Suchergebnisse

OBJETIVOS GENERALES - Visualizar cómo se lleva a cabo en la ciudad de Neuquén la implementación de las leyes provinciales 2785 y 2786, de prevención, sanción y erradicación de la violencia familiar y hacia la mujer respetivamente. OBJETIVOS ESPECIFICOS - Analizar la incidencia las políticas públicas en la consumación de las leyes en estudio. - Visibilizar los favorecedores y obstaculizadores que se presentifican en la aplicación de la ley. ESTRATEGIA TEÓRICO-METODOLÓGICA. El presente trabajo es un estudio descriptivo de enfoque cualitativo. Descriptivo porque busca especificar propiedades, características y rasgos importantes de lo que se analiza y proporciona una respuesta a las preguntas de cómo ocurrió algo y quién estuvo involucrado. También optamos por la elección de los datos cualitativos porque los mismos se recogen a menudo con la investigación de campo. Optamos (en relación a los múltiples marcos teóricos) tomar la definición de violencia familiar y hacia la mujer establecida en las leyes provinciales 2785 y 2786. CONCLUSIONES FACILITADORES - La presencia de un importante marco jurídico (internacional, nacional y provincial) en torno a la prevención de la violencia. - La modificación de la ley 2212 por la 2785 y 2786, lo que motivó el comenzar con la articulación interinstitucional y la ampliación de las instituciones efectoras y su delimitación de funciones. - La existencia de una ley de violencia familiar y otra de violencia hacia la mujer que focaliza claramente los diversos tipos y modalidades de violencia hacia esta. - La creación de la Oficina de violencia. - La disposición para comenzar acciones de articulación interinstitucionales e interdisplicinarias. - Mayor sensibilización de la población respecto de la violencia, lo que conduce a un incremento de denuncia de la misma. - El ingreso de profesionales en el Ministerio de Salud formados y sensibilizados en torno a la violencia. OBSTACULIZADORES - Insuficiencia de presupuesto asignado por el gobierno de la provincia de Neuquén, en función de las leyes de violencia 2785 y 2786 aprobadas por la Legislatura de la Provincia. Es de señalar que la ley 2785 ya posee su reglamentación y aún no se cuenta con recursos humanos y materiales que permitan viabilizar la puesta en práctica de las acciones que se propone. - El ejecutivo no destina los fondos suficientes para capacitación de los efectores y supervisión de tareas y puesta en práctica de las leyes. - Carencia de monitoreo en las instituciones efectoras de la ley. - No se ha aplicado aún un protocolo único de actuación, común a todas las instituciones. - Existencia de subregistros y carencia de registros institucionales estadísticos que puedan brindar un informe exhaustivo. - Insuficiencia de campañas de prevención a nivel provincial y nacional. - No se promueve desde el Estado la responsabilidad social empresaria en la difusión de campañas publicitarias. - Los jueces, los abogados y la institución judicial poseen fuertes mandatos patriarcales que están impresos en su accionar. - El miedo aprendido y dichos mandatos patriarcales contribuyen a la naturalización de las situaciones de violencia y a la no denuncia. - La articulación con otras instituciones, no es aún, un mecanismo de coordinación presente en las prácticas de los agentes. - La carencia de equipos consolidados en el tiempo por parte de las distintas instituciones, difumina la claridad en el accionar de los agentes. - Dificultad de la observancia del cumplimiento de las medidas cautelares. - En las instituciones educativas de diferentes niveles aún no se incluyó en la currícula, el estudio de la violencia familia y hacia la mujer. GENERAL OBJECTIVES - To visualise how the implementation of the Provincial Laws 2785 and 2786, of prevention, sanction and eradication of domestic and gender violence, respectively, is carried out in the city of Neuquén. - SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES - To analyse the impact of public politics on the consummation of the laws under study. - To visualise the supporting points and obstacles that are present in the aplication of the law. THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL STRATEGY The present work is a descriptive study of a cualitative approach. It is descriptive because it aims at looking for specific attributes, characteristics and important traits out of which one can analyse and give answers to the questions of how an event occured and who was involved. We have also selected some cualitative data as they are often gathered from the field investigation. We have chosen (in relation to the multiple theoretical frameworks) to define the terms of "domestic violence" and "gender violence" in accordance to their definitions provided by the Provincial Laws 2785 and 2786. CONCLUSIONS SUPPORTING POINTS - The existence of an important judicial framework (international, national and provincial) in relation to violence prevention. - The replacement of the law 2212 by the laws 2785 and 2786, what originated an integrated articulation among institutions and the expanding of the institutions relating to violence prevention together with the delimitation of their functions. - The existence of a law of domestic violence and of a law of gender violence which focus on the various types and ways of violence towards women. - The creation of an Office attending cases of violence. - The predisposition to begin actions of interinstitutional and interdiscipline articulation. - The increasing awareness of the population towards the issue of violence, what has led to an increasing amount of abuse reports. - The admission of new profesional staff in the Ministery of Health, staff with sufficient knowledge about violence issues. OBSTACLES - Lack of budget provided by the government of the Province of Neuquen, in relation to the laws of violence 2785 and 2786 already approved by the Parliament of Neuquen. Regarding the law 2785, it has its regulations but it has no human and material resources that may allow that the proposed actions can be put into practice. - The Executive Power does not provide the sufficient funds so as to offer training, support and supervising of tasks and actions so as to put laws into practice. - Lack of monitoring of the institutions in charge of implementing the laws. - No implementation of a unique protocol of a common actions among the institutions. - Lack of institutional record books which may give thorough statistics data. - Not enough national or local campaigns to raise awareness of the risks of violence - No estate advertising campaings to promote the social responsibility as regards violence. - Judges, lawyers and the judicial system have strong patriarcal mandates which are beyong their behaviour. - The learned fear and patriarcal mandates which contribute to the naturalization of the situations of violence and no reporting of abuse. - The articulation with other institutions does not mean a mechanism of coordination, present in the practices of the agents. - Lack of consolidated institutional teams throughout the time, and which affects the clear actions done by the different agents involved. - Non-fulfilment of precautionary measures - The study of domestic and gender violence is not considered in the curriculum of the system of Education.

Starting from 1948 the Palestinian society is destabilized by the war which saw the loss of historic Palestine. The vast majority of Palestinians are scattered in the countries of the region and beyond the Mediterranean. The old elite originating from religious, family or land ownership backgrounds lost also all its possessions and, consequently, all its influential positions. Helpless and disoriented, this elite will never return to the forefront of the Palestinian national scene. It is the men who lead the struggle for the recovery of Palestine of 1948, and then, from 1967 onwards, against the occupation of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip (part of historic Palestine), first in an armed struggle then through diplomacy and political negotiations, who become the new figures of the Palestinian political scene under the umbrella of the Palestine Liberation Organization, the PLO. They come from outside the well-known religious families and the Palestinian bourgeoisie, but rather from the middle class of towns or from rural areas who will recruit in the refugee camps the future fighters. These are the new leaders. It is a process that began in the mid-1960s and was progressively consolidated through the creation of Palestinian parties and movements operating in various host countries in the region. This new elite adapts itself to the changes and vagaries of international diplomacy and to an imbalance of power against Israel throughout the years of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. In order to understand the process of the forming of Palestinian elites it was necessary to adopt the approach of historical events and facts related to the Palestinian people since 1948 until the post-Oslo (1993). The last twenty years saw a Palestinian National Authority characterized by sovereignty limited to the main cities of the West Bank and Gaza strip, contrary to what had been stipulated in the Oslo Agreements of 1993 : these were to lead to a final settlement concerning the status of the Territories occupied in 1967. The focus of our research is therefore the society in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. Starting from 1993, the leaders returning from exile and who formed the ruling members of the National Authority supported the initiatives of Palestinians, in particular, the prominent figures of the cities, in the creation and development of academic establishments and universities as a way not only to meet with the need of education of the young in a resiliency act to face occupation, but also to respond to the demands of building the future State institutions inside the 1967 lines. New skills, new competences were required in this new phase of the post-Oslo evolution where, along the political struggle, higher education became vital to the existence of the Palestinian society who ambitions to have a full-fledged position among the modern states of the world. Other new figures will arise from these universities to form a new, different elite in a context of democracy rules where power will not be exclusively in the hands of a few rulers. The PLO in 1990, had created a University for all, the al-Quds Open University (QOU), based on the mode of open and distance learning. This was a choice made urgent by the restrictions and the obstacles imposed by the occupying forces. QOU became particularly attractive as evidenced by the large numbers of its registered students and as the situation grew more tense. Later on and despite its limited offer of study disciplines it drew students needing to secure job, adults wanting to pursue unfinished studies, women who found it easy to access the University study centers. ; A partir de 1948 la société palestinienne est déstabilisée suite à la guerre qui voit la perte de la Palestine historique. La grande majorité des Palestiniens se retrouve dispersée dans les pays de la région et au-delà de la Méditerranée. Aussi l'élite ancienne construite à partir de fondements religieux, familiaux ou de richesses foncières se retrouve elle aussi expulsée de ses terres. Elle perd donc ses positions de privilèges, désemparée et désorientée, elle ne reviendra plus jamais au devant de la scène nationale palestinienne. Ce sont les hommes qui dirigeront la lutte pour la récupération de la Palestine de 1948, ensuite et à partir de 1967 contre l'occupation de la Cisjordanie et de la bande de Gaza (partie de la Palestine historique) d'abord sous forme de lutte armée ensuite par la diplomatie et la politique de négociations, qui deviennent les nouvelles figures sur la scène politique palestinienne. Ils sont originaires non de l'ancienne bourgeoisie religieuse et familiale mais de la classe moyenne des villes et des zones rurales qui vont recruter dans les camps de réfugiés les futurs combattants. Ce sont les nouveaux dirigeants. C'est un processus qui a commencé dès la moitié des années 1960 pour se consolider avec la création de partis et mouvements palestiniens opérant dans les divers pays d'accueil de la région. Cette nouvelle élite se conforme aux changements et aléas de la diplomatie internationale et d'un rapport de force inégal face à Israël tout au long du conflit israélo-palestinien. Pour comprendre l'évolution des élites palestiniennes il fallait donc adopter l'approche historique des événements et faits marquants touchant le peuple palestinien depuis 1948 jusqu'à l'après-Oslo (1993) ; vingt ans d'Autorité Nationale Palestinienne caractérisée par une souveraineté limitée aux principales villes de la Cisjordanie et de la bande de Gaza, au contraire de ce qu'avaient stipulé les Accords de 1993 : ceux-ci devaient progresser vers le statut définitif des Territoires occupés en 1967. C'est dans ces territoires occupés depuis 1967, en Cisjordanie et dans la bande de Gaza, que se situe donc notre terrain de recherche. À partir de 1993 les dirigeants rapatriés de l'exil formant les membres dirigeants de l'Autorité nationale, vont favoriser les initiatives de palestiniens, en particulier, les figures proéminentes des villes, dans la création d'établissements universitaires. Ceci est entrepris non seulement pour répondre aux besoins d'éducation d'une population jeune dans un acte de résilience face à l'occupation, mais aussi pour répondre aux exigences du projet de construction des institutions du futur Etat à l'intérieur des Territoires de 1967. De nouvelles compétences, de nouveaux savoir-faire devenaient nécessaires dans cette nouvelle situation du post-Oslo où, en parallèle à la lutte politique, l'enseignement supérieur devenait un enjeu vital pour l'existence de la société palestinienne dont l'ambition est d'avoir une place à part entière parmi les nations modernes du monde. D'autres figures émergeront à partir de ces universités pour former une nouvelle et différente élite qui gouvernera dans un contexte de règles démocratiques où le pouvoir ne sera pas exclusivement dans la main de quelques dirigeants. L'OLP, dès 1990, va créer une Université pour tous, l'Université Ouverte Al-Quds (l'UOQ), se basant sur le mode ouvert et à distance. C'était un choix devenu urgent pour surmonter les difficultés et les entraves qu'imposait l'occupation. L'UOQ connaîtra un grand succès comme en témoigne le nombre grossissant de ses inscrits dans un contexte de tension. Plus tard et malgré son offre limitée dans les disciplines d'études, elle va attirer les jeunes à la recherche d'un métier, les adultes pour poursuivre des études inachevées, les femmes pour la proximité de ses centres d'études.

