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This paper estimates the effect of income inequality on real gross domestic product per capita using a panel of 104 countries during the period 1970–2010. The empirical analysis addresses endogeneity issues by using instrumental variables estimation and controlling for country and time fixed effects. The analysis finds that, on average, income inequality has a significant negative effect on transitional gross domestic product per capita growth and the long-run level of gross domestic product per capita. However, the impact varies by the level of economic development, so much so that in poor countries income inequality has a significant positive effect on gross domestic product per capita.

Экономический материализм после полемики конца XIX в. — Влияние Октябрьской революции на судьбы социологии в России. — Диалектизм марксистской социологии. — Г. В. Плеханов. — В. И. Ленин. — 77. П. Маслов. — И. А. Гредескул. — Историки-марксисты: М. Н. Покровский. — Я. А Рожков. — Главные систематизаторы теории экономического материализма: Н. И. Бухарин, И. П. Разумовский, С. Оранский и др. Главные пункты систематизации. ; Kareev N.I. ( 1850—1931 ) is one of the most remarkable figure in Russian sociology widely well-known not only in Russia but far away from it's boundaries. Today we should state that he has been forgotten during the soviet period. Bom in Moscow in nobleman's family he finished gimnasium with excellent degree and entered Moscow State University .He took courses with well-known professors in Russian history as M.S Kutorge, V.I. Gerie, $.M. Soloviev. In 1877—1878 he visited Paris where he conducted his famous research 'Peasant and peasant question in the last ф quarter of the 18th century'. He also is an author of great variety of works on different historical themes including ' History of Western Europe of New Time' (1892—1917) , 'History of French Revolution' ( 1924—1925 ). After coming back to Russia Kareev taught different disciplines at St Petersburg University but very soon he got his discharge for the serious linkages with student movement. He returned to the University only after 1905. With a group of political activists he tryed to prevent tragic events of the 9th of January, 1905 . Kareev was a member of Constitutional-Democratic party having started his political career in the first State Duma. After 1906 he gradually left political arena and devoted himself only to scientific work. Kareev's sociological theory has been mainly formed in the first half of 80-s of 19 century. He believed in it all his life. His theoretical findings were shown in his dissertation published in 1883. 'Nature of historical process and role of personality in historical development ' ( 1889 ) became a conseqent continuation of his dissertation which he himself considered as his best work. Kareev published a number of his sociological findings in 'Historical Phylosophical Etudes ' (1895),' Introduction to Sociology' (1897), 'General Principles of Sociology' (1919), 'Fundamental Principles of Russian Sociology' (1930) (the latter is still unpublished ). Kareev's sociological conception to a high degree emerged on the basis of traditional (in particular Conte's and Spenser's) sociological approaches and he gradually evolved their assumptions.His works bore deep influence from the French school of sociology,he was impressed by the early positivism.But he was too much occupied with details to appreciate or represent the idea that came to form a subjective approach in sociology. Kareev criticized Conte for his 'jump' from biology to psychology and sociology. He replaced Conte's individual psychology by the collective one. He also has foreseen many ideas of the direct Kant's followers as Vindelband, Rickert,Zimmel. In fact he created a school of subjective approach in Russian sociology. He began to study a broad range of human social life and developed a subjective historical method for collecting and analyizing of social facts. According to Kareev's point of view a society is an agglomeration of economical, political and judicial factors; but the crucial factor is intellectual (or spiritual) culture. In the effort to understand relationships between individuals and society sociologists should study the intersections of history,politics,economics, psychology focusing on the ways by which social forces shape individual and group behavior. Kareev found himself confronting with immensely expanding and increasingly restive marxisl theory. His scientific transformation occurred in the context of the Russian revolutions of economical cyrcles of inflation and depression and of a threat to social order from revolutionary ideologies. He escaped political repressions followed after the revolution of 1917. We suggest a unit 'Marxist Sociology' as a part of 'Fundamental Principles of Russian Sociology', the last Karcev's work finished in the end of 20-s .''Marxist Sociology ' is a critical review of marxist theory and an attempt to represent main ideas of Russian marxist sociologists without ' anger and prejudices '. Kareev showed differences between marxist, positivist ci.c. objective ) and subjective approaches in their interpretation of (1) how historical process occurs, and (2) what is the historical role of personality in producing of social change. Classical positivism ignores emotional and moral aspects of social behavior, one must study individuals in terms of their social context the idea of social forces determining individual behavior . The basic principal of sociology : how individuals live together in groups, by studying them scientifically Karcev presented the material with references to Conte's, Durkhcim's and Spenser's conceptions. Positivists believed that it was possible to study social reality systematically and objectively just as other scientists studied organisms, mind, the Earth and stars. Subjective approach concerned with individuals' own perception of their position in social structure. It's based on a personal feeling of affiliation to a given group. Individuals identify with other people , their beliefs, share similar positions, deal with personal awareness of their positions.Sociologist should observe not only material facts of people's life but all the lime keep in mind economical,political and specific psychological facts which arc as real as the material ones. During the beginning of the 20-th century in particular — after the Revolution of 1917 marxist sociological approach (in Lenin's interpretation) had a significant influence on social policy in Russia. Marxists put an emphasize on that what social relation between 223 humans were determined by struggle between classes. In particular a ruling class (which ШШ position is due to the ownership of and control on means of production) controls also though often in subtle ways the whole moral and intellectual life of people. That's why Karcev calls attention to the sharp paralysis of intellectual and spiritual life and a deep crisis of culture. According to marxist theory law and governments, art and literature, science and philosophy serve more or less directly the interests of a ruling class.Marxist arc considered as economical delerminists because they have been sure that social classes* is a result of unequal access to means of production. Class consciousness refers not only to people's perception of distinct class levels and shared interests based on common situation , it also refers to a heightened commitment and perception of class which usually leads class members to interact and to join efforts for realising collective goals. That is why individual role in the historical movement is greatly neglected. Kareev presented detailed analysis of the positions of a new generation of marxist — of so called legal marxists. He emphasized the role in that strategy development of N.A. Rozhkov, M.N. Pokrovsky, N.A. Andreev, F.V. Sulkov under the soviet time. He polemized with Lenin and Plckhanov as with the most notable figures of post-Marx period in Russia. Author made clear the differences between scientific position of (1) legal marxists, (2) independent historicans as Kluchevsky,Vinogradov, Vipper, Petrushevsky, Tafleand (3)those new marxisls who sistematized marxist theory in a new way (Bukharin, Rasumovsky, Oransky), Karcev supported an idea about two types of social evolution suggested by Conte and Spenser in sociology. 1) Spontaneous self-development 2) Creative development (A. Bergson). He underlined that sociology has to be positive science studying definite categories of phenomena in social reality without any methaphisics. We hope that the names like Karcev whenever again will come back to our historical memory and will be with us as one of the most important part of our Past. We suppose to continue publications of the less-known and unknown authors significantly contributed to our Russian culture.

Financial infrastructure is the underlying foundation of a country's financial system. It is comprised of all institutions, information, technologies, rules, and standards which enable financial intermediation. The quality of a country's financial infrastructure determines the efficiency of intermediation, the ability of lenders to evaluate risk and of borrowers to obtain credit, insurance, and other financial products at competitive terms. This report covers two dimensions of Jamaica's financial infrastructure: 1) payments, remittances, and securities settlement systems, and; 2) credit reporting systems. This technical note does not provide a detailed assessment of individual payments system in the form of a Report on Observance of Standards and Codes (ROSC), but uses the framework of international standards for carrying out a detailed analysis of the existing systems in Jamaica, including the Committee on Payment and Settlement Systems (CPSS) and International Organization of Securities Commissions (IOSCO) Principles for Financial Markets Infrastructure (PFMIs), the CPSS General Guidance for National Payment System Development, the CPSS-World Bank General Principles on International Remittance Services (GPs), the World Bank General Principles for credit reporting and related methodologies. The information used in the assessment includes relevant national laws, regulations, rules and procedures governing the systems and other available material.

Systems forest of shelter belts are the efficient, durable and effective tools of stabilizing agricultural landscapes, which are predominant in the structure of the land fund of Ukraine. They create ecological agricultural landscapes frame, but their number, state, forestry and haphazard placement do not meet current requirements. To improve the situation, the order of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine from September 18, 2013 p. № 725-p adopted the Concept of agroforestry in Ukraine. The Concept is identifying areas of institutional change and improvement of legislation, which will provide special optimization of protective forest plantations of linear type on zonal basis, effective management and they will become a prerequisite for ecological by sustainable development of agricultural landscapes. Among the many causes of deterioration in the effectiveness of protection of arable land protective forest plantations linear type are: low efficiency targeted system of government measures to protective forest plantations linear type, and the lack of legal norms, which provides for liability for inefficient land use, and low level of financial security measures to protect soil from erosion. The purpose of this article is to propose the changes in legislative documents regulating forest management in protective forest plantations of linear type. During the years of independence Ukraine has not made clarity as to which governmental authority in current conditions have to deal with protective afforestation, the creation, protection and farming in windbreaks. After the beginning of land privatization in 1992 in the fate of shelterbelts it was a stuck for many years of uncertainty. They are not subject to sharing under the Land Code of Ukraine (Ed. 1992). Therefore, units of land sharing or land reserves the identified and in respect of windbreaks question remained open. In connection with the reorganization in 2000 the collective farms in agricultural market-type formation (private enterprises, farms, limited liability company, etc.) that were subjects of collective ownership of land, windbreaks were divested respective to local councils. One of the most effective solutions to the problem of protective afforestation is amending the regulations on the use of protective forest plantations of linear type. The policy amendments made to the regulations, consideration of national target programs in forestry, environmental protection and the optimization of land area of protective forest plantations