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Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Raghunathanahalli West-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 434 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 98 per cent is covered by soils and 2 per cent by water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below  The soils belong to 12 soil series and 20 soil phases (management units) and 4 Land management units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  Entire area in the microwatershed has clayey soils at the surface.  About 43 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m).  An area of about 21 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) lands and 77 per cent very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 44 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 54 per cent is moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 9.0) soils.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.5%) in 27 per cent, medium (0.5-0.75%) in 59 per cent and high (>0.75%) in 12 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available phosphorus is low (337 kg/ha) in 95 per cent of the soils.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 39 per cent area of the soils.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in 14 per cent of the area.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 15 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area.  The land suitability for 28 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable(S1) Moderately suitable(S2) Highly suitable(S1) Moderately suitable(S2) Sorghum 76(18) 228(52) Pomegranate - 216(50) Maize - 286(66) Guava - - Bajra - 245(57) Jackfruit - - Redgram - 195(45) Jamun - 157(36) Bengalgram 117(27) 174(40) Musambi 39(9) 178 (41) Groundnut - 13(3) Lime 39(9) 178 (41) Sunflower 39(9) 178(41) Cashew - - Cotton 117(27) 187(43) Custard apple 117(27) 187(43) Chilli - 13(3) Amla - 304(70) Tomato - 13(3) Tamarind - 157(36) Drumstick - 217(50) Marigold - 305(70) Mulberry - 185(42) Chrysanthemum - 305(70) Mango - 46(11) Jasmine - 107(25) Sapota - - Crossandra - 107(25) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Drainage line treatment and soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Raghunathanahalli West-1 is located at North latitude 150 16' 32.303" and 150 15' 8.181" and East longitude 750 58' 8.739'' and 750 56' 48.64" covering an area of about 434.27 ha coming under Raghunathahalli, Gattareddyhala and Alavandi Villages of Koppal taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Raghunathanahalli West-1 micro watersheds of Murlapura sub-watershed, Koppala taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 38 farmers were sampled in Raghunathanahalli West-1 micro-watershed among households surveyed 18 (47.37%) were marginal, 12 (31.58%) were small, 1 (2.63 %) were semi medium, 1 (2.63 %) were medium and 1 (2.63 %) were large farmers. 5 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 116 (64.80%) men and 63 (35.20 %) were women. The average population of landless was 5.6, marginal farmers were 4.8, small farmers were 4.2, semi medium farmers were 6, medium farmers were 4 and large farmers were 4.  Majority of the respondents (40.78%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 29.05 per cent illiterates, 62.57 per cent pre university education and 9.50 per cent attained graduation.  About, 36.84 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 52.63 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 26.26 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 76.32 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 0.00 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 63.16 per cent possess TV, 5.26 per cent possess mixer grinder, 89.47 per cent possess mobile phones and 44.74 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 13.16 per cent of the households possess plough, 7.89 per cent possess tractor, 15.79 per cent possess bullock cart and 5.26 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 28.95 per cent possess local cow and 5.26 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.88, women available in the micro watershed was 1.24, hired labour (men) available was 1.88 and hired labour (women) available was 13.97.  Further, 7.89 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season. 2  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 92.98 per cent (53.40 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 4.74 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 3.00 live bore wells and 1.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 7.89 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Jowar, Bengal gram, Cotton, Sunflower and Groundnut and cropping intensity was recorded as 77.01 per cent.  Out of the sample households 81.58 percent possessed bank account and 5.26 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 7.89 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 66.67 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 50.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations, while, only 6.25 per cent respondents opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfil their requirement.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Jowar, Bengal gram, Cotton, Sunflower and Groundnut was Rs.38404.43 , 21560.79, 23755.52, 43797.85 and 67086.67 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.00, 1: 1.40, 1: 2.10, 1: 1.60 and 1:1.10 respectively.  Further, 15.79 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 90576.32 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 70365.79 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 79 horticulture trees and 48 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 3052.63 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 47.37 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 23.68 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 65.79 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 81.58 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (47.37%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 78.95 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Firewood was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 92.11 per cent of the households and 21.05 per cent households has LPG connection. 3  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 84.21 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 26.32 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 92.11 per cent of the households possessed BPL card, 2.63 per cent of the household's possessed APL card and 5.26 per cent of the household's were not having ration cards.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (44.74%), pulses (31.58%) and oilseeds (5.26%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (47.37%) wild animal menace on farm field (76.32%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (65.79%), inadequacy of irrigation water (73.68%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (71.05%), high rate of interest on credit (60.53%), low price for the agricultural commodities (71.05%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (68.42%), inadequate extension services (63.16%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (42.11%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Belagera-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 568 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 450 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 112 ha is covered by rock outcrops and 5 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 4 soil series and 9 soil phases (management units) and 3 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 450 ha area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 46 per cent of area is very shallow (0.75%) in organic carbon content of the soil.  About 78 per cent of area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus content of the soil and 2 per cent of area is high (>57 kg/ha) in the microwatershed.  Available potassium content is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in an area of 16 per cent of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 118 (21) Guava - 46 (8) Maize 19 (3) 99 (17) Sapota - 46 (8) Bajra 46 (8) 72 (13) Pomegranate - 46 (8) Groundnut 46 (8) 72 (13) Musambi - 46 (8) Sunflower - 46 (8) Lime - 46 (8) Redgram - 46 (8) Amla 46 (8) 72 (13) Bengal gram - - Cashew - 46 (8) Cotton - - Jackfruit - 46 (8) Chilli 19 (3) 99 (17) Jamun - - Tomato 19 (3) 99 (17) Custard apple 46 (8) 72 (13) Brinjal 19 (3) 99 (17) Tamarind - - Onion 19 (3) 99 (17) Mulberry - 46 (8) Bhendi 19 (3) 99 (17) Marigold 19 (3) 99 (17) Drumstick - 46 (8) Chrysanthemum 19 (3) 99 (17) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Belagera-2 is located at North latitude 160 55' 1.438" and 160 54' 37.12" and East longitude 770 8' 49.999'' and 770 7' 21.757" covering an area of about 127.26 ha coming under under Yakehalli Village of Yadgiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Belagera-2 micro watersheds of Yakehalli subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 total respondents, 9 (25.71 %) were marginal, 12 (34.29%)were small, 9 (25.71 %) were Semi medium and 2 (5.71 %) were medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 114 (52.78%) men and 102 (47.22 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (43.52%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 56.48 per cent of illiterates, 10.19 per cent of them had primary school education, 13.89 per cent middle school education, and 7.41 per cent high school education, 5.56 per cent of them had PUC education, 6.02 per cent attained graduation and 0.46 them had other education.  About, 65.71 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 14.29 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 52.31 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 80.00 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 14.29 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 91.43 per cent possess TV, 51.43 per cent possess mixer grinder, 97.14 per cent possess mobile phones and 40.00 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 17.14 per cent of the households possess plough, 8.57 per cent possess bullock cart and 11.43 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 31.43 per cent possess local cow.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own men and women labour availability in the micro watershed was 9.35 each, while the hired labour (men) availability was 2.03.  Further, 14.29 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 58.19 per cent (44.71 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 41.81 per cent area is irrigated land. 2  There were 13.00 live bore wells and 13.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 40.00 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Reda gram, Paddy, Groundnut, Jowar and Green gram and cropping intensity was recorded as 97.28 per cent.  Out of the sample households 91.43 percent possessed bank account and 54.29 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 57.14 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 15.00 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 65.00 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 83.33 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations, while, only 16.67 per cent respondents opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfil their requirement.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Reda gram, Paddy, Groundnut, Jowar and Green gram was Rs.33765.92 , 60095.83, 63797.65, 40400.74 and 59503.44 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.90, 1: 4.00, 1: 1.10, 1: 2.00 and 1:1.10 respectively.  Further, 42.86 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.86 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 148569.71 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 108100.00 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 11 horticulture trees and 78 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 3962.86 for land development and Rs. 2571.43 for irrigation facility.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 71.43 per cent, for improved crop production was 17.14 per cent. The sources of finance raised from own sources and bank as a loan and for irrigation facility was 2.86 and 2.86 per cent  Regarding marketing channels, 71.43 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 31.43 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 48.57 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (54.29%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 91.43 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing. 3  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 62.86 per cent of the households and 37.14 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 80.00 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 54.29 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 97.14 per cent of the households possessed BPL card, 2.86 per cent of the household's possessed APL card and 2.86 per cent of the household's were not having ration cards.