Authors' IntroductionSimilar to race, class, and gender, the body is an important signifier that shapes identity, social processes, and life outcomes. In our article, we examine the individual and institutional rewards conferred upon physically attractive individuals and the social stigma and discrimination experienced by the less physically attractive. This body hierarchy is tied in part to the performance of beauty work, including attempts to transform and/or manipulate one's hair, make‐up, and body shape or size. We explore these beauty work practices, highlight the gendered nature of this body hierarchy, and situate these practices in debates about agency and cultural structure. Are beauty conformists 'cultural dopes' who buy into an oppressive patriarchal beauty culture that creates docile bodies? Or, are these individuals 'savvy cultural negotiators' who participate in beauty work practices to reap material and psychological rewards?Authors recommendsBordo, Susan. 2003. Unbearable Weight: Feminism, Western Culture & the Body. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.A series of essays that examine Western body culture, including media images, weight loss practices, reproduction, psychology, medicine, and eating disorders. In her analysis, Bordo adopts a postmodern feminist interpretation, problematizing the female body as a cultural construct.Davis, Kathy. 1991. 'Remaking the She‐Devil: A Critical Look at Feminist Approaches to Beauty'. Hypatia, 6, 21–43.Drawing on interviews with Dutch cosmetic surgery patients, Davis examines how women account for their decisions to participate in cosmetic surgery and how they view it in light of surgery outcomes. She argues that women actively pursue cosmetic surgery for instrumental reasons including regaining control of their lives, feeling normal, and/or righting the wrong of an ongoing suffering.Dellinger, Kirsten and Christine L. Williams. 1997. 'Makeup at Work: Negotiating Appearance Rules in the Workplace'. Gender & Society, 11, 151–77.Dellinger and Williams analyze in‐depth interviews to understand the reasons why women do – or do not – wear makeup in the workplace. Women are negatively sanctioned when they do not wear makeup (e.g. they are questioned about their health or heterosexuality) and are positively rewarded when they do wear makeup (e.g. they are seen as more credible, feel more confident, etc.). The authors argue that such practices ultimately reinforce inequality between women and men, but that individual resistance strategies are unlikely to be successful given the institutional and structural constraints faced by women.Gagné, Patricia and Deanna McGaughey. 2002. 'Designing Women: Cultural Hegemony and the Exercise of Power Among Women Who have Undergone Elective Mammoplasty'. Gender & Society, 16, 814–438.The authors address two feminist perspectives on cosmetic surgery using interviews with women who have undergone elective mammoplasty. One perspective suggests that women who elect cosmetic surgery are victims of false consciousness whose bodies are disciplined by a male gaze. A second perspective centralizes women's agency; surgery enables women to achieve greater power and control over their lives. They propose a grounded theoretical synthesis, maintaining that surgery can be empowering at an individual level, but can also reinforce hegemonic ideals that oppress women as a group.Gimlin, Debra L. 2002. Body Work: Beauty and Self‐Image in American Culture. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Gimlin examines four sites of body work – the beauty salon, aerobics classes, a plastic surgery clinic, and a fat acceptance organization. Relying on ethnographic and interview data, she discusses women's body transformation efforts and how they negotiate the relationship between body and self.Lovejoy, Meg. 2001. 'Disturbances in the Social Body: Differences in Body Image and Eating Problems among African American and White Women'. Gender & Society, 15, 239–61.Lovejoy reviews several perspectives on racial/ethnic differences in body image and eating disorders including: (1) a psychometric perspective that focuses on attitudinal and perceptual body image; (2) white feminist perspectives that focus on social control and changing gender roles; and (3) black feminist perspectives that claim obesity is a problem for black women, see eating as a mechanism to cope with oppression, and acknowledge black women's susceptibility to eating disorders. According to Lovejoy, black women's positive body satisfaction can be explained through an alternative beauty aesthetic and the cultural construction of femininity in black communities.Pope, Harrison G., Jr., Katharine A. Phillips and Roberto Olivardia. 2000. The Adonis Complex: The Secret Crisis of Male Body Obsession. New York: The Free Press.In contrast to the many works that focus on women, these authors discuss appearance stereotypes and appearance work related to men and masculinity. While more journalistic than academic in tone (and quality of research design), the authors draw on surveys, interviews, and archival documents to argue that women's entrance into previously masculine arenas (e.g. male‐dominated occupations) has led to a sort of 'threatened masculinity.' As a result, men use their bodies to demonstrate masculinity (e.g. increased musculature) – often through unhealthy behaviors and practices, including steroid use and eating disorders.Weitz, Rose. 2001. 'Women and Their Hair: Seeking Power through Resistance and Accommodation'. Gender & Society, 15, 667–86.Based on in‐depth interviews with women, Weitz shows how women use their hair (style, length, color, etc.) to conform to, resist, and negotiate hegemonic beauty norms, thereby gaining – or losing – personal and professional power and other advantages. Weitz's article is particularly useful for illuminating how personal advantages can belie group advantages as well as the limitations of the agency versus docile bodies argument.West, Candace and Don H. Zimmerman. 1987. 'Doing Gender'. Gender & Society, 1, 125–51.This article introduces the idea of gender as an accomplishment or a performance. Femininity and masculinity, the authors argue, do not automatically follow from biological sex. Rather, males and females perform gender in their daily routines and interactions with others. We 'do gender,' for example, through our appearance, behaviors, speech patterns, etc.Wolf, Naomi. 1991. The Beauty Myth: How Images of Beauty are Used Against Women. New York: Harper Collins.This book explores the relationship between unattainable beauty ideals and women's social advancement. Examining issues including work, culture, religion, sex, and hunger, Wolf argues that despite increased advancement in the public sphere, women's self‐esteem and equality are stymied by the beauty myth and an obsession with body perfection.Online materialsAbout Face! http://www.about‐face.org/ About Face is an organization whose mission is to equip women and girls with tools to understand and resist harmful media messages that affect their self‐esteem and body image. Website contains images of positive and negative advertisements (along with discussion questions and company contact information), further reading suggestions, and links to other organizations dealing with either body image or media literacy.Adios Barbie http://www.adiosbarbie.com/ A website devoted to creating awareness about disempowering cultural messages about bodies, encouraging positive body image, and taking an active role in creating unique versions of beauty and identity.Jean Kilbourne http://www.jeankilbourne.com/lectures.html Jean Kilbourne is an author and lecturer whose works focuses extensively on the depiction of women in advertising. Her website includes recourses for change and postings from organizations with opportunities for individuals to get involved in activities/events that challenge destructive media images. The 'Film & Video' link also includes films on advertising and western beauty culture.Lauren Greenfield http://www.laurengreenfield.com/ Lauren Greenfield is a photographer whose images capture, among other things, the toll of beauty stereotypes and beauty work on women of all ages. Particularly relevant are Greenfield's collections titled Girl Culture and Thin. The website includes photographic images, short films, links to Greenfield's books and films, and further resources, including readings for teens, activists, and educators (including an extensive discussion/exercise guide for Girl Culture).Love Your Body Day Campaign (National Organization of Women) http://loveyourbody.nowfoundation.org/ Website for NOW's annual body‐image campaign that began in 1998. Includes activism resources (primarily for college campuses), including a Powerpoint presentation with images and text about how commercial images (with a focus on advertising) affect both women and men ('Sex, Stereotypes and Beauty: The ABCs and Ds of Commercial Images of Women'). Newsweek, Lifetime Spending on Beauty http://www.newsweek.com/id/187758 Interactive graphic, 'The Beauty Breakdown', shows the average cost that women in various age groups spend on beauty products and services. Graphic also includes links on the right‐side menu to other Newsweek articles and photo essays related to beauty work.Sample SyllabusWe encourage use of this article in various Sociology, Gender and Women's Studies, and Cultural Studies courses including Introduction to Sociology, Sociology of Gender, and the Sociology of Body.Focus Questions
In what ways does your level of physical attractiveness affect how others treat you? How does your race and gender shape your response? Consider various contexts including school, work, gym, church, etc., and how social context might affect social treatment. What are some individual and institutional rewards conferred upon physically attractive individuals? How are physically unattractive individuals stigmatized and treated differently? Why do you think individuals make assumptions and treat people differently based on physical attractiveness? What are some common forms of beauty work practices? Do you engage in any of these practices? Why? Why do you think others engage in these practices? How do practices and consequences differ by gender? By race? By sexual orientation? How is beauty work a gendered double standard? That is, how do beauty work 'obligations' differ for women and men? Also, what are some contradictions women face when they perform beauty work? In other words, what are some of the costs to performing – as well as not performing – beauty work? What, if any, forms of resistance are an effective means of social change? Do 'alternative' appearances, i.e., body piercings, scarring, or tattoos, or advertising campaigns such as the Dove Real Body campaign constitute resistance to beauty ideals that promote social change? How might different strands of feminist thought envision social change?
Seminar/Project IdeasReading Assignment: Beauty AssumptionsSelect photos of both conventionally attractive and unattractive men and women from various racial and ethnic backgrounds. Select these photos in pairs, varying preferably all but the level of physical beauty, e.g. attractive white woman versus unattractive white woman, attractive black man versus unattractive black man. If possible, use 'before and after' makeover photos. Before students read the assigned article, ask them to rate the person depicted in each photo on various personality characteristics. Use semantic differential scales and pairs such as happy‐sad, beautiful‐ugly, intelligent‐unintelligent, healthy‐unhealthy, honest‐dishonest, friendly‐unfriendly, etc. After students have read the article, revisit their responses. Are there any patterns of assumed characteristics based on level of physical attractiveness? How does race and/or gender affect responses? Use this exercise to transition into a discussion of the article.Journal Assignment: Media and Our Beauty CultureAsk students to examine critically and document observations about the beauty culture that surrounds them. In a week, students should pay special attention to what they see on television. In terms of physical attractiveness, who is depicted on television? Moreover, how do depictions vary by physical attractiveness? What roles do physically attractive individuals play? How are they depicted? Conversely, what roles and portrayals are associated with less physically attractive individuals? Would they see similar depictions in other media such as film, magazines, and the internet? In their write‐up, students should also discuss the social meanings and significance of these television depictions. For example, do they think these portrayals affect their views of beauty, their assumptions about others, and how they treat others?