of linear type on zonal basis. This will direct the state budget for the protection of the most vulnerable agricultural land - arable lands. The next step was the adoption of the Action Plan to implement the Concept. The primary objective of the Action Plan determined the preparation of proposals for amendments and additions to laws and other legal acts of reproduction, use and maintenance of protective forest plantations of linear type. Addressing protective afforestation problems require coordinated interaction and cooperation between scientists of different fields for a clear definition of the legal regime and preserve these unique plants. To eliminate uncertainty the status of the land occupied by windbreaks, the Land Code of Ukraine need to remove the windbreaks of the list of non-agricultural land for the purpose of classification of these and other agroforestry plantations to the land for forestry purposes. The legislate should developed to empower rural, town and city councils to regulate land relations in monitoring the use and protection of lands of communal property, land and environmental compliance legislation with mandatory environmental certification of land-based assessment of their compliance with the current requirements of soil protection by application of complex agronomic, hydraulic, organizational, economic and agroforestry measures. Corrections in Land Code required that land for windbreaks and other protective plantings may be available for use by land owners and other land users who use adjacent land for commercial agricultural production and have subordinate specialized units for forest management. For effective implementation of key provisions of the Concept of development of agroforestry in Ukraine is proposed amendments to the Laws of Ukraine, which regulate the protective afforestation realization. The necessity of providing windbreaks conservation status, securing them with entities providing economic incentives for the provision of tax and credit benefits to persons who take care of forest protective stands existing and create new plantations. Listed as proposals for state control over land use and protection, exemption from compensation for loss of agricultural and forestry production, drafting land inventory with analysis of agroforestry providing for land protection and to scope the area of protective plantations by category in the near future. ; Системы полезащитных лесных полос – действенный, долговечный и эффективный способ стабилизации агроландшафтов, которые являются преобладающими в структуре земельного фонда Украины. Они создают экологический каркас агроландшафтов, но их количество, состояние и бессистемное размещение не отвечают современным требованиям. Для исправления ситуации распоряжением КМ Украины от 18 сентября 2013 № 725-р одобрена Концепция развития агролесомелиорации в Украине. Целью Концепции является определение направлений институциональных изменений и совершенствования законодательства, что обеспечит оптимизацию площадей защитных лесных насаждений линейного типа по зональному принципу, эффективное хозяйствование в них и станет экологической предпосылкой для устойчивого развития агроландшафтов. Среди многих причин ухудшения эффективности защиты пахотных земель полезащитными насаждениями линейного типа выделяются: низкая эффективность целенаправленных системных государственных мер полезащитных лесных полос, а также отсутствие юридических норм, которыми предусмотрена ответственность за неэффективное землепользование, и низкий уровень финансового обеспечения мероприятий по защите почв от эрозии. Поэтому целью данного исследования является внесение изменений в законодательные документы, регламентирующие ведение хозяйства в защитных лесных насаждениях линейного типа. Одним из действенных путей решения проблемы полезащитного лесоразведения является внесение изменений в нормативно-правовые акты по использованию защитных лесных насаждений линейного типа. Концепцией предусмотрено внесение соответствующих изменений в законодательные акты, участие в государственных целевых программах в сфере лесного хозяйства, охраны и защиты земель вопросы оптимизации площадей защитных лесных насаждений линейного типа по зональному принципу. Это позволит направить средства государственного бюджета на охрану уязвимой части сельскохозяйственных угодий – пахотных земель. Следующим шагом стало утверждение Плана мероприятий по реализации Концепции. Первоочередной задачей Плана мероприятий определено подготовку предложений по внесению изменений и дополнений в законодательные и другие нормативно-правовые акты в части воспроизводства, использования и содержания защитных лесных насаждений линейного типа. Решение проблемы полезащитных лесоразведения требует слаженного взаимодействия и сотрудничества ученых разных отраслей наук для четкого определения правового режима и сохранения этих уникальных насаждений. Для устранения неопределенности статуса земель, занятых под полезащитными лесными полосами, в Земельном кодексе Украины необходимо изъять полезащитные лесные полосы из перечня несельскохозяйственных угодий с целью отнесения этих и других лесомелиоративных насаждений к землям лесного фонда. Законодательно предоставить полномочия сельским, поселковым, городским советам в области земельных отношений для осуществления контроля за использованием и охраной земель коммунальной собственности, соблюдением земельного и экологического законодательства с обязательным экологической сертификацией земельных участков на основе оценки соответствия их современным требованиям по охране почв путем применение комплекса агротехнических, гидротехнических, организационно-хозяйственных и агролесомелиоративных мероприятий. Для эффективной реализации основных положений Концепции развития агролесомелиорации в Украине предложено внесение изменений в Законы Украины, которые регламентируют ведение полезащитных лесоразведения. Обоснована необходимость предоставления полезащитных лесных полос природоохранного статуса, закрепление их за субъектами хозяйствования, обеспечение экономического стимулирования с предоставлением налоговых и кредитных льгот лицам, осуществляющим уход за существующими агролесомелиоративными насаждениями и создают новые. Внесены также предложения по Государственному контролю использования и охраны земель, освобождение от возмещения потерь сельскохозяйственного и лесохозяйственного производства, составление проектов землеустройства по анализу агролесомелиоративного обеспечения охраны земель и объемов необходимых площадей защитных насаждений по категориям на ближайшую перспективу ; Для ефективної реалізації основних положень Концепції розвитку агролісомеліорації в Україні запропоновано внесення змін у Закони України і підзаконні акти, які регламентують ведення полезахисного лісорозведення. Обґрунтовано необхідність надання полезахисним лісовим смугам природоохоронного статусу, закріплення їх за суб'єктами господарювання, забезпечення економічного стимулювання з наданням податкових та кредитних пільг особам, які здійснюють догляд за існуючими агролісомеліоративними насадженнями та створюють нові. Внесено також пропозиції щодо Державного контролю за використанням та охороною земель, звільнення від відшкодування втрат сільськогосподарського та лісогосподарського виробництва, складання проектів землеустрою з аналізом агролісомеліоративного забезпечення щодо охорони земель і обсягів необхідних площ захисних насаджень за категоріями на найближчу перспективу.

This paper makes the case for why safety nets are an important tool for managing the risk of natural hazards. The use of safety nets is advocated both ex ante, to prevent and mitigate the impact of natural disaster and ex post, to cope with the impacts of natural shocks. Firstly, the paper explores the implications of contextual factors to be taken into account in the design of an effective safety net system to respond to the needs generated by natural disasters. Learning from the responses to a number of recent natural disasters, a typology of the different types of natural hazards which require different approaches to reduce their risk is introduced. Secondly, the paper considers some 'guidelines' for improving the design and implementation of safety nets either to prevent and/or to recover from natural disasters. Finally, some conclusions and recommendations for more effective safety net and suggestions for addressing key issues are outlined.

137 p. Cd ; La Discapacidad ha evolucionado en el tiempo, pasando de un modelo medico a un modelo social, donde el contexto de la persona con discapacidad es el principal determinante de la misma. Es así que las acciones del Estado a través de sus políticas públicas deben tener un enfoque intersectorial para dar respuesta integral a las problemática reales de la población. El municipio de Bucaramanga según censo DANE 2005 tiene 30.799 personas con discapacidad, por lo tanto requiere una política pública que este acorde a las necesidades de su población para que los programas y proyectos ofertados por la administración municipal generen impacto real y efectivo que mejore la calidad de vida de la población con discapacidad y promueva el goce efectivo de sus derechos. Objetivo: Dar a conocer la experiencia en la formulación de una política pública de Discapacidad para el municipio de Bucaramanga a partir del acuerdo 053 del 2010 Métodos: Es una investigación cuantitativa de tipo descriptiva, que se realizo a través de tres fases. Primero, se realizo un estado del arte de la Discapacidad y políticas públicas, segundo, un diagnostico comunitario de la situación problema de la población con discapacidad del municipio de Bucaramanga y finalmente se formulo la política pública de discapacidad con participación de todos los actores. Resultados: Se logra un diagnostico de la situación real de las personas con discapacidad de las 17 comunas de Bucaramanga como documento base para la formulación de la política pública de discapacidad que es aprobada según acuerdo 039 del 2011. Conclusión: La política pública de Bucaramanga fue formulada desde la participación activa de la población con discapacidad organizada, la academia y la administración municipal, con una mirada externa desde el Ministerio de la Protección Social y la comunidad en general, con la voluntad política del honorable concejo municipal, basado en el diagnóstico contextual de la población, la normatividad, las experiencias y saberes propios y ajenos, que orientaron los principios que la rigen, los componentes que abordan la problemática, las líneas de acción y actividades que la van a poner en práctica, haciendo de esta una política pública que cumple con su esencia y fin. ; Disability has evolved over time, moving from a medical model to a social model, where the context of the person with disabilities is the main determinant of it. Thus, the actions of the state through its public policies should have a cross-sectoral approach to respond comprehensively to the real population problem. The municipality of Bucaramanga as DANE census 2005 has 30,799 people with disabilities, therefore public policy requires this according to the needs of its population for programs and projects offered by the municipal administration and effective generate real impact that improves the quality of life of people with disabilities and promote the full enjoyment of their rights. Objective: To present the experience in the formulation of public policy of Disability for the municipality of Bucaramanga from the agreement 053 of 2010. Methods: A descriptive quantitative research, conducted through three phases. First, there was a state of the art of Disability and Public Policy, second, Community diagnosis of the problema situation of the disabled population of the municipality of Bucaramanga and finally made public disability policy with participation of all stakeholders. Results: We achieved a diagnosis of the real situation of people with disabilities in the 17 municipalities of Bucaramanga as the base document for the formulation of public policy on disability that is approved by the agreement 039 of 2011 Conclusion: Bucaramanga public policy was formulated from the active participation of people with disabilities organized, academia and local government, with an external view from the Ministry of Social Protection and the community at large, with the political will of the honorable city council, based on the diagnostic context of the population, the regulations, the experiences and knowledge themselves and others, that guided the principles that govern, the components that address the problem, the lines of action and activities that will be put in practice, making this a public policy that metes its essence and purpose. ; INTRODUCCIÓN 13 FORMULACIÓN DEL PROBLEMA 16 JUSTIFICACIÓN 19 OBJETIVO GENERAL 21 OBJETIVOS ESPECÍFICOS 21 CAPITULO I 22 1. ESTADO DEL ARTE DE DISCAPACIDAD Y POLÍTICAS PÚBLICAS. 