Este estudio se adentra en las cuestiones culturales que definen un grupo estamental que, como la ideología y la mentalidad, guiaban y dirigían su gusto estético. Por lo tanto, una de las preocupaciones centrales de esta investigación reside en indagar la importancia estética del vestido reflejada en la sociedad madrileña a partir de la segunda mitad del siglo XVII. En concreto, esta tesis trata de las relaciones establecidas entre las prendas y los actores sociales de los siglos XVII, XVIII y XIX. Se reflexiona también sobre la relación existente entre las influencias artísticas y estéticas de la indumentaria y el cambio social y su consecuente relación con los hábitos modernos. Por ello, la inquietud principal de este estudio es el vestido masculino como símbolo del cambio social, eligiendo como la Villa y Corte de Madrid. La delimitación de este tema permite estudiar el vestido a la francesa como objeto y sujeto de estudio y de análisis con un enfoque crítico. Con este fin, se ha necesitado de un trabajo de campo exhaustivo donde los documentos del Archivo Histórico Provincial de Madrid son el núcleo de este estudio. Complemento perfecto de estos bloques documentales es la literatura bibliográfica y artística, donde se puede estudiar bien el grado de aceptación y resistencia del gusto francés. Partiendo de la reflexión de D. Roche acerca de que el estudio de la indumentaria es menos anecdótico de lo pudiera aparecer, se demuestra la importancia relacional de este vestido en su entorno social y cultural, puesto que la vestimenta es parte integrante de la Historia del Arte, de la Historia Social e Historia Cultural. Así, se legitima la vestimenta como rasgo distintivo de la ideología, la mentalidad, las prácticas y los comportamientos. Esto porque la indumentaria siempre ha manifestado los valores formales de la distinción moderna a través de sus estilos y modas, como sucedió con el vestido a la francesa que sedujo tanto a extranjeros como españoles. Sobre todo, este vestido resulta particularmente significativo para el fenómeno social de las apariencias masculinas. Durante esta época, un reducido grupo de hombres –y muy pocas mujeres– poseían el control sobre los recursos políticos y culturales. Así, partiendo del atuendo que viste el hombre a finales del siglo XVI se analiza la decadencia del modelo español y la paulatina filtración del vestido a la francesa que se convirtió en el modelo cortesano en España. La introducción de estas nuevas apariencias -fenómeno provocado por el cambio de dinastía a principio del siglo XVIIII- se manifestó como indicador social de la nueva imagen de la villa madrileña. Este atuendo, procedente del uniforme militar, fue visible en las elites y llegó a definir el capital simbólico de estos grupos de poder. El vestido, manifestación del lujo y protocolo del teatro cortesano, ya se había impuesto como áulico adjetivo del ceremonial aristocrático moderno. Tanto en la corte como en la urbe, esta nueva manifestación estética del traje representó la imagen visual de la época moderna que –atavío y gala social– delineaba el ethos y la estética del Antiguo Régimen. El seguimiento de este atuendo, desde sus esbozos estilísticos hasta su fosilización y superación en el siglo XIX, permite secuenciar su evolución y extrapolar las características generales y las imperceptibles transformaciones que definieron culturalmente el gusto estilístico de la nueva clase social. Como testigo de los avatares y de los cambios históricos, este traje describe el progreso social de ciertos individuos y evidencia su transición –no sólo estética– hacia a la sociedad liberal. De hecho, esta indumentaria evidencia los caracteres y las connotaciones sociales de esta lenta evolución. Palabras Claves: España, cambio social, vestido, Edad Moderna, casaca ABSTRACT This study delves into the cultural questions that define a group estamental that, as the ideology and the mentality, guided his aesthetic taste. Therefore, one of the most important theme of this investigation resides in the aesthetic importance of the garment reflected in the Madrid society to departing, especially, during the second half of the XVIIth Century. Especialliy, this thesis is about the relations costume and the social actors during the XVIIth, XVIIIth and XIXth Century. Also about the artistic and aesthetic influences of the moderns habits and the social change. So, the principal worry of this study is the masculine appearance as symbol of the social change, choosing as privileged balcony the Villa and Court of Madrid. The focus of this thesis is the Justaucorps dress as object and subject of study and analysis for a critical approach. So, it has needed exhaustive work evidences where the documents of the Archivo Histórico Provincial in Madrid are the core of this study. Perfect complement of these blocks is the bibliographical and artistic one, to study the degree of acceptance and resistance of the French taste. Based on the reflection of D. Roche that the studies about clothing are less anecdotal than might appear, we demonstrate the relational importance between the costume and its social and cultural settings, considering the dress is part of the Art History, as well as Social and Cultural History. So the dress is legitimized as a feature of the ideology, mentality, practices and behaviors. This is because the garment has always shown the formal values of the modern distinction through their styles and fashions, as did the Justaucorps dress that seduced both foreigners and Spanish people. Above all, this dress is particularly significant for the social phenomenon of male appearances. During this period, a small group of men - and fewer women - possessed the control on the political and cultural resources. So, based on the dress worn by the man in the late sixteenth Century model, we analyze the Spanish decadence and the gradual filtration of the Justaucorps dress that turn into the court model also in Spain. The introduction of these new appearances -phenomenon caused by the change of dynasty at the beginning of XVIIIth Century- manifested as a social indicator of the new image of the town of Madrid. This model, proceeding from the military uniform, was visible in the elites and managed to define the symbolic capital of these groups of power. The dress, manifestation of luxury and protocol court, was imposed as an aristocratic ceremonial modern adjective. Both on the court and in the city, this new aesthetic costume represented the visual image of the modern era and specifically of the Ancient Regime. The monitoring of this dress, from its beginnings until the fossilization and the overcoming at the XIXth Century, can sequence the evolution of the characteristics and the transformations that defined culturally the stylistic taste of the new social class. To witness the historical changes, this dress describes the social progress of certain individuals and their transition -not only aesthetically- to a liberal society. In fact, this costume character evidence and the social connotations of this slow evolution. Key Words: Spain, social change, Modern Age, Justaucorps, dress

One of the biggest problems of Nepal has remained overwhelming poverty among the rural populace. At the moment, more than 25 percent of the population is compelled to live their life without basic necessities of life. As the predominant population lives in rural areas and depends on agriculture for their living, poverty in Nepal has been considered as rural phenomenon. In the past, the Nepalese government tried to address the poverty problem basically through supply-led credit interventions. However, they could not bring the desired result because of their limited focus on "credit alone" without emphasis on other support services. By considering past failure, with the support of donors, the Nepalese government started implementing Microenterprise Development Program (MEDEP) in 1998 in 10 districts(at the moment running in 36 districts) by focusing on women, economically and socially deprived communities, and hard core poor integrating components related to social mobilization for enterprise development, entrepreneurship training, technical skills development, access to finance, appropriate technology testing and transfer, and marketing linkages and business counseling . Because of meager economic base of the poor, microcredit is very important for them to start up a microenterprise. In that sense the microfinance component of MEDEP is the most important component while talking about reduction in poverty through microenterprise development in Nepal. Against this backdrop, we have assessed the effectiveness of microcredit provided to MEDEP entrepreneurs in the Sindhupalchowok district in eastern Nepal during 2005-2008 by various financial institutions by using propensity score matching methodology. Secondary data (2005-2008) that was made available to Seoul National University (SNU) by the Microenterprise Development Program (MEDEP) has been used for the purpose of this research. In addition, qualitative (exploratory) research methodology has also been used by interviewing 38 MEDEP microentrepreneurs in order to supplement information need to better explain the results received through PSM estimation. The major objective of the research is to assess the effect of microcredit support in enterprise development for poverty reduction among MEDEP microentrepreneurs. In this regard, efforts have been made to assess the effect of microcredit on sales, cost and profit of entrepreneurs in their entrepreneurial activities. Moreover, the effect of microcredit on the enterprise and the entrepreneur levels has also been assessed as per the research framework proposed. The effect has been measured in two time line scenarios "After one Year" and "After two years". In the first scenario, sales, costs and profit are statistically significant. However, the effect on profit is found to be negative implying that immediately after the establishment of any enterprise making profit is not that easy in the pretext that the entrepreneurs need more time to arrange raw materials, establish linkages with processors and traders, and to arrange necessary sales outlets. Even if the average effect of treatment on the treated (ATT) for profit is negative, the value of profit for the treated group is positive conveying the message that treated groups also had profit but it was less in comparison to untreated groups. In the next scenario, effect "after two years", the microcredit effect on sales and cost are statistically insignificant, whereas such effect on profit are statistically significant. Besides, there is a fluctuation in cost and sales values for treated group in two different scenarios. According to AsDB (1997) fluctuations in the performance of microenterprises in short span of time is possible in developing countries as a micro entrepreneur may have many part time or seasonal activities undertaken to support family income apart from the specific enterprise he is running at the moment. Net earnings in this kind of microenterprises are used for survival purposes meaning that they have short term impact on poverty thorough self-employment with larger number of direct beneficiaries. Livelihood microenterprises show lots of fluctuation in their schedule and volume of production (ibid). ATT derived is the average value of the estimated additional effects of each microcredit borrowing entrepreneur. All the microcredit borrowing entrepreneurs, however, have their own additional effects, which is the effect of microcredit after controlling for selection bias. In this context, we have performed econometrical analysis on the effect of different characteristics/explanatory variables with a data set of microcredit borrowing entrepreneurs using these additional effects as dependent variables. While doing so, rural dummy, savings, Hindu dummy, Dalit Dummy, PCI before MEDEP were found to be significant. However, the contribution of saving is significant and coefficients are positive in both scenarios showing the vital role saving was playing to make credit effective in the effort of poverty alleviation. Statistically significant but positive values of per capita income before MEDEP intervention in case of cost and profit have shown that the real poor were not contributing in microcredit effect on cost and profit. It raises a question whether MEDEP had really succeeded to bring hard core poor people in its ambit as lower level of profit might not encourage them to borrow microcredit and run microenterprise. Even though microentrepreneurs had not been able to generate employment to outsiders they had managed to create work for themselves. It is positive aspect while dealing with poverty because those who were making the agriculture sector overburdened, had been diverted away to the microenterprise sector. Among the major targeted beneficiaries of MEDEP, the women's contribution to generate positive effect of microcredit is not proved except in the case of sales and cost in the "after two years" and "after one year" scenarios. Dalits, however, were doing well in the long run contributing to generate profit. Indigenous microentrepreneurs, though a major focus of the program, are statistically insignificant showing that their role needed to be increased in the whole MEDEP process and basically in borrowing microcredit. On the whole, we have concluded in our research that microcredit had positive effect on the enterprise level in terms of income generation, employment creation and savings and positive but mixed results on the entrepreneur level in terms of enhanced self-esteem, control over resources and community participation. This conclusion has been supported by the findings of the qualitative research (interview) as well. However, the MEDEP has been suffering from number of problems for years, especially from the perspective of institutional development for the sustainability of the program and from the perspective of delivery of microcredit and other support services in rural areas. We believe that microcredit would have done much better, if those problems had been sorted out. Considering the scope of this research, we are not able to ascertain with conformity whether microcredit had contributed to poverty reduction among MEDEP entrepreneurs of Sindhupalchowok district. However, we expect that microcredit might have contributed to some extent in the effort of poverty reduction through MEDEP in the district. The extent, depth and magnitude of such reduction need to be confirmed through in-depth research with comprehensive data on economic and non-economic dimensions of the household, microentrepreneurs and microenterprises. Nevertheless, we recommend the Nepalese government (Ministry of Industry) and United Nations Development Program (UNDP) to expand the coverage of MEDEP nationwide by addressing challenges it has been facing. ; Doctor

