Abstrak Pada era global hari ini banyak hal yang memiliki pembaharuan di bidang teknologi, bisa dilihat dari semua segmen kehidupan hampir tidak bisa terlepas dari sentuhan internet dan teknologi. Dari semua keuntungan perkembangan teknologi hari ini ada juga beberapa hal yang bisa digolongkan sebagai bentuk ancaman digital yang akan berimplikasi dalam jangka panjang. Atas dasar penjelasan diatas fakta dilapangan masih banyak anak dibawah kelompok klasifikasi usia yang memainkan game PUBG bahkan sudah menjadi kebiasaan di waktu senggang anak-anak untuk mengisi kegiatan. Dalam kasus ini peneliti bermaksud melakukan tinjauan yuridis terhadap Peraturan Menteri Komunikasi dan Informatika Republik Indonesia Nomor 11 Tahun 2016 tentang Klasifikasi Permainan Interaktif Elektronik, dalam peraturan ini pemerintah mencoba membatasi pengguna permainan interaktif elektronik melalui penggolongan kelompok usia dan batasan-batasan permainan yang boleh diakses sesuai usia pengguna permainan interaktif elektronik. Berdasarkan latar belakang diatas, bagaimana ketaatan Peraturan Menteri Komunikasi dan Informatika Nomor 11 Tahun 2016 tentang Klasifikasi Permainan Interaktif Elektronik di Wilayah Ketintang Kota Surabaya. Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian hukum empiris, penelitian hukum yang menjelaskan mengenai pemberlakuan dan implementasi ketentuan hukum normatif secara in action pada setiap peristiwa hukum tertentu yang berada didalam kehidupan masyarakat.Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menguji secara empiris ketaatan peraturan menteri komunikasi dan informatika nomor 11 tahun 2016 tentang permainan interaktif elektronik, dengan studi kasus permainan interaktif elektronik yang masih banyak dimainkan oleh anak dibawah umur serta masih mengandung unsur kekerasan yaitu PUBG mobile, wilayah penelitian ini berada di kota Surabaya.Informan penelitian ini adalah saudara Fransiscus Fabian Teguh 12 tahun dan Habel Fender 13 tahun keduanya adalah warga asli kota Surabaya yang aktif memainkan permainan interaktif elektronik jenis PUBG dengan usia yang masing-masing masih dibawah umur. Pengumpulan data dilakukan dengan metode wawancara secara langsung kepada kedua informan, jawaban dari informan kemudian dirangkum dalam bentuk data yang seperti peneliti tuliskan di pembahasan penelitian ini.Hasil penelitian ini menunjukan bahwa peraturan menteri komunikasi dan informatika tentang permainan interaktif elektronik yang didalamnya mengatur tentang klasifikasi konten permainan dan klasifikasi usia pengguna masih tidak menunjukkan ketaatan, dibuktikan melaluli dua informan dalam penelitian ini yang masih dibawah umur dan aktif memainkan permainan interaktif elektronik jenis PUBG dimana didalam permainan ini jelas masih mengandung unsur kekerasan dan bahkan pembunuhan. Selain itu juga kemudahan akses untuk mendapatkan permainan PUBG sangat mendukung anak untuk memainkan permainan ini, hal terakhir adalah soal pengawasan lingkungan anak seperti otang tua yang kurang memperhatikan jenis konten permainan yang dimainkan oleh anak.Kata kunci : Permainan interaktif elektronik, anak dibawah umur, unsur kekerasan, ketaatan.AbstractIn todays global era many things that have renewal in the field of technology, can be seen from all segments of life that can hardly be separated from the touch of the internet and technology. Of all the benefits of todays technological developments there are also a number of things that can be classified as forms of digital threats that will have long-term implications, even triggering a potential generation retreat. Therefore parents, the environment, the government must really play an active role in early prevention efforts over the types of online games played by children. On the basis of the above explanation of the facts in the field there are still many children under the age classification group who play the PUBG game and have even become a habit in their free time to fill activities. In this case the researcher intends to carry out a juridical review of the Regulation of the Minister of Communication and Information of the Republic of Indonesia Number 11 Year 2016 concerning Classification of Electronic Interactive Games, in this regulation the government tries to limit electronic interactive game users through the classification of age groups and restrictions on games that may be accessed according to age electronic interactive game users. Based on the background above, how obedience to the Regulation of the Minister of Communication and Information No. 11 of 2016 concerning Classification of Electronic Interactive Games in the Ketintang Region of Surabaya. This research is an empirical legal research, legal research that explains the enforcement and implementation of normative legal provisions in action on any particular legal event that is in the life of the community.This study aims to empirically test the obediences of the minister of communication and information technology number 11 of 2016 concerning electronic interactive games, with case studies of electronic interactive games that are still widely played by underage children and still contain elements of violence, namely PUBG mobile, this research area is in the city of Surabaya.The informants of this study were Fransiscus Fabian Teguh 12 years and Abel Fender 13 years both of them are native citizens of the city of Surabaya who actively play electronic interactive games of PUBG types with ages that are still underage. Data collection is done by interview method directly to the two informants, answers from informants are then summarized in the form of data that researchers like to write in the discussion of this study.The results of this study indicate that the regulation of the minister of communication and informatics about electronic interactive games which regulates the classification of game content and the age classification of users is still ineffective, proven through two informants in this study who are still underage and actively playing electronic interactive games of the type of PUBG wherein the game clearly still contains elements of violence and even murder. Easy access to get PUBG games is very supportive for children to play this game, things the last is the matter of supervising the environment of children such as the elderly people who pay less attention to the type of content of the games played by children.Keyword : Electronic interactive game, underage children, contains elements of violence, obedien
The aim of this doctorate was to explore the potential contribution to food security of ancient genetic resources of crops, from the field to the market. Special attention was given to the resistance to drought stress, in the context of climate change, and to the production of bioactives potentially useful for human health. This project encompassed a broad diversity of topics, from fundamental sciences to social sciences, and was constructed around the case model of the potato crop, fourth staple crop worldwide in terms of tonnage produced. Focussing on Chile was another deliberate selection that was done in the beginning of the thesis: The genetic resources of potato from this country were assessed regarding their tolerance to drought and their production of health promoting bioactives. This genepool was chosen because of its diversity of landraces, and because it has not been given strong attention so far in scientific literature. Additionally, the cultivation of native Chilean potatoes is tightly linked to traditional small-scale farming systems, which may be threatened by globalisation and large-scale farming systems. These reasons call for more extensive description of the potential of potato landraces from Chile to contribute to food security. In chapter 2, the value of Chilean native potatoes was determined as a source of bioactives, especially of polyphenols and anthocyanins. These compounds are partly responsible for the interesting antioxidant properties of these potatoes, hinting on their potential interest as functional food rich in antioxidants. From this experiment, we could observe a diverse composition of bioactives across 14 genotypes, varying up to 10 fold regarding anthocyanin content. Moreover, a critical difference between samples analysed raw or cooked was observed, calling for caution in the interpretation of results from the numerous studies carried out only on raw samples. Additionally, the link between total polyphenols (TPC) and antioxidant activity (ORAC) could be clearly observed across all the samples. Investigating the profile in phenolic acids of these 14 Chilean landraces, we observed that caffeic acid was the major phenolic acid in these potatoes, followed by chlorogenic acid, which accounted for 61-85% and for 10-25%, respectively, of the content of phenolic acids detected in cooked samples. The interesting amounts of bioactives detected in this study, combined with the extent of their variation between genotypes, suggested the possibility of breeding potatoes for increased contents in anthocyanins and other phenolic compounds. In chapter 3, I detailed the response to drought stress of nine potato genotypes, including the commercial variety Désirée. The trial was conducted in field conditions in the south of Chile, with a plastic mulch preventing the rain from interfering with the drought treatments. Water was provided through drip irrigation, installed below the plastic foil. Two treatments of drought stress were implemented in distinct plots 88 days after planting (DAP) and 110 DAP, respectively, for a duration of six weeks. This experiment showed a strong negative impact of the drought treatments on the yield, on average 42% for the treatment 88 DAP and 23% for the treatment 110 DAP. The number of tubers produced for plant was also reduced by 40% and 12% for the treatments 88 DAP and 110 DAP, respectively. The impact of drought was genotype specific. Considering bioactives in the tubers, drought did not have any effect on their concentration. However, because of the reduction of the yield, the production of bioactives per ha was reduced, which could impact negatively the production of nutraceuticals based on potato tubers. Furthermore, the concentration of starch and bioactives (resistant starch, total phenolics, anthocyanins) as well as the antioxidant activity were genotype dependent, validating the potential of native Chilean potatoes for plant breeding programs targeting nutrients and bioactives. The 4th chapter of this thesis presented how ancient genetic resources can be useful for food security and the economy, and gave rationales for their conservation, in an attempt to bridge agricultural sciences and policy sciences. Currents trends on the conservation and the use of potatoes and potato genetic resources 7 in Chile were analysed, as well as the bio-physical, socio-economical and political factors conditioning the conservation and use of potato genetic resources in Chile. Via an exploratory study combining qualitative interviews of the stakeholders of the Chilean food chain with a semi quantitative survey of Chilean consumers, it was possible to test the interest of the Chilean food chain for potato products with specific qualitative aspects, including functional food. The two main outcomes of this study were a) strong interest for attractive colours and high contents of antioxidants and b) willingness to pay a higher price for potato products presenting demonstrated health benefits. Interestingly, a high proportion of the interviewed consumers had knowledge about antioxidants, and could associate them with a positive contribution to health and welfare. Overall, this approach allowed us to verify that the Chilean food chain perceived Chilean potato landraces as a valuable resource, and showed interest for new products that are highly colourful. Additionally, the concept of functional potato food, in this case potatoes enriched in antioxidants, was positively received by the consumers. The results of the individual chapters show the complexity but also the high potential to improve the food chain of a certain region with a specific, so far underexploited product. These considerations are discussed in the context of global food security, for which not only an increased access to healthy food but also the consideration of the limitation of the food demand seems to be a highly relevant and underexplored aspect.
