s, but actually the three given causes cover most of the difficult cases. The first cause is the late hour of celebrating Mass. The hour is defined as nine o'clock in the morning. If a priest celebrat,~s Mass after this hour he may take non-alcoholic !iquids as explained above, up to one hour before the beginning of Mass, and may take them as often as he wishes. The time in this case must be measured mathe-matically. There must be a full hour of fasting before the beginning of Mass. And the Mass must start after nine o'clock. If the priest leaves the sacristy promptly for a scheduled nine o'clock Mass, it will be after nine when he begin? the Mass at the foot of the altar with the sign of the cross, and he is a proper subject for this concession. When a priest is celebrating more than one Mass, and one of them is after nine o'clock, he fulfills the cbndition and may us~ the dispensation by taking liquids any time after .midnight, and therefore before his. earlier Mass, but he must observe the prescription of fasting from the liquids for one hour before each Mass. Thus if he celebrates at eight and nine o'clock, he could take liquids before seven o'clock; if he celebrates at six and nine o'clock, he could take liquids before five and again after the first Mass but before eight o'clock. The second cause which allows priests the use Of liquids up to one hour before the beginning of Mass is heavy work of the ministry done before Mass. No exact definition of this work is given, but in view of the definition of a late hour given above, and of a long jour-ney given in the next cause, it would seem safe to say that one hour or more of concentrated work, such as hearing confessions, taking~ Communion to the sick, preparing a sermon, participating in solemn ceremonies, and the like, would allow the concession, but not an hour of puttering at odds and ends while waiting for Mass time. The third cause permitting liquids to the priest up to one hour before the beginning of Mass is a long journey, before Mass. A long journey is defined by the Holy Office as a distanoe of a mile and a 310 November, 1953 THE EUCHARISTIC FAST quarter on foot, which is a walk of about 20 or 25 minutes. If transportation is used, the distance must be greater in proportion to the kind of conveyance, the d!fficulty of the road, and the condition of the traveler. The inconvenience of the trip by conveyance should be equivalent to the inconvenience of a walk of a mile and a quarter. For a healthy person and a good road, it would seem that about forty minutes by car, or thirty minutes by bus, or twenty minutes by bicycle, would be a long journey in the sense of this law. Where the road or the weather is bad, or the person old or unwell, this distance may be shortened proportionately. Since water no longer breaks the fast, it is noted that a priest celebrating more than one Mass may take the ablutions in each Mass, but using only water except at the last Mass. However, the Holy Office makes an exception to this in the case of Christmas and All Souls Day, if the priest celebrates three Masses on these feasts without interruption. In this case he should observe the rubrics of the missal which require the omission of the ablutions in the first two Masses. If on these two days the priest should take the ablutions with water, he would not be breaking his fast but he would be violating the rubrics. The Holy Office says that if the binating or trinating priest in-advertently takes wine at the ablutions of a Mass before his last one, he may still celebrate the subsequent Mass or Masses. Some commen-tators hold that this permission is granted only if the priest has some special need to celebrate the subsequent Mass, e.g. because it is a sched-uled Sunday Mass. But others say that the law does not necessarily mean any particular need for the Mass, and that the priest may pro-ceed with his Masses for no greater reason than his own devotion. It would seem that if the priest inadvertently took the wine ablu-tion into the chalice in his earlier Mass, and noticed it before con-suming the wine, he would not be obliged to dispose of it some other ~vay, but could consume it. However, if he deliberately took the wine ablution at Mass, not intending to binate, and later the need for another Mass arose, he could not celebrate again .unless there were sufficient need to allow him to celebrate after breaking his fast. But in view of the present mitigation of the law, one might be less severe than formerly in weighing this need. Having seen the concessions for priests who will celebrate Mass, we come to the concession for communicants. This concession, simi-lar to but somewhat different from the preceding, is the one which 311 HILARY Rz WERTS Re, view/or Reli~lious rules the reception of Holy Communion for all non-priests, even though they be religious or clerics in the major orders of subdeacon or deacon, and it also applies to priests who are to communicate rather than celebrate, as for example, priests who do not c~lebrate Mass on Holy Saturday. The concession is given for three exclusive causes of grave diffi-culty, namel~, fatiguing work ¯before Communion, late hour of. Communion, or a long journey before Commianion. The concession requires consultation of a confessor, as seen ~above for the infirm. When the" concession is allowed, the communicant may take .liquids as often as he wisheL from midnight until one hour b~fore Com-munion, and of course water at any time. No solid food,or alcoholic drink is allowed after midnight. Note that the hour is measured be-fore Communion, while for the celebrant we saw that it is measured before the beginning of Mass. The period of fasting must be a full hour and if in doubt about the exact time of Communion one must leave some margin Of time; or risk arriving at Communion before the full hbur is completed and thus be deprived of Communion, for there m'ust be no diminution of the hour. There are various opinions as to the application of the three causes of grave difficulty. One opinion requires not only the exist-ence of one of these three causes, but also