Authors' introductionContemporary religion is at its core an organizational phenomenon. Religious behaviour is channelled and religious communities are structured through congregations, denominations, religious nonprofits, seminaries, and other organizational forms. To understand religion, then, one must understand the organizational aspects of religion. This includes those aspects common to all organizations and those unique to religious organizations.Authors recommendNancy Tatom Ammerman, Congregation and Community (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1997) and Nancy Tatom Ammerman, Pillars of Faith: American Congregations and Their Partners (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2005).No organization, religious or otherwise, is an island. Each is surrounded by a unique environment, and each is embedded in a network of social and organizational ties. These two works by Ammerman explore the ecologies and networks that shape the identity and behaviour of religious congregations.Ross P. Scherer, American Denominational Organization: A Sociological View (Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library, 1980).This edited volume serves as an introduction to the structure and operations of different religious organizational forms, including denominations, Catholic religious orders, theological schools, and 'parachurch' mission societies. It also has three chapters addressing issues of change and conflict in religious organizations.Mark Chaves, Ordaining Women: Culture and Conflict in Religious Organizations (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997).Why did some denominations adopt policies allowing the ordination of women earlier than others? What explains the lag between adoption of the policy and actual implementation? Chaves applies ideas in organizational studies and social movements to understand these issues.Roger Finke and Rodney Stark, The Churching of America, 1776–2005: Winners and Losers in Our Religious Economy (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2005).Finke and Stark explore the dynamics underlying historical patterns of denominational growth and decline in the United States. Drawing upon ideas in economics, organizational studies, and other related disciplines they argue that American religious history can be understood as marketplace in which religious groups and organizations compete for resources.N. J. Demerath III, Peter Dobkin Hall, Terry Schmitt, and Rhys H. Williams (eds.), Sacred Companies: Organizational Aspects of Religion and Religious Aspects of Organizations (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1998).An interdisciplinary collection of authors examines the intersection of research on religion, organizations, and social movements. Chapters include essays and empirical studies, mostly pertaining to religious organizations. They cover prominent organizational forms (denominations, congregations, and religious non‐profits) and incorporate theories drawn from organizational sociology, social movements, economics, and the sociology of religion.Online materials1. The Association of Religion Data Archives http://www.thearda.com/ The Association of Religion Data Archives (ARDA) contains over 400 freely downloadable data files focusing on religion in the United States and around the world. The site also features many interactive online tools, including QuickStats on religious beliefs and behaviors, denominational profiles and statistics, and maps of religious, social and demographic information. Instructors and students will be particularly interested in the ARDA's Learning Center, which features downloadable 'Learning Modules' and other classroom resources.2. The Pluralism Project http://www.pluralism.org/ The Pluralism Project at Harvard University aims to 'help Americans engage with the realities of religious diversity through research, outreach, and the active dissemination of resources'. The website contains a variety of tools for students and instructors, including online slideshows of religious communities around the United States. Check out the site's Teacher Resources page for syllabi, maps, weblinks, and many other valuable resources.3. Hartford Institute for Religion Research http://hirr.hartsem.edu/ The Hartford Institute's website is a virtual clearing house of information on religion research. It has content devoted to congregations, theology, denominations, religious leadership, and the sociology of religion as a field. Under these areas, you can find helpful summaries, bibliographies, and links. A special section on megachurches is especially popular.4. Faith Communities Today http://fact.hartsem.edu/ This is the homepage for a major collection of data on religious congregations. The Faith Communities Today (FACT) survey was first conducted in 2000 and has been repeated in 2005 and 2008. You can access summaries of findings and other resources related to the study on this site.5. The U.S. Congregational Life Survey http://www.uscongregations.org/ Another valuable source of information on congregations comes from the U.S. Congregational Life Survey (USCLS), administered in 2001 and again in 2008. The USCLS is a nationally representative study of congregations and their worshippers. A novel feature of the USCLS is that it gathered information from both a leader and participants in each congregation. The website gives an overview of the survey, reports on key findings, and links to publications.6. Religion & Ethics Newsweekly http://www.pbs.org/wnet/religionandethics/ This is the website of a long‐running PBS series focusing on contemporary religion in the United States and abroad. Episodes are available online and often have relevance to the study of religious organizations. In addition, teachers can find other resources in the 'For Educators' section.Focus questions
How are religious organizations unique from other types of organizations, if at all? What are common forms of religious organizations? What research methods do sociologists use to study religious organizations? What are the major forces that influence the success or failure of a religious organization?
Sample syllabus DESCRIPTION A sociological approach to religion emphasizes the collective, social nature of religion. Consequently, religious organizations are an important area of investigation for sociologists. The quantity and quality of research in this area have improved dramatically in recent decades. This course is an introduction to this burgeoning area of research. It explores organizational aspects of religion, including organizational forms, common methodologies, and prominent theories. OBJECTIVES At the completion of this course, students should be able to:
Describe common forms of religious organizations. Identify methodological strategies for studying religious organizations. Explain the relevance of prominent organizational theories to religious organizations.
SCHEDULE 1. Defining Religious Organizations Ross P. Scherer, American Denominational Organization: A Sociological View (Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library, 1980).Thomas H. Jeavons, 'Identifying Characteristics of "Religious" Organizations: An Exploratory Proposal.' 79–95 in Sacred Companies: Organizational Aspects of Religion and Religious Aspects of Organizations, eds. N.J. Demerath III, Peter Dobkin Hall, Terry Schmitt, and Rhys H. Williams (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1998).Margaret Harris, 'Religious Congregations as Nonprofit Organizations: Four English Case Studies.' 307–320 in Sacred Companies: Organizational Aspects of Religion and Religious Aspects of Organizations, eds. N.J. Demerath III, Peter Dobkin Hall, Terry Schmitt, and Rhys H. Williams (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1998).Mark Chaves, 'Religious Organizations: Data Resources and Research Opportunities', American Behavioral Scientist 45 (2002): 1523–1549. 2. Religious Economies Theory Laurence R. Iannaccone, 'Why Strict Churches are Strong', American Journal of Sociology 99 (1988): 1180–1211. (Reprinted in Demerath et al.'s Sacred Companies, pp. 269–291.)R. Stephen Warner, 'Work in Progress toward a New Paradigm for the Sociological Study of Religion in the United States', American Journal of Sociology 98 (1993): 1044–1093.Rodney Stark and Roger Finke, 'A Theoretical Model of Religious Economies.' 193–217 in Acts of Faith: Explaining the Human Side of Religion (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2000).Roger Finke and Rodney Stark, The Churching of America, 1776–2005: Winners and Loses in Our Religious Economy (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2005). 3. New Institutionalism Theory John W. Meyer and Brian Rowan, 'Institutional Organizations: Formal Structure as Myth and Ceremony', American Journal of Sociology 83 (1977): 340–363.Paul DiMaggio and Walter W. Powell, 'The Iron Cage Revisited: Institutional Isomorphism and the Collective Rationality in Organizational Fields', American Sociological Review 48 (1983): 147–160.Philip Selznick, 'Institutionalism "Old" and "New'' ', Administrative Science Quarterly 41 (1996): 270–277.Mark Chaves, Ordaining Women: Culture and Conflict in Religious Organizations (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997). 4. Organizational Ecology Theory Michael T. Hannan and John Freeman, 'The Population Ecology of Organizations', American Journal of Sociology 83 (1977): 929–984.J. Miller McPherson, 'An Ecology of Affiliation', American Sociological Review 48 (1983): 519–532.Pamela A. Popielarz and J. Miller McPherson, 'On the Edge or In Between: Niche Position, Niche Overlap, and the Duration of Voluntary Association Memberships', American Journal of Sociology 101 (1995): 698–721.Nancy Tatom Ammerman, Congregation and Community (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1997). 5. Resource Dependence Theory Richard Emerson, 'Power‐Dependence Relations', American Sociological Review 27 (1962): 31–41.Howard E. Aldrich and Jeffrey Pfeffer, 'Environments of Organizations', Annual Review of Sociology 2 (1976): 79–105.John P. Kotter, 'Managing External Dependence', The Academy of Management Review 4 (1979): 87–92.Roger Finke and Christopher P. Scheitle, 'Understanding Schisms: Theoretical Explanations for their Origins', 11–33 in Sacred Schisms: How Religions Divide, eds. James R. Lewis and Sarah M. Lewis (New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 2009).Seminar/project ideaAn Organizational Study of a CongregationMany religious studies courses have students visit a local congregation with the intent of learning about the theology or culture of a group. Such observational learning is valuable for students and likewise can be directed toward the organizational aspects of a congregation. Groups of students (either self‐selected or assembled by the professor) will study a local congregation for the semester. The study has two parts:
Congregational profile. Each group must describe the purpose, participants, and performance of their congregation. Purpose, participants, and performance represent core features of all organizations. In congregations, purpose/goals/mission often is shaped by denominational heritage. What is the purpose or mission of the congregation? Is it widely understood and agreed upon? Participants include leaders and laity. Who are they? Where did they come from? Why are they there? What do they do for the congregation? Performance involves what the congregation does and the outcome of such activity. What happens at worship services? What other programs does the congregation operate? And, most notably, is the congregation growing or declining? Theoretical evaluation of current performance. Growth and decline in religious organizations are important outcomes for investigation. The final step of the group project is for students to apply one of the theories discussed in class to explain the growth or decline experienced in the congregation.
Answering these questions will require intensive investigative work. Group members should plan to attend the congregation's services and meetings, review relevant on‐line or print media from the congregation, and interview members and leaders.The semester‐long project will culminate with an oral presentation made in class and a written report submitted to the professor.(Final note to faculty: If possible, allow a day or two after all presentations have been made to discuss what groups' research overall says about the religious ecology of the local community. What types of religious groups are most prevalent in the area (Evangelical Protestant, Mainline Protestant, Catholic, Jewish, Mormon, other)? Which are growing? Which are declining? How does this compare to national trends? And, of course, return to the question of why.)Note * Correspondence address: Pennsylvania State University. Email: cps153@psu.edu and Kevin_Dougherty@baylor.edu.