Tesis para obtener el grado de Magíster Área de Desarrollo Rural presentada en la Facultad de Agronomía, Universidad de Buenos Aires en 2017 ; El crecimiento y desarrollo de la agricultura conocido como agriculturización se fue dando en el tiempo por un conjunto de situaciones, entre los más importantes, precios internacionales y tipo de cambio favorables, nuevas tecnologías (siembra directa, cultivos genéticamente modificados, glifosato), la irrupción de capital financiero, de nuevos actores sociales agrarios, etc., que originaron cambios en la estructura agraria, uso de la tierra, mecanización, empleo rural, población rural, producción de carne, entre los mas importantes. Con el objetivo de conocer el crecimiento agrícola y sus consecuencias en el sector agropecuario de Henderson y zona de influencia (Territorio) entre las campañas 20002/03 y 2010/11, se realizó un trabajo de investigación utilizando metodologías cuali-cuantitativas. La información primaria se construyó a partir de informantes clave (20) - productores, contratistas, profesionales del sector y otros- utilizando como instrumento una encuesta sobre los establecimientos que conducen u asesoran y además, su opinión respecto de los cambios, si los hubo, en esas empresas. Además, a otros informantes clave (5), se les pidió su parecer acerca de los cambios ocurridos entre dichas campañas productivas a nivel territorio. La información secundaria se recabó del CNA 2002, y de organismos nacionales (Minagri, INTA, Senasa, etc.), y municipales (Oficinas de Producción y de Catastro). El área de investigación o unidad de estudio, fue un radio de 15 Km. (70600 has) alrededor de la localidad de Henderson, considerado su territorio. Este trabajo permitió tener una aproximación al conocimiento de la realidad del sector en el territorio por efecto de la expansión agrícola y que no estaba registrado ni sistematizado pudiendo servir como insumo de base a futuros trabajos. Los hallazgos más relevantes concuerdan con lo ocurrido en otros lugares del área y de la región pampeana siendo estos: Crecimiento de la agricultura, en especial del cultivo de soja realizada bajo siembra directa y la aplicación de glifosato para el control de malezas. Crecimiento de los pooles de siembra locales y foráneos y del TSA rentista Disminución de herramientas para labranza convencional y aumento de sembradoras para siembra directa, pulverizadoras autopropulsadas y cosechadoras de mayor capacidad de trabajo en manos de contratistas de servicios o contratistas tanteros. Disminución de la superficie ganadera, del stock ganadero y desplazamiento hacia suelos y zonas marginales. Disminución de la cría pura y de la invernada de compra. Disminución del ciclo completo pero sostenido y mejorado por la utilización de forrajes conservados (silaje) y con engorde a corral (feed lot) (intensificación). Disminución de la mano de obra en general, incluyendo al personal permanente y transitorio. Crecimiento del sector agro-comercial (cooperativas, agronomías, consignatarios de hacienda, acopios, etc.) ; The growth and development of agriculture, also known in spanish as agriculturización, appeared as time went by because of a series of events. Among the most important ones, it can be mentioned international market values and foreign exchange, new technologies such as direct sowing methods and machines and genetic engineering in crops, finance inflows to agriculture, new agricultural stakeholders -seed and pesticide suppliers, transport companies, agricultural contractor jobs, etc- etc. , which originated changes in the agrarian structure, land use, mechanization, rural employment, rural residents, land owners and farm workers` s life styles, meat production, etc., etc. In order to know about agricultural growth and its impact on the agricultural sector of Henderson and its surrounding areas (territory) in the seasons between 20002 / 03 and 2010/11, a research was conducted using qualitative and quantitative methodologies. Primary information was gathered from key informants (20) - producers, contractors, crop advisors and other professionals - by using a survey instrument in locate connections. In addition to this, other key informants (5) were asked about their opinions and points of views for the changes between the productive seasons within the territory. Secondary information was collected from the 2002 CNA, national governmental organizations (Minagri, INTA, Senasa, etc). .and municipal Cadastral and other offices. The area or unit of research considered as a territory was within 15 km (70600 hectares) surrounding the town of Henderson. This is a study that allowed us to have a better knowledge of the reality of the sector in the territory as a result of agricultural expansion, which was not done or written before and can be useful as a basis for future an deep researches. The most relevant findings are in agreement with what happened in other places in the area of the Pampas being: Growth of agriculture, especially soybean cropping on low - tillage and direct seeding and application of glyphosate for weed control. Decreased, livestock and stock cattle displacement to marginal lands unsuitable for cultivation Decreased cattle area. Decrease of pure breeding and wintering purchase. Decreased full cycle but underpinned by the use of conserved forage (silage) and feedlot (feedlot). Reduced tillage tools and increased tillage planters, harvesters and self-propelled greater work capacity in the hands of service contractors or contractor's tanteros spray. Growth in sharecroppers and local pools and association as tenants for seeding in lands which landowners gave for rent Decreased labor in general, including the permanent and transitory services and jobs Growth of the agro- business sector (cooperatives, Agricultural Sciences and shippers of finance, stockpiles, etc.) ; EEA General Villegas ; Fil: Spagnuolo, Cesar. Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA). Estación Experimental Agropecuaria General Villegas; Argentina
ABSTRACTThis thesis discusses the existence of the company's health clinic in the social security system of health (studies on PT. Sari Bumi Kusuma - Alas Kusuma Group). The method used in this research is normative sociological approach. From the results of this thesis can be concluded that health care services for the employees of PT. Sari Bumi Kusuma - Alas Kusuma Group by the Institution of Social Security done in various stages must be known, of certain rights, procedures for health care, health insurance, implementation of health insurance and the method of implementation of the National Health Insurance (JKN) as a method of restitution is limited , methods of medical services directly, and the method of payment to medical personnel and their dues will be issued by the participants.the settlement that has been stated in the deed of agreement. Implementation and employee dissatisfaction PT. Sari Bumi Kusuma - Alas Kusuma Group on health services in conjunction degan program BPJS General Hospital or Health Center, owned by the Government due to the disputes that occur in primary health care, which until now has not been resolved, while the dispute is as follows: Queue patients BPJS at health centers in each region, decrease in medical and non-medical services and doctors in private practice patients rarely receive BPJS. Then Dispute BPJS health services in secondary health care is a patient referral inpatient still suspended, unavailability of treatment rooms for patients BPJS and rejection at the emergency room, Jampersal deprecated in BPJS and Reduction of health services from the national Social Security program before. Efforts undertaken by PT. Sari Bumi Kusuma - Alas Kusuma Group made efforts to improve social security for employees and the public health is PT. Sari Bumi Kusuma - Alas Kusuma Group still register their employees to follow the program BPJS gradually. Then Dispute BPJS health services in secondary health care is a patient referral inpatient still suspended, unavailability of treatment rooms for patients BPJS and rejection at the emergency room, Jampersal deprecated in BPJS and Reduction of health services from the national Social Security program before. Efforts undertaken by PT. Sari Bumi Kusuma - Alas Kusuma Group made efforts to improve social security for employees and the public health is PT. Sari Bumi Kusuma - Alas Kusuma Group still register their employees to follow the program BPJS gradually. Then the PT. Sari Bumi Kusuma - Alas Kusuma Group remains functioning health Polyclinic held for airport employees and the community around the industry who want treatment. Services for employees or the general public health BPJS participants held in the Company Polyclinic Physicians in cooperation with health BPJS. Especially for employees who have not registered for the BPJS health, medical services remained at the Polyclinic company and handled by doctors who cooperate with BPJS with the cost borne by the company.In case polyclinic facilities use the company does not charge rent (free). The Company continues to provide drugs in the clinic for employees of companies both listed as participants BPJS and not with the provision that if the health service is performed outside the doctor's office hours BPJS health.Keywords: Existence Polyclinic, Corporate Health, Social Security System Health.ABSTRAKTesis ini membahas eksistensi poliklinik kesehatan perusahaan dalam sistem jaminan sosial kesehatan (studi pada PT. Sari Bumi Kusuma – Alas Kusuma Group). Metode pendekatan yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah pendekatan normatif sosiologis. Dari hasil penelitian tesis ini diperoleh kesimpulan Bahwa Pelayanan pemeliharaan kesehatan bagi karyawan Perusahaan PT. Sari Bumi Kusuma – Alas Kusuma Group oleh badan penyelenggara jaminan sosial dilakukan dengan berbagai macam tahap yang harus diketahui, dari beberapa hak, tata cara pelayanan kesehatan, jaminan kesehatan, penyelenggaraan jaminan kesehatan dan metode dalam pelaksanaan Jaminan Kesehatan Nasional (JKN) seperti metode restitusi terbatas, metode pelayanan medis secara langsung, dan metode pembayaran kepada tenaga medis beserta iuran yang akan dikeluarkan oleh para peserta. Pelaksanaan dan ketidakpuasan karyawan Perusahaan PT. Sari Bumi Kusuma – Alas Kusuma Group terhadap pelayanan kesehatan dalam hubungannya degan program BPJS di Rumah Sakit Umum atau Puskemas milik Pemerintah disebabkan oleh sengketa yang terjadi dalam pelayanan kesehatan primer yang sampai saat ini belum terselesaikan, adapun sengketa yang terjadi adalah sebagai berikut : Antrian pasien BPJS pada Puskesmas di masing-masing daerah, Penurunan pelayanan medik maupun non medik dan dokter praktek pribadi jarang menerima pasien BPJS. Kemudian Sengketa pelayanan kesehatan BPJS di pelayanan kesehatan skunder adalah pasien rujukan rawat inap masih ditangguhkan, tidak tersedianya ruang perawatan bagi pasien BPJS dan penolakan pada unit gawat darurat, Jampersal tidak berlaku lagi di BPJS dan Pengurangan pelayanan kesehatan dari program Sistem Jaminan Sosial nasional sebelumnya. Upaya-upaya yang dilakukan oleh PT. Sari Bumi Kusuma – Alas Kusuma Group melakukan upaya-upaya guna meningkatkan jaminan sosial kesehatan bagi karyawan dan masyarakat adalah Perusahaan PT. Sari Bumi Kusuma – Alas Kusuma Group tetap mendaftarkan karyawannya untuk mengikuti program BPJS Kesehatan secara bertahap. Kemudian pihak Perusahaan PT. Sari Bumi Kusuma – Alas Kusuma Group tetap memfungsikan Poliklinik kesehatan yang dimiliki untuk melayani karyawan maupun masyarakat sekitar lokasi Industri yang ingin berobat. Pelayanan bagi karyawan atau masyarakat umum peserta BPJS kesehatan dilaksanakan di Poliklinik Perusahaan dengan Dokter yang bekerjasama dengan BPJS kesehatan. Khusus untuk karyawan yang belum terdaftar sebagai peserta BPJS kesehatan, pelayanan pengobatan tetap di Poliklinik perusahaan dan ditangani oleh Dokter yang bekerja sama dengan BPJS Kesehatan dengan biaya ditanggung oleh perusahaan.Dalam hal penggunaan fasilitas poliklinik perusahaan tidak dikenakan biaya sewa (gratis). Perusahaan tetap menyediakan Obat-obatan di poliklinik perusahaan bagi karyawan baik yang terdaftar sebagai peserta BPJS Kesehatan maupun tidak dengan ketentuan jika pelayanan kesehatan tersebut dilakukan diluar jam praktek dokter BPJS kesehatan.Kata Kunci: Eksistensi Poliklinik, Kesehatan Perusahaan, Sistem Jaminan Sosial Kesehatan.
