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Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Tavaregere-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 788 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 95 per cent is covered by soil, four per cent by rock out crops and less than one per cent by water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below  The soils belong to 11 soil series and 44 soil phases (management units) and 5 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is 150cm) soils.  About 9 per cent is sandy (loamy sand), 79 per cent loamy (sandy loam and sandy clay loam) and 7 per cent has clayey (sandy clay and clay) soils at the surface.  About 73 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 10 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) and 85 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 32 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 64 per cent is moderately eroded (e2).  An area of about 6 per cent is moderately acid (pH 5.5 to 6.0), 24 per cent is slightly acid (pH6.0-6.5), 41 per cent has neutral soils, 12 per cent slightly alkaline (pH 7.3 to 7.8), 8 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8 to 8.4), 4 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4 to 9.0) and 9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in 57 kg/ha) in 81 per cent of the soils.  Available potassium is low (337 kg/ha) in 2 per cent area of the soils.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 1 per cent area of the soils.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in 76 per cent of the area.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 41 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area.  The land suitability for 28 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 168(21) 198 (28) Pomegranate 86(11) 279(35) Maize 168 (21) 198 (25) Guava 86(11) 279(35) Bajra 229(29) 200(25) Jackfruit 86(11) 279(35) Redgram 86(11) 216 (27) Jamun - 245(31) Bengal gram 14(2) 352(45) Musambi 86(11) 279(35) Groundnut 147(18) 378 (61) Lime 86(11) 279(35) Sunflower 86 (11) 216 (27) Cashew 154(20) 223(28) Cotton - 365(46) Custard apple 215(27) 536(68) Chilli 154(20) 184(23) Amla 215(27) 536 (68) Tomato 168(21) 170(22) Tamarind - 121(15) Drumstick 86(11) 475(60) Marigold 154(20) 212(27) Mulberry 86(11) 602(46) Chrysanthemum 154(20) 212 (27) Mango - 121(15) Jasmine 154(20) 212(27) Sapota 86(11) 279(35) Crossandra 154(20) 184(23)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 5 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plans have been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 104 (54.45%) men and 87 (45.55%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4, marginal farmers' was 4.8, small farmers' was 5.4, semi medium farmers' was 7 and medium farmers' was 5.5.  The data indicated that, 40 (20.94%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 75 (39.27%) were in 16-35 years of age, 55 (28.80%) were in 36-60 years of age and 21 (10.99%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Tavaregere-2 had 29.32 per cent illiterates, 0.52 per cent functional literate and ITI, 45.55 per cent of them had primary school education, 13.61 per cent of them had high school education, 5.76 per cent of them had PUC education and 2.62 per cent had degree education.  The results indicate that, 80 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture and 17.14 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture labour.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 15.18 per cent of the household members, 55.50 per cent were agricultural labourers, 2.09 per cent were in private service, 24.08 per cent were in students, 2.62 per cent were housewives and 0.52 per cent were in children.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 45.71 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 37.14 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 20 per cent of the households possess pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 94.29 per cent of the households possess TV, 91.43 per cent of them possess mixer/grinder player, 31.43 per cent of them possess bicycle, 45.71 per cent o f the households possess motor cycle and 88.57 per cent of them possess mobile phones. The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 4,636, mixer grinder was Rs. 1,707, bicycle was 1,000, motor cycle was Rs. 33,187 and mobile phone was Rs. 1,500.  About 22.86 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 31.43 per cent of them possess plough, 45.71 per cent of them possess sprayer, 100 per cent of them possess weeder and 2.86 per cent of them possess chaff cutter.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 17,625, plough was Rs. 1,730, sprayer was Rs. 2,876, weeder was Rs.57, and the average value of chaff cutter was Rs. 3,000.  The results indicate that, 25.71 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 28.57 per cent of the households possess local cow, 11.43 per cent possess buffalo and 5.71 per cent possess sheep. 2  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.10, average own labour (women) available was 1.9, average hired labour (men) available was 6.52 and average hired labour (women) available was 6.74.  The results indicate that, 88.57 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Tavaregere-2 micro-watershed possess 31.31 ha (64.21%) of dry land, 32.47 ha (32.47%) of irrigated land and 1.62 ha (3.32%) of permanent fallow land. Marginal farmers possess 4.4 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 13.94 ha (85.74%) of dry land and 2.32 ha (14.26%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 7.28 ha (53.96%) of dry land and 6.22 ha (46.04%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 5.69 ha (38.94%) of dry land, 7.30 ha (49.97%) of irrigated land and 1.62 ha (11.09%) of permanent fallow land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 217,086.72, the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 366,206.54 and the average value of permanent fallow land was Rs. 216,125. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 454,044.11 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 222,328.69 for dry land and Rs. 603,490.39 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 150,944.44 for dry land and Rs. 353,776.04 for irrigated land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 105,480.43 for dry land, Rs. 301,386.57 for irrigated land and Rs. 216,125for permanent fallow land.  The results indicate that, there were 10 de-functioning and functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, there were 1 de-functioning and functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, 28.57 per cent of the bore well and 2.86 per cent of the open well was the irrigation source in the micro water shed.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 18.90 meters and 0.17 meters  The results indicate that small, semi medium and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 2.32 ha and 7.29 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown maize (19.95 ha), bajra (12.34 ha), groundnut (7.91 ha), mango (5.56 ha), Bengal garm (0.91 ha), cotton and paddy (0.81 ha) and sunflower (0.49 ha). Marginal farmers have grown maize, bajra, groundnut and bengal gram. Small farmers have grown maize, bajra, groundnut, mango, cotton and sunflower. Semi medium farmers have grown maize, bajra, groundnut and mango. Medium farmers have grown maize, bajra, groundnut, mango and paddy. 3  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Tavaregere-2 micro-watershed was found to be 73.01 per cent.  The results indicate that, 94.29 per cent of the households have bank account and savings.  The results indicate that, 94.29 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 22307.91. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 19018.26. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. -3289.65. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.85.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 58641.04. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 63763.38. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 5122.34. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.09.  The total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 29687.65. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 27748.28. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. - 1939.38. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.93.  The total cost of cultivation for mango was Rs. 59922.80. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 459720.57. The net income from mango cultivation was Rs. 399797.77. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:7.67.  The total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 74765.28. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 58045. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. - 16720.28. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.78.  The total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 46034.38. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 49400.00. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. 3365.61. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.07.  The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 40006.43. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 98800.00. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 58793.57. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.47.  The total cost of cultivation for Bengal gram was Rs. 52520.75. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 76067.26. The net income from Bengal gram cultivation was Rs. 23546.51. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.45.  The results indicate that, 42.86 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.86 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 81,300 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 63,200, for small farmers it was Rs. 84,792.31, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 156,942.86 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 137,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 6,359.30. For landless households it was Rs. 8,800, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 4,777.78, for 4 small farmers it was Rs. 3,840.24, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 8,355.10 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 10,375.