22 1.1. DIAGNÓSTICO TERRITORIAL E INSTITUCIONAL. 22 1.2. DISCAPACIDAD. 25 1.3. DATOS EPIDEMIOLOGICOS EN DISCAPACIDAD. 34 1.3.1. Discapacidad en Colombia. 35 1.3.2. Discapacidad en Santander. 37 1.3.3. Discapacidad en Bucaramanga. 44 1.4. NORMATIVIDAD EN DISCAPACIDAD. 48 1.4.1. La discapacidad antes de la Constitución de 1.991. 49 1.4.2. La discapacidad en la Constitución de 1.991. 51 1.4.3. Desarrollo normativo de la discapacidad con ocasión del nuevo estatuto constitucional. 53 1.4.4. Concepto de discapacidad en el ordenamiento jurídico colombiano. 64 1.5. POLÍTICA PÚBLICA PARA DISCAPACIDAD. 68 1.5.1. Definiciones de Políticas Públicas 72 1.5.2. Aspectos generales de una política pública. 78 1.5.3. Pasos para la formulación de políticas públicas. 82 1.5.4. Modelos para la formulación de políticas públicas. 83 1.5.4.1. Modelo racional o racionalista. 83 1.5.4.2. Modelo incremental o incrementalista. 85 1.5.4.3. Modelo de las elites o elitista. 85 1.5.4.4. Modelo de los grupos, grupista o interaccionista. 86 1.5.4.5. Modelo de las instituciones o institucionalista. 87 1.5.4.6. Modelo de sistemas o sistémico. 88 1.6. EVALUACIÓN DE POLÍTICAS PÚBLICAS. 88 CAPÍTULO II 94 2. DIAGNÓSTICO COMUNITARIO PARA LA FORMULACIÓN DE LA POLÍTICA PÚBLICA EN DISCAPACIDAD. 94 2.1. ANTECEDENTES. 94 2.2. PROPÓSITO. 99 2.3. METODOLOGÍA. 99 2.3.1. Propuesta Metodológica. 99 2.3.2. Convocatoria. 99 2.3.3. Logística. 100 2.3.4. Desarrollo de los talleres. 102 2.3.5. Instrumento aplicado. 104 2.4. RESULTADOS Y ANÁLISIS DE LOS RESULTADOS. 109 CAPITULO III. 111 3. FORMULACION DE LA POLÍTICA PÚBLICA DE DISCAPACIDAD DEL MUNICIPIO DE BUCARAMANGA 111 3.1. Propósito. 111 3.2. Metodología. 112 3.3. Resultados. 115 3.3.1. Exposición de motivos. 115 3.3.2. Política Pública de Discapacidad para el municipio de Bucaramanga. 118 3.3.2.1. Marco Legal. 118 3.3.2.2. Artículos Modificados. 119 3.3.3. Documentos. 123 CONCLUSIONES 124 RECOMENDACIONES 127 BIBLIOGRAFÍA 129 TABLAS. Tabla 1. Indicadores Económicos de Bucaramanga. 24 Tabla 2. Visión de conjunto de la CIF. 31 Tabla 3. Grupos de Edad, según Categorías de Discapacidad – 2013. 46 Tabla 4. Normas sobre discapacidad antes de la Constitución de 1.991. 50 Tabla 5. Normas sobre discapacidad en la Constitución de 1991. 52 Tabla 6. Normas sobre discapacidad a partir de la Constitución de 1.991. 53 Tabla 7. Clasificación de las políticas públicas. 78 Tabla 8. Registro de los talleres y entidades participantes. 102 Tabla 9. Número de preguntas por líneas de acción del acuerdo 053 del 2010. 105 Tabla 10. Resultados Obtenidos del diagnóstico Comunitario de las diecisiete (17) comunas de Bucaramanga. 110 Tabla 11. Elementos de la matriz a diligenciar por cada secretaría o ente descentralizado para la construcción de las líneas de acción de la política pública. 113 MAPA. Mapa 1. Población por Comuna. 23 GRÁFICA. Gráfica 1. Plan de desarrollo de Bucaramanga 2012- 2015. 25 FIGURA. Figura 1. Limitación en las Actividades de la Vida Diaria (AVD). 36 ANEXOS: Anexo 1. Metodología y plan de trabajo. Anexo 2. Acuerdo No 053 del 10 de diciembre de 2010. Anexo 3. Soportes documentales del diagnostico comunitario. 1. Resultados y análisis de los resultados. 2. Registro fotográfico. 3. Instrumento de recolección de la información. 4. Registro de Asistencia. Anexo 4. Soportes documentales para la formulación de la política Publica de Discapacidad del municipio Bucaramanga. 1. Matriz diligenciada por secretaría de despacho o Instituto descentralizado. 2. Resumen de Actas. Anexo 5. Exposición de Motivos y proyecto de acuerdo para la Modificación del acuerdo 053 del 2010. Anexo 6. Acuerdo No 039 del 29 de diciembre de 2011. Anexo 7. Artículo publicado en la revista ASCOFI. ; Ej. 1 ; Maestría ; Magister en Gestión Pública y Gobierno

En 1903, durante un discurso en Glasgow, Joseph Chamberlain –comprometido para ese entonces en una campaña para convencer a sus conciudadanos que las dificultades político-económicas de Gran Bretaña debían ser tomadas muy en serio- argumentaba lo siguiente: "I have been in Venice…which at one time had a comercial supremcy quite as great in proportion as anything we have ever enjoyed. Its glories have departed…When I was there last I saw the great tower of Campanile…The other day, in a few minutes, the whole structure fell to the ground…I do not say to you, gentleman, that I anticipate any catastrophe so great or so sudden for the British trade; but I do say that I see signs of decay; that I see cracks and crevices in the walls of the great structure…Now, do I do wrong, if I know this –if I even think I know it- do I do wrong to warn you?"(1)Chamberlain no estaba solo en la difusión de una sincera preocupación por el estado de una Gran Bretaña golpeada por crisis financieras, la guerra de los Boer, la presión de estados ascendentes, un imperio cuya administración se hacía cada vez más insostenible, etc. Los problemas británicos de principio de siglo generaron un debate nacional en torno a las estrategias económicas (libre comercio vs. proteccionismo), de política exterior (consolidación del imperio vs. repliegue ordenado), entre otras, que puso en tela de juicio las convenciones que acompañaban a Gran Bretaña desde hacía un largo tiempo. La Historia muestra que no es extraño que las crisis económico-políticas impongan reflexiones profundas sobre asuntos de fondo, donde suelen ser cuestionados paradigmas previamente establecidos.(2) El caso de la Unión Europea de hoy ilustra el punto. Como señala The Economist: "When Europeans fear for their jobs and their savings, when their governments and companies cannot easily borrow money, when banks fail and the single currency trembles, then the European Union is facing not just an economic crisis, but a political crisis, as well." La crisis ha dado pie a un importante debate en la disciplina de las relaciones internacionales sobre el futuro de ese complejo experimento político que es la UE.Las caras más visibles del debate han sido aquellos que se plantan en una postura crítica a la viabilidad de la UE como actor en el sistema internacional –o que siendo críticos de antes, se vieron impulsados por la problemática coyuntura que actuó en forma de publicidad y, en cierta medida, aval de sus argumentos.Sebastian Rosato descuella en este primer grupo: "The more likely outcome, however, is the end of the European dream. Eventually, the Europeans are going to acknowledge what they have known for some time: there's no reason to keep the union together. This is not to say that European Union members will stop cooperating, but they will do so as independent nation states. To the extent that the EU survives, it will be a union in name only." Como señala Terradas en su artículo, para estos autores "el futuro de la UE está ligado a las condiciones de seguridad iniciales, y dado el actual entorno internacional, su futuro es incierto y problemático."Por otro lado, el grupo de los optimistas, no sin cierta razón, apela al record histórico de la UE. Andrew Moravcsik comenta: "In the 1960s, when France's President Charles de Gaulle vetoed British entry and withdrew from the Common Market, bringing European decision making to a halt for six months, some believed the experiment was finished. In the early 1980s, journalists used the phrases 'Euro-sclerosis' and 'Euro-pessimism' to describe the mood in Brussels. A few years later, Europe launched the single-market program. Economists uniformly rejected the euro as unworkable. Now it is reality. Just five years ago, in the wake of referendum defeats in France, the Netherlands, and Ireland, the European Constitution seemed moribund. Now it is law." Para este grupo el desarrollo de la interdependencia y la generación de intereses que sólo pueden ser satisfechos a través de la preservación y profundización de los lazos institucionales que conforman a la UE indica que el futuro debe ser más promisorio de lo que se argumenta desde las trincheras realistas. Ahora bien, los debates forjados en tiempos de crisis son por definición borrosos. En el corto plazo (con la excepción de que la UE sufra un colapso total y repentino -escenario por demás improbable-) no parece viable dilucidar el poder explicativo de las posturas pesimistas y optimistas. Sin embargo, es por esa misma razón que estas discusiones teóricas se llevan adelante. El estudioso de la política internacional debería poder "clarificar y dar sentido a fenómenos complejos," como bien señala Terradas, pensando en escenarios a mediano y largo plazo. En este sentido, la disciplina hace bien en recorrer estos caminos en momentos en que el proyecto europeo se encuentra cubierto por la incertidumbre.Pero más allá de los interesantes argumentos teóricos que destilan dichas posiciones, habría que preguntarse hasta donde llegan los beneficios de un debate conducido por estos carriles. En efecto, poco es lo que las posiciones pesimistas y optimistas contribuyen en el corto plazo. Los pesimistas, con Rosato a la cabeza, parten de un complejo epistemológico que entiende a la UE como un animal político concebido en, y a causa de, condiciones muy particulares que ya no existen -i.e. el mundo de Guerra Fría y la amenaza de la URSS. Por ende, no sería plausible otro corolario que no sea la obsolescencia política y el fin de la Unión como tal. Un discurso de carácter realista que siempre tuvo mucho que decir sobre este experimento político, y así también, mucho tiene para decir sobre su futuro. Sin embargo, poco lugar tiene en ese cuerpo de ideas la coyuntura de la crisis europea. La crisis, en esta cosmovisión, no es más que una pequeña muestra del fin aproximándose: un paso más hacia el abismo. "Regardless of how the EU navigates the current mess, the dream of a United States of Europe -- a political, military, and economic union from Lisbon to Latvia and the Baltic to the Balkans -- is over. What most people don't realize is that this has been the case for almost twenty years."Para los optimistas la UE no puede ser entendida desde las herramientas clásicas de la Realpolitik. Europa sería un actor que ha demostrado tener sus propios incentivos y objetivos, y que para sobrevivir no depende de amenazas de seguridad sino del grado de interdependencia inescapable que han desarrollado los países miembros. Según Moravcsik: "The EU is succeeding because its policies are not based on idealism but on the recognition that a union of diverse nations can find realistic ways to work together. Those who bet against the economic self-interest of European governments are likely to lose."Tanto siendo un artificio temporario de países otrora amenazados por el oso soviético o siendo una entidad con vida propia y determinada a consolidarse incrementalmente, la UE está en medio de una severa crisis. Como remarcara recientemente la Canciller alemana, Angela Merkel: "[If the Euro fails] then Europe and the idea of European union will fail." Los problemas financieros inmediatos y la fragilidad del euro ponen en riesgo la noción de una Europa unida y, consecuentemente, la potencial capacidad de esta de influir en el sistema internacional.Quizás, y por el momento, el debate debería asumir una dosis mayor de pragmatismo. En ocasiones, aún si no es posible soslayar totalmente la influencia de la estructura internacional sobre las unidades, el determinismo de algunas teorías deja de lado el rol que tiene para cumplir la voluntad humana. Es el devenir de tal voluntad política lo que seguramente tenga más para decir en el futuro inmediato de la UE.En un mundo complejo in crescendo, donde las normas del orden van a ser cada vez más cuestionadas por poderes ascendentes, la UE tiene un rol importante para cumplir. Particularmente porque sigue siendo el primer mercado económico a escala global y el segundo poder militar (aunque más que nada en potencia, ya que los problemas de entender a Europa como un actor a la par del formato tradicional de los estados son ciertamente muchos). El refortalecimiento de Europa debería ser el deseo de todo aquel interesando en la estabilidad del orden y la paz internacional (aún si en el largo plazo el proyecto europeo está destinado a permanecer lejos de la panacea de "los Estados Unidos de Europa", eventualidad que en mi opinión es la más probable de no surgir una amenaza o fenómeno internacional semejante a las condiciones de la Guerra Fría).Las crisis son siempre momentos de reflexión, que en algunos casos, y repito: sólo en contados casos, generan mejorías. Esperemos que el presente debate ayude a forjar tales mejorías en la UE.(1) Citado en: Friedberg, Aaron, The Weary Titan: Britain and the Experience of Relative Decline, 1895-1905, Princeton UP, 1988, p.23.(2) Véase el artículo de Nicolás Terradas en este número de Enfoques para un fascinante estudio de las consecuencias de la crisis sobre los cuerpos teóricos formados en torno a la Unión Europea. *Profesor Universidad ORT.Maestría en Estudios Internacionales, Universidad Torcuato Di Tella (Tesista).