2007/2008 ; Gli anni Novanta sono stati un decennio di grandi trasformazioni geopolitiche: la fine della Guerra Fredda ha distrutto quello che Carlo Jean ha definito "l'elegante equilibrio" bipolare, un sistema internazionale che, dividendo il mondo in due blocchi, favoriva la semplificazione delle relazioni tra gli Stati, aumentando la prevedibilità dei loro comportamenti e assicurando, quindi, una sostanziale stabilità. Il mondo è ora alla ricerca di un nuovo equilibrio: l'esito finale della odierna fase di transizione è ancora in gran parte nebuloso, ma già costringe l'Italia ad un'approfondita riflessione sui propri interessi nazionali al fine di adeguare il suo sistema-Paese alle sfide poste dalla fine dell'era americana. Nei suoi primi cinquant'anni di esistenza, l'Italia repubblicana ha potuto sfruttare la rendita geopolitica dovuta alla sua particolare collocazione geografica, nel cuore del Mediterraneo, che la portava ad essere la frontiera del "mondo libero" rispetto a quello a guida sovietica; l'esistenza, inoltre, di un forte Partito Comunista ha fatto a lungo temere gli Stati Uniti che l'Italia potesse scivolare nel neutralismo, facendo crollare l'intero fianco sud dell'Alleanza. Tale situazione ha permesso all'Italia di sviluppare una politica estera disinvolta (tessendo, ad esempio, relazioni privilegiate con molti Paesi arabi, anche in contrasto con gli interessi e le posizioni degli Stati Uniti e delle ex potenze coloniali europee, come la Francia e la Gran Bretagna) e con obiettivi non sempre chiari e coerenti (anche se con risultati tutt'altro che disprezzabili). La caduta del Muro di Berlino ha fatto venire meno l'importanza strategica dell'Italia in chiave antisovietica e lo scenario internazionale, liberato dal conflitto tra Usa e Urss che "paralizzava" le relazioni tra gli Stati, si presenta ora più fluido e competitivo. Scopo del mio lavoro è stato quello di esaminare il "momento internazionale", evidenziandone le principali linee di tendenza attraverso le chiavi interpretative fornite dalle più importanti letture geopolitiche proposte negli ultimi anni, e di delineare, di conseguenza, le prospettive italiane nel breve e medio termine. Il lavoro è diviso i due parti: La prima parte analizza il contesto internazionale di inizio millennio, ancora alla ricerca di un equilibrio consono rispetto ai nuovi attori e ai nuovi rapporti di forza emersi negli ultimi decenni. La scarsa intelligibilità del mondo moderno è alla base della "rinascita della geopolitica", vista come un antidoto a quella sensazione di impotenza, emersa davanti a pericoli percepiti come immani e sconosciuti, che si sta impossessando del genere umano e che il sociologo Zygmunt Bauman ha definito "paura liquida" ( in particolare Bauman dice che "la paura più temibile è la paura diffusa, sparsa, indistinta, libera, disancorata, fluttuante, priva di un indirizzo o di una causa chiari; la paura che ci perseguita senza una ragione, la minaccia che dovremmo temere e che si intravede ovunque, ma non si mostra mai chiaramente. Paura è il nome che diamo alla nostra incertezza, alla nostra ignoranza della minaccia, … di ciò che c'è da fare."). L'analisi geopolitica, infatti, può fornire una chiave interpretativa utile, come dice Franco Mazzei, a non "sperdersi nella foresta" delle odierne relazioni internazionali e far compiere ai soggetti geopolitici stessi scelte politiche maggiormente idonee a tutelare i propri (e, soprattutto, i "veri") interessi nello scenario di riferimento, senza farsi guidare dall'istinto e dalla paura. Dopo aver sottolineato l'importanza della geopolitica e dei suoi "tre sensi" – rappresentazione, rappresentanza, azione - (come li definisce Lacoste), mi sono occupato, attraverso l'analisi delle principali letture geopolitiche proposte negli ultimi anni, di tracciare le linee fondamentali del sistema internazionale ancora in fieri. E' emerso, innanzitutto, un quadro internazionale fluido, nel quale le condizioni sistemiche sono, almeno teoricamente, favorevoli alla emersione di relazioni maggiormente cooperative tra i soggetti geopolitici, gli Stati in particolare. La principale condizione sistemica, infatti, che, storicamente, favorisce l'instaurazione di un ordine internazione è legata ai grandi conflitti internazionali. In generale, come sostiene Filippo Andreatta, "… un grande conflitto ha generato ingenti costi in termini economici e di vite umane e rappresenta un forte stimolo ad evitarne altri in futuro. Un grande conflitto, inoltre, è in generale accompagnato dall'indebolimento degli equilibri internazionali e dalla minaccia che uno Stato riesca ad imporre il suo volere sugli altri. Per questi motivi, c'è una tendenza a trasformare una particolare pace, dopo la fine di uno specifico conflitto, in una pace generale che ponga fine, regoli o limiti i conflitti." I principali tentativi di costruzione di un ordine internazionale sono avvenuti quasi tutti all'indomani di una grande guerra: la Pace di Vestfalia è seguita alla guerra dei trent'anni e ai conflitti di religione, la Pace di Utrecht alla guerra di successione spagnola, la Pace di Vienna alle guerre napoleoniche e alla Rivoluzione Francese, Versailles e Yalta hanno chiuso le guerre mondiali. Anche alla Guerra Fredda, quindi, succederà un nuovo ordine e un differente sistema internazionale, che sarà espressione dei mutati rapporti di forza tra gli attori geopolitici. Si è dimostrato successivamente che la costruzione di un nuovo sistema e di un nuovo ordine internazionale è bloccata alle porte del futuro a causa del virus della "paura liquida" che si è impadronito del mondo dopo l'11/9. La breve esperienza unipolare a guida americana sembra, comunque, volgere al termine, come sottolineano, pur con accenti assai diversi tra loro, molti studiosi di geopolitica e di relazioni internazionali. Analizzare le conseguenze della fine dell'era unipolare e disegnare lo scenario (o meglio, le sue linee di tendenza) che dovrebbe succedere a quello che sta esaurendosi è un'operazione fondamentale per permettere di "pensare" l'Italia del futuro. La seconda parte, infatti, è dedicata ad analizzare le prospettive geopolitiche italiane all'inizio del XXI° Secolo, partendo dall'analisi delle costanti e dei fattori della "sua" geopolitica. Come già anticipato, l'Italia non ha ancora iniziato a discutere dei suoi interessi nazionali dopo la fine della Guerra Fredda; come afferma Enrico Serra, "… la protezione americana ha distolto dallo studio dei grandi problemi di politica estera, delle opzioni di fondo, della produzione dei rapporti di forza, in una parola, dei molti fattori che condizionano le scelte di una società .". L'Italia, quindi, va recuperata alla geopolitica dopo la fine della "dittatura" della Guerra Fredda. La complessità attuale concede all'Italia una gamma diversificata di opzioni geopolitiche, che esprimono allo stesso tempo occasioni e rischi. Per questo motivo, una riflessione "geopolitica" sull'Italia rappresenta, in sé, un interesse nazionale. Oggi, infatti, "la struttura geopolitica dello Stato va vista non in base alla sua conformazione geografica, ma piuttosto nella volontà nazionale, cioè nella auto percezione che ogni popolo ha della propria territorialità, intesa come valore emozionale collettivo, d'ordine nazionale, etico e religioso, in relazione con quella degli altri Stati". L'Italia, in un momento storico nel quale sembra consegnata ad un inevitabile declino economico e geopolitico, ha un estremo bisogno di una rotta da seguire, di recuperare il senso di appartenenza dei propri cittadini ad un Progetto Nazionale. La globalizzazione, l'entrata in scena di attori nuovi e di dimensioni gigantesche, la conseguente crisi del modello economico italiano, hanno creato negli italiani un senso di sfiducia e di paura verso il futuro del Paese. Esso, tuttavia, presenta potenzialità che, se utilizzate al meglio, possono rappresentare il cardine per un progetto geopolitico italiano vincente sul nuovo scenario globale. In tal senso l'ultima parte della tesi cerca di individuare le scelte geopolitiche più opportune per l'Italia dell'inizio del nuovo secolo, garantendo all'analisi, attraverso l'utilizzo di paradigmi interpretativi, la necessaria parsimoniosità (secondo Carlo Simon-Belli "una teoria - o una tesi – è parsimoniosa quando spiega una grande quantità di situazioni attraverso un numero limitato di concetti posti in relazioni logiche; senza parsimonia una tesi rischia di diventare più complessa della realtà che intende spiegare"). La parte conclusiva della tesi rende merito alla specificità delle studio geopolitico rispetto allo studio geografico e geografico - politico: la geopolitica, infatti, si interessa della politica del futuro; essa non focalizza il suo interesse sulle aree politiche in quanto tali, né sul loro funzionamento come entità autonome, né sull'influenza della politica sull'ambiente o sulla popolazione. Il ragionamento geopolitico, pur basandosi sull'oggettività dei dati (fisici, umani, statistici, ecc…) fornitigli dalla geografia, trascende il dato scientifico e oggettivo, soggettivizzandolo e incrociandolo con fattori che non sono geografici, come sono i sistemi di valori, una data visione filosofica del mondo, la percezione di sé e della propria cultura, civiltà o storia (a questo proposito Lacoste afferma che la geopolitica è una serie di drammi, nel senso primo della parola, ovvero come una rappresentazione di vicende fondate su elementi di conflitto, talvolta anche soltanto di natura simbolica). L'aspetto geografico rimane costantemente presente nell'analisi geopolitica: come opportunità e come condizionamento; come fattore di potenza e come condizione di vulnerabilità; come posta in gioco e come teatro. Le scelte, però, dipendono anche da altri fattori, come l'ideologia, il grado di consenso, la religione, la tecnologia disponibile, la cultura. In una parola, la geopolitica è egopolitica. Il progetto geopolitico che propongo per l'Italia, tenuto conto del contesto internazionale rappresentato nella prima parte della tesi, punta soprattutto sulla massima valorizzazione delle sue risorse umane, specie quelle più giovani e preparate, e sull'emergere di una nuova "coscienza internazionale" del Paese. Questo significa "pensare" un Italia nuova, più grande, più moderna: l'unica via possibile per salvare il Paese dal declino cui non è certamente destinata, ma verso il quale si sta avviando a causa di scelte politiche sbagliate o inadeguate rispetto alle esigenze dei "tempi moderni". Tra i grandi Paesi occidentali, l'Italia, che è stata la culla della civiltà occidentale moderna, appare tra i meno preparati ad affrontare le sfide dell'era globale, le cui caratteristiche impongono a tutti gli stati un radicale cambiamento, un nuovo modo di presentarsi e di pensarsi come soggetto geopolitico sulla scena internazionale. Come dice Francesco Sisci, già Direttore dell'Istituto di Cultura italiana a Pechino, "l'emergere della Cina (ma anche quello dell'India, del Messico, del Brasile, le potenze emergenti del sistema internazionale) impedisce all'Italia di continuare a traccheggiare nella sua deriva: o si cambia o si muore". Rinchiudersi, rinunciare a conoscere gli altri, rinunciare a preparare i propri cittadini ad acquisire nuovi strumenti di analisi, di comprensione e di percezione della realtà, sottrarsi alla globalizzazione non gioverebbe all'Italia, ma alla lunga ne peggiorerebbe la crisi. Bisogna, invece, "immaginare" un'Italia nuova, che sopravviva al nuovo secolo riformandosi e acquisendo una nuova "mentalità internazionale": tale riforma non può prescindere dalla radicale trasformazione della società nonché delle sue istituzioni, specie quelle con funzioni preminenti di rappresentanza del Paese all'estero. Questa nuova "mentalità internazionale" richiede che il Paese arricchisca, superandola, la sua eredità risorgimentale: quella di un'Italia prigioniera del suo "vantaggioso" ritardo e del suo isolamento politico e geopolitico, con una politica estera etero-diretta, non democratica perché non "maturata" all'interno del Paese, con un'identità più romanzata che realmente esistita/esistente. ; XXI