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 86 trees in their field.  The results indicate that, households have planted 9 teak, 18 neem and 2 tamarind trees in their field.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 4,829.33 for land development, Rs. 3,531.95 for irrigation facility, Rs. 2,285.86 for improved crop production and Rs.600.09 for improved livestock management.  The results indicated that government subsidy was the source of additional investment for 77.14 per cent for land development, 42.86 per cent for irrigation facility and improved crop production and 11.43 per cent for improved livestock management.  The results indicated that, bajra was sold to the extent of 55.25 per cent, Bengal gram was sold to the extent of 68.75 per cent, cotton and mango was sold to the extent of 100 per cent, ground nut was sold to the extent of 93.06 per cent, maize was sold to the extent of 97.24 per cent, paddy was sold to the extent of 60 per cent and sunflower was sold to the extent of 87.50 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 105.71 per cent of the farmers sold their produce through regulated market.  The results indicated that, 5.71 per cent of the households used cart and 102.86 per cent of them used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 82.86 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 94.29 per cent of the households used firewood and 5.71 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 8.57 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 91.43 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 51.43 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 97.14 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 2.86 per cent of the households not possessed PDS card.  The results indicated that, 41.67 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 97.14 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 14.29 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 5 57.14 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 34.29 per cent, fruits were adequate for 42.86 per cent, milk were adequate for 28.57 per cent and meat was adequate for 34.29 per cent.  The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 27.78 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 85.71per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 20 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 62.86 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 28.57 per cent, milk was inadequate for 40 per cent and egg were inadequate for 57.14 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 82.86 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (31.43%),frequent incidence of pest and diseases (37.14%), inadequacy of irrigation water (28.57%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (40%), high rate of interest on credit (5.71%), low price for the agricultural commodities (17.4%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (20%), inadequate extension services (34.29%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (22.86%), less rainfall (31.43%) and source of Agritechnology information (2.86%) . ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

El Ecuador, como país intercultural y plurinacional recoge en su memoria social todas las costumbres, mitos, leyendas y tradiciones que transforman en direccionamientos para el desarrollo del país en todas sus áreas, ya que compila en el Derecho Consuetudinario de los pueblos originarios del Ecuador su forma de actuar, ya hoy en día gracias a la revolución ciudadana, lo podemos socializar y aplicar, mismos que deben ser cumplidos en forma coercitiva porque ese es su modo de vida, que con toda seguridad lo manifiesto, es la base para llegar al Sumak Kausay. El presente trabajo explica en resumen la historia de nuestros pueblos originarios, mismos que para llegar a la vida republicana y la colonización han sufrido un proceso de expansionismo y dominación incaica – española, en su debido orden, para luego entrar en la capitulación por las grandes empresas de conquistas, organizadas técnicamente en Centro América y expandirse hacia América del Sur e ingresar al proceso de formación del amerindio, que en el tránsito de Inca a indio y campesino, ha sufrido discriminaciones en todo sentido, llegando a ocultar toda la sabiduría ancestral que luego fue catalogado como actividades paganas en contra de Dios de acuerdo a la Biblia que nos trajeron del viejo mundo (Vera, 1989) En este proceso, el amerindio pasa por un período de tamizaje en donde se cumplió con el gran objetivo de la conquista; que desaparezca de una vez por todas los rasgos culturales de la cosmología andina, que el runa y la huarmi tengan vergüenza de sus ancestros, sus etnias y culturas; de este modo, terminaron con su vestimenta, culto, creencias, mitos, leyendas y tradiciones (Derecho Consuetudinario). Conscientes estamos que toda la memoria ancestral se resume en el Derecho Consuetudinario de los pueblos originarios del Ecuador, pero no se puede desarrollar, preservar y socializar sino existe un proceso de enseñanza básica para que sea transmitida de generación en generación, caso contrario, toda esa riqueza cultural quedaría en el olvido. Razón por la cual los maestros cumplen un papel importante en el proceso de enseñanza aprendizaje, ya que son los responsables del conocimiento histórico real del antes y el después de las comunidades y pueblos del Ecuador. Para que un docente pueda transmitir los conocimientos ancestrales inéditos a las futuras generaciones, debe dominar la norma y la sociología jurídica ya que nos da la sabiduría y todas las herramientas para hacerlo con eficiencia, efectividad, y eficacia de todos los conocimientos ancestrales en prácticas diarias; es así como, en la vida republicana, hasta la década de los 90 los educadores no podían realizar prácticas educativas reales en forma clara, transparente y cierta, porque los contenidos científicos se basaban sólo en conocimientos extranjeros o currículos de otros países y en el mejor de los casos al catecismo. Es la Sociología Jurídica, la filosofía y el Derecho Consuetudinario especialmente la danza el teatro y los juegos populares las únicas actividades que de una u otra manera utilizan legalmente los educadores para realizar el proceso de enseñanza aprendizaje con saberes ancestrales plasmados en mensajes a través de corografías, obras teatrales y juegos lúdicos o populares. Tanto en el Ecuador como en el resto de América Latina, existe un nuevo escenario político en la cual la: multi-pluri-inter-culturalidad está ganando espacio y legitimidad. Esta nueva coyuntura incluye el reconocimiento por parte de los estados sobre la diversidad étnica y cultural, así también la necesidad de reconocer derechos específicos, colectivos y de la naturaleza, lo que algunos autores llaman el nuevo "constitucionalismo multicultural", que está enfocado en una nueva forma de solución de conflictos, ya sea por la conciliación, mediación, arbitraje, pero principalmente la justicia indígena (Van, 2000) y su relación con la ciudadanía "étnica" "cultural". (Montoya, 2002). Ratifican la aplicación de los Métodos Alternativos y Solución de Conflictos (MASC) mismos que están amparados por la Constitución ecuatoriana en su Artículo 190. Como bien sabemos, a diferencia de otros países de la región, en el Ecuador este reconocimiento oficial es de mayor jerarquía; reflejo y resultado de luchas y demandas del movimiento indígena, de sus procesos de fortalecimiento identitario como actores sociales, políticos y culturales y de su cuestionamiento de los modelos existentes de ciudadanía, democracia, estado y nación liderados por los movimientos indígenas en sus diversas organizaciones de la costa, sierra y oriente. Las demandas de reconocimiento cultural de los pueblos indígenas y pueblos originarios del Ecuador, han puesto en duda la vigencia de un sistema jurídico mono cultural, aun teniendo en cuenta el escenario del multiculturalismo constitucional que recorrió las reformas constitucionales latinoamericanas desde la aprobación del Convenio No. 169 por parte de la Organización Internacional de Trabajo en 1989. En el Ecuador este proceso es primordial y de sumo interés, razón por la cual con la aprobación del referéndum de la nueva Constitución en el 2008, en la que se define como Estado Plurinacional de Derechos, reconociendo la coexistencia de una diversidad de sistemas jurídicos. Los países de la región, como Bolivia y Venezuela, entre otros, han transitado procesos similares, cuestionando la permanencia del denominado monismo jurídico quien plantea que las crisis son una precondición para el surgimiento de nuevas teorías y referentes para la solución de conflictos. El reconocimiento por parte del Estado de los sistemas jurídicos, no implica que las autoridades de los pueblos y nacionalidades indígenas tengan el objetivo de crear algo nuevo, sino el reconocimiento de una realidad histórica de ejercicio de derechos consuetudinarios, que en el marco de la construcción colonial de la dominación estatal fueron invisibilizados, negados y perseguidos, como prácticas al margen de la ley. El pluralismo jurídico no es una "alternativa" del derecho, sino un proceso de construcción de otras formas jurídicas que identifiquen al derecho con los sectores mayoritarios de la sociedad, y de respuestas institucionales a procesos de transición de una sociedad marcada por la colonialidad hacia una construcción social y estatal de carácter intercultural y plurinacional, en donde se compila todas las costumbres, tradiciones, leyendas y mitos ancestrales. Tal como lo plantea (Coutinho, 1990), "un pluralismo de sujetos colectivos fundado en un nuevo desafío: construir una nueva hegemonía que contemple el equilibrio entre el predominio de la voluntad general, sin negar el pluralismo de los intereses particulares". En los últimos cuatro años de vigencia de la nueva carta magna del Ecuador, la coexistencia de la justicia ordinaria y la justicia indígena no ha