p. 747-758: "An act for rendering more effectual the several acts passed for the erecting of hospitals and workhouses within the city of Bristol, for the better employing and maintaining of the poor thereof." ; p. 735-743: "An act for impowering the surviving commissioners and trustees for forfeited estates to execute proper conveyances of the late Lord Widdrington's estate, in the county of Northumberland (contracted for by the York buildings company) to trustees for the creditors of the said company, upon payment of a sum of money therein mentioned into His Majesty's exchequer." ; p. 727-730: "An act for prohibiting the wearing and importation of cambricks and French lawns." ; p. 719-723: "An act for the further regulating and better government of His Majesty's navies, ships of war, and forces by sea; and for regulating the proceedings upon courts martial in the sea service." ; p. 711-716: "An act to explain, amend, and make more effectual the laws in being, to prevent excessive and deceitful gaming; and to restrain and prevent the excessive increase of horse races." ; p. 703-706: "An act to repeal a clause in an act made in the third year of the reign of King William and Queen Mary, relating to carts used by persons inhabiting within the limits of the weekly bills of mortality; and to allow such carts to be drawn with three horses; and to prevent the misbehaviour of the drivers of carts in streets, within the said limits." ; p. 679-698: "An act for continuing, amending, and making more effectual, an act made in the twelfth year of the reign of King George the First, for repairing the roads leading from Birmingham to Edghill, in the county of Warwick." ; p. 667-674: "An act for the more effectual recovering and collecting of certain duties granted towards the support of the Royal hospital at Greenwich; and to oblige agents for prizes, to register their letters of attorney." ; p. 659-662: "An act to amend an act made in the elventh year of the reign of King William the Third, intituled, An act for the more effectual suppression of piracy." ; p. 647-654: "An act for granting further powers to the commissioners for building a bridge cross the river Thames, from the city of Westminster to the opposite shore, in the county of Surrey; and for the better enabling them to finish the said bridge, and to perform the other trusts reposed in them." ; p. 639-643: "An act to indemnify persons who have been guilty of the unlawful importing, landing, or running of prohibited, uncustomed, or other goods or merchandize." ; p. 631-634: "An act for more effectually preventing the stealing of linen, fustian, and cotton goods and wares, in buildings, fields, grounds, and other places used for printing, whitening, bleaching, or drying the same." ; p. 615-626: "An act for repealing the present inland duty of four shillings per pound weight upon all tea sold in Great Britain, and for granting to His Majesty certain other inland duties in lieu thereof; and for better securing the duty upon tea, and other duties of excise; and for pursuing offenders out of one county into another." ; p. 603-610: "An act for allowing certain additional bounties on the exportation of British and Irish linens." ; p. 595-599: "An act for effectually preventing the exportation of foreign linens, under the denomination of British or Irish linens." ; p. 571-591: "An act to repair and widen the road leading from Godmanchester in the county of Huntingdon, through Fen Stanton and Cambridge, to the First Rubbing House on Newmarket Heath in the county of Cambridge." ; p. 551-567: "An act for granting to His Majesty the sum of eight hundred thousand pounds out of the sinking fund; and for granting a sum remaining in the exchequer, arisen by the surplus of the duties upon malt, mum, cyder and perry, for the service of the year One thousand seven hundred and forty five; and for the further appropriating the supplies granted in this session of Parliament; and for giving further time for the payment of duties omitted to be paid for the indentures or contracts of clerks and apprentices, and for further enforcing the payment of the said duties." ; p. 547-548: "An act to continue an act made in the sixth year of the reign of His present Majesty, for the better regulation of lastage and ballastage in the river Thames." ; p. 535-542: "An act to amend and render more effectual an act, passed in the fifth year of His present Majesty's reign, intituled, An act for the further qualification of justices of the peace." ; p. 503-531: "An act for repairing the road from Birmingham, in the county of Warwick (through Elmdon) to a lane leading by the end of Stone-Bridge, in the said county." ; p. 491-498: "An act to explain and amend the laws touching the elections of knights of the shire to serve in Parliament for that part of Great Britain called England." ; p. 483-486: "An act for giving a publick reward to such person or persons, His Majesty's subject or subjects, as shall discover a north west passage through Hudson's Streights, to the western and southern ocean of America." ; p. 455-478: "An act to repair the road leading from Tadcaster Bridge within the county of the city of York, to a place near the said city, called Hobmoor-Lane end." ; p. 431-450: "An act for making the surgeons of London and the barbers of London two separate and distinct corporations." ; p. 423-426: "An act for enlarging the terms and powers granted by several acts of Parliament for repairing the highways between Sheppards Shord and the Devizes, and the top of Ashlington Hill and Rowd Ford, in the county of Wilts." ; p. 411-420: "An act for more effectually cleansing, deepening, widening, and preserving a creek called Beverley Beck, running into the river Hull; and for more effectually repairing the staiths near the said beck, and the roads leading from the said river to the town of Beverley; and for cleansing the streets of the said town; and for regulating the carriages to and from the said beck, and the river Hull." ; p. 395-406: "An act for continuing and enlarging the term and powers granted by an act made in the twelfth year of the reign of His late Majesty King George the First, for repairing the highways from Speenhamland, adjoining the Newbury, in the county of Berks, to Marlborough, in the county of Wilts." ; p. 387-390: "An act to indemnify persons who have omitted to qualify themselves for offices and employments within the time limited by law, and for allowing further time for that purpose." ; p. 363-382: "An act for the speedy and effectual recruiting of His Majesty's regiments of foot serving in Flanders, Minorca, Gibralter, and the plantations, and the regiments of marines." ; p. 323-359: "An act for granting to His Majesty several additional duties upon all wines imported into Great Britain; and for raising a certain sum of money by annuities, and a lottery, in manner therein mentioned, to be charged on the said additional duties." ; p. 291-318: "An act for repairing the high road leading from Boroughbridge in the county of York, through North Allerton in the same county to Crostbridge on the river Tees; and from thence through Darlington in the county of Durham, to the city of Durham." ; p. 251-286: "An act for punishing mutiny and desertion; and for the better payment of the army and their quarters." ; p. 219-247: "An act for repairing the road leading from a gate commonly called Sacred Gate, on the south east side of the town of Hedon, in the East Riding of the county of York, through the said town, to Hull North Bridge." ; p. 195-214: "An act for granting and continuing the duties upon salt, and upon red and white herrings, for the further term of six years; and for declaring that the duties on salt, which arise and are payable in that part of Great Britain called Scotland, shall be subject to the same charges theron, as the same duties were liable to be the act of the fifth year of the reign of His late Majesty King George the First." ; p. 163-190: "An act for repairing the road leading from the town of Kingston upon Hull, to and through the town of Anlaby, and from thence to the town of Kirk-Ella, in the county of the said town of Kingston upon Hull." ; p. 143-158: "An act to enable the parishioners of the parish of Saint Margaret, within the borough of King's-Lynn, in the county of Norfolk, to raise money, by rates upon themselves, for finishing the church of the said parish." ; p. 119-138: "An act for continuing the duties upon malt, mum, cyder, and perry, in that part of Great Britain called England; and for granting to His Majesty certain duties upon malt, mum, cyder, and perry, in that part of Great Britain called Scotland, for the service of the year One thousand seven hundred and forty five." ; p. 3-115: "An act for granting an aid to His Majesty by a land tax, to be raised in Great Britain, for the service of the year One thousand seven hundred and forty five." ; The caption title and paging of each act follow ; Contains 38 acts, each with a duplicate of the t.-p. quoted (nos. 15-38, printed 1745) ; Initials ; Signature K² (blank), p. [407-408], omitted in binding ; Mode of access: Internet. ; Bookplate: Mr. Baron Mure ; Contemporary suède calf binding

Agriculture in Western Europe enjoys a degree of diversity that reflects a wide variety of soils and climatic conditions ranging from the arid Mediterranean regions to the Arctic Circle. Superimposed on this natural diversity is the complexity of different social, economic and political conditions in the eighteen countries that are the subject of this chapter. History has played a major part in creating this patchwork, particularly the different paths that countries took from feudalism to independent farming units and the inheritance laws that influenced the extent to which land ownership was transmitted from generation to generation. Average farm size varies considerably in the countries of Western Europe, in turn reflecting the relative political and social importance of landowners and small farmers. By the late nineteenth century, these various factors had determined a structure of farming in the Western European region that is still visible today. Productivity growth in Western Europe's agricultural sector compared favorably with that in the manufacturing sector in the immediate post-war period. Over the period 1949 to 1959, by which time the economy had largely recovered from the war-time disruptions, output per person in agriculture had increased by more than that in manufacturing in most of the countries in Western Europe. The productivity growth was a combination of output increases as a result of mechanization and modernization, and the outflow of labor as other sectors absorbed rural workers.

La actividad turística representa para Costa Rica una fuente importante de divisas y de empleos directos e indirectos. El crecimiento exponencial que ha tenido esta actividad en los últimos treinta años en Costa Rica ha traído consigo impactos positivos y negativos. El Turismo Rural Comunitario (TRC) se presenta como un modelo de turismo apropiado para el desarrollo sostenible de los espacios rurales costarricenses, estando, además, en sintonía con el modelo de turismo "vivencial y de experiencia" por el que se apuesta en este país. El TRC se caracteriza por integrar las riquezas naturales y la vida cotidiana de la comunidad rural, además de promover dentro de la misma oferta turística prácticas productivas sostenibles. De este modo, las experiencias de TRC se integran en la vida de la comunidad local y se convierten en una actividad complementaria a las actividades tradicionales agrarias. El valor de tales experiencias de TRC radica, por tanto, en su capacidad para adaptarse a los ritmos cotidianos de la vida rural y para preservar las dinámicas socio-territoriales de las comunidades. Un elemento importante a resaltar del TRC es su capacidad para promover la participación de la comunidad rural, aprovechando y fortaleciendo las estructuras organizativas y las redes sociales ya existentes a nivel local. Desde el punto de vista económico, al integrar la población local en diferentes encadenamientos productivos, el TRC permite que se dé una distribución más equitativa de los beneficios generados por la actividad turística, siendo así una importante fuente complementaria de los ingresos familiares. Esta tesis doctoral está estructurada en cuatro partes diferentes, agrupadas en doce capítulos, cada uno de ellos con un apartado de conclusiones parciales para facilitar su lectura, además de un capítulo de conclusiones generales. Hemos querido centrar nuestra investigación, a partir de elementos cuantitativos (encuesta) y cualitativos (entrevistas, mapeos de actores), en el análisis en los actores endógenos y sus relaciones con la actividad turística, lo que ha permitido generar un acercamiento a las realidades existentes mitigando posibles impactos de índole social y cultural en las comunidades rurales. Para ello, hemos propuesto la investigación empírica a partir de tres enfoques (capital social, acción colectiva y gobernanza), y que debidamente articulados, nos han permitido analizar las distintas experiencias de TRC en las zonas seleccionadas, mostrando sus rasgos característicos (tanto al nivel del discurso ideológico, como de las estrategias y modelos organizativos), los elementos que las componen, y su contribución al desarrollo y gobernanza de los territorios donde se ubican. La confianza, las normas de reciprocidad y los flujos de información, que son elementos fundamentales del enfoque de capital social, son precisamente los factores que inciden en la formación y sostenibilidad de las experiencias de TRC, ya que contribuyen a facilitar la cooperación y la acción colectiva a nivel local. Asimismo, las interacciones entre, de un lado, los actores que forman parte de la comunidad local, y de otro, el entorno exterior, formado por instituciones públicas y privadas revestidas de poder y situadas en posiciones de superior orden jerárquico, son el resultado de la combinación de las lógicas ascendentes (bottom-up) y de las lógicas descendentes (top-down). Para conocer mejor esa combinación, el enfoque del capital social proporciona herramientas útiles, como es la tipología bonding, bridging y linking, así como permite ordenar las dinámicas del desarrollo en distintas dimensiones, facilitando así su medición. Entre las principales conclusiones están las siguientes: 1. Esta tesis doctoral ha tenido la virtud de articular una propuesta teórica como lo es el estudio del capital social, la acción colectiva y la gobernanza de los espacios rurales a un fenómeno social tan relevante como lo es el turismo en Costa Rica. Esta tesis fue un estudio exploratorio centrado en cuatro casos de estudio, en el que se utilizó instrumentos cualitativos y cuantitativos que lograron ofrecer información directa y valiosa sobre la realidad de los territorios rurales a partir de una combinación de enfoques teóricos. Además, la investigación se centró en poblaciones indígenas y campesinas que han abierto sus familias y comunidades a la atención de visitantes. Logramos aproximarnos a su capacidad de relacionarse en contextos intracomunitarios y extracomunitarios, y más aún, a su capacidad para relacionarse con actores que tienen cierto poder político y económico. 2. La metodología propuesta en esta tesis doctoral es apropiada para utilizarla en los análisis de los territorios rurales y en la definición de estrategias de intervención para el desarrollo rural. Es una manera de conocer las dinámicas territoriales, los niveles de confianza que se dan en las comunidades, las relaciones que se tienen entre comunidades, y las capacidades existentes en el intercambio con organismos políticos y económicos. Al capital social se le asocia ese efecto multiplicador de la productividad, al reducir los costes de relacionarse con el resto de los individuos, donde se combinan e intercambian los factores que cada uno posee. 3. Las normas que comparten las organizaciones de TRC se consolidan con el tiempo, y, al igual que los valores, se transforman en escenarios o espacios más complejos. La presencia de capital social tipo bonding desempeñó un papel clave, contribuyendo a construir un nuevo sujeto colectivo en la comunidad local. En una siguiente etapa, una vez constituidas las organizaciones de TRC, la presencia de capital social tipo bridging se convierte en un elemento fundamental al posibilitar el desarrollo de relaciones de confianza con personas ajenas a la propia comunidad. El paso de un tipo de capital social a otro no es un cambio brusco, sino gradual y no excluyente, puesto que tanto el tipo bonding, como el bridging, se complementan para hacer que las experiencias asociativas sean sostenibles y perduren a lo largo de tiempo. 4. La clave el éxito de las experiencias de TRC es una buena combinación entre los tres tipos de capital social (bonding, bridging y linking), cuya importancia varía a lo largo de las distintas fases de evolución de dichas experiencias. 5. El TRC está revalorizando los territorios rurales a partir de elementos que tienen que ver con el medio ambiente, la cultura y las actividades tradicionales, tales como la ganadería y la agricultura, ésta última importante para la soberanía alimentaria de las comunidades locales. Asimismo, permite la puesta en valor de los atributos o valores presentes en las comunidades rurales a partir de los procesos de acción colectiva emprendidos por sus habitantes. 