Suchergebnisse

Currently, the Medical service of the Armed Forces of Ukraine is working in the regulatory field, which is fixed by amendments to the Constitution of Ukraine at the strategic course of the state for the acquisition of full membership ofUkrainein the European Union and North Atlantic Treaty Organization. The formation of the new structure of the Medical service, according to the NATO J-structure, which took place on February 5, 2020 and the direct participation of the Ukrainian Armed Forces in the operation of the Joint Forces, pose new complex tasks for the medical support of troops in modern conditions before the Command of the Medical Forces of the Ukrainian Armed Forces. Given the process of introducing a unified logistics system for the Armed Forces of Ukraine, adapted to the standards of NATO member countries, there is a need to transfer the organization and management of medical supplies to the Armed Forces of Ukraine to more advanced technologies and tools for managing stream processes. Particular attention in the management of stream processes must be given to their informatization.Aim. To conduct a cluster analysis of experts distribution who took part in an expert survey on the implementation of logistics processes informatization in medical supply system of the Armed Forces of Ukraine.Results. One of the necessary steps towards improving the quality and efficiency of logistics processes in institutions and units of the medical supply of the Armed Forces of Ukraine is the introduction of information technologies in these processes. In order to study the state of readiness of the medical supply system of the Armed Forces of Ukraine for the implementation of informatization of logistics processes, an expert survey has been conducted using a specially designed questionnaire. The experts were members of medical service and employees of the Armed Forces of Ukraine, who are involved in medical supply system of the troops. The next stage of the study was the use of multifactorial and multivariate statistical analysis of expert survey results. It should be noted that in this study, all experts have been divided at their place of service into 7 groups. The 1-st group presented experts from Command of the Medical Forces of the Ukrainian Armed Forces, the 2nd group – medical warehouses of the Ministry of Defense of Ukraine, 3-d group – Pharmaceutical Centers (pharmacies), 4-th group – mobile medical supply groups, 5-th group – Military Medical Clinical Centers of the regions, 6-th group – Centers for the formation and storage of medical equipment and medical supplies of emergency reserves(stocks). The 7-th group included experts who did not indicate their position and place of service (anonymous respondents). Considering the type of data on the basis of which statistical processing of the research results has been carried out, we consider it to be appropriate to conduct further data processing using nonparametric methods that are nonparametric, namely the technology of hierarchical agglomeration cluster analysis and the non-hierarchical cluster method «k-Nearest Averages».Conclusions. By applying the methods of cluster analysis, a sufficiently high level of consistency of the conclusions of experts of the medical supply system of the Armed Forces of Ukraine to the need for the introduction of informatization of logistics processes. Since, in the dendrogram the maximum value of "Linkage Distance" was 0,62 and the average value was 0,21. An analysis of the results showed that experts from different duty stations in the medical supply system of the Armed Forces of Ukraine support the implementation of information technology in their professional activities. The greatest consistency in the middle of their professional group has been held by experts from the Command of the Medical Forces of the Armed Forces of Ukraine, Medical Warehouses of the Ministry of Defense of Ukraine and Pharmaceutical Centers (pharmacies) of the Armed Forces of Ukraine. The clustering resulted in six clusters, which brought together experts from the medical supply system of the Armed Forces of Ukraine. However, the number of experts grouped in each cluster was different. The difference in the composition of experts in each cluster has been also determined. Persons whose registration numbers were included as elements in such clusters belong to different groups of study participants from almost all institutions and medical supply units of the Armed Forces of Ukraine. Only respondents with registration numbers 1-6 – experts from the medical warehouses of the Ministry of Defense of Ukraine were groupped into one small first cluster. In addition, cluster analysis provided the identification of related structural elements and their relationships in the middle of the cluster. There is a union of all experts from the first, most experts of the second group and experts from the sixth group within the same cluster. This testifies to the direct control and coordination of the Command of the Medical Forces of the Armed Forces of Ukraine over the medical warehouses of the Ministry of Defense of Ukraine, Centers for the formation and storage of medical equipment and medical supplies of emergency reserves. Experts from different Military Medical Clinical Centers of the regions (group 5) and Pharmaceutical Centers (pharmacies) (group 3) joined together in each of the three clusters. This is explained by the implementation of the organization of medical supply of the Armed Forces of Ukraine according to the territorial principle in accordance with the order of the Ministry of Defense of Ukraine dated 16.11.2016 No. 608 "On approval of the administrative-territorial zones of responsibility of healthcare institutions of the Armed Forces of Ukraine for the organization of medical support". ; В настоящее время медицинская служба Вооружённых Сил (ВС) Украины работает в нормативном поле, которое закреплено изменениями к Конституции Украины по стратегическому курсу государства на приобретение полноправного членства Украины в Европейском Союзе и в Организации Северо-атлантического договора. Формирование новой структуры медицинской службы согласно J-структуры НАТО, которое произошло 5 февраля 2020 года, и непосредственное участие ВС Украины в операции Объединённых сил ставят перед Командованием Медицинских сил ВС Украины новые сложные задания по медицинскому обеспечению войск в современных условиях. Учитывая процесс внедрения единой системы логистического обеспечения ВС Украины, адаптированной к стандартам стран-членов НАТО, возникает необходимость в переходе организации и управления медицинским снабжения ВС Украины к более совершенным технологиям и инструментам управления потоковыми процессами. Особенное внимание в управлении потоковыми процессами необходимо уделить их информатизации.Целью исследования является проведение кластерного анализа распределения экспертов, которые принимали участие в экспертном опросе о внедрении информатизации логистических процессов в систему медицинского снабжения Вооружённых Сил Украины.Результаты. Одним из необходимых шагов в направлении повышения качества и эффективности логистических процессов в учреждениях и подразделениях медицинского снабжения ВС Украины является внедрение информационных технологий в указанные процессы. С целью исследования состояния готовности системы медицинского снабжения ВС Украины к внедрению информатизации логистических процессов был внедрен метод экспертного опроса при помощи специально разработанной анкеты. В качестве экспертов выступали военнослужащие медицинской службы и работники ВС Украины, задействованные в системе медицинского снабжения войск. Следующим этапом исследования стало применение методов многофакторного и многомерного статистического анализа результатов экспертного опроса. Следует отметить, что в этом исследовании все эксперты были разделены по месту их службы на 7 групп: 1 группа – орган управления медицинской службой ВС Украины; 2 группа – медицинские склады Министерства обороны (МО) Украины; 3 группа – фармацевтические центры (аптеки); 4 группа – группы медицинского снабжения передвижные; 5 группа – Военно-медицинские клинические центры регионов; 6 группа – центры формирования и хранения медицинской техники и имущества неприкосновенных запасов. В 7 группе – эксперты, которые не указали свою должность и место прохождения службы (анонимные респонденты). Учитывая тип данных, на базе которых проводилась статистическая обработка результатов исследования, считаем целесообразным дальнейшую обработку проводить методами, которые предусматривают не расчёт, а классификацию полученных результатов, относящихся к непараметрическим, а именно, к технологии иерархического агломеративного кластерного анализа и неиерархического кластерного метода «k-ближайших средних».Выводы. Путём применения методов кластерного анализа определён достаточно высокий уровень согласованности выводов экспертов системы медицинского снабжения ВС Украины в отношении необходимости внедрения информатизации логистических процессов, поскольку в дендрограмме максимальная величина "Linkage Distance" была равна 0,62, а среднее значение – 0,21. Анализ полученных результатов показал, что эксперты из разных мест службы в системе медицинского снабжения ВС Украины поддерживают внедрение информационных технологий в свою профессиональную деятельность, но наибольшую согласованность внутри своей профессиональной группы имели эксперты из органа управления медицинской службой ВС Украины, медицинских складов МО Украины и фармацевтических центров (аптек) ВС Украины. В результате кластеризации получено 6 кластеров, в которые объединились эксперты из системы медицинского снабжения ВС Украины. Однако количество экспертов, которые сгруппировались в каждом кластере, разное. Также определено отличие по составу экспертов в каждом кластере. Особы, чьи регистрационные номера попали как элементы в такие кластеры, относятся к разным группам участников исследования из практически всех учреждений и подразделений медицинского снабжения ВС Украины. Только респонденты с регистрационными номерами 1-6 – эксперты из медицинских складов МО Украины сгруппировались в один малый первый кластер. Кроме того, кластерный анализ обеспечил выявление связанных структурных элементов и их связей внутри кластера. Так, наблюдается объединение всех экспертов из первой, большинства экспертов второй группы и экспертов из шестой группы внутри одного кластера, что свидетельствует о прямом контроле и координации органа управления медицинской службы ВС Украины над медицинскими складами МО Украины, центрами формирования и хранения медицинской техники и имущества неприкосновенных запасов. Выяснено, что эксперты из разных Военно-медицинских клинических центров регионов (5 группа) и фармацевтических центров (аптек) (3 группа) объединились между собой в каждом из трёх кластеров. Это объясняется осуществлением организации медицинского снабжения ВС Украины по территориальному принципу в соответствии с приказом МО Украины от 16.11.2016 № 608 «Про утверждение административно-территориальных зон ответственности учреждений здравоохранения Вооружённых Сил Украины за организацию медицинского обеспечения». ; На теперішній час медична служба Збройних Сил (ЗС) України працює в нормативному полі, яке закріплене змінами до Конституції України щодо стратегічного курсу держави на набуття повноправного членства України в Європейському Союзі та в Організації Північно-атлантичного договору. Формування нової структури медичної служби згідно з J-структурою НАТО, що відбулося 5 лютого 2020 року, та безпосередня участь ЗС України в операції Об'єднаних сил ставлять перед Командуванням Медичних сил ЗС України нові складні завдання з медичного забезпечення військ у сучасних умовах. З огляду на процес впровадження єдиної системи логістичного забезпечення ЗС України, адаптованої до стандартів країн-членів НАТО, перехід організації та управління медичним постачанням ЗС України до більш досконалих технологій та інструментів управління потоковими процесами у відповідності до міжнародних норм стає вимогою сьогодення. Особливу увагу в управлінні потоковими процесами необхідно приділити їх інформатизації.Метою дослідження є проведення кластерного аналізу розподілу експертів, які брали участь в експертному опитуванні з впровадження у систему медичного постачання ЗС України інформатизації логістичних процесів.Результати. Одним з необхідних кроків у напрямку підвищення якості та ефективності логістичних процесів у закладах і підрозділах медичного постачання ЗС України є впровадження інформаційних технологій у вказані процеси. З метою дослідження стану готовності системи медичного постачання ЗС України до впровадження інформатизації логістичних процесів було впроваджено метод експертного опитування за допомогою спеціально розробленої анкети. В якості експертів виступали військовослужбовці медичної служби та працівники ЗС України, які задіяні у системі медичного постачання військ. Наступним етапом дослідження стало застосування методів багатофакторного і багатовимірного статистичного аналізу результатів експертного опитування. Слід зазначити, що в цьому дослідженні всі експерти були розділені за місцем їх служби на 7 груп: 1 група – орган управління медичною службою ЗС України; 2 група – медичні склади Міністерства оборони (МО) України; 3 група – фармацевтичні центри (аптеки); 4 група – групи медичного постачання пересувні; 5 група – Військово-медичні клінічні центри регіонів; 6 група – центри формування та зберігання медичної техніки та майна непорушних запасів. До 7 групи потрапили експерти, які не вказали свою посаду та місце проходження служби (анонімні респонденти). Зважаючи на тип даних, на базі яких проводилося статистичне опрацювання результатів дослідження, вважаємо за доцільне подальшу обробку проводити методами, які передбачають не обрахування, а класифікацію отриманих результатів, що відносяться до непараметричних, а саме технології ієрархічного агломеративного кластерного аналізу та неієрархічного кластерного методу «k-найближчих середніх».Висновки. Шляхом застосування методів кластерного аналізу визначений досить високий рівень узгодженості висновків експертів системи медичного постачання ЗС України до необхідності впровадження інформатизації логістичних процесів, оскільки у дендрограмі максимальна величина "Linkage Distance" дорівнювала 0,62, а середнє значення – 0,21. Аналіз отриманих результатів показав, що експерти з різних місць служби у системі медичного постачання ЗС України підтримують впровадження інформаційних технологій в свою професійну діяльність, але найбільшу узгодженість всередині своєї професійної групи мали експерти з органу управління медичною службою ЗС України, медичних складів МО України та фармацевтичних центрів (аптек) ЗС України. В результаті кластеризації отримано 6 кластерів, у які об'єднались експерти з системи медичного постачання ЗС України. Встановлено, що кількість експертів, які потрапили до кожного кластеру, різна. Також визначена відмінність за складом експертів у кожному кластері. Особи, чиї реєстраційні номери потрапили як елементи у такі кластери, відносяться до різних груп учасників дослідження з практично всіх закладів та підрозділів медичного постачання ЗС України. Тільки респонденти з реєстраційними номерами 1-6 – експерти з медичних складів МО України згрупувались в один малий перший кластер. Крім того, кластерний аналіз забезпечив виявлення пов'язаних структурних елементів та їх зв'язків всередині кластера. Так, спостерігається об'єднання усіх експертів з першої, більшості експертів другої групи та експертів з шостої групи всередині одного кластера, що свідчить про прямий контроль та координацію органу управління медичною службою ЗС України над медичними складами МО України та центрами формування і зберігання медичного майна і техніки непорушного запасу. З'ясовано, що експерти з різних Військово-медичних клінічних центрів регіонів (п'ята група) та фармацевтичних центрів (аптек) (третя група) об'єднались між собою в кожному з трьох кластерів. Це пояснюється здійсненням організації медичного постачання ЗС України за територіальним принципом відповідно до наказу МО України від 16.11.2016 № 608 «Про затвердження адміністративно-територіальних зон відповідальності закладів охорони здоров'я Збройних Сил України за організацію медичного забезпечення».

Currently, the Medical service of the Armed Forces of Ukraine is working in the regulatory field, which is fixed by amendments to the Constitution of Ukraine at the strategic course of the state for the acquisition of full membership ofUkrainein the European Union and North Atlantic Treaty Organization. The formation of the new structure of the Medical service, according to the NATO J-structure, which took place on February 5, 2020 and the direct participation of the Ukrainian Armed Forces in the operation of the Joint Forces, pose new complex tasks for the medical support of troops in modern conditions before the Command of the Medical Forces of the Ukrainian Armed Forces. Given the process of introducing a unified logistics system for the Armed Forces of Ukraine, adapted to the standards of NATO member countries, there is a need to transfer the organization and management of medical supplies to the Armed Forces of Ukraine to more advanced technologies and tools for managing stream processes. Particular attention in the management of stream processes must be given to their informatization.Aim. To conduct a cluster analysis of experts distribution who took part in an expert survey on the implementation of logistics processes informatization in medical supply system of the Armed Forces of Ukraine.Results. One of the necessary steps towards improving the quality and efficiency of logistics processes in institutions and units of the medical supply of the Armed Forces of Ukraine is the introduction of information technologies in these processes. In order to study the state of readiness of the medical supply system of the Armed Forces of Ukraine for the implementation of informatization of logistics processes, an expert survey has been conducted using a specially designed questionnaire. The experts were members of medical service and employees of the Armed Forces of Ukraine, who are involved in medical supply system of the troops. The next stage of the study was the use of multifactorial and multivariate statistical analysis of expert survey results. It should be noted that in this study, all experts have been divided at their place of service into 7 groups. The 1-st group presented experts from Command of the Medical Forces of the Ukrainian Armed Forces, the 2nd group – medical warehouses of the Ministry of Defense of Ukraine, 3-d group – Pharmaceutical Centers (pharmacies), 4-th group – mobile medical supply groups, 5-th group – Military Medical Clinical Centers of the regions, 6-th group – Centers for the formation and storage of medical equipment and medical supplies of emergency reserves(stocks). The 7-th group included experts who did not indicate their position and place of service (anonymous respondents). Considering the type of data on the basis of which statistical processing of the research results has been carried out, we consider it to be appropriate to conduct further data processing using nonparametric methods that are nonparametric, namely the technology of hierarchical agglomeration cluster analysis and the non-hierarchical cluster method «k-Nearest Averages».Conclusions. By applying the methods of cluster analysis, a sufficiently high level of consistency of the conclusions of experts of the medical supply system of the Armed Forces of Ukraine to the need for the introduction of informatization of logistics processes. Since, in the dendrogram the maximum value of "Linkage Distance" was 0,62 and the average value was 0,21. An analysis of the results showed that experts from different duty stations in the medical supply system of the Armed Forces of Ukraine support the implementation of information technology in their professional activities. The greatest consistency in the middle of their professional group has been held by experts from the Command of the Medical Forces of the Armed Forces of Ukraine, Medical Warehouses of the Ministry of Defense of Ukraine and Pharmaceutical Centers (pharmacies) of the Armed Forces of Ukraine. The clustering resulted in six clusters, which brought together experts from the medical supply system of the Armed Forces of Ukraine. However, the number of experts grouped in each cluster was different. The difference in the composition of experts in each cluster has been also determined. Persons whose registration numbers were included as elements in such clusters belong to different groups of study participants from almost all institutions and medical supply units of the Armed Forces of Ukraine. Only respondents with registration numbers 1-6 – experts from the medical warehouses of the Ministry of Defense of Ukraine were groupped into one small first cluster. In addition, cluster analysis provided the identification of related structural elements and their relationships in the middle of the cluster. There is a union of all experts from the first, most experts of the second group and experts from the sixth group within the same cluster. This testifies to the direct control and coordination of the Command of the Medical Forces of the Armed Forces of Ukraine over the medical warehouses of the Ministry of Defense of Ukraine, Centers for the formation and storage of medical equipment and medical supplies of emergency reserves. Experts from different Military Medical Clinical Centers of the regions (group 5) and Pharmaceutical Centers (pharmacies) (group 3) joined together in each of the three clusters. This is explained by the implementation of the organization of medical supply of the Armed Forces of Ukraine according to the territorial principle in accordance with the order of the Ministry of Defense of Ukraine dated 16.11.2016 No. 608 "On approval of the administrative-territorial zones of responsibility of healthcare institutions of the Armed Forces of Ukraine for the organization of medical support". ; В настоящее время медицинская служба Вооружённых Сил (ВС) Украины работает в нормативном поле, которое закреплено изменениями к Конституции Украины по стратегическому курсу государства на приобретение полноправного членства Украины в Европейском Союзе и в Организации Северо-атлантического договора. Формирование новой структуры медицинской службы согласно J-структуры НАТО, которое произошло 5 февраля 2020 года, и непосредственное участие ВС Украины в операции Объединённых сил ставят перед Командованием Медицинских сил ВС Украины новые сложные задания по медицинскому обеспечению войск в современных условиях. Учитывая процесс внедрения единой системы логистического обеспечения ВС Украины, адаптированной к стандартам стран-членов НАТО, возникает необходимость в переходе организации и управления медицинским снабжения ВС Украины к более совершенным технологиям и инструментам управления потоковыми процессами. Особенное внимание в управлении потоковыми процессами необходимо уделить их информатизации.Целью исследования является проведение кластерного анализа распределения экспертов, которые принимали участие в экспертном опросе о внедрении информатизации логистических процессов в систему медицинского снабжения Вооружённых Сил Украины.Результаты. Одним из необходимых шагов в направлении повышения качества и эффективности логистических процессов в учреждениях и подразделениях медицинского снабжения ВС Украины является внедрение информационных технологий в указанные процессы. С целью исследования состояния готовности системы медицинского снабжения ВС Украины к внедрению информатизации логистических процессов был внедрен метод экспертного опроса при помощи специально разработанной анкеты. В качестве экспертов выступали военнослужащие медицинской службы и работники ВС Украины, задействованные в системе медицинского снабжения войск. Следующим этапом исследования стало применение методов многофакторного и многомерного статистического анализа результатов экспертного опроса. Следует отметить, что в этом исследовании все эксперты были разделены по месту их службы на 7 групп: 1 группа – орган управления медицинской службой ВС Украины; 2 группа – медицинские склады Министерства обороны (МО) Украины; 3 группа – фармацевтические центры (аптеки); 4 группа – группы медицинского снабжения передвижные; 5 группа – Военно-медицинские клинические центры регионов; 6 группа – центры формирования и хранения медицинской техники и имущества неприкосновенных запасов. В 7 группе – эксперты, которые не указали свою должность и место прохождения службы (анонимные респонденты). Учитывая тип данных, на базе которых проводилась статистическая обработка результатов исследования, считаем целесообразным дальнейшую обработку проводить методами, которые предусматривают не расчёт, а классификацию полученных результатов, относящихся к непараметрическим, а именно, к технологии иерархического агломеративного кластерного анализа и неиерархического кластерного метода «k-ближайших средних».Выводы. Путём применения методов кластерного анализа определён достаточно высокий уровень согласованности выводов экспертов системы медицинского снабжения ВС Украины в отношении необходимости внедрения информатизации логистических процессов, поскольку в дендрограмме максимальная величина "Linkage Distance" была равна 0,62, а среднее значение – 0,21. Анализ полученных результатов показал, что эксперты из разных мест службы в системе медицинского снабжения ВС Украины поддерживают внедрение информационных технологий в свою профессиональную деятельность, но наибольшую согласованность внутри своей профессиональной группы имели эксперты из органа управления медицинской службой ВС Украины, медицинских складов МО Украины и фармацевтических центров (аптек) ВС Украины. В результате кластеризации получено 6 кластеров, в которые объединились эксперты из системы медицинского снабжения ВС Украины. Однако количество экспертов, которые сгруппировались в каждом кластере, разное. Также определено отличие по составу экспертов в каждом кластере. Особы, чьи регистрационные номера попали как элементы в такие кластеры, относятся к разным группам участников исследования из практически всех учреждений и подразделений медицинского снабжения ВС Украины. Только респонденты с регистрационными номерами 1-6 – эксперты из медицинских складов МО Украины сгруппировались в один малый первый кластер. Кроме того, кластерный анализ обеспечил выявление связанных структурных элементов и их связей внутри кластера. Так, наблюдается объединение всех экспертов из первой, большинства экспертов второй группы и экспертов из шестой группы внутри одного кластера, что свидетельствует о прямом контроле и координации органа управления медицинской службы ВС Украины над медицинскими складами МО Украины, центрами формирования и хранения медицинской техники и имущества неприкосновенных запасов. Выяснено, что эксперты из разных Военно-медицинских клинических центров регионов (5 группа) и фармацевтических центров (аптек) (3 группа) объединились между собой в каждом из трёх кластеров. Это объясняется осуществлением организации медицинского снабжения ВС Украины по территориальному принципу в соответствии с приказом МО Украины от 16.11.2016 № 608 «Про утверждение административно-территориальных зон ответственности учреждений здравоохранения Вооружённых Сил Украины за организацию медицинского обеспечения». ; На теперішній час медична служба Збройних Сил (ЗС) України працює в нормативному полі, яке закріплене змінами до Конституції України щодо стратегічного курсу держави на набуття повноправного членства України в Європейському Союзі та в Організації Північно-атлантичного договору. Формування нової структури медичної служби згідно з J-структурою НАТО, що відбулося 5 лютого 2020 року, та безпосередня участь ЗС України в операції Об'єднаних сил ставлять перед Командуванням Медичних сил ЗС України нові складні завдання з медичного забезпечення військ у сучасних умовах. З огляду на процес впровадження єдиної системи логістичного забезпечення ЗС України, адаптованої до стандартів країн-членів НАТО, перехід організації та управління медичним постачанням ЗС України до більш досконалих технологій та інструментів управління потоковими процесами у відповідності до міжнародних норм стає вимогою сьогодення. Особливу увагу в управлінні потоковими процесами необхідно приділити їх інформатизації.Метою дослідження є проведення кластерного аналізу розподілу експертів, які брали участь в експертному опитуванні з впровадження у систему медичного постачання ЗС України інформатизації логістичних процесів.Результати. Одним з необхідних кроків у напрямку підвищення якості та ефективності логістичних процесів у закладах і підрозділах медичного постачання ЗС України є впровадження інформаційних технологій у вказані процеси. З метою дослідження стану готовності системи медичного постачання ЗС України до впровадження інформатизації логістичних процесів було впроваджено метод експертного опитування за допомогою спеціально розробленої анкети. В якості експертів виступали військовослужбовці медичної служби та працівники ЗС України, які задіяні у системі медичного постачання військ. Наступним етапом дослідження стало застосування методів багатофакторного і багатовимірного статистичного аналізу результатів експертного опитування. Слід зазначити, що в цьому дослідженні всі експерти були розділені за місцем їх служби на 7 груп: 1 група – орган управління медичною службою ЗС України; 2 група – медичні склади Міністерства оборони (МО) України; 3 група – фармацевтичні центри (аптеки); 4 група – групи медичного постачання пересувні; 5 група – Військово-медичні клінічні центри регіонів; 6 група – центри формування та зберігання медичної техніки та майна непорушних запасів. До 7 групи потрапили експерти, які не вказали свою посаду та місце проходження служби (анонімні респонденти). Зважаючи на тип даних, на базі яких проводилося статистичне опрацювання результатів дослідження, вважаємо за доцільне подальшу обробку проводити методами, які передбачають не обрахування, а класифікацію отриманих результатів, що відносяться до непараметричних, а саме технології ієрархічного агломеративного кластерного аналізу та неієрархічного кластерного методу «k-найближчих середніх».Висновки. Шляхом застосування методів кластерного аналізу визначений досить високий рівень узгодженості висновків експертів системи медичного постачання ЗС України до необхідності впровадження інформатизації логістичних процесів, оскільки у дендрограмі максимальна величина "Linkage Distance" дорівнювала 0,62, а середнє значення – 0,21. Аналіз отриманих результатів показав, що експерти з різних місць служби у системі медичного постачання ЗС України підтримують впровадження інформаційних технологій в свою професійну діяльність, але найбільшу узгодженість всередині своєї професійної групи мали експерти з органу управління медичною службою ЗС України, медичних складів МО України та фармацевтичних центрів (аптек) ЗС України. В результаті кластеризації отримано 6 кластерів, у які об'єднались експерти з системи медичного постачання ЗС України. Встановлено, що кількість експертів, які потрапили до кожного кластеру, різна. Також визначена відмінність за складом експертів у кожному кластері. Особи, чиї реєстраційні номери потрапили як елементи у такі кластери, відносяться до різних груп учасників дослідження з практично всіх закладів та підрозділів медичного постачання ЗС України. Тільки респонденти з реєстраційними номерами 1-6 – експерти з медичних складів МО України згрупувались в один малий перший кластер. Крім того, кластерний аналіз забезпечив виявлення пов'язаних структурних елементів та їх зв'язків всередині кластера. Так, спостерігається об'єднання усіх експертів з першої, більшості експертів другої групи та експертів з шостої групи всередині одного кластера, що свідчить про прямий контроль та координацію органу управління медичною службою ЗС України над медичними складами МО України та центрами формування і зберігання медичного майна і техніки непорушного запасу. З'ясовано, що експерти з різних Військово-медичних клінічних центрів регіонів (п'ята група) та фармацевтичних центрів (аптек) (третя група) об'єднались між собою в кожному з трьох кластерів. Це пояснюється здійсненням організації медичного постачання ЗС України за територіальним принципом відповідно до наказу МО України від 16.11.2016 № 608 «Про затвердження адміністративно-територіальних зон відповідальності закладів охорони здоров'я Збройних Сил України за організацію медичного забезпечення».