estado exenta de conflictos respecto de los alcances de la jurisdicción de la administración y justicia indígena, de la adaptación de procesos a los derechos humanos, de los mecanismos de coordinación entre autoridades estatales y autoridades indígenas, entre otros. En ciertos casos se alcanzan situaciones en las que las autoridades comunitarias fueran sometidas a la justicia ordinaria por exceder su jurisdicción (Ref. Caso La Cocha), así como fuertes reclamos por parte de las autoridades comunitarias respecto de la intervención no solicitada de operadores de justicia al margen de sus derechos colectivos. Razón por la cual sociólogos, filósofos e investigadores para dar jerarquía a toda la memoria, filosofía ancestral y la cosmovisión andina, enfocan como Derecho Consuetudinario para llegar al cumplimiento de la armonía comunitaria. ; Ecuador, as an intercultural and multinational country in its social memory, collects all customs, myths, legends and traditions that become the country's means for development in all areas, as compiled in the customary law of the indigenous peoples of Ecuador that nowadays, thanks to the citizen's revolution we can socialize and apply, these should executed as an imperative because that is their way of life, which I can surely say, is the foundation to achieve the Smac Kausay. In this paper we explain in brief the history of our people, whom to reach the republican status and colonization have undergone a process of expansionism and Inca- Spanish domination, thereafter entering the capitulation by the big companies conquests, technically organized in Central America to expand into South America and enter the process of formation of the Amerindian going from Inca to Indian and peasant, has suffered discrimination in every way; thus hiding all ancient wisdom since it was listed as pagan activities against God and the Bible that were brought from the old continent. In this process the Amerindian goes through a period of screening where he meets the great object of conquest, disappearing once and for all the cultural traits of the Andean cosmology, the run and huarmi are ashamed of their ancestors, their ethnicities and cultures; in this way the screening process finished with their costume, religion, beliefs, myths, legends and traditions. It is known that all the ancestral memory is summed up in the customary law of the indigenous peoples of Ecuador, however, it is not possible for it to develop, preserve and socialize, unless through a process of basic education to be transmitted from generation to generation; otherwise, all this cultural richness would be forgotten. This is why teachers play an important role in the teaching-learning process since they are responsible for the actual historical knowledge before and after the communities and people of Ecuador. For a teacher to transmit to future generations unpublished ancestral knowledge, you must 22 master the art, as only art gives us the wisdom and all the tools to do it with efficiency, effectiveness, and expertise of all ancient knowledge in daily practices; the reason being is that during the republican period until the 90s, educators could not make real educational practices in clear, transparent and authentic ways, because scientific contents are based only on foreign expertise or curricula of other countries. Performing arts are especially theater and dance popular games the only activities that one way or another legally used educators for the teaching-learning process with ancestral knowledge embodied in messages through choreographies, plays and recreational or popular games. Both in Ecuador and in the rest of Latin America, there is a new political scenario in which the multi- -inter-culture is gaining ground and legitimacy. This new bias includes the States recognition over ethnic and cultural diversity, and also the need to recognize personal and common rights, as well as those of nature, for which some authors call the new "multicultural constitutionalism." Van Cott (2000) and its relation to the cultural ethnicity. Montoya (2002). In relation to what is the Alternative Dispute Resolution mean (ADR) which are covered by the Constitution in Article 190. As we know, unlike other countries in the region, in Ecuador this official recognition is of major prominence; reflection and result of struggles and demands of the indigenous movement in the processes of strengthening identity and social, political and cultural actors and their questioning of existing models of citizenship; democracy, state and nation led by indigenous movements in their various organizations through the coast, mountains and east. The demand for cultural recognition of indigenous peoples and indigenous people of Ecuador have questioned the validity of a mono cultural legal system, even taking into account the stage of the constitutional multiculturalism that swept Latin American constitutional reforms since the adoption of Convention No. 169 by the International Labor Organization in 1989. In Ecuador this process is essential and of great interest, thus with the approval of the referendum on the new Constitution in 2008, which is defined as multinational State of Rights, recognizing the coexistence of a variety of legal systems in it. The countries of the region such as Bolivia, Venezuela and others, have passed similar processes, questioning the permanence of the so-called legal monism who argues that crises are a precondition for the emergence of new theories and relating to conflict resolution. The recognition by the State of legal systems does not imply that the authorities of the indigenous people and nationalities have the goal of creating something new, but the recognition of a historical reality exercise of customary rights, which under the colonial domination were invisible, denied and persecuted, and practices outside the law. We do not consider the legal pluralism as an "alternative" use of law but as a process of construction of other legal forms identifying the law with the majority sectors of society and institutional responses to processes of transition from a society marked by colonialism moving towards a social state characterized as intercultural and multinational where all the customs, traditions, legends and ancient myths are compiled. As stated by Coutinho (1990), "a pluralism of collective subjects based on a new challenge: to build a new hegemony that considers the balance between the dominance of the general will, without denying the pluralism of individual interests". In the last 4 years of validity of the new Constitution of Ecuador, the coexistence of ordinary justice and indigenous justice, has not been free of conflict over the scope of the jurisdiction of the administration and indigenous justice, the adaptation of cases to human rights, the mechanisms of coordination between state authorities and indigenous leaders, among others. Reaching in some cases, situations where the Community authorities were subjected to regular courts to "exceed" its jurisdiction (Ref. Case La Cocha) and strong complaints from the Community authorities regarding the unsolicited intervention of justice operators regardless of their collective rights. 24 In this research all cultural features of the main communities and indigenous nationalities of the three regions of Ecuador are also being analyzed, which have gone unnoticed in the social context and in the best case, taken as isolated activities, put in practice or socialized in the main festivities of the people. This is the reason for us as educators for basic education, to give all the memory hierarchy, ancient philosophy and the Andean world we take it as customary law to take into action with the community may it be as a voluntary act or coercively. Part of the study of this paper is also to extent the responsibility to the State-Government, to maintain all the values and principles of the ancestral memory and cultural heritage of the indigenous people of Ecuador in an intact and unchanged way, to transmit to future generations; goal which you can achieve only with the education and training of teachers in different areas, but mainly in performing arts ; as well, on how to handle: customs, traditions, ethnic and folk legends, which is part of the standard of living of the indigenous people and peasants, and serves as a relevant issue to the development of basic education curriculum. This research with proposed development schedule was fulfilling the objectives, analyzing the extent to which cultures of indigenous people of Ecuador are present in the teaching of basic education, teacher training, and the level of positioning in the absence the arts, the presence of popular traditions in the curriculum and teacher preparation for teaching and its impact on society, and only then get to know the cultures of indigenous people of Ecuador in basic education. A study on the contribution of arts and popular traditions in the curriculum of basic education to achieve the implementation of the common system of legal pluralism with coarse principles based on Andean philosophy. The methodology, as an instrument for the operationalization of variables and objectives of the research is based on the paradigm of functionalism and constructivism, with field research (indigenous community leaders, members of councils, cultural promoters, educational authorities, elders of the different communities , basic education teachers) as descriptive, bibliographic and documentary scientific contributions in the areas of study, collecting data with the technique of the survey, interview and observation, and tools such as questionnaire. Interview guide and observation sheets, which allowed establishing the relationships between variables and approving the alternative hypothesis. Thus affirm that in our country, knowledge of the cultures of the indigenous people of Ecuador have not been involved, but rather have been marginalized and forgotten, where only basic education devoted to teaching general knowledge and specified in the area of mathematics and language, which is why there is a lack of 80% of the current population, and especially of teachers, both Ecuadorian reality as ethnicities and cultures of our ancestors.