6. La investigación revela que con el paso de los años, las organizaciones que operan iniciativas de TRC van generando alianzas con diversos actores a nivel intracomunitario y extracomunitario. La creación o pertenencia a nuevas y diferentes redes responde a las necesidades de las organizaciones, ya sea para el fortalecimiento del turismo en las comunidades, la implementación de ideas innovadoras que sirvan como alternativas productivas, o el contacto con grupo que buscan la preservación de bienes comunes en las comunidades, como es el caso de la conservación del medio ambiente y el rescate de la cultura local. Los casos analizados nos permiten comprobar que las organizaciones logran entrelazar sus actividades, de tal forma que van formando organizaciones integrales que velan y trabajan en diferentes ámbitos comunitarios. El modelo de TRC debe formar parte de una política pública de desarrollo rural en Costa Rica. Integrar el TRC como un modelo de desarrollo rural implica mayor investigación, mayor apoyo económico y técnico, mayor capacitación y mayor visibilidad de los diferentes actores que hacen parte de la red TRC. Para incorporar elementos de capital social en las políticas públicas de desarrollo rural, hay que dirigir esfuerzos que apoyen la formación de sus tres tipos (bonding, bridging y linking), lo que implica que se definan herramientas para que las personas se empoderen, así como se fomenten vínculos efectivos entre los funcionarios públicos y las comunidades rurales. Si se logra fortalecer el capital social rural, estaremos frente a comunidades con mayor resiliencia y con mayor capacidad para emprender proyectos colectivos. ; Tourism activity represents an important source of foreign currency and direct and indirect employment for Costa Rica. The exponential growth that this activity has had in the last thirty years in Costa Rica has brought positive and negative impacts. The Rural Community Tourism (TRC) is presented as an appropriate model of tourism for the sustainable development of rural Costa Rican spaces, being, in addition, in tune with the model of "experiential and experiential" tourism that is bet in this country. The TRC is characterized by integrating the natural riches and the daily life of the rural community, as well as promoting sustainable productive practices within the same tourism offer. In this way, the experiences of TRC are integrated into the life of the local community and become a complementary activity to traditional agrarian activities. The value of such experiences of TRC lies, therefore, in their ability to adapt to the daily rhythms of rural life and to preserve the socio-territorial dynamics of the communities. An important element to highlight of the TRC is its capacity to promote the participation of the rural community, taking advantage of and strengthening the existing organizational structures and social networks at the local level. From the economic point of view, by integrating the local population into different productive chains, the TRC allows a more equitable distribution of the benefits generated by the tourist activity, thus being an important complementary source of family income. This doctoral thesis is structured in four different parts, grouped into twelve chapters, each one with a section of partial conclusions to facilitate its reading, as well as a chapter of general conclusions. We wanted to focus our research, from quantitative (survey) and qualitative elements (interviews, stakeholder mapping), in the analysis of endogenous actors and their relations with tourism activity, which has allowed us to generate an approach to the existing realities mitigating possible social and cultural impacts on rural communities. For this, we have proposed empirical research based on three approaches (social capital, collective action and governance), and that, duly articulated, have allowed us to analyze the different TRC experiences in the selected areas, showing their characteristic features (both at the of the ideological discourse, as of the strategies and organizational models), the elements that compose them, and their contribution to the development and governance of the territories where they are located. Trust, rules of reciprocity and information flows, which are fundamental elements of the social capital approach, are precisely the factors that influence the formation and sustainability of TRC experiences, since they contribute to facilitate cooperation and action collective at the local level. Likewise, the interactions between, on the one hand, the actors that are part of the local community, and on the other, the external environment, formed by public and private institutions with power and located in positions of superior hierarchical order, are the result of the combination of ascending (bottom-up) and top-down logic. To better understand this combination, the social capital approach provides useful tools, such as the bonding, bridging and linking typology, as well as ordering the dynamics of development in different dimensions, thus facilitating their measurement. Among the main conclusions are the following: 1. This doctoral thesis has had the virtue of articulating a theoretical proposal such as the study of social capital, collective action and governance of rural spaces to a social phenomenon as relevant as tourism in Costa Rica. This thesis was an exploratory study focused on four case studies, in which qualitative and quantitative instruments were used that managed to offer direct and valuable information on the reality of rural territories from a combination of theoretical approaches. In addition, the research focused on indigenous and peasant populations that have opened their families and communities to the attention of visitors. We are able to approach their ability to relate in intracommunity and non-community contexts, and even more, their ability to relate to actors that have a certain political and economic power. 2. The methodology proposed in this doctoral thesis is appropriate to be used in the analysis of rural territories and in the definition of intervention strategies for rural development. It is a way of knowing the territorial dynamics, the levels of trust that exists in the communities, the relationships that exist between communities, and the existing capacities in the exchange with political and economic organisms. Social capital is associated with the multiplier effect of productivity, by reducing the costs of relating to the rest of individuals, where the factors each one possesses are combined and exchanged. 3. The norms shared by TRC organizations are consolidated over time, and, like values, are transformed into more complex scenarios or spaces. The presence of bonding social capital played a key role, contributing to build a new collective subject in the local community. In a next stage, once the TRC organizations are constituted, the presence of bridging social capital becomes a fundamental element in enabling the development of trusting relationships with people outside the community itself. The transition from one type of social capital to another is not a sudden change, but gradual and not exclusive, since both the bonding type and the bridging complement each other to make the associative experiences sustainable and endure over time. 4. The key to successful TRC experiences is a good combination of the three types of social capital (bonding, bridging and linking), whose importance varies throughout the different phases of evolution of these experiences. 5. The TRC is revaluing rural territories based on elements that have to do with the environment, culture and traditional activities, such as livestock and agriculture, the latter important for the food sovereignty of local communities. It also allows the valorization of the attributes or values present in rural communities from the collective action processes undertaken by their inhabitants. 6. The research reveals that over the years, organizations that operate TRC initiatives are generating alliances with various actors at the intra-community and extra-community levels. The creation or belonging to new and different networks responds to the needs of organizations, whether for the strengthening of tourism in communities, the implementation of innovative ideas that serve as productive alternatives, or contact with groups that seek the preservation of goods common in the communities, as is the case of the conservation of the environment and the rescue of the local culture. The analyzed cases allow us to verify that the organizations manage to intertwine their activities, in such a way that they are forming integral organizations that watch and work in different community environments. This model must be part of a public policy of rural development in Costa Rica. Integrating the TRC as a rural development model implies more research, greater economic and technical support, greater training and greater visibility of the different actors that are part of the TRC network. In order to incorporate elements of social capital into public rural development policies, efforts must be directed to support the formation of its three types (bonding, bridging and linking), which means that tools are defined so that people can become empowered, as well as effective links between public officials and rural communities are encouraged. If it is possible to strengthen rural social capital, we will be facing communities with greater resilience and greater capacity to undertake collective projects.

There is broad consensus on the value of entrepreneurship as a driver of enhancing productivity, social equality and mobility in society. Likewise, there is growing importance placed upon measuring and communicating social value in the United Kingdom (UK) construction industry (Raiden et al., 2019). Burke (2015) stated that in this industry, freelance workers increasingly using entrepreneurial and innovative practices to circumvent Government policies that would eliminate their crucial economic contribution. In light of the current skills shortage burdening the construction industry, this research engages with the concept of enhancing social and public value by promoting effective, innovative entrepreneurial practices that can help improve the employment horizon by offering valuable skills to aspects of society that would have otherwise remained under-utilised. This also supports the current Social Mobility Commission's agenda of promoting nationwide equity through meaningful employment and encompasses the 'levelling up' agenda presented in the 2021 Queen's Speech. The construction industry has received constant criticism regarding innovation and productivity for decades; for example, The Famer Report (2016) 'Modernise or Die' criticised the industry for its lack of innovative practices in improving productivity and the sector as a whole. Moreover, inefficiencies of this sector were also highlighted in both Latham Report (1994) and the Egan (1998) report, indicating poor communication, lack of collaboration amongst project teams, and an absence of safe and decent working conditions. However, such reports have yet spurned the intended improvements for the industry. With an increased level of complexity, the industry has become more fragmented. For tax purposes, the industry evolved to create self-employment techniques whereby small and micro construction firms were presented as independent contractors while working for the same principal contractors from project to project. This was labelled as bogus or false self-employment. Thus, the responsibility of a small or micro firm surviving lies on the owner-managers as they try to survive in the gig economy, i.e., every project, as a result, becomes a 'solo gig' they must execute while looking for their next project. Specifically, Burke (2012) considers freelancers remain under-studied and under-appreciated economic actors in the current British economy despite their critical economic roles, due to their pivotal role has just emerged in the past three decades in the knowledge and innovation-driven economy. Although freelancers share certain characteristics with project managers and site managers, their entire economic function is not adequately represented when examined as subsets of either group. Burke (2011) argued that freelancers are distinct economic actors who perform economic tasks which neither project managers nor site managers perform. Hence, this paper aims to explore innovation and innovative practices adopted by freelancers (small and micro firms) in the UK construction sector. It also uncovers challenges faced by the industry and the freelancers in the 'gig economy'. As self-employed teams, the small and micro firms operate hypothetically as freelancers, but most seek to establish long-term working relationships with main contractors who can offer the sustainable work needed to stay afloat and thrive as a business. We explore the complex relationships that exist in the industry between small working teams and, more importantly, the relationships among the actors in this ecosystem (e.g. professionals, architects, project managers, quantity surveyors and skilled trades: bricklayers, joiners, electricians). Some of the subtle nuances in such relationships are the recruitment strategies implemented, performance review processes, trust and support amongst teams and ensuring longevity. While previous research have overlooked the innovative approaches adopted by a small or micro firm to thrive in such a competitive industry, this research endeavours to theorise such strategies. Furthermore, practices of small and micro construction firms are often classified as informal and, as such, tend to be discounted as innovative and effective. Using a qualitative research approach, multiple ethnographic case studies were conducted on seven different construction projects. Data collection instruments included semi-structured interviews, non-participant observations and focus group discussions. Thematic analysis was conducted using QSR NVivo in generating codes for the in-depth data analysis, including themes reviewed from the literature and emerging themes identified through the data collection process and initial data analysis. Initial findings on innovative practices adopted by small and micro firms include experienced workers utilising tacit knowledge in delivering experiential learning to newer workers on less complex tasks. Hence, circumventing the traditional formal training systems and processes, which are often bureaucratic and less efficient, while ensuring productivity is not significantly affected. Safety practices on site are designed to be reflective of emerging situations, thereby allowing pragmatic solutions to be implemented immediately. In contrast, atypical safety issues on larger projects and their potential solutions require authorisation from managers who are often removed from the situations and lack the familiarity of the ongoing issues. This creates a two-fold issue, i.e., firstly, the time lost in gaining approval for the solution and secondly, a solution that may not address the problem appropriately. Moreover, unorthodox recruitment methods prior to the formal contractual processes were used to ensure that the 'right' workers who are already vetted through techniques were recruited. 'Word of mouth' is crucial in the recruitment phase, and a worker can fail based on the recommendation (or lack of) from other workers. In addition, the owner-mangers of these small firms build informal alliances with project managers and site managers in order to ensure a long-term relationship can sustain further project awards. As subcontractors, they have to submit tenders to be included in bids; however, their established relationships with the principal contractors often result that they can be offered a lenient review on the bureaucratic aspects as they are known to be able to execute the jobs successfully even though their 'paperwork' may have gaps. Furthermore, the small and micro firms form working bonds with other teams on site and support each other to move from project to project collaboratively and ensure the continuity of the established familiarity and networks. The key challenges to innovative practices adopted by the small and micro firms are the lack of recognition by principal contractors and policymakers. This thus suppresses their 'good' practices from being included in best practice conversations. Large principal contractors have often argued that the inability to capture the informal practices used by small and micro firms gives way to liabilities as there is less scrutiny on their work practices. This includes the accountability that comes with formalised work procedures. This paper offers a much-needed contribution to the construction industry by exploring the critical insight of innovative practices adopted, which may benefit other fields with relatable characteristics. It uncovers the employment challenges, especially the aspects of skills shortage faced by the industry and have often been overlooked despite it accounts for more than 90% of the workforce and employs 7% of the national labour force. It also has implications for policymakers seeking to improve employment in general and in the construction sector, in particular. It also offers theoretical contributions to the academic understanding of innovative practices adopted by freelancers in small and micro firms as they endeavour to thrive in the construction sector. The findings contribute to the government's 'levelling up' agenda, which seeks to improve employment records and enhance social mobility, significantly being adversely impacted by BREXIT and coronavirus pandemic. Moreover, such an understanding may be applicable to other sectors that rely heavily on freelancers, e.g., the events industry.