Currently, the Medical service of the Armed Forces of Ukraine is working in the regulatory field, which is fixed by amendments to the Constitution of Ukraine at the strategic course of the state for the acquisition of full membership ofUkrainein the European Union and North Atlantic Treaty Organization. The formation of the new structure of the Medical service, according to the NATO J-structure, which took place on February 5, 2020 and the direct participation of the Ukrainian Armed Forces in the operation of the Joint Forces, pose new complex tasks for the medical support of troops in modern conditions before the Command of the Medical Forces of the Ukrainian Armed Forces. Given the process of introducing a unified logistics system for the Armed Forces of Ukraine, adapted to the standards of NATO member countries, there is a need to transfer the organization and management of medical supplies to the Armed Forces of Ukraine to more advanced technologies and tools for managing stream processes. Particular attention in the management of stream processes must be given to their informatization.Aim. To conduct a cluster analysis of experts distribution who took part in an expert survey on the implementation of logistics processes informatization in medical supply system of the Armed Forces of Ukraine.Results. One of the necessary steps towards improving the quality and efficiency of logistics processes in institutions and units of the medical supply of the Armed Forces of Ukraine is the introduction of information technologies in these processes. In order to study the state of readiness of the medical supply system of the Armed Forces of Ukraine for the implementation of informatization of logistics processes, an expert survey has been conducted using a specially designed questionnaire. The experts were members of medical service and employees of the Armed Forces of Ukraine, who are involved in medical supply system of the troops. The next stage of the study was the use of multifactorial and multivariate statistical analysis of expert survey results. It should be noted that in this study, all experts have been divided at their place of service into 7 groups. The 1-st group presented experts from Command of the Medical Forces of the Ukrainian Armed Forces, the 2nd group – medical warehouses of the Ministry of Defense of Ukraine, 3-d group – Pharmaceutical Centers (pharmacies), 4-th group – mobile medical supply groups, 5-th group – Military Medical Clinical Centers of the regions, 6-th group – Centers for the formation and storage of medical equipment and medical supplies of emergency reserves(stocks). The 7-th group included experts who did not indicate their position and place of service (anonymous respondents). Considering the type of data on the basis of which statistical processing of the research results has been carried out, we consider it to be appropriate to conduct further data processing using nonparametric methods that are nonparametric, namely the technology of hierarchical agglomeration cluster analysis and the non-hierarchical cluster method «k-Nearest Averages».Conclusions. By applying the methods of cluster analysis, a sufficiently high level of consistency of the conclusions of experts of the medical supply system of the Armed Forces of Ukraine to the need for the introduction of informatization of logistics processes. Since, in the dendrogram the maximum value of "Linkage Distance" was 0,62 and the average value was 0,21. An analysis of the results showed that experts from different duty stations in the medical supply system of the Armed Forces of Ukraine support the implementation of information technology in their professional activities. The greatest consistency in the middle of their professional group has been held by experts from the Command of the Medical Forces of the Armed Forces of Ukraine, Medical Warehouses of the Ministry of Defense of Ukraine and Pharmaceutical Centers (pharmacies) of the Armed Forces of Ukraine. The clustering resulted in six clusters, which brought together experts from the medical supply system of the Armed Forces of Ukraine. However, the number of experts grouped in each cluster was different. The difference in the composition of experts in each cluster has been also determined. Persons whose registration numbers were included as elements in such clusters belong to different groups of study participants from almost all institutions and medical supply units of the Armed Forces of Ukraine. Only respondents with registration numbers 1-6 – experts from the medical warehouses of the Ministry of Defense of Ukraine were groupped into one small first cluster. In addition, cluster analysis provided the identification of related structural elements and their relationships in the middle of the cluster. There is a union of all experts from the first, most experts of the second group and experts from the sixth group within the same cluster. This testifies to the direct control and coordination of the Command of the Medical Forces of the Armed Forces of Ukraine over the medical warehouses of the Ministry of Defense of Ukraine, Centers for the formation and storage of medical equipment and medical supplies of emergency reserves. Experts from different Military Medical Clinical Centers of the regions (group 5) and Pharmaceutical Centers (pharmacies) (group 3) joined together in each of the three clusters. This is explained by the implementation of the organization of medical supply of the Armed Forces of Ukraine according to the territorial principle in accordance with the order of the Ministry of Defense of Ukraine dated 16.11.2016 No. 608 "On approval of the administrative-territorial zones of responsibility of healthcare institutions of the Armed Forces of Ukraine for the organization of medical support". ; В настоящее время медицинская служба Вооружённых Сил (ВС) Украины работает в нормативном поле, которое закреплено изменениями к Конституции Украины по стратегическому курсу государства на приобретение полноправного членства Украины в Европейском Союзе и в Организации Северо-атлантического договора. Формирование новой структуры медицинской службы согласно J-структуры НАТО, которое произошло 5 февраля 2020 года, и непосредственное участие ВС Украины в операции Объединённых сил ставят перед Командованием Медицинских сил ВС Украины новые сложные задания по медицинскому обеспечению войск в современных условиях. Учитывая процесс внедрения единой системы логистического обеспечения ВС Украины, адаптированной к стандартам стран-членов НАТО, возникает необходимость в переходе организации и управления медицинским снабжения ВС Украины к более совершенным технологиям и инструментам управления потоковыми процессами. Особенное внимание в управлении потоковыми процессами необходимо уделить их информатизации.Целью исследования является проведение кластерного анализа распределения экспертов, которые принимали участие в экспертном опросе о внедрении информатизации логистических процессов в систему медицинского снабжения Вооружённых Сил Украины.Результаты. Одним из необходимых шагов в направлении повышения качества и эффективности логистических процессов в учреждениях и подразделениях медицинского снабжения ВС Украины является внедрение информационных технологий в указанные процессы. С целью исследования состояния готовности системы медицинского снабжения ВС Украины к внедрению информатизации логистических процессов был внедрен метод экспертного опроса при помощи специально разработанной анкеты. В качестве экспертов выступали военнослужащие медицинской службы и работники ВС Украины, задействованные в системе медицинского снабжения войск. Следующим этапом исследования стало применение методов многофакторного и многомерного статистического анализа результатов экспертного опроса. Следует отметить, что в этом исследовании все эксперты были разделены по месту их службы на 7 групп: 1 группа – орган управления медицинской службой ВС Украины; 2 группа – медицинские склады Министерства обороны (МО) Украины; 3 группа – фармацевтические центры (аптеки); 4 группа – группы медицинского снабжения передвижные; 5 группа – Военно-медицинские клинические центры регионов; 6 группа – центры формирования и хранения медицинской техники и имущества неприкосновенных запасов. В 7 группе – эксперты, которые не указали свою должность и место прохождения службы (анонимные респонденты). Учитывая тип данных, на базе которых проводилась статистическая обработка результатов исследования, считаем целесообразным дальнейшую обработку проводить методами, которые предусматривают не расчёт, а классификацию полученных результатов, относящихся к непараметрическим, а именно, к технологии иерархического агломеративного кластерного анализа и неиерархического кластерного метода «k-ближайших средних».Выводы. Путём применения методов кластерного анализа определён достаточно высокий уровень согласованности выводов экспертов системы медицинского снабжения ВС Украины в отношении необходимости внедрения информатизации логистических процессов, поскольку в дендрограмме максимальная величина "Linkage Distance" была равна 0,62, а среднее значение – 0,21. Анализ полученных результатов показал, что эксперты из разных мест службы в системе медицинского снабжения ВС Украины поддерживают внедрение информационных технологий в свою профессиональную деятельность, но наибольшую согласованность внутри своей профессиональной группы имели эксперты из органа управления медицинской службой ВС Украины, медицинских складов МО Украины и фармацевтических центров (аптек) ВС Украины. В результате кластеризации получено 6 кластеров, в которые объединились эксперты из системы медицинского снабжения ВС Украины. Однако количество экспертов, которые сгруппировались в каждом кластере, разное. Также определено отличие по составу экспертов в каждом кластере. Особы, чьи регистрационные номера попали как элементы в такие кластеры, относятся к разным группам участников исследования из практически всех учреждений и подразделений медицинского снабжения ВС Украины. Только респонденты с регистрационными номерами 1-6 – эксперты из медицинских складов МО Украины сгруппировались в один малый первый кластер. Кроме того, кластерный анализ обеспечил выявление связанных структурных элементов и их связей внутри кластера. Так, наблюдается объединение всех экспертов из первой, большинства экспертов второй группы и экспертов из шестой группы внутри одного кластера, что свидетельствует о прямом контроле и координации органа управления медицинской службы ВС Украины над медицинскими складами МО Украины, центрами формирования и хранения медицинской техники и имущества неприкосновенных запасов. Выяснено, что эксперты из разных Военно-медицинских клинических центров регионов (5 группа) и фармацевтических центров (аптек) (3 группа) объединились между собой в каждом из трёх кластеров. Это объясняется осуществлением организации медицинского снабжения ВС Украины по территориальному принципу в соответствии с приказом МО Украины от 16.11.2016 № 608 «Про утверждение административно-территориальных зон ответственности учреждений здравоохранения Вооружённых Сил Украины за организацию медицинского обеспечения». ; На теперішній час медична служба Збройних Сил (ЗС) України працює в нормативному полі, яке закріплене змінами до Конституції України щодо стратегічного курсу держави на набуття повноправного членства України в Європейському Союзі та в Організації Північно-атлантичного договору. Формування нової структури медичної служби згідно з J-структурою НАТО, що відбулося 5 лютого 2020 року, та безпосередня участь ЗС України в операції Об'єднаних сил ставлять перед Командуванням Медичних сил ЗС України нові складні завдання з медичного забезпечення військ у сучасних умовах. З огляду на процес впровадження єдиної системи логістичного забезпечення ЗС України, адаптованої до стандартів країн-членів НАТО, перехід організації та управління медичним постачанням ЗС України до більш досконалих технологій та інструментів управління потоковими процесами у відповідності до міжнародних норм стає вимогою сьогодення. Особливу увагу в управлінні потоковими процесами необхідно приділити їх інформатизації.Метою дослідження є проведення кластерного аналізу розподілу експертів, які брали участь в експертному опитуванні з впровадження у систему медичного постачання ЗС України інформатизації логістичних процесів.Результати. Одним з необхідних кроків у напрямку підвищення якості та ефективності логістичних процесів у закладах і підрозділах медичного постачання ЗС України є впровадження інформаційних технологій у вказані процеси. З метою дослідження стану готовності системи медичного постачання ЗС України до впровадження інформатизації логістичних процесів було впроваджено метод експертного опитування за допомогою спеціально розробленої анкети. В якості експертів виступали військовослужбовці медичної служби та працівники ЗС України, які задіяні у системі медичного постачання військ. Наступним етапом дослідження стало застосування методів багатофакторного і багатовимірного статистичного аналізу результатів експертного опитування. Слід зазначити, що в цьому дослідженні всі експерти були розділені за місцем їх служби на 7 груп: 1 група – орган управління медичною службою ЗС України; 2 група – медичні склади Міністерства оборони (МО) України; 3 група – фармацевтичні центри (аптеки); 4 група – групи медичного постачання пересувні; 5 група – Військово-медичні клінічні центри регіонів; 6 група – центри формування та зберігання медичної техніки та майна непорушних запасів. До 7 групи потрапили експерти, які не вказали свою посаду та місце проходження служби (анонімні респонденти). Зважаючи на тип даних, на базі яких проводилося статистичне опрацювання результатів дослідження, вважаємо за доцільне подальшу обробку проводити методами, які передбачають не обрахування, а класифікацію отриманих результатів, що відносяться до непараметричних, а саме технології ієрархічного агломеративного кластерного аналізу та неієрархічного кластерного методу «k-найближчих середніх».Висновки. Шляхом застосування методів кластерного аналізу визначений досить високий рівень узгодженості висновків експертів системи медичного постачання ЗС України до необхідності впровадження інформатизації логістичних процесів, оскільки у дендрограмі максимальна величина "Linkage Distance" дорівнювала 0,62, а середнє значення – 0,21. Аналіз отриманих результатів показав, що експерти з різних місць служби у системі медичного постачання ЗС України підтримують впровадження інформаційних технологій в свою професійну діяльність, але найбільшу узгодженість всередині своєї професійної групи мали експерти з органу управління медичною службою ЗС України, медичних складів МО України та фармацевтичних центрів (аптек) ЗС України. В результаті кластеризації отримано 6 кластерів, у які об'єднались експерти з системи медичного постачання ЗС України. Встановлено, що кількість експертів, які потрапили до кожного кластеру, різна. Також визначена відмінність за складом експертів у кожному кластері. Особи, чиї реєстраційні номери потрапили як елементи у такі кластери, відносяться до різних груп учасників дослідження з практично всіх закладів та підрозділів медичного постачання ЗС України. Тільки респонденти з реєстраційними номерами 1-6 – експерти з медичних складів МО України згрупувались в один малий перший кластер. Крім того, кластерний аналіз забезпечив виявлення пов'язаних структурних елементів та їх зв'язків всередині кластера. Так, спостерігається об'єднання усіх експертів з першої, більшості експертів другої групи та експертів з шостої групи всередині одного кластера, що свідчить про прямий контроль та координацію органу управління медичною службою ЗС України над медичними складами МО України та центрами формування і зберігання медичного майна і техніки непорушного запасу. З'ясовано, що експерти з різних Військово-медичних клінічних центрів регіонів (п'ята група) та фармацевтичних центрів (аптек) (третя група) об'єднались між собою в кожному з трьох кластерів. Це пояснюється здійсненням організації медичного постачання ЗС України за територіальним принципом відповідно до наказу МО України від 16.11.2016 № 608 «Про затвердження адміністративно-територіальних зон відповідальності закладів охорони здоров'я Збройних Сил України за організацію медичного забезпечення».