the existence of at I~east a moderately grave difficulty in fasting from midnight for this particu-lar communica.nt, A second opinion holds that if one. of the three, causes exists, we may presume that it is actually difficult for any par-ticular person to observe the fast" from midnight, and so he should be allowed to use the concession unl.ess it is clear that fasting causes him no difficulty. A third opinion holds that the only difficulty required is the actual existence of one of the three given causes. For example, if one must make a long journey to church, he may be allowed to use the concession without inquiry as to the inconvenience he would suf-fer by fasting from midnight. TJae practical application of these¯ different opinions will be the same except in border-line cases in which the third opinion will cre-ate less anxiety in the confessor and the comrrluriicant than will the other two opinions. This third opinion has the fewest supporters,. ¯ but I adopt it'as the easiest to. apply and as defensible according to the meaning of the law. Although the tenor of the law is that it in-tends to relieve those who experience grave difficulty in fasting from midnight, it also states that there is grave difficulty in certain cases 312 November, 1953 ¯ THE EUCHARISTIC FAST given as examples. The C0n~titution also insinuates that some cir-stances which do not ~eem to be serious in a single case may have a serious cumulative effect over an extended period. Thus 'the Consti-tution says that the burden of a priest's Sunday ministry unques-tionably undermines his health; the conditions of work in the mod-ern economy and the conditions of modern living especially after re-cent wars have caused a general decline of health. The Constitution, norm V, grants the concession "because of grave incon.venience-- that is, because Of fatiguing work, or the lateness of the hour . or the long distance." (italics supplied), signif~ring that these three conditions are actually grave difficulties. The introduction to the ¯ Instruction says the concessions may be used by those who find them-selves in the particular conditions specified in the Constitution, which in this.concession are the three given causes. The Instruction states 'the concession to the sick conditionally,."if because of their illness~ they are unable without grave inconvenience, to observe a complete fast," signifying that illness may or may not be a cause of grave in-convenience. But in the concession to communicants who are not ill, it states directly that the three enumerated circumstances are (not rna~] be) causes of grave inconvenience. Furthermore, the spirit of these, documents is very lenient, considering a mile and a quarter as a gravely inconvenient walk and nine o'clock as a gravely inconvenient late horn:, if these are considered as.generally grave, there seems to be little room for a reasonable decision that in some.exceptional cases they are not grave. To draw a line betw,een grave and not grave in this matter seems to be practically impossible and the attempt to do so would lead to anxiety and scruples. So it seems to be in accord' with the meaning and spirit of this law to allow the concession to all communicants who are in one of thd three given circumstances, without trying to measure the gravity of the difficulty of fasting for each communicant. ¯ The first cause given, fatiguing work, is illustrated in the law by the cases of night workers in factories, ships or other transportation, ~hose who spend the night in the'service of the sick or as watchmen, and mothers who must perform domestic duty before going to Com~ reunion. The work may be an all-night occupatign, or it may be work done in the morning for a period long enough to make it fa-tiguing, or it may be work done during some part of the night with some sleep afterwards, as when a nurse is called at night for some emergency. An hour's heavy work in the morning would seem to jus- 313 HILARY R. WERTS Reuieto /:or Religious tify the use of the concession. Work done late in the evening does not seem to be ordinarily included in this cause, but .such work and even work done earlier might sometimes be so fatiguing that it would permit use of the concession. The law also mentions pregnant women,rand probably considers them subjects for the concession in-dependently of any work they must do before Communion, merely by reason of the pregnancy. The second cause is the late hour at which alone the communicant can receive. The late hour is not defined, but since nine o'clock has been defined as a late hour for the celebrant, it must also be a late hour for the communicant. Perhaps it was not defined because it maC/ happen that a time before nine o'clock will be a late hour for those who must rise very early. The Instruction gives the example of Communion in a place where a priest is not able to say Mass early because he must come from some distance, as happens when on.e priest has charge of two or more churches. Although the Constitution says: "The ,lateness of the hour at which alone they can receive," this must not be understood to mean that it is absolutely impossible to receive earlier, but rather that it is difficult to receive earlier, or there is some necessity for waiting until a late hour. The concession could be allowed to these: the parent who must care for the children while the other parent goes to an early Mass and then himself goes to a .later Mass; one who is awake until a very late hour at night and so needs to sleep late in the morn-ing; one who needs a late sleep on Sunday or a holiday to rest from his week's work; one who must choose a late Mass to keep peace in the family; the altar boy who is assigned to serve a late Mass, even if he could go to another earlier Mass; a worker who could.conveni-ently go to noon Mass down town but would find it inconvenient to rise early enough for Mass before work; some special reason for a late Mass, as when the bride and groom wish to receive at a late nup-tial Mass, or the family wishes to receive at a late Requiem Mass; and in general, whenever in view of the