Creating a standardised version of Afrikaans – the first 50 years With Steyn's 2014 publication We are going to make a language (Ons gaan 'n taal maak) as stimulus, the beginning of organised writing of Standard Afrikaans since 1875 is discussed, as well as its consequences for the continued creation of Afrikaans. In particular, in this paper comments are made on some of the points that Steyn made. Plans for an Afrikaans Bible translation were initially unsuccessful because Afrikaans was not yet serving a written function at the time. The written language subsequently established by the Genootskap van Regte Afrikaners ("GRA") (Association of Real Afrikaners) was able to fill this gap, as illustrated by the many publications that appeared under the banner of the GRA. Steyn points out that many people were enthusiastically involved in the creation of Afrikaans, then indicates what many of them had done, and continues to mention the expectations some of them had of Afrikaans. The way in which this publication shows how people were involved in the creation of Afrikaans makes it an exceptional document on the development of Afrikaans. The fact that people create standard languages, of which Standard Afrikaans is an example, is highlighted. People often start this process by developing written forms of spoken languages. The title of Steyn's work refers to this human endeavour. In the history of Afrikaans as a written language, a start was made as early as the nineteenth century with the development of a written form of some varieties of Afrikaans. A written tradition where Muslim Afrikaans was written in religious scriptures, in Arabic script, has possibly been in existence since 1830. This movement had a large readership and was based on the Cape variety of Afrikaans. At Genadendal Afrikaans was possibly written from 1859, and in Paarl from 1875. All these ways in which Afrikaans was written were close to the spoken variety. Patriot Afrikaans, as the GRA's written Afrikaans in the Paarl was also known, was based on the farmers' dialect of the area. It did not enjoy a high status, and developed speakers did not want to associate themselves with it. This Afrikaans was nevertheless made known by means of a large number of publications, which were read across the country. Up to 1895 no fewer than 81 000 copies were printed under the GRA banner. Afrikaans was also written from time to time by newspapers, but not uniformly, with Afrikaans being written the way it was spoken by the various speech communities whom these newspapers wished to reach. The Afrikaans written in this newspaper tradition made the dialectal Afrikaans of their target group a little more dignified by adding some Dutch to it. The farmers' variety on which GRA Afrikaans was based, was closely interwoven with the Khoi Afrikaans of the Khoi-Khoi people, the learner's Afrikaans that to a large extent had displaced their Khoi-Khoi mother tongue by the end of the seventeenth century. Besides the Afrikaans of the farmers, Khoi Afrikaans was one of the two main languages spoken for approximately a hundred years in the Interior Region, located more or less between the Hottentots Holland mountains and Graaff-Reinet. The two dialects had a mutual influence on one another, as is illustrated by the general use of the word ons (in the subject position) in current Afrikaans, which was earlier stigmatised as Khoi Afrikaans. This area of the interior is currently regarded as the origin of many of today's Afrikaans dialects. At the beginning of the twentieth century, language creators made serious efforts to Dutchify GRA Afrikaans, and the "write as we speak" principle of the GRA was changed in such a way as to link Afrikaans more closely to Dutch; the writing somewhat resembled the way Afrikaans was written in the newspaper tradition. In this way, a shortcut was taken to elevate the status of Afrikaans and expand its corpus. This Dutchification process had a number of implications for later Standard Afrikaans. Dutchified Afrikaans created some distance between this Afrikaans and the Afrikaans of its dialects, with the result that this rich source of Afrikaans became marginalised. The spelling of many words from GRA Afrikaans was adapted to the Dutch model, and earlier well-known rural constructions and dialectal forms were lost (such as agint, speul and worre, for agent, speel and word). Currently there is an increase in literary works written in varietal Afrikaans. The Afrikaans used in these works differs in various respects from Standard Afrikaans because it still contains some remnants of the language spoken in the period before Dutchification took place. But Dutchified Afrikaans remained a separate language. Quite a bit of material from the farmers' language, as written by the GRA, was preserved. The same applies as regards created constructs. The argument put forward here is that the Afrikaans double negative, for which a source cannot be found in the history of the Afrikaans language, was created by the GRA. By linking Afrikaans to Dutch during early legislation, an interesting move was made to support Afrikaans: In this, the argument was that Dutch included Afrikaans, something that is not borne out by the history of Afrikaans. After the Dutchification phase, "Dutch" continued to be linked to the language name "Afrikaans", for example in compounds such as "Afrikaans-Dutch". Steyn's outstanding book does not just deal with the origins of Afrikaans. Ons gaan 'n taal maak shares with its readers, through many of the approximately 200 photographs that have been used, the highlights of the Afrikaans language creation period, and takes them through the later period of its history, sometimes with quite some nostalgia. Reading Steyn's book brings one to a better understanding of the creation of Afrikaans, and it is simultaneously also quite thought-provoking.
The exponential increase of urban areas in Africa during the last decade has become a major concern in the context of local climatic change and the increasing amount of impervious surface. Major African cities such as Nairobi and Nakuru have undergone rapid urban growth in comparison to the rest of the world. In this research we investigated the land-use changes and used the results in urban growth modelling which integrates cellular automata (CA), remote sensing (RS) and geographic information systems (GIS) in order to simulate urban growth up to the year 2030. We used multi-temporal Landsat imageries for the years 1986, 2000 and 2010 to map urban land-use changes in Nairobi and Nakuru. The use of multi-sensor imageries was also explored incorporating World view 2, and Advanced Land Observing Satellite (ALOS) Phased Array type L-band Synthetic Aperture Radar (PALSAR) data for urban land-use mapping in Nakuru. We conducted supervised classification using support vector machine (SVM) which performed better than maximum likelihood classification. Land-use change estimates were obtained indicating increased urban growth into the year 2010. We used the land-use change analysis information to model urban growth in Nairobi and Nakuru. Our urban growth model (UGM) utilised various datasets in modelling urban growth namely urban land-use extracted from land-use maps, road network data, slope data and exclusion layer defining areas excluded from development. The Monte-Carlo technique was used in model calibration. The model was validated using Multiple Resolution Validation (MRV) technique. Prediction of urban land-use was done up to the year 2030 when Kenya plans to attain Vision 2030. Three scenarios were explored in the urban modelling process; unmanaged growth with no restriction on environmental areas, managed growth with moderate protection, and a managed growth with maximum protection on forest, agricultural areas, and urban green. Furthermore, we explored the spatial effects of varying UGM parameters using the city of Nairobi. The objective here was to investigate the contribution of each model parameter in simulating urban growth. The results obtained indicate that varying model coefficients leads to urban growth in different directions and magnitude. However, several model parameters were observed to be highly correlated namely; spread, breed and road. The lowest spatial effect was achieved by at least maintaining spread, breed and road while varying the other parameters. The highest spatial effect was observed by at least keeping slope constant while varying the other four parameters. Additionally, we used kappa statistics to compare the simulation maps. High values of Khisto indicated high similarity between the maps in terms of quantity and location thus indicating the lowest spatial effect obtained. Kenya plans to achieve Vision 2030 in the year 2030 and information on spatial effects of our UGM can help in identifying different scenarios of future urban growth. It is thus possible to discover areas that are likely to experience; spontaneous growth, edge growth, road influenced growth or new spreading centres growth. Policy makers can see the influence of establishing new infrastructure such as housing and road in new areas compared to existing settlements. Moreover, the outcome of this research indicates that Nairobi and Nakuru are experiencing fast urban sprawl with urban land-use consuming the available land. The results obtained illustrate the possibility of urban growth modelling in addressing regional planning issues. This can help in comprehensive land-use planning and an integrated management of resources to ensure sustainability of land and to achieve social equity, economic efficiency and environmental sustainability. Hence, cellular automata are a worthwhile approach for regional modelling of African cities such as Nairobi and Nakuru. This provides opportunities for other cities in Africa to be studied using UGM and its adaptability noted accordingly. ; Das exponentielle Wachstum afrikanischer Städte im letzten Jahrzehnt ist mit Blick auf die lokalen klimatischen Veränderungen und der zunehmenden Menge an versiegelten Oberflächen von besonderer Tragweite. Im Vergleich zu anderen Metropolen erfuhren afrikanische Städte wie Nairobi und Nakuru ein extensives Wachstum der urbanen Flächen. Die vorliegende Arbeit setzt sich mit dem urbanen Landnutzungswandel auseinander und modelliert die Siedlungsflächenausdehnung für das Jahr 2030 mit Hilfe eines Zellulären Automaten (CA), Fernerkundungsdaten (RS) sowie Geographischen Informationssystemen (GIS). Zur Kartierung der Siedlungsflächenausdehnung von Nairobi und Nakuru wurden multitemporale Landsat-Daten der Jahre 1986, 2000 und 2010 verwendet. Zusätzlich wurden multisensorale Daten von World View 2 und ALOS PALSAR für Nakuru eingesetzt. Die Landnutzungsklassifikation erfolgte mit support vector machines (SVM). Dieses Verfahren zeigte bessere Ergebnisse als eine Maximum-Likelihood-Klassifikation. Auf Basis der klassifizierten Satellitendaten erfolgte die Landnutzungsmodellierung für Nairobi und Nakuru. Hierzu wurde die von Goetzke (2011) modifizierte Version von Clarke's Urban Growth Model (Clarke, Hoppen, & Gaydos, 1997) benutzt. Neben den Landnutzungskarten fungieren Informationen zum Verkehrsnetz, zur Hangneigung und zu Ausschlussflächen als Hauptinputdaten. Die Kalibration erfolgte mit Hilfe von Monte Carlo Iterationen. Zur Validation des Modells wurde eine Multiple Resolution Validation (MRV) durchgeführt. Die Siedlungsflächenausdehnung wurde für das Jahr 2030 simuliert. Zu diesem Zeitpunkt plant das Land Kenia die Umsetzung des Vision 2030 Programmes. Es wurden insgesamt drei Szenarien mit dem Wachstumsmodell gerechnet: (1) Wachstum ohne Planungszwänge, so dass auch Siedlungsflächen in Naturschutzgebieten entstehen dürfen. (2) Siedlungsflächenausdehnung unter moderaten Planungsbedingungen. (3) Wachstum mit sehr restriktiven Planungsbedingungen, unter Einschluss des Schutzes von Wald-, Grün- und- Agrarflächen. Des Weiteren wurde eine Sensitivitätsanalyse der modelleigenen Wachstumsparameter am Beispiel von Nairobi durchgeführt. Es konnte gezeigt werden, welchen Einfluss die Parameter auf die Intensität und das Muster der modellierten Siedlungsflächenausdehnung ausüben. Dabei zeigten die Wachstumskoeffizienten "spread", "breed" und "road" eine signifikante Korrelation. Zur weiteren Analyse der erzielten Modellierungsergebnisse und zum Vergleich der räumlichen Muster wurden Kappa-Statistiken herangezogen. Die Arbeit sieht sich als Beitrag zum Vision 2030 Diskurs der kenianischen Regierung. Die simulierten Szenarien der Siedlungsflächenausdehnung von Nairobi und Nakuru identifizieren die für eine Urbanisierung wahrscheinlich in Frage kommenden Regionen. Die Studie zeigt zudem, dass sich die Siedlungsflächenausdehnung von Nairobi und Nakuru schnell und mit hohen Wachstumsraten vollzieht. Der Einsatz von CA Modellen ist ein wertvoller Ansatz zur regionalen Modellierung nicht nur von kenianischen sondern auch von afrikanischen Städten. Die Arbeit kann somit Entscheidungsträger aus Politik und Verwaltung unterstützen, indem sie die räumlichen Auswirkungen des zukünftigen Ausbaus der Infrastruktur und von Wohnflächen aufzeigt. Eine umfassende Planung von Landnutzungswandel und ein integriertes Management sind essentiell auf dem Weg zu einem bewussteren Umgang mit der Ressource Land sowie zu einer sozialen Gleichheit, wirtschaftlichen Effizienz und einer ökologischen Nachhaltigkeit.