In the past ten years, thanks to some important and innovative rulings by the European Court of Justice ("ECJ") the right to damages for infringements of competition law has been recognized to private parties. The European Union ("EU") case law has thus introduced along with the public enforcement of the European Commission and the National Competition Authorities ("NCAs"), the possibility for private parties to bring actions for infringements of Articles 101 and 102 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union ("TFEU") or of the relevant corresponding provisions of national law (i.e., private enforcement). However, to date, most victims of cartels and collusions have not received compensation for their losses. Although established by the TFEU, the practical exercise of the right to full compensation has been hampered by the lack of homogeneity between legal systems and operational uncertainties as to the applicable procedure. Indeed, there are regulatory differences between Member States that make some jurisdictions (such as Germany, England and the Netherlands) more attractive than others when it comes to initiating an antitrust litigation, such differences often entail forum shopping. In Italy, although the number of civil actions initiated as a result of NCA decisions has gradually increased, the number of private enforcement actions is still far from the expected and desired enforcement levels. In light of the context described in the first part of the thesis, after a detailed analysis of some preliminary issues, namely what private enforcement of competition law is, why it is necessary, and what is its systematic and normative foundation, I will analyze the legal provisions and the remedies implemented in recent years and currently available to consumers in Europe for the purposes of ensuring the compensation of the damage suffered as a result of infringements of competition law. I will then move to the developments at the national and European level, focusing on one hand, on the very recently approved Directive of the European Commission and, on the other hand, on the evolution of private enforcement in the main EU Jurisdictions. At the European level, there were many efforts made by the institutions to increase the use of private enforcement to protect and raise the level of effectiveness of the rules in place to safeguard the market. Against this background, an essential role must be undoubtedly recognized to the European Commission and its initiatives in the field to remove barriers that make it difficult for businesses and consumers to sue for compensation for damages suffered. After the formal recognition of the right to compensation for victims of antitrust behaviors, several studies and legislative proposals were published in order to overcome the significant differences between the various remedies across Member States and eliminate unequal treatment between EU undertakings, ensuring this way the proper functioning of the internal market. First, the Green Paper on "Damages actions for breach of EC antitrust rules" in 2005 was published with the intent to facilitate private enforcement and lay down the foundations for a common EU approach, and then the White Paper was published in 2008 with the primary objective, unfortunately not reached, to clarify the conditions for the exercise of the right to compensation by individuals. In November 2014, the Commission finally approved a Directive and established new rules to facilitate claims by the victims of violations of antitrust infringements, thereby managing to overcome the different positions among Member States, which in the past had prevented to reach the consensus on the matter. A first attempt by the Commission to present a legislative proposal in the field of private enforcement was, in fact, aborted for lack of consensus on certain aspects of the discipline that were considered particularly crucial, such as the introduction of an American-type collective redress mechanism, that is to say a mechanism based on an opt-out system, the pre-trial disclosure, and the cumulative compensation for damages. The thesis delineates the most recent legislative developments across Member States and briefly analyzes the remedies available in the main European jurisdictions. In particular, it focuses on the English legislative proposal (i.e., Consumer Rights Bill), which introduces a new opt-out system with respect to collective actions (as opposed to the opt-in recommended by the Commission) and that broadens the jurisdiction of the Competition Appeal Tribunal ("CAT"), making it the main venue for private actions in the field of competition law, as well as the new French law (known as Loi Hamon), which came into force in March 2014, thereby introducing for the first time class action rules with peculiar characteristics compared to those found in other states Members). The new French law established an "expressed opt-in system" and a specific remedy for infringements of competition law (the so-called "actione de groupe en réparation des Causes Prejudices par une pratique anticoncurrentielle"). However, such remedy is available only for follow-on actions, i.e., after a decision by the NCA. The Loi Hamon also introduced a simplified class action in cases where the victims have been or would easily be identified. Finally, the analysis focuses on the Directive adopted in November 2014 and enacted with the aim to harmonize and ensure the effective application, throughout the EU, of rules on damages actions caused by infringements of competition law. The Directive is an important milestone, which improves and updates the European competition law in light of the current challenges. It is still hard to predict what will be the impact that the Directive will have within the single Member States. Certainly the Directive, together with the recent national legislative developments in relation to class actions (such as the French and English ones) is evidence of the efforts to overcome the poor results achieved so far by Member States with respect to private actions by indirect victims and to the various causes that have for a long time prevented consumers from bringing such actions. Nevertheless, we can rest assure there are still several problematic aspects that the Directive decided not to address. The paper concludes, therefore, with a reflection on the unsolved problems and proposes new solutions in this respect. Among the unresolved issues that seem to undermine the system of private enforcement, of particular interest are those related to the funding of collective actions. Unfortunately, a class action can entail really high costs. In particular, class action claimants in an opt-in system must bear, besides the traditional legal fees, the costs required in order to give publicity to the class and to collect the signatures of those consumers interested in joining the action. Following the analysis of several proposals and initiatives taken in the most advanced systems of private enforcement, amongst all possible funding solutions to ensure effective access to justice for consumers, the thesis favors (the most discussed and controversial, but also the most effective) solution of third parties funding of class actions. ; Negli ultimi dieci anni, per effetto di alcune fondamentali ed innovative pronunce giurisprudenziali della Corte di Giustizia europea, è stato riconosciuto il diritto dei soggetti privati, danneggiati da illeciti concorrenziali, di ottenere il ristoro dei danni subiti. La giurisprudenza comunitaria ha introdotto, così, accanto al c.d. public enforcement inerente l'attività svolta da parte della Commissione Europea e delle Autorità di Concorrenza nazionali, la possibilità per i privati di promuovere azioni basate sulla violazione degli articoli 101 e 102 del Trattato dell'Unione Europea ("TFUE") o delle corrispondenti norme nazionali (c.d. private enforcement). In verità, ad oggi, la maggior parte delle vittime di cartelli e di collusioni non ha, comunque, ottenuto indennizzi per il danno subito. Pur garantito dal TFUE, l'esercizio pratico del diritto al pieno risarcimento è stato in concreto ostacolato dalla disomogeneità fra gli ordinamenti interni ed dalle incertezze operative in ordine al procedimento applicabile. Infatti, tra i diversi Stati membri sussistono differenze normative che rendono alcune giurisdizioni (come ad esempio la Germania, l'Inghilterra e l'Olanda) più attraenti per instaurare un contenzioso antitrust rispetto ad altri, con la creazione di fenomeni di forum shopping. In Italia, sebbene il numero delle azioni civili avviate a seguito dei provvedimenti sanzionatori dell'Autorità Garante della Concorrenza e del Mercato ("AGCM"), sia progressivamente aumentato, il numero di casi di private enforcement è, comunque, ancora ben lontano dai livelli attesi ed auspicati. In considerazione del descritto contesto nella prima parte dell'elaborato, previa disamina di alcune questioni preliminari, cioè cos'è il private enforcement delle regole della concorrenza, perché è necessario e qual è il suo fondamento sistematico e normativo, si analizzano gli strumenti giuridici e le tutele, funzionalizzate ad assicurare il risarcimento del danno subito a seguito dell'illecito concorrenziale, apprestate negli ultimi anni ed attualmente a disposizione dei consumatori in Europa. Si ripercorrono, poi, gli sviluppi in materia, al livello nazionale ed europeo, soffermandosi, da un lato, sulla proposta (poi approvata) di direttiva della Commissione europea e, dall'altro, sull'evoluzione del private enforcement nei principali Stati Membri. Al livello europeo, difatti, molteplici sono stati, infatti, gli sforzi compiuti dalle istituzioni per accrescere il ricorso dei privati a tale strumento di tutela ed incrementare il livello di effettività delle norme preposte alla salvaguardia del mercato. Al riguardo un ruolo essenziale va indubbiamente riconosciuto alla Commissione europea ed alle iniziative da questa messe in campo per rimuovere gli ostacoli che rendono difficile per imprese e consumatori agire in giudizio per il risarcimento dei danni patiti. Dopo il formale riconoscimento, del diritto al risarcimento dei danni delle vittime delle condotte antitrust, si sono susseguiti studi e proposte legislative tese a superare le significative divergenze relative ai diversi rimedi risarcitori offerti dagli Stati Membri, in vista di eliminare qualsiasi disparità di trattamento tra le imprese comunitarie e garantire il corretto funzionamento del mercato interno. Ciò è avvenuto, dapprima, attraverso la pubblicazione del Libro Verde sulle "Azioni di risarcimento del danno per violazione delle norme antitrust comunitarie" (2005), con l'intento di agevolare il private enforcement e porre le basi per una strategia condivisa, e poi con la pubblicazione nel 2008 del Libro Bianco con l'obiettivo primario, purtroppo non raggiunto, di chiarire i presupposti per l'esercizio del diritto al risarcimento del danno da parte dei privati. A novembre 2014, la Commissione ha finalmente approvato una direttiva e stabilito nuove norme per facilitare le richieste di indennizzo da parte di chi è vittima di violazioni delle regole antitrust, riuscendo a superare le diverse posizioni fra stati membri, che in passato, avevano impedito di pervenire ad una disciplina al riguardo. Un primo tentativo della Commissione di presentare una proposta legislativa in tema di private enforcement era, infatti, abortito per la mancanza di condivisione su alcuni aspetti della disciplina ritenuti particolarmente delicati, quali la prospettata introduzione dello strumento delle class actions di impronta nordamericana, ovvero di quelle azioni basate su un sistema c.d. di opt-out, della divulgazione predibattimentale (c.d. disclosure) e del risarcimento cumulativo dei danni. L'elaborato ripercorre, quindi, le evoluzioni legislative più recenti degli Stati Membri e analizza brevemente le tutele apprestate nelle principali giurisdizioni europee. In particolare esamina la proposta di legge inglese (c.d. Consumer Rights Bill), che introduce la procedura opt-out per le azioni collettive (in contrasto con il regime di opt-in raccomandato dalla Commissione) e con cui si ampliano i poteri del Competition Appeal Tribunal ("CAT"), rendendolo così la sede principale per le azioni private in tema di concorrenza, nonché la nuova legge francese (c.d. Loi Hamon), entrata in vigore nel marzo 2014, che introduce per la prima volta una disciplina per le azioni di classe con caratteristiche proprie rispetto a quelle presenti negli altri stati Membri. Nella nuova legge francese, in specie, si prevede una azione con opt-in espresso ed una tutela specifica per gli illeciti anticoncorrenziali (c.d."actione de groupe en réparation des préjudices causés par une pratique anticoncurrentielle") esperibile, però, solo in seguito ad una decisione di condanna da parte dell'Autorità nazionale per la Concorrenza. La Loi Hamon prevede, altresì, una azione di classe semplificata per tutti quei casi in cui il procedimento è più semplice poiché l'identità dei consumatori lesi è già conosciuta o lo sarebbe facilmente. Da ultimo, l'analisi si sofferma sulla direttiva approvata a Novembre 2014, emanata, proprio, per armonizzare e garantire l'effettiva applicazione delle regole di risarcimento del danno proveniente da violazioni delle norme antitrust all'interno dell'Unione Europea. Trattasi di un importante traguardo, che migliora la legge europea sulla concorrenza e la adatta alle ultime necessità. L'impatto che avrà la direttiva all'interno dei singoli Stati membri è ad oggi solamente ipotizzabile, certamente tale direttiva insieme con i recenti sforzi legislativi quali quello francese ed inglese in tema di class action, mostrano la volontà di superare i risultati modesti ottenuti sinora all'interno degli Stati Membri nell'utilizzo delle azioni private da parte dei danneggiati indiretti e di superare le varie cause che hanno per lungo tempo scoraggiato i consumatori a proporre tali azioni. Ciò nonostante, ci sono ancora diversi profili problematici che la Direttiva non affronta. L'elaborato si conclude, quindi, con una riflessione sulle problematiche irrisolte e sui possibili rimedi. Tra le questioni irrisolte che sembrano indebolire il sistema del private enforcement, significative e di particolare interesse risultano quelle legate al finanziamento delle azioni di classe. Le azioni di classe hanno, purtroppo, costi molto elevati. In particolare, chi propone un'azione di classe nei sistemi opt-in, oltre le tradizionali spese legali, deve sostenere i costi per dare pubblicità alla classe e per raccogliere le adesioni dei consumatori interessati a partecipare all'azione. E fra tutti i possibili rimedi, anche alla luce delle proposte ed iniziative adottate nei sistemi di private enforcement più evoluti per garantire l'accesso alla giustizia dei consumatori, nell'elaborato si privilegia proprio la soluzione (più discussa e controversa, ma che appare anche la più efficace) del finanziamento delle azioni di classe da parte di terzi. ; Dottorato di ricerca in Diritto ed Economia: interessi rilevanti e tutele (XXVI.Ciclo)

AMÉRICA LATINA Extraditaron al ex dictador Noriega a Panamá.Para más información: http://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2011/12/11/9363044-noriega-returns-to-panama-a-largely-forgotten-man http://edition.cnn.com/2011/12/11/world/americas/panama-noriega extradition/index.html?hpt=wo_bn8 http://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2011/12/11/9363044-noriega-returns-to-panama-a-largely-forgotten-man http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/12/11/actualidad/1323622374_869378.html http://diario.elmercurio.com/2011/12/13/internacional/internacional/noticias/5F8EF8AB-4C15-4B2A-85E1-196B75695E82.htm?id={5F8EF8AB-4C15-4B2A-85E1-196B75695E82} http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/noriega-llega-a-panam_10909712-4 http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-noriega-panama-20111212,0,5355654.story Críticas y presiones tras el cambio de gabinete en Perú.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/14/world/americas/panamas-bursts-of-growth-have-yet-to-banish-old-ghosts.html?ref=world&gwh=AF023A30F1B4990E0836A0102C796FFE http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/12/11/actualidad/1323561684_943905.html http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1432203-criticas-y-presiones-tras-el-cambio-de-gabinete-en-peru http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/primer-ministro-peruano-afirma-que-nuevo-gabinete-ser-tcnico_10910178-4Chile lidera la reacción de América Latina a la crisis de la deuda europea.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/12/11/actualidad/1323635144_142067.htmlEstados Unidos busca explotar nueva zona de petróleo en Golfo de México.Para más información: http://www.lemonde.fr/ameriques/article/2011/12/13/une-nouvelle-exploitation-de-petrole-dans-le-golfe-du-mexique_1618164_3222.html http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/815996.htmlTerremoto de 6,5 grados de magnitud deja tres muertos en México.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/temblor-en-mxico_10909092-4El candidato a la presidencia de México afirma que el PRI "confía en su fortaleza".Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/12/10/actualidad/1323540576_290724.htmlEscasez de alimentos preocupa al gobierno venezolano.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/12/13/world/americas/venezuela-food-shortages/index.html?hpt=wo_bn8México: 60.000 muertos en la lucha contra los narcos.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1432490-mexico-60000-muertos-en-la-lucha-contra-los-narcosCristina Fernández comienza su segundo mandato con el control de ambas cámaras del Parlamento.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/12/10/actualidad/1323516520_811577.html Detenido uno de los fundadores del cartel mexicano de Los Zetas.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/12/13/world/americas/mexico-trafficker-arrested/index.html?hpt=wo_bn8http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/12/13/actualidad/1323746142_900607.html http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1432492-cae-uno-de-los-fundadores-del-cartel-de-los-zetasPesadilla de la corrupción le quita el sueño a la presidenta Roussef.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/la-pesadilla-de-la-corrupcin-le-quita-el-sueo-a-dilma-rousseff_10909060-4Chávez lanza nuevos planes sociales.Para más información: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2011-12/14/content_14265242.htm"El País" de Madrid entrevista al vicepresidente del Banco Mundial: "Latinoamérica está mejor preparada para la crisis".Para más información: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/economia/global/Latinoamerica/mejor/preparada/crisis/elpepueconeg/20111211elpnegeco_5/TesAmérica Latina debate sobre el desarrollo de la minería.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/la-minera-prende-a-amrica-latina_10909038-4ESTADOS UNIDOS / CANADÁMiles de indignados llevan su protesta a los puertos de la costa oeste de Estados Unidos.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/12/13/actualidad/1323762246_208474.htmlCanadá abandonó Protocolo de Kioto para no pagar multas por emisiones.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/12/12/world/americas/canada-climate-kyoto/index.html?hpt=wo_c2 http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/canada/canad-abandon-protocolo-de-kioto-para-no-pagar-multas-por-emisiones_10912104-4 http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/815994.html http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2011-12/14/content_14265242.htmPaul Krugman analiza: "La depresión y el fantasma del autoritarismo".Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/12/opinion/krugman-depression-and-democracy.html?_r=1&ref=paulkrugmanEstados Unidos completará su retiro de Irak antes del 31 de diciembre.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/ee-uu-completar-retiro-de-irak-antes-del-31-de-diciembre_10910080-4 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1432699-el-costo-de-nueve-anos-de-guerra-en-irakObama: "El futuro de Irak quedará en manos de su pueblo".Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1432660-obama-el-futuro-de-irak-quedara-en-manos-de-su-puebloNueva ley en Estados Unidos cambiaría sistema de petición de visas de trabajo.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/nueva-ley-en-eeuu-cambiaria-sistema-de-peticion-de-visas-de-trabajo_10913030-4El número de entradas ilegales a Estados Unidos desde México roza mínimos históricos.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/12/13/actualidad/1323799532_169608.htmlPresidente Obama exige a Irán la devolución de avión espía. Para más información: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2011/12/13/internacional/internacional/noticias/4EFB23E4-A477-4588-8733-69E2221815F0.htm?id={4EFB23E4-A477-4588-8733-69E2221815F0}Estados Unidos espera invertir en Sudan del Sur. Para más información: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2011-12/14/content_14261941.htmEUROPAEl multimillonario ruso Mijaíl Prójorov retará a Putin en las presidenciales.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/14/world/europe/russian-journalists-at-kommersant-vlast-axed-after-tough-election-coverage.html?ref=world&gwh=778A176A272EB2F0EA548E9B51433ECE http://diario.elmercurio.com/2011/12/13/internacional/internacional/noticias/B9B15DCF-213C-4899-B7AF-C1B1E4BDE5C0.htm?id={B9B15DCF-213C-4899-B7AF-C1B1E4BDE5C0} http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/12/12/actualidad/1323699013_824507.html http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-russia-prokhorov-20111213,0,2354878.story http://edition.cnn.com/2011/12/12/world/europe/russia-protests/index.html?hpt=wo_bn9Crisis en Rusia: renunció el presidente de la Duma aliado de Putin.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1432604-crisis-en-rusia-renuncio-el-presidente-de-la-duma-aliado-de-putinSerbia debe elegir entre Kosovo y Europa.Para más información: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2011-12/14/content_14263132.htmSuman cinco muertos y 122 heridos tras ataque en Bélgica.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-16172662 http://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2011/12/13/9412808-man-kills-4-injures-122-in-grenade-gun-attack-in-belgium http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/14/world/europe/deadly-grenade-attack-reported-in-belgium.html?ref=world&gwh=AF8038F9380EF1DFF959B73F8929A65A http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2011-12/14/content_14260452.htm http://edition.cnn.com/2011/12/13/world/europe/belgium-attack/index.html?hpt=wo_c2 http://www.lemonde.fr/europe/article/2011/12/14/fusillade-de-liege-la-police-decouvre-le-corps-d-une-femme-chez-le-tireur_1618169_3214.html http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-belgium-gunman-20111214,0,7775911.story"El Tiempo" de Colombia analiza: "Europa y el futuro del esquema de bloques económicos".Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/europa-y-el-futuro-del-esquema-de-bloques-economicos_10912006-4Los mercados dudan de la nueva Europa y la castigan.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1432247-cont-los-mercados-dudan-de-la-nueva-europa http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/reino-unido-se-queda-solo-en-rechazo-al-pacto-europeo-contra-la-crisis_10906912-4Gran Bretaña no se adhiere al nuevo pacto fiscal europeo.Para más información: http://www.economist.com/blogs/charlemagne/2011/12/britain-and-eu-summit http://diario.elmercurio.com/2011/12/13/internacional/_portada/noticias/FBF039D8-EA83-4C9B-98E2-2B0680700EE8.htm?id={FBF039D8-EA83-4C9B-98E2-2B0680700EE8} http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/12/12/actualidad/1323675950_054837.html http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/12/10/actualidad/1323544802_420902.html http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/14/world/europe/european-commission-chief-assails-david-cameron-over-treaty-veto.html?ref=world&gwh=1167F9985D321BADD60B8B6E6355918B http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-euro-cameron-20111213,0,1921346.storyCameron, blanco de las críticas de la Unión Europea.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-16156183 http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/crisis-de-la-unin-europea_10910254-4 http://diario.elmercurio.com/2011/12/13/internacional/internacional/noticias/D3D539E0-F048-45A8-8C9A-6F81D5C4B3DC.htm?id={D3D539E0-F048-45A8-8C9A-6F81D5C4B3DC} http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/12/13/actualidad/1323771680_642075.html http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1432528-cameron-blanco-de-las-criticas-de-la-ueMerkel busca apoyo en una dividida Alemania.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1432529-merkel-busca-apoyo-en-una-dividida-alemaniaLos socialistas franceses rechazan el triunfalismo de Sarkozy sobre la Unión Europea.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/12/12/actualidad/1323714608_914172.html Extremista asesina a dos inmigrantes en Italia.Para más información: http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/815830.htmlLos ajustes en Italia desatan la primera oleada de huelgas contra Monti.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1432310-italia-sin-la-mayoria-de-sus-diarios-por-la-primera-huelga-contra-monti http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/12/12/actualidad/1323720597_254400.html http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/14/world/europe/mario-monti-revises-italian-budget-measures.html?ref=world&gwh=5072BC37391FF88705D94F965380E1FCFondo Monetario Internacional insta a Grecia a implementar más medidas de austeridad.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/14/world/europe/greece-imf-official-urges-more-austerity.html?ref=world&gwh=61B9F47EAE34F52CFC7D95F34FDF734D http://www.lemonde.fr/crise-financiere/article/2011/12/13/le-fmi-exclut-un-nouveau-pret-a-la-grece-pour-le-moment_1618153_1581613.htmlASIA- PACÍFICO/ MEDIO ORIENTEVan 5.000 muertos y 14.000 presos en Siria, según la ONU.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-16166616 http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/nueva-jornada-de-protestas-en-siria-deja-5000-muertos_10911588-4 http://diario.elmercurio.com/2011/12/13/internacional/internacional/noticias/D8BA1151-2162-40FB-81BC-789A29E975DD.htm?id={D8BA1151-2162-40FB-81BC-789A29E975DD} http://edition.cnn.com/2011/12/13/world/meast/syria-unrest/index.html?hpt=wo_c2 http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/14/world/middleeast/more-than-30-are-killed-across-syria.html?ref=world&gwh=D64953B18A55C739219C0D1070A37ABFLa oposición siria reta a El Asad con una huelga durante las municipales.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/12/12/actualidad/1323692072_130661.htmlYemen captura factores claves de Al Qaeda en su región.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/12/13/world/meast/yemen-al-qaeda-captures/index.html?hpt=wo_c2Sismo de 6,1 grados sacudió la isla de Célebes, en norte de Indonesia.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/sismo-de-61-grados-sacudi-la-isla-de-clebes-en-norte-de-indonesia_10912145-4El partido de Aung San Suu Kyi podrá participar a las elecciones de Myanmar.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/29/actualidad/1319901028_878586.html http://edition.cnn.com/2011/12/13/world/asia/myanmar-nld-suu-kyi/index.html?hpt=wo_bn7Primer Ministro iraquí llama a las inversiones estadounidenses.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-16172886India: fuerte movilización del tercer sector contra la corrupción.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-16172942Irak deja en suspenso la ejecución de Tarek Aziz, hombre clave de SadamPara más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/12/08/actualidad/1323346790_008893.htmlAtentado a chiitas deja decenas de muertos en Afganistán. Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-afghanistan-bombings-20111207,0,4701392.story http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/14/world/asia/us-plans-afghan-shift-to-lessen-nato-combat-role.html?ref=world&gwh=D238C2401FC31B490223BD6AF9A8DB7CFilipinas arresta a ex oficial acusado de fraude electoral.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/14/world/asia/philippines-arrests-former-official-accused-of-election-fraud.html?ref=world&gwh=2B33D15E3777B039F6868A7DF5A8EBC3Cinco galardonados lanzan una campaña por la liberación del disidente chino Liu Xiaobo.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/12/13/actualidad/1323795246_365163.htmlhttp://behindthewall.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2011/12/13/9422733-chinese-artists-portraits-of-corruptionDesempleo en Corea del Sur cayó un 2.9%.Para más información: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2011-12/14/content_14265253.htmKuwait: un nuevo gobierno con pocas propuestas de cambios.Para más información: http://www.lemonde.fr/proche-orient/article/2011/12/13/koweit-un-nouveau-gouvernement-sans-grand-changement_1618161_3218.html Irak quiere actuar como intermediario en crisis siria.Para más información: http://www.lemonde.fr/proche-orient/article/2011/12/13/l-irak-veut-jouer-les-intermediaires-dans-la-crise-syrienne_1618162_3218.htmlÁFRICAViolencia en las elecciones de Congo.Para más información: http://www.economist.com/node/21541447 http://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2011/12/10/9355085-congo-election-spurs-violence-at-home-in-londonTúnez: defensor de derechos humanos fue elegido presidente.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/12/12/actualidad/1323718658_453258.html http://diario.elmercurio.com/2011/12/13/internacional/internacional/noticias/E245DC1E-56BA-402E-B4BF-A4D2AD20533F.htm?id={E245DC1E-56BA-402E-B4BF-A4D2AD20533F} http://edition.cnn.com/2011/12/13/world/meast/tunisia-president/index.html?hpt=wo_c2Egipcios comienzan a votar en segunda fase de elecciones legislativas.Para más información: http://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2011/12/13/egypte-20-000-prisonniers-politiques-liberes-depuis-fevrier_1618146_3212.html http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-16172151 http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/africa/segunda-fase-de-elecciones-legislativas-en-egipto_10913505-4 http://www.lemonde.fr/international/article/2011/12/14/reprise-des-operations-de-vote-dans-un-tiers-de-l-egypte_1618190_3210.htmlEgipto: crece la tensión entre militares y la Hermandad Musulmana. Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/12/08/world/africa/egypt-elections/index.html?hpt=wo_bn10 http://edition.cnn.com/2011/12/13/opinion/elgindy-egypt-elections/index.html?hpt=wo_bn10 http://sn118w.snt118.mail.live.com/default.aspx#!/mail/InboxLight.aspx?n=516954200!fid=1&fav=1&n=838886258&cv=1 Alarmantes índices de mortalidad en África central.Para más información: http://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2011/12/13/en-centrafrique-un-taux-de-mortalite-au-dessus-du-seuil-d-urgence_1618140_3212.htmlOTRAS NOTICIAS"El manifestante" es el personaje del año de la revista Time.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1432640-el-manifestante-es-el-personaje-del-ano-de-la-revista-timeLogran salvar la cumbre mundial de cambio climático.Para más información: http://www.economist.com/blogs/newsbook/2011/12/climate-change-0 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1431898-logran-salvar-la-cumbre-mundial-de-cambio-climatico http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/africa/cumbre-climtica-pospone-decisin-clave-para-el-2015_10909914-477 http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/africa/cumbre-de-durban-sobre-cambio-climtico_10908365-4 http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-climate-change-20111204,0,7204452.story http://edition.cnn.com/2011/12/11/world/south-africa-climate-pact/index.html?hpt=wo_bn1 Fuerte terremoto en Papúa Nueva Guinea.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1432601-fuerte-terremoto-en-papua-nueva-guinea"El Universal" presenta su portal dedicado al cambio climático.Para más información: http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/coberturas/cobertura3.html"The Economist" presenta su informe semanal: "Business this week".Para más información: http://www.economist.com/node/21541465