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Fundado em 1949, era a organização responsável pela Revista Brasileira de Filosofia e na qual se desenvolveu a tentativa de construção de uma hegemonia conservadora. Ao lado de um programa de recuperação da história do pensamento filosófico no Brasil, o IBF fez uma releitura conservadora da História do Brasil. Problematizamos o IBF por meio de uma analogia com a história da Itália bem como a partir de observações da história intelectual italiana. 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</style> <![endif]--> <!--StartFragment--> <!--EndFragment--></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph; mso-pagination: none; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><strong><span style="font-family: Garamond; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US">Resumo: </span></strong><span style="font-family: Garamond; mso-bidi-font-family: Garamond; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US">O objetivo do artigo que ora apresentamos é proporcionar aos educadores e demais trabalhadores da educação algumas reflexões sobre a prática docente. O fio condutor para a elevação de uma prática social caótica, ou, na melhor das hipóteses precária, ao patamar de uma práxis revolucionária, superadora dos limites da prática docente contingente, é a compreensão da centralidade do trabalho como principio educativo no desenvolvimento da omnilateralidade, não somente dos alunos, como também de todos os envolvidos diretamente no processo de ensino aprendizagem, destacando-se os docentes. Tal processo se concretiza de forma satisfatória quando permite a ambos, educadores e educandos, um nível elevado de consciência sobre a prática social que desenvolvem, superando o senso comum. Por meio da consciência filosófica, damos um passo significativo rumo à catarse, fonte de novas iniciativas para uma prática social transformadora.</span><span style="font-family: Garamond; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US"></span></p>

ABSTRAKLahirnya Undang-Undang Nomor 6 Tahun 2014 tentang Desa membuat kebijakan tentang desa dalam memberi pelayanan, peningkatan peran serta dan pemberdayaan masyarakat desa yang ditujukan bagi kesejahteraan masyarakat. Lahirnya otonomi daerah serta dalam era globalisasi, maka pemerintah daerah dituntut memberikan pelayanan yang lebih prima serta memberdayakan masyarakat sehingga masyarakat ikut terlibat dalam pembangunan untuk kemajuan daerahnya, karena masyarakatlah yang lebih tahu apa yang mereka butuhkan serta pembangunan yang dilakukan akan lebih efektif dan efisien, dan dengan sendirinya masyarakat akan mempunyai rasa memiliki dan tanggung jawab. Penelitian dengan topik Peranan Pemerintah Desa Dalam Pemberdayaan Masyarakat Di Bidang Pertanian, bertujuan untuk Untuk mengetahui dan menganalisis peranan Pemerintah desa dalam memberdayakan masyarakat di bidang pertanian serta mengetahui faktor-faktor yang mendorong dan menghambat pemerintah desa dalam memberdayakan masyarakat di Desa Tumaratas Kecamatan Langowan Barat Kabupaten Minahasa. Metode penelitian yang digunakan adalah pendekatan kualitatif yang menekankan unsur manusia sebagai instrumen penelitian. Berdasarkan hasil penelitian yang telah dilakukan,maka penulis dapat menarik kesimpulan bahwa peranan pemerintah desa dalam pemberdayaan masyarakat dibidang pertanian dapat dilihat dari beberapa indikator, yakni: Peranan pemerintah desa dalam pembinaan. Pembinaan kehidupan masyarakat desa dilakukan oleh kepala desa dengan menggunakan konsep kesadaran dan kemauan dari masyarakat sendiri. Peranan pemerintah desa dalam memberikan pelayanan dan pengembangan kepada masyarakat seperti dalam kegiatan disektor pertanian maka kontribusi yang sangat besar dalam bidang pertanian adalah aktivitas usaha tani. Berdasarkan hasil wawancara dilapangan menunjukkan bahwa pemerintah sangat berperan dalam memberikan pemberdayaan kepada masyarakat khususnya dibidang pertanian.Kata Kunci : Pemerintah Desa, Pemberdayaan MasyarakatPENDAHULUANPelaksanaan otonomi daerah yang telah dimulai sejak 2001 mengandung konsekuensi yang cukup "menantang" bagi daerah. Di satu sisi, kebebasan berkreasi membangun daerah 1 Merupakan Skripsi Penulis 2 Mahasiswa Jurusan Ilmu Pemerintahan FISIP UNSRAT Manadobenar - benar terbuka lebar bagi daerah. Namun demikian, di sisi yang lain telah menghadang setumpuk masalah yang harus diselesaikan. Masalah yang sangat mendasar adalah perubahan pola pengelolaan daerah dari sentralistik menjadi desentralisasi, misalnya sumber dana untuk membiayai pembangunan, sumber daya manusia sebagai aparat pelaksana seluruh aktivitas pembangunan, dan masih banyak yang lain. Pembangunan nasional dan daerah merupakan bagian yang tidak dapat dipisahkan dari kegiatan pembangunan desa. Desa merupakan basis kekuatan sosial ekonomi dan politik yang perlu mendapat perhatian serius dari pemerintah. Perencanaan pembangunan selama ini menjadikan masyarakat desa sebagai objek pembangunan bukan sebagai subjek pembangunan. Lahirnya Undang-Undang Nomor 6 Tahun 2014 tentang Desa membuat kebijakan tentang desa dalam memberi pelayanan, peningkatan peran serta dan pemberdayaan masyarakat desa yang ditujukan bagi kesejahteraan masyarakat. Konsep yang sering dimunculkan dalam proses pemberdayaan adalah konsep kemandirian dimana program-program pembangunan dirancang secara sistematis agar individu maupun masyarakat menjadi subjek dari pembangunan. Kegagalan berbagai program pembangunan perdesaan di masa lalu adalah disebabkan antara lain karena penyusunan, pelaksanaan dan evaluasi program-program pembangunan yang tidak melibatkan masyarakat. Proses pembangunan lebih mengedepankan paradigma politik sentralistis dan dominannya peranan negara pada arus utama kehidupan bermasyarakat. Suatu pembangunan akan tepat mengenai sasaran, terlaksana dengan baik dan dimanfaatkan hasilnya apabila pembangunan yang dilakukan tersebut benar-benar memenuhi kebutuhan masyarakat. Untuk memungkinkan hal itu terjadi, umumnya pembangunan perdesaan, mutlak diperlukan pemberdayaan masyarakat desa mulai dari keikutsertaan dalam perencanaan sampai pada hasil akhir dari pembangunan tersebut. Pembangunan wilayah pedesaan tidak terlepas dari peran serta dari seluruh masyarakat diwilayah tersebut, sehingga kinerja seorang kepala desa sebagai kepala pemerintahan desa harus dapat menjalankan tugas pokok memimpin dan mengkoordinasikan pemerintah desa dalam melaksanakan sebagian urusan rumah tangga desa, melakukan pembinaan dan pembangunan masyarakat, dan membina perekonomian desa. Namun dalam kenyataannya menunjukkan bahwa penilaian kinerja kepala desa oleh masyarakat dalam memberikan pelayanan serba lamban dan berbelit-belit serta formalitas. Inilah yang menarik dari uraian di atas, bahwa pemberdayaan untuk menanggulangi kemiskinan dan mensejahterahkan masyarakat adalah hal yang menarik dimana berbagai program penanggulangan kemiskinan