The Swedish public sector has undergone major changes over the last decades, with increased demands to be effective and perform their tasks with high quality, but also with the demand to increase the influence of users and citizens over the support given. This development has influenced how social services organise and how their work is perform, and is one motive given as to why evidence-based practice was introduced. This development can also be traced back to the manager philosophy new public management and neo-liberalism. Evidence-based practice has its origin in evidence-based medicine, which had a large impact internationally from the 1990s.Although there are different opinions concerning how evidence-based practiceshould be understood is often described on the basis of Sackett et al.'s (2000) definition which regards evidence-based practice as an integration of different knowledge sources – the best evidence, clinical or professional expertise and the values and preferences of users. The professional have the responsibility to use all these knowledge sources in the daily work.The purpose of this thesis is to describe and analyse different processes of the introduction of evidence-based practice. One aspect is what these processes have contributed to in terms of organising ways of working and management within social services; another aspect concerns what this means for social work. With a combination of new institutional organisational theory and Berger and Luckmann's (1967) insights into the social construction of everyday life, it is possible to analyse the introduction of evidence-based practice as a process, moving between a macro, meso and micro perspective. The empirical base for this thesis is interviews with 33 personnel from different professions and organisations. Those interviewed from thesocial services include social workers within individual and family services and socialservices managers, as well as regional representatives from a Research and Development Unit. To understand the development of evidence-based practice and its proliferation into social services I also interviewed doctors from health care in a County Council.New institutional organisational theory is useful for understanding how differentways of organising activities are spread between and within organisations. With concepts used in new institutional theory, the focus is on how evidence-based practice travels from medicine to social work, and from a national level to the local social services level, via the regional level. Giddens (1990) terms 'disemedding' and 'reembedding' are used. Different isomorphic processes are recognised in these processes, as well as strategies to decouple or loosely couple evidence-based practice from social services ordinary activities as a way to gain legitimacy. The main findings in the thesis are that evidence-based practice has been introduced with evidence-based medicine as a role model, and that this has been done from different conditions. As is described in the interviews, the development of evidencebased practice has been controlled from national organisations such as the government, the National Board of Health and Welfare and in recent years also the Swedish Association of Local Authorities and Region, while the development within the medical area was governed by national organisations but performed by the medical profession, which advocated the introduction of evidence-based practice within the profession. The regional representatives largely support the myth that is presented of evidence-based practice, and have a central responsibility in the national initiativesconducted; they are intermediary between the national initiatives on development work and the local practice. When evidence-based practice is introduced in social work this has entailed loosely coupling between the myth about evidence-based practice and the ordinary activities, this strategy is especially obvious among social services managers. Furthermore, when a medical model of evidence-based practice is used, although with a broader approach, the introduction of evidence-based practice does not reflect the social workers' education, profession and ways of working in the same way as evidence-based medicine reflects the doctors' education, profession andway of working. The intention to analyse the introduction of evidence-based practice from a micro perspective is about understanding how evidence-based practice is received by the social worker and their managers. When the interviews with the doctors, social workers and managers are analysed there is less coherence between evidence-based practice and social workers' work than between evidence-based medicine and doctors' work. This means that social workers have to shape and construct their daily work anew through internalising the new habits and routines into everyday work, something that takes energy and time, which most interviewees feel does not exist.This thesis also highlights the need for social work to approach evidence-based practice both at an organisational and a structural level, and from the level where the daily work is performed by social workers. Finally, there exists among almost all interviewees a great interest in introducing evidence-based practice, especially among the social workers, but at the moment it is not re-embedded in social work. ; Godkänd; 2014; 20140731 (beneli); Nedanstående person kommer att disputera för avläggande av filosofie doktorsexamen. Namn: Benitha Eliasson Ämne: Arbetsvetenskap/Human Work Science Avhandling: Social Work Approaching Evidence-Based Practice Rethinking Social Work Opponent: Professor of Health Care Organisation Mike Dent, Faculty of Health Sciences, Staffordshire University, Storbritannien Ordförande: Professor Elisabeth Berg, Avd för arbetsvetenskap, Institutionen för ekonomi, teknik och samhälle, Luleå tekniska universitet Tid: Måndag den 29 september 2014, kl 13.00 Plats: A109, Luleå tekniska universitet
Uno de los países menos discutidos del continente tiene sus elecciones el próximo veinte de abril. Dados los enormes desafíos políticos y económicos que enfrenta desde hace décadas, estas elecciones son una excelente oportunidad para que Paraguay comience un proceso de crecimiento sostenido.El país guaraní ha tenido un desarrollo político altamente deficitario durante el siglo XX. El personaje que domina el panorama del siglo es Alfredo Stroessner, General que gobernó con mano de hierro entre 1954 y 1989. Una dictadura unipersonal de semejante longitud, conocida en América Latina solamente en Cuba, Nicaragua y República Dominicana, le legó al país una cultura democrática débil, cuando no golpeada o ignorada.Prueba de ello es que durante la década pasada, período en el que se afianzaron notablemente las democracias en países latinoamericanos como Chile, Uruguay, Brasil y tantos otros, Paraguay conoció solo breves intervalos democráticos. Los pocos que hubo siempre fueron amenazados por intentos de golpes de Estado, estados de sitio y, en general, coyunturas políticas irregulares.Un problema aún mayor es la economía, que languidece en contraste con la prosperidad que el país conoció en el siglo XIX. El desempleo llega hoy a un 16%, y la mejor manera de salir del estancamiento económico –un proceso de liberalización económica razonablemente orientado- permanece lejana. Según el Index of Economic Freedom de la Heritage Foundation y el Wall Street Journal, Paraguay tiene una economía 60,5% libre, lo cual lo ubica en el puesto 77. En contraste, Uruguay obtiene un 68,1%, lo cual lo deja en el puesto 40. Entre los principales problemas de la economía paraguaya se encuentra la vigencia de una legislación hostil al espíritu empresarial (por su regulación excesiva del mercado laboral), la falta de acceso al comercio mundial por la intransigencia del MERCOSUR y la inexistencia de un Estado de derecho completo que garantice los derechos de propiedad. Sin embargo, el mayor mal por el que se conoce al Paraguay es la corrupción, problema que, de hecho, se encuentra fuera de control. Ante una situación de semejante gravedad, las propuestas que ofrece en esta elección el mundo de la política no son muy alentadoras.El candidato que más ha llamado la atención ante la población y en los medios es Fernando Lugo, un obispo que renunció a su cargo para lanzarse de lleno a la política. Naturalmente, Lugo proviene de la vieja "Teología de la liberación", que no era más que un invento únicamente latinoamericano: una suerte de fusión del discurso comunista con determinada lectura del cristianismo que, en su momento, tuvo como uno de sus protagonistas al Obispo de Olinda y Recife, Don Helder Cámara. Esa reinterpretación del cristianismo como un discurso revolucionario anticapitalista fue muy popular durante la Guerra Fría.Aunque últimamente desapareció de las universidades y los mitines sindicales, la Teología de liberación tiene un natural en Hugo Chávez, quien se proyecta como el padrino de Lugo. Si éste ganase, no resultaría sorprendente que Paraguay se encaminase a ser el más reciente satélite de Venezuela, después de Nicaragua, Ecuador, Bolivia y, por momentos, el gobierno de Argentina.Un segundo candidato que plantea fuertes dudas es Lino Oviedo – el protagonista de buena parte del caos de la década pasada que se mencionó previamente. El hecho de que se postule como el candidato de la ética y la reforma moral del Estado sólo hace más llamativa su audacia. Basta con recordar que Oviedo desafió a la democracia paraguaya en uno de sus mejores momentos del siglo, y que se manifiesta seguidor de Juan Perón como gran ejemplo político.Quizá quien se presenta como mayor oposición a Lugo es la candidata del Partido Colorado, Blanca Ovelar. Más allá de la obligatoria mención de que se trata de la primera mujer candidata a la Presidencia , Ovelar destaca precisamente por ser un producto de su partido. Aunque fue Ministra de Educación en el gobierno anterior, no es una persona de notoria trayectoria nacional con perfil de candidata presidencial. Vale la pena recordar que este partido ha gobernado a Paraguay durante extensos períodos de su historia, en ocasiones con rasgos autoritarios – y que constituye una máquina política más grande que un simple partido. Durante el período 1947-1962 se constituyó en el único legal, mientras que durante la era Stroessner funcionó como apoyo del régimen dictatorial.La misión de Ovelar es vencer a Lugo a cualquier precio, lo que fue indicado con guiños por el actual presidente, Nicanor Duarte, en desafortunadas declaraciones a la prensa. El candidato restante, Pedro Fadul –de trasfondo empresarial- tiene un porcentaje en las encuestas demasiado bajo para disputar el primer lugar.Es realmente aventurado considerar que alguno de los candidatos recién reseñados pueda proveer soluciones desde el Estado que solucionen los problemas de económicos, sociales y políticos que tiene su país. El hecho aislado de que se organicen elecciones libes y que éstas pasen de ser esporádicas a ser regulares es de, por si, un elemento positivo. Una transición ordenada del poder, elemento básico de la democracia, ayudaría a Paraguay a solidificar esa forma de gobierno. Más allá de ese hecho procedimental, resultan particularmente llamativas las formas de concebir la política por parte de los principales candidatos: sus discursos, sus promesas, sus perfiles parecen constituir un síntoma más del preocupante retorno del discurso populista a la región. Lic. en Estudios Internacionales. Universidad ORT - Uruguay
The following contains general information about some important issues concerning habitat fragmentation due to linear infrastructure and measures taken to counteract this phenomenon. COST 341 At the International Conference on Ecology and Transportation (ICOET) 2003, I presented an overview of COST 341. This European action, ordered by the European Union (EU), was initiated by the Infra Eco Network of Europe (IENE). The action concluded in November 2003 with a well-attended international conference in Brussels. At this conference, we appreciated it very much that several ICOET representatives attended. As the official chairman of the conference, I gave a piece of the jigsaw to Mary Gray to remind the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) to continue with the subject and to use the information. At the conference, the products of the COST 341 action were presented. These products include the European Review, the handbook, the national state-of-the-art-reports, and the database. The Handbook of Cost 341 was translated to national versions for several countries. In each version of the handbook, specific, nationally oriented comments and questions were added. This was done in the Czech Republic, France, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, and Switzerland. In several of the 18 connected countries inside the action, the national working groups still exist as groups of well-informed people concerned about habitat fragmentation due to linear infrastructure. Also very important is that the network of people at the international level is still vital. When there is a need for information, a second opinion, or advice, a COST 341 colleague is willing to give assistance. This is only possible because there is a network of capable and involved people. The information gathered in COST 341 was the basis of several contributions at conferences concerning environmental issues in general or habitat fragmentation specifically. At the World Road Association (PIARC) 2003 World Congress in Durban, the results of COST 341 were presented as well. Habitat fragmentation now is included in the work of PIARC in Technical Committee (TC) 2.1, Sustainable development and road transport. I am responsible for the action mitigation of the environmental impact of road transport, one of several actions under this TC. This technical committee sent out a questionnaire to contacts all over the world, and we will hope to have enough feedback to produce some practical recommendations on how to handle fragmentation in our report to the next World Congress in Paris 2007. At conferences in France, Italy, the Netherlands, and Poland this information was given to other people for use in other situations. Some general developments with big impact in Europe Previously, there were several EU directives concerning environmental issues around transport. Four of note include: the Habitat and Bird Directive, Soil Directive, Noise Directive, and Air Quality Directive. These directives must be implemented in the national legislation of each country that signed such a