This thesis analyzes the complex relations between climate change, vulnerability, adaptation and violent conflict in northern Africa and Kenya. To grasp this complexity, the thesis combines seven studies, applying a multitude of research methods at different geographic scales and across disciplinary and cultural boundaries. The first study reviews the existing literature on climate change and conflict to identify core research challenges and questions. This research field is still in its early stage. Some studies have found a correlation between climatic conditions and conflict while others have not. The major research challenge is to collect and utilize spatiotemporal data which is able to capture local, non state conflict dynamics, and to integrate this data into the overall complexity of the research matter. To address this challenge, the thesis uses agent-centered approaches to combine the analysis of local conflict and climate data with qualitative field research. The theories, concepts and models needed to understand climate-security interactions are introduced in the second study. Here, a conceptual framework is developed for an agent-based model which is then used to discuss potential conflict constellations between the states of the Nile river basin. The third study analyzes climatic changes, vulnerability, adaptation and conflict in North Africa with a focus on Morocco. The results show that North Africa is highly vulnerable to climate change but the reasons for the vulnerability differ from state to state. Water scarcity, dependence on rain fed agriculture, population growth and corruption are challenges for adaptation to an increasingly drier climate. In Morocco, the applied climate simulation and the bio-economic model show that a shift in agricultural production from maximization to stabilization of output is recommendable. The analysis of socioeconomic, climate and conflict data shows further that Algeria, Egypt and Morocco are the countries most prone to climate change related social instabilities. The next study focuses specifically on social instabilities in northern Africa. The discussion of conflicts between farmers and herders in Mali shows that climate change contributes to these conflicts, although to a limited extent. Based on this finding and the models introduced earlier, the study develops a conceptual framework which can be used to explore other farmer-herder conflicts. The last three studies focus on climate change and violent inter pastoral conflicts in Kenya. Over a period of five months the author has lived in arid northwestern Kenya with the two pastoral groups, Turkana and Pokot, to analyze their violent conflicts over water, land and livestock. A variety of qualitative research methods including interviews with community members (e.g. pastoralists, elders, women, youth) and experts, focus group discussions and participating observations was applied. The conflicts are closely related to violent livestock thefts, termed "raiding". The identified motives for the raiding range from drought and poverty to payment of dowry and the expansion of territory. Other factors contributing to conflict include political and socioeconomical marginalization, commercialization of raiding and the availability of automatic small arms. Based on the analysis of climate data and a unique record of raiding incidences, a hypothesis is developed which could explain the relation between raiding during drought and during rainy periods. Climate projections suggest a warmer, overall wetter but less predictable and reliable climate for Kenya. This is likely to increase difficulties for pastoralists to utilize pasture and water resources. Additionally, the pastoral livelihoods are under pressure from the effects of the armed conflicts. The effects are discussed in detail together with the question of what can be done to mitigate violence and to promote conflict sensitive adaptation to climate change. Several overarching conclusions can be drawn from this thesis. The complex relations between climate change and conflict can only be understood if questions of vulnerability and adaptation are answered first. The complexity of the research matter calls for an interdisciplinary multimethod approach. The international community needs to increase its efforts to limit greenhouse gas emissions to minimize the potential of climate change to act as a multiplier of security risks. Further, the international community should increase its support for conflict sensitive climate change adaptation in developing countries. In countries where pastoralism is practiced it is important for the national governments to acknowledge pastoralism as a productive livelihood which is well-adopted to the harsh climatic conditions of arid and semi arid lands. This implies to respect traditional institutions, to integrate them into national policies, and to ensure safe and free pastoral mobility. ; Diese Doktorarbeit untersucht die komplexen Zusammenhänge zwischen Klimawandel, Verwundbarkeit (Vulnerabilität), Anpassung (Adaption) und gewalttätigen Konflikten im nördlichen Afrika und Kenia. Um der Gesamtkomplexität gerecht zu werden, verbindet die Untersuchung sieben Studien, in denen eine Vielzahl von Methoden auf verschiedenen geographischen Ebenen und über disziplinäre und kulturelle Grenzen hinweg zum Einsatz kommt. Die erste Studie gibt einen Überblick über die Klimawandel- und Konfliktliteratur um daraufhin zentrale Herausforderungen und Forschungsfragen zu identifizieren. Die Forschung befindet sich noch in einem frühen Stadium. Einige Studien haben einen Zusammenhang zwischen klimatischen Bedingungen und Konflikten gefunden während andere Studien dies nicht konnten. Die wesentliche Herausforderung der Forschung besteht darin, Datenquellen zu erschließen, die in der Lage sind lokale, nichtstaatliche Konfliktdynamiken raumzeitlich zu erfassen und diese in die Gesamtkomplexität der Thematik einzubetten. Dies wird in der vorliegenden Doktorarbeit versucht indem die Analyse von substaatlichen Konflikt- und Klimadaten unter Verwendung von akteurszentrierten Ansätzen mit qualitativer Feldforschung verbunden wird. Hierzu werden in der zweiten Studie zunächst die Theorien, Konzepte und Modelle eingeführt, die nötig sind um Beziehungen zwischen Klima und Sicherheit zu verstehen. Ein konzeptioneller Rahmen wird entwickelt als Grundlage für ein agentenbasiertes Modell, mit dessen Hilfe dann potentielle Konfliktkonstellation zwischen Anrainerstaaten des Nilbeckens diskutiert werden. Die dritte Studie untersucht klimatische Veränderungen, Vulnerabilität, Adaption und Konflikte in Nordafrika mit Fokus auf Marokko. Es zeigt sich, dass Nordafrika dem Klimawandel gegenüber sehr verwundbar ist. Wasserknappheit, Abhängigkeit von niederschlagsbasierter Landwirtschaft, Bevölkerungswachstum und Korruption stellen generelle Herausforderungen für die Anpassung an ein trockener werdendes Klima dar. In Marokko zeigen Klimasimulationen und ein bio-ökonomisches Modell, dass es empfehlenswert ist, die Primärproduktion der Landwirtschaft von Ertragsmaximierung hin zu Ertragsstabilisierung neu auszurichten. Die darauffolgende Studie zeigt, dass der Klimawandel in Konflikten zwischen Bauern und nomadischen Viehhaltern (Pastoralisten) in Mali eine begrenzt konfliktverstärkende Rolle spielt. Aufbauend auf dieser Feststellung und den zuvor eingeführten Modellen entwickelt die Studie einen Konzeptrahmen. Die letzten drei Studien beschäftigen sich mit Klimawandel und Konflikten zwischen Pastoralisten in Kenia. Über einen Zeitraum von fünf Monaten hat der Autor im ariden Nordwesten Kenias mit zwei Gruppen von Pastoralisten, den Turkana und den Pokot gelebt, um die gewalttätigen Konflikte der Gruppen um Wasser, Land und Vieh zu untersuchen. Die Konflikte stehen in engem Zusammenhang mit gewalttätigen Viehdiebstählen, dem so genannten "raiding". Die Motive des raidings reichen von Dürre und Armut über Zahlung von Brautsteuer bis hin zu territorialer Erweiterung. Weitere Konfliktfaktoren sind politische und sozioökonomische Marginalisierung, Kommerzialisierung des raidings und die weite Verfügbarkeit von automatischen Handfeuerwaffen. Gestützt auf Klima- und Konfliktdaten wird eine Hypothese entwickelt, die den Zusammenhang zwischen raiding während Trockenphasen und während Regenzeiten erklären könnte. Klimaprojektionen deuten auf ein wärmeres, insgesamt regenreicheres aber weniger zuverlässiges und vorhersehbares Klima in Kenia hin. Dies wird es Pastoralisten wahrscheinlich erschweren Wasser- und Weideressourcen zu nutzen. Zudem gerät die Lebensgrundlage der Pastoralisten durch die Auswirkungen der bewaffneten Konflikte unter Druck. Die Konfliktauswirkungen werden genauer diskutiert, zusammen mit der Frage was getan werden kann, um die Gewalt zu verringern und eine konfliktsensitive Klimaanpassung zu fördern. Einige Punkte von genereller Bedeutung gehen aus der Doktorarbeit hervor. Die komplexen Zusammenhänge zwischen Klimawandel und Konflikt können nur verstanden werden, wenn zuvor Fragen der Vulnerabilität und Adaption beantwortet werden. Die internationale Gemeinschaft muss ihre Bemühungen verstärken, den Ausstoß von Treibhausgasen zu begrenzen, um das Potential des Klimawandels zu reduzieren als Multiplikator von Sicherheitsrisiken zu wirken. Weiter sollte die internationale Gemeinschaft konfliktsensitive Klimaanpassung in Entwicklungsländern unterstützen. In Ländern, in denen Wanderviehwirtschaft betrieben wird, ist es für die nationalen Regierungen wichtig, Pastoralismus als produktive Lebensgrundlage anzuerkennen. Dies bedeutet vor allem traditionelle und lokale Institutionen zu respektieren, sie in nationale Politiken zu integrieren und den Pastoralisten und ihren Viehherden sichere Bewegungsfreiheit zu ermöglichen.