Aus der Einleitung: Staatliche Investmentfonds gewinnen zunehmend an Bedeutung für die globale Finanzwirtschaft und Politik. Fast täglich erscheinen neue Schlagzeilen über getätigte Investitionen einzelner Staatsfonds und Diskussionen auf nationaler und multinationaler Ebene, wie mit dieser Entwicklung umzugehen ist. Das Vermögen der Staatsfonds beziffert sich aktuell auf fast 4 Billionen US-Dollar. Damit beträgt ihr Anlagevermögen mehr als das Doppelte der globalen Hedgefonds-Branche und etwa ein Siebtel des Vermögens aller Investmentfonds weltweit. Ein Indiz für die wachsende Bedeutung von Staatsfonds auf den internationalen Finanzmärkten ist vor allem das rasante Wachstum des Anlagevolumens und die steigende Zahl von Staatsfonds. So haben heute bereits 34 Nationen 47 Staatsfonds eingerichtet, weitere fünf sind nach Annahmen des SWF bereits in Planung durch Bolivien, Brasilien, Indien, Japan und Thailand. Kern prognostiziert ein Wachstum auf über 5 Billionen US-Dollar innerhalb der nächsten fünf Jahre und über 10 Billionen US-Dollar innerhalb der nächsten zehn Jahre, wobei DEGI sogar mit einem Anstieg auf 12 Billionen US-Dollar bereits in 2015 rechnet. Vermehrte Rohstoffverkäufe, steigende Rohstoffpreise, Handelsüberschüsse und zunehmende Währungstransaktionen sind Gründe dafür, warum immer mehr Länder ihre Gewinne zunehmend in renditeträchtigere Anlageklassen als Staatsanleihen anlegen. Dieses Wachstum, weitere Diversifikation und zunehmende Konzentration auf Rendite wird Investitionen in ein breites Spektrum von Anlageklassen seitens der Staatfonds zur Folge haben. Dazu gehören auch Immobilieninvestments weltweit. Laut Preqin investieren aktuell 62 % aller Staatsfonds in Immobilien. Dabei liegt der durchschnittliche Anteil von Immobilien am Gesamtportfolio zwischen 4 und 11 %. DEGI prognostiziert, dass Staatsfonds bis 2010 weltweit weitere 150 Mrd. US-Dollar in Immobilien investieren werden. Einige Staatsfonds, wie Abu Dhabi Investment Authority (ADIA), Kuwait Investment Authority (KIA) oder Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) haben bereits Erfahrungen mit Immobilieninvestitionen in Europa. Allein in 2007 investierte GIC 1 Mrd. britische Pfund in Großbritannien, KIA ist bereits seit vielen Jahrzehnten auf Einkaufstour in europäischen Immobilienmärkten unterwegs und kaufte beispielsweise das mit 420.000 qm größte europäische Einkaufszentrum Cevahir Shopping Mall in Istanbul. Auch in Deutschland sind Staatsfonds mit Immobilieninvestitionen bereits punktuell in Erscheinung getreten. So investierte etwa im Jahr 2006 Singapurs GIC 300 Mio. Euro in zwei prominente Bürokomplexe in München. Auch beim Verkauf des rund 1,3 Mrd. Euro schweren Daimler-Portfolios am Potsdamer Platz befand sich ein Staatsfonds aus den Vereinigten Arabischen Emiraten unter den Bietern. Die Qatar Investment Authority (QIA) hat Interesse am Kauf von Schloss Salem am Bodensee angemeldet (Kirchner, 2008) und ADIA ist mit knapp 3 % an der deutschen Colonia Real Estate AG beteiligt. Für Staatsfonds und andere institutionelle Anleger erscheint der deutsche Immobilienmarkt aus verschiedenen Gründen interessant. Mit einem Gesamtvolumen von geschätzten 7,2 Billionen Euro zählt er zu den populärsten Immobilieninvestmentmärkten in Europa und weist aufgrund stabiler wirtschaftlicher Fundamentaldaten, einer gut ausgebauten Infrastruktur und vielseitiger Anlagemöglichkeiten sowohl sektoral als auch regional attraktive Investitionsbedingungen auf. Die Kaufpreise sind im Vergleich zu anderen prominenten europäischen Märkten, wie beispielsweise Paris oder London, relativ günstig, das Miet- und Wertsteigerungspotenzial aber hoch. Laut einer aktuellen Studie von ULI und PwC, für die mehr als 485 institutionelle Marktteilnehmer befragt wurden, gehören die Städte Hamburg, München und Frankfurt zu den zehn aussichtsreichsten und gleichzeitig zu den zehn risikoärmsten Investmentzentren in Europa. Trotz jüngst aufstrebender Immobilienmärkte wie Russland oder die Türkei zählt Deutschland neben Großbritannien und Frankreich weiterhin zu den drei favorisierten europäischen Ländern für direkte Immobilienanlagen. Infolge der US-Kreditkrise und den damit einhergehenden vorsichtigeren Kreditvergaben der Banken sind viele stark fremdkapitalausgestattete Investoren, die in den letzten Jahren einen Transaktionsboom auch im deutschen Immobilienmarkt hervorgerufen haben, zum Rückzug gezwungen. Dieser Effekt dürfte einen Rückgang des Transaktionsvolumens in Deutschland bedeuten, gleichzeitig aber auch ein verstärktes Interesse eigenkapitalstarker Investoren – wie Staatsfonds – die zuvor von den opportunistischen und stark fremdfinanzierten Investoren regelmäßig überboten wurden. Für Staatsfonds, die bis dato nicht am deutschen Immobilienmarkt aktiv sind, hier aber zukünftig investieren wollen, stellt sich die Frage nach dem richtigen Vorgehen. Welche Optionen zum Markteintritt mit Immobilieninvestments in Deutschland gibt es, und welche dieser Optionen sollte(n) gewählt werden, um die angestrebten Renditeziele unter Berücksichtigung der besonderen Strukturen und gegebenenfalls Restriktionen von Staatsfonds, des geforderten Zeithorizonts und der Risikobereitschaft zu erreichen? Dies insbesondere vor dem Hintergrund, dass meist hohe Kapitalvolumina investiert werden sollen, Zielmarkt und Marktteilnehmer dem Investor aber weitgehend unbekannt sind. Es sind Entscheidungen zwischen der direkten Immobilienanlage und verschiedenen indirekten Anlageformen zu treffen. Erscheint eine Investition in indirekte Immobilienanlagen interessant, hat er die Wahl zwischen verschiedenen Produktkategorien, wie beispielsweise offene und geschlossene Immobilienfonds. Entscheidet sich ein Staatsfonds für den Markteintritt mit direkten Immobilienanlagen, stehen ihm verschiedene Optionen für das Vorgehen zur Verfügung. Sucht er sich beispielsweise einen kompetenten Partner vor Ort? Oder sollte er geeignete Investitionsobjekte eigenständig auswählen und den Transaktionsprozess selbst durchführen? Nicht zuletzt stellt sich die Frage des Immobilienmanagements nach dem Erwerb. Das Ziel dieser Arbeit ist die Entwicklung von Markteintrittsoptionen für ausländische Staatsfonds, die sich zukünftig mit Investitionen am deutschen Immobilienmarkt engagieren wollen. Unter Optionen im Sinne dieser Arbeit sollen Handlungsalternativen verstanden werden, die die Möglichkeit bieten, sich frei zwischen ihnen zu entscheiden. Die möglichen Optionen werden hinsichtlich ihrer Vor- und Nachteile sowie ihrer spezifischen Eignung für Staatsfonds analysiert und bewertet, um daraus Handlungsempfehlungen für Staatsfonds abzuleiten. Dazu wird im Anschluss an die Einleitung in Kapitel 2 zunächst das grundlegende Geschäftskonzept von Immobilieninvestitionen als Kapitalanlage vorgestellt, wobei sowohl auf die spezielle Charakterisierung von Immobilienanlagen eingegangen wird als auch auf die verschiedenen Investorengruppen und die Ziele, die diese mit einer Immobilieninvestition verfolgen. Zudem werden die wesentlichen Besonderheiten von Immobilienmärkten sowie deren Auswirkungen auf internationale Immobilieninvestments kurz betrachtet. Darauf folgt eine Darstellung der direkten Immobilienanlage sowie der wesentlichen indirekten Anlageformen, in der die jeweiligen Eigenschaften sowie Vor- und Nachteile herausgearbeitet werden. Abschließend werden die verschiedenen Rendite/Risiko-Profile der Anlageformen betrachtet und der Prozess der Immobilienanlage beschrieben. Kapitel 3 widmet sich den möglichen Markteintrittsstrategien. Basierend auf den aus dem internationalen Marketing bekannten Strategien werden mögliche Handlungsoptionen für ausländische Immobilieninvestoren abgeleitet und dargestellt. Kapitel 4 befasst sich mit Staatsfonds. Hier werden zunächst Herkunft, Wesen und Motive von Staatsfonds untersucht. Anschließend erfolgt eine Analyse der Anlagestrategien, die Staatsfonds verfolgen, sowie ein kurzer Abriss der möglichen Auswirkungen, die die Überarbeitung des Außenwirtschaftsgesetztes der deutschen Bundesregierung auf künftige Investitionen von Staatsfonds in Deutschland haben könnte. Abschließend wird die Assetklasse Immobilien in Staatsfonds-Portfolien betrachtet, um daraus Schlussfolgerungen für künftige Immobilienengagements ziehen zu können. Aufbauend auf diesen Grundlagen werden in Kapitel 5 - das den Kern dieser Arbeit darstellt - die möglichen Handlungsoptionen für den Markteintritt mit Immobilieninvestitionen in Deutschland auf ihre spezifische Eignung für Staatsfonds überprüft. Zu diesem Zweck werden auf Basis der Erkenntnisse aus Kapitel 4 zunächst die Anlageziele und -restriktionen von Staatsfonds definiert. Die direkte Immobilienanlage wird der indirekten Immobilienanlage grundsätzlich gegenübergestellt, um zu erkennen, ob - aufgrund dieser Ziele - für Staatsfonds eine der beiden Anlageformen der anderen grundlegend vorzuziehen ist. Es folgt eine Eignungsprüfung der sich daraus ergebenden Optionen anhand von Bewertungskriterien, die entsprechend ihrer spezifischen Bedeutung für Staatsfonds auf Basis der definierten Anlageziele und -restriktionen ausgewählt und gewichtet werden. Die so getroffenen Aussagen werden mittels eines Scoring-Modells überprüft. Das Ergebnis ist eine Auswahl von Anlageoptionen, die für Staatsfonds empfehlenswert sind. Den Abschluss dieser Arbeit bildet das Fazit in Kapitel 6.Inhaltsverzeichnis:Inhaltsverzeichnis: InhaltsverzeichnisIII AbkürzungsverzeichnisVI AbbildungsverzeichnisVII 1.Einleitung1 1.1Ausgangssituation und Problemstellung1 1.2Ziel der Arbeit und Vorgehensweise3 2.Immobilieninvestitionen5 2.1Immobilien als Kapitalanlage5 2.1.1Investorengruppen5 2.1.2Charakterisierung5 2.1.3Ziele6 2.1.4Besonderheiten von Immobilienmärkten und internationalen Immobilieninvestments7 2.2Anlageformen8 2.2.1Direkte Immobilienanlage8 2.2.1.1Vorteile8 2.2.1.2Nachteile9 2.2.1.3Risikodiversifikation9 2.2.1.4Performance10 