This paper analyzes a set of environmental conditions that influence the development of Technology Based Enterprises (TBCs) in innovation-based and efficiency-based economies. The existing literature on this phenomenon is reviewed and data from the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) is used. Exploratory factorial analysis is handled out with the application of the Varimax Orthogonal Rotation method. The study concludes that some of the factors identified are influential in certain economic environments for the consolidation of EBT's, particularly in innovative economies. Keywords: Entrepreneurship, technological base, efficient, innovative. URL:http://revistas.uta.edu.ec/erevista/index.php/bcoyu/article/view/883 DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.31164/bcoyu.24.2020.883 References: Acs, Z. J., Audretsch, D. B., & Lehmann, E. E. (2013). The knowledge spillover theory of entrepreneurship. Small Business Economics, 41(4), 757-774. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-013-9505-9 Alarcón, M. A., & Díaz, C. del C. (2016). La empresa de base tecnológica y su contribución a la economía mexicana en el periodo 2004-2009. Contaduría y Administración, 61(1), 106-126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cya.2015.09.004 An, H. J., & Ahn, S. J. (2016). Emerging technologies—beyond the chasm: Assessing technological forecasting and its implication for innovation management in Korea. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 102, 132-142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2015.06.015 Aportela, I. (2015). La información como recurso estratégico en las empresas de base tecnológica. Revista General de Información y Documentación, 25(2). https://doi.org/10.5209/rev_RGID.2015.v25.n2.51238 Barrientos, E., Quiroz, L., & López, W. (2017). Factores influyentes para el emprendimiento en tecnologías de la información y comunicación para economías de Latinoamérica vs economías de Europa y Norte América. Gestión de la innovación para la competitividad, 1-17. Bertoni, F., Martt, J., & Reverte, C. (2017). The Impact of Government-Supported Participative Loans on Employment Growth in Entrepreneurial Ventures. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3088072 Binsawad, M., Sohaib, O., & Hawryszkiewycz, I. (2019). Factors impacting techology business incubator Performance. International Journal of Innovation Management, 23(01), 1950007. https://doi.org/10.1142/S1363919619500075 Borini, F., Ribeiro, F., & Miranda, M. (2017). The internationalisation of new technology-based firms from emerging markets. 23-41. Brüne, N., & Lutz, E. (2019). The effect of entrepreneurship education in schools on entrepreneurial outcomes: A systematic review. Management Review Quarterly. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11301-019-00168-3 Brunet, I., & Alarcón, A. (2004). Teorías sobre la figura del emprendedor. Papers. Revista de Sociologia, 73, 81. https://doi.org/10.5565/rev/papers/v73n0.1108 College, B., & Park, B. (2017). Global Entrepreneurship Monitor report. 155. Colovic, A., & Lamotte, O. (2015). Technological Environment and Technology Entrepreneurship: A Cross-Country Analysis: Technological Environment and Technology Entrepreneurship. Creativity and Innovation Management, 24(4), 617-628. https://doi.org/10.1111/caim.12133 Cooper, S. (2006). Exploring the pre-entrepreneurial careers of high-technology entrepreneurs. International Journal of Continuing Engineering Education and Life-Long Learning, 16(5), 341. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJCEELL.2006.010957 Costantini, V., & Crespi, F. (2015). European enlargement policy, technological capabilities and sectoral export dynamics. The Journal of Technology Transfer, 40(1), 25-69. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10961-013-9307-x Cunningham, J. A., Lehmann, E. E., Menter, M., & Seitz, N. (2019). The impact of university focused technology transfer policies on regional innovation and entrepreneurship. The Journal of Technology Transfer. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10961-019-09733-0 De los Ríos, S., Rodríguez, I., & Sáenz, R. (2015). Emprendedores y capital riesgo en España: El caso de Fond-ICO Global. Revista Icade. Revista de las Facultades de Derecho y Ciencias Económicas y Empresariales, 0(94), 31. https://doi.org/10.14422/icade.i94.y2015.002 Díaz, E., Souto, J., & Tejeiro, M. (2013). Nuevas empresas de base tecnológica. Netbiblo, S. L. https://www.madrimasd.org/uploads/informacionidi/biblioteca/publicacion/doc/Nebts3.pdf Etemad, H. (2016). Special Thematic Issue on: International Interactions and Activities of University-Based Technology Entrepreneurship. Journal of International Entrepreneurship, 14(3), 277-284. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10843-016-0189-5 García, A. M., García, M. G., & Olivares, A. (2018). Entrepreneurs' Resources, Technology Strategy, and New Technology-Based Firms' Performance. Journal of Small Business Management. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsbm.12411 Guercio, M., Martinez, L., & Vigier, H. (2017). Las limitaciones al financiamiento bancario de las Pymes de alta tecnología. Estudios Gerenciales, 33(142), 3-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.estger.2017.02.001 Gutiérrez Olvera, S. (2018). Emprendimiento en las empresas familiares / Entrepreneurship in family businesses. RICEA Revista Iberoamericana de Contaduría, Economía y Administración, 4(7), 163. https://doi.org/10.23913/ricea.v4i7.119 Harbi, S. E., & Anderson, A. R. (2010). Institutions and the shaping of different forms of entrepreneurship. The Journal of Socio-Economics, 39(3), 436-444. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socec.2010.02.011 Hernández, I., Álvarez, R., Blanco, C., & Carvajal, A. (2014). El ascenso de la "mano invisible": Análisis para el surgimiento de un mercado formal de financiación para empresas de base tecnológica (ebt) en Colombia. FACE: Revista de la Facultad de Ciencias Económicas y Empresariales, 13(1), 5–32. Huang, Y., Audretsch, D. B., & Hewitt, M. (2013). Chinese technology transfer policy: The case of the national independent innovation demonstration zone of East Lake. The Journal of Technology Transfer, 38(6), 828-835. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10961-012-9292-5 harbiKirwan, P., Sijde, P., & Groen, A. (2006). Assessing the needs of new technology based firms (NTBFs): An investigation among spin-off companies from six European Universities. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 2(2), 173-187. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-006-8683-1 Kuratko, D. F., & Menter, M. (2017). The Role of Public Policy in Fostering Technology-Based Nascent Entrepreneurship. En J. A. Cunningham & C. O'Kane (Eds.), Technology-Based Nascent Entrepreneurship (pp. 19-52). Palgrave Macmillan US. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-59594-2_2 Larsen, M., Vigier, H. P., Guercio, M. B., & Briozzo, A. E. (2014). Financiamiento mediante obligaciones negociables. El problema de ser PyME. Visión de futuro, 18(2). http://visiondefuturo.fce.unam.edu.ar/index.php/visiondefuturo/article/viewFile/26/18 Lasso, S., Mainardes, E., & Motoki, F. (2017). Why do entrepreneurs open tech startups? A comparative study between Brazilian and foreign enterprises. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-017-0445-8 Lecluyse, L., Knockaert, M., & Spithoven, A. (2018). The contribution of science parks: A literature review and future research agenda. The Journal of Technology Transfer. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10961-018-09712-x Lima, R. (2016). Economic Growth and Human Capital in the Post-Knowledge Era: A Focus on Positive Externalities and Spillover Effects of Knowledge in Italy and the Emergency of the Less Developed Areas. Journal of Industrial Integration and Management, 01(03), 1650010. https://doi.org/10.1142/S242486221650010X Lloret, S., Ferreres, A., Hernández, A., & Tomás, I. (2014). El análisis factorial exploratorio de los ítems: Una guía práctica, revisada y actualizada. Anales de Psicología, 30(3), 1151-1169. https://doi.org/10.6018/analesps.30.3.199361 Löfsten, H. (2016). Business and innovation resources: Determinants for the survival of new technology-based firms. Management Decision, 54(1), 88-106. https://doi.org/10.1108/MD-04-2015-0139 Maculan, A.-M., Hernández, C. N. J., & Domínguez, O. F. C. (2015). Aprendizaje en el proceso de incubación de empresas de base tecnológica. Económicas CUC, 36(1), 9-26. http://dx.doi.org/10.17981/econcuc.36.1.2015.21 Malhotra, N. K. (2008). Investigación de mercados. Pearson Educación. McAdam, M., & Marlow, S. (2011). Sense and sensibility: The role of business incubator client advisors in assisting high-technology entrepreneurs to make sense of investment readiness status. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 23(7-8), 449-468. https://doi.org/10.1080/08985620903406749 Mian, S., Lamine, W., & Fayolle, A. (2016). Technology Business Incubation: An overview of the state of knowledge. Technovation, 50-51, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.technovation.2016.02.005 Ramaciotti, L., Muscio, A., & Rizzo, U. (2017). The impact of hard and soft policy measures on new technology-based firms. Regional Studies, 51(4), 629-642. https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2016.1255319 Ramírez, M., & Fernández, M. (2018). Unravelling the effects of Science Parks on the innovation performance of NTBFs. The Journal of Technology Transfer, 43(2), 482-505. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10961-017-9559-y Sempere, F., & Hervás, J. L. (2014). Innovación tecnológica y no tecnológica: Efectos complementarios en la performance empresarial. Economía Industrial, 2014, 71-76. https://riunet.upv.es/handle/10251/51948 Shane, S. (2012). Reflections on the 2010 AMD Decade Award: Delivering on the Promise of Entrepreneurship As a Field of Research. Academy of Management Review, 37(1), 10-20. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2011.0078 Torrecilla, J. A., Skotnicka, A. G., & Tous, D. (2017a). Dimensiones que afectan a los emprendedores tecnológicos: El auge de las nuevas empresas de base tecnológica. 1-10. http://www.revistaespacios.com/a18v39n11/a18v39n11p16.pdf Vereinte Nationen (Ed.). (2018). Frontier technologies for sustainable development. United Nations. Vicens, L., & Grullon, S. (2011). Innovación y emprendimiento. Un modelo basado en el desarrollo del emprendedor. Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo, 1-31. https://publications.iadb.org/es/publicacion/15039/innovacion-y-emprendimiento-un-modelo-basado-en-el-desarrollo-del-emprendedor Xiao, L., & North, D. (2017). The graduation performance of technology business incubators in China's three tier cities: The role of incubator funding, technical support, and entrepreneurial mentoring. The Journal of Technology Transfer, 42(3), 615-634. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10961-016-9493-4 Zapata, G., López, S. F., Vivel, M., Neira, I., & Rodeiro, D. (2014). El emprendimiento de base tecnológica; características diferenciales. 2-21. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284545728_El_emprendimiento_de_base_tecnologica_caracteristicas_diferenciales Zapata, Á. R. P., & Morales, L. I. R. (2016). Innovación y emprendimiento en América Latina Desafíos y oportunidades de la región para sumarse a la sociedad del conocimiento: México. 23. Zapata, G., Fernández, S., & Neira, I. (2018). El emprendimiento tecnológico en Suramérica: Una aproximación a sus determinantes individuales. Perfiles Latinoamericanos, 26(52), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.18504/pl2652-003-2018 Zea, M. P. C., Fonseca, M. P., Pérez, R. A., Bermeo, M. R., & Molina, X. C. (2016). Emprendimientos Informáticos: Una mirada desde la Universidad del Siglo XXI. Revista Didasc@ lia: Didáctica y Educación. ISSN 2224-2643, 7(3), 153–158. Zhang, H., & Sonobe, T. (2011). Business Incubators in China: An Inquiry into the Variables Associated with Incubatee Success. Economics: The Open-Access, Open-Assessment E-Journal, 5(2011-7), 1. https://doi.org/10.5018/economics-ejournal.ja.2011-7 ; El presente trabajo analiza un conjunto de condiciones del entorno que influyen en el desarrollo de Emprendimientos de Base Tecnológica (EBT) en economías basadas en innovación y en economías basadas en eficiencia. Se realiza una revisión de la literatura existente respecto a este fenómeno y se utilizan los datos del Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM). Se lleva a cabo análisis factorial exploratorio con la aplicación del método de Rotación Ortogonal Varimax. El estudio concluye que algunos de los factores identificados resultan influyentes en determinados entornos económicos para la consolidación de los EBT's, particularmente en las economías innovadoras. Palabras clave: Emprendimiento, base tecnológica, eficientes, innovadoras. URL:http://revistas.uta.edu.ec/erevista/index.php/bcoyu/article/view/883 DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.31164/bcoyu.24.2020.883 Referencias: Acs, Z. J., Audretsch, D. B., & Lehmann, E. E. (2013). The knowledge spillover theory of entrepreneurship. Small Business Economics, 41(4), 757-774. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-013-9505-9 Alarcón, M. A., & Díaz, C. del C. (2016). La empresa de base tecnológica y su contribución a la economía mexicana en el periodo 2004-2009. Contaduría y Administración, 61(1), 106-126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cya.2015.09.004 An, H. J., & Ahn, S. J. (2016). Emerging technologies—beyond the chasm: Assessing technological forecasting and its implication for innovation management in Korea. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 102, 132-142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2015.06.015 Aportela, I. (2015). La información como recurso estratégico en las empresas de base tecnológica. Revista General de Información y Documentación, 25(2). https://doi.org/10.5209/rev_RGID.2015.v25.n2.51238 Barrientos, E., Quiroz, L., & López, W. (2017). Factores influyentes para el emprendimiento en tecnologías de la información y comunicación para economías de Latinoamérica vs economías de Europa y Norte América. Gestión de la innovación para la competitividad, 1-17. Bertoni, F., Martt, J., & Reverte, C. (2017). The Impact of Government-Supported Participative Loans on Employment Growth in Entrepreneurial Ventures. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3088072 Binsawad, M., Sohaib, O., & Hawryszkiewycz, I. (2019). Factors impacting techology business incubator Performance. International Journal of Innovation Management, 23(01), 1950007. https://doi.org/10.1142/S1363919619500075 Borini, F., Ribeiro, F., & Miranda, M. (2017). The internationalisation of new technology-based firms from emerging markets. 23-41. Brüne, N., & Lutz, E. (2019). The effect of entrepreneurship education in schools on entrepreneurial outcomes: A systematic review. Management Review Quarterly. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11301-019-00168-3 Brunet, I., & Alarcón, A. (2004). Teorías sobre la figura del emprendedor. Papers. Revista de Sociologia, 73, 81. https://doi.org/10.5565/rev/papers/v73n0.1108 College, B., & Park, B. (2017). Global Entrepreneurship Monitor report. 155. Colovic, A., & Lamotte, O. (2015). Technological Environment and Technology Entrepreneurship: A Cross-Country Analysis: Technological Environment and Technology Entrepreneurship. Creativity and Innovation Management, 24(4), 617-628. https://doi.org/10.1111/caim.12133 Cooper, S. (2006). Exploring the pre-entrepreneurial careers of high-technology entrepreneurs. International Journal of Continuing Engineering Education and Life-Long Learning, 16(5), 341. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJCEELL.2006.010957 Costantini, V., & Crespi, F. (2015). European enlargement policy, technological capabilities and sectoral export dynamics. The Journal of Technology Transfer, 40(1), 25-69. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10961-013-9307-x Cunningham, J. A., Lehmann, E. E., Menter, M., & Seitz, N. (2019). The impact of university focused technology transfer policies on regional innovation and entrepreneurship. The Journal of Technology Transfer. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10961-019-09733-0 De los Ríos, S., Rodríguez, I., & Sáenz, R. (2015). Emprendedores y capital riesgo en España: El caso de Fond-ICO Global. Revista Icade. Revista de las Facultades de Derecho y Ciencias Económicas y Empresariales, 0(94), 31. https://doi.org/10.14422/icade.i94.y2015.002 Díaz, E., Souto, J., & Tejeiro, M. (2013). Nuevas empresas de base tecnológica. Netbiblo, S. L. https://www.madrimasd.org/uploads/informacionidi/biblioteca/publicacion/doc/Nebts3.pdf Etemad, H. (2016). Special Thematic Issue on: International Interactions and Activities of University-Based Technology Entrepreneurship. Journal of International Entrepreneurship, 14(3), 277-284. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10843-016-0189-5 García, A. M., García, M. G., & Olivares, A. (2018). Entrepreneurs' Resources, Technology Strategy, and New Technology-Based Firms' Performance. Journal of Small Business Management. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsbm.12411 Guercio, M., Martinez, L., & Vigier, H. (2017). Las limitaciones al financiamiento bancario de las Pymes de alta tecnología. Estudios Gerenciales, 33(142), 3-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.estger.2017.02.001 Gutiérrez Olvera, S. (2018). Emprendimiento en las empresas familiares / Entrepreneurship in family businesses. RICEA Revista Iberoamericana de Contaduría, Economía y Administración, 4(7), 163. https://doi.org/10.23913/ricea.v4i7.119 Harbi, S. E., & Anderson, A. R. (2010). Institutions and the shaping of different forms of entrepreneurship. The Journal of Socio-Economics, 39(3), 436-444. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socec.2010.02.011 Hernández, I., Álvarez, R., Blanco, C., & Carvajal, A. (2014). El ascenso de la "mano invisible": Análisis para el surgimiento de un mercado formal de financiación para empresas de base tecnológica (ebt) en Colombia. FACE: Revista de la Facultad de Ciencias Económicas y Empresariales, 13(1), 5–32. Huang, Y., Audretsch, D. B., & Hewitt, M. (2013). Chinese technology transfer policy: The case of the national independent innovation demonstration zone of East Lake. The Journal of Technology Transfer, 38(6), 828-835. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10961-012-9292-5 harbiKirwan, P., Sijde, P., & Groen, A. (2006). Assessing the needs of new technology based firms (NTBFs): An investigation among spin-off companies from six European Universities. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 2(2), 173-187. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-006-8683-1 Kuratko, D. F., & Menter, M. (2017). The Role of Public Policy in Fostering Technology-Based Nascent Entrepreneurship. En J. A. Cunningham & C. O'Kane (Eds.), Technology-Based Nascent Entrepreneurship (pp. 19-52). Palgrave Macmillan US. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-59594-2_2 Larsen, M., Vigier, H. P., Guercio, M. B., & Briozzo, A. E. (2014). Financiamiento mediante obligaciones negociables. El problema de ser PyME. Visión de futuro, 18(2). http://visiondefuturo.fce.unam.edu.ar/index.php/visiondefuturo/article/viewFile/26/18 Lasso, S., Mainardes, E., & Motoki, F. (2017). Why do entrepreneurs open tech startups? A comparative study between Brazilian and foreign enterprises. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-017-0445-8 Lecluyse, L., Knockaert, M., & Spithoven, A. (2018). The contribution of science parks: A literature review and future research agenda. The Journal of Technology Transfer. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10961-018-09712-x Lima, R. (2016). 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RIJEČ UREDNIŠTVANegativna medijska kampanja usmjerena protiv šumara, a posebice na predstavnike trgovačkog društva Hrvatske šume d.o.o., traje neprestano već nekoliko godina, a intenzivnije unatrag dvije godine. Sve je eskaliralo nedavno aferom s vjetroelektranom Krš-Pađene. Mediji su se brže-bolje natjecali tko će više oblatiti pojedinačne i kolektivne vinovnike događaja. Temeljem paušalnih analiza zamjeralo se Hrvatskim šumama svašta, od privremenog neplaćanja šumskog doprinosa gradovima i općinama (u vrijeme kompletnog zastoja države uvjetovanog epidemijom koronavirusa ta namjenska sredstva ionako nitko nije mogao trošiti na izgradnju i održavanje šumskih cesta) do pripreme podizanja kredita za likvidnost tvrtke, koja je u sklopu pomoći pristala na produljenje roka plaćanja drvne industrije za isporučenu sirovinu sa 60 na 100 dana od dana izdavanja računa za sve isporuke od početka 2020. godine. Primjedbe na korištenje valjda najpoznatijega parafiskalnog nameta u Hrvata za usluge općekorisnih funkcija šuma ne treba ni spominjati, jer nema bitnijeg poduzetnika ili bilo kojeg političara koji u cilju pomoći gospodarstvu ne spomene smanjenje ili ukidanje toga. Laicima nije ni poznato da su Hrvatske šume svojim kriznim planom u potpunosti izbacile ovaj način financiranja gospodarenja šumama za 2020. godinu. U vrijeme korona krize to su vjerojatno bili najispravniji poslovni potezi u cilju sačuvanja vlastite zaposlenosti, zaposlenosti kupaca i dobavljača, kao i likvidnosti tvrtke. Koga to zanima kad čitatelje zanimaju negativne vijesti i afere. Većini njih također nije poznato da se šumarstvo uvijek u kriznim vremenima pobrinulo samo za sebe, ali i za druge koje je nosilo na svojim plećima. U svim krizama šumarstvo je pomagalo drvnoj industriji, pa i otpisivalo dugove u raznim državama i uređenjima koji su vladali na našem prostoru, ali i snosilo posljedice objektivnih i subjektivnih poslovnih rizika aktera u drvnom sektoru.Moć objavljenih tekstova na mrežnim stranicama i društ­ve­nim mrežama je velika. U kratkom vremenu dopire do velikog broja čitatelja. Većina tekstova objavljuju se kao bom­bastični naslovi i podnaslovi. Čitanjem sadržaja tek upućenijem čitatelju je jasno što ne odgovara istini. Obično se prema kraju članka sadržaj ublažava, ali to pročitaju najuporniji čitatelji, dok im u percepciji ostaju negativne informacije iz naslova i s početka teksta. Na društvenim mrežama javljaju se mnogi od pojedinaca do udruga, a dosta njih i anonimno te pisanjem svojih komentara stvaraju negativno ozračje o šumarskoj struci. Čitajući brojne napise stječe se dojam da su šumari jedan od većih problema Lijepe naše.Bolji poznavatelji prilika priznat će da je šumarstvo uz poljoprivredu nositelj opstanka preostalih ruralnih krajeva. Šumarstvo koje je najzastupljenije u ruralnim i manje razvijenim područjima osigurava egzistenciju zaposlenicima Hrvatskih šuma, zaposlenicima brojnih izvoditelja radova u šumarstvu te tvrtki i obrta u drvnom sektoru, posredno svima koji prodaju svoje proizvode drvnim tvrtkama, a čuvar je najvećeg dijela ekološke mreže Republike Hrvatske. Kroz zaštitu šuma i šumskih zemljišta od požara na krškom području važna je karika sačuvanja bioraznolikosti države, ali i kulise koja pomaže hrvatskoj grani gospodarstva od posebnog interesa – turizmu. U vrijeme Domovinskog rata šumarstvo je umjesto države gradilo i ceste kako bi povezalo dijelove Republike Hrvatske, gdje su nekada stanovnici putovali preko susjednih do matične države.U dragoj nam Hrvatskoj domovini danas postoji osam nacionalnih parkova i 11 parkova prirode u kojima je većina temeljnih fenomena šuma. Zaštita prirode u biti je sačuvana područja preuzela na upravljanje od šumara. Da se na tim područjima nije gospodarilo uz šumarske postulate i s ekološkim obzirom, ne bi se danas dičili s parkovima kao što su Plitvička jezera, Risnjak, Sjeverni Velebit ili Mljet. U krškom dijelu Hrvatske, gdje se nalazi većina zaštićenih parkova, nikad nije nestalo šume upravo zbog dva i pol stoljetnog gospodarenja s njom. Današnje generacije se ne sjećaju izgleda šuma u prijašnjim razdobljima. Većina najvrjednijih šuma hrasta lužnjaka posječena je kompletno između 1820-ih i 1920-ih godina. Danas stasaju nove generacije tih uzgojenih šuma koje su u biti proizvod hrvatskih šumara. Nakon Drugoga svjetskog rata sjeklo se količinski skoro kao i danas, jer nije bilo drugih resursa pa se država obnavljala i dolazila do potrebnih financijskih sredstava. Uz sve to zahvaljujući mudrosti i radu više generacija šumara, današnja je pokrivenost države pod šumama 44 posto, a sa šumskim zemljištima i 49 posto. Nažalost, većina javnosti ne može shvatiti pojam vječnih šuma koje nisu stalno u istoj dobi, jer jednako kao i druga bića imaju svoje razvojne stadije. Njihova vječnost se proteže kroz slijed generacija šume. Sječa starih zrelih šumskih sastojina preduvjet je nove generacija šume kojoj se svi iskreni šumari najviše vesele, jer je uspješno napravljena smjena generacija i sačuvana opstojnost šume na istoj površini. Taj prijelaz je u nizinskim šumama vidljiviji, no postoje i gorske šume na kojima se tako očiti prijelaz ne vidi, pa to i promatračima manje upada u oko.Neupućeni ili zlonamjerni ne znaju ili zaboravljaju na desetljetne pritiske ponajprije na državno šumarstvo radi pogodovanja pojedincima i tvrtkama u cilju podizanja nekad više maslinika i vinograda, a danas više gradnji vjetroelektrana i pašarenja na obraslim i neobraslim šumskim zemljištima. Hrvatski šumari baštine pojam potrajnog gospodarenja, pojma danas poznatijeg kao održivo gospodarenja, kojim su se borili da se površine pod šumom ne smanjuju. Tako, ako se u funkciji razvoja kojemu se nitko pametan neće protiviti ako je održiv i racionalan, negdje i krče šume radi prenamjene odobrene prostornim planom, smanjena površina pod šumama se nadoknađuje podizanjem nove šume na drugom mjestu. Koliko god se državno šumarstvo najčešće smatralo kočničarem razvoja, ono je zapravo bilo branitelj zakonskog djelovanja, dok su često pa i danas neki investitori, ali i državne institucije, vršili pritisak ubrzavajući proceduru u svoju korist bez pravne podloge. Hrvatske šume d.o.o. sa svim svojim prednostima i manama samo su dio slike koju danas imamo u Republici Hrvatskoj. Način kadroviranja i upravljanja jednak je kao i u ostalim javnim poduzećima i trgovačkim društvima u većinskom državnom vlasništvu. Kao u svakoj struci postoje previdi i pogreške, ali postulati hrvatskoga šumarstva su isprobani i dokazani kroz više od 250 godina. Današnje manje kvalitetne izvedbe u pojedinim šumama posljedica su raznih faktora i ne razlikuju se od pogrešaka koje se u svim djelatnostima događaju (zar se djelomično pogrešno ne obavi operacija, sagradi zgrada ili sastavi stroj?). Čak i u recentnom slučaju s vjetroelektranom Krš-Pađene Hrvatske šume d.o.o. pozitivno su odradile svoju zadaću naplatom duga investitoru za služnost ') INSERT INTO slTekst VALUES('202002290',2,'HR','u iznosu prema pravilniku važećem u vremenu pokretanja investicije. Hrvatske šume većinom su u svom djelovanju između čekića i nakovnja, s jedne strane pritisak korisnika drvne sirovine za što većom sječom i proizvedenom i plasiranom količinom ili korisnika prostora preko služnosti ili zakupa, a s druge strane sve veći pritisak za zaštitom staništa i jedinki što usložnjava i poskupljuje proizvodnju.Resorno ministarstvo, koje osim što je krajem 2011. godine prvi put nakon 1919. godine ispustilo u svom imenu naziv šumarstva, uz taj simbolički čin postalo je maćeha vlastitom čedu, budući resorni ministar/ministrica kao jednočlana skupština trgovačkog društva Hrvatske šume d.o.o. svojim nalozima prema upravi toga Društva djeluju u korist svih aspiranata na sve vrste proizvoda i usluga iz šume i šumskoga zemljišta. Tako se najvrjedniji trupci prodaju po dogovornim cijenama, koje već dugi niz godina nisu usklađene s tržišnim, čak ni s manje razvijenim susjednim zemljama, ogrjevno drvo i drvni ostaci se prodaju po dugogodišnjim ugovorima, bez obzira na promjene tržišnih uvjeta, a neobraslo šumsko zemljište, čak i tartufi, moraju se prepustiti svakome tko zaželi, čak i ako se ne pridržava zakonske regulative.Hrvatsko šumarsko društvo učestalo ističe politizaciju cijeloga sustava kao jedan od najvećih problema našega društva. Politike mijenjaju kompletne Uprave društva, garnirane s većom ili manjom kvotom uhljeba, svake četiri godine, a ponekad i u kraćim terminima. Tako postavljena vodstva dužna su provoditi naloge te iste politike, pa bile one i protuzakonite. Na taj se način tvrtke, kao u našem slučaju Hrvatske šume d.o.o., povlače po medijima kao kriminalne organizacije, ili se čak protiv njih organiziraju javni prosvjedi. Kako se pritom osjećaju zaposlenici, naše kolege koji s ljubavlju i odgovorno obavljaju svoj posao, možemo naslutiti?Prateći sva zbivanja postoji bojazan da se ne priprema teren kako bi se državne šume dale u koncesiju nakon što se trgovačko društvo Hrvatske šume proglase nesposobnim za upravljanje. Na brojnim primjerima poznato je kako koncesije uglavnom donose samo eksploataciju bez ulaganja u šume. Većina europskih država bogatih šumama imaju jake svoje državne tvrtke za gospodarenje državnim šumama i čuvari su tih šuma, ali i prostora kao i života na njima.Svrha ovoga teksta nije obrana bilo koga unaprijed, jer o nečijoj nevinosti i krivnji odlučivat će institucije kojima je to posao. U državi gdje se vode mnoge besplodne rasprave, koje se većinom tiču prošlosti, treba početi racionalnije sagledavati sadašnjost i ne povoditi se za huškačkom histerijom. Potrebno je popuštati okove politike i prepuštati struci da radi ono što najbolje zna, a to je u šumarstvu gospodarenje šumama i šumskim zemljištima. Uredništvo ; EDITORIALThe negative media campaign directed against foresters, and particularly against the representatives of the company Croatian Forests Ltd, has been going on for several years and has gained in intensity in the past two years. It all escalated recently with the scandal concerning the wind power plant Krš-Pađene. The media rushed to smear individual and collective entities involved in the event. Based on impromptu analyses the company Croatian Forests was criticised for all kinds of things, including temporary non-payment of forest contributions to cities and municipalities (at the time when the state was at a complete standstill due to the coronavirus epidemics these earmarked funds could not be spent on the construction and maintenance of forest roads anyway), as well as raising a loan to boost the company's liquidity. Namely, the company agreed to extend the payment period of the wood industry for the delivered raw material from 60 to 100 days from the date of issuing the invoice for all deliveries from the beginning of the year 2020. Let us not even mention all those remarks on the use of probably the most well-known parafiscal levy in Croatia related to non-market forest functions. There is not one entrepreneur or politician who has not requested the reduction or abolition of this levy as a way of helping the economy. Lay people are not even aware of the fact that the crisis plan of Croatian Forests envisages complete elimination of this form of financing forest management for 2020. At the time of the coronavirus crisis these are probably the best business moves aimed at preserving employment in the company, employment of the customers and suppliers, as well as the company's liquidity. But who wants to read about this when negative news and scandals are much more interesting? Most people do not know either that at times of crises forestry has always taken care not only of itself but also of others dependent on it. In all crises forestry has helped the wood industry, written off debts of various states and political systems reigning in these areas, but also borne the consequences of objective and subjective business risks of those working in the wood sector.The power of the texts published on websites and social networks is enormous. They reach large numbers of readers in a very short time. The majority of the published texts feature bombastic headlines and sub headlines. Only when the whole text is read does it transpire what is the truth and what is not. Usually the content of an article is softened towards the end, but the whole article is read only by the most persevering reader, while the majority retain only the negative information from the headlines and the beginning of the text. Social networks are full of individuals and associations whose comments, often anonymous, create a negative image of the forestry profession. All these comments give an impression that foresters are one of the biggest problems of Our Beautiful Homeland.Those better acquainted with the situation realize that forestry and agriculture are the pillars of survival in the remaining rural areas. Forestry, which is most represented in rural and less developed areas, provides a livelihood for employees of Croatian Forests, employees of numerous contractors in forestry and companies and crafts in the wood sector, and indirectly of all those who sell their products to wood companies. Forestry also guards and cares about the largest part of the ecological network in the Republic of Croatia. By protecting forests and forestland from fires in karst areas it forms an important link in the conservation of biodiversity in the state, but also creates a setting which helps the Croatian economic branch of particular interest - tourism. During the Homeland War it was forestry professionals who constructed roads needed to connect parts of the