person's accustomed rising hour, the time of the first conveniently available Mass is relatively late. But one may not without some necessity freely choose the later of two Masses in order to be able to take liquids before Com-munion. A special case of a late hour, mentioned in the documents, is that of children who would have to go to church, communicate, and then return home for breakfast before school. In order to obviate this 314 Nooernber, 1953 THE EUCHARISTIC FAST difficulty, these children may take liquid nourishment up to an hour before Communion. It must be admitted that this concession is not without its own problems. Although a child could have a sufficiently nourishing breakfast made up entirely of liquids, still it might not be a satisfying breakfast for those accustomed to a more substantial meal, and the liquid breakfast might require that the child and hi~ family rise earlier than usual in order to finish it an hour before Com-munion time. From this case of the school child we may conclude that some-times the hour may be considered late because the available time be-tween Holy Communion and other duties does not permit the com-municant to obtain breakfast, readily after Communion. This may be the case not only for school children, but also for college students, and for people who work away from home and do not have conveni-ent time after Mass to return home for breakfast. The third cause which allows this concession is a long distance to travel to church. The distance in this concession is to be measured in the way explained above for priests, i.e., a mile and a quarter walk, or the equivalently inconvenient ride. Here again there must be some need for the travel. One could not choose a more distant church when there is a nearer one unless there was some fairly serious reason for doing so. Sufficient reason might be some special solemnity at the distant church, e.-g., the first Mass of a member of the family; a group Communion of a family or of the Holy Name Society or the Knights of Columbus; .an alumni or father-son Communion-group at a school; a baccalaureate Mass; the close of a M'ission or novena one has attended; but hardly the mere devotional desire to communi-cate in the distant church rather than in a near one. The final concession concerns evening Masses. These Masses are not directly permitted, but the local Ordinary may permit them on the days specified in the law, and he may permit them in all .the churches of the diocese, or in certain designated churches. He may also permit them in the oratories of religious. There must b~ some need for the evening Mass, for workers who cannot go to morning Mass, or for a gathering for a religious or social festivity such as a Eucharistic Congress, a Sodality Convention, a business, labor or scout convention, etc. The evening Mass may begin at four o'clock or later. Some have thought that an eoenin9 Mass differs from a night Mass, and have tried to assign the latest hour at which this Mass may begin as some hour earlier than midnight, but the law does 315 HILARY R. WERTS not ~eem to set a final hour at any time before midnight, and the hour may be defined by the local. Ordinary according to the need. When evening Masses are permitted, all are free t6 go to the Masses and to receive Communion, but no one may communicate twice on the same day, nor may the priest celebrate morning and evening of the same day unless he may legitimately binate on that day. Neither priest.nor faithful need consult a konfessor under this concession. The Eucharistic fast required for evening Communion is a fast "of three hours from solid food and one hour from liquids, and the time.is measured before Communion for the communicant but before the beginning of Mass for the celebrant. No hard liquor is allow~d ¯ after the preceding midnight.Light alcoholic beverages such as beer and wine are allowed in moderation, but only during a meal. Some commentators hold that these beverages may be taken at only one meal, even if the person ~ats two meals before a Mass late in the evening, But it may I~e admitted with other commentators that the law does not intend to exclude the use of these beverage's from any meal taken before evening Mass or Communion. This new law of the Eucharistic fast is a generous help for the increase of frequent Communion. Priests and other teachers of the faithful can use it effectively, as the Holy Father wishes, to encourage the frequent reception of the Blessed Sacrament, and the faithful should take full advantage of these concessions to increase their re-ception of the'Bread of Life in proportion to the greatlyincreased convenience of its reception. " BOOK NOTICI: Over twenty years ago Father Bernard Hausmann, S.J., first translated from the German a notable book on-the devotion to the Sacred Heart written by Father Christian Pesch, S.J., under the title of OUR BEST FRIEND. World War II and other causes kept the book out of print for some years. Now the publisher has reset the book entirely in very legible type. Its thirty chapters, each acom-plete unit in itself, offer ideal reading matter for daily spiritual reading during the month of June; or for the Fridays of the year. The central thought of this work, that Jesus is t, ruly our best Friend, contains the strongest possible motive for fervent practice of devotion to the Sacred Heart. (Milwaukee: Bruce Publishing Cc~mpany, 1953. Pp. 228. $3.00.) 316 Motu Proprio ,Jubilee C.J. McNaspy, S.J. ~IGH MASS ~nd possibly an added toothsome tidbit, at least for the choir, mark St. Cecilia's feast in many religious com-munities. This year is likely to see a fuller fe.stivity on No-vember 22, the golden jubilee of Blessed Pius X's Motu~Proprio on ¯ sacred music. 