directive. These EU directives have a big influence on policy and legal aspects concerning nature protection and environmental issues along roads and rail lines. For example, the Air Quality Directive, which is already implemented in Dutch legislation, was enforced in this year and caused reconstruction plans to be stopped. A Dutch high court decided that the expected pollution levels would be too high. That means that the reconstruction was postponed until the expected impact has been measurably decreased. This court decision gave an enormous push to the research and measures involving air pollution due to traffic. Since 2004, there have been 10 new member nations added to the EU. The bilateral contacts intensified rapidly. There is an enormous increase of travel and cargo trade to and from these countries. And with this increasing amount of movement, there is a big need for new motorways and improvement of roads. This urgent need demands knowledge and for a new set of cooperation tools. These new countries must fulfill the regulations for road-building activities ordered by the EU directives. That is an important reason for several bilateral contacts, projects, and programs to exchange knowledge and information. So at this moment (September 2005), there is a conference in Poland where the 10 new EU countries are discussing the possibilities and tools for environmental impact assessments and strategic environmental assessments. Chapter 1 20 ICOET 2005 Proceedings Some developments in the Netherlands In the new handbook (Leidraad aunavoorzieningen; see http://www.rwsnatuurenlandschap.nl), there is a lot of information about approaches, procedures, and ideas for defragmentation measures. The Long-Term Defragmentation Program has been launched and has been accepted by Parliament. In this program three ministries (Agriculture, Nature Protection and Food; Transport, Public Works and Water Management; Spatial Planning and Housing) give their intentions, including work schemes and money to counteract fragmentation due to national infrastructure (motorways, canals, and rail). This program is to solve the problems in the ecological main structure, including the robust zones inside that main structure. The approach in this long-term program is areaoriented, integrated, and based on cooperation between involved parties in the region. Biographical Sketch: Hans Bekker graduated from the Agricultural University of Wageningen as an engineer. He works at the Road and Hydraulic Engineering Institute (DWW), an inside advisory unit of the Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management in the Netherlands. Bekker is a program leader working mainly with wildlife, roads, and traffic. He functions as a bridge between civil engineers and ecologists. He was chair of the European project COST 341: Habitat Fragmentation due to Transport Infrastructure. He is program leader for the Dutch Long-Term Defragmentation Program. He is a member of the steering committee of the International Conference on Ecology and Transportation (ICOET), where he represents the Infra Eco Network Europe (IENE).
Grace Palacio Arceneaux, a Mexican-American resident of Watsonville, California, was interviewed in 1977 by Meri Knaster, an editor at the Regional History Project, as part of a series of oral histories documenting local agricultural and ethnic history. Arceneaux was born in San Martin de Bolaños, Jalisco, Mexico, in March 1920. She came with her family to San Juan Bautista, California, in 1923 during the havoc of the Mexican Revolution. The family lived on a little ranch and eked out a living farming and doing field work. Her mother died in childbirth when she was a young girl, and shortly thereafter her father died, leaving Arceneaux to care for her nine brothers and sisters. As she said, she always had a child to carry on her hip, wherever she went. Not only did her parents not speak English, they did not want it spoken in the house; Arceneaux and her siblings translated for their parents, for their father's business deals and jobs. She attended school through the fifth grade and returned to school many years later, when she was in her forties, to obtain her high school diploma at Watsonville night school, and earned a degree at Cabrillo College. Knaster wrote in her notes of these interviews: "All those years of no schooling are not manifested in either her manner of speaking or vocabulary-- she's a very articulate woman." After her father died, Arceneaux hired out her family as a unit, working in the fields around San Juan Bautista whenever possible, and doing whatever else was available, keeping the county from separating her siblings and putting them in foster homes. Because of serious, recurring bouts of tuberculosis, she spent several years in sanitariums and was no longer able to do fieldwork due to the permanent damage to her health. Her narrative is rich in recollections of local history, of the Mexican and Filipino communities and their customs and inter-relationships. She was married at one time to a Filipino farmworker and so became a member of that community, as well. She also discusses the life of field workers, harvesting garlic and various other crops, and the role of labor contractors in agriculture. The period she spent among Filipinos is rich with details about a side of Watsonville life that is not well documented-- Chinatown, gambling, and prostitution. Her spirit of grit and determination shines through her descriptions of chronic hard times and poverty as she worked unremittingly to raise her siblings and to make a life for herself. Her life story shows how she made the transition from illegal immigrant farmworker to middle-class social activist. She speaks movingly of her marriages, work life, her precarious financial situation, and the importance of her Catholicism, as she her evolved from an unquestioning Catholic into her own self-defined understanding of her religion as it embraced activism and equality. As a mature woman she returned to school, and discovered the world of books and ideas, and gained confidence in her abilities to speak and think critically about the condition of her community, and its political and cultural marginalization. This in turn led to her involvement in community issues during which she became one of the first Mexican-American women in the Pajaro Valley to fight for bilingual education, outreach services for poor women, victims of domestic violence, and those seeking to gain educations for themselves. Knaster noted many small, telling details of Arceneaux's life when she interviewed her in her home in Watsonville. She wrote: "there is a nice back yard, where she hung laundry on her clothesline after one interview. We met in the kitchen, a remodeled expanded, large room, with a view of the yard through sliding glass doors, a room full of light, spacious. Grace always kept her hands busy-- she's one of those women whose work is never done because she does so much and is so industrious, never wasting a moment. She would wash and dry the dishes, pair socks that she had removed from the dryer or fold cloth napkins. Another time she worked on a quilt she had gotten from someone who had died. It was too big for their bed so she removed the trim and sewed as we talked." Knaster noted that in the background of the tape recordings you can often hear a tea kettle whistling, or water running as she washes dishes, as Grace's voice moves back and forth according to the activity she is engaged in. Sometimes she would get up from the kitchen table to demonstrate something-- how she used to work in the garlic fields, or how she would carry a little brother or sister on her hip. She would unabashedly let tears flow when relating especially emotional episodes in her life, lifting up her glasses as she wiped away the tears. Knaster characterized Arceneaux as a wonderfully warm, sharing, open person, and extremely informative as well. Despite the hardships in her life, her narration is not bitter or resentful. As her conversation reveals, she has a realistic understanding of ethnic and gender discrimination as it is manifest in the Mexican, Anglo, and Filipino communities, having experienced them herself as a single woman, a Mexican, and later as the wife of a Filipino with a Filipino/Mexican child. Her observations of ethnic and class distinctions in the agricultural communities of San Juan Bautista and Watsonville are a real contribution to the social history of this region.
Much work has been done analyzing the determinants of health care expenditures. Much less effort has been devoted to analyzing the determinants of health itself. The focus of the analysis presented here is the production of health, with special attention paid to disaggregating health into pharmaceuticals and other health care. We also analyze the effects that wealth and certain lifestyle factors have on health. Researchers who have analyzed the determinants of health across geographic units have found certain striking and consistent results. First, basic public health services, in the form of potable water and sanitation services, provide the biggest payoffs in decreased mortality for all age groups. Second, the expansion of health care services does not improve mortality to anywhere near the extent that public health infrastructure development does, if at all. Some researchers have even found positive relationships between some health care inputs and mortality. The results on income and wealth have been more mixed. In studies which have analyzed developing countries, researchers have found that higher incomes are negatively related to mortality. Other researchers have found exactly the opposite result when they have limited their samples to rich countries and/or regions thereof. Many researchers have also found that lifestyle factors such as nutrition, and cigarette and alcohol consumption, are important determinants of health. Very few studies have estimated the effects of pharmaceutical consumption on mortality rates either directly or indirectly. The studies which have dealt with this directly in an international comparison context have had serious flaws. Some micro studies and many studies of restricted formularies in the United States Medicaid program have provided indirect evidence that pharmaceutical consumption has a positive impact on health. To investigate whether such an effect could be found in an analysis of international data, we analyze a sample consisting of 21 OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) countries as of the early 1990s. We convert pharmaceutical and total health care expenditures to U.S. dollars using purchasing power parity exchange rates for pharmaceuticals and health care, respectively. The purchasing power parities were provided by the OECD. Although other conversions are available for a limited number of countries, the measures of pharmaceutical and other health care consumption used here are the best available for a large number of OECD countries. We measure each country's health crudely, but objectively, using life expectancies at birth, at age 40, and at age 60, along with infant mortality. The analysis consists of various multivariate regressions in which we estimate production functions for health. A functional form is used that allows for diminishing returns in each of the inputs in the production functions. The explanatory variables in each regression include pharmaceutical consumption, other health care consumption, gross domestic product, alcohol consumption, cigarette consumption, and richness of diet. In our analysis, we find that pharmaceutical consumption has a positive and significant (both statistically and economically) effect on remaining life expectancy at age 40 and at age 60. It has a small, positive and statistically insignificant effect on life expectancy at birth. The elasticities of pharmaceutical consumption on life expectancy are roughly 0.017 at age 40 and 0.040 at age 60. The estimates are also quite robust to small changes. In a sample comprised of only the 16 European countries for which complete data were available, these elasticities were higher (0.023 for age forty and 0.050 for age sixty) and pharmaceutical consumption even had a small positive significant effect on life expectancy at birth. Pharmaceutical consumption appears to have no significant effect on infant mortality, although it appears that, controlling for lifestyle factors, increased pharmaceutical consumption may even be related to slightly increased infant mortality. Unfortunately, the infant mortality model is not robust to small changes, which does not inspire much confidence. We also find that gross domestic product has a positive and significant effect on life expectancies at the ages of 40 and 60, although this effect is not present in the European-only sample. The results from the infant mortality regressions are mixed. It also appears that non-pharmaceutical health care consumption has no measurable effect on life expectancy, either at birth, at age 40, or at age 60. However, in one specification, we find that it has a negative effect on infant mortality. Again, where infant mortality is concerned, the results are mixed and not robust. The lifestyle variable with the biggest effect on health is dietary richness, measured by the consumption of animal fat. Increased richness of diet improves mortality up to a point but the impact becomes negative as a diet becomes very rich. This result is consistent with the idea of the epidemiological transition: the idea that at low nutritional levels, enriching a diet allows one to better fight off infections, but that at high nutritional levels, enriching a diet leads to a greater incidence of degenerative diseases such as cancer and heart disease. This result is slightly surprising. One might have thought that the OECD countries were wealthy enough that nutrition, in this basic sense, would not be an issue. We believe that this study will add to the debate over how OECD governments should allocate resources both among different health care goods and services and between health care and other goods and services. It improves on much of the existing literature in that it uses better measures of pharmaceutical and other health care consumption and uses a functional form that allows for diminishing returns. The results have been surprising, but they have also been fairly robust in the life expectancy models. The final conclusion is that increased pharmaceutical consumption helps improve mortality outcomes, especially for those at middle age and beyond.