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (62.86%), pulses (62.86%) and oilseeds (42.86%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (94.29%) wild animal menace on farm field (88.57%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (62.86%), inadequacy of irrigation water (80.00%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (88.57%), high rate of interest on credit (82.86%), low price for the agricultural commodities (65.71%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (17.14%), inadequate extension services (37.14%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (62.86%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Koalas are popular zoo animals, but difficult in husbandry. In addition to their specialised diet of eucalyptus leaves, they are prone to "stress" and disease. Particularly in European zoos, themonitoring of theirwell-being has high priority and they are protected from possible stressors. However, stress signs in koalas are vague and monitoring techniques like weighing might result in discomfort itself. Additionally, husbandry routines are planned according to keeper's schedule, not to the endogenous rhythms of the koalas. Therefore it is necessary to investigate activity pattern in captive koalas and the signals influencing them. These signals have to be assessed on the strength and quality of their impact. A total of 17 koalas have been observed in three zoological gardens in Australia and Europe. Koalas kept in outdoor enclosures with little human contact (Koala Walkabout, Taronga Zoo, Sydney) showed a uniform activity pattern, which was clearly entrained by light. Activity levels were higher during the night, and there was a pronounced resting period in the morning which corresponds with low body temperature measured by Degabriele and Dawson (1979). Activity peaks were related to twilight and changed during the year related to day lengths. However, there was a clear influence from the introduction of fresh browse which resulted in a distinct feeding peak in the afternoon. With short day lengths, this stimulus competed with dusk. Activity patterns from koalas in indoor enclosures (Zoo Duisburg, Vienna Zoo) varied between individuals and in some cases lacked a detectable rhythm. Though activity peaks were related to light, entrainment to sunlight was weak. In winter, koalas reacted primarily to the artificial light, but some also showed activity peaks related to sunlight. Activity patterns in these koalas were less structured and differed severely from patterns expected according to literature. Activity was often related to the keeper's presence and food introduction. Frequency of feeding bouts was considerably higher at Vienna Zoo compared to the other zoos and the bouts were shorter in duration. Time budgets of the koalas were within the range given in free-range studies. Feeding showed seasonal changes and was increased in lactating females. Koalas at Vinna Zoo had a high level of locomotor activity compared to the size of the enclosure. Koalas at Koala Walkabout were not used to handling, so they resisted the keeper. The koalas at the two European zoos were handled regularly and settled down quickly. However, handling took place in the morning; in most koalas, there was no activity prior to it. In Vienna, resting periods were interrupted daily due to weighing. Food introduction at KoalaWalkabout took place in the afternoon. It was preceded by locomotor activity and triggered a long feeding bout in the koalas. It is not clear, whether food had true Zeitgeber properties or masked the endogenous rhythm. In the two European zoos, food was introduced in the morning. The peaks related to this were smaller than those at Koala Walkabout. Activity was rarely observed prior to food introduction. The koalas at Koala Encounter, Taronga Zoo (Sydney),were regularly confronted with visitors, though no contact was allowed. Direct observation by the keepers did rarely show any stress signs. Activity patterns at night were strikingly similar to Koala Walkabout, but differed dramatically during the day. Food was introduced three times a day, which usually resulted in activity that interrupted a resting period. Generally, the koalas at Koala Encounter were more active than those at KoalaWalkabout. They also displayed a high level of locomotor activity, especially on the ground, which is an accepted sign of discomfort in koalas (Wood 1978; Zoological Society of San Diego 2001; Yusuf& Rosenthal unpublished data). In summary, this chronoethological study of the captive koalas showed that there are several problems with koala husbandry. Artificial light regimes for koalas are not sufficient for entrainment and result in unstructured activity pattern. This is especially the case in winter, when the day in Europe is artificially extended. Due to the mainly nocturnal behaviour of koalas, such an extension might not be necessary and therefore should be avoided. Handling in Europe took place during the physiological resting time of the koalas. Interruptions of resting times are considered as stressors (Wood 1978) and should be avoided. Handling in the afternoon would be more suitable for the koalas and triggered activity in the two koalas at Vienna Zoo. It is also arguable if daily weighing is necessary to monitor health in captive koalas or if the frequent interruption of resting countervail the advantages of constant monitoring. Frequent contact with visitors, evenwithout the so-called cuddling, has a considerable impact on activity patterns and time budget of koalas, even if no immediate stress signs are displayed. Such contact should therefore be reduced to a minimum and chronoethological observations of the koalas should be used. A study on koalas with direct visitor contact is also advisable to revise the current legislation on "koala cuddling". Koalas frequently rested in living trees if they had access to it. Since no food-poisoning has been reported from koalas using living non-food trees, the provision of living trees with an appropriate canopy should be included in the husbandry guidelines. Increased locomotor activity has been shown to be related to conditions of discomfort or stress and possibly to oestrus. This is in accordance with literature (Wood 1978; Zoological Society of San Diego 2001). Further observation, combined with hormone analysis, are advisable to establish this parameter for evaluation of well-being. Chronoethology has proven to be useful for the evaluation of husbandry conditions and group dynamics. Different to other, traditional ethologicalmethods, it indicated problems and enabled me to advise more appropriate times for handling and food introduction. It is desirable that zoos already using 24-hour video observation include chronoethological aspects into their analysis. ; Einleitung Das Leben aller Organismen ist rhythmisch organisiert. Die grundlegenden Rhythmen werden endogen durch ein Multioszillatorensystem aus inneren Uhren erzeugt. Viele davon sind circadian, dauern also ungefähr 24 Stunden. Da es in einem Organismus eine Vielzahl von circadianen Rhythmen (z.B. Schlaf-Wach-Rhythmus, Körpertemperatur, Hormonspiegel) gibt, müssen diese miteinander undmit der Umwelt synchronisiert werden. Dies geschieht durch sogenannte Zeitgeber, rhythmisch auftretende, externe Signale. Der wichtigste externe Rhythmus ist der Tag-Nacht-Wechsel und so ist es nicht verwunderlich, daß Sonnenlicht als einer der stärksten Zeitgeber wirkt. In einer künstlichen Umgebung erreichen Zeitgeber häufig nicht die notwendige Stärke, um den Organismus zu synchronisieren. Die Folge ist eine Abkopplung der endogenen Rhythmen von ihrer Umwelt und von einander. Eine interne Desynchronisation (z.B. ein Jetlag) ist die Folge. Zudem können andere Signale direkt auf den Organismus einwirken und die endogenen Rhythmen überlagen. Man spricht hier von einer Maskierung. Solche Veränderungen können zu Unwohlsein führen und sollten vermieden werden. Andererseits ist es möglich, daß der physiologische Zustand des Tieres, z.B. Östrus, Krankheit oder Stress, Einfluss auf den circadianen Rhythmus hat. In diesem Fall kann die Beobachtung des entsprechenden Parameters (z.B. Aktivitätsrhythmus) Aufschluss über den Zustand des Tieres geben. Koalas sind beliebte Zootiere, doch ihre Haltung ist problematisch. Neben ihrer Spezialisierung auf Eukalyptusblätter als einzige Nahrung gelten sie als anfällig für "Stress" und Krankheiten. Aus diesem Grund hat insbesondere in europäischen Zoos die Überwachung ihres Wohlbefindens eine hohe Priorität. Stressoren werden nach Möglichkeit ausgeschlossen. Stresssignale bei Koalas sind jedoch eher vage, und traditionelle Kontrollmethoden wie regelmäßiges Wiegen können selbst als Störung auf den Koala wirken und so das Wohlbefinden vermindern. Zudem werden Tagesabläufe in der Haltung dem Zeitplan des Tierpflegers, nicht dem endogenen Rhythmus des Koalas angepaßt. Eine chronoethologische Untersuchung der Aktivitätsmuster von Koalas in Zoohaltung könnte Informationen über die grundlegenden circadianen Rhythmen geben. In dieser Studie wurden die einwirkenden externen Faktoren darauf untersucht, inwieweit sie als Zeitgeber oder Maskierung wirken. Es wurde zudem versucht, den Tagesablauf stärker an die Bedürfnisser der Koalas anzupassen. Methode In drei Zoologischen Gärten in Australien und Europawurden die circadianen Rhythmen für allgemeine Aktivität, Futteraufnahme und lokomotorischeAktivität untersucht. Dazu wurden insgesamt 17 Koalas unter vier Haltungsbedingungen mit 24-Stunden-Zeitraffer-Video aufgezeichnet: Taronga Zoo, Sydney liegt innerhalb des natürlichen Verbreitungsgebietes der Koalas. Die Tiere werden in Außengehegen gehalten und sind dem natürlichen Klima und den natürlichen Schwankungen der Tageslängen ausgesetzt. Futter wird täglich in der Umgebung von Sydney gesammelt. Koala Walkabout: Vier Koalas (ein Männchen, drei Weibchen) wurden 2004 über einen Zeitraum von einem Jahr beobachtet. Im Sommer 2003/04 wechselte die Gruppenzusammensetzung aufgrund von Zuchtbemühungen. Daher wurden drei weitere Weibchen für jeweils einige Wochen beobachtet. Die Tagesroutine beinhaltet die morgendliche Gehegereinigung um 07:00 und die Fütterung um 15:30. Kontakt mit dem Pfleger ist selten. Im Verlauf dieser Studie wurden die Tiere in einem Abstand von einem bis vier Monaten gefangen, gewogen und bei denWeibchen der Beutel auf Jungtiere kontrolliert. Koala Encounter: Vier adulteWeibchen und ein einjähriges Jungtier wurden für sechs Wochen imSommer 2005 (Dezember-Januar) beobachtet. Die Tiere wurden in zwei Gruppen gehalten. An den meisten Tagen betreten Besucher für zwei Stunden das Gehege, um sich neben den Koalas photographieren zu lassen. Kontakt mit den Tieren ist verboten und ein Pfleger überwacht den Zustand der Tiere optisch. Stresssymptome werden nur selten beobachtet. Die Koalas werden dreimal täglich gefüttert (07:00, 11:00 und 13:00), dabei kommt es zu gelegentlichem Kontakt mit den Pflegern. Normalerweise werden die Koalas alle zweiWochen gewogen, dies fand jedoch nicht während der Beobachtungszeit statt. In den beiden europäischen Zoos werden die Koalas in klimatisierten Innengehegen gehalten. Zusätzlich zu einem Glasdach werden die Gehege künstlich beleuchtet. Im Winter wird der Tag dadurch um mehrere Stunden verlängert. Die Koalas sind durch eine an der Decke offene Glaswand nach Geschlechtern getrennt, können sich aber sehen, hören und riechen. Kontakt findet nur kontrolliert zu Paarungsversuchen statt. Futter wird zweimal wöchentlich von Plantagen in Südengland bzw. Florida eingeflogen. Zoo Duisburg: Ein Männchen und drei adulteWeibchen wurden für je sechs Wochen im Sommer 2003 (Juni-Juli) und im Winter 2003 (November-Dezember) beobachtet. Die Tiere haben unregelmäßigen Kontakt zum Pfleger. Im Laufe des Vormittags werden die Gehege gereinigt und zu unterschiedlichen Zeiten Futter ausgegeben. Zweimal die Woche werden die Tiere gewogen. Tiergarten Schönbrunn, Wien: Ein Männchen und ein Weibchen wurden für je sechs Wochen im Sommer 2004 (Juni-Juli) und im Winter 2004/05 (Dezember-Januar) beobachtet. Die Gehege werden am frühen Morgen gereinigt, wobei es fast täglich zu Kontakt zwischen Pfleger und Koala kommt. Täglich um10:15 wurden die Tiere gewogen und gefüttert. Aufgrund der Ergebnisse dieser Studie wurde im Juni 2005 das Wiegen auf 16:00 verschoben und die Tiere wurden für weitere sechs Wochen beobachtet. Die Videoaufzeichnungen wurden in bezug auf das Verhaltensmuster und die Reaktion auf verschiedene Pflegetätigkeiten analysiert. Zusätzlich zu den Aktivitätsmustern wurden Zeitbudget und Tag:Nacht-Ratio des Verhaltens berechnet. Ergebnisse Die Koalas im Koala Walkabout, Sydney, zeigten ein einheitliches Aktivitätsmuster, welches deutlich durch das natürliche Licht entrained wurde. Während der Nacht war die Aktivität höher, und es konnte eine ausgeprägte Ruheperiode am Morgen beobachtet werden. Zu dieser Zeit stellten Degabriele and Dawson (1979) bei Koalas eine physiologisch niedrigere Körpertemperatur fest als zu anderen Tageszeiten. Aktivitätsmaxima standen in Bezug zur Dämmerung und veränderten sich im Laufe des Jahres in Relation zur Tageslänge. Zusätzlich zeigte sich ein deutlicher Einfluß der nachmittäglichen Fütterung, die durch ein hohes Aktivitätsmaximum begleitet wurde. Mit kürzer werdenden Tagen kam es zu einer Überlappung des Stimulus Fütterung mit dem Stimulus Abenddämmerung. Bei drei Koalas verschwand die Aktivitätsphase in der Abenddämmerung zugunsten der Fütterung, doch ein Weibchen fraß nur noch in der Abenddämmerung. Die Aktivitätsmuster in den Zoos Duisburg und Wien variierten deutlich zwischen den Individuen. In einigen Fällen fehlte ein erkennbarer Rhythmus, insbesondere der in Sydney deutliche Unterschied zwischen Tag undNacht. Obwohl die Aktivitätsmaxima in Relation zum Licht standen, war das Entrainment durch das durch das Dach einfallende Sonnenlicht eher schwach. Im Winter reagierten die Koalas primär auf die künstliche Beleuchtung, einige Individuen jedoch zeigten zusätzliche Aktivitätsmaxima in Relation zum Sonnenlicht. Die Aktivitätsmuster dieser Koalas waren weniger stark strukturiert und unterschieden sich drastisch von den Mustern, die in der Literatur bei freilebenden Koalas beschrieben wurden. Aktivität stand häufig in Relation zu der Anwesenheit des Pflegers und dem Einbringen neuen Futters. Die Dauer und der Abstand einzelner Aktivitäts- und Fressperioden waren im Zoo Wien waren deutlich kürzer als in den beiden anderen Zoos. Insbesondere das Weibchen fiel durch die hohe Frequenz im Wechsel zwischen Ruhe und Aktivität auf. Das Zeitbudget der Koalas im Koala Walkabout, Zoo Duisburg und Zoo Wien lag innerhalb des für freilebende Koalas bekannten Bereichs. Die Koalas ruhten zwischen 74,1 und 81,7% der Zeit,wobei es keine eindeutigen Unterschiede zwischen den Geschlechtern und nur wenige Unterschiede zwischen den Zoos gab. Fressen war mit 10,7 bis 17,3% die häufigste Aktivität; die Koalas in Duisburg fraßen am längsten. Die Dauer des Fressens war im Winter sowie bei säugende Weibchen länger. Lokomotorische Aktivität zeigte deutliche Unterschiede zwischen den Zoos. Sie war am höchsten in Wien und am niedrigsten in Duisburg. Die Koalas kamen nur gelegentlich auf den Boden. Im Koala Walkabout war dies nötig, um zwischen einigen der Bäume zu wechseln. Daher wurden diese Koalas, insbesondere das Männchen, in bis zu 7% der Beobachtungsintervalle auf dem Boden beobachtet. In den beiden europäischen Zoos war es nicht notwendig, den Boden zu betreten. In Duisburg geschah dies auch selten. In Wien jedoch kamen die Koalas häufig auf den Boden, besonders das Weibchen, um das Gehege zu erkunden oder zu trinken. Die Koalas waren nicht streng nachtaktiv, aber bei den meisten beobachteten Koalas fand ein größerer Teil der Aktivität während der Nacht statt. Dies war besonders ausgeprägt in dem Sydney Weibchen Yindi, die tagsüber kaum Aktivität zeigte. Das Duisburger Männchen und das Wiener Weibchen waren im Winter jedoch während des Tages etwas aktiver als während der Nacht. Die Pfleger im Koala Walkabout, Sydney, hatten selten direkten Umgang mit den Koalas. In den wenigen Fällen, in denen die Tiere gefangen wurden, wehrten sie sich, sonst reagierten sie kaum auf den Pfleger. Nach dem Wiegen bzw. der Kontrolle des Beutels beruhigten sie sich jedoch schnell wieder. In den beiden europäischen Zoos hatten die Koalas regelmäßig Kontakt zu den Pflegern. In Duisburg zeigte sich kaum ein Einfluss auf das Verhalten und die Koalas setzten nach dem Wiegen zumeist ihre vorherige Tätigkeit (Ruhen oder Fressen) fort. In Wien reagierten beide Tiere sehr stark auf den Pfleger. Die Morgenreinigung löste lokomotorische Aktivität im Weibchen aus. Das tägliche Wiegen um 10:15 fiel in die Ruhephase der Koalas. Während das Weibchen danach meist fraß, blieb das Männchen an den meisten Tagen inaktiv und begann seine eigentliche Futteraufnahme erst am Nachmittag. Im Koala Walkabout fand die Fütterung am Nachmittag statt. Davor wurde erhöhte lokomotorische Aktivität beobachtet, und nach dem Füttern fraßen die Tiere für längere Zeit, mitunter für über eine Stunde. In den beiden europäischen Zoos wurde am Morgen gefüttert. Die dieser Fütterung folgenden Aktivitätsmaxima waren niedriger als die am Koala Walkabout und oft fraßen einzelne Tiere erst am Nachmittag. Vor der Fütterung wurde selten Aktivität beobachtet. Die Aktivitätsmuster im Koala Encounter, Sydney, stimmten während der Nacht fast vollständig mit denen derWeibchen imKoalaWalkabout überein. Tagsüber gab es jedoch dramatische Unterschiede. Während die Koalas imWalkabout am Morgen ruhen, zeigten sich im Encounter drei Aktivitätsmaxima, die mit Fütterungen in Verbindung standen. Die Koalas im Encounter waren insgesamt aktiver als die im