'Everything about'this famed document is rwell known to music teachers and chant directors, who often have had to flourish it in defense of their innovations or renovations. But this fiftieth anniversary may be a fit .occasion for all religious, however unmusical, .to recall what the Church has to say about her own music. If the Motu Proprio were a dead letter no one would take the trouble to commemorate it. Blessed Pius himself saw to it that this would not easily happen by enshrining his prescriptions in tt~e pre-paratory draft of canon 1264. His immediate, successor, Benedict XV, not long after stated: "We do not wish that the lapse of time should weaken the force of these wise rules.; indeed, we desire them to have their full force." On the silver anniversary, 1928, Pius XI indeed bolstered them with a new papal document, Diuini Cultus, in which he expr~essed surprise "that some have declared that these laws, though so solemnly promulgated, were not binding on their obedience." .Finally, our present Holy Father devotes several pa.ragraphs to sacred music, alway~ stressing the sameprinciples, in his masterly Mediator Dei. No one, unless wi~h a peculiar axe to grind, can say that the Motu Proprio is out of date. Another unfounded notion one sometimes hears is th~t the Motu Proprio is a bit extreme and not practical enough for us to do anything about it. The full reply to this objection would be simply to read it through. By no means does it. state or imply' that one should use only Gregorian chant in sacred worship. Quite explicitly the Holy Father states that "modern music is also admitted in church, as it also offers compositions of such goodness, seriousness, and grav-ity that they are not at all unworthy of liturgical functions." And if this were not enough, the Holy Father explains that "the Church: has always recognized and favored the progress of the arts, admitting to the service of worship everything good and beautiful that genius has been able to discover throughout the centuries." No, only one 317 C. J. McNAsPY Review for Religious type of music is condemned in the Motu Proprio, and that by indi-. rection: the music that does not possess "the qualities proper to the liturgy, namely holiness, and goodness of form, from which spon-taneously there springs its other mark, uniuersaIit~t.:" It is hard to see how anyone could find this either radical or extreme. So much has been done, especially during recent years, to carry out the requirements of the Motu Proprio that another possible qualm may occur: isn't it all so obvious that we needn't discuss it any more? Mu~n personal contact with religious, younger ones particu-larly, is so encouraging that one is tempted to let down, feeling that the battle has been won. The ever-.widening conquests of the Gre-gorian Institute, Piu; X School, and other liturgical or musical or-ganizations must surely bring added joy to the Blessed Pontiff who so recently launched the whole movement. But when one leaves religious house and seminary to venture forth into parish, or even, in some cases, cathedral, the situation is dismal indeed. True, the more offensive, bumptious Masses usual in the last century will h~rdly now be heard. But in too many instances, what replaced them is little better. In fact, there are parishes, even deaneries, Where .the Motu Proprio would seem never to have been promulgated. Sad indeed would be the Blessed Pastor were he not already in heaven. It was with real poignancy that he had written, fifty years ago, while intro-ducing his great statement, of the "many prejudices so stubbornly held even~among responsible and pious persons"; not all of the stub-bornness is gone .today. Need we recall once again that all.discussion of the role of sacred music in divine worship must be situated in the total context of the very m. eaning of liturgy.? The question cannot be simply decided on a purely musical basis. It cannot be just a matter of aesthetic value, abstractly considered, if that were possible. Much less can it be just a question of "I don't know anything about music but I know what I like." ¯ Music that would ~ank high on some ecclesiastical Hit Pa-rade or even music performed in Carnegie Hall will not necessarily be suitable as worship music. Too often, even now, dubious standards are implicitly set up. A meditative reading of the Motu Proprto could remedy that. "Sacred music as an integral part of the solemn liturgy shares in its general, purpose, which is the glory of God and the sanctification and edification of the faithful." Thus far no cavilling possible. "Its principal function is to adorn with suitable melody the liturgical text 318 November, 1953 MOTU PROPRIO JUBILEE proposed to the understanding of the faithful." Here it becomes clearer that music's place must be secondary, that of a handmaid, as Pius XI would make explicit. If tb? sacred text becomes a plaything, or in any way obscured instead of pointed and intensified, then some-thing has gone askew; this may be good concert music; it is no longer liturgical music. Then the Pontiff enumerates the three qualities of sacred music which we gave above. By "holiness" he means ~hat all profanity must be excluded, "not only in itself but also in the manner in which it is presented by the perfgrmers." Farther on he explains that nothing may be admitted ~hat contains anything "reminiscent of theatrical motifs," or "fashioned even in external pattern on the movement of profane pieces." Music of a romantic or sentimental flavor (aptly called "googaudery") in which the."pleasure directly produced by music is not always kept within bounds," is evi-dently excluded under this heading. Next, music "must be true art, for otherwise it is not possible for. it to have that effect on listeners which the Church intends to achieve in admitting the art of music into bet liturgy." This precept is commonly violated in two ways: either by singing music of low artistic worth, music that would never make its mark in "the world ~vere it not put forth under the aegis of the liturgy; or by singing worth~(music in an unworthy way. The second fault, while often less grievous because prompted by good. intentions, can sometimes do more harm than good. People have frequently grown to dislike Gregorian chant or the Church's great polyphony because they were performed with more good will than skill. For this reason Plus XI insisted that at least seminaries teach "the higher and 'aesthetic' study of plainchant and