2.2.1.5Asset Management10 2.2.2Indirekte Immobilienanlage11 2.2.2.1Vorteile11 2.2.2.2Nachteile11 2.2.2.3Immobilienpublikumsfonds12 2.2.2.4Immobilien-Spezialfonds13 2.2.2.5Geschlossene Immobilienfonds14 2.2.2.6Immobilienaktien15 2.2.2.7Opportunity Funds16 2.3Der Anlagestil18 2.4Der Anlageprozess19 2.4.1Strategische Phase19 2.4.2Operative Phase21 3.Markteintrittsstrategien21 3.1Unmittelbare Investition22 3.2Allianz / Kooperation23 3.2.1Nicht-vertragliche Kooperation und Contractual Joint Venture25 3.2.2Equity Joint Venture26 3.3Merger Acquisition27 3.4Greenfield Investment29 4.Staatsfonds30 4.1Herkunft, Wesen und Motive31 4.2Anlagestrategien33 4.3Intervention der deutschen Bundesregierung35 4.4Assetklasse Immobilien35 5.Ableitung und Prüfung der Markteintrittsoptionen für Staatsfonds36 5.1Die Wahl der Markteintrittsstrategie36 5.1.1Anlageziele und Anlagerestriktionen von Staatsfonds37 5.1.2Direkte versus indirekte Immobilienanlage37 5.2Optionen für den Markteintritt mit indirekten Immobilienanlagen40 5.2.1Kriterien für die Wahl der indirekten Anlageform41 5.2.2Eignungsprüfung der Optionen anhand der Kriterien42 5.2.2.1Scoring-Modell43 5.2.2.2Sensitivitätsanalyse und Fazit44 5.3Optionen für den Markteintritt mit direkten Immobilienanlagen45 5.3.1Definition der zu prüfenden Markteintrittsstrategien45 5.3.2Kriterien für die Wahl der Markteintrittsstrategie46 5.3.3Eignungsprüfung der Optionen anhand der Kriterien48 5.3.3.1Scoring-Modell52 5.3.3.2Sensitivitätsanalyse und Fazit54 5.4Zusammenfassung der präferierten Optionen55 5.5Handlungsempfehlung58 6.Fazit59 Anhang72Textprobe:Textprobe: Kapitel 3.1, Unmittelbare Investition: Bei der unmittelbaren Investition tritt der Immobilieninvestor direkt an Verkäufer von Immobilien und Immobilienportfolien oder deren Zwischenhändler (z.B. Makler) heran. Dies kann zum Beispiel über ein Team geschehen, das nach Deutschland entsendet wird, um geeignete Investitionsobjekte zu identifizieren und anschließend den Erwerbsprozess durchzuführen. Nachdem die Investitionen getätigt wurden, zieht sich der Investor - zumindest für die Haltedauer bzw. bis zu dem Zeitpunkt, an dem weitere Immobilien erworben werden sollen - operativ aus dem Markt zurück. Zwingend erforderlich bei dieser Alternative ist die Beauftragung eines externen Asset-, Property- und Facility Managements vor Ort, während das Management auf Portfolioebene vom Investor im Heimatland geführt wird. Die Einbindung eines Asset Managers - der über eine Fee vergütet wird - impliziert eine Kooperation gemäß Abschnitt 3.2. Da es sich bei dieser Kooperation aber um das Management der Immobilien nach dem Erwerb handelt und nicht um eine Maßnahme, die zum Markteintritt gewählt wird, ist die unmittelbare Investition dennoch als eigene Markteintrittsstrategie anzusehen. Kennzeichnend für diese Strategie ist, dass der Investor völlig autark und zudem flexibel bleibt. Der Investor hat die volle Kontrolle und Entscheidungsautonomie über sein Investitionsportfolio. Ein dauerhaftes personelles Engagement am Markt ist nicht erforderlich, somit ist die Veränderung der Investitionsstrategie oder gar ein vollständiger Marktaustritt - zumindest theoretisch - jederzeit möglich. Allerdings stellt die Komplexität der Immobilienmärkte für diese Form des Markteintritts eine große Herausforderung dar. Zum einen liegt die Problematik grundsätzlich im Zugang zu Informationen über zum Verkauf stehende Portfolien oder Einzelobjekte, daneben besteht das Problem der fehlenden Marktkenntnis generell, um die zur Verfügung stehenden Investitionsoptionen adäquat beurteilen zu können. Eine intensive Marktanalyse, verbunden mit einer aufwändigen Informationsbeschaffung (auch im Hinblick auf rechtliche und steuerliche Aspekte der Immobilieninvestition) ist unerlässlich. Zudem liegt der Aufwand der Verhandlungsführung von Beginn an beim Investor, ebenso der Prozess der Transaktionsdurchführung. Sowohl die Phase der Informationsbeschaffung und Suche nach geeigneten Anlageoptionen, als auch der für die Umsetzung erforderliche Zeithorizont behindern einen schnellen Markteintritt. Kapitel 3.2, Allianz / Kooperation: Die Begriffe Kooperation bzw. Allianz werden in der Literatur unterschiedlich eingegrenzt und definiert. Zudem existiert eine Vielzahl weiterer Termini, die häufig synonym verwendet oder auch voneinander abgegrenzt werden, wie beispielsweise strategische Allianz, Joint Venture, Netzwerk oder auch Strategic Partnership. Die Verfasserin beschränkt sich im Folgenden zunächst übergreifend auf die Bezeichnungen Allianz und Kooperation, die synonym verwendet werden. Zur Begriffseingrenzung im Sinne dieser Arbeit erscheint die Definition von Morschett geeignet, der sich hierbei auf Spekman et al. bezieht. Demnach sind Allianzen im Allgemeinen enge, unter Umständen langfristige, Vereinbarungen zwischen zwei oder mehr Parteien, in denen Ressourcen, Wissen und Fähigkeiten zwischen Partnern geteilt oder gemeinsam eingebracht werden mit der Zielsetzung, die Wettbewerbsposition jedes Partners zu verbessern. Ziel einer solchen Kooperation ist die Erschließung von für den Markteintritt erforderlichen Ressourcen, die im eigenen Unternehmen nicht - oder nicht ausreichend - vorhanden sind, wie etwa Kapitalbedarf, Know-how oder Managementkapazität. Die Erschließung neuer Märkte soll damit sowohl erleichtert, als auch beschleunigt werden. Die Zusammenarbeit basiert dabei auf individuell geregelten Vereinbarungen, so dass eine größtmögliche Flexibilität und unternehmerische Unabhängigkeit der Partner gewahrt bleibt. Folglich kennzeichnen sich Kooperationen durch rechtliche und (partiell) wirtschaftliche Unabhängigkeit der beteiligten Partner, die ihr Verhalten zugunsten einer besseren Zielerreichung als bei individuellem Vorgehen koordinieren. Nach der Wertschöpfungsstufe lassen sich horizontale, vertikale und laterale Kooperationen unterscheiden. Stammen die kooperierenden Unternehmen sowohl aus der gleichen Branche, als auch aus der gleichen Wertschöpfungsstufe (Wettbewerber), spricht man von einer horizontalen Kooperation. Stimmt die Branche der Partner überein, aber stammen sie aus verschiedenen Wertschöpfungsstufen (Lieferanten und Kunden), besteht eine vertikale Kooperation. Eine laterale Kooperation liegt vor, wenn sich zwei Unternehmen aus unterschiedlichen Branchen zusammenschließen. Grundsätzlich sind Kooperationen in allen drei Ausprägungen möglich und vorstellbar. In erster Linie erscheint aber eine vertikale Kooperation für ausländische Investoren interessant. Zum Beispiel könnte der Investor sich mit einem in Deutschland etablierten Immobilienmakler- oder -consultingunternehmen zusammenschließen, um dessen Markt-Know-how und Erfahrung zu nutzen. Der Partner wiederum würde vom Auftragsvolumen des Investors profitieren. Ebenso vorstellbar wäre eine Kooperation mit einem Asset Management-Unternehmen in Deutschland, das bereits vor Erwerb eingeschaltet wird, um den gesamten Anlageprozess als lokaler Marktkenner und Real Estate Professional zu begleiten. Die Vorteile des Markteintritts über Allianzen bzw. Kooperationen liegen insbesondere im Erhalt der wirtschaftlichen Selbständigkeit des Investors. Ebenso wie eine Fusion oder eine Akquisition ermöglicht die Kooperation dennoch einen raschen Zugang zu den benötigten wettbewerbsrelevanten Ressourcen wie Marktwissen, generelle Kenntnis des Umfeldes und Zugriff auf lokale Führungskräfte der Top-Ebene, die gemäß Chisnall die wesentlichen Motive für einen Markteintritt über Kooperationen oder Mergers + Acquisitions darstellen. Der Anteil redundanter Ressourcen ist dabei wiederum erheblich geringer. Entsprechend ist auch der erforderliche Integrationsaufwand aufgrund des niedrigeren Integrationsgrades geringer als bei einer Fusion oder Akquisition. Zudem besteht die Gefahr eines unerwünschten Zugriffs des lokalen Partners auf internes Know-how des Investors. Seine Kontrolllegitimation ist insofern eingeschränkt, als er nicht über die uneingeschränkten Eigentumsrechte an den benötigten Ressourcen verfügt. Zudem ist die Identifikation eines geeigneten Kooperationspartners aufgrund der bestehenden Informationsdefizite des Investors mit zeit- und kostenverursachendem Aufwand und Unsicherheiten verbunden. Eine Kooperation kann weiterhin zu Koordinationsproblemen und Interessenskonflikten mit dem Partner führen. Insbesondere ist hier das Principal-Agent-Problem zu nennen. Auch soziokulturelle Unterschiede der Beteiligten können zu Schwierigkeiten bei Kooperationen führen. Wie Abbildung 3-1 verdeutlicht, lässt sich auf Basis der Kapitalausstattung eine Unterscheidung in nicht-vertragliche Kooperationen und Contractual JVs sowie das Equity JV vornehmen. Nachfolgend werden diese Formen der Kooperation kurz voneinander abgegrenzt und diskutiert. Kapitel 3.2.1, Nicht-vertragliche Kooperation und Contractual Joint Venture: Grundsätzlich sind Allianzen auch ohne vertragliche Bindung denkbar und kommen in der Praxis durchaus vor. Die Verfasserin schließt sich hier der Auffassung von Lubritz an, dass komplexe intensive Unternehmensbeziehungen eine vertragliche Ausgestaltung voraussetzen. Bereits die einfache Beauftragung eines Maklerunternehmens zur Suche geeigneter Anlageobjekte würde eine vertraglich fixierte – wenn auch in der Regel zeitlich begrenzte - Kooperation darstellen und wäre somit als Contractual JV einzuordnen. Deshalb wird auf eine weitere Diskussion der nichtvertraglichen Kooperation in der vorliegenden Arbeit verzichtet. Als Contractual JVs werden vertraglich fixierte Allianzen bezeichnet. Im Gegensatz zu einem Equity JV beinhalten diese aber keine Kapitalbeteiligung durch Gründung eines Gemeinschaftsunternehmens mit eigener Rechtspersönlichkeit. Diese Form der Kooperation bietet insbesondere den Vorteil des geringen Kapitalinvestments und folglich auch eines geringen Kapitalrisikos. Dennoch können die Wettbewerbsvorteile des lokalen Partners (z.B. Image, Marktkenntnis und Akquisitionsnetzwerk) genutzt werden, auch wenn die Autonomie auf beiden Seiten beibehalten wird. Ein positives Image des Partners kann sich auf die Reputation des ausländischen Investors im deutschen Markt übertragen. Ebenso birgt eine Kooperation natürlich das umgekehrte Risiko eines negativen Imagetransfers. Entsprechend der unmittelbaren Investition ist keine langfristige Kapitalbindung und personelles Engagement notwendig. Die stetige Option zum Marktaustritt oder einem Strategiewechsel ist dadurch gegeben. Kapitel 3.2.2, Equity Joint Venture: Das Equity JV ist - im Gegensatz zur nicht-vertraglichen Kooperation und dem Contractual JV - eine Form der Direktinvestition, da ein direkter Kapitaleinsatz des Investors geleistet wird. Weitere Formen der Direktinvestition stellen Mergers + Acquisitions sowie das Greenfield Investment dar (siehe Abbildung 3-1). Allen drei Formen gemein ist ein erhöhter finanzieller und personeller Ressourcen- sowie Informations- und Kommunikationsaufwand. Hohe 'Startup Costs', lange Amortisationsdauer sowie die Desinvestitionsproblematik im Falle eines wirtschaftlichen Misserfolgs des