Republic of Croatia at the time when residents had to travel through neighbouring countries in order to reach their home country.In our beloved homeland there are eight national parks and eleven nature parks in which forests constitute the basic phenomena. Basically, nature conservation has taken over the preserved areas for management from foresters. If these areas had not been managed according to forestry postulates and ecological considerations, we would not be able to boast of parks such as Plitvice Lakes, Risnjak, North Velebit and Mljet. In the karst part of Croatia, where the majority of protected parks are located, forests have never disappeared thanks to two and a half century long forest management. Present day generations do not know what forests looked like in earlier periods. The majority of the most valuable forests of pedunculate oak were completely cut down between the 1820s and 1920s. Today we witness the growth of new generations of managed forests, which are essentially the product of Croatian foresters. After World War Two the quantities of forests that were cut down almost equalled present day quantities because there were no other resources and the state needed the necessary financial means for rebuilding and renovation. Moreover, thanks to the wisdom and hard work of several generations of foresters, the present forest cover in Croatia amounts to 44 percent and forestland to 49 percent. Regrettably, most people do not comprehend the concept of eternal forests, which are not always of the same age, because just like other beings they have their development stages. Their eternity extends through generations of forests. Cutting down old, mature forest stands opens the door to a new generation of a forest, and all foresters rejoice in it because it testifies to a successful change of generations and the survival of the forest in the same area. This transition is visible in lowland forests, but there are also mountain forests in which such an obvious transition is not striking, so it is less noticeable to observers.Those less well informed or malicious do not know about or close their eyes to decades of pressures on the state forestry. These pressures are aimed at enabling individuals and companies to receive different benefits: in the past it was olive groves and vineyards, today it is the construction of wind power stations and grazing in vegetation-covered or bare forest areas. Croatian foresters staunchly adhere to the concept of sustainable management, under which they fight against reducing forested areas. Thus, if forests are sometimes cut down for conversion purposes as regulated by spatial plans, reduced forested areas are immediately replaced with new forests in another place. Although state forestry has often been thought as a hindrance to development, it has in fact defended lawful activities in circumstances in which some investors, as well as state institutions, have exerted pressure by speeding up the procedure in their favour without any legal basis. ') INSERT INTO slTekst VALUES('202002290',2,'EN','The company Croatian Forests Ltd, with all its strengths and weaknesses, is only a part of the overall picture in the Republic of Croatia. Personnel recruitment and management is the same as in other public companies and state-owned companies. Just like in any other profession, there are omissions and mistakes, but one things is always the same: the postulates of Croatian forestry have been tested and verified for over 250 years. Present-day activities of lesser quality in some forests are the consequence of various factors and they do not differ from mistakes taking place in all other professional spheres (is not it true that sometimes a surgical operation may go wrong, or a building can be poorly constructed or a piece of machinery badly assembled?). Even in the most recent case of the Krš-Pađene wind power station, Croatian Forests Ltd have done their homework well by collecting the debt to the investor for easement in the amount according to the regulations valid at the time of starting the investment. In most of its activities Croatian Forests Ltd are between the hammer and the anvil: on the one hand, there is constant pressure by users of wood resources for more felling and more produced and sold quantities, and on the other, there is growing pressure to protect habitats and species, which all makes production more complex and more expensive. The relevant ministry, in addition to dropping the word forestry from its name at the end of 2011 for the first time after 1919, has also become an evil stepmother to its own child, since the line minister, as a one-member assembly of the company Croatian Forests Ltd, by his/her orders to the Company management acts to benefit all aspirants to receive all kinds of products and services from forests and forestland. Thus, the most valuable logs are sold at negotiated prices which have for years been out of touch with market conditions, fuel wood and wood residues are sold under long-term contracts regardless of changed market conditions, and bare forest land, and even truffles, must be given over to anyone who wants them, even if legal regulations are not complied with. The Croatian Forestry Association frequently points out that politicization of the entire system is one of the biggest problems of our society. Entire company managements are changed by politics every four or fewer years and nepotism is an inherent part of the system. Managements installed by politics in this way are forced to carry out the orders of the same policies, even if they are illegal. This is how companies, in our case Croatian Forests Ltd, are dragged through the media as criminal organisations; even public protests are organized against them. Can we even guess how the employees, our colleagues who do their jobs responsibly and lovingly, feel?All these events raise fears of the terrain being prepared for giving state forests for concession after the company Croatian Forests is declared incapable of forest management. There are many examples of concessions generating exploitation of forests without any investments in them. The majority of European countries with abundant forest areas have strong state companies which manage and guard state forests, their areas and the life in them.This text does not aim to defend anybody in advance: someone's innocence or guilt will be decided on by relevant institutions. In the state in which fruitless debates about the past are held, it is time to turn to the present in a more rational manner and not succumb to harangues and hysteria. Politics should loosen its grip and leave it to the profession to do what it knows best: in the case of forestry, it is the management of forests and forestland.Editorial Board

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Chikkashindhag-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 659 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 94 per cent is covered by soils, 1 per cent by rock outcrops and 5 per cent is by habitation and settlements. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 8 soil series and 19 soil phases (management units) and 4 Land Management Units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  About 7 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 87 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 63 per cent area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 14 per cent area of the microwatershed has nearly level (0-1% slope) lands and 80 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  An area of about 36 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded and about 58 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded.  An area of about 53 per cent soils are moderately alkaline to strongly alkaline (pH 7.8-9.0) and 41 per cent soil are very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is dominantly 337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 31 per cent area of the microwatershed.  An area of about 46 per cent is low (4.5 ppm) and 89 per cent is deficient (1.0 ppm) in available manganese content.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is sufficient (>0.2 ppm) in available copper content.  An area of about 81 per cent is deficient (0.6 ppm) in available zinc content.  The land suitability for 31 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 101(15) 362(55) Sapota - 139(21) Maize - 462(70) Pomegranate - 300(45) Bajra 139(21) 323(49) Guava - 139(21) Groundnut 33(5) 106(16) Jackfruit - 139(21) Sunflower 1(<1) 299(45) Jamun - 288(44) Cotton 1(<1) 463(70) Musambi 1(<1) 299(45) Red gram - 289(44) Lime 1(<1) 299(45) Bengalgram 1(<1) 462(70) Cashew - 139(21) Chilli 106(16) 33(5) Custard apple 140(21) 322(49) Tomato 106(16) 33(5) Amla 139(21) 323(49) Brinjal 139(21) 323(49) Tamarind - 149(23) Onion 33(5) 106(16) Marigold - 462(70) Bhendi 33(5) 429(65) Chrysanthemum - 462(70) Drumstick - 300(45) Jasmine - 302(46) Mulberry - 299(45) Crossandra - 152(23) Mango - 98(15)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserves soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 109 (54.50%) men and 90 (45%) were women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 3.5, marginal farmers' was 7.1, small farmers' was 6.1, semi medium farmers' was 6.1, medium farmers' was 9.5 and for large farmers it was 6.  The data indicated that, 42 (21%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 88 (44%) were in 16-35 years of age, 51 (25.50 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 19 (9.50 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that the Chikkasindhogi-1 had 29.50 per cent illiterates, 12.50 per cent of them had primary school education, 22.50 per cent of them had middle school education, 25.50 per cent of them had high school education, 4 per cent of them had PUC education, 1 per cent of them had diploma, 0.5 per cent of them had ITI and 4.5 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 93.55 per cent of households practicing agriculture and 6.45 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 67 per cent of the household members, 2 per cent were agricultural labourers, 1 per cent had household industry, 27.5 per cent of them were student, 1.5 per cent of them were housewife and 0.5 per cent of them were in government and private services.  The results shows that 8 per cent of the households participated in user groups and 91.50 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 35.48 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 6.45 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 54.84 per cent of them possess pucca house and 3.23 per cent of them possess semi pucca house.  The results shows that 93.55 per cent of the households possess TV, 77.42 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 51.61 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 6.45 per cent of the households possess tempo, 3.23 per cent of the households possess refrigerator and bicycle, and 93.55 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The average value of television was Rs.6276, mixer grinder was Rs.1515, motor cycle was Rs.52437, mobile phone was Rs.1710, refrigerator was Rs.8000 and bicycle was Rs.3000.  About 22.58 per cent of the households possess plough, 3.23 per cent of them possess tractor, 12.90 per cent of them posses bullocks cart, 38.17 per cent of them power tiller and 93.55 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of plough was Rs.1,500, the average value of tractor was Rs. 5,00,000 and the average value of sprayer was Rs.3,953, the average value of bullock cart Rs.18,500, and the average value of weeder Rs.95. 2  The results indicate that, 16.13 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 22.58 per cent of the households possess local cow, 3.23 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow, 22.58 per cent of the households possess local cow and buffalo, 3.23 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow, goat and poultry birds.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.27, average own labour (women) available was 1.90, average hired labour (men) available was 3.47 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.77.  The results indicate that, 90.32 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate and 3.23 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, 6 (3.0%) persons were migrated from the micro watershed which includes 3 persons from semi medium farmers and 3 persons from medium farmer category.  People have migrated on average of 299.2 Kms and average duration was 8 months. Semi medium farmers have migrated 433.33 kms and on an average 10 months in a year.  Improved quality of the life was the major positive consequence of migration of 16.67 per cent of the households and construction house was the major positive consequence for 33.33 per cent.  Increased workload for other family members was the major negative consequence of migration.  The results indicate that, households of the Chikkasindhogi-1 micro watershed possess 17.89 ha (39.72%) of dry land and 27.14 ha (60.28%) of irrigated land.  The average value of dry land was Rs. 267994.14 and average value of irrigated was Rs.1, 89,272.  The results indicate that, there were 14 functioning bore wells and 1 functioning open well in the micro watershed.  Bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed which was possessed by small farmers, medium farmers, semi medium farmers and large farmers.  The depth of bore well was found to be 47.64 meters and the depth of open well was found to be 0.29 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal farmers had irrigated area of 1.75 hectares, small farmers had 6.67 hectares, semi medium farmers had 8.73 hectares, medium farmers had 7.69 hectares and large farmers had 4.05 hectares of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown Maize (26.34 ha), Tomato (2.4 ha), Cotton (2.05 ha), Groundnut (1.68 ha), Pearlmillet (2.59 ha), Paddy (0.81 ha), Sorghum (0.81 ha), Bengal gram (0.51 ha), Chilly (0.4 ha).  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Chikkasindhogi-1 micro watershed was found to be 96.83 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 87.82 per cent, for small farmers it was 93.99 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 100 per 3 cent, medium farmers had cropping intensity of 100 per cent and large farmers had 100 per cent.  The results indicate that, 90.32 per cent of the households possess bank account and 12.90 per cent of them have savings. Around 50 per cent of landless, 44.44 per cent of marginal, 22.22 per cent of small, 50 per cent semi medium, 50 per cent of medium farmers and 100 per cent of large farmers have borrowed credit from different sources.  About 10 per cent have availed loan in cooperative bank, 40 per cent have availed loan from friends and relatives and 100 per cent have availed loan from grameena bank.  The results indicate that, 90.91 per cent of the households have borrowed loan for agriculture, 4.55 per cent have borrowed for buying irrigation related equipments and 4.55 per cent have borrowed for social functions like marriage, from institutional and non institutional sources.  Results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 234356.79. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 167960. The net income from Maize cultivation was Rs. -66396.80, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.72.  The total cost of cultivation for tomato was Rs. 46729.38. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 67925.00. The net income from tomato cultivation was Rs. 21195.62. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.45.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 72133.49. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 62490.23. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. -9643.26. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.87.  The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 44743.83. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 75381.17. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 30637.34. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.68.  The total cost of cultivation for bengal gram was Rs. 251848.19. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 111150. The net income from bengal gram cultivation was Rs. -140698.19, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.44.  The total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 25747.08. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 24700. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. - 1047.08. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.96.  The total cost of cultivation for chilly was Rs. 76456.11. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 98800. The net income from chilly cultivation was Rs. 22343.89. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.29.  The total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 50384.32. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 38902.50. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. - 11481.82. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.77. 4  The results indicate that, 35.48 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate. Only 19.35 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder is adequate. The data also revealed that 19.35 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder and green fodder were inadequate.  The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 22500 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 61655.56, for small farmers it was Rs.56222, for semi medium farmers it was Rs.94688, for medium farmers it was Rs.191500 and for large farmers it was Rs.73000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 13296.47. For landless farmers it was 6250, for marginal farmers it was Rs 8969, for small farmers it was Rs. 4464.51, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 10348.48 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 70500 and for large farmers it was Rs. 55000.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 22 coconut, 19 mango and 3 sapota trees in their field. Farmers have also grown 5 coconut trees in their backyard.  The results indicate that, 93.55 per cent of the households are interested in growing horticultural crops which include 100 per cent of marginal, small, semi medium, medium and large farmers.  Households have planted 31 neem trees, 1 banyan tree in field and 9 neem trees in backyard.  The results indicate that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 6193 for land development, Rs. 2241 for irrigation facility, Rs.4113 for improved crop production and Rs.1774 for improved livestock management.  Loan from bank is the major source of investment for 78.13 per cent of households for land development. For irrigation facility 25 per cent of the households depend on loan from bank, 12.5 per cent depend on own funds and 9.38 per cent of the households depend on soft loans. For improved crop production 59.38 per cent of the households depend on bank loan and for improved livestock management 21.88 per cent of the households depend on bank loan.  The results indicated that, Bengal gram, chilly, cotton, maize and tomato were sold to the extent of 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, About 73.33 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants includes 100 per cent of the marginal farmers, 85.71 per cent of the small farmers, 66.67 per cent of the semi medium farmers and 33.33 per cent medium farmers. About 23.33 per cent of the households have sold in regulated markets, which include 14.29 per cent of small farmers, 33.33 per cent of semi medium farmers, 66.67 per cent of the medium farmers and 100 per cent of the large farmers.  About 9.68 per cent of the households have used tractor as mode of transport and 116.13 per cent have used truck. 5  The results indicated that, 90.32 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems i.e. 88.89 per cent of marginal farmers and 100 per cent of small, semi medium, medium and large farmers. 90.32 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing.  The results indicated that, 51.61 per cent of the households have adopted field bunding, 3.23 per cent of the households have adopted contour bunds, 3.23 per cent of the households have adopted farm pond, 29.03 per cent have adopted bore well recharge pit and 45.16 per cent of the households are following summer ploughing.  About 100 per cent of the households who adopted field bunding, farm pond and contour bund and 33.33 per cent the households who adopted bore well recharge pit, opined that they were in good condition. Around 66 per cent of the households opined that bore well recharge pits require full replacement.  The results indicated that 87.10 per cent of soil conservation structure is constructed by farmers on their own, 41.94 per cent of the soil conservation structures are constructed by the government and another 3.23 per cent is constructed by farmer organizations.  The results indicated that, canal was the major source of drinking water for 93.55 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 3.23 per cent of the households.  About 83.87 percent used fire wood and another 12.9 percent of the households used LPG. Electricity was the major source of light for all the households in micro watershed.  About 25.81 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 100 per cent of landless, 11.11 per cent of marginal, 11.11 per cent of small, 25 per cent of semi medium, 50 per cent of medium farmers and 100 per cent of large farmers had sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 87.10 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card, 3.23 per cent of the households possessed APL and 6.45 per cent did not possess PDS card.  About 67.74 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 100 per cent of the landless, 55.56 percent of the marginal, 55.56 per cent of the small, 75 per cent of the semi medium, 100 percent of the medium and 100 per cent of the large farmers.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 90.32 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 87.10 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 3.23 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 80.65 per cent, fruits were adequate for 22.58 per cent, milk was adequate for 83.87 per cent, egg were adequate for 16.13 per cent and meat was adequate for 6.45 per cent of the households.  Cereals were inadequate for 3.23 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 6.45 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 3.23 per cent, fruits were inadequate 6 for 25.18 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 35.48 per cent and meat was inadequate for 41.94 per cent of the households.  Oilseeds were market surplus for 70.97 per cent of the households, vegetables were market surplus for 3.23 per cent, fruits were market surplus for 16.13 per cent, eggs were market surplus for 6.45 per cent and meat was market surplus for 9.68 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 48.39 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (74.19%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (3.23%), inadequacy of irrigation water (38.71%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (41.94%), high rate of interest on credit (29.03%), low price for the agricultural commodities (3.23%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (9.68%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (16.13%), less rainfall (87.10%) and source of Agri–technology information (News paper/TV/Mobile) (16.13%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Tavargere microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 516 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 93 per cent is covered by soil, four per cent by rock out crops and three per cent by water bodies, settlements. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below  The soils belong to 8 soil series and 30 soil phases (management units) and 5 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is 150cm) soils.  About 14 per cent is sandy (loamy sand), 75 per cent loamy (sandy loam and sandy clay loam) and 5 per cent has clayey (sandy clay) soils at the surface.  About 65 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 57 kg/ha) in 37 per cent of the soils.  Available potassium is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in an entire area of the soils.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm)in 4 per cent area of the soils.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in 64 per cent of the area.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 23 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area.  The land suitability for 28 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 19(4) 15 (3) Pomegranate - 85(17) Maize - 37 (7) Guava - 66(13) Bajra 15(3) 135(26) Jackfruit - 66(13) Redgram - 34(3) Jamun - 85(17) Bengal gram 19(4) 77(15) Musambi 19(4) 66(13) Groundnut 15(3) 315 (61) Lime 19(4) 66(13) Sunflower 19 (4) 15 (3) Cashew - 171(33) Cotton 19(4) 15(3) Custard apple 34(7) 444(86) Chilli - 15(3) Amla 15(3) 463 (90) Tomato - 15(3) Tamarind - 20(4) Drumstick - 260(50) Marigold - 34(7) Mulberry - 416(81) Chrysanthemum - 34 (7) Mango - - Jasmine - 15(3) Sapota - 66(13) Crossandra - 34(7)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 5 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plans have been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 114 (60%) men and 76 (40%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4, marginal farmers' was 4.09, small farmers' was 4.6, semi medium farmers' was 5 and medium farmers' was 6.28.  The data indicated that, 33 (17.37%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 76 (40%) were in 16-35 years of age, 65 (34.21%) were in 36-60 years of age and 16 (8.42%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Tavaregere had 34.21 per cent illiterates, 24.74 per cent of them had primary school education, 6.32 per cent of them had middle school education, 16.32 per cent of them had high school education, 7.37 per cent of them had PUC education, 2.11 per cent of them did ITI, and 6.32 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 65 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 20 per cent of the households were agricultural labourers, 12.50 per cent were general labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 46.84 per cent of the household members, 17.37 per cent were agricultural laborers, 9.47 per cent were general labour, 1.05 per cent were in private, 20.53 per cent were students, 2.11 per cent were housewives and 2.11 per cent were housewives.  The results show that 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 15 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 67.50 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 15 per cent of them possess pucca house and 2.50 per cent of them possess semi pucca house.  The results show that 92.50 per cent of the households possess TV, 60 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 17.50 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 50 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.50 per cent of them possess auto and 90 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs.7989, mixer grinder was Rs.1980, bicycle was Rs. 2142, motor cycle was Rs.34800, auto phone was Rs.35000 and mobile phone was Rs.2295.  About 22.50 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 22.50 per cent of them possess plough, 7.50 per cent of them possess tractor, 30 per cent of them possess sprayer, 2.50 per cent of them possess sprinkler, 87.50 per cent of them possess weeder, 5 per cent of them possess harvester, 2.50 per cent of them possess thresher and 2.50 per cent of them possess chaff cutter.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.20333, plough was Rs.894, the average value of tractor was Rs.300000, the average value of sprayer 2 was Rs.2331, the average value of sprinkler was Rs. 3200, the average value of harvester was Rs.60000, the average value of thresher was Rs.45000, the average value of chaff cutter was Rs.3000, and the average value of weeder was Rs.87.  The results indicate that, 30 per cent of the households possess bullocks, and 17.50 per cent of the households possess local cow.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.86, average own labour (women) available was 1.46, average hired labour (men) available was 12.11 and average hired labour (women) available was 9.40.  The results indicate that, 87.50 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Tavaregere micro watershed possess 23.76 ha (46.71%) of dry land and 27.10 ha (53.29%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 7.24 ha (93.72%) of dry land and 0.49 ha (6.28%). Small farmers possess 6.16 ha (57.35%) of dry land and 4.58 ha (42.65%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 3.25 ha (27.54%) of dry land and 8.54 ha (72.46%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 7.11 ha (34.50%) of dry land and 13.49 ha (65.50%) of the farmers possess irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 307,172.06 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 545,937.87. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 579,553.08 for dry land and Rs. 1,646,666.60 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 275,886.99 for dry land and Rs. 850,971.74 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 123,192.01 for dry land and Rs. 561,895.74 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 140,660.59 for dry land and Rs. 392,651.47 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 18 functioning and 1 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, there was 1 functioning and 1 de-functioning open well in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 45 per cent of the farmers, and open well was the source of irrigation for 2.50 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 49.62 meters and the depth of open well was found to be 3.44 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers had irrigated area of 0.40 ha, 4.58 ha, 8.54 ha and 13.36 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown bajra (11.62 ha), brinjal (1.78 ha), groundnut (5.15 ha), ladies finger (1.21 ha), maize (21.74 ha), navane (1.70 ha), paddy (2.83 ha), pearlmillet (1.62 ha), sunflower (2.18 ha) and tomato (0.89 ha). 3  Marginal farmers have grown bajra, maize, watermelon and groundnut. Small farmers have grown bajra, cotton, groundnut, maize, navane, paddy and watermelon. Semi medium farmers have grown bajra, cotton, maize, paddy, sorghum, tomato, watermelon and groundnut. Medium farmers have grown bajra, groundnut, horsegram, paddy, redgram sorghum and maize.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Tavaregere micro watershed was found to be 93.29 per cent. In case of marginal and small farmers it was 100 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 96.97 per cent, and medium farmers had cropping intensity of 84.93 per cent.  The results indicate that, 72.50 per cent of the households have bank account and 42.50 per cent of the households have savings.  The results indicate that, 40 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 81.25 per cent of the households availed loan from commercial bank, 6.25 per cent availed loan from cooperative bank, 75 per cent availed loan from grameena bank, and 37.50 per cent availed loan from money lenders.  The results indicate that, marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers have availed Rs. 90,375, Rs. 258,500, Rs. 525,000 and Rs. 260,000 respectively.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicate that, the main purpose of borrowing credit from private sources was agricultural production which accounted for 50 per cent of those who borrowed credit. Another 16.67 per cent of the households borrowed for social functions, 16.67 per cent of the households borrowed for animal husbandry and 16.67 per cent borrowed for the purpose of borewell/irrigation related equipments.  The results indicated that 84.62 per cent of the households did not repay their loan and 15.38 per cent of the households partially paid their loan.  Results indicated that 100 per cent of the households partially paid their loan.  The results indicate that, around 42.31 per cent of the households opined that the rate of interest was higher in institutional sources; another 53.85 per cent opined that the loan amount helped to perform timely agricultural operations and 3.85 per cent of the households opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfil the requirement.  The results indicate that, around 9.09 per cent of the households opined that credit was easily accessible, 18.18 per cent of the households opined that the credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations and 27.27 per cent opined that the rate of interest was high in non institutional source of credits. 