sacred music, of polyphony and organ, which the clergy should by all means thoroughly know." As the seminaries turn out pastors competent in this field, it is likely that choirs will reflect their understanding of sacred music, artistically and liturgically. The third mark of liturgical music, "universality," means that "though every nation is allowed to admit into its ecclesiastical com-positions those particular forms that constitute, so to speak, the spe-cific character of its own music, still these must be subordinated in such a way to the general character of sacred music that no one of another nation may receive a bad impression-on hearing them." This delicate catholicity, a tension between unity and diversity, is perhaps 319 C. J. MCNASPY the hardest principle to apply. However,. ,the Pontiff goes, ,on. ex-plicitly- to condemn the operatic style of his own country. We wonder~ what he would think of certain rather eccentric efforts to produce Negroid or "western" sacred music for use.in our country. But popes are ever practical, and to prevent us from being too abstract in our approach, the Holy Father immediately gives concrete examples of what the Church does want. "These qualities are found, in the highest degree in Gregorian chant,~'' which "has always been considered the supreme model 'of sacred music." Then he sets down, in italics and as unambiguously as possible, the fol-lowing'rule: "The more closely a composition for church approaches the Gregorian melody in movement, inspiration, and flavor, the more sacred and liturgical it is; and the more it departs from that supreme model, the less worthy it is of the temple." It would" take real in-genuity to misunderstand that. Blessed Pius next forestalls a possible escape. Granted, one might object, that.the chant is so sacred and worthy; but isn't other music really more solemn? No, says the Pope, "it must be held by all as certain that an ecclesiastical function loses none of its solemnity when accompanied by no other music than Gregorian chant alone.'.' How-ever, he adds, "the qualities mentioned above are also possessed in an eminent degree by classical polyphony, especially by the Roman school, which in the sixteenth century reached its highest perfection in the work 6f Pierluigi da Palestrina. . Classical polyphony is quite close to the supreme model of all sacred music, namely Gre-gbrian chant, and for that reason deserved to be received together with Gregorian chant in the most solemn functions of the Church." A fir~al scruple: is this not reactionary,, or at least over-conserva-tive? As an interesting corroboration of the Holy Father's stand I believe we could give quotations from almost every leading con-temporary music historian or theorist. To cite only the most recent,, and surely, one of the most eminent, Harvard's Professor. A. T. Davison, a no/~-Catholic. " His new book, Church Music: Illusion and Reality, could almost be called a commentary on the Motu Pro-prio. After calling our chan~ "the unchallenged example o~t:, worship become music" and speaking of Palestrina and other polyphonic corn- .posers in terms of the highest pr~iise, Dr.Davison states in reference to both: "It may appear to the reader that this music of the Roman Cath-olic Church has been rather aggressively held up as a model.If this 320 November, 1953 COMMUNICATIONS is so, it is only because of a conscientious attempt to deal objectively with the matter; for that particular music, it would seem, fulfills two all-important requisites of true church music: first, in vying with the greatest music in any field, sacred, secular, or instrumental; and second, in creating an atmosphere of worship wherein not man but God appears as the important figure in the transaction." . Surely no fine~ tribute to the sainted Pope and his liturgical work for Christ could be offered. Communications Reverend Fathers: The September issue of the REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS reached me t£day and I should like" to cl~arify a reference made by WilliamGrem-ley, in his article entitled "Intergroup Relatiohs," pages 231-241. The quotation given by Mr. Gremley from This Is Our Town appeared in the old edition of the book. I have since revised all the Faith and Freedom" Readers and the particular story referred to by Mr. Gremley is no longer in the new edition. Mr. Gremley gives 1952 as the date of copyright which is also in-correct. The story referred t0 in This Is Our, Town appeared in the 1942 edition. The re~;ised book was published last spring and has a 1953 copyright. There is no 1952'edition of this particular volume. --SISTER M. MARGUERITE, S.N.D: Reverend Fathers : His Excellency, Bishop Gonzaga, of the Palo (Leyte) diocese in the Philippines; has asked me, during my brief visit to the United States, to try to interest some American Sisterhoods to undert~ike educational work in his diocese. Will you allow me to publicize his request through your e~teeme'd columns? The Holy See has entrusted to this zealous and schokirly Filipino prelate the spiritual welfare of over 1,000,000 Catholics on the large island of Leyte. During my twenty years in the Philippines, I have had the privilege of. long acquaintance with him, and know well his situation. With only about sixty-five priests (some of whom are old and sickly) and only three schools conducted by Sisters, he is in desperat9 need of spiritual reinforcements and most anxious to obtain American Sisters, and also priests, for his diocese. 321 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Reoiew/or Religious Anyone acquainted with our own country realizes that we have many regions at l~ome which need additional laborers in the vineyard of the Lord. It is this situation, no doubt, which is preventing many of our high-minded ecclesiastical, and religious superiors from allow-ing their .American subjects to go to foreign fields. On the other hand, Catholic history from the time of the Apostles is replet~ with examples of how the Church has always been prodigal in sending missionaries to foreign fields, even though their home lands were not yet fully manned nor completely evangelized. And they have been richly rewarded by the Holy Spirit, \Vho has multiplied vocations to their ranks as a blessing for their sacrifices. Those interested in further details will please write .to the under-signed. REV. G. J. WILLMANN, S.J. P. O. Box.510, Manila, Philippine Islands --29~ There are members o~ a commun;ty ~;v;ng ~ogefber who bare not spo-ken to one another over a period of four or five-years. Is the local superior obliged to try to correct this situatlbn or should a higher superior who !