Aunque no hay consenso sobre la definición de la lealtad del consumidor y sus formas de medición, sí lo hay en cuanto a su importancia para la empresa, como fuente de ventajas competitivas para el marketing y por tanto esencial para alcanzar su rentabilidad y supervivencia en el largo plazo. Por su parte, la calidad percibida es una evaluación de los consumidores a largo plazo, tras consumir/utilizar un bien o servicio, cambiante en cada transacción y que resulta de procesos psicosociales de carácter cognitivo y afectivo, mensurable a través de escalas como la de Calsuper. En este artículo se examinan, por primera vez, las relaciones entre la política pública de seguridad agroalimentaria, los fines del gobierno y el modelo de lealtad del usuario en una cadena de comercio minorista, única en el mundo por su régimen de propiedad pública, sus objetivos y cobertura. A partir de información recabada en una muestra aleatoria de 420 usuarios (o clientes) de Supermercal Guanare, ubicado en la ciudad de Guanare (estado Portuguesa, Venezuela) se construyó un modelo PLS-SEM. El estudio permitió identificar un nuevo tipo de usuario (minorista alimentario de propiedad pública), cuya lealtad es influenciada tanto por la imagen política de la empresa como por los determinantes en el caso del minorista privado (satisfacción y calidad), si bien aquí es menos exigente en calidad. Asimismo y según los resultados, las evidencias físicas (apariencia y conveniencia de compra) fue la única dimensión válida para medir la calidad percibida del servicio de Mercal, constructo que tiene influencia positiva sobre la satisfacción, la cual, a su vez, influye positivamente en la lealtad. Otro aporte original es que se definió y se midió el constructo imagen política, que se relaciona de manera positiva con la lealtad de los usuarios. ; Although there is no consensus on the definition of consumer loyalty and its forms of measurement, there is agreement on its importance to the company as a source of competitive advantage for marketing and therefore essential for achieving profitability and survival in the long term. Furthermore, perceived quality is a long-term evaluation of consumers, after consuming/using a good or service, changing with each transaction and resulting from psychosocial processes of a cognitive and affective nature, measurable through scales such as Calsuper. This article examines, for the first time, the relationship between public policy on food safety, the aims of government and the model of user loyalty in a retail chain, which is unique in the world in terms of its public ownership, objectives and coverage. A PLS-SEM model was constructed from information collected from a random sample of 420 users (or customers) of Supermercal Guanare, located in the city of Guanare (Portuguese state, Venezuela). The study allowed the identification of a new type of user (public food retailer), whose loyalty is influenced both by the political image of the company and by the determinants in the case of the private retailer (satisfaction and quality), although here it is less demanding in terms of quality. Likewise and according to the results, physical evidence (appearance and convenience of purchase) was the only valid dimension to measure the perceived quality of Mercal's service, a construct that has a positive influence on satisfaction, which in turn has a positive influence on loyalty. Another original contribution is that the political image construct, which is positively related to user loyalty, was defined and measured. ; Bien qu'il n'y ait pas de consensus sur la définition de la fidélité des consommateurs et ses façons de la mesurer, ces aspects soulèvent une grande importance pour l'entreprise, en tant que source d'avantages concurrentiels pour le marketing et donc essentielle pour atteindre la rentabilité et la survie dans le long terme. La qualité telle qu'elle est perçue est une évaluation à long terme des consommateurs, après avoir consommé / utilisé un bien ou un service, évoluant dans chaque transaction et résultant de processus psychosociaux de nature cognitive et affective, mesurables à travers des échelles telles que celle de Calsuper. En cet article, pour la première fois, on examine les relations entre la politique publique de sécurité alimentaire, les finalités du gouvernement et le modèle de fidélité des utilisateurs dans une chaîne de distribution, unique au monde étant donné ses objectifs et sa couverture liés à un régime de propriété publique. Un modèle PLS-SEM a été appliqué suite aux informations recueillis auprès d'un échantillon aléatoire de 420 utilisateurs (ou clients) de Supermercal Guanare, situé à Guanare, État de Portuguesa, Venezuela. L'étude a permis d'identifier un nouveau type d'utilisateur (détaillant public de produits alimentaires), dont la fidélité est influencée à la fois par l'image politique de l'entreprise et par les déterminants dans le cas du détaillant privé (satisfaction et qualité), bien qu'ici il soit moins exigeant du point de vue en qualité. Aussi, selon les résultats, les preuves physiques (apparence et commodité d'achat) étaient la seule dimension valable pour mesurer la qualité perçue du service Mercal, une construction qui a une influence positive sur la satisfaction, qui, à son tour, influence positivement la fidélité. Une autre contribution originale est que la construction de l'image politique a été définie et mesurée, ce qui est positivement lié à la fidélité des utilisateurs. ; Embora não exista consenso sobre a definição de lealdade do consumidor e suas formas de mensurá-la, existe convergência sobre sua importância para a empresa, como fonte de vantagens competitivas para o marketing, essencial, portanto, para obter lucratividade e sobrevivência no mercado no longo prazo. Por sua vez, a qualidade percebida é uma avaliação de longo prazo dos consumidores, após consumir / usar um bem ou serviço, que se altera a cada transação, como resultado do impacto de processos psicossociais de natureza cognitiva e afetiva, mensuráveis através de escalas como a de Calsuper. Neste artigo, pela primeira vez, são examinadas as relações entre a política pública de segurança alimentar, os objetivos do governo e o modelo de lealdade do usuário em uma cadeia de varejo, única no mundo por seu regime de propriedade pública, seus objetivos e cobertura. A partir da informação gerada por uma amostra aleatória de 420 usuários (ou clientes) do Supermercal Guanare, localizado na cidade de Guanare, estado de Portuguesa, Venezuela, construiu-se um modelo PLS-SEM. O estudo permitiu identificar um novo tipo de usuário (varejista de alimentos de propriedade pública), cuja lealdade é influenciada tanto pela imagem política da empresa quanto pelos determinantes no caso do varejista privado (satisfação e qualidade), embora aqui seja menos exigente em qualidade. Assim, de acordo com os resultados, a evidência física (aparência e conveniência da compra) foi a única dimensão válida para medir a qualidade percebida do serviço Mercal, um construto que influencia positivamente a satisfação, a qual por sua vez, influencia positivamente sobre a lealdade. Outra contribuição original é que se definiu e se mediu o construto de imagem política o qual se relaciona de maneira positiva com a lealdade dos usuários. ; 173-192 ; agroalimentaria@ula.ve / ciaal.ula@gmail.com ; floresjoseovidio@gmail.com ; sandralizbethflores@gmail.com ; cortega_m99@hotmail.com ; Semestral ; http://erevistas.saber.ula.ve/agroalimentaria

Reports on the Observance of Standards and Codes (ROSC) Accounting and Auditing (AA) assess accounting and auditing practices in participating countries. They form part of a joint initiative that is implemented by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund to review the quality of implementation of twelve internationally recognized core standards (the ROSC Program). These standards and their related codes are relevant to economic stability, and private and financial sector development. The program was developed at the end of the 1990s, in the wake of financial crises that affected many countries in several regions of the world. In the case of the ROSC AA for Poland, the international standards used as benchmarks are (i) relevant portions of European Union legislation (also called the acquis communautaire), (ii) International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS), (iii) clarified International Standards on Auditing (ISA), (iv) the International Federation of Accounts (IFAC) Code of Ethics, and (v) other international good practice in the field of accounting and auditing regulation. This is the third ROSC AA for Poland. The first two were conducted in 2002 and 2005. This report updates the findings of the 2005 report, and assesses the extent to which prior recommendations have been implemented. Since its inception in the early 2000s, the ROSC AA program has concluded evaluations in more than one hundred countries around the world. ROSC AA reports have been produced for all countries of the Europe and Central Asia region, except the Russian Federation. This ROSC AA serves three main objectives: (i) to support Poland's development strategy, particularly regarding the enhancement of economic competitiveness, (ii) to assess progress achieved under the Financial Reporting Technical Assistance Program (FRTAP), and (iii) to update the findings of the 2005 ROSC AA. The FRTAP is a Swiss-funded program aimed at strengthening accounting and auditing practices in Poland through the implementation of high quality standards in these areas.

Organisasi Kesehatan Dunia (World Health Organization-WHO) di dalam laporannya di tahun 2014 mencatat bahwa di tahun 2012 penyakit kanker telah menjadi penyebab kematian dari 8.2 juta orang. Angka ini kemungkinan jauh lebih rendah dari kenyataannya, mengingat pelayanan medis belum menjangkau sebagian besar penduduk dunia. Berjuta-juta kasus kemungkinan juga tidak terdata keberadaannya. WHO juga merekam adanya 14 juta penderita kanker di tahun yang sama. Jumlah ini diprediksi akan meningkat 70 persen dalam kurun waktu dua puluh tahun ke depan. Organisasi ini tidak bisa menggambarkan bagaimana berbahayanya penyakit ini. Kanker adalah salah satu penyakit yang kompleks yang diinisiasi oleh terjadinya kontak antara tubuh manusia dengan beragam wujud karsinogen (racun), yang mungkin saja terjadi secara alamiah, melalui makanan, atau karena kebiasaan yang menjadi pilihan seseorang secara pribadi, seperti misalnya merokok. Menurut WHO, kontak manusia dengan karsinogen bisa terjadi secara langsung maupun tidak langsung, dalam wujud interaksi fisik (sinar ultraviolet), kimia (zat kimia dalam asap rokok), dan biologis (virus). Walau kita tidak bisa menunjukan penyebab tunggal terjadinya kanker, kontak seseorang dengan bahan atau zat beracun berkaitan erat dengan kualitas lingkungan dimana yang bersangkutan tinggal. Ini menyiratkan bahwa lingkungan harus direncanakan serta dibangun berdasarkan strategi yang berorientasikan pada ide ''anti-kanker.' Sikap ini wajib diambil sebagai bagian penting dari keseluruhan perubahan yang seyogyanya dilaksanakan terhadap lingkungan binaan. Kebijakan dan parktek yang bernafaskan konsepsi ini harus dilaksanakan secara simultan dalam setiap kesempatan dan pada setiap elemen kota. Komponen spasial yang paling penting diperhatikan pada konteks ini termasuk lingkungan perumahan; ruang-ruang kecil dimana kita memarkir kendaraan; taman-taman kota dimana kita memanfaatkan waktu bersama keluarga di akhir pekan; jalan yang kita lewati dalam keseharian; infrastruktur sosial dimana kita berada untuk berbagai kepentingan; ruang publik dimana penduduk kota berinteraksi sebagai sebuah kesatuan komunitas.Bebargai bahaya akan muncul ketika pemanfaatan lingkungan binaan (baik yg ditata maupun tidak), bersama dengan pola tingkah laku warga masyarakat perkotaan, telah memaksa kita menghirup udara yang terpolusi; meminum air yang terkontaminasi; menderita karena taman-taman kota telah disusupi kendaraan bermotor yang menyebabkan terbuangnya gas finil hidrocarbon ke dalam taman. Ruang terbuka ini seharusnya terbebas dari segala wujud gas beracun; meminum air tanah yang dikontaminasi oleh polutan yang dibuang secara sembarangan oleh beragam industri. Kontaminasi ini juga telah merambah ke air yang dimanfaatkan untuk produksi bahan pangan yang kita konsumsi dalam keseharian.Namun, tidak bisa dipungkiri jika keberadaan penyakit kanker pada tubuh seseorang juga tergantung dari gaya hidup yang dijalaninya. Ini berkaitan dengan bagaimana dan kapan kita makan; bagaimana pola istirahat (tidur) yang dimiliki; bagaimana seseorang mengontrol kondisi kesehatan psikologisnya; bagaimana kita bergerak dari satu tempat ke tempat satunya, dan lain-lain. Tetapi ketika kita berkeinginan untuk menangani permasalahan ini secara benar dari kaca mata pengaturan lingkungan binaan, kita harus mempertanyakan "Bisakah perencanaan berkontribusi dalam menciptakan lingkungan yang sehat?" Jika jawabannya adalah "ya," maka metode analisis, kebijakan, cara implementasi dan pengendaliannya, juga harus ditetapkan, jika memang belum ada. Dalam teorinya perencanaan didedikasikan untuk kebaikan masyarakat yang diaturnya, termasuk status kesehatan mereka. Namun di dalam prakteknya, kita harus awas, karena perencanaan merupakan sebuah mekanisme kenegaraan yang kemunculannya seringkali merupakan hasil koalisi dengan para pemilik modal. Seperti diketahui bersama, bisnis (kepentingan ekonomi) lebih sering keluar sebagai pemenang dibanding kebutuhan orang banyak. Namun ketika lingkungan tercemari, bisa dipastikan jika perencanaan memiliki peran serta tanggung jawab yang mutlak. Atau secara gamblang bisa dinyatakan perencanaan tidak melakukan tugas yang seharusnya diembannya. Situasi ini bisa disebabkan oleh beragam alasan, misalnya kurangnya sumber daya finansial; praktek-praktek korupsi dalam proses pengeluaran ijin membangun ataupun ijin operasional lainnya; minimnya pengaturan serta pengendalian; absennya pengaturan densitas (kepadatan) di daerah; tata aturan zonasi yang selalu memberi peluang untuk negosiasi dan tawar-menawar; tidak tepatnya kebijakan yang diberlakukan; tidak adanya perhatian terhadap praktek-praktek perencanaan yang sudah dibuktikan keberhasilannya dan sudah diterapkan di level gobal. Perlu juga dipahami disini jika masyarakat bukan selalu objek pasif. Mereka memiliki pilihan dan bisa memilih. Apakah mereka memilih untuk mengekspose dirinya terhadap beragam polutan? Atau kemungkinan sebagian dari mereka memang tidak memiliki pilihan, selain menerima polusi lingkungan sebagai bagian dari kehidupan kesehariannya. Atau kelompok yang lain lagi memutuskan untuk membuat pilihan, bagaimana