Walkabout. Die lokomotorische Aktivität war ebenfalls erhöht und die Tiere waren häufiger auf dem Boden. Im Koala Encounter wurden Phasen mit parallel erhöhter lokomotorischer Aktivität in zwei Tieren beobachtet. Dies geschah zum einen nachdemzweiWeibchen, Maggie und Carla, in ein gemeinsames Gehege transferiert wurden, und zum anderen bei Cooee und ihrer Tochter Coco, die zur Beobachtungszeit entwöhnt wurde. Im Koala Walkabout und in Duisburg standen den Tieren lebende Nichteukalyptus-Bäume als Ruheplatz zur Verfügung. Diese wurden von einigen Koalas intensiv genutzt, insbesondere tagsüber. Zwei der Weibchen in Duisburg wurden allerdings sehr selten in den Bäumen beobachtet. Diskussion Die Beobachtungen aus demKoalaWalkabout zeigen, dass die Aktivität der Koalas durch zwei Faktoren beeinflusst wird. Sonnenlicht wirkt als Zeitgeber mit unterschiedlicher Stärke im Jahreslauf. Einen starken, direkten Einfluss, inklusive antizipatorische Aktivität, hat die nachmittägliche Fütterung. Es kann jedoch nicht mit Bestimmtheit gesagt werden, ob es sich hierbei um einen Zeitgeber oder eine Maskierung handelt. Die künstliche Beleuchtung in den beiden europäischen Zoos reicht nicht aus, um die Tiere zu entrainen, was in einem unstrukturierten Aktivitätsmuster resultiert. Dies wird besonders im Winter deutlich, wenn der natürliche Tag künstlich verlängert wird. Hier überwiegt der Einfluss der künstlichen Beleuchtung, doch die Aktivitätsmuster verlieren ihre Struktur und zwei der Koalas wurden sogar leicht tagaktiv. Da Koalas nachtaktiv sind, scheint eine Verlängerung des Wintertages unnötig und Tageslängen sollten sich in Zukunft stärker an dem natürlichen Licht orientieren. Der direkte Kontakt zwischen Pfleger und Koalas, insbesondere das Wiegen, fand während der physiologischen Ruhezeit der Koalas statt. Die Unterbrechung von Ruhezeiten wird als möglicher Stressor angesehen (Wood 1978) und sollte vermieden werden. Pflegerkontakt am Nachmittag wäre demnach akzeptabler für den Koala und resultierte tatsächlich in einer längeren Aktivitäsphase im ZooWien. Es ist zudem fraglich, ob tägliches Wiegen als Gesundheitskontrolle notwendig ist, oder ob die regelmäßigen Störungen der Ruhe- und Freßphasen sich nicht eher negativ auswirken. Häufiger Kontakt mit Besuchern, selbst ohne das sogenannte "Koala-Knuddeln", hat einen deutlichen Einfluß auf das Aktivitätsmuster und das Zeitbudget der Koalas, auch wenn keine direkten Stresssignale gezeigt werden. Daher sollte diese Art von Kontakt minimiert werden. Es ist zudem empfehlenswert, eine systematische Untersuchung von Koalasmit direktemBesucherkontakt unter chronoethologischemAspekt durchzuführen, um die geltende Rechtslage zum "Koala-Knuddeln" zu überprüfen. Lebende Baumkronen sind der natürliche Aufenthaltsort für Koalas. Da Koalas in derWahl ihrer Nahrung sehr wählerisch sind und keiner der Zoos bisher Vergiftungsfälle durch die Nichteukalyptus-Blätter berichtet hat, sollte die Bereitstellung eines lebenden Baumes mit ausreichendem Blattwerk in die Haltungsrichtlinien aufgenommen werden. Es konnte gezeigtwerden, dass ein Anstieg der lokomotorischen Aktivität ein Zeichen für Unwohlsein, Stress oder Östrus sein kann. Hierfür gibt es auch Hinweise in der Literatur (Wood 1978; Zoological Society of San Diego 2001). Weitere Untersuchungen in Kombination mit Hormonmessungen wären sinnvoll, um diesen Parameter zur nichtinvasiven Zustandsmessung zu nutzen. In dieser Studie konnte der Nutzen der Chronoethologie als Methode zur Überprüfung von Haltungsbedingungen und Gruppendynamik gezeigt werden. Im Unterschied zu traditionelleren ethologischen Methoden ermöglichte sie mir, den Einfluss verschiedener externen Faktoren zu bestimmen und geeignetere Zeiten für den Umgang mit dem Pfleger oder die Fütterung zu finden. Es ist empfehlenswert, daß solche Zoos, die bereits 24-Stunden-Videobeobachtung bei ihren Tieren durchführen, dies unter Berücksichtigung des chronoethologischen Aspektes täten.

Die Komplexität der ästhetischen Theorie Siegfried Kracauers scheint 50 Jahre nach seinem Tod endlich angemessen (d.h. auch in ihrer transatlantischen Spanne) entfaltet zu werden. Dies ist das Verdienst zweier ganz unterschiedlicher aktueller Publikationen. Jörg Später legt die erste (!) Biographie Kracauers vor (was ebenso unglaublich ist, wie die Tatsache, dass es nach wie vor keine kritische Werkausgabe der Schriften Hannah Arendts gibt); Johannes von Moltke schließt mit The Curious Humanist ein umfassendes Projekt zu Kracauers essayistischen Filmschriften im US-amerikanischen Exil ab, das aus einer Edition dieser Schriften (Siegfried Kracauers American Writings, Berkeley 2012), einem Band zur aktuellen Rezeption und Bedeutung Kracauers (Culture in the Anteroom: The Legacies of Kracauer, Ann Arbor 2012) und eben zuletzt aus einer Monographie von Moltkes besteht, die die transatlantische Bedeutung Kracauers herausarbeitet. Man mag sich fragen, warum eine Biographie in einem wissenschaftlichen Rezensionsorgan erscheint: Der Kracauerbiographie des Historikers Jörg Später gelingt es auf brillante Weise nicht nur die vielfältigen Arbeitsfelder Kracauers gleichbleibend kenntnisreich und detailliert mit den biographischen Stationen des ebenso vielfältigen Lebens zu verknüpfen, sondern auch eine präzise Landkarte des intellektuellen Kosmos von Kracauer zu entwerfen; dabei konstatiert Später nicht nur das Vergessen der Komplexität seiner Ansätze ästhetischer Theorie in der deutschen Diskussion, sondern auch, dass Kracauer in den USA bereits in den 1960er Jahren als 'unzeitgemäß' erschienen war. Diese Erkenntnis steht am Ende der Lebens- und Werkbiographie, was ihren chronologischen Aufbau anzeigt, der jedoch zugunsten von thematischen Clustern in den Hintergrund tritt. Es handelt sich um einen Versuch, das Denken Kracauers mit biografischen Daten und insbesondere mit den intellektuellen Freund- und Feindschaften zu verbinden, d.h. das Denken Kracauers innerhalb der intellektuellen Strömungen seiner Zeit einzubetten. Dabei legt Später neben dem Bezug auf die bereits kritisch edierten Werke Kracauers vor allem Wert auf die gesamte Korrespondenz von und an Kracauer (die z.T. ediert, z.T. aber auch vernichtet ist). So bezieht Später sich auch auf Korrespondenz, die er im Literaturarchiv Marbach erstmals ausgewertet hat. Zugleich nutzt er das Werk heuristisch: So ist die Auseinandersetzung mit den frühen Jahren Kracauers bis 1918 (da die Korrespondenz aus dieser Zeit vernichtet ist), von den autobiographischen Beschreibungen der frühen Romane getragen (Ginster und Georg). Kracauers Zeit in Frankfurt und seine Anfänge bei der Frankfurter Zeitung wird getrennt von der Berliner, der Pariser und schließlich der New Yorker Zeit Kracauers ab 1941 behandelt – und darin sind noch einmal die Gattungen unterschieden, die Kracauer bediente: die Romane von den Feuilletons und Filmkritiken, die philosophischen/theoretischen und soziologischen Arbeiten von den filmtheoretischen und -historischen. Nach Gertrud Kochs Einführung in Kracauers Denken von 1996, ist es das Verdienst Späters, sehr gut auch in Kracauers Arbeit einzuführen; systematischer Bezugspunkt ist ihm dabei Kracauers Begriff des 'Materialen': Der Autor leitet diesen Knotenpunkt des theoretischen Netzwerks Kracauers aus Edmund Husserls Begriff der 'Lebenswelt' her. Das Materiale beschreibt im Grunde ein methodisches Vorgehen ästhetischer Theorie, das nicht deduktiv ableitet, sondern induktiv vorgeht, d.h. sich nie von seinem Gegenstand löst, sondern dessen eigenes Denken, die intellektuelle Eigenbewegung des Materials herausarbeitet. Das Denken der technischen Medien Fotografie und Film besteht nach Kracauer gerade darin, die Funktionsweise der der industriellen Massengesellschaft allererst erfahrbar und anschaulich zu machen und damit etwas zu 'enthüllen', was im Alltag unverfügbar und unverstanden sei. Diese Darstellung ist umso überzeugender, als dadurch für Später der Theoretiker, nicht der Philosoph Kracauer markiert ist, der sich gerade darin, also methodisch, strikt vom Philosophen Adorno unterscheide (und eben nicht eine 'Light-Version' Adornos darstellt). Bis auf wenige sachliche Fehler (Bernd und Karsten Witte etwa werden verwechselt) ist die Biographie auch sehr präzise gearbeitet und besticht durch ihre vielfältigen Verweise und die reichhaltige Bibliografie. Schnittpunkt der Studien von Später und Moltke – die zeitgleich erschienen sind und sich daher leider nicht aufeinander beziehen –, ist zum einen ihre Unterscheidung des Kracauerschen Schreibens auf Deutsch und auf Englisch; die vollendete Verdichtung der essayistischen Form des Schreibens in den 1920er und 30er Jahren weicht in den USA einem sehr viel pragmatischeren Stil; das ist nicht nur dem Gattungswechsel von den Kurzformen Essay und Kritik zur Langform 'Buch' geschuldet, sondern findet sich auch in den US-Kritiken und Essays Kracauers der 1940er bis 60er Jahre; es handelt sich um eine sprachliche Annäherung an den Pragmatismus des Landes, das Kracauer aufgenommen und ihm so das Leben gerettet hat. Sowohl Später als auch Moltke räumen zudem mit dem Mythos vom einsamen und dann v.a. in den USA isolierten Intellektuellen auf. Diesen 'blinden Fleck' der Forschung nimmt Johannes von Moltkes Arbeit seit einigen Jahren in den Blick. In den USA gilt Kracauer als Verfasser dreier einflussreicher Bücher in amerikanischer Sprache – From Caligari to Hitler (1947), Theory of Film (1960), History (1969); bekannt ist in den USA zudem die Weimarer Zeit Kracauers durch die vorhergehende Generation von Film- und Literaturwissenschaftlern, die Übersetzungen und kritische Diskussion besorgte. An Kracauers kaum bekannten, bis 2012 nicht edierten US-amerikanischen Essays zu Kino und populärer Kultur zeigt Moltke nun den Intellektuellen Kracauer in den USA, der zwar keine dauerhafte institutionelle Anbindung (etwa als Professor) fand, der aber ein sehr reges, breit gefächertes intellektuelles Leben führte und die Entstehung der US-Filmwissenschaft wesentlich mit beeinflusste (s. Moltke, Rawson (Hg.):Siegfried Kracauers American Writings, Berkeley2012). Diese 'Vorarbeit' ist der Ausgangspunkt für Moltkes Monographie The Curious Humanist, die systematisch die vielfältige Beeinflussung Kracauers der New Yorker Intellektuellen der 1940er und 50er Jahre und vice versa nachweist. Dies zeigt Moltke v.a. daran, dass Kracauers Denkfiguren und deren Entwicklung in den Arbeiten der KollegInnen auftauchen, wie Kracauer umgekehrt die theoretischen Strömungen der Zeit aufnimmt. Moltke spricht deshalb von "Manhattan Transfer". Um diesen zu entfalten ist das Buch in zehn Kapitel, eine Einleitung und einen Epilog gegliedert. Zunächst analysiert Moltke die frühen US-amerikanischen Kritiken Kracauers, die bald nach seiner Ankunft in New York mit einer Besprechung des Walt-Disney-Films Dumbo einsetzen. Auffallend ist, dass die Schriften im Exil hauptsächlich um die Themen Film und Geschichte kreisen. Diese Themen bezieht Moltke auf die intellektuellen Auseinandersetzungen im New York der 1940er Jahre, die Treffen und Korrespondenzen, aber auch die Koinzidenz von Denkfiguren; so kann er an Kracauers Auseinandersetzung mit dem Totalitarismus (das Caligari-Buch, seine Studie zum NS-Propagandafilm) nachweisen, wie eng sein Denken mit dem Hannah Arendts verknüpft ist, ohne dass es einen faktisch nachweisbaren Kontakt zwischen beiden gegeben hätte. Für Kracauer ist die Frage nach dem Totalitarismus die Frage danach, wie kann Film nach 1945, trotz seiner Indienstnahme durch die Diktaturen, seinen emanzipatorischen, seinen humanistischen Kern behalten? Es geht um den Vergleich autoritärer und demokratischer Kommunikationsformen, zunächst am Beispiel der Analyse von Gustav Ucickys Propagandafilm Heimkehr (D 1941). Dann folgt die Diskussion der Auseinandersetzung Kracauers mit Hollywoods Film noir, den "Terror films" wie Kracauer sie nennt; dort sei die Herstellung von Angst als Zerstörung der Kohärenz des Subjekts inszeniert und damit als Infragestellung der Grundlagen demokratischer Partizipation. Insofern reflektieren die US-Filme die Spannung, die entsteht, wenn ein demokratisches Land Krieg führt und dafür die demokratischen Rechte einschränkt. Diese Ergebnisse werden dann in Bezug auf das Caligari-Buch gespiegelt. Es geht um dessen Historisierung im Verhältnis zur zeitgenössischen Totalitarismusdiskussion der 1940er und 50er Jahre; Film hat dabei für Kracauer die kulturelle Funktion politische Transformationen anzuzeigen; das bedeutet seinen Missbrauch durch autoritären Strukturen aber auch eine Utopie demokratischer Erfahrung: Diese Utopie arbeitet Moltke als das 'Rettungsmoment' des Films in den US-Schriften Kracauers heraus; und zwar in der Art und Weise, wie das Kino Realismus, Erfahrung und Zuschauerschaft herstellen kann. Dabei handelt es sich um eine Gegenposition zur Arbeit Adornos, die innerhalb der kapitalistischen Demokratie gerade keine Möglichkeit eines utopischen Moments des Films, der Kultur konstatiert. Moltke liest dann Theory of Film als Antwort auf die Frage, die das Caligari-Buch gestellt hat: Der Verlust von Erfahrung, den das Kino im Caligari zeigt, stehe in Theory of Film die Möglichkeit von Erfahrung im Kino gegenüber. Die Verbindung der Arbeit Kracauers und des zeitgenössischen US-Filmkritikers Robert Warshow (über dessen Begriff der "immediate experience") und deren gegenseitige Beeinflussung ist insofern zentral, als beide sich parallel der Frage nach der Adressierung der Zuschauenden zuwenden: Die Rolle der Zuschauenden wird im Film selbst zur Form der Erfahrung von Subjektivität als etwas Fremdes/Entfremdetes, das erst einen Weltzugang, das Verstehen und Erfahren eines per se fremden Gemeinwesens ermöglicht. In Film und Fotografie sieht Kracauer das Potential die Verdinglichung des Alltags zu erkennen, indem die Zuschauenden mit den verfremdeten Darstellungen ihrer Existenz im Kino konfrontiert werden und diese dort zusammensetzen können. Darin sei auch der Unterschied zu der Arbeit Edward Steichens markiert, dessen weltberühmte Fotoshow The Familiy of Man aus den 1950er Jahren Kracauer in seinem Epilog der Theorie des Films zwar prominent erwähnt, die aber eben in ihrer reinen Repräsentation von Humanismus nichts mit dem Kracauerschen Humanismus als Erfahrungsinstrument der Funktionsweisen des Alltags zu tun habe. Diese Erfahrungsmöglichkeit bestehe bei Kracauer gerade darin, dass die 'Kamerarealität' 'inhuman' sei, also einen Blick von außen auf die Welt ermöglicht. Das meint einen nicht anthropozentrischen, postapokalyptische Blick der Kamera – der zugleich den Blick der Zuschauenden als Spezialfall, als einen subjektiven, begrenzten Blick (einen von vielen in der materiellen Welt) ausweist. Damit analysiert Moltke den politischen Geist der Theory of Film und holt so das Buch aus seiner Lesart als 'verstaubte' Regelpoetik des Films heraus, die jenes abbildrealistische Paradigma hervorgebracht habe, das die reduktionistische Diskussion von Kracauers Schriften so lange dominiert hat. Dieses politische Potential des Films gilt, so Moltke, ebenso für Kracauers Konzept von Geschichte. History arbeite heraus, was historische Erfahrung als audiovisuelle Form bedeutet. Damit sei ein zentraler Bezugspunkt für die in den 1960er Jahren entstehenden akademischen Film Studies gelegt. Für Kracauer ist die Frage nach dem Totalitarismus also die Frage danach, wie kann Film nach 1945, trotz seiner Indienstnahme durch die Diktaturen, seinen emanzipatorischen, seinen humanistischen Kern behalten? Die drei US-Monographien Kracauers sind, wie man genauer im Vergleich mit seinen US-Essays sehen kann, Schriften, die den NS und den Holocaust zu verstehen suchen und Konsequenzen daraus ziehen wollen. Darin ist Kracauer aktuell und kein Klassiker, sondern politisch. Politisch ist der Bezug auf die materiale Welt mit einer humanistischen Perspektive und das meint, die Subjektivität der Erfahrung, die der Film ermöglicht. Das utopische Potential wäre, " …that the cinema might yet rekindle, in subjects who had been 'liquefied' by propaganda, war, and terror, the capacity for human experience" (S. 18). Das, so Moltke, sei das zentrale politische Anliegen der US-Schriften Kracauers. Verklammert mit dem frühen Kracauer der Weimarer Zeit könnte man dann sagen, dass die seinerzeitige Erwartung an die fotografischen Medien, das repräsentative Verständnis von Kunst zu sprengen, die Erfahrbarkeit der Massengesellschaft zu bewerkstelligen und so den 'neuen Menschen' zu schaffen, in Kracauers Nachkriegsschriften selbst noch einmal durch die totalitäre Geschichte der ersten Hälfte des 20. Jahrhunderts und durch die Entwicklung des US-Kapitalismus nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg fremd geworden, der eigenen Utopie entfremdet ist und so ein noch genaueres Bild der kapitalistischen Moderne liefert, reduziert nur um ihre teleologische Variante: Das "Murmeln der Existenz der Dinge", das erfahrbar zu machen für Kracauer das Potential des Films kennzeichnet, beschreibt dann die Erfahrbarkeit einer nicht anthropozentrischen Perspektive, die ohne Weiteres einen Anschluss an ganz aktuelle Diskurse der Animal Studies, des Posthumanismus etc. ermöglicht. The Curious Humanist analysiert so gesehen den neugierigen Kracauer und den neugierigen Autor des Buches, der es auf brillante Weise schafft, die Aktualität Kracauers für die Kulturwissenschaften einsichtig zu machen.