Die Verteilung der staatlichen Mittel zur Finanzierung von Sozialleistungen ist besonders wichtig in Sub-Sahara Afrika, da die immer noch hohen Armutsraten dazu führen, dass private Anbieter für einen großen Teil der Bevölkerung nicht bezahlbar sind. Zusätzlich stehen kurzfristigen Sozialausgaben dabei auch in Konkurrenz zu Investitionen die langfristig das Wachstum verbessern. Dennoch sind Analysen und das Verstehen landwirtschaftlicher Produktivitätseffekte durch staatlich bereitgestellte Sozialleistungen stark begrenzt durch Datenprobleme und die Notwendigkeit, für eine Vielzahl von damit verbundenen Faktoren zu kontrollieren. Da speziell im ruralen Raum der landwirtschaftliche Sektor eine wichtige Einkommensquelle darstellt, ist es wichtig, dass die Wirkungen der staatlichen Ausgaben für Sozialleistungen auf die landwirtschaftliche Produktivität besser verstanden werden. Die Mittelverteilung kann dabei nicht nur kurzfristige Bedürfnisse im Bereich Gesundheit und Bildung erfüllen, sondern auch zu langfristigem Wachstum führen. Trotz der begrenzten Datenverfügbarkeit, wurden schon in der Vergangenheit Analysen zur Rolle von Staatsausgaben für die rurale Armut durchgeführt. Oft sind diese begrenzt auf einen Sektor, beziehen alle ruralen Einkommen ein und fokussieren sich nicht auf die landwirtschaftliche Produktivität. Zusätzlich, werden oft homogene Produktionstechnologien vorausgesetzt und klimatische Unterschiede, die die Produktion beeinflussen, werden nicht beachtet. Auf diesen früheren Untersuchungen aufbauend, untersuchen wir verschiedene Sektoren und lassen eine Heterogenität der zugrundeliegenden sozio-ökonomischen und klimatischen Umwelt zu. Diese Studie schätzt erst den Einfluss von Staatsausgaben auf die landwirtschaftliche Produktivität länderübergreifend in Sub-Sahara Afrika. Danach ist nur Tansania im Fokus der Analyse zur Wirkung von Sozialleistungen auf die landwirtschaftliche Produktivität. Weiterhin wird in der abschließenden Untersuchung, die sich auch ausschließlich auf Tansania bezieht, der Einfluss der Wasserversorgung der Haushalte auf die landwirtschaftliche Produktivität analysiert. Um den Einfluss der Staatsausgaben auf die landwirtschaftliche Produktivität zu schätzen, werden im ersten Teil der Analyse bestehende Haushaltsdaten für Sub-Sahara Afrika im Rahmen einer länderübergreifenden Regression untersucht. Es werden verschiedene analytische Möglichkeiten und außerdem ein neu zusammengesetzter Datensatz zu jährlichem Niederschlag auf dem Land genutzt. Obwohl Datenrestriktionen die Analyse und die möglichen Rückschlüsse aus dieser beträchtlich einschränken, wird eine Effizienzanalyse für die Länder in Sub-Sahara Afrika durchgeführt, in der Gesundheits- und Bildungsresultate die Indikatoren für die Verfügbarkeit von Sozialleistungen sind. Es wird außerdem ein Strukturgleichungsmodell mit latenten Variablen für eine Teilgruppe von Ländern implementiert, wo sowohl für länderspezifische Heterogenität kontrolliert wird als auch eine direktere Schätzung der Rolle der staatlichen Sozialleistungsausgaben durchgeführt wird, die verschiedene Sektoren abdeckt. Generell, unterstützen die Ergebnisse die Hypothese, dass Staatsausgaben für Leistungen gerade im Bereich Gesundheit und Bildung die Produktivität der Inputs und die Effizienz in der Landwirtschaft beeinflussen. Länderspezifische Heterogenität und Variablen, die mit dem Klima zusammenhängen, sind wichtige Faktoren für die landwirtschaftliche Produktion in Sub-Sahara Afrika, die in solchen Schätzungen nicht vernachlässigt werden sollten. In den verbleibenden Teilen konzentriert sich die Analyse auf Tansania im Speziellen. Es werden die Effekte von Gesundheits- und Bildungsausgaben auf Distriktebene auf die Grenzproduktivitäten von landwirtschaftlichen Inputs und die gesamten Produktion untersucht. Die Ergebnisse des Strukturgleichungsmodels mit latenter Variable bestätigen die signifikante Wirkung von staatlichen Sozialausgaben für die Humankapitalbildung, gemessen mit Gesundheits- und Bildungsindikatoren. Die Ergebnisse zeigen auch Effekte von Gesundheits- und Bildungsresultaten auf die landwirtschaftliche Produktivität. Die Grenzproduktivität der Inputs, besonders Arbeit, reagiert signifikant und positiv auf Gesundheits- und Bildungserfolg, speziell wenn Gesundheit und Bildung gleichzeitig betrachtet werden. Die Einflüsse scheinen auch von der Wahl des Gesundheitsindikators abhängig zu sein, wobei kurzfristige Gesundheitsfaktoren wie Malaria und Durchfall die Produktivität von Saatgut und Dünger beeinflussen. In Gegensatz dazu haben langfristige Gesundheitsprobleme (z.B. chronische Krankheiten) scheinbar einen größeren Einfluss auf Arbeitsqualität und Landproduktivität. Die Ergebnisse weisen darauf hin, dass es ein Mindestniveau von Pro-Kopf-Ausgaben gibt, um zu einem Einfluss auf Bildung und Gesundheit zu führen. Es wird bestätigt, dass es wichtig ist, sowohl die Heterogenität innerhalb eines Landes als auch die klimatischen Besonderheiten mit einzubeziehen. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass der jährliche Niederschlag einen signifikanten Einfluss auf die Produktion in allen Modelspezifikationen hat. Für den letzten Teil dieser Studie, konzentrieren wir uns auf den Wassersektor in Tansania, angesichts der Tatsache, dass öffentliche Ausgaben in diesem Sektor sehr begrenzt sind. Für diese Analyse nutzen wir Primärdaten auf Haushaltsebene, die in vier Regionen Tansanias gesammelt wurden, um den Einfluss von Zugang zu Trinkwasser auf die Produktivität des Haushalts in der Landwirtschaft zu untersuchen. Wie in den meisten Regionen von Sub-Sahara Afrika sind auch im ländlichen Tansania die Verfügbarkeit von Wasser und die Qualität des Trinkwassers wichtige Determinanten für den Gesundheitszustand der Bevölkerung. Obwohl Wasser im Zentrum der armutsreduzierenden Bemühungen steht, wurde die Zeit, die für das Wasserholen benötigt wird, in vielen Studien zu Produktivität und Einkommen vernachlässigt. Mit einem Produktionsfunktionsansatz schätzen wir den Einfluss von der für das Wasserholen benötigten Zeit auf die Verfügbarkeit und Produktivität von landwirtschaftlicher Arbeitskraft, und die Erträge. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass zusätzliche Zeit, die fürs Wasserholen benötigt wird, signifikant die Arbeitsproduktivität des Haushalts und die Erträge verringert, wenn die Haushalte mehr als den Median (20 Minuten) zum Wasserholen benötigen. In diesen Haushalten hat die Zeit, die fuer das Wasserholen benötigt wird, augenscheinlich einen größeren Einfluss auf die Arbeitsproduktivität als die Qualität des Wassers selbst. Dieser Effekt bleibt auch bestehen, wenn für Heterogenität zwischen Haushalten, Anbaupflanzen und Distrikte kontrolliert wird. Die relative Wichtigkeit anderer produktiver Inputs verändert sich auch, umso höher die Zeit ist, die für das Wasserholen benötigt wird. Folglich ist es wichtig, die Zeit für das Wasserholen zu beachten, wenn ländliche Entwicklungsprojekte geplant werden. Insgesamt hat diese Studie hervorgehoben, dass Einschränkungen wegen Datenproblemen und aus anderen Gründen, die Wirkungsanalyse von öffentlichen Ausgaben auf die landwirtschaftliche Produktivität behindern können. Damit Regierungen ihre beschränkten Mittel effizient und gezielt einsetzen, ist es notwendig ein vollständigeres Verständnis für die direkten und indirekten Effekte zu haben, die Staatsausgaben auf die Entscheidungen der Landwirte haben und welche Einschränkungen existieren. Daten sollten zwischen verschiedenen Akteuren geteilt werden und Ministerien eng zusammenarbeiten, damit gemeinsame Ziele erreicht werden, die zu langfristigem Wachstum führen und gleichzeitig wichtige unmittelbare soziale Bedürfnisse erfüllen. Unsere Ergebnisse machen deutlich, dass Sozialausgaben in unseren Daten positive Wirkungen auf die landwirtschaftliche Produktivität haben. Diese Wirkungen müssen weiter untersucht werden, um hilfreiche Entscheidungshilfen für die zukünftige Mittelvergabe zu liefern. Zusätzlich zur Verdeutlichung des weiteren Forschungsbedarfs hat diese Untersuchung auch politische Implikationen. Sie zeigt die Wichtigkeit eines Mindestniveaus von staatlichen Ausgaben, damit der Gesundheitszustand und die Bildung beeinflusst werden können. Außerdem ist es auch wichtig kontextspezifische Bedürfnisse zu beachten, angesichts der Heterogenität zwischen Ländern oder sogar innerhalb von Ländern zu beachten. Zusätzlich ist in dieser Untersuchung die Wichtigkeit von wasserbedingten Beschränkungen (Regen und der Zugang zu Wasser) verdeutlicht worden. Der Zugang zu Wasser muss somit weiter in den Fokus rücken und Maßnahmen finanziert werden, die diese Probleme reduzieren können. ; In sub-Saharan Africa, public resource allocation in social service sectors can be particular important in that low levels of development can make private services inaccessible for much of the population. In addition, short-term social services needs often compete with longer-term growth enhancing investments for limited government funds. However, the analysis and understanding of the agricultural productivity effects from the provision of social services has been severely limited by data constraints and the need to control for a variety of related factors. Given the importance of agriculture for rural incomes, a better understanding of the effects on agricultural productivity from the provision of a variety of social services is important for allocating spending that will not only support short-term needs but also longer-term growth in rural areas. Despite the limited data availability, previous analyses have been conducted regarding the role of public expenditures on rural poverty. Often, this is limited to one sector or overall rural incomes rather than agricultural productivity. In addition, these analyses often assume homogeneous production technology and do not account for climatic variations driving production. Expanding on the work that has been done previously, we analyze multiple expenditure sectors, allowing heterogeneity in the underlying socio-economic and agro-climatic environment. This research estimates the impact of public expenditures on agricultural productivity across countries of sub-Saharan Africa and then, specifically in the case of Tanzania. Furthermore, given the limited funding available for the water sector in Tanzania, it looks specifically at water constraints at the household level and how this may constrain agricultural productivity. In an effort to estimate the impacts of public expenditures on agricultural productivity, the first part of the analysis explores the existing data for sub-Saharan Africa, using a cross-country regression framework. It exploits multiple analytical options while including a newly-compiled dataset on annual precipitation for agricultural land. While our conclusions are substantially limited by the data constraints, this analysis conducts an efficiency analysis for the group of sub-Saharan African countries using health and educational outcomes as indicators of social service availability. It also implements a latent variable structural equation framework for a subset of countries, allowing not only for country-specific heterogeneity but also more direct estimation of the role of social service expenditures covering multiple sectors. Overall, the results provide evidence that public service expenditures (especially on health and education) can influence input productivity and efficiency in agriculture. Country-specific heterogeneity and climate-related variables appear to be a significant consideration for agricultural production in sub-Saharan Africa that should