berhadapan dengan polutan serta menghindari interaksi dengan cara apapun. Berbagai kota di dunia telah memberi perhatian besar terhadap pembangunan lingkungan yang sehat. Sikap ini secara mendasar merupakan langkah yang tepat, termasuk juga jika dikaji dari perspektif bisnis (ekonomi). Transportasi yang bersih dan efisien serta perencanaan yang sudah mapan, selain berdampak positif terhadap elemen-elemen kota juga akan mendorong pertumbuhan ekonomi. Oleh karenanya, di negara-negara maju, pola pendekatan semacam ini telah diakomodasi sebagai elemen esensial dan diterima sebagai bagian dari kebijakan perencanaan, serta diprioritaskan sebelum pertimbangan-pertimbangan lainnya. Proses globalisasi yang telah menjadi motor kemunculan dari 'informational class of labour' (Castells) atau yang disebut sebagai the 'creative class' oleh Richard Florida, telah secara jelas mengindikasikan ke kita bahwa kota-kota yang memberi perhatian terhadap lingkungan dan pelestarian kebudayaan menunjukan kesusksesan dalam pembangunannya, sedangkan yang tidak melakukannya berada pada posisi yang sebaliknya. Tidak ada satupun orang di muka bumi ini yang berkeinginan bekerja di lingkungan yang kotor dan terpolusi. Jika sebuah satuan kedaerahan mencanangkan untuk mengundang para pekerja yang berkulitas, rencana ini akan sangat tergantung dari tersedianya lingkungan yang berkualitas, selain adanya proses branding yang menjadi bagian penting dalam berkompetisi di dunia global. Dalam hal ini, beragam pertimbangan penting yang akan berpengaruh, seperti misalnya: dimanakah funsi-fungsi industri akan ditempatkan sehingga karsinogen yang diproduksi akan diserap secara internal dan tidak dibuang ke tanah, udara, dan air yang menjadi sumber kehidupan bagi kita semua?; dimanakah rumah masa dpean akan dilokasikan?; dimana infrastruktur sosial: rumah sakit, sekolah, kantor-kantor publik, dan lain-lain akan direncanakan?; Kapankah pengaturan dan pengendalian kendaraan bermotor akan diimplementasikan, seperti halnya yang sudah diterapkan di berbagai kota di dunia?; Kapankah tata aturan di jalan raya, pemanfaatan jalan raya oleh para pengendara dengan cara yang seolah-olah tidak ada aturan, parkir yang tidak terkontrol, serta pelanggaran-pelanggaran lainnya akan dikendalikan seperti halnya proses pengecekan surat ijin mengemudi? Jawaban atas pertanyaan-pertanyaan di atas tidak hanya berkenaan dengan pembangunan serta penataan keruangan fisik semata, tetapi membutuhkan perencanaan yang inklusif yang juga secara bersamaan merangkul pendekatan tingkah laku. Konsepsi terakhir ini sangatlah penting karena kualitas sebuah tempat tidak bisa dipisahkan, baik dari gaya hidup masyarakat lokal yang diakmodasinya maupun komunitas internasional yang menjadi salah satu faktor penentu, khususnya dalam peran mereka sebagai penyedia sumber daya finansial dan investasi. Selain itu, perencanaan semacam ini tidak bisa jika hanya difokuskan pada usaha pengimplementasian pemerintahan kota yang ketat, tetapi juga perlu diatur secara hukum. Dengan kata lain, mekanismenya harus dilengkapi dengan sanksi-sanksi yang jelas, bagaiman pelanggaran yang kemungkinan terjadi akan ditindak. Semua proposisi yang diajukan disini bersifat nyata dan sangat memungkinkan untuk dilaksanakan, dan bukan sesuatu yang hanya bisa digambarkan sebagai angan-angan semata. Dalam edisi Jurnal Ruang-Space ini, dipublikasi 7 artikel. Artikel pertama oleh Wahyudi Arimbawa, yang membicarakan tentang peranan yang berpotensi untuk diampu oleh desa adat dalam mengendalikan pemanfaatan lahan di Desa Jatiluwih. Tujuan akhir studi adalah membangun sistem pengelolaan tataguna lahan untuk desa ini. Artikel kedua ditulis oleh Anak Agung Gde Sutrisna, yang mengevaluasi bagaimana bhisama kesucian pura - kebijakan lokal yang mengatur pembangunan di zona lindung di sekitar pura - telah dilanggar, khususnya dalam kasus Pura Dang Kahyangan di area pariwisata Kuta Selatan, Kabupaten Badung-Bali. Artikel ini juga menginvestigasi dampak positif dan negatif dari beragam pelanggaran yang terjadi. Artikel ketiga disusun oleh Anak Agung Aritama, yang mendiskusikan keberadaan media penanda yang tidak terkendalikan dan telah merusak image kota, seperti yang terjadi di sepanjang Koridor Jalan Hayam Wuruk, Kota Denpasar. Artikel ini fokus pada pemahaman faktor-faktor yang berkontribusi dalam pemunculan permasalahan ini.Artikel keempat disusun oleh Agus Dharmaputra, yang berjalan beriringan dengan ide pengaturan pembangunan fungsi komersial di kota. Sebagai langkah awal, artikel ini menstudi beragam pertimbangan yang diterapkan sebelum lokasi sebuah minimarket (studi kasus yang diambil)- bisa difinalisasi oleh pelaku bisnis, dan juga sebelum berkas ijin mendirikan bangunan diajukan ke pemerintah. Artikel kelima ditulis oleh Doddy Kastamayasa, sebuah studi tentang layout keruangan Banjar Ujung, sebuah kampung nelayan yang terletak di Kabupaten Karangasem, bagian timur Bali, pasca diterpanya komunitas ini oleh beragam bencana alam. Permukiman ini telah mengalami kerusakan, dampak dari meletusnya Gunung Agung di tahun 1963, dan bencana erosi serta abrasi dalam kurun waktu tiga tahun, dari tahun 1997 sampai dengan 1999. Artikel keenam ditulis oleh Anak Agung Mahendra berkenaan dengan konservasi ruang publik, salah satu potensi pengembangan industri kepariwisataan di Desa Kendran, Kabupaten Gianyar. Desa ini ditunjuk sebagai salah satu destinasi wisata desa, proposisi yang disambut dengan antusiasme tinggi oleh Kabupaten Gianyar. Artikel terakhir disusun oleh Ngakan Juliastika, yang mendiskusikan tentang permasalahan terkait pembangunan perumahan oleh para pengembang, dengan memprioritaskan keuntungan ekonomi di atas konformansi terhadap tata aturan yang ada. Beranjak dari situasi ini, penulis merangkum tujuh set strategi penting yang telah diterapkan oleh para pengembang, dan diimplementasikan dalam tujuh kasus pembangunan perumahan yang berbeda. In its 2014 report, the World Health Organisation (WHO) stated that cancers had been responsible for the death of 8.2 million people in 2012. This is probably a massive underestimation, since poverty and medical services are not available to a multitude of people. Millions of cases therefore are likely to go unrecorded. There were 14 million new cases encountered in the same year. This United Nations Agency cannot see this figure reducing any time soon. The number is instead forecast to climb by 70% in twenty years time. While this agency cannot sufficiently stress how life threathening cancer is, nonetheless it is a complex medical condition whose origin can be traced to human exposure to carcinogens, some environmental, some dietary, and some self inflicted such as smoking. In its report, the WHO states that cancer is a result of an excessive exposure to three forms of poisons, both directly and indirectly, including physical, chemical and biological carcinogens. While one cannot determine a singular cause, human contact with those carcinogens is undoubtedly associated with the quality of the environment people inhabit. This implies at least in part, that any environmentally generated cancers must be addressed and overcome by incorporating anti-cancer strategies. These represent essential practice as part of the totality of existing and planned changes to the built environment. Both policies and practices should be rigorously implemented at all scales and urban forms. This of course includes most importantly the immediate environment of housing –the ancillary spaces where we park our cars; spend our family time over the weekend; the roads we commute on daily, the social infrastructures we inhabit for various reasons, and the public spaces where we interact with other members of the community. The danger begins when the organisation of this living environment, together with the patterns of individual behaviour associated with it, forces us to breath polluted air; to drink contaminated water; to suffer the encroachment into public parks by vehicles contributing cancerous phenyl-hydrocarbons into the very spaces people go to avoid them; having to drink groundwater contaminated by the pollution of the earth by industry, and hence the very water deployed in the processes of food production. There is no doubt that cancer is to a large extent dependent upon the life style we choose. How and when we eat, how we sleep, how we manage our psychological state, how we move around etc. But in order to address the problem correctly from an environmental standpoint, we must consider the question "can planning contribute to the creation of a healthy living environment?'' If so, what methods of analysis, policy, implementation, and policing should be set in place, if these are not in place already? In theory, planning works for the good of the people, including preserving their health. In practice we must retain a healthy dose of suspicion, since planning is a servo mechanism of the state, and in most instances the state works for private capital. So business usually triumphs in the face of the popular demands of the people. But when the environment becomes polluted it is unquestionable that planning plays a significant role by default. Bluntly stated it is not doing what it is supposed to do. This situation has many causes – lack of funding, corrupt practices that are always associated with development permissions, inadequate legislation, the absence of appropriate density controls, negotiable zoning regulation, improper policing, or simply ignorance of contemporary planning practices and global best practice. Nevertheless, people are not always passive victims. They also make choices as to whether or not they expose themselves to pollutants. Some may have no other option but to accept environmental pollution as part of their daily life. Others however may make choices as to how to deal with it, and avoid exposure at all cost. Many cities have placed a great stress on the creation of a healthy living environment. Paradoxically, this is also good for business since clean and efficient transport and a highly regulated planning system are good for everyone. The idea is now adopted as an essential and accepted part of planning policies and given priority over many other considerations in the developed world. The processes of globalisation and the rise of an 'informational class of labour' (Castells) or what Richard Florida calls 'the Ceative Class' has demonstrated without a doubt that those cities that stress environment and cultural services succeed where others fail. Nobody wants to work in a polluted and filthy environment. So attracting high quality workers is highly dependent on the production of a high quality environment and the branding process now essential to urban competition. In this context many concerns come to the force, such as: where are all types of industry to be located in order to guarantee that the carcinogens they produce will be internally absorbed and not dumped into the land, air or water that nourish us? Where are future homes to be located ? Where should the social infrastructure: schools, hospitals, public offices, etc be planned? How should existing planning standards be upgraded to accommodate new open spaces and to compenstate for the incredible current lack of provision for the populace? When will the proper policing and management of motor vehicles be implemented as it is in countless other cities? When will the implementation of road rules, reckless driving, uncontrolled parking and other offences be given equal status to checking driving licenses? The answer however is not merely a matter of establishing a sound physical and spatial plan, but rather an inclusive one embracing human behavioural approaches all together. The latter is of paramount importance as the quality of a place cannot be disconnected either from the lifestyles of the community it accommodates or the international community it depends on for finance and investment. How such necessary planning should be imposed not only implies more rigorous urban governance, but the proper and extensive application of the laws that exist today. None of the above is imaginary. In this issue of Ruang-Space Journal 7 articles are published. The first one is by Wahyudi Arimbawa. It talks about the potential roled played by the desa adat institution in controlling land utilization in Jatiluwih Village. The final objective of this study is to develop a system of land use management for this village. The second article is written by Anak Agung Gde Sutrisna. This research evaluates how the bhisama kesucian pura - local guidelines for development within the protective zone surrounding a temple - has been violated, especially in the case of Dang Kahyangan temples located in a touristy area of South Kuta District, Badung Regency-Bali. This article also investigates the impacts such violations have, both negatively and positively. The third article is authored by Anak Agung Aritama. It discusses the uncontrolled presence of urban signage to a level that ruins the image of a town, as is observed when one walks along the Hayam Wuruk Corridor of Denpasar Kota. The article focuses on the comprehension of factors leading to the overall lack of control that generates such chaotic effects. The fourth article is by Agus Dharmaputra. It supports the idea of regulating the development of commercial functions in an urban area. This article offers a preliminary study of considerations used before the location for any minimarket - the commercial functions taken as case studies - is finalized by owners, prior to building permit application to the government. The fifth article is authored by Doddy Kastamayasa. This is a study of a post natural disaster fishing settlement of Ujung Neighborhood in Karangasem Regency on the eastern coast of Bali Island. This settlement was badly hit by the eruption of Mount Agung in 1963. It was then also eroded by significant storms and resultant erosion abrasions over three years from 1997 up to 1999. The sixth article is documented by Anak Agung Mahendra, which is about the conservation of public spaces of Kendran Village in Gianyar Regency. This study is necessary as the village is denoted as the mext rural tourism destination , a proposition which has been accepted with enthusiasm by Gianyar Regency. The last article is written by Ngakan Juliastika. It discusses problems associated with developers decision to focus more on generating profits rather than conforming to the housing development guidelines and policies that have been established. Taking this situation as a point of departure, this paper suggests seven sets of strategies implemented by various developers at seven different housing developments.