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Ghanapur-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 416 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 397 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, an area of about 19 ha by others (Habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 5 soil series and 9 soil phases (management units) and 2 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  An area about 397 ha (95%) in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  Entire area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep to very deep (100 - >150 cm).  About 17 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 79 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  Entire area in the microwatershed has non gravelly (200 mm/m) available water capacity.  About 79 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) land and 17 per cent is nearly level sloping (0-1%) soils.  An area of about 78 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded and 17 percent soils are slightly eroded (e1).  An area of about 6 per cent soil is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8) and 89 per cent soils are moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire area of the microwatershed is dominately 57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus, about 43 percent medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 50 percent soils are low (337kg/ha) in available potassium and 83 percent of the soils are medium (145-337kg/ha) in available potassium.  An area of about 10 per cent soils are medium (10-20 ppm) in available sulphur and 85 percent is low (4.5ppm) in about 24 per cent and deficient (<4.5ppm) in an area of 72 percent in the microwatershed  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 372(89) 26(6) Sapota - - Maize - 398(95) Pomegranate - 398(95) Bajra - 397(95) Musambi 354(85) 43 (10) Groundnut - - Lime 354(85) 43 (10) Sunflower 326(78) 72(17) Amla 9(2) 388(93) Redgram - 398(95) Cashew - - Bengal gram 398(95) - Jackfruit - - Cotton 347(83) 50(12) Jamun - 398(95) Chilli - 378(91) Custard apple 396(95) 1(<1) Tomato - 327(79) Tamarind - 398(95) Drumstick - 398(95) Mulberry - - Mango - - Marigold - 398(95) Guava - 1(<1) Chrysanthemum - 398(95) Brinjal 42(10) 355(85) Bhendi 50(12) 347(83) Onion 42(10) 77(19)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Ghanapur-1 is located at North latitude 160 46' 46.668" and 160 44' 29.281" and East longitude 770 19' 10.73" and 770 18' 2.17" covering an area of about 416.09 ha coming under Ganapura, Kandhakura and Gopalapura Villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Ghanapur-1 micro watersheds of Gopalapur subwatershed, Yadagiri taluk, Yadagiri District indicated that, out of the total sample of 34 total respondents, 20 were marginal, (58.82 %) were small 6 (17.65%), 5 (14.71 %) were Semi medium and 2 (5.88 %) were medium.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 86 (54.43%) men and 72 (45.57 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (43.04%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 37.34 per cent illiterates, 54.43 percent pre university education and 2.53 per cent attained graduation.  About, 29.41 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 34.18 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 21.52 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 55.88 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 20.59 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 76.47 per cent possess TV, 44.12 per cent possess mixer grinder, 91.18 per cent possess mobile phones and 35.29 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 47.06 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.94 per cent possess tractor, 11.76 per cent possess bullock cart and 17.65 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 14.71 per cent possess local cow and 26.47 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own men and women labour availability in the micro watershed was 9.44 each, while the hired labour (men) availability was 1.38.  Further, 0.00 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  In the study area, about 2.53 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 2800.00 kms for about 6.00 months. 2  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 91.20 per cent (42.20 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 8.80 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 2.00 live bore wells and 2.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 1.00 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Redgram, Maize, Paddy, Sorghum Green gram and Cotton and cropping intensity was recorded as 98.09 per cent.  Out of the sample households 94.12 percent possessed bank account and 23.53 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 97.06 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 17.65 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 2.94 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (93.75%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 0.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations, while, only 0.00 per cent respondents opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfil their requirement.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Redgram, Maize, Paddy, Sorghum, Green gram and Cotton was Rs.26613.11 , 92463.62, 265712.31, 40810.55, 43180.21 and 37818.89 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.8 , 1:1.4 , 1:1.7 , 1:1.0 , 1:1.9 and 1:1.4 respectively.  Further, 29.41 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 11.76 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 85030.15 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 53704.41 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 10 horticulture trees and 93 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 8970.59 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned 38.24 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 108.82 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants.  Further, 0.00 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity. 3  Majority of the farmers (79.41%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 94.12 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 91.18 per cent of the households and 20.59 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 44.12 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 97.06 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 73.53 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100 per cent of the households possessed BPL card,  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (97.06%), pulses (97.06%) and oilseeds (38.24%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (76.47%) wild animal menace on farm field (76.47%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (82.35%), inadequacy of irrigation water (55.88%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (55.88%), high rate of interest on credit (76.47%), low price for the agricultural commodities (82.35%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (73.53%), inadequate extension services (55.88%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (58.82%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Chyamanahalli-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 486 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 425 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, a area about 12 ha in the microwatershed is covered by rock outcrops and about 49 ha by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 14 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  An area about 425 ha (87%) in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 67 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep to very deep (75 - >150 cm) and 20 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50 -75 cm).  About 12 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 75 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 85 per cent area in the microwatershed has non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 14 per cent is medium (101-150 mm/m), 33 per cent is low (51-100 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 87 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) land.  An area of about 72 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded and 15 percent soils are slightly eroded (e1).  An area of about 40 per cent soils are neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) in soil reaction, 48 per cent soil are slightly to moderately alkaline (pH 7.3-8.4).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon.  About 38 percent soils are medium (23-57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus and 49 percent soils are high (>57kg/ha)in available phosphorus.  About 51 percent of the soils are medium (145-337kg/ha) in available potassium and 36 percent area high(>337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 247(51) 178(36) Sapota - 62(13) Maize 9(2) 415(85) Pomegranate - 327(67) Bajra 9(2) 415(85) Musambi 242(50) 85 (17) Groundnut - 75(16) Lime 242(50) 85 (17) Sunflower 221(45) 106(22) Amla 9(2) 415(85) Redgram - 320(66) Cashew - 9(2) Bengal gram 265(54) 159(33) Jackfruit - 62(13) Cotton 221(45) 204(42) Jamun - 265(54) Chilli - 424(87) Custard apple 321(66) 104(21) Tomato 9(2) 325(67) Tamarind - 265(54) Drumstick - 327(67) Mulberry - 62(13) Mango - 109(22) Marigold - 424(87) Guava - 62(13) Chrysanthemum - 424(87) Brinjal 134(27) 290(60) Bhendi 162(33) 262(54) Onion 100(20) 185(38)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Chyamanahalli-1 is located at North latitude 160 48' 37.299" and 160 46' 29.854" and East longitude 770 9' 6.087'' and 770 7' 26.747" covering an area of about 486.12 ha coming unde Yadhagiri. B, Dastharabadha, Bandhalli and Yadhagiri. K villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Chyamanahalli-1 micro watersheds of Yadgir subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 farmers were sampled in Chyamanahalli-1 micro-watershed among households surveyed 9 (25.71%) were marginal, 14 (40.00%) were small, 3 (8.57 %) were semi medium and 4 (11.43 %) were medium farmers. 5 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 101 (56.42%) men and 78 (43.58 %) were women. The average population of landless was 2.4, marginal farmers were 6.2, small farmers were 5.3, semi medium farmers were 5.7 and medium farmers were 5.  Majority of the respondents (38.55%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 55.31 per cent illiterates, 44.69 per cent pre university education and 4.47 per cent attained graduation.  About, 74.29 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 17.14 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 45.25 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 28.57 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 25.71 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 80.00 per cent possess TV, 31.43 per cent possess mixer grinder, 74.29 per cent possess mobile phones and 34.29 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 20.00 per cent of the households possess plough, 5.71 per cent possess tractor, 17.14 per cent possess bullock cart and 8.57 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 11.43 per cent possess local cow and 5.71 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.06, women available in the micro watershed was 1.50, hired labour (men) available was 7.46 and hired labour (women) available was 10.86.  Further, 40.00 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season. 2  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 54.14 per cent (38.09 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 45.86 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 13.00 live bore wells and 8.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 42.86 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Green gram, Cotton, Jowar and Groundnut and cropping intensity was recorded as 123.19 per cent.  Out of the sample households 80.00 percent possessed bank account and 60.00 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 57.14 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 10.71 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 66.67 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Green gram, Cotton, Jowar and Groundnut was Rs.25178.85, 32130.92, 63568.73, 51453.66 and 66625.57 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.60, 1: 2.20, 1: 2.40, 1: 1.00 and 1:1.60 respectively.  