Auslandsengagements machen Direktinvestitionen zu einer Markteintrittsstrategie mit einem hohen wirtschaftlichen Risiko. Das Equity JV lässt sich definieren als eine auf Kapitalbeteiligungen und der Teilung von Geschäftsführung und unternehmerischen Risiko beruhende, vertraglich festgelegte und dauerhafte Kooperation unter Gründung einer rechtlich selbständigen Gemeinschaftsunternehmung. Die kooperierenden Unternehmen erhalten dabei ihre individuellen Unternehmensidentitäten. Das Risiko beider Partner wird dadurch minimiert und die Verantwortung geteilt. Je nach Ausmaß der Beteiligung des ausländischen Investors unterscheidet man in Minoritäts-JV (bei einer Minderheitsbeteiligung des ausländischen Investors), Paritäts-JV (bei Gleich-beteiligung beider Partner) und Majoritäts-JV (bei Mehrheitsbeteiligung des ausländischen Investors). Insbesondere das Paritäts-JV birgt dabei das Risiko, dass es zu Problemen hinsichtlich der Entscheidungsfindung kommen kann, was die Flexibilität und Reaktionsfähigkeit des JV beeinträchtigt. Solche Probleme können beispielsweise aufgrund unterschiedlicher Vorstellungen über Zielsetzungen, Investitionsverhalten und Gewinnverteilung oder Geschäftsmentalität und Führungsverhalten bestehen. Ein Minoritäts-JV schränkt den Investor von vorneherein erheblich in seiner Entscheidungsmacht ein. Eine detaillierte Vertragsgestaltung im Vorfeld kann diesen Problemen entgegenwirken. Von Vorteil bei allen Formen des Equity JV kann die Wahrnehmung des JV als nationales Unternehmen sein, was mit der Konsequenz möglicher Imagevorteile im Gastland verbunden sein kann. Ausländische Investoren - unter anderem Staatsfonds - genießen nicht selten den Ruf einer Heuschrecke und werden teilweise mit Skepsis betrachtet. Die Gründung eines Equity JV würde der Gründung eines neuen Unternehmens ohne etwaige Altlasten entsprechen. Da jedoch davon auszugehen ist, dass die Partner, die hinter diesem JV stehen, den relevanten Marktteilnehmern bekannt sind, ist dieser Effekt des Equity JV in Frage zu stellen. Negative Auswirkungen auf die Akquisition von Objekten sind zudem ohnehin nicht zu erwarten, da das Image keinen Einfluss auf die Entscheidung eines Verkäufers haben dürfte. Höchstens im Verhältnis zu den Mietern der Objekte und bei Neuvermietungen könnte sich aus einem negativen Image möglicherweise ein nachteiliger Effekt ergeben.
One hundred per cent of the natural units of analysis will continue to be negatively affected, with a concomitant decrease in natures contributions to people, given current trends (business as usual), though the magnitude and exact mechanism of the individual drivers will vary by driver and unit of analysis (established but incomplete){5.4}. For example, tropical moist and dry forest and coastal mangroves will continue to exhibit a decline due to land use change regardless of the scenarios considered, but different local factors (agriculturalization and urbanization, respectively) will be involved (well established) {5.4.1, 5.4.11}. Additionally, some drivers will affect units of analysis differently. Empirical evidence indicates differential effects of climate change: boreal forest is extending northward {5.4.2}, while tundra is diminishing in land area (established but incomplete) {5.4.3}. Thus, some drivers, and their relative roles, will need to be further refined on a local scale and with respect to their proximate factors.2. Multiple drivers will act in synergy and further produce biodiversity loss and impact nature?s contributions to people in most of the units of analysis for the Americas (established but incomplete){5.4}. Climate change, combined with other drivers, is predicted to account for an increasingly larger proportion of biodiversity loss in the future, in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems {5.3}. Forest fragmentation, climate change and industrial development increase risk of biodiversity and nature?s contributions to people loss i.e. dry forest unit of analysis {5.4.1.2}. Predictions on invasive species and climate change indicates an increase in habitable areas and their potential impacts on different units of analysis {5.3}.3. Changes in temperature, precipitation regime and extreme climate events are predicted to impact all units of analysis in the Americas (well established) {5.4}. Climate change and the potential impacts on tropical dry forests by changing the frequency of wildfires; change in forest structure and functional composition in the Amazon tropical moist forest; extreme drought events changing nature?s contributions to people in the Amazon region; insect outbreaks and changes in albedo are predicted to significantly impact temperate, boreal and tundra units of analysis, affecting society and indigenous communities and well-being {5.4}.4. Thresholds, or tipping points (conditions resulting in rapid and potentially irreversible changes) may have already been exceeded for some ecosystems and are likely for others (established but incomplete). For instance, it is considered more likely than not that such a threshold has already been passed in the cryosphere with respect to summer sea ice (established but incomplete) {5.4.12}. Model simulations indicate changes in forest structure and species distribution in the Amazon forest in response to global warming and change in precipitation patterns (forest die-back) (established but incomplete) {5.4.1}. So too, a 4oC increase in global temperatures is predicted to likely cause widespread die off of boreal forest due to greater susceptibility to disease {5.4.2} and global temperature increases may have already started persistent thawing of the permafrost {5.4.3}. Under 4°C warming, widespread coral reef mortality is expected with significant impacts on coral reef ecosystems {5.4.11}. Sea surface water temperature increase will cause a reduction of sea grass climatic niche: those populations under seawater surface temperature thresholds higher than the temperature ranges required by the species could become extinct by 2100 with concomitant loss of ecosystem services.IPBES/6/INF/4/Rev.15415. Changes in nature and nature?s contributions to people in most units of analysis are increasingly driven by causal interactions between distant places (i.e. telecouplings) (well established) {5.6.3}, thus scenarios and models that incorporate telecouplings will better inform future policy decisions. Nature and nature?s contributions to people in telecoupled systems can be affected negatively or positively by distant causal interactions. Provision of food and medicine from wild organisms in temperate and tropical grasslands, savannas and forests of South America is being dramatically reduced due to land-use changes driven by the demand of agricultural commodities (e.g. soybeans) mainly from Europe and China. Conservation of insectivorous migratory bats in Mexico benefits pest control in agroecosystems of North America, resulting in increased yields and reduced pesticide costs. Trade policies and international agreements will thus have an increasingly strong effect on environmental outcomes in telecoupled systems.6. Policy interventions have resulted in significant land use changes at the local and regional scales and will continue to do so through 2050. These policies have affected nature?s contributions to people both positively and negatively, and provide an opportunity to manage trade-offs among nature?s contributions to people (well established) {5.4}. Land use changes are now mainly driven by high crop demand, big hydropower plans, rapid urban growth and result in a continued loss of grasslands {5.4.4, 5.4.5}. However, strategies for establishing conservation units have helped in reducing deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon from the period of 2004 to 2011 (well established) {5.4.1}. Similarly, wetland protection policies and regulation have helped reduce the conversion of wetlands in North America {5.4.7}. Policies based on command and control measures may be limited in providing effective reduction in ecosystem loss and should be complemented with policies acknowledging multiple values {5.6.3}.7. Policy interventions at vastly differing scales (from national to local) lead to successful outcomes in mitigating impacts to biodiversity (established but incomplete){5.4}. For instance, long-established governmental protections of wetlands in North America have significantly slowed and may have stopped wetland loss based on acreage {5.4.7}. In South America, where mangrove loss continues at a rate of one to two per cent, different stakeholders such as local communities and/or governments have been successful in protecting mangroves based on empowerment and shared interests in their preservation {5.4.11}.8. Pressures to nature are projected to increase by 2050, negatively affecting biodiversity as indicated by a potential reduction of the mean species abundance index. However, the magnitude of the pressures by 2050 are expected to be less under transition pathways to sustainability in comparison to the business as usual scenario (established but incomplete), {5.5}. The Global Biodiversity model projected that under the business as usual scenario mean species abundance had decreased in the Americas by approximately 30 per cent by 2010 compared to its values prior to European settlement of the New World, with historical losses primarily attributed to land transformation to agricultural uses. Using the Global Biodiversity model, there is an additional projected loss of 9.6 per cent by 2050, primarily attributed to some additional land use changes , and especially to climate change, which will steadily increase relative to other drivers considered in the model. However, under the transition pathways to sustainability of global technologies, decentralised solutions, and consumption change pathways, the projected losses are 6 per cent, 5 per cent, and 5 per cent, respectively,IPBES/6/INF/4/Rev.1542achieving a relative improvement of approximately 30 per cent to 50 per cent compared to the business as usual scenario. Under these pathways, climate change mitigation, the expansion of protected areas and the recovery of abandoned lands would significantly contribute to reducing biodiversity loss.9. Participative scenarios have proven to be a successful tool for envisioning potential futures and pathways and to embrace and integrate multiple and sometime conflicting values and their role in promoting bottom-up decision making in the face of futures uncertainties (well established) {5.3}. The use of participative approaches to develop scenarios has increased during recent years in the Americas. The inclusion of different stakeholders and their knowledges in the process of constructing potential futures has promoted a better understanding of the complexity of the social-ecological systems in which they are embedded. This has enhanced co-learning processes between all actors involved, even those normally under-represented in decision-making activities. As