Muchas de las actividades humanas contribuyen al deterioro del medio ambiente debido a la gran variedad de residuos químicos vertidos. Algunas de estas sustancias químicas son bastante persistentes y causan serios efectos en los animales y en la salud humana en un largo período de tiempo, incluso cuando están presentes en concentraciones muy bajas (Kuramitz et al, 2002), como ocurre con los disruptores endocrinos (DEs). Un disruptor endocrino (DE), conforme a la definición de la Comisión de las Comunidades Europeas, es una sustancia exógena o una mezcla que altera la(s) función(es) del sistema endocrino y consecuentemente causa efectos adversos a la salud en un individuo o en su descendencia o en parte de la población (CEC, 1999). Como efectos adversos a la salud, los estudios médicos han demostrado en los últimos años un deterioro en la capacidad reproductiva humana en los países más industrializados; un aumento en la incidencia de alteraciones en el desarrollo de los órganos genitales; la aparición de la menstruación en edades cada vez más precoces (menarquia precoz); mayor frecuencia de la endometriosis; y el cáncer en los órganos que dependen de las hormonas, como es el caso de la mama, de la próstata, del testículo y del ovario. A propósito, el cáncer de ovario es una de las principales causas de mortandad en el mundo occidental (Aranda, 2004). Debido a la actividad estrogénica, tanto los detergentes como los esteroides han sido incluidos en las diversas listas preliminares de los compuestos DEs. El nonilfenol (NP) (compuesto sintético que posee actividad estrogénica, actúa como DE y es ampliamente usado como materia bruta para la fabricación de detergentes, anti-oxidantes de plástico, pesticidas y como un agente suplementario y estabilizador del cloruro de polivinilo (PVC) (Kuramitz et al, 2002)) ha sido clasificado como sustancia peligrosa prioritaria en el campo de la política del agua por la Estructura Directiva del Agua de la Comunidad Europea 2000/60/EC y por la decisión final de la Unión Europea nº 2455/2001/EC. La Directiva 2008/105/CE establece que el NP deberá presentar, como valor medio anual máximo, la concentración de 0,3 μg/L y como concentración máxima admisible, el valor de 2,0 μg/L, tanto para las aguas superficiales continentales como para otras aguas superficiales. La Agencia de Protección Ambiental (EPA, 2006) establece, en el criterio de calidad del agua, los valores límites de concentración de NP en agua dulce: 28 μg/L (a corto plazo) y de 6,6 μg/L (media de 4 días), para proteger la vida acuática de los efectos adversos. La estrona (E1) (estrógeno natural, excretado por el hombre y por la mujer a través de la orina y de los excrementos, está presente en muchas aguas y efluentes domésticos, presenta alta persistencia en el ambiente y alto potencial como DE (Schäfer and Waite, 2002)) está en la lista nº 3 de contaminantes químicos (CCL 3 List) de la EPA (2001), pero no existen reglamentaciones que limiten la concentración de este contaminante en el agua. Lo que existe es una indicación de que concentraciones de E1, en el rango entre 0,01 y 0,10 μg/L, ejercen efectos estrogénicos en peces (Routledge et al., 1998; Petrovic et al., 2004). Como la cuestión de la contaminación del agua por los DEs es un problema emergente y muy grave, por la perturbación que provoca en el sistema hormonal humano, el objetivo de este trabajo es comparar la eficiencia de la eliminación del NP y de la E1 de las aguas superficiales de un río brasileño, mediante tratamientos, a escala de laboratorio, como: las técnicas de membrana de nanofiltración, de ultrafiltración, el tratamiento convencional (coagulación, floculación, sedimentación y filtración en arena) y el carbón activo en polvo y en grano, como adsorbentes, buscando contribuir con conocimientos para la mejoría de la calidad del agua potable y consecuentemente a la mejoría de la calidad de vida ; Many human activities contribute to environmental degradation due to the wide variety of chemical waste dumped. Some of the chemicals are quite persistent and cause serious effects on animal and human health over a long period of time, even when present in very low concentrations (Kuramitz et al, 2002), like endocrine disruptors (EDs). An endocrine disruptor (ED) as defined by the Commission of the European Communities, is an exogenous substance or mixture that alters the function(s) of the endocrine system and consequently causes adverse health effects in a person or their progeny or part of the population (CEC, 1999). As adverse health effects, medical studies have shown in recent years a decline in human reproductive capacity in most industrialized countries; an increase in the incidence of abnormalities in the development of the genitals; the appearance of menstruation increasingly earlier (early menarche); increased frequency of endometriosis; and cancers in organs that depend on hormones, such as breast, prostate, testicle and ovary. By the way, ovarian cancer is a major cause of death in the Western world (Aranda, 2004). Due to estrogenic activity both detergents and steroids have been included in the preliminary lists of various ED compounds. Nonylphenol (NP)(synthetic compound that has estrogenic activity, acts as a ED and is widely used as raw material for manufacturing detergents, plastic anti-oxidants, pesticides and as an additional agent and stabilizer of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) (Kuramitz et al, 2002)) has been classified as priority hazardous substance in the field of water policy by the European Community Water Framework Directive 2000/60/EC and by the final decision of the European Union N. 2455/2001/EC. Directive 2008/105/EC provides that NP shall be limited, as an annual average, to the maximum concentration of 0.3 μg/L and to a maximum allowable concentration of 2.0 μg/L, both for inland surface and other surface waters. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA, 2006) provides, regarding water quality criterion, the NP concentration limits in fresh water: 28 μg/L (short term) and 6.6 μg/L (average of four days) to protect aquatic life from adverse effects. Estrone (E1) (natural estrogen, excreted by men and women in urine and feces, is present in many waters and domestic wastewater, has high environmental persistence and high potential as ED (Schäfer and Waite, 2002)) is include in EPA Contaminant Candidate List 3 (CCL 3) (2001), but there are no regulations that limit concentration of this pollutant in the water. What exists is an indication that E1 concentrations in the range between 0.01 and 0.10 μg/L exert estrogenic effects in fish (Routledge et al., 1998, Petrovic et al., 2004). Since the issue of water pollution by EDs is a very serious emerging problem, for the disturbance it causes in the human hormonal system, the objective of this study is to compare the efficiency of the elimination of NP and E1 from surface waters of a river in Brazil by treatments in laboratory scale, such as the techniques of nanofiltration and ultrafiltration membrane, conventional treatment (coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation and sand filtration) and activated carbon powder and grain as adsorbents, seeking to contribute with knowledge to improve drinking water quality and consequently quality of life. ; Postprint (published version)

Maģistra darba nosaukums ir "Projekts: Piena produktu bērniem ražotnes izveide Rīgā". Maģistra darba mērķis-no 2010.gada 5.janvāra līdz 2010.gada 31.decembrim uzcelt uzņēmumu SIA "Mazulis" un sākot ar 2011.gada 2.janvāri uzsākt piena un skābpiena produktu bērniem ražošanu ar jaudu 10 tonnas produkcijas maiņā, nepārtērējot 2010.gadā projekta realizēšanai atvēlētos naudas līdzekļus 1250000 Ls apmērā, lai nodrošinātu Latvijas zīdaiņus un pirmskolas vecuma bērnus ar kvalitatīvu bērnu pārtiku. Dažādu iemeslu dēļ ne visām sievietēm ir iespēja barot bērnus ar mātes pienu un, ja bērnam nav iespējams dzert mātes pienu, tad bērnu attīstības apmierināšanai ir svarīga pareiza piena produktu izvēle. SIA "Mazulis" veiks pilnu piena pārstrādes ciklu sākot no piena kā izejvielas pieņemšanas un beidzot ar gatavo piena produktu bērniem piegādi tirdzniecības tiklos Latvijā. Uzņēmumā ražotie produkti būs bioloģiski tīri, jo tiks izmantotas izejvielas tikai no bioloģiskajām lauksamniecībām. Piena produktu sastāvs būs maksimāli adaptēts mātes piena sastāvam, lai maksimāli nodrošinātu mazuļus ar visām nepieciešamām mātes piena sastāvdaļām. Ražošanas receptes tiks izstrādātas sadarbībā ar zinātniekiem un bērnu ārstiem, produkti būs piemēroti arī alerģiskiem mazuļiem. Piedāvātais produktu sortiments būs sekojošs: mātes piena aizstājējs, mātes piena aizstājējs raudzētais, piens topošajām māmiņām, piena produkts "Mazulis 1", piena produkts "Mazulis 2" ar un bez piedevām, šķidrie piena maisījumi ar griķu un auzu pārslām. Kopējais ražotās produkcijas apjoms 2011.gadā-315 tonnas/mēnesī , 2012.gadā-435 tonnas/mēnesī. SIA "Mazulis" misija-nodrošināt patērētājus ar augstas kvalitātes produktiem, izmantojot tradīcijas, kvalificētus speciālistus un jaunākās tehnoloģijas. Attīstībā uzņēmums plāno īstenot trīs stratēģiskos virzienus: visaugstākajā līmenī nodrošināt ražošanas tehnisko kvalitāti, nodrošināt augsto kvalitāti uzņēmumā ražotiem produktiem un radīt atpazīstamās tirdzniecības markas. SIA "Mazulis" tiks dibināts 2010.gadā janvārī. Sabiedrības pamatkapitāls būs 1250000 Ls. Projekta īstenošanai paredzēts pirkt zemi īpašumā Rīgas piepilsētā tuvāk pilsētas komunikācijām un būvēt ēku sākot ar 2010.gada marta vidu. 2010.gada decembrī tiks parakstīts akts par ēkas nodošanu ekspluatācijā. 2010.gada decembrī sāksies jauno pamatlīdzekļu piegāde un uzstādīšana. Lai nodrošinātu celtniecības projekta realizāciju 2010.gadā būs nepieciešami sekojošie projekta dalībnieki: vadītājs, jurists, vadītāja asistents, tehniskais direktors, finanšu direktors, mārketinga direktors, personāla direktors, kvalitātes direktors, būvuzraugs. Uzņēmums plāno uzsākt piena produkcijas ražošanu 2011.gada janvārī. 2011.gadā paredzēts nodarbināt 21 darbinieku. 2012.gadā ir plānots papildus pieņemt darbā vēl trīs darbiniekus. Uzņēmumā cenu veidošanai izmantos-vidējās izmaksas plus mērķpeļņa- cenu veidošanas metodi. Lai informētu potenciālos klientus par SIA "Mazulis" ražotiem produktiem, uzņēmumam būs nepieciešama reklāma. Reklāma televīzijā tiks izmantota tikai produkcijas ražošanas sākumposmā. SIA "Mazulis" savu produkciju reklamēs sekojošos žurnālos: "Veselība" , "Mans mazais", "36,6", "?????". Uzņēmumam būs sava mājas lapa- www.mazulis.lv. SIA "Mazulis" reklāmu izvietos arī www.berni.lv, www.mansmazais.lv, www.maminuklubs.lv. Kopējie izdevumi reklāmai 2011.–2012.gadā sastādīs 23140 Ls. Uzņēmums centīsies sagādāt saražotu produkciju pēc iespējas vairākos tirdzniecības tiklos. Perspektīvā tiek plānots tieši piegādāt produkciju tām ģimenēm, kurām vecākiem ir pārvietošanas grūtības, kā arī realizēt produkciju aptiekās. Uzņēmums 2011.gada martā plāno ņemt kredītu uz pieciem gadiem no A/ S " DnB NORD banka " 85 000 Ls apmērā. Kredīta dzēšana tiks veikta katru mēnesi sakot ar aprīli pēc anuitātes principa. Kredīta procentu likme 15 % gadā. SVID analīzes rezultātā tika konstatētas uzņēmuma stiprās un vajās ; The name of master work is-"Project: Creation of Dairy Products for Children Manufacture in Riga". The aim is-creation and building the business organization LTD "Mazulis" from the 05.01.2010 till 31.12.2010 and from the 02.01.2010 beginning the production of dairy and cultured milk foods for the children with the capacity of 10 tons per shift, not exceeding the allocated funds in an amount of 1250000 Ls for realization of the project. Many women can't breed theirs children with breast milk and it became one of the reasons of creation the given project. If the newborn don't have the possibility to feed mother's milk it is necessary to choose dairy products correctly. Ltd "Mazulis" will realize the complete cycle on processing the milk starting from the receiving and finishing with the ultimate products delivery to distribution networks in Latvia. The produced dairy products on Ltd "Mazulis" will be bio clean because raw materials will be used only from biological farms. Composition of dairy products will adapted to composition of mother's milk in order to provide the children all necessary components from mother's milk. Mix formulas and composition of dairy products will be worked out in cooperation with academics and children's doctors, the products may be used by the children with allergy. Ltd "Mazulis" offers the following range of products: mother's milk substitute, sour mother's milk substitute, milk for future mothers, dairy product "Baby 1", dairy product "Baby 2" without admixture and with cucurbit and apple-pear additive, liquid dairy products with beech - wheat and oats. The total value of production in 2011 is planned 315 tons in a month, in 2012- 435 tons in a month. The mission of Ltd "Mazulis"-to provide the consumers with high quality products using traditions, highly skilled specialists and the newest technologies. Business organization will be established in January 2010. For the project's realization is planned to buy ground in suburb of Riga near town communications and to build a new construction from the beginning of the middle of March 2010. Capital stock will be 125000 Ls. In December 2010 will be signed act of handing-over. In order to provide the project's building realization in 2010 will be invited the following participants: head manager, the lawyer, the assistant of head manager, financial director, marketing director, HR- director, quality head, building head. The production of dairy foods will be starting in the January 2011. This year 21 people will be employed. From the beginning of 2012 will be employed 24 people. In order that potential clients could receive the complete information about production, advertisement is necessary to business organization. TV spots will be used only till december 2010. Ltd "Mazulis" will advertise the production in "Veselība", "Mans mazais", "36,6", "?????" magazines. Also advertisement will be distributed on web sites www.berni.lv, www.mansmazais.lv, www.maminuklubs.lv. Total overall on advertisement will be 23140 Ls. For valuation of advantages and disadvantages the author of Ltd "Mazulis" makes SWOT- analysis. The strengths: business organization will provide consumers with high quality dairy products, complete professionalism of labourers, using of the newest technology, employment of 21 people, high competitive ability, correlation of price and quality. Strengths give the possibilities to receive recognition from consumers, to employ more professionals, to expand the range of products, to attract more consumers. Also, business organization has some weaknesses: lack of outlets, export, and legislation of Latvian Republic and directions of European Union are not developed. It may lead to more competitors on Latvian market, volume of sales reduction on the local market, changes of demand. It is planned that in 2010 will be created the building and the business or