Further, 31.43 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.86 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 145071.43 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 100071.43 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 24 horticulture trees and 56 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 2428.57 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 11.43 per cent depends on own funds and 5.71 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 85.71 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 11.43 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 71.43 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (51.43%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 82.86 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing. 3  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 88.57 per cent of the households and 25.71 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 97.14 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 25.71 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 94.29 per cent of the households possessed BPL card, 5.71 per cent of the household's possessed APL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (97.14%), pulses (94.29%) and oilseeds (37.14%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (77.14%) wild animal menace on farm field (74.29%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (54.29%), inadequacy of irrigation water (40.00%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (74.29%), high rate of interest on credit (48.57%), low price for the agricultural commodities (60.00%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (48.57%), inadequate extension services (25.71%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (57.14%), Less rainfall (8.57%) and Source of Agri-technology information (Newspaper/ TV/Mobile) (17.14%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Mundragi-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 452 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 409 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 19 ha by rock outcrops and about 24 ha by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 15 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About88 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep to very deep (75 - >150 cm) and 3 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50-75 cm).  About 45 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 46 per cent clayey soils.  About 90 per cent area is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity and 15 per cent area low (51-100 mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 36 per cent soils are nearly level (0-1%) and 55% area of microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  An area of about 36 per cent is slightly (e1) eroded, 55 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded.  An area of about 44 per cent soils are neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) in soil reaction and 47 per cent soils are slightly to moderately alkaline (pH 7.3-8.4).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire area of the microwatershed is dominantly 0.75) in organic carbon content.  About 80 per cent area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 10 per area is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About an area of 41 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 50 per cent high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in 77 per cent and deficient (<4.5 ppm) in 14 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 341(76) 50(11) Guava - 54(12) Maize - 391(87) Sapota - 54(12) Bajra - 409(91) Pomegranate - 395(88) Groundnut - 57(13) Musambi 240(53) 156(34) Sunflower 243(54) 135(30) Lime 240(53) 156(34) Redgram - 395(88) Amla 108(24) 282(62) Bengal gram 341(76) 37(8) Cashew - 23(5) Cotton 328(73) 49(11) Jackfruit - 36(8) Chilli - 409(91) Jamun - 359(80) Tomato - 289(64) Custard apple 356(79) 35(8) Brinjal 143(32) 267(59) Tamarind - 359(80) Onion 88(20) 100(22) Mulberry - 36(8) Bhendi 262(58) 147(32) Marigold - 409(91) Drumstick - 395(88) Chrysanthemum - 409(91) Mango - 21(5)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and sub marginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Mundragi-1 is located at North latitude 160 48' 22.633" and 160 45' 58.37" and East longitude 770 10' 52.633'' and 770 8' 22.747" covering an area of about 451.37 ha coming under Mundaragi, Dastharabadha and Yadhagiri. B Villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Mundragi-1 micro watersheds of Belagiri sub-watershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 36 farmers were sampled in Mundragi-1 micro-watershed among households surveyed 18 (50.00%) were marginal, 9 (25.00%) were small, 2 (5.56 %) were semi medium and 2 (5.56 %) were medium farmers. 5 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 75 (55.97%) men and 59 (44.03 %) were women. The average population of landless was 3, marginal farmers were 3.8, small farmers were 3.1, semi medium farmers were 6.5 and medium farmers were 4.5.  Majority of the respondents (47.76%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 67.91 per cent illiterates, 28.36 per cent pre university education and 3.73 per cent attained graduation.  About, 69.44 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 16.67 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers. Agriculture was the major occupation for 47.76 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 72.22 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 25.00 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 83.33 per cent possess TV, 8.33 per cent possess mixer grinder, 88.89 per cent possess mobile phones and 5.56 per cent possess motor cycles. Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 22.22 per cent of the households possess plough, 8.33 per cent possess bullock cart and 2.78 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 13.89 per cent possess local cow and 8.33 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.71, women available in the micro watershed was 1.39, hired labour (men) available was 5.48 and hired labour (women) available was 8.74.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 63.47 per cent (26.74 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 36.53 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 9.00 live bore wells and 6.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households. Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 25.00 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Groundut, Green gram, Sorghum and Cotton and cropping intensity was recorded as 99.50 per cent.  Out of the sample households 100.00 percent possessed bank account and 36.11 per cent of them have savings in the account. About 30.56 per cent of the respondents 2 borrowed credit from various sources. Among the credit borrowed by households, 7.69 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 23.08 per cent from cooperative/ Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 66.67 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Groundut, Green gram, Sorghum and Cotton was Rs.43279.56, 119183.08, 44891.32, 30259.60 and 58983.03 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.60, 1: 0.80, 1: 0.80, 1: 1.40 and 1:1.40 respectively.  Further, 16.67 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 8.33 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 106666.67 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 48361.11 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 8 horticulture trees and 57 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards. About 5.56 per cent of the households shown interest to cultivate horticultural crops.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1250.00 for land development and Rs. 833.33 for irrigation facility. Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 8.33 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 25.00 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 63.89 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 86.11 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (83.33%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 86.11 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 66.67 per cent of the households and 36.11 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 97.22 per cent of the households. Electricity was the major source of light for 97.22 per cent of the households. In the study area, 30.56 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card. Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (97.22%), pulses (94.44%) and oilseeds (66.67%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (88.89%) wild animal menace on farm field (83.33%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (66.67%), inadequacy of irrigation water (38.89%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (88.89%), high rate of interest on credit (80.56%), low price for the agricultural commodities (80.56%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (83.33%), inadequate extension services (13.89%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (86.11%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Tatalageri-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 488 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 301 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 91 ha by forest, 87 ha by rock outcrops and about 9 ha by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 6 soil series and 9 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 17 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep to deep (75 - 150 cm) and 45 per cent soils are very shallow to moderately shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 15 per cent area low (51-100 mm/m) and 34 per cent area very low (0.75%) and 40 per cent is medium (0.50-0.75%) in organic carbon content.  About 1 per cent area is low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About an area of 10 per cent is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in 52 per cent and deficient (0.6 ppm) in 7 per cent area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 64(13) 71(15) Guava - 17(4) Maize - 135(28) Sapota - 17(4) Bajra - 135(28) Pomegranate - 81(17) Groundnut - 17(4) Musambi 53(11) 28(6) Sunflower 64(13) 17(4) Lime 53(11) 28(6) Redgram - 81(17) Amla - 135(28) Bengal gram 64(13) 71(15) Cashew - - Cotton 64(13) 71(15) Jackfruit - 17(4) Chilli - 135(28) Jamun - 64(13) Tomato - 124(26) Custard apple 70(14) 65(13) Brinjal 64(13) 71(15) Tamarind - 64(13) Onion 11(2) 71(15) Mulberry - 17(4) Bhendi 64(13) 71(15) Marigold - 135(28) Drumstick - 81(17) Chrysanthemum - 135(28) Mango - 64(13)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and sub marginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Tatalageri-1 is located at North latitude 160 50' 1.629" and 160 48' 42.931" and East longitude 770 18' 4.419" and 770 16' 11.331" covering an area of about 487.74 ha coming under Tatalagera, Mugadhamapoora, Kandhakura, Chinthanapalli and Yampada Villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis indicated that, out of the total sample of 32 respondents, - 10 (31.25%) were marginal, 9(28.13%) were small and 7 (21.88%) were semi medium and 1 (3.13%) were medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 112 (54.90%) men and 92 (45.10 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (48.04%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 67.65 per cent illiterates, 28.42 per cent pre university education and 1.96 per cent attained graduation.  About, 78.13 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 10.78 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural laborers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 66.67 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 59.38 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 21.88 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 71.88 per cent possess TV, 12.50 per cent possess mixer grinder, 93.75 per cent possess mobile phones and 37.50 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 56.25 per cent of the households possess plough, 3.13 per cent possess tractor, 15.63 per cent possess bullock cart and 28.13 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 37.50 per cent possess local cow and 25.00 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own men and women labour availability in the micro watershed was 13.47 each, while the hired labour (men) availability was 2.71.  Further, 3.13 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  In the study area, about 1.96 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 1200.00 kms for about 6.00 months.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 67.83 per cent (36.88 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 32.17 per cent area is irrigated land. 2  There were 11.00 live bore wells and 3.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Redgram, Jowar, Cotton, Paddy and Green gram and cropping intensity was recorded as 98.91 per cent.  Out of the sample households 93.75 percent possessed bank account and 31.25 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 93.75 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 21.88 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks, 3.12 per cent from Cooperative bank and 18.75 per cent from grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (86.67%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 0.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations, while, only 0.00 per cent respondents opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfil their requirement.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Redgram, Jowar, Cotton, Paddy and Green gram was Rs.51814.70 , 30754.26, 79012.15, 62877.45 and 46302.23 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.2 , 1:0.8 , 1:1.2 , 1:0.9 and 1:4 , respectively.  Further, 31.25 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 25.00 per cent of them opined dry fodder was inadequate. With respect to green fodder availability, 3.13 percent of them opined it was adequate and 3.13 percent of them opined it was inadequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 172312.50 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 61335.94 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have horticulture species growm coconut, Mango and sapota trees in the fields.  Sample households have forest species grown 24 neem, 2 tamarind, acacia and banyan trees and 1 pongamia trees in their field.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs 4062.5. for land development. Rs 6562.5 for irrigation facility creation and Rs. 5000 for improved crop production.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 9.09 per cent for land development and 12.1 per cent for irrigation facility depends on Government subsidy activities 3.03 per cent for improved crop production depend on loan from bank activities  Regarding marketing channels, 96.88 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants.  Further, 96.88 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity. 3  Majority of the farmers (59.3%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 84.38 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  About, 12.50 and 6.25 per cent of farmers practicing feld bunding and graded bund as soil and water conservation practice.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 81.25 per cent of the households and 25.00 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 84.38 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 75.00 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 93.75 per cent of the households possessed BPL card, 3.13 per cent of the household's possessed APL card and 6.25 per cent of the household's were not having ration cards.