terutama di bidang pertanian di masyarakat belum dapat mengatasi persoalan-persoalan yang ada. Sebagaimana yang terjadi di desa Tumaratas bahwa ada banyak program-program pemerintah di bidang pertanian, masih belum dapat mengatasi banyaknya persoalan. Karena itu konsep pemberdayaan masyarakat di bidang pertanian yang akan membuat masyarakat petani dapat mandiri dan berdaya mengatasi kesulitan-kesulitan ekonominya. Desa Tumaratas sebagai wilayah yang memiliki potensi pertanian yang tinggi, kemudian mata pencaharian masyarakat sebagian besarnya adalah petani. Berbagai program pemberdayaan masyarakat di bidang pertanian selalu dilakukan oleh pemerintah seperti pembentukan kelompok tani, pemberian modal usaha, bantuan bibit pertanian, penyuluhan pertanian, dan lain sebagainya. Permasalahannya, banyak bantuan yang diberikan tidak terkelola dengan baik, malahan ada bantuan yang menyimpang, misalnya dana yang diberikan tidak digunakan sebagaimana mestinya. Kemudian sebagian masyarakat tidak menerima bantuan, tidak diperhatikan. Padahal pentingnya sektor pertanian sebagai penyangga bagi pemenuhan kebutuhan masyarakat, dan mengingat semakin terus bertambahnya kebutuhan akan pangan yang disebabkan oleh meningkatnya jumlah penduduk di desa Tumaratas yang menjadi sasaran penelitian, maka dalam upaya menanggulangi kemiskinan penting kiranya membicarakan cara efektif dalam memberdayakan masyarakat petani. Pemberdayaan masyarakat yang perlu dilakukan dalam menyikapi kemiskinan ini adalah dengan mendorong masyarakat untuk menyadari bahwa sektor pertanian adalah sektor kebutuhan yang paling vital bagi masyarakat Sulut. Kian hari jumlah masyarakat yang masih memilih bertani semakin kecil. Masyarakat saat ini lebih tertarik untuk bekerja sebagai karyawan disebuah perusahaan dan di instansi-instansi pemerintah serta swasta lainnya. Sektor pertanian dianggap tidak menjanjikan lagi. Maka dalam proses pemberdayaan ini diperlukan sinergi kelompok-kelompok seperti sekolah menengah dan sekolah tinggi pertanian, Lembaga Swadaya Masyarakat, Koperasi Unit Desa dan Pemerintah melalui Departemen Pertanian. Lembaga-lembaga ini yang nota bene mempunyai banyak pengetahuan dan skill dibidang pertanian dapat memberikan penyuluhan, pelatihan dan pendampingan kepada masyarakat tentang pertanian padat karya. Sedang Koperasi Unit Desa dapat menjadi penyalur bagi bahan, alat dan hasil-hasil pertanian padat karya tersebut. Perlu dicatat bahwa paradigma partnership adalah hal mendasar yang paling utama dalam melakukan pemberdayaan masyarakat petani. Tanpa anggapan bahwa semua sektor adalah mitra bagi psetani, pemberdayaan ini tak akan berhasil dengan baik. karena itu pemberdayaan merupakan hal yang baru dalam membangunan masyarakat terutama di bidang pertanian. Dan mencari tahu bagaimana pertanian sebagai mata pencaharian utama dari masyarakat Desa Tumaratas, dapat berkembang dengan baik. Kemudian melihat peran pemerintah desa sebagai pihak yang paling bertanggung jawab untuk memberdayakan masyarakat desa. Oleh karena itu, Berdasarkan latar belakang pemikiran diatas maka dalam penelitian ini penulis mengangkat beberapa permasalahan yaitu:Bagaimana peranan pemerintah desa dalam memberdayakan masyarakat di bidang pertanian serta Faktor-faktor apa yang mendorong dan menghambat Pemerintah desa dalam memberdayakan masyarakat di Desa Tumaratas Kecamatan Langowan Barat Kabupaten Minahasa ?METODOLOGI PENELITIAN Metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah metode penelitian kualitatif. Sesuai dengan permasalahan yang dikemukakan maka fokus penelitian ditekankan pada Fokus penelitian adalah mendeskripsikian dan menganalisis peranan pemerintah desa dalam memberdayakan masyarakat di era otonomi daerah ditinjau dari pembinaan terhadap masyarakat, pelayanan pada masyarakat dan pengembangan pada masyarakat serta faktor pendukung dan penghambat yang muncul dalam memberdayakan masyarakat di Desa Tumaratas Kecamatan Langowan Barat Kabupaten Minahasa. Teknik pengumpulan dan pengolahan data dalam penelitian ini dapat dilakukan dalam berbagai bentuk yaitu melalui : Observasi/pengamatan, dan wawancara. Dalam penelitian ini pihak yang dijadikan informan adalah yang dianggap mempunyai informasi (key-informan) yang dibutuhkan di wilayah penelitian. Sedangkan teknik analisis data yaitu data yang telah terkumpul dari hasil wawancara dan studi kepustakaan atau dokumentasi akan dianalisis dan ditafsirkan untuk mengetahui maksud serta maknanya, kemudian dihubungkan dengan masalah penelitian. Data yang terkumpul disajikan dalam bentuk narasi dan kutipan langsung hasil wawancara.HASIL DAN PEMBAHASANA. Visi Dan Misi Desa Tumaratas VISI : "MEWUJUDKAN DESA TUMARATAS MENJADI DESA MANDIRI MELALUI BIDANG PERTANIAN "MISI :- Meningkatkan usaha pertanian dengan mengundang pihak yang berkompeten dalam hal pertanian atau Pemerintahan Kabupaten melalui dinas pertanian - Meningkatkan dan mengelola Pendapatan Asli Desa untuk kesejahteraan rakyat - Mewujudkan Pemerintahan yang baik dan bersih serta memberikan pelayanan yang maksimal kepada masyarakatB. Peranan Pemerintah Desa Dalam Pemberdayaan Masyarakat Di Bidang Pertanian Di Desa Tumaratas Berdasarkan hasil penelitian dapat dideskripsikan tentang peranan pemerintah desa dalam memberdayakan masyarakat di desa Tumaratas bidang pertanian dapat dijabarkan sebagai berikut ; 1. Pembinaan terhadap Masyarakat Pembinaan merupakan salah satu unsur yang sangat penting dalam proses pemberdayaan masyarakat, baik itu pembinaan bagi perangkat desa maupun bagi masyarakatnya. Tujuannya adalah agar perangkat desa dan warga masyarakat tahu dan mengerti apa yang harus dikerjakan serta timbul kemauan untuk ikut aktif dalam setiap program pemberdayaan masyarakat. Aktivitas pembinaan kehidupan masyarakat dilakukan oleh kepala desa melalui nilai-nilai kearifan lokal dan modal sosial yang dari dahulu memang dianut oleh warga desa yakni semangat gotong royong yang saat ini sudah mulai terkikis untuk dibangkitkan kembali. Tujuan dari pemberdayaan ini adalah perubahan sikap dan perilaku menjadi lebih baik melalui pembinaan kehidupan masyarakat. Dalam praktiknya kepala desa menggunakan konsep kesadaran dan kemauan dari dalam masyarakat itu sendiri untuk berubah menjadi lebih baik. Pembinaan ini memiliki cakupan yang cukup banyak, akan tetapi yang jelas pembinaan mengandung arti pemberdayaan masyarakat yaitu mengubah sesuatu sehingga menjadi baru dan memiliki nilai yang lebih tinggi dan juga mengandung makna sebagai pembaruan, yaitu usaha untuk membuat sesuatu menjadi lebih sesuai dengan kebutuhan, menjadi lebih baik dan lebih bermanfaat. Dalam hubungannya dengan pembinaan, Talidzuhu Ndraha mengungkapkan bahwa yang menjadi sasaran pembinaan khususnya dalam membina kehidupan masyarakat adalah mentalitasnya. Mentalitas yang belum sadar harus dibangunkan, yang tidak sesuai dengan pembangunan dan pemberdayaan masyarakat harus diubah, yang melenceng atau menyalahi aturan harus ditertibkan