not be ignored. In the remaining sections, we focus on Tanzania in particular. We begin with an investigation of the impacts of district-level health and education expenditures on marginal productivities of agricultural inputs and overall production. The results of our latent variable, covariance structural model confirm the significance of government social expenditures in human capital formation as measured through health and education indicators. The results also show the effects of these health and educational outcomes on agricultural productivity. We find that the marginal productivities of inputs (labor in particular) respond significantly and positively to health and education outcomes, especially when health and education are considered jointly. The impacts also seem to be a function of the type of health constraint, with short-term health factors such as malaria and diarrhea impacting productivity of seeds and fertilizer. In contrast, longer-term health problems (i.e., chronic diseases) appear to have greater impacts on labor quality and land productivity. The results also suggest that there is a minimum level of expenditures per capita needed to see an impact on educational or health outcomes. The results confirm the importance of considering intra-country heterogeneity as well as climate-related constraints, as the results demonstrate that annual precipitation has a significant impact on production for all specifications. For the final part of the research, we focus on the water sector in Tanzania, given that public spending in this sector is very limited. For this analysis, we rely upon primary household survey data collected in four regions of Tanzania to investigate the impact of drinking water access on agricultural productivity at the household level. As in many parts of sub-Saharan Africa, a lack of sufficient and safe drinking water is a health constraint in rural Tanzania. Although the water sector has been prioritized in poverty-reduction efforts, water collection time has been overlooked in many studies addressing productivity and incomes. Using a production function approach, we estimate the impact of drinking water collection times on agricultural labor availability, labor productivity, and yields. The results show that additional time required to access drinking water significantly reduces household labor productivity and yields for households that have to spend more than the median time (20 minutes) collecting water. In these households, the time needed to collect water appears to serve as a more significant constraint to labor productivity than the quality of the water at the source. This effect remains consistent even after controlling for heterogeneity among households, crop diversity, and districts. The relative importance of other productive inputs also changes with increased time needed for water collection. Our results support further consideration of the time required for water collection when planning rural development initiatives. Overall, this research has highlighted the important data limitations and the confounding constraints that can hinder analysis of the impacts of public expenditures on agricultural productivity. In order for governments to efficiently target limited funds, a more comprehensive understanding of the direct and indirect impacts of these expenditures on farm-level decisions and constraints will be necessary. Further data sharing among agencies and working across ministries is needed in order to o meet common goals for long-term growth while addressing more immediate social needs. The findings here suggest that social expenditures can also positively impact agricultural productivity and these impacts should be further explored in making funding decisions. In addition to emphasizing the need for additional data, this research has other important policy implications. It points to the importance of providing sufficient levels of expenditures in order to influence health and education outcomes and the importance of recognizing context-specific needs given the heterogeneity between countries even within a country. In addition, this research has provided strong evidence of the importance of water-related constraints (both precipitation and household access to water) that seem to support not only consideration of these constraints but also funding of measures that may reduce vulnerability.
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With the world's eyes understandably focused on the carnage in the Gaza Strip, violent manifestations of the Israel-Palestinian conflict in the Israeli-occupied West Bank have been getting even less attention than they normally get, and less than they deserve. Amid concerns about possible spreading of the current war in Gaza, spreading already has begun in the West Bank, with the potential there of stimulating still more spread.Casualties have spiked in the West Bank since the Hamas attack on October 7. More than 100 Palestinians, including civilians, have been killed there.Most of the casualties have been incurred as part of accelerated operations in the West Bank by the Israeli Defense Forces (IDF), in the form of raids, mass arrests, and crackdowns on protests. The stepped-up Israeli use of force has even included an airstrike on a mosque in a refugee camp in the city of Jenin — a rarity in the West Bank, where the Israelis usually rely on ground forces.Additional violence has come at the hands of Israeli settlers — some of the 670,000 Israelis whose residence in the occupied West Bank and East Jerusalem is widely recognized as a violation of international law. The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs recorded in just the first two weeks of the current crisis 100 attacks by Israeli settlers against Palestinian residents. The U.N. office noted that this represented an average of almost eight such incidents per day, up from a daily average of three incidents since the beginning of this year.The connection between this settler violence and the events this month in southern Israel and the Gaza Strip has two aspects. One is that Israeli anger over the Hamas attack and the blurring of such emotion into a general hatred of Palestinian Arabs has made the current moment even more of an open season on Palestinians than it was before. The second is that the current focus of attention on Gaza among the press, foreign governments, and the world generally has represented an opportunity for settlers to conduct violent and illegal business in the West Bank while drawing little notice. Mairav Zonszein, an Israel-based analyst with the International Crisis Group, notes that a difference between now and before is that the settler violence is occurring "without almost any media attention being paid to it."These developments are a continuation, in intensified form, of longer trends in the physical suffering of West Bank Palestinians. Many of the nearly 1,600 deaths of Palestinians at the hands of Israelis between 2015 (that is, since the last big Israeli attack on Gaza in 2014) and August of this year were in the West Bank. The violence accelerated in 2023, even before October 7. This year was already on pace to be the deadliest year for residents of the West Bank since the United Nations began keeping such records in 2005.The upsurge in Israeli violence in the West Bank clearly is related to the coming to power at the beginning of this year of an extreme right-wing Israeli government. Far from policing or discouraging the settler violence, the de facto Israeli response often has been to permit or condone it, with IDF soldiers standing aside or even participating in some of the violence. One of the most prominent of the extremists currently in power, minister of national security Itamar Ben-Gvir — himself a West Bank settler — promised to distribute as many as 10,000 free rifles to Israeli citizens, including West Bank settlers.All this is part of a longer-term process of one people, defined in ethnic and religious terms, subjugating another people similarly defined, and of the determination of successive Israeli governments to maintain Jewish Israeli supremacy over all the land between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. Part of the formula for doing this has been to cordon off some two million of the Arab residents into the Gaza Strip and to rely on blockades, periodic "mowing the grass " with military force, and an occasional misery-alleviating sop to keep those Arabs from interfering with Israeli ambitions. The Hamas attack, of course, shattered some of the assumptions underlying that strategy.The other part of the formula has been the piecemeal displacement of West Bank Palestinians from their land. Although much of the settler violence manifests simple hatred and bigotry, much of it is a more calculated effort to make life for Palestinian neighbors so miserable — or so uneconomic, given settler tactics such as vandalism of olive groves or denial of water and pastures needed by herded livestock — that those neighbors will give up and move. The accelerated anti-Palestinian settler activity this month has included much of this kind of intimidation. The Israeli human rights watchdog organization B'Tselem reported earlier this month that in the previous week, eight entire West Bank communities, numbering 472 people, had abandoned their homes out of fear for their lives and livelihoods.The current war, replete with Israeli orders for millions of Gaza residents to evacuate what the Israeli military has turned into a free-fire zone, has raised fears throughout the region of a new Nakba or catastrophe — another installment of the war in the 1940s that caused the mass displacement of longtime Palestinian residents from what became the state of Israel. The fears gained credibility from the leak of an Israeli government planning document that calls for forcibly transferring the population of the Gaza Strip to the Sinai. Perhaps the only thing preventing Israel from trying to implement such a plan is that the Egyptian government has multiple reasons to refuse to participate in any such scheme.That scheme was about Gaza, but West Bankers probably have the most to fear from any new mass displacements or ethnic cleansing. Gaza is the open-air prison, but the West Bank, with East Jerusalem, is the prize — the land that Israeli hardliners want for, and only for, their own people.The other dynamic that has made the West Bank increasingly become a powder keg since October 7 is the unsurprising increase in anger and resentment among the Palestinians who live there. Fear of a new Nakba is part of it. The casualties from increased settler violence and IDF use of military force are part of it. And so are the miseries in everyday life that have come from roadblocks and other obstructions to movement that the IDF has increased this month.Another big part of it is anger over the death and devastation that the Israeli assault on the Gaza Strip has imposed on the Palestinian brethren who live there. This is not a matter of support for Hamas. It is a matter of feeling the pain of co-nationals and of general outrage over the infliction of mass suffering.The chance of a new intifada, or popular uprising, in the West Bank, was already significant before this month and is now even higher. In the current atmosphere, a new intifada would likely be at least as violent as the last one. It would by itself represent a significant spread of the war in Gaza. And by making the entire Israeli-Palestinian conflict that much larger, it would increase the chance of further spread, such as by drawing in Lebanese Hezbollah.