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (68.75%), pulses (71.88%) and oilseeds (40.63%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (59.38%) wild animal menace on farm field ( 59.38%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (84.38%), inadequacy of irrigation water (53.13%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (84.38%), high rate of interest on credit (87.50%), low price for the agricultural commodities (84.38%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (56.25%), inadequate extension services (43.75%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (53.13%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Hosahalli-1Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 764 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 571 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 3 ha area is covered by railway line, 42 ha area is under rock outcrops, 8 ha area is covered by mining/industrial and 139 ha area is covered by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 4 soil series and 4 soil phases (management units) and 2 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 1 per cent of area is moderately deep (75-100 cm), 15 per cent of area is deep (100 - 150 cm) and 59 per cent of area is very deep (>150 cm).  About 25 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 50 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  Entire area in the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity and 1 per cent of area is very low (0.75%), 28 per cent area is medium (0.5-0.75%) and 36 per cent area is low (57 kg/ha) and 14 per cent of area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium content.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in an area of 24 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (1 ppm) in an area of 27 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in an area of 34 per cent and deficient (<4.5 ppm) in an area of 41 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in an area of 47 per cent and sufficient in an area of 28 per cent of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 571 (75) Guava - 9 (1) Maize 9 (1) 562 (74) Sapota - 9 (1) Bajra 9 (1) 562 (74) Pomegranate - 9 (1) Groundnut 9 (1) - Musambi - 9 (1) Sunflower - 9 (1) Lime - 9 (1) Redgram - 571 (75) Amla 9 (1) - Bengal gram - 372 (49) Cashew 9 (1) - Cotton - - Jackfruit - 9 (1) Chilli 9 (1) - Jamun - - Tomato 9 (1) - Custard apple 9 (1) - Brinjal 9 (1) - Tamarind - - Onion 9 (1) - Mulberry - 9 (1) Bhendi 9 (1) - Marigold 9 (1) - Drumstick - 9 (1) Chrysanthemum 9 (1) - Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Hosahalli-1 is located at North latitude 160 45' 9.943" and 160 43' 46.781" and East longitude 770 10' 30.248" and 770 7' 20.483" covering an area of about 763.80 ha coming under Yadhigrir. B and Majara hosalli villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Hosahalli-1 micro watersheds of Shettigeri subwatershed, Yadgir taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 31 farmers were sampled in Hosahalli-1 micro-watershed among households surveyed 9 (29.03%) were marginal, 8 (25.81%) were small, 2 (6.45 %) were semi medium, 2 (6.45 %) were medium farmers. 10 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 86 (53.75%) men and 74 (46.25 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (54.37%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 36.88 per cent illiterates, 1.25 percent were functional literates, 50.01 per cent pre university education and 14.37 per cent attained graduation.  About, 48.39 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 29.03 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 23.13 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 45.16 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 25.81 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 93.55 per cent possess TV, 54.84 per cent possess mixer grinder, 96.77 per cent possess mobile phones and 29.03 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 9.68 per cent of the households possess plough, 3.23 per cent possess tractor, 6.45 per cent possess bullock cart and 3.23 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 16.13 per cent possess local cow and 12.90 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.13, women available in the micro watershed was 2, hired labour (men) available was 6.44 and hired labour (women) available was 6.  Further, 25.81 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season. 2  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 49.50 per cent (32.30 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 32.58 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 1.00 live bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 9.69 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Paddy, Cotton, Greengram, Sorghum and Greengram and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  Out of the sample households 54.84 percent possessed bank account and 41.94 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 25.81 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 50.00 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 25.00 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 100.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Paddy and Cotton was Rs. and 81454.07 with benefit cost ratio of 1:5.90 and 1: 1.10 respectively.  Further, 35.48 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 12.90 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 203258.06 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 127935.48 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 38 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 3387.10 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 19.35 per cent depends on own funds and 6.45 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 32.26 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 16.13 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 45.16 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (22.58%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 48.39 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 74.19 per cent of the households and 38.71 per cent households has LPG connection. 3  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 83.87 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 96.77 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 58.06 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 83.87 per cent of the households possessed BPL card, 16.13 per cent of the household's possessed APL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (77.42%), pulses (67.74%) and oilseeds (22.58%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (54.84%) wild animal menace on farm field (41.94%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (32.26%), inadequacy of irrigation water (25.81%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (38.71%), high rate of interest on credit (12.90%), low price for the agricultural commodities (29.03%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (12.90%), inadequate extension services (6.45%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (12.90%), Less rainfall (25.81%) and Source of Agri-technology information (Newspaper/ TV/Mobile) (22.58%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Halawadi microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 525 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 97 per cent is covered by soil and 3 per cent by habitation and water body. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below  The soils belong to 16 soil series and 25 soil phases (management units) and 6 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is 150cm) soils.  About 40 per cent loamy (sandy loam and sandy clay loam) and 57 per cent has clayey (sandy clay and clay) soils at the surface.  About 63 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 3 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) lands and 94 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 59 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 38 per cent is moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 11 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 7 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8), 55 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4), 23 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) and 2 per cent is very strongly alkaline (pH >9.00) in reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in 1 per cent area of the soils.  Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available potassium is low (337 kg/ha) in 35 per cent of the soils.  Available sulphur is low (0.6 ppm) in 57 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 124(24) 169(32) Sapota 73(14) 234(44) Maize 43(8) 250(48) Pomegranate 73(14) 249(47) Bajra 219(42) 159(30) Musambi 89(17) 234(44) Groundnut 142(27) 320(61) Lime 89(17) 234(44) Sunflower 89(17) 168(32) Amla 235(45) 268(51) Redgram 73(14) 183(35) Cashew 73(14) 237(45) Bengal gram 15(3) 297(57) Jackfruit 73(14) 234(44) Cotton 46(9) 247(47) Jamun 31(6) 269(52) Chilli 108(21) 184(35) Custard apple 235(45) 268(51) Tomato 108(21) 184(35) Tamarind 31(6) 58(11) Brinjal 188(36) 192(37) Mulberry 73(14) 358(68) Onion 153(29) 212(41) Marigold 73(14) 219(42) Bhendi 153(29) 227(44) Chrysanthemum 73(14) 219(42) Drumstick 73(14) 282(54) Jasmine 73(14) 204(39) Mango 31(6) 43(8) Crossandra 73(14) 204(39) Guava 73(14) 234(44) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 6 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Halawadi is located at North latitude 150 11' 54.604" and 150 9' 51.215" and East longitude 750 58' 33.457'' and 750 56' 52.871" covering an area of about 524.88 ha coming under Halavagali, Kallahalli, Alavandi and Hyderanagar villages of Koppal taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Halawadi micro watersheds of Bettageri subwatershed, Koppal taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 42 total respondents, 16 (38.10 %) were marginal, 12 (28.57%) were small, 9 (21.43 %) were Semi medium and 1 (2.38 %) were medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 111 (54.15%) men and 94 (45.85 %) were women. The average population of landless was 4, marginal farmers were 4.7, small farmers were 5, semi medium farmers were 5.4 and medium farmers were 5.  Majority of the respondents (46.34%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 40.49 per cent illiterates, 59.01 percent pre university education and 4.88 per cent attained graduation.  About, 92.86 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 7.14 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 64.39 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 78.57 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 9.52 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 71.43 per cent possess TV, 28.57 per cent possess mixer grinder, 102.38 per cent possess mobile phones and 54.76 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 9.52 per cent of the households possess plough, 14.29 per cent possess tractor, 9.52 per cent possess bullock cart and 11.90 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 4.76 per cent possess local cow and 9.52 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.89, women available in the micro watershed was 1.67, hired labour (men) available was 9.66 and hired labour (women) available was 9.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 83.04 per cent (51.66 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 15.78 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 6.00 live bore wells among the sampled households. 2  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 14.29 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Maize, Bajra, Red gram, Groundnut and Sunflower and cropping intensity was recorded as 99.89 per cent.  Out of the sample households 35.71 percent possessed bank account and 14.29 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 54.76 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 100.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  Per hectare cost of cultivation for Maize, Bajra, Red gram, Groundnut and Sunflower was Rs.38281.00 , 20291.06, 23686.60, 40972.51, and 33117.67 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.40, 1: 1.01, 1: 1.90, 1: 1.30 and 1:1.10 respectively.  Further, 21.43 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 16.67 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 72246.43 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 56722.62 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 72 horticulture trees and 68 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 928.57 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 2.33 per cent depends on own funds and 16.28 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 69.05 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants.  Further, 78.57 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (33.33%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 61.90 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Firewood was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 78.57 per cent of the households and 21.43 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 38.10 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 97.62 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 45.24 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 92.86 per cent of the households possessed BPL card and 4.76 per cent of the household's were not having ration cards. 3  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (66.67%), pulses (26.19%) and oilseeds (40.48%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (64.29%) wild animal menace on farm field (57.14%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (66.67%), inadequacy of irrigation water (61.90%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (73.81%), high rate of interest on credit (73.81%), low price for the agricultural commodities (61.90%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (66.67%), inadequate extension services (42.86%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (61.90%), Less rainfall (33.33%) and Source of Agri-technology information (Newspaper/ TV/Mobile) (23.81%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Chikka Alur-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 858 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 555 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 298 ha (6%) area is covered by rock outcrops and 5 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 9 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 555 ha area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 10 per cent of area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately shallow (50-75 cm), 20 per cent of area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep (75-100 cm), 8 per cent of area is deep (100 - 150 cm) and 26 per cent of area is very deep (>150 cm).  About 12 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 53 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  Non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 17 per cent is medium (51-100 mm/m) and 14 per cent is low (51-100 mm/m).  Entire cultivated area in the microwatershed is under very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  Entire cultivated area is moderately (e2) eroded in the microwatershed.  About 17 per cent area is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 22 per cent area is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8), 26 per cent area is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4) and 0.75%) in organic carbon content of the soil.  About 21 per cent of area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus content of the soil, 38 per cent of area is high (>57 kg/ha) and 6 per cent of area is low (337 kg/ha) in 58 per cent area in the microwatershed.