~nows of the maffer take a hand? As a general norm local situations as far as possible would be handled by the local superior. For a good reason in a particular case it might be deemed advisable that some other than the local superior take care of the matter; t.he case could then be referred to higher supe-riots. Such a good reasbn could be discrepancy in age between the superior and the subject'.who needs correction, possible lack of ex-perience in a younger superior, a question of tactfulness, a clash of personalities, and the like. In our instance the higher superior is al-ready acquainted with the situation; hence the lotal and higher supe-riors might confer together regarding the more prudent and more efficacious way of handling the case. Is it the mind of the Church tha÷ S~sters who de~re and even ask for correction and guidance from their superiors be left wlthouf it on ÷he ex 322 November, 1953 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS pressed opinion that the Sisters are grown women and know what they are supposed fo do? Canon 530 strictly forbids all religio~s superiors in any way to indfice their subjects to make a manifestation of conscience to them. It does not, however, forbid subjects to open their minds freely, and of their own accord to their superiors; in fact, it encourages filial trust in superiors and, if the superior is a priest, it also recommends sub-jects to reveal doubts and anxieties of conscience to such a superior. Consequently subjects are free to go to superiors, even those who are not priests,~ with their problems, especially if the problem does not in~rolve a question of sin. Superiors on their part will usually lend a sympathetic ear. But the case might arise in which the superior did not feel competent tO handle a certain problem; or one could, en-visage a particular case in which the superior judged that it would be better for the individual to resolve some simpler difficulty for himself and thereby buiid up self-confidence. In these matters a great deal of tact and Christian charity is required on the part of superiors; but subjects also should practice charity in moderating ~he demands they make upon superiors. Some problems could easily be solved on the individual's initiative after prayer and reflection. A decade ago the REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS invited discussion on the topic of spiritual direction. In the concluding survey (II [ 1943 ], 187-201) the twofold prong of spiritual direction was indicated, namely instruction and encouragement. On pages 19 I-192 the con-clusion is voiced that need of instruction should certainly decrease with the i~assage of years to such a point that normally the intellec-tual help required of one's spiritual director would be mainly friendly criticism. "In other words, these religious plan their own lives, submit their plans to a director for approval or disapproval,. and then occasionally make a report on the success or failure of the plan." In regard to encouragement, the need is more individual ~nd is usually not lessened with the years. "At various periods in our lives, most of us need sympathetic help or paternal correction lest we lose heart or descend to low ideals." Both superiors and subjects might profit by keeping those considerations in mind. --31-- If a councillor is absent and the local superior, who is not a councillor, is called to a council meeting, does the local superior give her vote ~n ÷l~e order the absent councillor would have or after all the councillors? 323 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Review for Religious ¯ Canon 106, n. 5 says in part.that among the members of any college (collegium) the right of precedence shall be determined by the legitim.ate constitutions of the college; otherwise by .lawful custom; in default of that, by the norms of the common law. Hence, the con-stitutions of the institute should be consulted. If they make no pro-vision, then follow whatever has been the legitimate custom (which here means the customary way of acting), in this situation. If neither the constitutions nor custom provide a solution, canon 106, n. 1 states that one who represents another enjoys the precedence'that person has; but anyone who is in a council or similar meeting .as a proxy yields precedence to those of the same rank who are personally present. Accordingly, then, a local superior wl~o is not a councillor but who has been summohed to take the place organ absent councillor would vote after the councillors who are present in person. m32m Acjeneral chapter is held in a branch house. When the time comes for voting, does the local superior who is not a councillor .cjeneral vote before or after the ~ouncillors cjeneral? (It is customary for Junior Sisters 1.o vote first, followed by Senior Sistei-s.I The first answer is, consult your constitutions. If they say. nothing, the.n follow whatever has been customarily done in this matter. If no solution is forthcoming from either of those sources in the order enumerated, it would seem that the local superior in this case would yield precedence to the councillors general since the latter in this instance seem to be acting in their "general" capacity, so to speak. (Possibly some institutes follow a simpler method of having all capitulars vote according to strict seniority, upwards or down-wards, without regard to offices h~ld.) ~33~ Propositions to be presented to our cjenera! chapter are very often sent throucjh some member of our cjeneral council or fhroucjh the cjenera/ council. 