Muchas de las actividades humanas contribuyen al deterioro del medio ambiente debido a la gran variedad de residuos químicos vertidos. Algunas de estas sustancias químicas son bastante persistentes y causan serios efectos en los animales y en la salud humana en un largo período de tiempo, incluso cuando están presentes en concentraciones muy bajas (Kuramitz et al, 2002), como ocurre con los disruptores endocrinos (DEs). Un disruptor endocrino (DE), conforme a la definición de la Comisión de las Comunidades Europeas, es una sustancia exógena o una mezcla que altera la(s) función(es) del sistema endocrino y consecuentemente causa efectos adversos a la salud en un individuo o en su descendencia o en parte de la población (CEC, 1999). Como efectos adversos a la salud, los estudios médicos han demostrado en los últimos años un deterioro en la capacidad reproductiva humana en los países más industrializados; un aumento en la incidencia de alteraciones en el desarrollo de los órganos genitales; la aparición de la menstruación en edades cada vez más precoces (menarquia precoz); mayor frecuencia de la endometriosis; y el cáncer en los órganos que dependen de las hormonas, como es el caso de la mama, de la próstata, del testículo y del ovario. A propósito, el cáncer de ovario es una de las principales causas de mortandad en el mundo occidental (Aranda, 2004). Debido a la actividad estrogénica, tanto los detergentes como los esteroides han sido incluidos en las diversas listas preliminares de los compuestos DEs. El nonilfenol (NP) (compuesto sintético que posee actividad estrogénica, actúa como DE y es ampliamente usado como materia bruta para la fabricación de detergentes, anti-oxidantes de plástico, pesticidas y como un agente suplementario y estabilizador del cloruro de polivinilo (PVC) (Kuramitz et al, 2002)) ha sido clasificado como sustancia peligrosa prioritaria en el campo de la política del agua por la Estructura Directiva del Agua de la Comunidad Europea 2000/60/EC y por la decisión final de la Unión Europea nº 2455/2001/EC. La Directiva 2008/105/CE establece que el NP deberá presentar, como valor medio anual máximo, la concentración de 0,3 μg/L y como concentración máxima admisible, el valor de 2,0 μg/L, tanto para las aguas superficiales continentales como para otras aguas superficiales. La Agencia de Protección Ambiental (EPA, 2006) establece, en el criterio de calidad del agua, los valores límites de concentración de NP en agua dulce: 28 μg/L (a corto plazo) y de 6,6 μg/L (media de 4 días), para proteger la vida acuática de los efectos adversos. La estrona (E1) (estrógeno natural, excretado por el hombre y por la mujer a través de la orina y de los excrementos, está presente en muchas aguas y efluentes domésticos, presenta alta persistencia en el ambiente y alto potencial como DE (Schäfer and Waite, 2002)) está en la lista nº 3 de contaminantes químicos (CCL 3 List) de la EPA (2001), pero no existen reglamentaciones que limiten la concentración de este contaminante en el agua. Lo que existe es una indicación de que concentraciones de E1, en el rango entre 0,01 y 0,10 μg/L, ejercen efectos estrogénicos en peces (Routledge et al., 1998; Petrovic et al., 2004). Como la cuestión de la contaminación del agua por los DEs es un problema emergente y muy grave, por la perturbación que provoca en el sistema hormonal humano, el objetivo de este trabajo es comparar la eficiencia de la eliminación del NP y de la E1 de las aguas superficiales de un río brasileño, mediante tratamientos, a escala de laboratorio, como: las técnicas de membrana de nanofiltración, de ultrafiltración, el tratamiento convencional (coagulación, floculación, sedimentación y filtración en arena) y el carbón activo en polvo y en grano, como adsorbentes, buscando contribuir con conocimientos para la mejoría de la calidad del agua potable y consecuentemente a la mejoría de la calidad de vida ; Many human activities contribute to environmental degradation due to the wide variety of chemical waste dumped. Some of the chemicals are quite persistent and cause serious effects on animal and human health over a long period of time, even when present in very low concentrations (Kuramitz et al, 2002), like endocrine disruptors (EDs). An endocrine disruptor (ED) as defined by the Commission of the European Communities, is an exogenous substance or mixture that alters the function(s) of the endocrine system and consequently causes adverse health effects in a person or their progeny or part of the population (CEC, 1999). As adverse health effects, medical studies have shown in recent years a decline in human reproductive capacity in most industrialized countries; an increase in the incidence of abnormalities in the development of the genitals; the appearance of menstruation increasingly earlier (early menarche); increased frequency of endometriosis; and cancers in organs that depend on hormones, such as breast, prostate, testicle and ovary. By the way, ovarian cancer is a major cause of death in the Western world (Aranda, 2004). Due to estrogenic activity both detergents and steroids have been included in the preliminary lists of various ED compounds. Nonylphenol (NP)(synthetic compound that has estrogenic activity, acts as a ED and is widely used as raw material for manufacturing detergents, plastic anti-oxidants, pesticides and as an additional agent and stabilizer of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) (Kuramitz et al, 2002)) has been classified as priority hazardous substance in the field of water policy by the European Community Water Framework Directive 2000/60/EC and by the final decision of the European Union N. 2455/2001/EC. Directive 2008/105/EC provides that NP shall be limited, as an annual average, to the maximum concentration of 0.3 μg/L and to a maximum allowable concentration of 2.0 μg/L, both for inland surface and other surface waters. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA, 2006) provides, regarding water quality criterion, the NP concentration limits in fresh water: 28 μg/L (short term) and 6.6 μg/L (average of four days) to protect aquatic life from adverse effects. Estrone (E1) (natural estrogen, excreted by men and women in urine and feces, is present in many waters and domestic wastewater, has high environmental persistence and high potential as ED (Schäfer and Waite, 2002)) is include in EPA Contaminant Candidate List 3 (CCL 3) (2001), but there are no regulations that limit concentration of this pollutant in the water. What exists is an indication that E1 concentrations in the range between 0.01 and 0.10 μg/L exert estrogenic effects in fish (Routledge et al., 1998, Petrovic et al., 2004). Since the issue of water pollution by EDs is a very serious emerging problem, for the disturbance it causes in the human hormonal system, the objective of this study is to compare the efficiency of the elimination of NP and E1 from surface waters of a river in Brazil by treatments in laboratory scale, such as the techniques of nanofiltration and ultrafiltration membrane, conventional treatment (coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation and sand filtration) and activated carbon powder and grain as adsorbents, seeking to contribute with knowledge to improve drinking water quality and consequently quality of life. ; Postprint (published version)

As it deals with either global or local energy and climate issues, this thesis is a topical work. In the context of international climate talks, European and national and regional policies, it aims to analyse the local initiatives in the Pays de la Loire. This work focuses on three main assumptions. The first states that renewable energy has been developed in the Pays de la Loire in the wake of local nuclear projects. The second argues that human potentialities are more determining than the physical and geographical energy potentialities of a given territory, at least in this phase of regional awareness encouraged by public policies. The third shows that local pressures have led the Région Pays de la Loire to back the development of renewable energy. Our research focuses on a qualitative approach which is based on numerous interviews and linked to a quantitative approach relying on statistical and cartographic databases. The first part of our work is devoted to the context. It shows that despite the rallying of the scientific community since the 1970's, awareness of climate change due to human activity is rather recent. Europe has played an important role in international climate talks and has set itself ambitious targets (such as energy-climate Package in 2007). However, if certain member States of the E.U., such as Germany, have volunteered to reduce their greenhouse gases emissions and develop renewable energy, other countries like France have been much less incentive. The second and third parts of our work, focusing on the Région Pays de la Loire, highlight that despite real physical potentialities, renewable energy still represents a small part of the whole production. We have established that there is a link between physical potentialities and the number of green equipments. The regional energy policy is rather recent, and has been more favorable to renewable energy and energy saving since the regional political success of the French Green Party in 2004. The rise of associative movements has also played a role in the consideration of energy and climate issues by the Région Pays de la Loire. To organize our last part dealing with local policies, we have constructed a typology based on many interviews. It shows that human potentialities, more than physical ones, can determine the establishment of a local energy policy. The approach of the SyDEV (Syndicat Départemental d'Energie et d'Equipement de la Vendée) is something of an exception since it is initially linked to the willingness to exploit wind-power in order to keep a hand on local wind resources. We have shown that the grounds of local energy policies may diverge, but also result from negative external elements. We have also shown that links exist between anti-nuclear demonstrations and the strong energy policy led by the Pays de Haute Mayenne ; between the pressures exerted by Nantes as the main regional city and the original approach undertaken by the Pays de Grandlieu Machecoul et Logne ; also between the need for local development and the reflection led by the PNR Loire Anjou Touraine. These local energy initiatives sometimes take root in a long history (as in the Pays des Mauges, for example). In addition, our investigation shows movements of various kinds, be they individual or collective. We have also studied the origins of the sensitivity characterizing the pioneers of renewable energy. Finally, our interest in the biggest regional cities has helped us show the examplary nature of Nantes Métropole and the more opportunist approach proposed by the Pays du Mans. Therefore, we may assume that behind local innovations there are men and women as singular wills linked to a political party, to a legacy of environmental or social movements, and to other types of convictions. ; Puisqu'il traite des enjeux énergétiques et climatiques globaux comme locaux, ce travail de thèse est un sujet d'actualité. Il a pour objet d'analyser les initiatives énergétiques locales en Pays de la Loire, dans le contexte des négociations climatiques internationales, des orientations énergétiques communautaires et nationales, et de la politique régionale. Ce travail s'articule autour de trois hypothèses principales. La première stipule que les Energies Renouvelables (EnR) se sont développées en Pays de la Loire à la suite de projets nucléaires locaux. La deuxième avance que les potentiels humains sont plus déterminants que les potentiels énergétiques territoriaux, du moins dans cette phase de prise de conscience ligérienne par les politiques publiques. La troisième indique que des pressions locales ont conduit la Région à appuyer le développement des EnR. Notre recherche porte sur une approche qualitative fondée sur de nombreux entretiens, à laquelle nous avons associé une approche quantitative basée sur le traitement statistique et cartographique de banques de données. La première partie, consacrée aux éléments de contexte, montre que, malgré la mobilisation de la communauté scientifique dès les années 1970, la prise de conscience des changements climatiques d'origine anthropique est relativement récente. Elle date des années 1990. L'Europe a joué un rôle important dans les négociations climatiques internationales et elle a adopté des objectifs ambitieux (à l'image du Paquet énergie-climat en 2007). Néanmoins, si certains Etats membres comme l'Allemagne sont volontaires pour diminuer leurs émissions de GES et développer les EnR, d'autres Etats comme la France sont beaucoup moins incitatifs. Les deuxième et troisième parties, qui s'intéressent à la région Pays de la Loire, mettent en évidence que, malgré de réels potentiels physiques, les EnR ne représentent qu'une faible part du bouquet énergétique régional. Nous avons établi qu'il existe une concordance entre les potentialités physiques et le nombre d'équipements en EnR. La politique énergétique régionale est également récente, et plus favorable aux EnR et aux économies d'énergie depuis l'arrivée des Verts dans la majorité régionale, en 2004. La montée des mobilisations associatives a également joué un rôle dans la prise en compte des questions énergétiques et climatiques par la Région. Pour organiser notre dernière partie consacrée aux politiques locales, nous avons construit une typologie basée sur de nombreux entretiens. Il en ressort que les potentiels humains, plus que les potentiels physiques, déterminent la mise en place d'une politique énergétique locale. La démarche du Syndicat Départemental d'Energie et d'équipement de la Vendée (SyDEV) fait quelque peu exception puisqu'elle est initialement liée à une volonté de valoriser le potentiel éolien local et de garder la main sur ces ressources. Nous avons mis en évidence que les motifs des politiques énergétiques locales peuvent diverger mais qu'ils s'expliquent généralement par des externalités négatives. Nous avons ainsi montré la concordance entre les mobilisations antinucléaires et la dynamique de la politique énergétique du Pays de Haute Mayenne ; entre les pressions de Nantes, ville centre, et l'originalité de la démarche entreprise par le Pays de Grandlieu Machecoul et Logne ; entre la recherche d'un développement local et la réflexion du PNR Loire Anjou Touraine. Ces initiatives énergétiques locales s'enracinent aussi dans une histoire parfois longue, comme dans le Pays des Mauges. En outre, nos investigations montrent des mobilisations de différentes natures : elles sont individuelles et/ou collectives. Nous avons également étudié l'origine de la sensibilité des pionniers des EnR. Enfin, en nous intéressant aux métropoles ligériennes, nous avons montré la volonté d'exemplarité de Nantes Métropole et l'approche plus opportuniste du Pays du Mans. Par conséquent, derrière l'innovation territoriale, il y a des Hommes, des volontés singulières, liées à un parti politique, à l'héritage de mobilisations environnementales ou sociales, à d'autres types de convictions.