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in 38 per cent area and deficient (0.6 ppm) in 11 per cent area in the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 29 (3) 522 (61) Guava 12 (1) 29 (3) Maize 41 (5) 510 (60) Sapota 12 (1) 29 (3) Bajra 41 (5) 510 (60) Pomegranate 12 (1) 167 (20) Groundnut 12 (1) 116 (14) Musambi 12 (1) 167 (20) Sunflower - 179 (21) Lime 12 (1) 167 (20) Redgram - 463 (55) Amla 41 (5) 226 (26) Bengal gram 138 (16) 130 (15) Cashew - 41 (5) Cotton - 254 (30) Jackfruit 12 (1) 29 (3) Chilli 41 (5) 226 (26) Jamun - 12 (1) Tomato 41 (5) 88 (10) Custard apple 41 (5) 226 (26) Brinjal 41 (5) 88 (10) Tamarind - 12 (1) Onion 41 (5) 88 (10) Mulberry 12 (1) 29 (3) Bhendi 41 (5) 226 (26) Marigold 41 (5) 226 (26) Drumstick 12 (1) 167 (20) Chrysanthemum 41 (5) 226 (26) Mango - 12 (1)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Chikka Alur-2 is located at North latitude 160 59' 57.118" and 160 57' 36.993" and East longitude 770 9' 8.415'' and 770 7' 13.762" covering an area of about 840.96 ha coming under Allura.K and Allura .B Villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 respondents, 16 (45.71%) were marginal, 10 (28.57%) were small and 6 (17.14%) were semi medium and 1 (2.86%) were medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 89 (56.33%) men and 67 (42.41%) were women.  Majority of the respondents (43.04%) were in the age group of 35-60 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, majority there were 44.30 per cent illiterates and only 6.33 per cent attained graduation.  About, 80.00 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 8.57 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 60.76 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 71.43 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 8.57 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 57.14 per cent possess TV, 8.57 per cent possess mixer grinder and 97.14 per cent possess mobile phones.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 17.14 per cent of the households possess plough. Regarding livestock possession by the households, 20.00 per cent possess local cow and 2.86 per cent possess buffalo respectively.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.57, women available in the micro watershed was 1.40, hired labour (men) available was 7.34 and hired labour (women) available was 6.34.  Further, 11.43 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents (42.09 ha), 100.00 per cent of the area is under dry condition.  Cropping intensity was recorded as 100.36 per cent.  The sample households possessed 88.57 per cent bank account and 0.00 per cent of them have savings in the account.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 100.00 per cent from Cooperative bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00 %) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 100.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations. 2  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram and Jowar was Rs.30642.84 and 24912.40 with benefit cost ratio of 1:0.90 and 1: 0.70, respectively.  Further, 20.00 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 33457.14 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 26657.14 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have planted 26 neem trees, 11 acacia trees, 1 banyan trees together in both field and backyard.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 2542.86 for land development, Rs.4257.14 for adoption of improved crop production and Rs.400.00 adoption of improved livestock breeds activities.  Source of funds raised from bank as a loan and from own sources for land development and improved crop production was 11.43 and for improved livestock adoption was 2.86 per cent.  Regarding marketing channels, 91.43 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 5.71 per cent have sold by Agents/Traders.  Further, 85.71 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (97.14 %) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 94.29 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Firewood connection was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 60.00 per cent of the households and 40.00 per cent households has LPG.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 100.00 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 60.00 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 97.14 per cent of the households possessed BPL card and 2.86 per cent do not possess PDS card.  Cereals (54.29%), pulses (51.43%), oilseeds (42.86%) were adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (94.29%) wild animal menace on farm field (94.29%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (54.29%), inadequacy of irrigation water (74.29%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (91.43%), high rate of interest on credit (94.29%), low price for the agricultural commodities (94.29%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (28.57%), inadequate extension services (68.57%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (80.00%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Narayanpet-2Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 776 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 727 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils and 48 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 11 soil phases (management units) and 6 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 727 ha area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 16 per cent of area is shallow (25-50 cm), 4 per cent of area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately shallow (50-75 cm), 23 per cent of area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep (75-100 cm), 11 per cent of area is deep (100 - 150 cm) and 39 per cent of area is very deep (>150 cm).  About 3 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 90 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  Non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 23 per cent is medium (51-100 mm/m), 4 per cent is low (51-100 mm/m) and 16 per cent area is very low (0.75%) in organic carbon content of the soil.  About 76 per cent of area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus content of the soil and 18 per cent of area is low (337 kg/ha) in 81 per cent area in the microwatershed.  Available sulphur is low (1.0 ppm) in 4.5 ppm) in 58 per cent area and deficient (<4.5 ppm) in 36 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc content is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 502 (65) Guava - 2 (<1) Maize - 502 (65) Sapota - 2 (<1) Bajra - 502 (65) Pomegranate - 227 (29) Groundnut - 30 (4) Musambi - 226 (29) Sunflower - 226 (29) Lime - 226 (29) Redgram - 475 (55) Amla - 210 (27) Bengal gram 180 (23) 175 (23) Cashew - - Cotton - 226 (29) Jackfruit - 2 (<1) Chilli - 255 (33) Jamun - - Tomato - 30 (4) Custard apple - 254 (33) Brinjal - 30 (4) Tamarind - - Onion - 30 (4) Mulberry - 2 (<1) Bhendi - 255 (33) Marigold - 254 (33) Drumstick - 182 (23) Chrysanthemum - 254 (33) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Narayanpet-2 is located at North latitude 160 30' 5.473" and 160 28' 30.247" and East longitude 770 17' 44.111'' and 770 15' 5.067" covering an area of about 768.67 ha coming under Badiyala ªÀillage of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Narayanpet-2 micro watersheds of Kodlur subwatershed, Yadgir taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 total respondents, 6 (17.14 %) were marginal, 8 (22.86%)were small, 13 (37.14 %) were Semi medium and 8 (22.86 %) were medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 103 (51.76%) men and 96 (48.24 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (42.21%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 23.62 per cent illiterates, 78.39 per cent pre university education and 5.53 per cent attained graduation.  About, 5.71 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 94.29 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 3.02 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 65.71 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 5.71 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 85.71 per cent possess TV, 71.43 per cent possess mixer grinder, 100.00 per cent possess mobile phones and 22.86 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 34.29 per cent of the households possess plough, 8.57 per cent possess tractor and 34.29 per cent possess bullock cart.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 5.71 per cent possess local cow.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.77, women available in the micro watershed was 1.46, hired labour (men) available was 11.86 and hired labour (women) available was 15.29.  In the study area, about 1.01 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 1600.00 kms for about 4.00 months.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 100.00 per cent (95.11 ha) of the area is under dry condition.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Jowar and Cotton, and cropping intensity was recorded as 99.98 per cent.  Out of the sample households 97.14 percent possessed bank account. 2  About 100.00 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 5.56 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 88.89 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 5.56 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Jowar and Cotton was Rs.30866.96, 22324.79 and 25004.18 with benefit cost ratio of 1:0.80, 1: 0.90 and 1: 1.20 respectively.  Further, 42.86 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 17.14 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 87165.71 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 56257.14 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 9 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 10457.14 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 60.00 per cent depends on own funds and 40.00 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 65.71 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 42.86 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 42.86 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (105.71%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 91.43 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 97.14 per cent of the households and 2.86 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 100.00 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 37.14 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (100.00%), pulses (65.71%) and oilseeds (20.00%) are adequate for consumption. 3  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (117.14%) wild animal menace on farm field (40.00%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (40.00%), inadequacy of irrigation water (74.29%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (80.00%), high rate of interest on credit (77.14%), low price for the agricultural commodities (88.57%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (94.29%), inadequate extension services (20.00%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (65.71%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Shampurhalli Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 902 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 769 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 6 ha by railway, 68 ha by rock outcrops and 59 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 11 soil series and 15 soil phases (management units) and 7 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 43 per cent area are very shallow to shallow (150 cm).  About 6 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy, 57 per cent area loamy and 22 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  Entire area of the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 10 per cent area medium (101-150 mm/m), 26 per cent area low (51- 100 mm/m) and 45 per cent area very low (0.75%) in 37 per cent area.  15 per cent area is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus and 70 per area is medium (23-57 kg/ha).  About 35 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium and 50 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha).  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  About 62 per cent area is deficient (0.6 ppm).  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 132(15) 83(9) Guava - 87(10) Maize 87(10) 128(14) Sapota - 87(10) Bajra 87(10) 127(14) Pomegranate - 132(15) Groundnut - 126(14) Musambi 45(5) 87(10) Sunflower 45(5) 87(10) Lime 45(5) 87(10) Redgram - 132(15) Amla 87(10) 127(14) Bengal gram 45(5) - Cashew - - Cotton 45(5) 130(14) Jackfruit - 87(10) Chilli 87(10) 127(14) Jamun - 45(5) Tomato 87(10) 82(9) Custard apple 45(10) 169(19) Brinjal 87(10) 82(9) Tamarind - 45(5) Onion 87(10) 82(9) Mulberry - 87(10) Bhendi 87(10) 127(14) Marigold 87(10) 127(14) Drumstick - 132(15) Chrysanthemum 87(10) 127(14) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserves soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Shampurhalli is located at North latitude 160 53' 58.964" and 160 52' 17.5" and East longitude 770 3' 45.645'' and 770 2' 1.833" covering an area of about 590.86 ha coming under Yaragola and Vaddanahalli villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Shampurhalli micro watersheds of Kollur subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 46 farmers were sampled in Shampurhalli micro-watershed among households surveyed 20 (43.48%) were marginal, 13 (28.26%) were small, 6 (13.04 %) were semi medium, 3 (6.52 %) were medium farmers. 4 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 125 (55.80 %) men and 99 (44.20 %) were women. The average population of landless was 2.5, marginal farmers were 4.7, small farmers were 5.5, semi medium farmers were 5.2 and medium farmers were 6.  Majority of the respondents (44.20%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 55.36 per cent illiterates, 45.53 per cent pre university education and 2.23 per cent attained graduation.  About, 86.96 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 6.52 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 51.79 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 95.65 per cent of the households possess katcha house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 82.61 per cent possess TV, 17.39 per cent possess mixer grinder, 89.13 per cent possess mobile phones and 19.57 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 28.26 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.17 per cent possess tractor, 13.04 per cent possess bullock cart and 8.70 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 10.87 per cent possess local cow and 6.52 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2, women available in the micro watershed was 1.62, hired labour (men) available was 11.12 and hired labour (women) available was 11.48.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 92.16 per cent (58.58 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 7.84 per cent area is irrigated land. 2  There were 4.00 live bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 9.28 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Paddy, Green gram, Groundnut and Cotton and cropping intensity was recorded as 90.41 per cent.  