dan yang masih kosong harus diisi. Menghadirkan kembali semangat gotong royong diantara warganya. Baik itu dalam kehidupan sehari-hari maupun dalam kegiatan pemberdayaan masyarakat. Sebagai desa yang penduduknya sebahagian besar adalah berprofesi sebagai seorang petani, kegiatan-kegiatan dalam pertanian pun dilakukan secara bergotong- royong. Pemberdayaan masyarakat dalam bidang pertanian memiliki makna meningkatkan kualitas kehidupan sosial dan ekonomi masyarakat yang tercermin peningkatan pendapatan dan kesejahteraan masyarakat termasuk masyarakat miskin.2. Pelayanan Dan Pengembangan Terhadap Masyarakat Pemberian pelayanan yang baik kepada masyarakat diharapkan menjadi lebih responsive terhadap kepentingan masyarakat itu sendiri,dimana paradigm pelayanan masyarakat yang telah berjalan selama ini beralih dari pelayanan yang sifatnya sentralistik ke pelayanan yang lebih memberikan focus kepada pengelolaan yang berorientasi kepuasaan masyarakat.Dilain pihak pelayanan yang diberikan oleh aparatur pemerintahan kepada masyarakat diharapkan juga memiliki : a. Memiliki dasar hukum yang jelas dalam penyelenggaraannya, b.Memiliki perencanaan dalam pengambilan keputusan c. Memiliki tujuan sosial dalam kehidupan bermasyarakat d. Dituntut untuk akuntabel dan transparan kepada masyarakat e. Memiliki standarisasi pelayanan yang baik kepada masyarakat. Undang-undang No 32 Tahun 2004 tentang otonomi daerah dan Undang-Undang no 6 tahun 2014 tentang desa,masyarakat memiliki kedaulatan yang cukup luas untuk menentukan orientasi dan arah kebijakan pembangunan yang dikehendaki.Adapun bentuk pelayanan pemerintah desa kepada masyarakat di desa Tumaratas yaitu apabila masyarakat yang bersangkutan membutuhkan pelayanan misalnya perbaikan dibidang pertanian maka aparat pemerintah desa berupaya semaksimal mungkin untuk memberikan pelayanan terbaik kepada warganya.Disamping kemampuan aparatur pemerintah desa dalam memberdayakan masyarakat, besar kecilnya partisipasi masyarakat merupakankan faktor penting dalam proses pembangunan, karena pada kenyataannya pembangunan desa sangat memerlukan adanya keterlibatan aktif dari masyarakat. Keikutsertaan masyarakat tidak saja dalam perencanaan tetapi juga pelaksanaan program-program pembangunan di desa.Sehingga penilaian terhadap aparatur desa tidak negatif dalam menjalankan tugas utama untuk memberikan pelayanan terhadap masyarakat dan pelaksanaan pembangunan. Persepsi akan timbul bila mana dalam menjalankan tugas tidak sesuai dengan harapan masyarakat desa. Prosedur yang dipersulit dijadikan kepentingan pribadi atau komunitas yang dipergunakan untuk kepentingan pribadi.C. Faktor-faktor Pendukung Dan Penghambat Terhadap Pengembangan Pemberdayaan Masyarakat Di Bidang Pertanian DiDesa Tumaratas Kecamatan Langowan Barat Terdapat dua faktor yang mempengaruhi peranan kepala desa dalam pemberdayaan masyarakat Desa Tumaratas yaitu faktor pendukung dan faktor penghambat. Untuk lebih jelasnya dapat dilihat sebagai berikut: 1. Faktor Pendukung Terhadap Pengembangan Pemberdayaan Masyarakat Di Bidang Pertanian a. Kekuasaan Kekuasaan adalah kekuatan, legalitas, dan otoritas yang memberikan wewenang kepada pemimpin guna mempengaruhi dan menggerakkan bawahan untuk berbuat sesuatu. Tanpa kekuasaan bagaimana mungkin seorang pemimpin mampu menjalankan tugasnya karena hanya dengan kewenanganlah seseorang berhak memerintah orang lain. b. Sistem Pendidikan Formal yang maju Pada dasarnya pendidikan memberikan nilai-nilai tertentu bagi individu,untuk memberikan wawasan serta menerima hal-hal baru juga memberikan bagaimana caranya dapat berpikir secara ilmiah.Pendidikan juga mengajarkan kepada individu untuk dapat berpikir secara objektif c. Sistem terbuka pada lapisan masyarakat Artinya masyarakat menyadari bahwa semua orang memiliki kedudukan yang sama dan harus diperlakukan sama didepan pemerintah.Oleh karena itu pemerintah mampu menjangkau seluruh lapisan masyarakat di Desa Tumaratas.d. Adanya orientasi untuk maju ( Masa depan) Terdapatnya pemikiran-pemikiran yang mengutamakan masa yang akan datang,dapat berakibat mulai terjadinya perubahan-perubahan dalam system sosial yang ada. Karena apa yang dilakukan harus diorientasikan pada perubahan dimasa yang akan datang e. Adanya Sinergitas yang baik antara pemerintah dan masyarakat Budaya Mapalus (gotong royong) sangat melekat di kehidupan masyarakat Desa Tumaratas,oleh karena itu apa yang dilakukan pemerintah selalu didukung oleh masyarakat terutama program pemberdayaan masyarakat di bidang pertanian yang sangat membantu masyarakat.Pemerintah juga selalu berupaya untuk memberikan yang terbaik kepada masyarakat sesuai dengan Visi-Misi Desa Tumaratas.2. Faktor Penghambat Terhadap Pengembangan Pemberdayaan Masyarakat Di Bidang Pertanian Pemberdayaan masyarakat di berbagai bidang tidak terlepas dari berbagai hambatan yang menyertainya.Hambatan yang sering muncul antara lain : a. Kelompok kepentingan Kelompok kepentingan dapat menjadi salahsatu penghambat dalam upaya pemberdayaan masyarakat.Misalnya,upaya pemberdayaan petani di desa Tumaratas tidak dapat dilaksanakan karena ada kelompok kepentingan tertentu yang bermaksud membeli lahan pertanian untuk mendirikan usaha peternakan.Kelompok pertanian ini akan berupaya akan lebih dulu agar lahan pertanian tersebut jatuh ke tangan mereka. b. Kualitas Sumber daya manusia pemerintah desa Sebagaimana terlihat sumber daya manusia atau aparat yang bertugas pada organisasi kantor tersebut secara kuantitas jumlah pegawai yang ada pada kantor desa Tumaratas sudah cukup namun secara kualitas sumber daya aparat desa di desa Tumaratas belum cukup baik,hal ini dapat dilihat dari kemampuan kerja dan mengkoordinir program didesa yang masih terlihat kurang. PENUTUPA. Kesimpulan Berdasarkan uraian hasil penelitian dan pembahasan pada bab sebelumnya,maka penulis dapat menarik kesimpulan tentang peranan pemerintah desa dalam pemberdayaan masyarakat dibidang pertanian dapat dilihat dari beberapa indikator, yakni:Peranan pemerintah desa dalam pembinaan.Pembinaan kehidupan masyarakat desa dilakukan oleh kepala desa dengan menggunakan konsep kesadaran dan kemauan dari masyarakat sendiri. Kegiatan sehari-hari dilakukan dengan cara bergotong royong terlebih dibidang pertanian dimana masyarakat sebelum musim kemarau tiba membangun tempat penampungan air.Peranan pemerintah desa dalam memberikan pelayanan dan pengembangan kepada masyarakat seperti dalam kegiatan disektor pertanian maka kontribusi yang sangat besar dalam bidang pertanian adalah aktivitas usaha tani. Aktifitas Usaha Tani adalah kegiatan-kegiatan yang dilakukan oleh petani pada sebidang lahan yang ditanami dengan berbagai jenis tanaman yang menghasilkan. Aktivitas usaha tani yang dilakukan oleh masyarakat petani khususnya di desa Tumaratas dapat dilakukan melalui aktivitas usaha tani padi sawah dan padi ladang. Aktivitas usaha tani padi sawah sangatlah beragam mulai dari cara pengolahan