a result, several participative scenario exercises have motivated community-based solutions and local governance initiatives all pointing towards the development of adaptive management strategies {5.3}.10. Pathways that consider changes in societal options will lead to less pressure to nature (established but incomplete) {5.6.3}. An example is the indirect impact that shifts in urban dietary preferences have on agricultural production and expansion, and food options that are expected to continue growing into the future. Therefore, not only is there a strong connection between urbanization and economic growth, but also between affluence (and urban preferences) and the global displacement of land use particularly from high-income to low-income countries.11. Available local studies informing regional futures of nature and natures benefit to people do not allow scalability as of yet (well established) {5.3}. The challenge in expanding the findings from local studies resides in the fact that a number of comparable local studies are still not available. Information is scattered throughout the region by the use of different units, methods and scales, which prevents a local-to-regional generalization. The list of nature indicators used in studies at local scales is large and heterogeneous (well established). Even for the same indicator (e.g. biodiversity), different metrics are used (e.g. species-area curve, mean species abundance) {5.5}. In other cases, multiple indicators are used to describe different aspects of biodiversity and ecosystem services. In this latter case, synergies and trade-offs are explicitly mentioned with a clear pattern in which increasing the provision of some indicators result in the detriment of others {5.3}. For example, agriculture expansion leading to loss in biodiversity illustrates a common trend from local studies expected to continue into the future.12. There is a significant research gap in the development of models and scenarios that integrate drivers, nature, natures contributions to people and good quality of life (well established){5.3}. Models and scenarios can be powerful tools to integrate and synthesize the complex dynamics of coupled human and nature systems, and to project their plausible behaviors into the future. Most existing models and scenarios focus on the link between drivers and its impacts on nature. Few cases exist in which models or scenarios integrate the relationships between changes in nature and changes in natures contributions to people and good quality of life {5.3}. Inter-and trans-disciplinary modeling efforts will be required to address this research gap {5.3}. ; Fil: Klatt, Brian. Michigan State University; Estados Unidos ; Fil: Ometto, Jean Pierre. National Institute For Space Research; Brasil ; Fil: García Marquez, Jaime. Universität zu Berlin; Alemania ; Fil: Baptiste, María Piedad. Instituto Alexander Von Humboldt; Colombia ; Fil: Instituto Alexander von Humboldt. Independent Consultant; Canadá ; Fil: Acebey, Sandra Verónica. No especifíca; ; Fil: Guezala, María Claudia. Inter-american Institute For Global Change Research; Perú ; Fil: Mastrangelo, Matias Enrique. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; Argentina ; Fil: Pengue, Walter Alberto. Universidad Nacional de General Sarmiento; Argentina ; Fil: Blanco, Mariela Verónica. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Oficina de Coordinación Administrativa Saavedra 15. Centro de Estudios e Investigaciones Laborales; Argentina ; Fil: Gadda, Tatiana. Universidade Tecnológica Federal Do Paraná; Brasil ; Fil: Ramírez, Wilson. Instituto Alexander Von Humboldt; Colombia ; Fil: Agard, John. University Of West Indies; Trinidad y Tobago ; Fil: Valle, Mireia. Universidad Laica Eloy Alfaro de Manabí; Ecuador
�쓽�븰怨�/諛뺤궗 ; [�븳湲�] [�쁺臾�] In 1962 the Korean economic growth rate was 2.6%, as compared to an estimated 3% population increase. In recognition of this fact that gains in improving our standard of living were being offset by concrrent gains in population growth, the national government included family planning in its Five Year Plan, and set the goals of reducing the rate of population growth to 2.5% by 1966 and to 2.0% by 1971. Along with such a national family planning program, the Department of Preventive Medicine, Yonsei University, College of Medicine initiated a pilot study of family planning in rural Korea, Koyang in order to demonstrate the possibilities of reducing the community birth rate by introducing simple and feasible contraceptive methods into a predominantly rural population The experiences and findings gained in this Koyang study, which were reported elsewhere by Yang, Bang and Kim, provideda guideline to help determine the basic factors on which to develop the national family planning program. However, in spite of the rapid and far reaching spread of the national family planning program and the considerable amount of budget and personnel resources used in 1962-1964, there had been no baseline data to assess the efficiency and effectiveness of the program. In order to obtain such essential data, a nationwide sample survey was conducted as a joint and cooperative effort of the Yonsei University, Planned Parenthood Federation of Korea, Ministry of Health and Social Affairs and Economic Planning Board in April 1964 by which to assess the current status of family planning and to provide some basic data to measure its effectiveness for the on-going program in family planning. Purpose of the Study In the present paper, utilizing the survey data from the national sample, the author has undertaken a study to measure what extent the family planning program has spread in Korea in terms of know-ledge, attitude, and practice of the family planning and to analyze how such family planning variables are related to socio-cultural backgrounds of Korean couples. The Data and Method of Analysis All our data are from interviews with Korean married women in the child bearing years (15-50) and interviewed in 1964. In sampling design, multiple stratified random sampling with l/l,000 sampling fraction was applied, and 4,867 households (equivalent to 1% of inhabitants in Korea in 1964) were sampled. From among those sampled households, 4,008 wives and 3,966 husbands were interviewed. Only 3,805 households were considered to be eligible for the purpose of our study as we limited the study to the households in which one or more married women under 50 years of age are currently living with their husbands. Thus, in this survey 4,708 wives and 3,966 husbands were interviewed from April 15 to 23, 1964,by 180 enumerators of Economic Planning Board to whom a two-day training was given by the Yonsei University. The questionnaires designed by the Department includes 19 questions relevant to knowledge, attitude and practice in family planning, fertility and socio-cultural background of the respondents as shown in the attached. In analysis, we deal with two groups of variables-one related to family planning, and the other to the socio-cultural background of the respondents. Family planning variables (as dependent variables)include; knowledge of contraceptive methods, attitude toward family planning and number of children, and practice of contraception, Socio-cultural variables (as independent variables)are limited to age, education and occupation, residence, and number of living children. In the tabulation, both dependent and independent variables were first tabulated, then, we cross tabulated both variables in order to see how the dependent variables are affected by each class of the independent variables. Findings A. Knowledge of family planning 1. 71% of wives and 97% of husbands had heard of the word "family planning" and the rate were higher among young couples aged under 39 than that aged over 40. 2. 51% of wives and 62% of husbands knew of contraceptive methods such as condom, sterilization, foam tablet, rhythm method and coitus interruptus. This contraceptive knowledge was known t?67% of city and 46% of women in the rural county. 3. The media through which they had heard of contraceptive method were acquaintances, magazines, health centers, lecture meetings, National Reconstruction Movement workers, physicians and drug-stores in that order But there were remarkable differences between urban and rural areas. In the counties, the order of media from which they had heard of contraceptive method was health center, radio, acquaintances, magazines, lectures, National Reconstruction Movement workers, physicians and drugstores while in cities this knowledge was through acquaintances, radio, magazines, newspapers, physicians, health centers, lectures, National Reconstruction Movement workers and drug-stores. B. Attitude toward family Planning 1. Ideal number of children Their ideal number of children (I.N.C.) averaged 4.1 (2.5 sons and 1.6 daughters) and there was little difference between husband and wife, excluding those who had never thought of such an ideal number of children. But the number differed largely by the age of respondents. Wives under 34 and husbands under39 wished 2 sons and 1 daughter as their ideal number of children while those over 35 in wive sand in husbands over 40 were 3.2 as their I.N.C. The ideal number of children varied noticeably by the occupation of the respondent. The rural respondents wanted 4.2 children (2.6 sons and 1.6 daughters) while in the city respondents wanted 3.7 (2.3 sons and 1.4 daughters). 2. Attitude toward contraception 44.4% of wives and 45.1% of husbands wanted to practice contraception. Among those who disagreed to practice contraception, 60% of them wanted more children,24% disagreed due to their old age, 2% had had sterilizing operations. Less than 1% of the respondents were' against contraception due to religious and ethical reasons. Wives in the age group 30-39 wanted to practice contraception in the highest percentage(61%). Only 42% of wives residing in rural areas wanted to practice contraception while in cities 53% wanted to. The women who had 4 or 5 children wanted most to practice contraception. It was found that approval of contraception for spacing of children was considered good by 11% of women who had no children, 23% of women who had 1 child, 35% of women who had 2 children and 45% of women who had 3 children. C. Practice of contraception 1. Rate of practicing contraception Among 4,008 respondents (wife), 9% or 364 women were practicing contraception, 3% or 115 women had ever practiced contraception and 39% or 1,951 women had never practiced even though they knew of one or more contraceptive methods. The responses of husbands were about the same as those of the wives. The percentage of current users by age was highest in the 30-35 (13.5%) and next in the 20-29 age group (8%). In urban areas 19% of the interviewed women were practicing contraception while in rural area only 6% were practicing. 