'Has the cjeneral, councll the right to discard a proposition that pertains dlrec~ly or indirectly to the cjeneral council itself, since the cjen-eral chapter, wh[le in session, is the highest aufhorlfy ~n the concjrecjatlon? Perhaps your constitutions or legitimate custom indicate that proEositions intended for the genekal chapter are to be forwarded ,dlrough the counciI16rs general, and that these latter have the power to judge the feasibility of presenting any such proposition to the gen- 324 0, November, 1953 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS eral chapter. Otherwise, an answer (in part) appearing in the RE-VIEW ~:OR RELIGIOUS, XI (1952), 309-310 in response to a similar question .says: "Usually they [requests" or complaints intended for thegeneral chapter] are given to one of the delegates to'the general chapter who, in turn, at the proper time, turns them in to the special committee appointed for the purpose of screening such requests .and complaints. Those that are considered worthy of the attention of the general chapter are proposed to it in due time during the chapter of affairs. At the end of the. chapter, before a vote to adjourn is taken, .any delegate may ask tha~ a request or complaint which has been turned in but has not been submitted to the general chapter 'should now be read, and the chapter will then vote first on whether the request or complaint is to be considered or not. If"it is "rejected, that is the end of the matter. If the majority is for considering it, it will then be 'considered in the same way as .the other requests or com-plaints which Were already submitted to the general chapter." m34.- ~ One of our novices left religious llfe aboufa year ago because of ill health. Now she has fully recovered and would like ÷o re-enter our com-munity. We know she has ÷o make a new novitiate, but does she have to make a new postulancy? Unless your own constitutions require a new postulancy, the ap-plicant does not have to rbpeat the postulancy. There is no special provision in the°Code of Canon Law for this case, but the conclusion is reached by analogy with two other provisions in the Code. Accgrding to canon 640, § 2, if a religious who after making profession obtained an indult of secularization is readmitted later on to a religious institute by virtue of an apostolic indult, he must make a new novitiate and a new profession, but nothing is said about making a new postulancy also. Hence a new postulancy need not be made in that case. ~ Likewise in an institute which has two canonical classes of mem-bers, if a novice or professed passes from one ciass to the other, a new novitiate must be made, but no new postulancy is required (~ee canon 558). Hence by analogy with the above two provisions of the Code, no new postulancy is required in the case proposed in our question. (See also REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, I [1942], 357.) 325 Book Reviews RELIGIOUS MEN AND WOMEN IN THE CODE. By Joseph Creusen,'S.J. Fifth Engfish edition, revised and edited to conform wi÷h the sixth Frefich edition by Adam C. Ellis, S.J. Pp. xlv -f- 322. Bruce Publish° ing Company, Milwaukee, 19S~}. $S.S0. Religious superiors and subjects will welcome this latest edition of Father Creusen's vhluable work. In editing the fifth English edi-tion, Father Ellis has painstakingly made the various changes, addi-tions, and omissions found in the latest French edition. These emen-dations, due partly to a constant effort to keep the work up-to-date with recent pronouncements of the Holy See, serve to enhance the undoubted worth of this book. It should be kept handy alike for r~ference shelf and classroom study of the Church's law for religious. Something about the annual report and the new questionnaires for the quinquennial report is included. Appendix III gives an English translation of the questionnaire for the quinquennial report of dioce-san congregations and societies. As the author remarks in his preface: "We have not deemed it necessary to add a chapter on Secular Insti-tutes, since by no title' are they a form of the religious life nor are their members religious." There is a revised bibliography. A larger type has been used for the table of contents.--F. N. KORTH, S.J. FUNDAMENTAL PSYCHIATRY. By John R. Cavanagh, B.S., M.D., ¯ C.P., K.S.G., end James B. McGoldrlck, S.J., S.T.D., Ph.D. Pp. x Jr- 582. Bruce Publishing Company, Milwaukee, 19S3. $S.50. For fifty years psychiatry has drawn man's psychic portrait across the medical horizgn without a spiritual intellect or will, with-out a spiritual soul. For decades the brilliant analytic theories and therapeutic techniques, often investigated with scientific precision, have been built upon a false psychic substructure of practical mate-rialism and ihstinctive determinism. The emerging portrait tends to be a distorted caricature of human nature and psychic life as a mere mixture of matter and determined instinct. As a net result, psychia-trists are now left without adequate goals in life to point out to their patients. To interpret, to correct, to refashion psychiatry on the same old base has long been unsatisfactory. The present authors challenge the jaded materialistic framework at every turn ,and discard it com'- pletely. They have produced a first-rate psychiatry textbook that 326 BOOK REVIEWS turns a new medical page and builds the young ~cience of psychiatry entirely upon the time-tested framework of traditional scholastic psychology. This book is important for its psychological structure and its emphases. Perhaps more than any other psychiatry book today it emphasizes, with scientific precision, the spiritual intellect, will and soul; volitional freedom at the root of mental disorder; character formation based upon intellectual, and moral habits; and .the need of an adequate philosophy of life for true mental balance taken from both reason and revelation. Pervading the book with regard to etiology is the author's insistence upon the psychogenic or nonmaterial origin of mental disorders caused by a misuse of man's spiritual faculties. The high caliber and clear structure of Fundamental Ps~chiatr~ reminds one of Dr. Strecker's excellen~ book Fundamentals ot: Psgt-chiatr~ l. It has seven major sections, thirty-one chapters critically written and well-documented, sixty-five thorough case histories, and rich bibliographical material. Publishers and authors have designed a clear and highly readable book. It opens with intr6ductory con- ¯ cepts, the extent of mental disorders, and a picture of normal per-sonality. Five major sections treat of etiology, the clinical approach to psychiatry, psychoneuroses, psychoses, and borderlands of psy-chiatry. The conclusion is devoted to psychiatry, philosophy, and religion. The growing importance of psychiatry makes thi~ an important and valuable book for Catholic hospitals, doctors, nurses, and coun-selors, and for those engaged .in educational and sociological 'work involving modern psychiatric pkinciples.