There is reason for concern about the Dutch development cooperation. A survey of some aid evaluations of the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA) showed that the aid results are limited and that the goals of the programs are not achieved. Management concerns using an organisation's resources to achieve its goals, so the MFA's management is inadequate. As the MFA is by far the largest Dutch aid organisation and because it also subsidises and therefore strongly influences other Dutch aid organisations, this research examines the MFA's management. Development is a result of many processes, so it is difficult to attribute examples of development to aid measures, especially when the amount of aid is relatively small, e.g. in case of the Dutch aid. Therefore, first, it was investigated whether the effect of the combined international aid can be detected. It was found that it is not possible. On the contrary, over the past decennia world regions that received much aid per capita generally stagnated, whereas regions of comparable development level that received little aid per capita showed fast economic growth. To estimate the effects of the Dutch aid, a number of evaluations of Dutch aid program were analysed. It was found that, as far as the results could be determined, the goals were generally not achieved, and the contribution to development and poverty reduction was very modest. Based on the findings of the evaluations, two research questions were formulated: What is a suitable research model to assess the professional level of the Dutch development cooperation?, and How professional is the management of the Dutch development cooperation? Professional is defined here as: taking care of the relevant management aspects, and in such a way that the main goals of the Dutch development cooperation are achieved. The adopted research strategy comprises an extensive study of literature, discussions with experts, and interviews with people active in the field, i.e. MFA employees and politicians. To arrive at conclusions, sources at different levels of aggregation are applied as much as possible, e.g. statistical data, individual aid programs, and individual cases. The evaluations also showed that the limited results of the aid were not caused by one or two aspects of management, but that twelve aspects played a role in the achievement of the results. Because existing models were unsuitable to describe these twelve management aspects, a new general management model was developed. It accommodates all twelve aspects: the managing entity, goals, strategy, funded partner organisations, aid provision processes, the employees' capabilities, structural organisation, monitoring, intervention measures, evaluation, external conditions, and the application of an appropriate management model. This general model was applied to investigate the typical characteristics of the MFA's internal and external management in more detail. First, some typical characteristics of the developing countries were analysed. Social capital (e.g. trust, institutions) was found to play an important role in development. In many developing countries corruption is very high but countries with more social capital develop nevertheless. Western aid and trade can have negative effects, because they may disturb local markets. High amounts of aid can affect the exchange rate of the local currency and the competitiveness of local companies and farms Next, the attainability of the goals of the Dutch development cooperation was analysed. It was found that the results are generally not sustainable, especially because of lack of funds for recurrent costs. Some main goals are very hard to attain or not attainable at all. For example, clean water supply for the poor is intended to bring better health. But it causes more children to be born and to survive, and because food is often scarce, malnourishment increases. Thereby the health gain is lost. Other aid measures aim at changes in the social culture, like improving governance, combating corruption, introducing western democracy, or advancing the position of women, e.g. with respect to sexual and reproductive health and rights. It was found that it is hardly possible to achieve such changes in social culture from the outside in. Then, the MFA's external and internal management was analysed. It was found that an important aspect of the MFA's strategy is inadequate: the MFA fails to be involved in the aid implementation. It just finances partner organisations (governments, multilateral organisations, non-governmental organisations) that address the Dutch policy themes. As a consequence the MFA has no information about the well functioning of the aid programs, and no means to intervene. Furthermore, the MFA employees lack knowledge about the content of the aid themes, the aid implementation process and the conditions in the developing countries, e.g. the way power is structured ('clientelism'). This hampers their decision making regarding the aid programs. The analysis of the internal management revealed that the MFA focuses very much on administrative procedures and accountability, but less so on aid content, effectiveness and results for the poor. The structural organisation is such that internal communication is inefficient. The main conclusion is that the basic concept the Dutch aid is based on, is unsuitable. That concept is that poverty is lack of food, water, health care and social organisation, and that the aid should help to make all that available. The real problem is the lack of capacity in the developing countries to generate these products and services. Based on this view, an alternative approach is proposed. A suitable way for the poor to escape poverty is by earning an income. This allows them to buy what they need, e.g. food, water supply, health care and their children's education. Their chances to earn an adequate income depend first of all on the economy of the country, as in a growing economy employment increases and over the years wages go up. Also issues like public safety and a low inflation play a role. The possibilities to advance these issues through aid are limited, though. But income depends to a considerable extent on poor people's own capabilities as well. The right knowledge and skills enable the poor to get a good job or to run a profitable business (farm, shop, workshop, service) of their own. The aid could help poor people to acquire skills suitable to earn an income. Recommendations were formulated regarding the way aid programs could bring that about. One of these suggestions is that the training of simple, practical skills should be included in the primary school curriculum. Poor children attend no more than a couple of years of primary school and only learn a little reading and writing, which does not help them much to earn an income. The Dutch aid could support such efforts to help poor people to generate an income, the best way to escape poverty.

As it deals with either global or local energy and climate issues, this thesis is a topical work. In the context of international climate talks, European and national and regional policies, it aims to analyse the local initiatives in the Pays de la Loire. This work focuses on three main assumptions. The first states that renewable energy has been developed in the Pays de la Loire in the wake of local nuclear projects. The second argues that human potentialities are more determining than the physical and geographical energy potentialities of a given territory, at least in this phase of regional awareness encouraged by public policies. The third shows that local pressures have led the Région Pays de la Loire to back the development of renewable energy. Our research focuses on a qualitative approach which is based on numerous interviews and linked to a quantitative approach relying on statistical and cartographic databases. The first part of our work is devoted to the context. It shows that despite the rallying of the scientific community since the 1970's, awareness of climate change due to human activity is rather recent. Europe has played an important role in international climate talks and has set itself ambitious targets (such as energy-climate Package in 2007). However, if certain member States of the E.U., such as Germany, have volunteered to reduce their greenhouse gases emissions and develop renewable energy, other countries like France have been much less incentive. The second and third parts of our work, focusing on the Région Pays de la Loire, highlight that despite real physical potentialities, renewable energy still represents a small part of the whole production. We have established that there is a link between physical potentialities and the number of green equipments. The regional energy policy is rather recent, and has been more favorable to renewable energy and energy saving since the regional political success of the French Green Party in 2004. The rise of associative movements has also played a role in the consideration of energy and climate issues by the Région Pays de la Loire. To organize our last part dealing with local policies, we have constructed a typology based on many interviews. It shows that human potentialities, more than physical ones, can determine the establishment of a local energy policy. The approach of the SyDEV (Syndicat Départemental d'Energie et d'Equipement de la Vendée) is something of an exception since it is initially linked to the willingness to exploit wind-power in order to keep a hand on local wind resources. We have shown that the grounds of local energy policies may diverge, but also result from negative external elements. We have also shown that links exist between anti-nuclear demonstrations and the strong energy policy led by the Pays de Haute Mayenne ; between the pressures exerted by Nantes as the main regional city and the original approach undertaken by the Pays de Grandlieu Machecoul et Logne ; also between the need for local development and the reflection led by the PNR Loire Anjou Touraine. These local energy initiatives sometimes take root in a long history (as in the Pays des Mauges, for example). In addition, our investigation shows movements of various kinds, be they individual or collective. We have also studied the origins of the sensitivity characterizing the pioneers of renewable energy. Finally, our interest in the biggest regional cities has helped us show the examplary nature of Nantes Métropole and the more opportunist approach proposed by the Pays du Mans. Therefore, we may assume that behind local innovations there are men and women as singular wills linked to a political party, to a legacy of environmental or social movements, and to other types of convictions. ; Puisqu'il traite des enjeux énergétiques et climatiques globaux comme locaux, ce travail de thèse est un sujet d'actualité. Il a pour objet d'analyser les initiatives énergétiques locales en Pays de la Loire, dans le contexte des négociations climatiques internationales, des orientations énergétiques communautaires et nationales, et de la politique régionale. Ce travail s'articule autour de trois hypothèses principales. La première stipule que les Energies Renouvelables (EnR) se sont développées en Pays de la Loire à la suite de projets nucléaires locaux. La deuxième avance que les potentiels humains sont plus déterminants que les potentiels énergétiques territoriaux, du moins dans cette phase de prise de conscience ligérienne par les politiques publiques. La troisième indique que des pressions locales ont conduit la Région à appuyer le développement des EnR. Notre recherche porte sur une approche qualitative fondée sur de nombreux entretiens, à laquelle nous avons associé une approche quantitative basée sur le traitement statistique et cartographique de banques de données. La première partie, consacrée aux éléments de contexte, montre que, malgré la mobilisation de la communauté scientifique dès les années 1970, la prise de conscience des changements climatiques d'origine anthropique est relativement récente. Elle date des années 1990. L'Europe a joué un rôle important dans les négociations climatiques internationales et elle a adopté des objectifs ambitieux (à l'image du Paquet énergie-climat en 2007). Néanmoins, si certains Etats membres comme l'Allemagne sont volontaires pour diminuer leurs émissions de GES et développer les EnR, d'autres Etats comme la France sont beaucoup moins incitatifs. Les deuxième et troisième parties, qui s'intéressent à la région Pays de la Loire, mettent en évidence que, malgré de réels potentiels physiques, les EnR ne représentent qu'une faible part du bouquet énergétique régional. Nous avons établi qu'il existe une concordance entre les potentialités physiques et le nombre d'équipements en EnR. La politique énergétique régionale est également récente, et plus favorable aux EnR et aux économies d'énergie depuis l'arrivée des Verts dans la majorité régionale, en 2004. La montée des mobilisations associatives a également joué un rôle dans la prise en compte des questions énergétiques et climatiques par la Région. Pour organiser notre dernière partie consacrée aux politiques locales, nous avons construit une typologie basée sur de nombreux entretiens. Il en ressort que les potentiels humains, plus que les potentiels physiques, déterminent la mise en place d'une politique énergétique locale. La démarche du Syndicat Départemental d'Energie et d'équipement de la Vendée (SyDEV) fait quelque peu exception puisqu'elle est initialement liée à une volonté de valoriser le potentiel éolien local et de garder la main sur ces ressources. Nous avons mis en évidence que les motifs des politiques énergétiques locales peuvent diverger mais qu'ils s'expliquent généralement par des externalités négatives. Nous avons ainsi montré la concordance entre les mobilisations antinucléaires et la dynamique de la politique énergétique du Pays de Haute Mayenne ; entre les pressions de Nantes, ville centre, et l'originalité de la démarche entreprise par le Pays de Grandlieu Machecoul et Logne ; entre la recherche d'un développement local et la réflexion du PNR Loire Anjou Touraine. Ces initiatives énergétiques locales s'enracinent aussi dans une histoire parfois longue, comme dans le Pays des Mauges. En outre, nos investigations montrent des mobilisations de différentes natures : elles sont individuelles et/ou collectives. Nous avons également étudié l'origine de la sensibilité des pionniers des EnR. Enfin, en nous intéressant aux métropoles ligériennes, nous avons montré la volonté d'exemplarité de Nantes Métropole et l'approche plus opportuniste du Pays du Mans. Par conséquent, derrière l'innovation territoriale, il y a des Hommes, des volontés singulières, liées à un parti politique, à l'héritage de mobilisations environnementales ou sociales, à d'autres types de convictions.