Out of the sample households 2.17 percent possessed bank account and 2.17 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 2.17 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Paddy, Green gram, Groundnut and Cotton was Rs.33860.41, 92284.45, 28578.29, 68794.02 and 37869.12 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.70, 1: 0.90, 1: 1.20, 1: 1.02 and 1:2.10 respectively.  Further, 67.39 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 13.04 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 94073.48 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 44528.26 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 32 horticulture trees and 145 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 2956.52 for land development and Rs. 4456.52 for irrigation facility.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 12.77 per cent depends on own funds.  Regarding marketing channels, 89.13 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants.  Further, 89.13 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (71.74%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 73.91 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 100.00 per cent of the households.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 34.78 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 34.78 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (100.00%), pulses (84.78%) and oilseeds (32.61%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (91.30%) wild animal menace on farm field 3 (67.39%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (76.09%), inadequacy of irrigation water (10.87%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (84.78%), high rate of interest on credit (47.83%), low price for the agricultural commodities (69.57%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (76.09%), inadequate extension services (4.35%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (56.52%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Shethalli-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 632 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 564 ha (89%) in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 34 ha (5%) by mining/industrial, 5 ha (1%) by railway and 29 ha (5%) by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 4 soil series and 5 soil phases (management units) and 2 land use class.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 60 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are very deep (>150 cm), 7 per cent soils are deep (100-150 cm) and 22 per cent soils are moderately deep (75-100 cm).  About 3 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 86 per cent clayey soils.  Entire area of the microwatershed has non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  Entire area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands in the microwatershed.  An area of about 78 per cent are moderately (e2) eroded and 11 per cent area is severely (e3) eroded.  An area of about 4 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8), 21 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4), 52 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4- 9.0) and 12 per cent is very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0)in reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire area of the microwatershed is 0.75%) in organic carbon.  About 75 per cent area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (1.0 ppm) in 24 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available iron is deficient (4.5 ppm) in 57 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese is sufficient in the entire soils of the microwatershed.  Available copper is sufficient in the entire soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire soils of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 564(89) - Guava - - Maize - 542(86) Sapota - - Bajra - 564(89) Pomegranate - 565(89) Groundnut - - Musambi 352(56) 213(33) Sunflower 352(56) 212(33) Lime 352(56) 213(33) Redgram - 564(89) Amla 422(67) 142(22) Bengal gram 564(89) - Cashew - - Cotton 422(67) 142(22) Jackfruit - - Chilli - 564(89) Jamun - 423(67) Tomato - - Custard apple 564(89) - Drumstick - 564(89) Tamarind - 423(67) Brinjal 212(33) 352(56) Mulberry - - Bhendi 212(33) 352(56) Marigold - 564(89) Onion 142(22) 114(18) Chrysanthemum - 564(89) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Drainage line treatment and Soil and water conservation treatment plans have been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Shethalli-1 is located at North latitude 160 32' 9.119" and 160 30' 9.341" and East longitude 770 17' 47.251'' and 770 15' 40.363" covering an area of about 631.73 ha coming under Shettilli, Sangavara and Badiyala Villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis indicated that, out of the total sample of 34 respondents, 5 (14.71%) were marginal, 17(50%) were small and 5 (14.71%) were semi medium and 2 (5.88%) were medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 85 (56.29%) men and 66 (43.71%) were women.  Majority of the respondents (44.37%) were in the age group of 35-60 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, majority there were 21.85 per cent illiterates, 7.95 per cent attained graduation.  About, 64.71 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 23.53 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 33.11 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 76.47 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 20.59 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 97.06 per cent possess TV, 64.71 per cent possess mixer grinder and 94.12 per cent possess mobile phones.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 20.59 per cent of the households possess plough and only 5.88 per cent sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 14.71 per cent possess local cow respectively.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own men and women labour availability in the micro watershed was 11.18 each, while the hired labour (men) availability was 1.24.  Further, 5.88 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents (52.23 ha), 100 per cent of the area is under dry condition.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton and Maize and cropping intensity was recorded as 100 per cent.  The sample households possessed 91.18 per cent bank account and 73.53 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 55.88 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 12 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 48 per cent from Cooperative bank.  Majority of the respondents (100 %) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose. 2  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 87.50 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton and Maize was Rs.25139.34 , 26052.83 and 30901.04 with benefit cost ratio of 1:2.60, 1: 2.50, and 1: 1.10, respectively.  Further, 5.88 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 150911.76 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 91147.06 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown horticulture tree are coconut (16), Mango (1) and lime (2) in the fields and forest species have planted 7 teak trees, 59 neem trees, 6 tamarind trees, 3 acacia trees, 13 banyan trees together in both field and backyard.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 8264.71 for land development, Rs.588.24 for adoption of improved livestock breeds and Rs.294.12 adoption of improved livestock management.  Regarding marketing channels, 44.12 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 32.35 per cent have sold by Agents/Traders.  Further, 61.76 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (85.29 %) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 50 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Firewood connection was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 88.24 per cent of the households and 11.76 per cent households has LPG.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 97.06 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households. In the study area, 38.24 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 94.12 per cent of the households possessed BPL card and 2.94 per cent do not possess PDS card.  Cereals (100%), pulses (79.41%), oilseeds (55.88%) were adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (94.12%) wild animal menace on farm field (88.24%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (61.76%), inadequacy of irrigation water (14.71%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (64.71%), high rate of interest on credit (55.88%), low price for the agricultural commodities (58.82%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (67.65%), inadequate extension services (38.24%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (61.76%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Chintakunta-2Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 308 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 280 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 1 ha is covered by rock outcrops and 26 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 5 soil series and 8 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 280 ha area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 32 per cent of area is shallow (25-50 cm), 1 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately shallow (50-75 cm), 47 per cent area is moderately deep (75-100 cm) and 11 per cent of area is deep (100 - 150 cm).  About 6 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 40 per cent loamy soils and 45 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 30 per cent area in the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 47 per cent is medium (101-150 mm/m), 1 per cent is low (51-100 mm/m) and 32 per cent area is very low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus content of the soil.  About 88 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in available potassium content and 3 per cent of area is high (>337 kg/ha).  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 20 (7) 4 (1) Guava - 20 (7) Maize 20 (7) 4 (1) Sapota - 20 (7) Bajra 20 (7) 4 (1) Pomegranate - 20 (7) Groundnut - 24 (8) Musambi - - Sunflower - 20 (7) Lime - 20 (7) Redgram - 20 (7) Amla 20 (7) 4 (1) Bengal gram - - Cashew - - Cotton - 20 (7) Jackfruit - 20 (7) Chilli 20 (7) 4 (1) Jamun - - Tomato 20 (7) 4 (1) Custard apple - 24 (8) Brinjal 20 (7) 4 (1) Tamarind - - Onion 20 (7) 4 (1) Mulberry - 20 (7) Bhendi 20 (7) 4 (1) Marigold 20 (7) 4 (1) Drumstick - 20 (7) Chrysanthemum 20 (7) 4 (1) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Chintakunta-2 is located at North latitude 160 56' 35.933" and 160 55' 15.775" and East longitude 770 14' 19.05" and 770 12' 49.632" covering an area of about 235.70 ha coming under Khanapur Hosalli and Motanahalli villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Chintakunta-2 micro watersheds of Motanahalli subwatershed, Yadagiri taluk, Yadagiri District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 total respondents, 14 (40.00 %) were marginal, 9 (25.71%) were small, 3 (8.57 %) were Semi medium and 3 (8.57 %) were medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 104 (54.45 %) men and 87 (45.55 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (43.98%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 50.79 per cent illiterates, 47.65 percent pre university education and 3.66 per cent attained graduation.  About, 91.43 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 11.43 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural laborers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 17.3 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 54.29 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 14.29 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 91.43 per cent possess TV, 34.29 per cent possess mixer grinder, 82.86 per cent possess mobile phones and 34.29 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 5.71 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.86 per cent possess tractor and 5.71 per cent possess bullock cart.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 8.57 per cent possess local cow and 22.86 per cent possess Bullock.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own men labour availability in the micro watershed was 2.33 and women labour availability in the micro watershed was 2.03, while the hired labour (men) availability was 8.39.  Further, 100 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 82.77 per cent (33 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 10.93 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 3 functioning bore wells and 3 dry bore wells among the sampled households. 2  Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 8.57 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Groundnut, Redgram, Paddy, Sorghum and Green gram and cropping intensity was recorded as 79.14 per cent.  Out of the sample households 80 percent possessed bank account and 80 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 80 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 3.57 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 10.71 per cent from Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100 %) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 75.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Groundnut, Redgram, Paddy, Sorghum and Green gram was Rs.54653.43 , 51335.09, 79012.15, 66203.63 and 29985.03 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.8, 1:1.3, 1:1.2, 1:1.4 and 1:1 respectively.  Further, 17.14 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 11.43 per cent of the households have opined that the dry fodder was inadequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 136568.00 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 66485.71 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 11 horticulture trees and 51 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 7868.57 for land development.  Regarding marketing channels, 65.71 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while and 22.86 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 88.57 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (82.86 %) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 82.86 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire wood was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 91.43 per cent of the households and 8.57 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 62.86 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 97.14 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 28.57 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 97.14 per cent of the households possessed BPL card. 3  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (88.57%), pulses (82.86%) and oilseeds (40.00%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (91.43%) wild animal menace on farm field ( 88.57%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (57.14%), inadequacy of irrigation water (11.43%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (54.29%), high rate of interest on credit (5.71%), low price for the agricultural commodities (11.43%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (20.00%), inadequate extension services (17.14%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (25.71%), Less rainfall (48.57%) and Source of Agri-technology information (Newspaper/ TV/Mobile) (42.86%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project