4  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 52582.63. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 179075. The net income from Paddy cultivation was Rs. 126492.37, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.41.  The total cost of cultivation for tomato was Rs. 49699.84. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 105455.28. The net income from tomato cultivation was Rs. 55755.44. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.12.  The total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 27360.39. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 35390.45. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 8030.07. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.29.  The total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 23644.88. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 36489.05. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 1006.56. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.54.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 49015.69. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 57055.21. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 8039.52. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.16.  The total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 40080.30. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 37050. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. -3030.30. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.92.  The total cost of cultivation for ladies finger was Rs. 41939.68. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 95363.45. The net income from ladies finger cultivation was Rs. 53423.77. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.27.  The total cost of cultivation for navane was Rs. 13772.35. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 28106.90. The net income from navane cultivation was Rs. 14334.54. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.04.  The total cost of cultivation for brinjal was Rs. 53235.50. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 186686.05. The net income from brinjal cultivation was Rs. 133450.56. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.51.  The results indicate that, 25 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 22.50 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 97,600 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 64,581.82, for small farmers it was Rs. 98,320, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 69,571.43, and for medium farmers it was Rs. 108,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 7,532.54. For landless households it was Rs. 19,360, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 3,727.27, for small farmers it was Rs. 6,604.44, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 5,387.76, and for medium farmers it was Rs. 8,534.69.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 126 coconuts and 22 mangoes in their fields. They have also grown 1 coconut tree in their backyard. 5  The results indicate that, households have planted 147 neem trees, 5 tamarind trees, 2 banyan trees and 2 peepul tree in their field.  The results indicate that, the average additional investment capacity with the households for land development was Rs. 2125, for irrigation facility Rs. 1175, for improved crop production Rs. 1075 and for improved livestock management Rs. 575.  The results indicate that, loan from bank was the source of additional investment capacity for 22.5 per cent of the households for land development, 20 per cent for irrigation facility, 22.5 per cent for improved crop production and 15 per cent for improved livestock management.  The results indicated that, bajra, brinjal, groundnut, ladies finger, maize, navane, paddy, sunflower and tomato were sold to the extent of 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 55 per cent of the famers have sold their produce in regulated markets, 15 per cent have sold their produce to local/village merchants, 2.50 per cent of the farmers have sold through agents/traders and 27.50 per cent of the farmers have sold their produce in cooperative marketing society.  The results indicated that, 37.50 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce, 22.50 per cent have used truck and 40 per cent have used cart as a mode of transportation.  The results indicated that, 20 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm i.e., 18.18 per cent of marginal farmers, 71.43 per cent of semi medium farmers and 14.29 per cent of medium farmers have experienced soil and water erosion problems.  The results indicated that, 72.50 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 97.50 per cent used fire wood and 2.50 per cent of the households used dung cake.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 92.50 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 7.50 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 42.50 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 20 per cent of the landless, 27.27 per cent of the marginal, 100 per cent of the small, 28.57 per cent of the semi medium and 14.29 per cent of the medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 50 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 72.50 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 2.50 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 17.50 per cent, fruits were adequate for 30 per cent, 6 milk was adequate for 87.50 per cent, eggs were adequate for 85 per cent and meat was adequate for 82.50 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, pulses were inadequate for 25 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 90 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 82 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 70 per cent, milk was inadequate for 10 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 10 per cent and meat was inadequate for 12.50 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, oilseeds were market surplus for 12.50 per cent, vegetables were market surplus for 2.50 per cent and milk was market surplus for 2.50 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 70 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (72.50%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (52.50%), inadequacy of irrigation water (55%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (45%), high rate of interest on credit (50%), low price for the agricultural commodities (57.50%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (72.50%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (72.50%), less rainfall (12.50%), inadequate extension services (72.50%), and source of agri-technology information (newspaper/TV/mobile) (7.50%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Chikkashindhag-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 659 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 94 per cent is covered by soils, 1 per cent by rock outcrops and 5 per cent is by habitation and settlements. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 8 soil series and 19 soil phases (management units) and 4 Land Management Units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  About 7 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 87 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 63 per cent area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 14 per cent area of the microwatershed has nearly level (0-1% slope) lands and 80 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  An area of about 36 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded and about 58 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded.  An area of about 53 per cent soils are moderately alkaline to strongly alkaline (pH 7.8-9.0) and 41 per cent soil are very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is dominantly 337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 31 per cent area of the microwatershed.  An area of about 46 per cent is low (4.5 ppm) and 89 per cent is deficient (1.0 ppm) in available manganese content.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is sufficient (>0.2 ppm) in available copper content.  An area of about 81 per cent is deficient (0.6 ppm) in available zinc content.  The land suitability for 31 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 101(15) 362(55) Sapota - 139(21) Maize - 462(70) Pomegranate - 300(45) Bajra 139(21) 323(49) Guava - 139(21) Groundnut 33(5) 106(16) Jackfruit - 139(21) Sunflower 1(<1) 299(45) Jamun - 288(44) Cotton 1(<1) 463(70) Musambi 1(<1) 299(45) Red gram - 289(44) Lime 1(<1) 299(45) Bengalgram 1(<1) 462(70) Cashew - 139(21) Chilli 106(16) 33(5) Custard apple 140(21) 322(49) Tomato 106(16) 33(5) Amla 139(21) 323(49) Brinjal 139(21) 323(49) Tamarind - 149(23) Onion 33(5) 106(16) Marigold - 462(70) Bhendi 33(5) 429(65) Chrysanthemum - 462(70) Drumstick - 300(45) Jasmine - 302(46) Mulberry - 299(45) Crossandra - 152(23) Mango - 98(15)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserves soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 109 (54.50%) men and 90 (45%) were women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 3.5, marginal farmers' was 7.1, small farmers' was 6.1, semi medium farmers' was 6.1, medium farmers' was 9.5 and for large farmers it was 6.  The data indicated that, 42 (21%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 88 (44%) were in 16-35 years of age, 51 (25.50 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 19 (9.50 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that the Chikkasindhogi-1 had 29.50 per cent illiterates, 12.50 per cent of them had primary school education, 22.50 per cent of them had middle school education, 25.50 per cent of them had high school education, 4 per cent of them had PUC education, 1 per cent of them had diploma, 0.5 per cent of them had ITI and 4.5 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 93.55 per cent of households practicing agriculture and 6.45 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 67 per cent of the household members, 2 per cent were agricultural labourers, 1 per cent had household industry, 27.5 per cent of them were student, 1.5 per cent of them were housewife and 0.5 per cent of them were in government and private services.  The results shows that 8 per cent of the households participated in user groups and 91.50 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 35.48 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 6.45 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 54.84 per cent of them possess pucca house and 3.23 per cent of them possess semi pucca house.  The results shows that 93.55 per cent of the households possess TV, 77.42 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 51.61 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 6.45 per cent of the households possess tempo, 3.23 per cent of the households possess refrigerator and bicycle, and 93.55 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The average value of television was Rs.6276, mixer grinder was Rs.1515, motor cycle was Rs.52437, mobile phone was Rs.1710, refrigerator was Rs.8000 and bicycle was Rs.3000.  About 22.58 per cent of the households possess plough, 3.23 per cent of them possess tractor, 12.90 per cent of them posses bullocks cart, 38.17 per cent of them power tiller and 93.55 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of plough was Rs.1,500, the average value of tractor was Rs. 5,00,000 and the average value of sprayer was Rs.3,953, the average value of bullock cart Rs.18,500, and the average value of weeder Rs.95. 2  The results indicate that, 16.13 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 22.58 per cent of the households possess local cow, 3.23 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow, 22.58 per cent of the households possess local cow and buffalo, 3.23 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow, goat and poultry birds.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.27, average own labour (women) available was 1.90, average hired labour (men) available was 3.47 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.77.  The results indicate that, 90.32 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate and 3.23 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, 6 (3.0%) persons were migrated from the micro watershed which includes 3 persons from semi medium farmers and 3 persons from medium farmer category.  People have migrated on average of 299.2 Kms and average duration was 8 months. Semi medium farmers have migrated 433.33 kms and on an average 10 months in a year.  Improved quality of the life was the major positive consequence of migration of 16.67 per cent of the households and construction house was the major positive consequence for 33.33 per cent.  Increased workload for other family members was the major negative consequence of migration.  The results indicate that, households of the Chikkasindhogi-1 micro watershed possess 17.89 ha (39.72%) of dry land and 27.14 ha (60.28%) of irrigated land.  The average value of dry land was Rs. 267994.14 and average value of irrigated was Rs.1, 89,272.  The results indicate that, there were 14 functioning bore wells and 1 functioning open well in the micro watershed.  Bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed which was possessed by small farmers, medium farmers, semi medium farmers and large farmers.  The depth of bore well was found to be 47.64 meters and the depth of open well was found to be 0.29 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal farmers had irrigated area of 1.75 hectares, small farmers had 6.67 hectares, semi medium farmers had 8.73 hectares, medium farmers had 7.69 hectares and large farmers had 4.05 hectares of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown Maize (26.34 ha), Tomato (2.4 ha), Cotton (2.05 ha), Groundnut (1.68 ha), Pearlmillet (2.59 ha), Paddy (0.81 ha), Sorghum (0.81 ha), Bengal gram (0.51 ha), Chilly (0.4 ha).  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Chikkasindhogi-1 micro watershed was found to be 96.83 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 87.82 per cent, for small farmers it was 93.99 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 100 per 3 cent, medium farmers had cropping intensity of 100 per cent and large farmers had 100 per cent.  The results indicate that, 90.32 per cent of the households possess bank account and 12.90 per cent of them have savings. Around 50 per cent of landless, 44.44 per cent of marginal, 22.22 per cent of small, 50 per cent semi medium, 50 per cent of medium farmers and 100 per cent of large farmers have borrowed credit from different sources.  About 10 per cent have availed loan in cooperative bank, 40 per cent have availed loan from friends and relatives and 100 per cent have availed loan from grameena bank.  The results indicate that, 90.91 per cent of the households have borrowed loan for agriculture, 4.55 per cent have borrowed for buying irrigation related equipments and 4.55 per cent have borrowed for social functions like marriage, from institutional and non institutional sources.  Results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 234356.79. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 167960. The net income from Maize cultivation was Rs. -66396.80, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.72.  The total cost of cultivation for tomato was Rs. 46729.38. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 67925.00. The net income from tomato cultivation was Rs. 21195.62. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.45.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 72133.49. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 62490.23. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. -9643.26. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.87.  The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 44743.83. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 75381.17. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 30637.34. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.68.  The total cost of cultivation for bengal gram was Rs. 251848.19. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 111150. The net income from bengal gram cultivation was Rs. -140698.19, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.44.  The total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 25747.08. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 24700. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. - 1047.08. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.96.  The total cost of cultivation for chilly was Rs. 76456.11. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 98800. The net income from chilly cultivation was Rs. 22343.89. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.29.  The total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 50384.32. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 38902.50. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. - 11481.82. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.77. 4  The results indicate that, 35.48 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate. Only 19.35 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder is adequate. The data also revealed that 19.35 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder and green fodder were inadequate.  The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 22500 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 61655.56, for small farmers it was Rs.56222, for semi medium farmers it was Rs.94688, for medium farmers it was Rs.191500 and for large farmers it was Rs.73000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 13296.47. For landless farmers it was 6250, for marginal farmers it was Rs 8969, for small farmers it was Rs. 4464.51, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 10348.48 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 70500 and for large farmers it was Rs. 55000.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 22 coconut, 19 mango and 3 sapota trees in their field. Farmers have also grown 5 coconut trees in their backyard.  The results indicate that, 93.55 per cent of the households are interested in growing horticultural crops which include 100 per cent of marginal, small, semi medium, medium and large farmers.  Households have planted 31 neem trees, 1 banyan tree in field and 9 neem trees in backyard.  The results indicate that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 6193 for land development, Rs. 2241 for irrigation facility, Rs.4113 for improved crop production and Rs.1774 for improved livestock management.  Loan from bank is the major source of investment for 78.13 per cent of households for land development. For irrigation facility 25 per cent of the households depend on loan from bank, 12.5 per cent depend on own funds and 9.38 per cent of the households depend on soft loans. For improved crop production 59.38 per cent of the households depend on bank loan and for improved livestock management 21.88 per cent of the households depend on bank loan.  The results indicated that, Bengal gram, chilly, cotton, maize and tomato were sold to the extent of 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, About 73.33 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants includes 100 per cent of the marginal farmers, 85.71 per cent of the small farmers, 66.67 per cent of the semi medium farmers and 33.33 per cent medium farmers. About 23.33 per cent of the households have sold in regulated markets, which include 14.29 per cent of small farmers, 33.33 per cent of semi medium farmers, 66.67 per cent of the medium farmers and 100 per cent of the large farmers.  About 9.68 per cent of the households have used tractor as mode of transport and 116.13 per cent have used truck. 5  The results indicated that, 90.32 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems i.e. 88.89 per cent of marginal farmers and 100 per cent of small, semi medium, medium and large farmers. 90.32 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing.  The results indicated that, 51.61 per cent of the households have adopted field bunding, 3.23 per cent of the households have adopted contour bunds, 3.23 per cent of the households have adopted farm pond, 29.03 per cent have adopted bore well recharge pit and 45.16 per cent of the households are following summer ploughing.  About 100 per cent of the households who adopted field bunding, farm pond and contour bund and 33.33 per cent the households who adopted bore well recharge pit, opined that they were in good condition. Around 66 per cent of the households opined that bore well recharge pits require full replacement.  The results indicated that 87.10 per cent of soil conservation structure is constructed by farmers on their own, 41.94 per cent of the soil conservation structures are constructed by the government and another 3.23 per cent is constructed by farmer organizations.  The results indicated that, canal was the major source of drinking water for 93.55 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 3.23 per cent of the households.  About 83.87 percent used fire wood and another 12.9 percent of the households used LPG. Electricity was the major source of light for all the households in micro watershed.  About 25.81 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 100 per cent of landless, 11.11 per cent of marginal, 11.11 per cent of small, 25 per cent of semi medium, 50 per cent of medium farmers and 100 per cent of large farmers had sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 87.10 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card, 3.23 per cent of the households possessed APL and 6.45 per cent did not possess PDS card.  About 67.74 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 100 per cent of the landless, 55.56 percent of the marginal, 55.56 per cent of the small, 75 per cent of the semi medium, 100 percent of the medium and 100 per cent of the large farmers.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 90.32 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 87.10 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 3.23 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 80.65 per cent, fruits were adequate for 22.58 per cent, milk was adequate for 83.87 per cent, egg were adequate for 16.13 per cent and meat was adequate for 6.45 per cent of the households.  Cereals were inadequate for 3.23 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 6.45 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 3.23 per cent, fruits were inadequate 6 for 25.18 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 35.48 per cent and meat was inadequate for 41.94 per cent of the households.  Oilseeds were market surplus for 70.97 per cent of the households, vegetables were market surplus for 3.23 per cent, fruits were market surplus for 16.13 per cent, eggs were market surplus for 6.45 per cent and meat was market surplus for 9.68 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 48.39 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (74.19%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (3.23%), inadequacy of irrigation water (38.71%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (41.94%), high rate of interest on credit (29.03%), low price for the agricultural commodities (3.23%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (9.68%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (16.13%), less rainfall (87.10%) and source of Agri–technology information (News paper/TV/Mobile) (16.13%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Maslapur-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 510 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 92 per cent is covered by soils and 8 per cent by rock outcrops, habitation and water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 11 soil series and 20 soil phases (management units) and 7 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm) soils.  About 10 per cent has sandy soils at the surface, 78 per cent has loamy soils at the surface and 4 per cent has clayey soils at the surface.  About 6 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 6 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) and 86 per cent area has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 22 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 70 per cent moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 35 per cent are slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5) and 56 per cent are very neutral (pH pH 6.5-7.3) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils is 0.75%) in 31 per cent area of the soils.  Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  An area of about 34 per cent are low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium content.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in entire area of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 50 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 336 (66) Sapota 18 (4) 70 (14) Maize - 336 (66) Pomegranate 18 (4) 79 (15) Bajra 26 (5) 383 (75) Musambi 18 (4) 79 (15) Groundnut 26 (5) 377 (74) Lime 18 (4) 79 (15) Sunflower - 53 (10) Amla 44 (9) 382 (75) Red gram - 53 (10) Cashew - 88 (17) Bengalgram 9 (2) 257 (50) Jackfruit 18 (4) 70 (14) Cotton - 336 (66) Jamun - 97 (19) Chilli - 327 (64) Custard apple 44 (9) 382 (75) Tomato - 327 (64) Tamarind - 27 (5) Brinjal 26 (5) 284 (56) Mulberry 18 (4) 95 (19) Onion 26 (5) 284 (56) Marigold - 336 (66) Bhendi - 284 (56) Chrysanthemum - 336 (66) Drumstick 18 (4) 51 (10) Jasmine - 327 (64) Mango - 18 (4) Crossandra - 327 (64) Guava - 88 (17) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The result indicated that 35 farmers were sampled in Maslapur-2 micro watershed among them 5(14.29%) were landless, 4 (11.43%) were marginal farmers, 16 (45.71%) were small farmers and 10 (28.57%) were semi medium farmers.  The data indicated that there were 98 (58.68%) men and 69 (41.32%) women among the sampled households. The average family size of landless farmers' was 5, marginal farmers' was 3.75, small farmers' was 4.56 and semi medium farmers' was 5.40.  The data indicated that, 27 (16.17%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 74 (44.31%) were in 16-35 years of age, 50 (29.94%) were in 36-60 years of age and 16(9.58%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Maslapur-2 had 30.54 per cent illiterates, 49.70 per cent of them had primary school education, 1.80 per cent of them had middle school education, 8.38 per cent of them had high school education, 4.79 per cent of them had PUC, 0.60 per cent of them had diploma and ITI education, 2.99 per cent of them had degree education and 0.60 per cent of them did other education.  The results indicate that, 82.86 per cent of households were practicing agriculture and 17.14 per cent of the households were agricultural labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 20.96 per cent of the household members, 56.29 per cent were agricultural laborers, 1.80 per cent was in private sector, 20.36 per cent were students and 0.60 per cent was children. In case of landless farmers, 8 per cent were agriculturist, 60 per cent were general labourers and 32 per cent were students. In case of marginal farmers 20 per cent of them were practicing agriculture, 40 per cent were agricultural labourers, 6.67 per cent were in private service and 33.33 per cent were students. In case of small farmers, 21.92 per cent were agriculturists, 58.90 per cent were agricultural labourers and 19.18 per cent were students. In case of semi medium farmers 25.93 per cent were agriculturist, 55.56 per cent were agriculture labourers, 3.70 per cent were in private service, 12.96 per cent were students and 1.85 per cent was housewives.  The results show that 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 51.43 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 40 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 8.57 per cent of them possess Pucca house.  The results showed that 91.43 per cent of the households possess TV, 80 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 28.57 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 34.29 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 91.43 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. 2  The results show that the average value of television was Rs.4906, mixer grinder was Rs.1332, bicycle was Rs. 1650, motor cycle was Rs.33583 and mobile phone was Rs.1707.  Data showed 22.86 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 31.43 per cent of them possess plough, 2.86 per cent of them possess both power tiller and tractor, 28.57 per cent of them possess sprayer, 94.29 per cent of them possess weeder and 2.86per cent of them possess chaff cutter.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.18500, plough was Rs.2029, the average value of power tiller was Rs.30000, the average value was tractor was Rs.300000, the average value of sprayer was Rs.3368, the average value of chaff cutter was Rs.3000, and the average value of weeder was Rs.17.  The results indicate that, 31.43 per cent of the households possess both bullocks and local cow, 2.86 per cent of the households possess both crossbreed cow and sheep respectively.  In case of marginal households, 25 per cent of them possess bullocks, local cow and sheep respectively. 43.75 per cent of the small farmers possess bullock and local cow correspondingly, 6.25 per cent of the small farmers possess crossbred cow. In case of semi medium farmers, 30 per cent of households possess bullock and local cow respectively.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.80, average own labour (women) available was 1.63, average hired labour (men) available was 6.80 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.09.  In case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 1.50, average own labour (women) was 1.25, average hired labour (men) was 7.75 and average hired labour (women) available was 8.50. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 1.88, average own labour (women) was 1.63, average hired labour (men) was 8.94 and average hired labour (women) available was 9.25. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 2, average own labour (women) was 1.90, average hired labour (men) was 5.20 and average hired labour (women) available was 5.30.  The results indicate that, 97.14 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Maslapur-2 micro watershed possess 23.43 ha (61.01%) of dry land and 14.97 ha (38.99%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 2.59 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 18.81 ha (88.74%) of dry land and 2.39 ha (11.26%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 2.03 ha (13.90%) of dry land and 12.58 ha (86.10%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 243,202.62 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 460,746.14. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 579,812.21 for dry land. In case of small famers, the 3 average land value was Rs. 207,250.43 for dry land and Rs. 753,559.31for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 147,609.56 for dry land and Rs. 405,178.51 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 15 functioning and 14 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 42.86 per cent of the farmers in micro watershed.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 29.52 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal, small and semi medium farmers had irrigated area of 0.40ha, 3.48 ha and 11.05 ha of irrigated land respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown maize (14.71 ha), groundnut (8.40 ha), bajra (1.88 ha), Sunflower (1.62 ha), Bengal gram (1.21 ha), Red gram (1.21 ha), Sorghum (1.21 ha), castor (0.81 ha), Tomato (0.81 ha), water melon (0.81 ha) and Banana (0.49 ha) in kharif season and also grown maize (1.62 ha) and groundnut (1.21 ha) in Rabi season. Marginal farmers have grown maize, bajra, sunflower and Bengal gram. Small farmers had grown maize, groundnut, bajra, Bengal gram, paddy, red gram, sorghum, castor and banana. Semi medium farmers had grown maize, groundnut, sunflower, tomato and watermelon.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Maslapur-2 micro watershed was found to be 92.65 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 100 per cent, small farmers it was 92.25 per cent and in case of semi medium it was 92.18 per cent.  The results indicate that, 82.86 per cent of the households have bank account and 85.71 per cent of the households have savings.  The results indicate that, 60 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 27663.19. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 28612.58. The net income from Maize cultivation was Rs. 949.39, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.03.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 53510.06. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 54452.62. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 942.56. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.02.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for tomato was Rs. 30927.98. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 74100. The net income from tomato cultivation was Rs. 43172.02. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.4.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for water melon was Rs. 37280.33. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 69160. The net income from water melon cultivation was Rs. 31879.67. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.86. 4  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for banana was Rs. 95816.55. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 679249.97. The net income from banana cultivation was Rs. 583433.42. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:7.09.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 58817.01. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 156227.50. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 97410.49. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.66.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bengalgram was Rs. 45612.07. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 45960.53. The net income from bengalgram cultivation was Rs. 348.45. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.01.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Sunflower was Rs. 27395.92. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 50931.76. The net income from Sunflower cultivation was Rs. 23535.83. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.86.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 21266.79. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 20729.50. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. -537.29. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.97.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 14285.38. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 31369. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 17083.62. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.2.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 13687.64. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 31122.00. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. 17434.36. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.27.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Castor was Rs. 32673.72. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 29640. The net income from Castor cultivation was Rs. -3033.72. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.91.  The results indicate that, 25.71 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 11.43 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate.  The results indicate that, in landless farmers, the average annual gross income from wage was Rs. 43000, in marginal farmers, the average annual gross income from service/salary was Rs.27500, wage was Rs.23750, agriculture was Rs.28025 and goat farming was Rs.10000. In small farmers, the average annual gross income from service/salary was Rs.5312.50, wage was Rs.24187.50, agriculture was Rs.64390.63 and dairy farming was Rs.3937.50. In semi medium farmers, the average annual gross income from wage was Rs.13500, agriculture was Rs.69100 and dairy farming was Rs.800. 5  The results indicate that, in case of landless the average annual expenditure from wage was Rs. 17000. In marginal farmers, the average annual expenditure from service/salary was Rs.5000, wage was Rs.8333.33, agriculture was Rs.14750 and goat farming was Rs.15000. In small farmers, the average annual expenditure from service/salary was Rs.20000, wage was Rs.7133.33, agriculture was Rs.31875 and dairy farming was Rs.5800. In semi medium farmers, the average annual expenditure from wage was Rs.10000, agriculture was Rs.29000 and dairy farming was Rs.1333.33.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 24 coconut, 2 lemon trees and 13 mango trees in their fields.  The results indicate that, households have planted 55 neem trees and 5 tamarind trees in their field and also planted 1 neem tree in their back yard.  The results indicate that, the average additional investment capacity with the households for land development was Rs. 7342.86, for irrigation facility Rs. 1057.14 and for improved crop production Rs. 285.71.  The results indicate that, government subsidy was the source of additional investment capacity for 85.71 per cent of the households for land development, 22.86 per cent of the households for irrigation facility and 5.71 per cent of the households for improved crop production .  The results indicated that, banana, Bengal gram, castor, red gram, sorghum, tomato and water melon crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Bajra, groundnut, maize, paddy and sunflower crops were sold to an extent of 92.05 per cent, 92.02 per cent, 98.89 per cent, 88.89 per cent and 28 per cent respectively.  The results indicated that, 94.29 per cent of the famers have sold their produce in regulated markets.  The results indicated that, 94.29 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 80 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm i.e., 100 per cent of the marginal farmers, 87.50 per cent of the small farmers and 100 per cent of the semi medium farmers have experienced soil and water erosion problems.  The results indicated that, 82.86 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households used fire wood.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 97.14 per cent of the households and 2.86 per cent of the households were using bore well for drinking water in the micro watershed.  The results indicated that, Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed. 6  The results indicated that, 57.14 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 100 per cent of the landless, 100 per cent of the marginal, 6.25 per cent of the small and 100 per cent of the semi medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 40 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 60 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 40 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 54.29 per cent, fruits were adequate for 82.86 per cent, milk was adequate for 45.71 per cent, eggs were adequate for 60 per cent and meat was adequate for 60 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, pulses were inadequate for 40 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 54.29 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 42.86 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 20 per cent, milk were inadequate for 17.14 per cent and egg was inadequate for 31.43 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 85.71 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (74.29%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (28.57%), inadequacy of irrigation water (8.57%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (51.43%), high rate of interest on credit (8.57%), low price for the agricultural commodities (8.57%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (25.71%), inadequate extension services (8.57%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (20%), less rainfall (62.86%) and Source of Agri-technology information(Newspaper/TV/Mobile) (14.29%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Jabbalgudda-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 521 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 99 per cent is covered by soils and 1 per cent by others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 10 soil series and 11 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm) soils.  Entire area of about 12 per cent area has loamy soils and 17 per cent area has clayey soils at the surface at the surface.  About 17 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 3 per cent has nearly level sloping (0-1%) and 26 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 14 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 15 per cent moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 3 per cent are slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5), 15 per cent are neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 10 per cent are slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8) and 1 per cent moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils is 0.75%) in about 5 per cent of the soils.  Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in about 18 per cent and 11 per cent is high (>57 kg/ha) in the microwatershed.  About 10 per cent of the soils are medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 19 per cent are high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium content.  Available sulphur is low (<10 ppm) in 29 per cent and <1 per cent are medium (10- 20 ppm) in the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in entire area of about 29 per cent area in soils.  Available iron is deficient (<4.5 ppm) in entire area of about 29 per cent.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in entire area of about 29 per cent.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 42 (8) 55 (11) Sapota 21 (4) 0.28 (<1) Maize - 97 (19) Pomegranate 21 (4) 49 (9) Bajra - 76 (15) Musambi 42 (8) 28 (5) Groundnut 21 (4) 27 (5) Lime 42 (8) 28 (5) Sunflower 42 (8) 28 (5) Amla 37 (7) 60 (12) Red gram 21 (4) 49 (9) Cashew 21 (4) 53 (5) Bengalgram 29 (6) 68 (13) Jackfruit 21 (4) 0.28 (<1) Cotton 42 (8) 55 (11) Jamun 21 (4) 49 (9) Chilli 21 (4) 43 (8) Custard apple 42 (8) 55 (11) Tomato 21 (4) 43 (8) Tamarind 21 (4) 49 (9) Brinjal - 97 (19) Mulberry 21 (4) 33 (6) Onion - 63 (11) Marigold 21 (4) 76 (15) Bhendi - 97 (19) Chrysanthemum 21 (4) 76 (15) Drumstick 21 (4) 49 (9) Jasmine 21 (4) 27 (5) Mango 21 (4) 20 (4) Crossandra 21 (4) 27 (5) Guava 21 (4) 0.28 (<1)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 5 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE STUDY  Results indicated that 35 farmers were sampled in Jabbalgudda-2 micro-watershed among them 8(22.86%) were marginal farmers, 7 (20%) were small farmers, 12 (34.29%) were semi medium farmers, 3 (8.57 %) were medium farmers and 5 (14.29 %) landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The data indicated that there were 164 population households were there in the studied micro watershed. Among them 95 (57.93%) men and 69 (42.07%) were women. The average family size of landless was 3, marginal farmers were 4, small and semi medium farmer was 5 and medium farmers were 9.  The data indicated that 21(12.80%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 79 (48.17 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 54 (32.93 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 10 (6.10%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that the Jabbalgudda-2 had 31.10 per cent illiterates, 31.71 per cent of them had primary school education, 4.27 per cent of them had both middle schools, 14.63 per cent of them had high school education, 7.93 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.61 per cent them had ITI and diploma education and 4.88 per cent them had degree education.  The results indicated that, 80 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 2.86 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labour and in private service respectively. 14.29 per cent of the household heads were general labour.  The results indicated that agriculture was the major occupation for 61.59 per cent of the household members, 3.05 per cent were agricultural labourers, 10.37 per cent were general labours, 2.44 per cent of them were in private sector, 13.41 per cent of them were students and 4.27 per cent of them were children.  In case of landless households 100 per cent were general labourers. In case of marginal farmers 70.97 per cent were agriculturist, 16.13 per cent were students and 3.23 per cent were general labour and in private service. In case of small farmers 81.82 per cent of them were agriculturist, 6.06 per cent were in agricultural labour and 12.12 per cent of them were students. In case of semi medium farmers 72.41 per cent of the family members were agriculturist, 3.45 per cent were agriculture labour, 5.71 per cent were in private service and 10.34 per cent of them were students. In case of medium farmers 38.46 per cent of the family members were agriculturist, 3.85 per cent of them were agricultural labour, 26.92 per cent of them were student, 11.54 per cent of them were housewives and 3.85 per cent of them were children.  The results showed that 100 per cent of population have not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicated that 91.43 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 8.57 per cent of them possess Thatched house.  The results showed that, 48.57 per cent of the households possess TV, 17.14 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 28.57 per cent of the households possess 2 bicycle, 22.86 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, and 85.71 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results showed that the average value of television was Rs. 9000, mixer grinder was Rs.2000, bicycle was Rs.2100, motor cycle was Rs.27375 and mobile phone was Rs.2350.  Data indicated that, 2.86 per cent of the households possess both tractor and sprayer respectively. 34.29 per cent of the households possess weeder.  The results showed that, average value of tractor was Rs. 400000, the average value of sprayer was Rs. 1000 and the average value of weeder was Rs. 93.  The results indicated that, 2.86 per cent of the households possess both bullocks and buffalo and 14.29 per cent of the households possess local cow. In case of semi medium farmers, 8.33 per cent of the households possess bullock, and buffalo correspondingly and 33.33 per cent of the households possess local cow. In medium farmers 33.33 per cent of the households possess local cow.  The results indicated that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.77, average own labour (women) available was 1.40, average hired labour (men) available was 7.47and average hired labour (women) available was 6.13.  In case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 1.38, average own labour (women) was also 1, average hired labour (men) was 6.13 and average hired labour (women) available was 4.88. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 1.71, average own labour (women) was 1.57, average hired labour (men) was 8.14 and average hired labour (women) available was 6.71. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 2, average own labour (women) was 1.42, average hired labour (men) was 8.08 and average hired labour (women) available was 6.42. In medium farmers average own labour men available was 2, average own labour (women) was 2, average hired labour (men) was 7 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.  The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate.  The results indicated that, households of the Jabbalgudda-2 micro-watershed possess 19.62 ha (46.98 %) of dry land and 22.14 ha (53.02%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 5.46 ha (100 %) of dry land. Small farmers possess 8.90 ha (90.61 %) of dry land and 0.92 ha (9.39 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 5.26 ha (26.85 %) of dry land and 14.33 ha (73.15 %) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 6.88 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicated that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 346,523.62 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 415,429.62. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 568,026.71 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 269,577.08 for dry land Rs. 650,000.01 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 247,000 for dry land 3 and Rs. 460,248.45 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 290,588.24 for irrigated land.  The results indicated that, there were 14 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicated that, bore well was the major irrigation source for 40 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicated that on an average the depth of the bore well was 38.32 meters.  The results indicated that, in case of small farmers there was 0.92 ha of irrigated land, in semi medium farmers there was 14.34 ha irrigated land and in medium farmers there was 4.86 per cent of the irrigated land.  The results indicated that, farmers have grown maize (21.29 ha), paddy (12.13 ha), groundnut (2.02 ha), bajra (1.70 ha) and navane (1.21 ha). Marginal farmers have grown maize, groundnut and bajra. Small farmers had grown maize, paddy, bajra and navane. Semi medium farmers had grown maize, paddy and groundnut. Medium farmers had grown maize and paddy.  The results indicated that, the cropping intensity in Jabbalgudda-2 micro-watershed was found to be 99.92 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 99.41 per cent, in small, semi medium farmers and medium farmers it was 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, 68.57 per cent of the households have bank account and 28.57 per cent of the households have savings.  The results indicated that, 25 per cent of marginal, 63.16 per cent of small, 42.86 per cent of the small, 33.33 per cent of the semi medium and medium farmers have borrowed credit from different sources respectively.  The results indicated that, 40 per cent of the households have availed loan from commercial bank, 10 per cent of the households have availed loan from friends/ relatives and 50 per cent have availed loan from Grameena bank.  The results indicated that, marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers have availed Rs.57500, Rs. 126666.67, Rs. 212500 and Rs. 10000 respectively. Overall average credit amount availed by households in the micro watershed is 135500.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the institutional credit was borrowed for agriculture production.  The results indicated that, 100 percent of private credit was taken for agriculture production.  Results indicated that 100 per cent of the households have unpaid their institutional credit.  Results indicated that 100 percent of the households have unpaid their private loan.  Results indicated that 100 per cent of the farmers opined that the credit, which was taken from various institutes was helped them to perform timely agricultural operations. 4  Results indicated that 100 per cent of the farmers opined that the credit, which was taken from private credit helped them to perform timely agricultural operations.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 31144.38. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 26243.75. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. -4900.63, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.84.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 35993.38. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 42562.86. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 6569.47. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.18.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 120050.47. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 97734.16. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. -22316.31. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.81.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 43776.50. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 47823.32. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 4046.81. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.09.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Navane+redgram was Rs. 23835.19. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 33641.40. The net income from Navane+redgram cultivation was Rs. 9806.21. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.41.  The results indicated that, 8.57 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder and green fodder were adequate respectively.  The table indicated that, in landless farmers, the average income from wage was Rs. 94000. In marginal farmers the average income from service/salary was Rs. 8750, wage was Rs.45000 and agriculture was Rs.65318.75. In small farmers the average income from wage was Rs.30000 and agriculture was Rs.130714.29. In semi medium farmers, the average income from service/salary was Rs. 17,500, wage was Rs. 13,333.33 and agriculture was Rs. 192,916.67. In case of medium farmers the average income from wage was Rs.26666.67 and agriculture was Rs.333333.33.  The results indicated that, in case of landless farmers, the annual average expenditure from wage was Rs. 64400. In marginal farmers the annual average expenditure from service/salary was Rs. 45000, wage was Rs. 33833.33 and agriculture was Rs.34250. In small farmers, the annual average expenditure from wage was Rs. 52000 and agriculture was Rs.64142.86. In semi medium farmers, the annual average expenditure from service/salary was Rs. 51666.67, wage was Rs. 18500 and agriculture was Rs.109583.33. In case of medium farmers, the annual average expenditure from wage was Rs. 65000 and agriculture was Rs.183333.33.  The results indicated that, sampled households have grown 19 coconut trees and 3 mango trees in their field and also planted 6 coconut trees in their backyard. 5  The results indicated that, households have planted 2 teak trees, 62 neem trees, 2 tamarind tress, 3 acacia trees and 2 banyan trees in their field and also grown 1 Neem tree in the backyard.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs.2285.71 for improved livestock management. Semi medium farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs.6666.67 for improved livestock management.  The results indicated that for 2.86 per cent of the households were dependent on government subsidy for improved livestock management.  The results indicated that, maize crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Bajra, Groundnut, navane and paddy were sold to an extent of 55 per cent, 80 per cent, 25 per cent and 75 per cent respectively.  The results indicated that, 45.71 percent of the households have sold their produce local/village merchant and 42.86 percent of the households sold their produce in regulated markets.  The results indicated that 8.57 per cent of the households have used cart as a mode of transport and 80 per cent have used tractor.  The results indicated that, 40 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems i.e. 37.50 percent of marginal farmers, 57.14 per cent of small farmers, 50 per cent of semi medium farmers and 33.33 per cent of medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 80 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing.  The results indicated that, 88.57 percent used fire wood as a source of fuel and 11.43 percent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the source of drinking water for 20 per cent, 71.43 per cent of them were using bore well and 8.57 per cent of the households were using lake/tank for drinking water.  The results indicated that, electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, 20 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 20 per cent of landless, 12.50 per cent of marginal, 14.29 per cent of the small, 33.33 per cent of the semi medium farmers and 25 per cent of the medium farmers had sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 51.43 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 100 per cent of the landless, 50 per cent of the marginal and semi medium farmers, 14.29 per cent of the small farmers and 66.67 per cent of the medium farmers. 6  The results indicated that cereals and pulses were adequate for 100 per cent of the households; milk and egg were adequate for 97.14 per cent of the households respectively. Oil seed, vegetables and meat were adequate for 2.86 per cent, 11.43 per cent and 17.14 per cent of the households respectively.  The results indicated that, oilseed, vegetables, fruits and meat were inadequate for 97.14 per cent, 88.57 per cent, 100 per cent and 82.86 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, Lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 85.71 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field and frequent incidence of pest and diseases were experienced by (77.14%), inadequacy of irrigation water (65.71%), high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals and high rate of interest on credit problems were experienced by (62.86%), low price for the agricultural commodities (74.29%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (77.14%), inadequate extension services and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market were experienced by (82.86%) and Source of Agri-technology information(Newspaper/TV/Mobile) (2.86 %) of the households. ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

To make a summary of a book that contains so many different threads is no easy task. One should, on the one hand, refer to its conceptual contribution to the paradigm of sustainable agriculture, and on the other hand, consider the conclusions drawn from the studies conducted at international, national and regional level. It is clear that changing the paradigm of agricultural development from an industrial to a sustainable one will be neither easy nor quick. Agriculture must satisfy the demand for food products while lowering the pressure on the environment, providing for technological and biological progress, meeting the need to ensure a secure supply of food, and ensuring global economic, social and environmental rationality. The discussion in this book has concentrated chiefly on the last two questions. This is because certain dimensions of environmental and social rationality have so far been poorly researched. Environmental rationality means not only protecting the natural environment and reducing the pressure placed on it by agricultural production. The authors have pointed out that the assumption of an intrinsic value of land changes the expected productivity of capital in the sectors which utilise that production factor, namely in agriculture. This has far-reaching theoretical and practical consequences. The statistical data that have been presented demonstrate that utilities are discounted in Polish land prices to a much greater degree than would result from the agricultural functions of land. A similar situation is found in other EU countries. Where does this excess value of land come from? It is undoubtedly a result of the expectations of political rents, of speculative motives, and also of non-agricultural amenities provided by land. However, it is hard to determine the proportions of these factors. Moreover, new utilities of land have the nature of public goods, which further complicates the problem of seeking a market equilibrium. Similarly, recognition of the fact of the absolute and relative deprivation of farmers in the long term changes the balance of intersectoral flows, because it means a drainage of surplus from agriculture to other branches of agribusiness. This drainage is understood as a permanent mechanism by which economic rent flows out of agriculture as a result of market imperfections, in particular the flexible prices of agricultural products. More space should be given to studies of this problem in the world literature. 135 Poznan University of Economics and Business, anna.matuszczak@ue.poznan.pl Summary: Political Rents and the European Model of Agriculture 239 The second thread of the theoretical considerations relates to the problem of whether the concept of political rent, as found in the literature, fits the processes taking place in European agriculture. A review of the literature on rent seeking suggests that these theories provide only a partial explanation of the level of political rents and lobbying actions in European agriculture. Although there is a vast theoretical literature on rent seeking and collective action at global level, there is not much empirical work done with regard to these problems relating to the Common Agricultural Policy. Particularly problematic is the question of measuring political rents in particular EU member states. It has been found that, on a global level, it is European agriculture that best meets the criteria of viability and sustainability. Viewed against the backdrop of global agriculture, it is economically effective (in the institutional conditions guaranteed by the CAP), satisfies a variety of economic and social needs, and is developing in a way that reduces the burden on the environment. In 2012, based on the results of social consultations, the European Commission published a strategy and plan of action relating to the bioeconomy in Europe. The strategy creates a cohesive framework for a comprehensive approach to the solution of complex social problems (challenges) in Europe and worldwide. The measures undertaken with respect to the bioeconomy are focused on three pillars: investment in research, innovations and skills; strengthening the impact of the policy and engagement of interested parties; and strengthening competitiveness in sectors of the bioeconomy. The bioeconomy strategy represents an important step towards solving contemporary economic and social problems. The model of the development of agriculture in the EU can thus be considered an appropriate path to be followed in relatively densely populated countries, in which food producing area per capita is small. However, does this model require institutional support and the payment of political rents? The question arises as to whether these are in fact political rents, if in return society receives a package of specified benefits, and there is a net increase in social well-being. Empirical analyses have shown that up to the mid 1980s the level of support for agriculture in the EU (measured by the NRA indicator) was constantly increasing. The decline in support in subsequent years was maintained by payments of the decoupled type. Based on NRA values it can be concluded that nominal support in 2011 was at a level comparable to that recorded prior to the creation of an organisation of agricultural markets, that is, before 1962. This means that the CAP is distorting world prices to an ever smaller degree, and agricultural producers are losing their competitive advantages (although to differing extents). An important observation is the fact that, although the CAP applies to all member states, the level of support varies between those countries. In 2005-2011 it was the highest in Ireland, Slovenia, Poland, Belgium and the UK, and the lowest in Italy and Bulgaria. This observation 240 Summary: Political Rents and the European Model of Agriculture is confirmed by a second indicator constructed for the purposes of this research by the authors of Chapter 2.3 – the Farm Receipts Gap Estimate (FRGE). Despite the fact that in principle agricultural policy has a universal application, the amount of financial support given to agricultural producers measured as a percentage of gross farm receipts is not uniform between countries, with differences as high as 17 percentage points in 2012136 (cf. Table 2.4.). We should add that, according to the OECD, the value of the PSE for the whole of the European Union is 22.6% (of gross receipts). The differences between the PSE and the FRGE result partly from the methodology used for calculation. Most importantly, however, the FRGE shows how little uniformity there is across the EU in terms of support for agricultural producers in different countries. The differences are even more marked when we consider the contribution of pure political rent137 to the revenue of producers in various countries. In the Netherlands this contribution is just 4.3%, while for Ireland it is 25.8% (although the highest value, 28.7%, is recorded in Finland; cf. Table 3.12.). These data also demonstrate one more thing: that the PSE should not be used as a measure of political rents, because it significantly overstates them. The mechanisms shaping the structure of transfers in the selected countries also exhibited clear differences. This applies in particular to the two main streams of transfers: from taxpayers to producers and from consumers to producers. There has also been a gradual change in the structure of support, away from consumer transfers towards taxpayer transfers. This has resulted both from changes taking place in the global economy and the rise in prices of agricultural products, as well as from transformations in agriculture's role in the economy. A key part of the book proved to be Part 3, which presents the concept and the effects of long-term surplus drainage from agriculture under the various support models applied in the EU as regards equivalent payments (for specific public goods) and the different models for the taxation of agriculture. The analysis leads to what are called pure political rents, being what remains when the value of the aforementioned flows (drainage and net subsidies for public goods) is deducted from the sum of CAP subsidies. It should be noted that only rents calculated in this way meet the definition of political rent found in the public choice theory. Another important thread in this discussion concerns price fluctuations and their consequences. Agriculture is characterised by a high variability of prices in particular markets, which leads to adjustments of supply. This reaction is not always as described by neo-classical concepts – the spider's web and King's effects. Farmers' expectations in different countries may be more or less adaptive, and are sometimes 136 From 19.99% in the Netherlands to 36.96% in Ireland. 