abstract: In 1937, the Catalogue of the Fantastic Art, Dada, Surrealism exhibition in the New York Museum of Modern Art (MOMA), edited by Alfred H. Barr Jr, with an essay by Georges Hugnet, appears the image of a painting by David Alfaro Siqueiros: Collective Suicide,1936, under subject 13 of the exhibition Guide, as part of a group of works selected under the title "Creation of Evocative Chaos," together with other works by Klee, Dominguez, Tanguy, Cheval and Schwitters. The photo of the painting is inscribed in a chapter called "Artists independent of the Dada-Surrealist movements." Arranged alphabetically it includes works by Blume, Calder, Castellón, Disney, Dove, Evans, Merrild, Feitelson, Gonzales, Lewis, O'Keeffe, Roy, Putnam, Smith, Goldberg, Thurber, Tonny and Beall.* *A group of paintings and sculptures by American artists as varied and different as can be. Today at the Tate Modern Museum in London, the permanent exhibition of Surrealism includes another work by Siqueiros under the title "Cosmos and Disaster." Both paintings by Siqueiros are apocalyptic visions of the approaching Civil War in Spain and of the Second World War. Although Siqueiros is better known as one of the three greatest realist Mexican muralists of the 20th Century, it is strange, although indicative, that two works of his are recognized in both different moments of the history of modern art, as surrealist expressions, in the 1930s and in the first decade of the new Century. Indicative, as one can not forget the fundamental involvement of historical Surrealism with Communism during that period, as well as with the concept of art as a revolutionary endeavor in itself. To be a militant of the Communist Party during the thirties was quite a different thing than before or after. Siqueiros´ militancy at the time, had to do with the idea that the world can be changed, but also, that art is a testimony of horrors and a therapy of self esteem in the midst of it. Siqueiros founded the "Siqueiros Experimental Workshop" at # 5 of Fourteenth Street, New York, at the beginning of 1936, after the International Conference of Artists, organized by artists members of the USA Communist Party, as part of the International policy of the Communist Party's "Open Popular Front" against fascism and war. And before Siqueiros became himself a soldier in Spain. In this workshop Siqueiros directed a group of young American and Latin American artists that came together in order to participate with the party in its antifascist, antiwar propaganda. The International Communist Front allowed non communists to participate with them united by their antifascist positions. The center of their creative work became Siqueiros´ concept of art seen not only as a revolutionary weapon against Franco, Hitler, Mussolini and others like Hearst and other European, Mexican and American tycoons, but as a revolutionary activity in itself. It is well known that among the young members of this workshop was young Jackson Pollock. The style of the two paintings I am referring to can be defined with the same type of language then used by Surrealism, and specifically by the curators of this exhibit. Both works are almost abstract, they were made with experimental materials, generated strange forms, and developed new techniques. Collective Suicide is integrated with pieces of wood, like in a collage and the many tiny, not more than one inch sized figures that are depicted in it were added with stencils. Both works are Siqueiros own version of automatism, which he named "Controlled Accidents." He started painting them on the floor, throwing into the canvas new industrial color –explosive pyroxiline- directly from the cans, on to which he also added different kinds of foreign materials like nails, fragments of wood and sand, creating a thick texture and a mysterious space. They both give the impression of an explosive Cosmos, a sensation of chaos. Collective Suicide is almost abstract, yet an absolutely representative testimony of the Spanish Civil War, in which many citizens were ready to die fighting for their democratic rights. Like in many other occasions' of World history one or all four Horses of Apocalypse mark the Time of individuals. It is the same nightmare, which inspired one year later Picasso's Guernica. In Siqueiros picture many men and women, as well as their children and grandchildren, take the horrible decision to commit massive suicide because their life becomes an impossible existence. To take their own lives for the cause of Liberty, Fraternity and equal Rights. The decision to fight against authoritarianism, misery, sickness, and lack of freedom. Always a fight for life in a world lead by diverse utopical visions and ideals of humankind. The sacred engagement with life, understood as dedication, path and sense. Siqueiros is at that moment a militant and partisan, but also –while he prepares for warfare- he is dedicated to express this spirit artistically, with an open mind, appropriating all what Western art traditions offer, and assuming as well, all what the universe of science and technology was discovering, especially in America. In 1936 Siqueiros continued the explorations of his first stay in the United States in Los Angeles 1932, through an experimental research of new significants and devises to express this ideals, not only convincing the audience by arguments, but by moving their sensitive and emotional side, competing with very powerful new mass media, as cinema. The painting at the Tate Collection is practically abstract, only a little flame in the middle of the dark canvas remains after the great explosion. A few lines of force center the flame in the composition. The darkness of the painted full space, reminds the blackness surrounding the ones in Van Dyke portraits. But it is constructed over the floor, juxtaposing layers of paint that combine over the canvas, making strange, unexpected forms. Maybe with the same spirit of Ernst's frottage (Maybe that is why the painting hangs at the side of Max Ernst's Dadaville, 1924). Cosmos and Disaster is the subject of the picture, painted at the same year of another of his impressive apocalyptic paintings: The End of the World, in which there is only one human survival left among the buildings on fire. Siqueiros paintings of 1936 are a reminder of the mystery of human horror. In my text I plan to work more on Siqueiros' concept of the accidental, or the unconscious, in his art and on his Siqueiros Experimental Workshop, with the information taken from diverse recorded and written materials researched at the Smithsonian archive in New York, at the Pollock/Krasner house and Study Center, other documents recommended by Ellen Landau and the Siqueiros Archives in Mexico, and at the Getty Research Institute in LA, which I published as part of my book Siqueiros. Del Paraíso a la Utopía , 2004.

For years I have asked my Intro to Comparative Politics class: what would it take for your generation to abandon its passivity and lack of interest in politics and become mobilized as students all over the world did in the 1960s? From the évènements de mai in Paris to the sit-ins against Vietnam and police brutality in American universities, to the strikes against oligarchic democracies in South America, those were the times when the terms "young" and "mobilized" were almost synonyms.In response to this question, my students would just laugh softly, shuffle in their seats and avoid a direct answer. A couple of times someone would say: "well, if the government took away our rights, we would certainly do something about that…"After twenty years of teaching, I think I have the answer─ for the American youth to become mobilized, it takes fear and loss of national self-confidence, usually due to ineffective presidents who, through their misconceived and reckless policies, escalate the level and intensity of an earlier conflict. Lately, the manic reaction of George W. Bush to September 11, his mediocre and short-sighted populist presidency and his failure in the fake war against terrorism in Iraq, have had that effect.Finally, after eight years of failed foreign policy that certainly has not made the country safer, indeed, many would say it has made it even more vulnerable and hated in the world, students all around the United States are mobilizing around Barack Obama, whose charisma and message have struck such a deep chord in many Americans, that he is being called a "phenomenon" against which it will be very difficult to run a successful traditional campaign.Every twenty years or so, after a bad war and some wound-licking and soul-searching, Americans coalesce around a leader that reminds them of their national identity, proposes a new way and makes them feel better about themselves and the country's destiny.This happened with John F. Kennedy in the early 1960s, then with Reagan after the shameful decade of the 1970s and now it has happened again.This American tendency of losing its self-esteem follows a clear pattern: after a big fear has engulfed the nation, the government, instead of assuaging those feelings, builds on them to justify its foreign policy adventures. During the late 1950s it was the growing concern with the Soviet threat, the arms race and the competition over the imminent conquest of Space. Kennedy appeared on the scene. Young, passionately articulate, strong and handsome, he reassured the nation about its own strengths and powers. He embodied the hope they yearned for, the hope that could assuage their fear.The foreign policy establishment watched him suspiciously. Wasn't he a big liberal that would be soft on Khrushchev? If elected, he would be the first Catholic President─ wouldn't that mean his first allegiance would be to the Pope and not to the nation?The younger generation was energized, as were others, by this promising young figure and they managed to put him in the White House by a narrow margin.In the short time he was given a chance to govern, before he was abated by a lone gunman on October 16, 1962, he proved himself as a world leader, well-liked by most, yet respected by "the enemy." He restored pride and self-confidence to all Americans, even if behind the scenes he had a much darker side, including increasing the involvement of US in Vietnam and even condoning the CIA killings of certain dictators.Then came the 1970s, the lost war, Nixon and Watergate, and American morale plummeted. This, followed by the Iranian Revolution and Jimmy Carter's failed attempt to rescue the American hostages in Teheran, made the mood even more somber. To the rescue came Reagan, in his entire Hollywood cowboy splendor, with his wonderfully reassuring smile that said: "Vote for me and I will restore your pride!" America became once more the "shining light on the hill", a beacon of freedom and prosperity. He was blessed not only with a great personality but also by destiny: his challenge to Gorbachev ("Mr. Gorbachev, bring down that Wall!") could not have been more perfectly timed. America was back on top. Again, in FDR's uplifting words, we had nothing to fear but fear itself.The 1990s were the times of peace dividends, low mortgage prices, balanced budgets and prosperity for all Americans. The future extended before us, without a cloud in sight. It was the End of History, the end of ideological conflict, and American style democracy and capitalism reigned supreme, unchallenged.Then came September 11, and with it, bunker mentality, the rallying around the opportunist president who could not wait too long before he used the spectacularly terrible attack to gather his posse and plan the completion of the war against Saddam. Americans were scared, and we sacrificed young people's lives and our own personal freedoms in order to be "safe again". It took a while to realize that complete security is an absurd concept, and that good police and intelligence work, together with cooperation with the rest of the world, was the only rational response.Now, five years into an unwinnable war, after a terrible toll of young deaths and injured veterans, many with severe mental problems, the light shines again on a new leader. Out of the shadows comes Barack Obama. He is the poster child of the post-modern candidate: dark, tall, with a winning smile, from a mixed racial and religious background, and a JD degree from Harvard, he dismisses the "silliness" of Washington-style politics and scare tactics, of building walls to keep immigrants out, of eavesdropping on citizens to track down terrorists, of arousing the worst emotions on people for political gains. Instead, he wants to change the face of America, talk to the "enemies", to leave ideology behind and use good ideas pragmatically, even if they happen to be "Republican" ideas. He appeals to a broad base of college educated young white men and women (under 50), African Americans, and even Hispanics.Never mind that his middle name is Hussein, as some insist on bringing up, and that he for a while followed the Muslim faith (he professes to be a Christian now): young people are so tired of the barrage of propaganda against anything and anybody foreign, that they don't even listen. False nationalism based on violence and war does not sway them anymore. Serenely cool, this gifted orator voices the youth's angst, promises change, a new beginning, a fresh approach, and non-partisan solutions to problems. He shares their fatigue with the lies, the corruption, and the meaningless sacrifice of the young in Iraq.He leads, in Max Weber's terms, by a "gift of grace" (charisma), the strongest source of legitimacy at times when the other two, namely tradition and statute, are deeply discredited. His oratory hits the right tones, he inspires devotion, he embodies the confidence the country is thirsty for. Let's move on, he says, and show the world the real face of America. He is more than "a narrow and vain upstart of the moment".He is the post-modern candidate.Senior Lecturer, Department of Political Science and Geography Director, ODU Model United Nations Program Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia

The EDEN project is an interdisciplinary effort conceived to address key issues that have hampered sound hazard and risk assessment for endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) in the European Union. It has adopted an approach that fully integrates human, wildlife, exposures, mechanisms and low-dose/mixture evaluations. The project was structured into four interlocking themes focusing on EDC mixture exposures, mechanisms of action and novel endpoints, effects on male reproductive health and the evaluation of low-dose and mixture effects of EDCs. For the first time, the simultaneous occurrence of nearly 150 different EDCs in human and wildlife tissues was measured. These studies revealed that numerous EDCs occur together in humans, yet differences in the levels of individual EDCs in specimens from boys with cryptorchidism and from women suffering from breast cancer and their respective controls did not become apparent. It appears that the likelihood of developing any of the above conditions cannot be attributed to any individual chemical at relevant exposure levels. However, there are signs that simultaneous exposure to many different EDCs may play a cumulative role in these disease processes. This means that efforts to develop biomarkers of cumulative EDC exposure should be re-doubled. In contrast, symptoms of endocrine disruption in fish could be explained largely in terms of exposure to estrogenic chemicals, but the possible role of antiandrogenic chemicals in disrupting sexual development in fish requires urgent attention. Fish caught in certain Dutch rivers exceeded the EU permissible levels for polychlorinated dioxins and furans. Considerable progress has been made in establishing relevant modes of action of EDCs and in assessing new endpoints. The screening for EDCs, with its focus on steroid receptor interactions, has not kept up with the progress made in understanding rapid cellular signalling events that occur in the wake of receptor activation. In the interest of avoiding overlooking endocrine active agents it is necessary to expand screening tools to capture rapid signalling events. Substantial progress has been also achieved in characterising the role of the aromatase system in fish as a target of EDCs and the consequences of steroid synthesis disruption on sexual differentiation, reproduction as well as non-reproductive processes such as neurodifferentiation. Extensive investigations of the role of certain phthalates in disrupting male sexual development have revealed delays in germ cell differentiation and other molecular effects as key events underlying the induction of the testicular dysgenesis syndrome. The role of the InsL3 protein in promoting male sexual development proved to be more complex than thought previously. Although the development and validation of an assay for the measurement of InsL3 blood levels was successful, the differences in blood InsL3 levels in normal and cryptorchid boys were too small to exploit InsL3 as a biomarker indicative of disruption of testis descent. The hypothalamic pituitary unit proved to be exquisitely sensitive to the effects of several EDCs, and the effects may account for precocious sexual development observed after early EDC exposure. EDEN has advanced the study of endocrine disruption in fish with activities including the development of microarrays for assessing endocrine disruption in zebrafish and establishing sensitive screening tools for endocrine disruption in fish. The development of a transgenic fish model for the detection of EDC effects proved to be technically too demanding to be completed in time, but efforts continue to complete this project after conclusion of EDEN. An in vivo model in fish (the three-spined stickleback) for the detection of antiandrogenic EDC was developed as a complement to the Hershberger assay. Male reproductive health in Denmark and Finland showed a worrying declining trend. For the first time, it could be established that the same is true for young men in Germany. It is of concern that semen quality among young Germans is similar to the values found in young Danes, a group previously thought to show the lowest semen quality in Europe. Foetal exposure to smoking has been identified as one reason for these effects. Observations of a declining total natural conception rate among the young Danish cohorts imply that the current poor semen quality has an impact on the population fertility in the future – a situation which will be difficult to reverse in the short term. The current and projected widespread use of assisted reproductive technologies may be a sign of such an emerging public health problem which also adds to the load of medical costs in young population. It is of vital importance to continue surveillance of semen quality and all efforts should be made to identify the factors that may cause harm in order to prevent further deterioration. Extensive low-dose studies with EDCs have shown that the conventional estimation of no-observed-adverse-effect-levels (NOAEL), with their reliance on hypothesis testing methods is inadequate for capturing low-dose effects of EDCs. Whenever possible, regression-based approaches with benchmark dose limits should replace NOAEL as the basis for establishing acceptable human exposure levels. A framework was developed to combine the strengths of both methodologies by making considerations of statistical detection limits and statistical power the starting point of testing procedures. Implementation of this framework will require a significant change in toxicological testing practice. Determinants of additivity for EDC mixtures have been characterised and are now well understood for combinations of similarly acting EDCs. Experimental studies have produced evidence that EDCs of relatively low potency and at low exposure levels can still work together to produce significant combination effects when they are present in sufficient numbers. The perceived low potency of many EDCs alone is uninformative in anticipating possible risks stemming from these chemicals. Where EDCs act in concert with endogenous hormones, significant additional effects may result under certain circumstances. Uncertainty still exists in relation to the likelihood of synergistic mixture effects, and concerted efforts should be made to fill this gap. Another source of uncertainty that will hamper sound EDC mixture risk assessment is incomplete knowledge about the identity of EDCs, their exposure levels and number. This issue can only be resolved through the development of dedicated exposure assessment strategies that take account of cumulative exposures. Despite these uncertainties, knowledge about determinants and factors that govern the joint action of similarly acting EDCs is now sufficiently advanced to come to pragmatic risk assessment approaches that take mixture effects into consideration. A modus operandi for EDC mixtures was developed which includes the use of dose addition (including the toxic equivalency factor approach) to arrive at a "mixture no-observed-adverse-effect-level" (MNOAEL) for endpoints relevant to endocrine disruption. These are then combined with a safety factor to arrive at estimates of tolerable human exposure. "Data-poor" situations may require estimation of a crude MNOAEL by dividing individual NOAEL of certain prototype chemicals by the anticipated number of relevant similarly acting chemicals. ; European Commission, FP5 "Quality of Life and Management of Living Resources": Contract No. QLK4-CT2002-00603.

It is possible to efficiently implement the systematic proclamation of human rights on a global scale that began in 1948, with the Universal Declaration on Human Rights, and in our times, among other places, expressed by the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (United Nations Millennium Development Goals by the Year 2015, 2000), only through an orientation of the governments of certain states on the areas of education, preservation of health and an increase of income levels. Countries must construct partnerships on a global level, not to determine political and economic agendas so much, but to promote and protect human rights. The polarity between rights-freedoms and rights-claims has made relative the " original greatness of human rights, but at the same time, it has expanded the area of their types and meanings, and increased the social mass of those interested in the rights of life. It has made them an instrument of the developmental and social dynamic of the industrial society, through an argument of great clashes between democracy and totalitarianism, of the developed and undeveloped, etc." (Kalanj, 1996: 50). These tendencies are exacerbated by globalization, even though, seen as an ideal-type, globalization is meant to imply an ever widening implementation of the hypothesis of human rights, that is, their universality. However, we are unfortunately, witnesses of constant deviations in the process of their protection. " Institutions are necessary but not enough. They need to be filled with content, used for the improvement of all sectors of human rights. This content and this path will lead Croatia toward the European Union and its high standards in eliminating discrimination" (Šimunović, 2004: 10). Modern thoughts on the development of human rights move in the direction of linking social development with increasing the protection of human rights – the emphasis is on prevention (instead of late intervention), social participation, activities of self-organization and self-help, promotion of autonomy and development of social skills, and need for greater transparency of public policies. In this context, it is very important to work on affirmation, promotion and implementation of values and ideas of civil society, of the culture of non-violence and tolerance, human rights, dialogue, cooperation and trust, as well as awareness-raising about the opportunities for social change. It is also very important to inform and stimulate the youth to get engaged, to question and educate themselves on those values and opportunities of work and life based on them, in order to propel them forward and contribute to the realization of positive shifts in society. Youth in our analysis are perceived as a link, just being formed in a specific social system, thus making it one of the most important elements of a positive reception and implementation of the basic postulates of human rights. The results of the research on validating specific human rights and freedoms, indicate that the greatest number of young persons accept the right to an education, right to work, personal security, right to privacy, social protection of the elderly and those at risk, equality before the law, rights of women and ownership rights. The comparison of acceptance of the observed human rights and freedoms of the population of youth and adults in Croatia, demonstrates that adults accept most rights to a higher degree than the youth, which can be interpreted through their better social integration. The analysis has shown that the preference of Croatian youth for certain human rights and freedoms is not conditioned by their observed socio-demographic and socio-structural attributes, aside from education, which points to the significance of the education system as an agent in improving the condition of human rights. Approximately one third of youth participants, were not satisfied with the respect for human rights in Croatia today as well as five years ago, while the number of those undecided has decreased, which can probably be attributed to the positive effect of public campaigns and some changes occurring during that period of time. There has been an increase from 1999 to 2004 in the number of youth who believe that human rights in Croatia are mostly or completely respected. The youth, compared to adults, express a higher level of criticism toward the existing degree of respect for human rights and freedoms. The results of analysis according to the social attributes of youth, demonstrate that the capability of assessment and higher criticism for the status of human rights in Croatia, is related to living in more economically prosperous regions, as well as the left-wing ideological-political orientation and female gender. Through an insight into the assessment of the contribution of institutions, associations and distinguished individuals by the youth population in 1999 and 2004, we have determined that today's generation of youth perceives to a greater degree, the contribution of all institutions, associations and significant individuals (except for the opposition) to the protection of human rights and freedoms in Croatia. To be more precise, most young people assess that all the protagonists completely or partially contribute to the realization of human rights in the country. There has been a significant increase regarding the perception of the contribution of the highest institutions of power compared to 1999. The adults differ from the youth by emphasizing the contribution of all the observed protagonists even more. Regional status, religiousness, the father's education and political party affiliation, notably affect the perception of the contribution of the observed protagonists of the realization of human rights in Croatia. Summarily, our analysis indicates that the youth accept human rights and freedoms decidedly, when they are discussed on a level of principles, but that there is a certain disharmony where specific rights and practices in Croatia are concerned, which can partially be interpreted as their insufficient competence regarding certain elements of social and political processes. As human rights and freedoms constitute universally accepted international standards and criteria of democracy in the modern world and its institutions today, the relationship of youth toward them, represents an indication of its social awareness and a precondition for its democratic activity. Even though the level of acceptance of human rights and freedoms as values seems to be high, there is wavering, indicating a need for additional engagement of some agents of socialization, especially the education system and the political protagonists. Freedom and human rights in Croatia are normatively regulated and are given to the individual at birth. However, freedom is not just a right, but a permanent mission, put before each young person, making all the difference for those that manage to gain entry into the world of active citizens, capable of making good their own, and others resources in the best possible way, thus contributing to the development of the world we live in. The first step in this ambitious plight is for the youth to contribute as much as possible to the democratization of Croatia, which would prepare them, as well as the country, for joining the united Europe.