tanah, pembersihan, pembibitan, pemupukan bahkan sampai pada proses hasil panen. Faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi peranan pemerintah desa dalam pemberdayaan masyarakat dibidang pertanian terdiri atas factor pendukung,yaitu : Kekuasaan, system pendidikan formal yang maju, system terbuka kepada seluruh lapisan masyarakat, adanya orientasi untuk maju, serta adanya sinergitas yang baik antara pemerintah dan masyarakat.Faktor Penghambat yaitu : Kelompok kepentingan, dan kualitas sumber daya aparatur desa.B. Saran Berdasarkan kesimpulan diatas,maka penulis dapat memberikan saran sebagai berikut : - Peranan Pemerintah desa terlebih khusus Kepala Desa terhadap pemberdayaan masyarakat dibidang pertanian didesa Tumaratas Kecamatan Langowan Kabupaten Minahasa hendaknya dilakukan secara konsisten dan berkesinambungan. - Perlu dilakukan pengawasan yang secara rutin terutama terhadap kegiatan masyarakat yang menunjukkan adanya kegiatan pembangunan. - Selain penyuluhan dan pelatihan bagi warga masyarakat, pelatihan juga perlu diadakan bagi aparat desa guna meningkatkan SDM dan memberikan pelayanan yang optimal bagi warga desa. - Melalui hasil penelitian ini disarankan hendaknya pemerintah lewat dinas pertanian, memberikan perhatian secara sungguh-sungguh bagi para petani dalam membina dan membantu para petani dalam proses kesinambungan usaha mereka.Daftar Pustaka Ali Mufiz, Drs,1995, Pengantar Administrasi Negara, Universitas Terbuka.Andy Sutardy, MBA, Drs. Engkoem Damini, 1973, Pokok-pokok Ilmu Administrasi dan Manajemen, PT. Ikhtiar Baru, JakartaAtmosudirdjo, Prajudi, 1978, Dasar-dasar Administrasi, Balai Aksara, JakartaBayu Suryaningrat, 1979, Desa dan Kelurahan, Rineka Cipta, JakartaDedy Supriady Bratakusuma, Ph.D. Dadang Solihin, MA. 2002, Otonomi Penyelenggaraan Pemerintahan Daerah, Gramedia Pustaka Utama, JakartaDepdikbud RI, 1989, Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, Balai Pustaka, JakartaHandayaningrat, Soewarno, 1982, Pengantar Studi Ilmu Administrasi dan Manajemen, Gunung Agung, JakartaIbnu Syamsi, Drs. 1983, Pokok-pokok Organisasi dan Manajemen, Bina Aklsara, JakartaJoko Prakoso, SH, 1987, Hukum Asuransi Indonesia, BandungKoentjaraningrat, 1990, Kebudayaan Mentalitas dan Pembangunan, Gramedia Pustaka, JakartaLembaga Administrasi Negara RI, 1997, Sistem Administrasi Negara RI, Gunung Agung, JakartaMakagansa.H.R.2008.Tantangan Pemekaran Daerah.Yogyakarta.FUSPADMoleong.2010.Metodologi penelitian kualitatif.Bandung:PT Remaja Rosdakarya.Moenir A.A., 1987, Pendekatan Manusia dan Organisasi Terhadap Pembinaan Kepegawaian, Gunung Agung, JakartaNainggolan, 1984, Pembinaan Pegawai Negeri Sipil, Depdikbud, Jakarta Peraturan Daerah Kabupaten Umum, 2001, Lembaran Daerah Kabupaten Umum, Tentang Pembentukan Badan Perwakilan Desa.PTN dan PTS Se-Sulawesi Selatan, 1997, Pedoman Pembinaan Desa dam Pengelolaan Sumber- sumber Pendapatan Desa, Biro-Bina Pemdes Makassar S.P. Siagian, MPA, 1983, Filsafat Administrasi, Gunung Agung Jakarta Saksono, S, 1988, Administrasi Kepegawaian, Karnisius, Yogyakarta Soetjitro, Ir. 1988, Pembinaan Ketahanan Masyarakat Desa, Jakarta Sugiyono, 2002, Metode Penelitian Administrasi, Alfabeta, BandungSulastomo, 1999, Asuransi Kesehatan (Sebuah Kapitas Selekta), JakartaSurachmad, Winarno, 1972, Dasar-dasar Tehnik Research, Tarsito, BandungThe Liang Ge, 1984, Administrasi Perkantoran Modern, Nur Cahaya, YogyakartaWidjaja, HAW., Prof. Drs.,2003, Pemerintahan Desa / Marga, PT. Raja Grafindo Persada, Jakarta.Sumber-Sumber lain Undang-undang Nomor 22 Tahun 1999 Tentang Otonomi Daerah Undang-undang Nomor 32 Tahun 2004 Tentang Pemerintahan Daerah Undang-Undang Nomor 6 Tahun 2014 http:/www.forumdesa.org/mudik/mudik3/mudik2.php,4 juli 2007

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mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-priority:99; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:Calibri; mso-fareast-language:PT-BR;} --> <!--[endif] --> <!--StartFragment--><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Garamond; mso-fareast-font-family: ">A política de educação profissional no Brasil, ao longo de dez anos de governo conduzido pelo Partido dos Trabalhadores, tem-se pautado pela expansão fomentada diretamente pelo Estado. Não obstante, especialmente a partir de 2011, com a instituição do Programa Nacional de Acesso ao Ensino Técnico e Emprego (Pronatec), verifica-se a tendência de não se privilegiar a educação profissional técnica de nível médio, menos ainda na forma integrada, e sim a formação inicial e continuada. Vê-se, ainda, a ampliação da participação da esfera privada subsidiada pelo fundo público. Este quadro demonstra que </span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Garamond; mso-fareast-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-font-kerning: .5pt; mso-ansi-language: PT-BR; mso-fareast-language: PT-BR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">a ampliação da oferta de educação aos trabalhadores no Brasil se ocorre predominantemente por meio de cursos baratos que, por sua vez, servem ao trabalho igualmente barato. Neste texto, além de discorrermos sobre esta política, </span><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Garamond; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">buscaremos discutir a determinação fundamental subjacente à negação reiterada do direito à educação básica e profissional de qualidade à classe trabalhadora, na particularidade do projeto construído e mantido pela classe burguesa brasileira, de capitalismo dependente.</span><!--EndFragment--> </p></div></div></div>

<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:OfficeDocumentSettings> <o:AllowPNG /> </o:OfficeDocumentSettings> </xml><![endif]--> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: ";Garamond";,";serif";; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">O objetivo deste artigo é refletir sobre a relação entre a educação escolar e o desenvolvimento do pensamento no indivíduo, identificando na Pedagogia Histórico Crítica apoio teórico à tese de que a educação e o ensino são determinações centrais para a formação da consciência. Apontamos a dimensão política do problema da socialização do conhecimento, defendendo que disseminar o vínculo teórico com a realidade é objeto da luta de classes. 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Recupera de forma breve a trajetória do autor, destacando como sua experiência enquanto professor forneceu-lhe problemas concretos para pensar e realizar proposições acerca da teoria pedagógica. Em seguida, apresenta uma breve caracterização da produção do autor, destacando os artigos que tratam da teoria pedagógica, bem como os núcleos temáticos abordados nos mesmos. </span></p> <!--EndFragment-->