137 After adjusting the support by that part the receipt of which is conditional on the supply of specified public goods, and by the value of long-term drainage resulting from market failures. Summary: Political Rents and the European Model of Agriculture 241 rational. This depends on the degree of horizontal and vertical integration of sale channels, and on access to information. This price variability leads to unexpected flows of economic surplus into and out of agriculture, and in the authors' view, this produces a drainage effect in the long term. In response, there is a fluctuation in economic activity and in the economic situation in agriculture. This process is not uniform, however, and varies between different EU countries, as the authors observe. They propose an economic indicator based on surplus flows as a result of price fluctuations, based on an input-output table. The largest fluctuations were recorded in such countries as Germany, Denmark, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Estonia and Lithuania. At the other extreme (with the smallest amplitudes of variation) are Portugal, Greece, Cyprus and Malta. At the same time, the value of the computed indicator determined the changes in farms' output and receipts, although in some countries this was a concurrent response, while in others it was delayed. This partly confirms the hypothesis that the outflow of economic rent from agriculture means a drop in productive activity, and vice versa (in some cases, however, such as in Poland, the response was delayed – recalling the spider's web theory). It was also shown that the relationship between the economic indicator and the production of agricultural raw materials differs between countries. In Germany, for example, the variation in output as a response to price changes is relatively low. Even in the most difficult period for agriculture (2009) production fell there by just 1%, compared with 15% in Portugal and as much as 30% in Poland, despite a smaller drop in the economic indicator. The authors believe this to be a result of the different agrarian structure, scale and technology of production, differences in the functioning of market institutions (integrative links, contracting systems), and the reactions of the producers themselves to the situation. To sum up, drawing conclusions about the general economic situation based on flows of economic rents is an atypical approach, but one that can identify the causes of variation in the productive activity on farms and help compare the scale of such variation between countries. This approach may also be a useful analytical tool for agricultural policy, which becomes particularly important in conditions of the intensification of processes of globalisation. In generalising the conclusions drawn from the analysis of the structure of CAP support in selected EU countries, three different models were identified138. Only 138 The structure of support is described based on the contribution of the following variables to total variable subsidies: X1 – the value of payments for public goods, being the sum of set-aside, agri-environmental and less favoured area payments and other subsidies for the development of rural areas; X2 – the value of subsidies for plant and animal production (the sum of other payments to plant and animal production plus the balance of subsidy and penalties for milk production, subsidy for other cattle production and subsidy for sheep and goat production); X3 – the value of single farm and area payments; X4 – the value of subsidies for indirect consumption; X5 – the value of investment subsidies. 242 Summary: Political Rents and the European Model of Agriculture two of them – model A (dominated by single farm and area payments, and with payments for the supply of public goods making up 17% of the total) and model C (combining different mechanisms of support for farms, with the highest contribution from payments for public goods, 33%) – were in accordance with the development priorities of the European agricultural model as defined in the new programming period of 2014-2020. These operated throughout most of the area of the EU in 2012, particularly in the new member states (cf. Figure 3.3.). Nonetheless, in most regions of the "old" EU-15 member states, the model in operation in 2012 was model B, oriented exclusively towards direct payments, which are treated as a substitute for support for production and produce a relatively weak stimulus for sustainable development. Further calculations showed that these countries receive more than 80% of the pure political rents derived from the CAP. There is also a large variation between EU countries as regards agricultural income. The tax systems applied to agriculture, however, are very similar (with certain exceptions, such as the case of Poland). They incorporate taxes on income, assets and consumption (VAT). The Polish system is different in that it does not include a tax on income from agricultural production. Based on an evaluation of the tax systems applied to agriculture in selected EU countries, it is possible to identify countries having the most restrictive tax policies towards agriculture (Belgium, Portugal, Ireland, Spain) and those where such policies are less restrictive (the UK, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands). Taking account of the long-term surplus drainage from agriculture and the net equivalent subsidies (in exchange for specific actions relating to public goods), an estimate was made of the value of "pure" political rents for individual countries of the EU-27. The analysis carried out here points to the conclusion that agricultural interventionism in the EU requires a special conceptual approach, since it is not sufficient to simply treat all subsidies as political rents. The new approach proposed by the authors is necessary, as it provides an indication of how to improve the effectiveness of allocation of support for agriculture in individual EU countries. Quantification of the political rent in agriculture enables a more rational and socially appropriate distribution of assistance from the CAP in accordance with the goals set for agricultural policy in the new financial framework after 2014. Although the division of payment envelopes between member states has already been decided, since 2014 the CAP has gained flexibility in terms of the structure of both pillars and transfers between them. These matters remain in the hands of the governments of member states. Another issue is the aforementioned contribution of political rents to the gross receipts from agriculture in a given country (cf. Tables 3.12. and 3.13.). On average in the EU-27 this contribution is 13.63%, and although in the EU-12 it is slightly Summary: Political Rents and the European Model of Agriculture 243 higher, and in the EU-15 somewhat lower than average, there are countries in which that value is exceeded almost twofold. Redefinition is required as regards the issue of social fairness in the determination of the sizes of national CAP envelopes. The calculations of political rents show that historical payments are neither a rational nor a just solution, because the structurally low profitability of agriculture in certain countries should be compensated for by a higher supply of public goods, and this is not happening. Perhaps countries with structurally inefficient agriculture should supply more public goods than they do at present, if they wish to maintain their current ratio of political rents to gross added value, or else subsidise their agriculture to a greater degree out of national funds. Part 4 of the book contains case studies. These demonstrate the applicative dimension of the paradigm of sustainable development and methods of evaluating the effectiveness of agricultural policy in supporting such development in rural areas. Naturally, the results of these studies are not representative for agriculture as a whole (at national or EU level). Nonetheless, they indicate a direction for discussion concerning the development of sustainable agriculture in theory and in practice, and provide methodological guidance. They develop a methodology for examining regional sustainable development, which enables not only a sustainability assessment, but also a comparison of synthetic indicators over the whole of the analysed period. Also a set of analytical models is proposed, which make possible not only a better management of human and material capital in firms in agricultural and food sectors, but also the identification of areas that need to be improved to enable these resources to be used more competitively. Among the detailed findings, the following are particularly striking: • The location-specific factor "type of rural area", based on land functions, is of key importance for land value in the SAPS. The area type determines whether particular use values, such as area or shape coefficient, and amenities, such as the possibility of building, as well as payments under agricultural policy, affect the land price. • There is a very large variation in land prices in the SAPS, and prices are strongly affected by speculation, which has driven the upward trend since the introduction of area payments in 2004. However, the impact of speculation is relatively small in areas with agrotouristic features. • Agricultural policy, in particular payments for public goods, has a very large significance (marginal effects) for the value of agricultural land compared with other parcel-level attributes of properties. • Payments for public goods are however capitalised in land prices only in peripheral areas. Elsewhere they fail to perform their role, and are even associated with the decapitalisation of the value of land. In particular, in 244 Summary: Political Rents and the European Model of Agriculture agrotouristic areas these schemes should be complementary and not substitutive with respect to the multifunctional development of the countryside. Therefore, in most places at present, single area payment support is not a differentiating factor for land value, in view of its general availability and low requirements, and the other payments do not compensate for the opportunity costs related to alternative ways of deriving rent from land. • Similarly, support for agrotouristic activity did not have a significant effect on the level of income from agrotourism among the analysed farms. This was because interest in such support came from those farms that did not yet obtain relatively high amounts of income from agrotourism; and moreover the instrument was not of a universal nature, but required the fulfilment of specified conditions. It can be expected that the situation was similar throughout Poland. • The relationships between agriculture and agrotourism are symbiotic in nature. Their common plane includes both the income of farms engaged in agricultural and agrotouristic activity, and the support provided by CAP instruments. In consequence, the preliminary conclusion can be reached that direct subsidies favour the economic activation of farms in non-agricultural activity. • The instruments of the CAP can be expected to evolve to favour the creation of public goods at local authority level rather than the development of agrotouristic activity itself at farm level. A particularly striking aspect of the findings of these case studies is that they point towards a common problem: the idea of payments for public goods under agricultural policy is set forth as a leitmotif of the European agricultural model, but in practice the CAP does not succeed in valuing these goods accurately. Perhaps this value is too low compared with the funds allocated indirectly to support production and efficiency, perversely given the name "decoupled"? Hence, the idea remains more a declaration than reality. This conclusion is confirmed by the variation in pure political rents obtained by agriculture (one might say non-equivalent rents) between EU countries in 2004-2012: ranging from approximately 9% of value added by agriculture in the Netherlands, to over 95% in Ireland. Are such disproportions, which it is hard to justify by any objective criteria, acceptable from the point of view of social justice and common community ideology? Alluding to the hypothesis put forward at the outset: there is something called the European model for the development of agriculture, but it is implemented in a minority of EU countries. Their common denominator is that pure political rent, after taking account of public goods and market corrections, accounts for a similar proportion of agricultural income. ; National Science Centre ; Bazyli Czyżewski

The international business environment is still changing dramatically and, although international growth may introduce added complexity it may be unavoidable for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) mainly due to the increasing globalization of markets (Levitt 1983) and industries (Yip 2003). In the face of rapid globalization, SMEs are a vital part of the economic systems of both emerging and developed countries. As Veloso (1991) points out, this type of companies may be an important organ for increasing the level of competitiveness of emerging markets. Some studies, for example, Yasuf (2001), go to the extent of suggesting that growth and employment in developing countries depend on the fate of SMEs. The incentive and the legal structures within which firms must operate have been drastically altered. SMEs are no longer protected from foreign competition and local buyers and suppliers are becoming more sophisticated. To compete effectively, SMEs must adapt and reshape themselves to facilitate adjustments and enhance learning for their growth and economic development. This article provides a typology to explain the degree of internationalization of SMEs. At one extreme is tangible internationalization, which is short-term and depends on macro and microeconomics factors exogenous to firms; at the other is a combination of tangible and intangible internationalization, which implies a strong commitment by firms to become competitive at international levels.I argue that different forces have forced the internationalization not only of firms, but also of markets, so that SMEs can become global without a physical presence in foreign markets. Furthermore, it may be necessary for these companies to become global if they are to remain competitive in their local markets. As a result of this paradigm shift, internationalization is based not only on geographical aspects, which are closely related to firm internationalization, but also on intangible considerations, which are closely related to market internationalization.Tangible internationalization is a restricted approach defined as a physical presence in a foreign market; it consists mainly of foreign sales, foreign direct investment (FDI), physical presence in foreign markets, and foreign suppliers. It fluctuates with exchange rates, costs of inputs, and other resource endowments that are tied to a particular geographic location. On the other hand, intangible internationalization implies a change in the comprehensive approach to the way firms should reconfigure, develop and secure resources. Intangible internationalization requires facilitating learning at all levels of a firm to increase the stock of knowledge, and, therefore, to improve flexibility on the production side and increase the likelihood of developing new resources and processes, thus enhancing the firm's critical invisible assets (Itami and Roehl 1987). An SME should aim for both in order to take advantage of a physical presence in foreign markets and provide constant incentives to facilitate learning and new organizational capabilities and processes. Tangible internationalization is a short-term expansion in foreign markets because it takes advantage of temporary macro- and microeconomics conditions; it does not require changes at the firm level. On the other hand, a combination of intangible and tangible internationalization has a higher probability to be sustainable in the long term and mostly depends on the firm's actions to meet international standards.This article emphasizes 5 crucial aspects of that managers need to be aware of: I. A matter of having an strategic plan II. An internal perspective of the firm III.The need of expanding the knowledge bases of SMEs IV.How to access and secure resources: networks V.The entrepreneurial aspectsI. A Matter of Having an Strategic PlanWhile firms have an important degree of freedom to make their own decisions, the effect of the environment cannot be discounted. This matter becomes critically important in the context of emerging economies because firms are not only facing changes in the structure of the industry in which they operate, but also in the surrounding and institutional environments. To be aware of the different courses of action available, decision makers must understand all the pro-market reforms, not just those that most affect their own industry. According to Weick (1995), the strategic decisions that managers make depend on their cognitive structures and how they make sense of the environment. Managers need to understand any intended change in a way that makes sense or fits an interpretative schema or system of meaning (Bartunek 1984). Andrews (1980) compares the role of the owner-manager to an architect who is in charge of doing the synthesis. Senior managers have the role of analyzing, interpreting, and making sense of clues so as to formulate and implement strategies. Senior managers should act as catalysts to understand and create new interpretative frameworks that provide purpose and direction to the members of the organization (Westley 1990).Laying a Formal Foundation: Making the Implicit Explicit The fact that SMEs have inadequate organizational structures and managerial expertise is a real problem in a changing environment. SMEs do not have the same level of support to increase their competitiveness, and given the lack of managerial expertise, building an adequate structure is not a straightforward process, even though it is a central one. Formalizing routines and processes within firms to make them less dependent on a specific individual is key. This is an important concern because SMEs not only have a less highly developed structure, but their fate is closely linked to one or a few individuals who posses knowledge or resources that have not been made explicit to the rest of the firm.Nevertheless, in a changing environment managers need to be proactive and to rethink their approaches regarding the future activities of their firms. A mere replication of previous strategies may no longer be a valid option when firms are competing in the international arena. The future can be imagined and enacted and that companies must be capable of fundamentally reconciling themselves by regenerating their core competencies and reinventing their industry. The role of managers is not to plan for the future, but to manage the process of learning and to be open to the possibility that new strategies can emerge.II. Analyzing the Firm's ResourcesAn analytical examination of the resources of a firm may help to develop an understanding not only of possible short-run business strategies, but also of future diversifications (Montgomery and Wernerfelt, 1988), growth strategies (Penrose, 1959), and sustainability of long-term rents (Rumelt, 1984). SMEs can compete in the international arena, but they will face international competition from foreign SMEs as well as from multinational enterprises (MNEs). Focusing only on product-market strategies is not enough; instead, the long-term survival of a firm depends on the characteristics and endowment of its resources, which should be valuable and difficult to imitate (Mahoney and Pandian 1992; Grant 1991; Amit and Schoemaker 1993). To be able to compete, the manager-owners of SMEs must know the internal resources and capabilities of their companies. As Andrews (1980: 18-19) suggested, a firm should make its strategic plans "preferably in a way that focuses resources to convert distinctive competence into competitive advantage."Firms are a bundle of different kinds of resources and a set of commitments to certain technologies, human resources, processes, and know-how that manager-owners marshal. This issue is particularly important to the present study because it is not unusual that are controlled, managed, and run by one or a small group of individuals that have a deep, but tacit, knowledge of the firm. What is important is a clear identification—not just a vague idea—of the different resources on which a firm can depend.How to Reconfigure a Firm's Resources? Capabilities exist when two or more resources are combined to achieve a goal and they "emphasizes the key role of strategic management in appropriately adapting, integrating and reconfiguring the internal and external organization skills, resources, and functional competences to match the requirements of changing environment" (Teece et al. 1997: 515). It is important to note that the relative endowment of firms may not necessarily relate to their financial performance because "only the service that the resource can render and not the resources themselves provide inputs into the production process" (Penrose 1972: 25). It is the deployment of a combination of those services that are critical to the rent generation of the firm. Firms need to exploit the existing firm-specific capabilities and also develop new ones (Penrose 1959; Teece 1982; Wernerfelt 1984) to compete internationally and to grow. Over time, SMEs have seen the nature of their rents change; we should expect a shift from Ricardian to Schumpeterian rents. A company may not have better resources, but achieve rents because it makes better use of its resources (Penrose 1959). Rents depend not only on the structure of the resources, but also on the ability of firms to reconfigure and transform those resources. The above discussion leads to the formation of the following hypotheses:III. The Need of Expanding the Knowledge Bases of SMEsThe capacity to exploit a new set of opportunities depends partly on the strategic decisions made by managers. In some cases, these opportunities require at least a reconfiguration of the activities of the firm, but more often, they require the incorporation of new resources and, especially, the introduction of new processes.Firms are as systems of purposeful actions engaging in economic activities to achieve objectives, therefore, they must learn adapt and survive in a complex environment. Organizational learning is the process by which firms can cope with uncertainty and environmental complexity, and their efficiency depends on learning how the environment is changing and then adapting to those changes (March and Olsen, 1976).SMEs need to enhance their learning in two different aspects. First, internal knowledge should be coded and made available to selected members in the company. The manager-owner is knowledgeable about almost all aspects of the business (Mintzberg 1979), and his or her knowledge is personal in the sense that it is located in the mind and not always encoded or available to the rest of the firm. Routines should be created in order to secure the long-term existence of the firm because routines capture the experiential lessons and make that knowledge obtainable by the members of the organization that were not part of the history of the company (Levitt and March 1988).The second way SMEs need to enhance their learning is to make changes in their knowledge base. When socio-economic environments change, firms need to assess the change in order to reformulate how they react to new incentives. The first step is developing a capability to understand the new dynamics. When regulatory and competitive conditions change rapidly, persistence in the same routines can be hazardous because managers and employees use organizational memory or knowledge to make decisions and to formulate the present strategy of the firm.The effectiveness of decisions taken by an SME is greatly influenced by its knowledge base which, in turn, is the result of learning processes that are no longer applicable and may be misleading. Changes in the knowledge base are probably requisite for any firms competing in an industry with tradable products. Supporting infrastructure and routines may prove essential to increase the learning pace and to effectively integrate the new knowledge and reduce the inertia due to outdated knowledge.IV. How to Access and Secure Resources: NetworksSMEs, compared to larger firms, face major challenges in terms of securing and updating resources. Where internal resources are important to accounting for a firm's performance (Gnyawali and Madhavan, 2001), resources also can be secured within networks that may allow firms to be competitive locally and internationally. Increasingly, networking is seen as a primarily means of rising required resources. Resources, such as information, equipment, and personnel, can be exchanged in networks because of relationships between. Networks are important instruments to ease the constraints facing SMEs in terms of access to: a) capital markets to obtain long-term finance both locally and internationally, b) narrow and highly regulated labor markets, c) information and technologies, d) inefficient tax codes, and e) highly bureaucratic and expansive legal procedures. SMEs may be part of a network not only because it may find complementary resources, but also because owners and managers may have friendship ties with other owners and mangers. These non-economic reasons may be as important as economic ones.A Particular Kind of Network: Industry Clusters An extensive literature exists on the topic of industry clusters. Ricardo's "comparative advantages" can be considered as a pioneering concept of industrial clusters; and Marshall's exposition about externalities is based on industrial localization. Industrial clusters are characterized by having extensive interfirm exchanges and an advantageous environment to pursue business activities. Marshall (1961) argues that industry localization may be an important factor because a) it creates a market for workers with certain industry-specific skills, b) it promotes production and exchange of non-tradable specialized input, and c) firms may take advantage of informational spillovers. Krugman (1991) points out that given the existence of market imperfection, pecuniary externalities may also play an important role in determining the concentration of industry in a specific geographic location. Pouder and St. John (1996) argue that clustered firms have a greater legitimacy than firms outside a cluster. Clusters can provide a critical mass to counterbalance the political influence of large firms and to increase the pressure for investments that affect the productivity of the cluster. Furthermore, competition within clusters increases productivity and new firm development (Porter 1998).V. The Entrepreneurial AspectsIntangible internationalization requires facilitating learning by its employees in order to constantly transform the firm. Implementing mechanisms to expand the knowledge base and to diffuse information should allow SMEs to increase their capacity to develop new goods and services, and to compete in new markets. Key characteristics of this type of internationalization are common interests, trust and openness that allow employees to challenge assumptions. Intangible internationalization is a more difficult international expansion, but it provides sustainable competitive advantages. Consequently, SMEs would become competitive by reducing their costs, introducing new products and expanding their potential markets.It is not possible to engage in tangible internationalization without having a minimum level of intangible internationalization or being competitive without some degree of valuable, rare, in-imitable, non-substitutable resources (Barney 1991). SMEs should aim for both types of internalization in order to take advantage of physical presence in foreign markets and constantly provide the incentives to facilitate learning, new organizational capabilities and processes.Firms have different combinations of internationalization. In order to analyze how SMEs can take advantage of both tangible and intangible internationalization, the foundation of the potential competitive advantages need to be identified. Therefore, it is crucial to understand how firms deliver products that have value for customers, but also to understand what makes these firms different from the rest (Hall 1998). I argue that there are three major categories of differential that have a strong impact on the nature of internationalization of SMEs. The first is called firm differential, and includes a) organizational (team level), b) managerial (individual level), c) physical endowment and d) technological capabilities differentials. The second category is based on the home country characteristics and it is called country differential. The final category,market differential, takes into consideration the specific features of local markets and industries. These differentials deeply influence the role of owner-manager. There are three basic approaches that a SME can adopt while anticipating and responding to the needs of its customers. The first one is the approach of the Schumpeterian entrepreneur (Schumpeter, 1934), a leader who breaks away from routine and introduces either new goods/services or new production processes for existing goods/services. The second one is related to Porter's (1980) concept of cost leadership even though Porter studied larger firms from developed countries. The last style of owner-manager is the Kirznerian entrepreneur, who is a person alert to opportunities (see figure 1). This type of role implies that the owner-manager acts as a broker in order to take advantage of over-optimistic or over-pessimistic reactions of economic agents (Kirzner 1973); therefore, the owner-manager will act "in regard to the changes occurring in the data of the markets" (Mises 1949: 255).ConclusionIn the business literature, internationalization involvement usually results from one of two factors: a) the firm possesses some monopolistic advantage that it can use in another country, or b) the host country owns resources that are valuable to the foreign firm. While these reasons may be necessary and sufficient conditions for larger companies, is not necessarily the case for SMEs whom have no option but to internationalization.Those two factors do not necessarily apply to SMEs because they need to become international even if they do not compete in international markets. The average level of competitiveness of SMEs is below that of multinational enterprises. 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Policy ArticleWorking Paper 2618, the World Bank Yip, G. (2003). Total Global Strategy II. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.Sobre el autorCoordinador Académico de Finanzas FACS, Universidad ORT Uruguay

This paper makes analytical, methodological and empirical contributions to the literature on purchasing power parity. Purchasing power parities are required in a host of cross-country welfare comparisons, such as poverty rates and gross domestic product. The subject has recently generated much interest in the wake of the release of the final results of the 2011 International Comparison Program. This paper introduces a preference-based analytical framework that departs from the conventional Balassa-Samuelson framework in deriving empirically verifiable propositions on the link between purchasing power parity and exchange rates, and between purchasing power parity and inequality. The paper also provides an alternative methodology for calculating purchasing power parities that are benchmarked against the 2011 International Comparison Program purchasing power parities. As this study shows, the alternative methodology is capable of easy implementation on readily available data sets. The benchmarking exercise suggests that the 2011 International Comparison Program generally understates purchasing power parity and overstates gross domestic product, and that the purchasing power parities vary across expenditure percentiles. The study reports regional variation in the direction of the difference between the two purchasing power parities. The empirical evidence is supportive of the positive association between inequality and purchasing power parity derived in the paper.