--CHARLES NASH, S.J. MOST REVEREND ANTHONY 3. SC~HULER, S.J.,D.D.,FIRST BISHOP OF I:L PASO, AND SOME CIATHOLIC~ ACTIVITIES IN THE DIOC~ESE BETWEEN 1915-1942. By Sls~'er M. Lilliana Owens, S.L., Ph.D. Pp. xxiv -J- 584. Revls÷a Clatolica Press, El Paso, 1953. $3.50. This labor of love but also a heavily documented work intro-duces us into the career of another "first l~ishop" in the United States coming from the Society of Jesus. When the diocese of El Paso was erected in 1915, the second choice for this new See was the pastor of ¯ a church in Denver, Colorado. He had seen the southwest in earlier days and knew something of the complicated and almost insoluble problems that would have to be faced. But obedience imposed the task; with confidence in God's help the new bishop put his shoulder BOOK REVIEWS Review for Reliytotts to the task. For more than a quarter of a century he carried on, then handed over a well-established organization to his successor. Less than two years later death carried his soul before his Maker. The volume is prgfusely illustrated and well printed. Six ap-pendixes add materials to those cited in the course of the narrative. Thirty pages.of bibliography give a riotion of the industry that went into the preparation of this work. There is a carefullY-madE index. In the treatment the author in the main f~llows the topical meth-od, giving for each theme the background and carrying it through the whole period of the episcopate. ]3ecause of this we do not get a very clear picture of the growth of the diocese as a whole. In giving the background more is at times given than is needed for the purpose intended. Fo~ the most part the ]3ishop appears before us, not so much initiating projects of his own, but as discreetly promoting and supporting movements set afoot by others and at times making them his own and thus leading'them to a happy solution. In his administration Bishop Schuler faced unique problems with which he had to deal prudently. Such were the bilingual popula-tion in the diocese, its location in t~ro states, the onrush of exiles due to the persecution in Mexico, the dire poverty of a large portion of the faithful, the shortage of priests and of priestly vocations. Some of these themes are treated with some completeness while others are merely touched upon--the title gives warning that the work. is not meant to be exhaustive.--AUGUSTIN C. WAND, S.J. I WANT TO SEE GOD. A Pra~:fical Synthesis of C:armellfe Splritualify. By P. Marle-Eug~ne, O.C~.D. Translated by Sister M. Verda C~lare, C:.S.C:. Pp. xxli -I- $49. F~des Publishers Association, .C:hicag~ .10, 19S3. $S.7S. This is the first of a two-volume work. The. second is to be en-titled, 1"Am a Daughter of the Church. ¯ Their grew out of a series of .conferences on the Carmelite theory and practice of prayer. St. Teresa of Avila, rather than St. John of the Cross, was chosen as the proxi-mate "guide." Of St. Teresa's writings The lnterior Castle, with its seven "mansioias," was taken as basic and typical and it provides .the plan for this exposition. St. John's doctrine is introduced here and there as a confirmation or completion of St. Teresa's, not as something that. is continuous a'nd unified in itself. Very often fu'r-ther confirmation or illustration is sought from St. Th~r~se of Li-sieux. The work as a whole has five principal parts, three of them being 328 November, 1953 BOOK NOTICES in this volume. The first part is called "Perspectives" and serves as a general introduction. "The First Stages" deals with the matter treated in St. Teresa's first three mansions. Therefore it is ascetical. Next follows "Mystica~ Li~e and Contemplation." In this section-- nearly half of volume .one--there is much that one would hardly ¯ think of in simpl~¢ reading the works of St. Teresa or St. John; for example, ch~apter two on the "The Gifts of the Holy Spirit." The two principal parts reserved for the second volun~e are "To Union of Will" and "Holiness for the Church." On the value of this study as a satisfactory synthesis of Carmelite spiritual teaching we' had better let the Carmelites themselves pro-nounce. Besides it would be premature to judge it before the second and much the more important volume appears. --AUGUSTINE G. ELLARD, S.J. BOOK NOTICES Highly recommended is THE NEW EUCHARIS:FIC LEGISLATION, by John C. Ford, S.J. This book contains the original Latin texts of the Christus Dominus and the Instruction of the Holy Office, an English translation of these texts, a stimulating and enlightening commentary on the documents, and some brief summaries that should be very useful for confessors, religion teachers, catechism teachers, and parish priests. (New York: P. J. Kenedy U Sons, 1953. Pp. vii -t- 130. $1.50.) Little less than fascinatir~g is .the story of Louis Brisson as told by Katherine Burton in So MUCH So SOON. Carthusiafi-minded himself, this man founded schools for boys and clubs for girls, and the Oblate Fathers and Sisters of St. Francis de Sales to conduct them. Of rare scientific genius, he planned his own buildings and invented various things to keep his foundations operating efficiently. With profound trust in Providence, he quietly saw most of his great works swept a