<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:OfficeDocumentSettings> <o:TargetScreenSize>800x600</o:TargetScreenSize> </o:OfficeDocumentSettings> </xml><![endif]--> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;;" lang="ES">Este artículo examina el proceso de expansión del cultivo de caña y de la producción de azúcar en el valle geográfico del río Cauca, Colombia, durante la primera mitad del siglo XX. A la par se exploran cuáles fueron los principales componentes que operaron en favor de la transformación del paisaje rural de esta región. Así, observamos que factores como la inversión estatal en infraestructura, la creación de instituciones de apoyo agrícola, la aplicación de innovaciones tecnológicas, y la inversión de capitales por empresarios agrícolas, unidos a la creciente demanda de azúcar para el mercado interno colombiano, llevaron al surgimiento de los ingenios como unidades productivas modernas, en reemplazo de los trapiches, y al incremento de la producción de la azúcar centrifugada.</span></p> <!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves /> <w:TrackFormatting /> <w:DoNotShowComments /> <w:HyphenationZone>21</w:HyphenationZone> <w:PunctuationKerning /> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas /> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF /> <w:LidThemeOther>ES-MX</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> 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Após um período de estagnação, a crise dos anos 1930 e a reorganização das Caixas possibilitaram a retomada do crescimento dos seus depósitos.</span></p> <!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves /> <w:TrackFormatting /> <w:DoNotShowComments /> <w:HyphenationZone>21</w:HyphenationZone> <w:PunctuationKerning /> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas /> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF /> <w:LidThemeOther>PT-BR</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables /> <w:SnapToGridInCell /> <w:WrapTextWithPunct /> <w:UseAsianBreakRules /> <w:DontGrowAutofit /> <w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark /> <w:EnableOpenTypeKerning /> <w:DontFlipMirrorIndents /> <w:OverrideTableStyleHps /> <w:UseFELayout /> 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</style> <![endif]--> <!--StartFragment--><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: Garamond; mso-fareast-font-family: ";Times New Roman";; mso-bidi-font-family: ";Times New Roman";; mso-ansi-language: PT; mso-fareast-language: PT-BR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;" lang="PT">O rumo acidentado do processo revolucionário de construção do socialismo da China revela uma gradual reorientação das energias revolucionárias para as "tarefas técnicas", centradas no desenvolvimento económico e elevação das forças produtivas. O reenquadramento teórico e prático da transição socialista chinesa adquire uma dimensão qualitativa com a proclamação da política de Reforma e Abertura e o reconhecimento da etapa histórica que o Partido Comunista da China, a partir de Deng Xiaoping, definiu como estádio primário do socialismo. A reformulação económica recoloca a questão da utilização dos instrumentos do mercado no processo da transição socialista da China, estabelecendo um paralelo com a experiência pioneira soviética da NEP. A economia de mercado socialista na China corresponde a um modelo de economia mista, em que a propriedade pública e o Estado detêm os altos comandos da economia, e a inserção na economia mundial constitui uma alavanca fundamental, realidade que não configura como dado adquirido um regresso da China ao domínio do capitalismo. Ao mesmo tempo, o confronto incontornável entre as dinâmicas económicas de dois sistemas antagónicos – socialismo e capitalismo – coloca ao PCCh e ao proletariado chinês a exigência teórica e prática da salvaguarda de uma reactualizada perspectiva de classe.</span><!--EndFragment-->

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</style> <![endif]--> <!--StartFragment--><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: Garamond; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: ";Times New Roman";; mso-ansi-language: PT; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;" lang="PT">O artigo analisa as características do capitalismo na formação social portuguesa, considerando </span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: Garamond; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-ansi-language: PT; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;" lang="PT">os grupos econômicos em Portugal antes e depois do 25 de Abril. Detalhando as características destes grupos econômicos, o autor conclui que os principais acionistas da maioria dos grupos econômicos e financeiros que operam em Portugal, são grupos transnacionais, alguns empresas pertencentes a Estados estrangeiros e outros grandes grupos econômicos e financeiros operando à escala global. Nestas condições, o papel do Estado, face à fragilidade perante estes grupos, é de simples serventuário e executor de políticas ditadas diretamente por esses grupos ou, indiretamente, por organismos internacionais que representam e defendem os seus interesses, como são o FMI, a Comissão Europeia, o Banco Mundial, mesmo a OCDE, etc. Defende que perante a globalização crescente e o aumento das ameaças de todo o tipo, precisa-se em Portugal de um Estado forte que defenda a soberania nacional, capaz de promover o crescimento e o desenvolvimento sustentado do país, e que defenda os portugueses das ameaças e ataques constantes a uma vida com um mínimo de dignidade humana.</span><!--EndFragment-->

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</style> <![endif]--> <!--StartFragment--><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Garamond; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: ";Times New Roman";; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-ansi-language: PT-BR; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">O desenvolvimento do movimento operário de massas na Rússia, em ligação com o desenvolvimento da social-democracia, caracteriza-se por três transições notáveis. Primeira transição – dos estreitos círculos de propaganda para a ampla agitação económica entre a massa; segunda – para a agitação política em grande escala e as manifestações de rua abertas; terceira – para uma verdadeira guerra civil, para a luta revolucionária directa, para a insurreição popular armada. Cada uma destas transições foi preparada, por um lado, pelo trabalho do pensamento socialista predominantemente numa direcção, e por outro lado por profundas mudanças nas condições de vida e em toda a estrutura psíquica da classe operária, pelo despertar de novas e novas camadas da mesma para uma luta mais consciente e activa. Estas mudanças tiveram por vezes lugar silenciosamente, a acumulação de forças pelo proletariado realizou-se nos bastidores, sem chamar a atenção, provocando não raramente um desapontamento dos intelectuais quanto à solidez e vitalidade do movimento de massas.</span><!--EndFragment-->