DOI:10.1590/2179-8966/2020/52670ApresentaçãoSetembro 2020 Nossas saudações às leitoras e aos leitores da Revista Direito e Práxis! Seguimos nesse difícil ano de 2020 confrontados pela pandemia da Covid 19. De certa forma, a crise sanitária revela eloquentemente a desigualdade estrutural de nosso país e, por isso mesmo, nos desafia em nossa capacidade de análise, reflexão e conceitualização. Mais do que nunca os estudos críticos no direito são importantes para buscarmos novos e melhores arranjos sociais. Nesse sentido, nossa sessão de artigos inéditos traz doze trabalhos de alta qualidade de pesquisadoras e pesquisadores nacionais e internacionais nas áreas do Direito e Economia, Estudos Decolonais, Criminologia Crítica, Teoria Crítica, Direito Achado na Rua e Debates Sócio-Ambientais, dentre outros temas mais do que atuais para as pesquisas nos campos da teoria, filosofia e sociologia do direito. Essa edição também conta com uma resenha do livro "Imperialismo, Estado e Relações Internacionais" (2018) do professor Luis Felipe Osório.Além disso, o dossiê desta Edição de setembro de 2020 não poderia ter um foco temático capaz de refletir de forma tão adequada a trágica atual situação que vivemos. No momento em que os editores do dossiê entraram em contato conosco falando sobre sua ideia, não poderíamos prever que nos defrontaríamos com uma crise de saúde pública de tão intensa proporção e com uma crise democrática tão grave após o advento da Constituição de 1988. Pois bem, nesse número da Revista Direito e Práxis (Vol. 11, n. 3, 2020, 31ª edição – set-dez), trazemos um dossiê especial e necessário organizado por Rafael Vieira (Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro) e Hannah Franzi (Universidade de Bremen) que marca a recepção da obra de Walter Benjamin para as pesquisas críticas no campo do direito. O dossiê, intitulado "Walter Benjamin e o Direito", traz trabalhos inéditos e seminais que inauguram recepções de Benjamin no campo jurídico e também na América Latina.Os editores convidados fizeram um primoroso trabalho de curadoria trazendo trabalhos de pesquisadores renomados e bastante discutidos na academia brasileira como Judith Butler, Enzo Traverso e Michel Löwy. Contudo, não deixaram de inovar, pois também apresentam trabalhos de pesquisadores mais jovens e altamente qualificados ou, ainda, comentadores que não são tão conhecidos na tradição jusfilosófica brasileira. Para avançar nos debates sobre a exceção, o dossiê também traz traduções inéditas de Walter Benjamin – "O Direito de usar a violência" (1920) e "Marcel Brion, Bartolomé de las Casas, "Padre de los índios" (1929) – direto do alemão para o português em primeira tradução, além de trabalhos de seus comentadores, como Werner Hamacher. Agradecemos aos editores convidados pela tarefa desempenhada com tanta qualidade e pela confiança em nossa públicção, bem como a todos os tradutores e tradutoras que contribuíram para possibilitar a divulgação em língua portuguesa de materais inéditos e tão relevantes para as pesquisas benjaminianas no Brasil e América Latina.Relembramos que as políticas editoriais para as diferentes seções da Revista podem ser acessadas em nossa página e que as submissões são permanentes e sempre bem-vindas! Agradecemos, como sempre, às autoras e aos autores, avaliadoras e avaliadores e colaboradoras e colaboradores pela confiança depositada em nossa publicação.Boa Leitura!Equipe Direito e Práxis***PresentaciónSeptiembre 2020 Continuamos en este difícil año de 2020 enfrentados por la pandemia Covid 19. De alguna manera, la crisis sanitaria revela elocuentemente la desigualdad estructural de nuestro país y, por ello, nos desafía en nuestra capacidad de análisis, reflexión y conceptualización. Más que nunca, los estudios críticos en derecho son importantes para buscar nuevos y mejores arreglos sociales. En este sentido, nuestra sección de artículos inéditos cuenta con doce trabajos de alta calidad de investigadores nacionales e internacionales en las áreas de Derecho y Economía, Estudios Decoloniales, Criminología Crítica, Teoría Crítica, Derecho Encontrado en la Calle y Debates Socioambientales, entre otros temas más de actualidad para la investigación en los campos de la teoría, la filosofía y la sociología del derecho. Esta edición también incluye una reseña del libro "Imperialismo, Estado y Relaciones Internacionales" (2018) del profesor Luis Felipe Osório.Además, el dossier de esta edición de septiembre no podría tener un enfoque temático capaz de reflejar de forma tan adecuada la situación actual que estamos viviendo. Cuando los redactores del dossier se pusieron en contacto con nosotros para hablarnos de su idea, no podíamos prever que nos encontraríamos ante una crisis de salud pública de tan intensa proporción y con una crisis democrática tan grave desde la llegada de la Constitución de 1988. Por tanto, en este número de Revista Direito e Praxis (Vol. 11, n. 3, 2020, 31ª edición – Sep-Dic), traemos un dossier especial y necesario organizado por Rafael Vieira (Universidad Federal de Río de Janeiro) y Hannah Franzi (Universidad de Bremen) que marca la recepción del trabajo de Walter Benjamin para la investigación crítica en el campo del derecho. El dossier, titulado "Walter Benjamin y el Derecho", trae obras inéditas y seminales que subrayan las recepciones de Benjamin en el ámbito jurídico y también en América Latina.Los editores invitados hicieron un minucioso trabajo curatorial trayendo trabajos de reconocidos investigadores, los quales dejá ampliamente discutidos en la academia brasileña como Judith Butler, Enzo Traverso e Michel Löwy. Sin embargo, no dejaron de innovar, ya que también presentan trabajos de investigadoras más jóvenes y altamente calificadas o comentadores aún no tan conocidos en la tradición jusfilosófica brasileña. Para avanzar en los debates sobre la excepción, el dossier también incluye traducciones de obras de Walter Benjamin – "El derecho a utilizar la violencia" (1920) y "Marcel Brion, Bartolomé de las Casas. 'Padre de los Índios' " (1929) – directo del alemán al portugués y al español, así como obras de comentadores, como Werner Hamacher. Agradecemos a los editores invitados el trabajo realizado con tanta calidad y la confianza en nuestra publicación, así como a todos los traductores que contribuyeron a posibilitar la difusión en portugués de materiales inéditos tan relevantes para la investigación de Benjamin en Brasil y América Latina.¡Le recordamos que en nuestra página se puede acceder a las políticas editoriales de las diferentes secciones de la Revista y que los envíos de artigos son permanentes y siempre bienvenidos! Agradecemos, como siempre, a autores, revisores y colaboradores la confianza depositada en nuestra publicación.¡Buena lectura!Equipo Direito e Praxis***PresentationAugust 2020 The current health crisis puts a spotlight on the structural inequalities around the world and specially in our country. The pandemic challenges our capacity of analysis, reflection and conceptualization. Now more than ever critical study of Law became important in the search for new social arrangements and alternatives. Looking through this perspective, our section of new articles brings twelve works by national and foreign researchers, with topics ranging from of Law and Economics, Decolonial Studies, Critical Criminology, Critical Theory, Law Found on the Street, Socioenvironmental Debates, among other themes from the fields of theory, philosophy, and sociology of the law. Moreover, considering our current situation, this monthly edition's dossier could not have a more adequate theme to focus on. At the moment that our guest editors came in touch with us to explain their ideas, we could not know that a health crisis of such grave proportions, as well as a deep crisis of democracy not seen since the advent of the 1988's Constitution, would evolve. Thus, in this issue of Direito e Práxis Journal (Vol. 11, n. 3, 2020, 31st edition, Sep-Dec) we bring forth a special dossier assembled by Rafael Vieira (UFRJ – Federal University of Rio de Janeiro) and Hannah Franzi (Bremen University), which marks the reception of works of Walter Benjamin by the critical research on the field of Law. The dossier titled "Walter Benjamin and the Law" contains seminal and new articles which tackle Benjamin's works on the judiciary field in Latin America. Our guest editors achieved a remarkable result gathering articles from renowned and disseminated researchers as Judith Buttler, Enzo Traverso, and Michel Löwy. They also were able to bring a set of works from several young and upcoming names in the field, and even from some commentators on the Brazilian jus-philosophical tradition. In order to advance on the debates on the "exception question", the dossier also brings translations of Walter Benjamin's "The Right to Use Violence" (1920) and "Marcel Brion, Bartolomé de las Casas. 'Padre de los Índios' "(1929), from German to Portuguese and Spanish, as well as works from their commentators, like Werner Hamacher. We thank the guest editors for the excellent work and for the confidence placed in our publication. We thank also the translators responsible for enabling the dissemination of such an important material on Walter Benjamin for the research on these topics in Brazil and Latin America. We also would like to remind that the editorial policies for the different sections of the Journal are available on our homepage and that submissions are always welcome. As always, we thank all the authors, reviewers and contributors for the confidence placed on our publication.Enjoy the read!Direito e Praxis Team