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Tens of thousands protested in Morocco and Algeria in support of Palestinians amid the Israel-Gaza war. However, king Mohammed VI is walking a tightrope as he seeks to please Moroccan public opinion, the West and Israel which is his de facto ally. In north African countries the support offered by EU leaders for Israel's assault on Gaza and their apparent lack of concern for the consequences of the decades-old Israeli occupation of the West Bank and Gaza have reinforced a deeply conviction about the EU's double standards in the region. No violence has, so far, marred the demonstrations to express support for the Palestinian people which have taken place across North African countries in the aftermath of the attack of Hamas against Israel. That is the case in Tunisia where President Kais Saied has kept an uncharacteristically low profile. What is happening in Morocco is of greater significance. An estimated three hundred thousand people took to the streets of the Moroccan capital Rabat on 15th October to vent their anger at Israel's policies in the West Bank and Gaza. Government policy is to allow people, marching under the banner of the Front Marocain de Soutien a la Palestine et contre la normalisation (FMSPCN) which regroups more than twenty political parties and trade unions, to vent their feelings and preserve at the same time the Abraham Accords which Morocco signed with Israel in 2020. In July 2023, Israel recognised Morocco's sovereignty over the disputed territory of the Western Sahara. Israel has been active in Morocco for six decades but is much more open today about the weapons and surveillance equipment it sells to the kingdom and the myriad industrial and farming projects it is involved in. Ever more Israeli tourists visit Morocco. Morocco's relationship with Israel remains defined by the estimated 700,000 Sephardi Israelis of Moroccan descent, many of whom who retain a strong attachment to their former country. An estimated 3000 Jews live in Morocco though exact figures are difficult to confirm. King Mohamed VI's father, Hassan the Second played an important role, behind the scenes, in fostering relations between Israeli and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) leadership in the decade before the Oslo agreement. Following the Hamas attack on October 7, the Moroccan ministry of Foreign Affairs laconically condemned "violence against civilians whatever its source", but he specifically condemned Israel for the bombing of the Al Maamadi hospital on 17th October. The king is walking a tightrope as he seeks to please Moroccan public opinion, the West and Israel which is his de facto ally. The Mahkzen (ruling elite) plays a sophisticated political and diplomatic balancing act which could come unstuck if Israel's expected assault on Gaza turn out to be very bloody. In neighbouring Algeria, historically one of the strongest supporters of the PLO, the march in favour of the Palestinians on Thursday 19th October drew smaller crowds than during the vast Hirak protest movement four years ago. A majority of the protesters were women and younger people. There were few Islamist party banners. It was officially sponsored, but many older Algerians stayed away, fearful of the police ever since the brutal crushing of the Hirak, which on some week-ends brought millions of people into the streets in favour of democracy against a regime many of them view as illegitimate. The most suggestive analogy to current events in modern colonial history is "a pivotal and largely forgotten, episode of the Algerian war of independence, the Philippeville uprising of August 1955", as the writer Adam Shatz states in Vengeful pathologies. Surrounded by French armies and fearful of losing ground to the nationalist reformists politicians led by Ferhat Abbas who favoured a negotiated settlement, the Algerian Front de Liberation National launched "a gruesome attack in and around the harbour town of Philippeville. Peasants armed with grenades, knives, clubs, axes and pitchforks killed – and in many cases disembowelled - 123 people, mostly Europeans… To the French the violence seemed unprovoked but the perpetrators believed they were avenging the killing of tens of thousands of Muslims by the French, assisted by settler militias, after the independence riots of 1945." The liberal French governor general, Jacques Soustelle was viewed by the settlers as an "untrustworthy Arab lover". The campaign of repression he unleashed cost more than 10,000 Algerian lives. "By overreacting, Soustelle fell into the FLN's trap: the army brutality drove Algerians into the arms of the rebels, just as Israel's ferocious response is likely to strengthen Hamas at least temporarily, even among Palestinians in Gaza who resent its authoritarian rule." Soustelle later accepted that he had "helped dig a moot through which flowed a river of blood". Ever since the first intifadha, Israeli leaders have re-read the great English language classic on the Algeria war of independence (A savage war of peace, Alistair Horne Viking Press 1977). The lesson of that war is that Israelis will no more extinguish Palestinian resistance by violence than the French were able to do in Algeria seven decades ago. The major difference between the two conflicts is that Israeli Jews and Palestinian Arabs are stuck with each other. In all three countries, the ironclad support offered by EU leaders for Israel's assault on Gaza and their apparent lack of concern for the consequences of the decades old Israeli occupation of the West Bank and Gaza have reinforced a deeply help conviction that Europe "is a past master at double standards" as one senior Moroccan puts it. This conviction is shared by a growing number of countries in the Global South who, at Cairo's conference on the Middle East on 21 October "roundly accused [the EU] of double standards for condemning Russia's breach of humanitarian law, but not Israel's…This lack of consistency is geopolitical kryptonite". The credibility of the EU, in its self-proclaimed role as a "normative power" and France in particular lies in tatters. This weakness is combined with a fear of rising antisemitism (the country boasts the largest Jewish community in Europe) and Islamophobia in France, where millions of citizens of Maghrebi origin live – an estimated 8% of the population. Irrespective of class, all north Africans are very worried about the possible repercussions in France. The only French politician who finds grace in their eyes is the former prime minister Dominique de Villepin who denounced the West's "amnesia" in a context of major fracture at global level. Adam Shatz shares this analysis which insists on the "oblivion" over Palestine that led Europeans "to imagine that economic agreements and sales of weapons between Israel and its new Arab friends in the Gulf would cause the Palestinian question to disappear". He is not alone, in France, indeed in North Africa, in expressing nostalgia for the era when presidents Charles de Gaulle and Jacques Chirac had a more even-handed policy towards the Israel-Palestine conflict worthy of France's proud history. Keywords: Gaza, Israel, North Africa, Middle East, Morocco, Algeria, West Bank, EU, double standards, Global South, Palestine, France
In this era of startling developments in the medical field there remains a serious worry about the hazardous potential of various by products which if not properly addressed can lead to consequences of immense public concern. Hospitals and other health care facilities generate waste products which are evidently hazardous to all those exposed to its potentially harmful effects. Need for effective legislation ensuring its safe disposal is supposed to be an integral part of any country's health related policy. This issue is of special importance in developing countries like Pakistan which in spite of framing various regulations for safeguarding public health, seem to overlook its actual implementation. The result unfortunately is the price wehave to pay not only in terms of rampant spread of crippling infections but a significant spending of health budget on combating epidemics which could easily have been avoided through effective waste disposal measures in the first place. Waste classified under the heading 'bio-hazardous' includes any infectious or potentially infectious material which can be injurious or harmful to humans and other living organisms. Amongst the many potential sources are the hospitals or other health delivery centres which are ironically supposed to be the centres of infection control and treatment. Whilst working in these setups, health care workers such as doctors, nurses, paramedical staff and sanitation workers are actually the ones most exposed and vulnerable to these challenges. Biomedical waste may broadly be classified into Infectious and toxic waste. Infectious waste includes sharps, blood, body fluids and tissues etcwhile substances such as radioactive material and by-products of certain drugs qualify as toxic waste. Furthermore health institutions also have to cater for general municipal waste such as carton boxes, paper and plastics. The World Health Organisation has its own general classification of hospital waste divided into almost eight categories of which almost 15% (10% infectious and 5% toxic) is estimated to be of a hazardous nature while the remaining 85% is general non hazardous content.1A recent study from Faisalabad, Pakistan has estimated hospital waste generation around 1 to 1.5 kg / bed /day for public sector hospitals in the region,2while figures quoted from neighbouring India are approximately 0.5 to 2 KG / hospital bed /day.3 Elsewhere in the world variable daily hospital waste production has been observed ranging from as low as 0.14 to 0.49 kg /day in Korea4 and 0.26 to 0.89 kg/day in Greece5to as high as 2.1 to 3.83 kg/day in Turkey6 and 0.84 to 5.8 kg/day in Tanzania.7Ill effects of improper management of hospital waste can manifest as nosocomial infections or occupational hazards such as needle stick injuries. Pathogens or spores can be borne either through the oro-faecal or respiratory routes in addition to direct inoculation through contact with infected needles or sharps. Environmental pollution can result from improper burning of toxic material leading to emission of dioxins, particulate matter or furans into the air. The habitat can also be affected by illegal dumping and landfills or washing up of medical waste released into the sea or river. Potential organisms implicated in diseases secondary to mismanagement of hospital waste disposal include salmonella, cholera, shigella, helminths, strep pneumonia, measles, tuberculosis, herpesvirus, anthrax, meningitis, HIV, hepatitis and candida etc. These infections can cause a considerable strain on the overall health and finances of the community or individuals affected. The basic principal of Public health management i.e 'prevention is better than cure' cannot be more stressed in this scenario as compared to any other health challenge. Health facilities must have a clear policy on hazardous waste management. To ensure a safe environment hospitals need to adopt and implement international and local systems of waste disposal. Hospital waste management plan entails policy and procedures addressing waste generation, accumulation, handling, transportation, storage, treatment and disposal. Waste needs to be collected in marked containers usually colour coded and leak proof. Segregation at source is of vital importance. The standard practice in many countries is the Basic Three Bin System ie to segregate the waste into RED bags/ boxes for sharps, YELLOW bags for biological waste and BLUE or BLACK ones for general/ municipal waste. All hospital staff needs to be trained in the concept of putting the right waste in relevant containers/ bags. They need to know that more than anything else this practice is vital for their own safety. The message can be reinforced through appropriate labelling on the bins and having posters with simple delineations to avoid mixing of different waste types. Sharps essentially should be kept in rigid, leak and puncture-resistant containers which are tightly lidded and labelled. Regular training sessions for nurses and cleaning staff can be organised as they are the personnel who are more likely to deal with waste disposition at the level of their respective departments. Next of course is transportation of waste products to the storage or disposal. Sanitary staff and janitors must be aware of the basic concepts of waste handling and should wear protective clothing, masks and gloves etc, besides ensuring regular practice of disinfection and sterilization techniques.8Special trolleys or vehicles exclusively designed and reserved for biomedical waste and operated by trained individuals should be used for transportation to the dumping or treatment site. Biomedical waste treatment whether on site or off site is a specialised entity involving use of chemicals and equipment intended for curtailing the hazardous potential of the material at hand. Thermal treatment via incinerators, not only results in combustion of organic substances but the final product in the form of non-toxicash is only 10 to 15% of the original solid mass of waste material fed to the machine. Dedicated autoclaves and microwaves can also be used for the purpose of disinfection. Chemicals such as bleach, sodium hydroxides, chlorine dioxide and sodiumhypochlorite are also effective disinfectants having specialised indications. Countries around the world have their own regulations for waste management. United Kingdom practices strict observance of Environmental protection act 1990, Waste managementlicensing regulations 1994 and Hazardous waste regulations 2005 making it one of thesafest countries in terms of hazardous waste disposal. Similar regulations specific for each state have been adopted in United States following passage of the Medical Waste tracking act 1988. In Pakistan, every hospital must comply with the Waste Management Rules 2005 (Environment Protection Act 1997), though actual compliance is far from satisfactory. It is high time that the government and responsible community organisations shape up to seriously tackle the issue of bio hazardous waste management through enforcement of effective policies and standard operating procedures for safeguarding the health and lives of the public in general and health workers in particular.