2. Kind of method practicing The common contraceptive methods used were foam tablet (2i%), rhythm method (23%), condom (22%). Other methods were jelly (9%), douche (6%), coitus interruptus (5%),sterilization operation (2%), diaphragm (2%), and others (3%). There was small difference by age and by residence. D. Fertility 1. Number of live-births The average number of live-births of the Questioned women so far delivered was 4.15 (4.06 in urban, 4.18 in rural). The average number of live-births by age was 4.24 in the 30-34 age group and 6.46 in the 45-49 age group. And those by duration of marriage were 3.8 children in the 10-14years group, 5.0 in 15-19 years group, 6.1 in 20-24, 6.8 in 25-29, 7.0 in the group of 30 years or older respectively. 2. Current pregnancy The number of women who were definitely pregnant at the time of the survey was 354 or8.8% and those who were doubtful of pregnancy was 151 or 3.8%. 3. Induced abortion 93% of women had never had an induced abortion. The average number of induced abortions in those who had had an induced abortion was 1.6 per woman. Among those who were 30-39age group, 9.7% had had an induced abortion as the highest percentage. Of those who had had 15-19 years of marital life, 10.6% had had one or more induced abortion, indicating the highest percentage. 15.5% of the women residing in urban areas have ever had an abortion, and the rate was higher than that of the rural woman which was 4.1%. 4. Sterility 7.2% of total number of respondents (wife) were sterile. Among those 1.3% had primary sterility and 5.9% had secondary sterility. Summary In order to evaluate the national family planning program in Korea, 4,008 wives and 3,956 husbands were interviewed from April 15 to 23, 1964. In the present paper, the author has analyzed such a survey data to measure what extent the family planning program has spread in Korea in terms of knowledge, attitude and practice of the family planning and to analyze how such family planning variables are related to socio-cultural backgrounds7f Korean couples. A brief summary of findings are follows: 1. This survey proved that a large number of people has been exposed to the information and education services of the family planning program, and high proportion of couples has been informed about the word of family planning as well as the methods of contraception. 2. A strong consensus existed in all strata of the society that a moderate number of children is desirable. The husbands and wives wanted three, four, or five children-preferably with at least two sons. There was little indication of desire for the very large family 3. Under current mortality conditions, however, most couples were having the children they wanted by the time they were in their thirties. 4. An overwhelming majority approved the idea of family planning and favored some type of family limitation. The major objection to family planning lies in the age old affection for large families, and not necessarily due to religion or a cede of ethics 5. Therefore, to control the excess births, same were having induced abortion but a sizable minority had tried some form of family planning. 6. As might be expected, this analysis proved that the modern strata with lowest ideal number of children and most practice of family planning were identified as the most literate and educated, those with the least farm background, those employed in the modern economic sector. 7. It was also clear that the demand for and interest in family planning were not limited to an elite modern group. The farmers and the illiterates, for example, wanted about the same thing with respect to family size, but they seemed to need information and services to move them to action. Thus, these findings helped to shape the form and scope of the national family planning program in giving the first priority to help those who wanted to limit family size and to reach the less advanced strata. Finally, this analysis of the survey data should help not only in evaluating the ongoing national family planning program but also in making plans for target populations in the next stages of the program in family planning. ; restriction
Forma de ingreso: Donación. Fuente de ingreso: Mª Amparo López Carbonell. Fecha de ingreso: 2016 ; Título de las fotografías 1 a 84 tomado de la relación de nombres que acompaña al álbúm y de la 85 a 96 tomado de la anotación manuscrita a tinta azul con la identificación del personaje en la cartulina en el borde superior de cada fotografía ; El material anejo es la "Relación de nombres según numeración del álbum" ; El álbum propiedad de D. Julio Pons Polín fue regalado a D. José López Laguarda en la década de los sesenta, siendo la hija de este último quien lo ha donado a esta institución. ; 1.Francisco Monzo El Chato la Flara 2. Jaime Serneguet Chaume el Manta 3. Chuano Mingola 4. El Rullo el Cansalaer guarda de termino 5. Pere, no era de Burjassot, pero su popularidad lo confundió con sus habitantes, eran muy conocidas sus chalas en la tienda de vinos de la Guapa 6. Concha La Racholera, Asunción Llopis, siempre se la veía con la escoba en la mano 7. Gregorio Pla, el alguacil florinata de la popularidad, se denominaba Gori el Alguacil 8. D. José El Andaluz guardagujas, sirvió de modelo su rostro de santo, acentuado por su barba 9. Vicente Llorens Puals decano conductor tranviario 10. Ramonet el Carniser, dependiente de la tocineria de Patrocinio de Flare Anton, días antes de fallecer 11. El tío Pepe Sanroch guardián de nuestro Patio, denominado Balcón de España por D. Emilio Castelar, con su nietecita en brazos 12. Pascual Pons, especialista en conducir carros, estuvo muchos años en la alfarería de carretero 13. Francisco Cones El Moreno estucador y oficial albañil de los mejores, a él se debe la gran reforma de nuestra Iglesia Parroquial 14. La gran señora Estefanía de las Cuevas de Benimamet, con su gran cesta y pañuelo a la cabeza 15-16. José María Gil Escartin, primer portero que tuvo el equipo del Burjassot F.C. 17. Obelisco en lo que era Plaza de Emilio Castelar, frente al ayuntamiento y cuatro conocidos vecinos 18. La gran despensa Los Silos donde se guardaba el sobrante de trigo, en el momento de sacarlo de su depósito 19. Enrique Hurtado El Forner de Baix que tuvo manos especiales para les rosquilletes en olí i els pastisets de boniato 20. Al pie de la Cruz del Patio, mis amigos, Francisco Pascual y Vicente Sancho Rambleta 21. Joaquin Chiarri junto al gran pino de la Alqueria del Pi 22. El popularisimo D. Manolito, en su trabajo de transportista, como el se denominaba trasladando por todo el pueblo la virgencita pequeñita 23. Un hombre negro que llego con el Circo Caprani 24. Fachada de la Cooperativa Obrera y el conocido Barrachina en la ventana 25. El más viejo de los empleados de la granja, el Tío Francisco de Ramón Feliu 26. Un vecino apoyado en lo que era una farola del alumbrado público, hoy Plaza de España 27. La primera foto, a los 80 años, de la esposa del Tío Perdis que vivía en la Pedrera de Burjassot 28. Niña atropellada por un auto en la carretera de Liria, el padre de a su lado 29. Rosarito Andrés Serneguet, a su corta edad y sus cincuenta kilos 30. Luisa Sanfeliu, hermana de Ramonet el Carniser con Rosarito en el jardín de los señores Carrau Carsi 31. La madre de Vicente Valero Roquet el Carniser 32. La gran artista hija de la Castañera La Cubedo que fue desde el Teatro Circulo Católico al Teatro de Ruzafa de Valencia, llegando a ser la segundo de abordo en la revista 33. La Tía Visanta, madre de los hermanos Canos 34. Visantet el Carniser con su típico pañuelo y las manos metidas en la faja 35. El más pequeño de todos los pintores, Antonio Sancho Montorreta 36. Emilio Marques El Botecari murió atropellado por el tranvía de Burjasot 37. En los viveros Jardines del Real siendo militar y frente a una figura de dicho jardín 38. D. Manuel Dualda con sus hijos Manolin y pepito en el campo de deportes del Burjassot F.C. 39. Un alemán Herbin con Francisco Bueno, al pie de la Cruz de los Silos 40. El alemán Herbin, subido al pozo, frente a la ermita de S. Roque 41 En tiempo de la Dictadura, nuestras autoridades municipales en el Paseo de la Castellana, momentos antes de desfilar por palacio 42. Un momento de espera en el trayecto de Burjassot a Valencia, Pepe Orrico y Puals 43. El Canterer Vicente Burgos, el niño de J. Pons y el exalcalde Emilio Moreno por el año 1940 44. El primer auto para trasladarse desde Godella a Burjassot Valencia conducido por su dueño Antonio Valls. Un incendio terminó con el servicio. El garaje estaba en la calle Divisoria, nº 13 y valia el trayecto en coche 0'25 45. D. Mariano Cerbellera y su señora Filomena Castro, elaboraron con el mayor gusto toda clase de helados finos y muy sabrosos 46. Un representante de la fiesta brava, momentos antes de salir en dirección a la Plaza de Toros de Valencia, José Uguet Legia 47. El Burjassot F.C. En el campo del Alcira en 1921 48. Tres grandes equipiers del Burjassot, nunca fichados por ningún equipo, pasaron a la historia de deportes, Caragol, Pastiser y Manoni, por el año 1920 49. Los mozos del reemplazo de 1922 en el andén de la estación eléctrica momentos antes de trasladarse a Valencia para incorporarse a sus respectivos cuarteles 50. Los hijos de nadie, con un vecino de Burjasot, en los caballetes 52. Lo que son las cosas Nadal arriba de un cerdo -- 53. Vicente Hurtado frente a su casa en la Plaza del Pozo, hijo del "Forn de Baix" 54. Tres hermanos, los Hurtado, hijos de Vicente -- 55. Pascual Pons, hijo de Rosa Basquiña con su típica indumentaria -- 56. Fabian Rabanaque con sus hijitos al fondo el mercado, Plaza Mallent -- 57. Por quedar bien en este mundo de ansias y quimeras, es llevado en hombros -- 58. D. Enrique Ferrandis sale de visitar un enfermo, los niños LoLita y Enriquito Pons -- 59. Puerta entrada principal del Cementerio Municipal de Burjassot, Vicente Sancha "Rambleta" en la puerta -- 60. La madre de Tomasa, saliendo de la Iglesia Parroquial -- 61. La gran María, hermana política de Francisco Serneguet "Quico el Mataoret el Cansalaer" -- 62. La Mercaera al fondo el mercado de la Plaza de la Concordia -- 63. "La Sariera", que con sus 110 kilos bailara con su marido muy bien en el Centro Musical -- 64. Ya tenemos otro "Mengola" a la vista, momentos antes de finalizar la plantá de una falla -- 65. Si hubiese tardado unas horas en venir al mundo que nace, muy mono para decir su nombre [Manolito] -- 66. "El Torrater de Beniferri", representando el Capellá de les Roques -- 67. Manolito sombrero en mano, vaya tío -- 68. Con su barba, bigote y bastón fue creado el lugar que ocupa para perseguir a los perros y sancionar con sus multas a sus dueños, en tiempos de la dictadura militar, por el año 1925 -- 69. José Martí, poeta espontáneo y dicharachero, fue por muchos años el fiel del peso público y su renombre era "Colom el pesaor" -- 70. Timoteo "El Sabater" músico y finalmente alguacil del matadero, muy aficionado a puros de los fuertes o sea caliqueños -- 71. Vicente "El Peixero" nadie pudo aventajarle en calidad de cómico, para vender su mercancía por la calle -- 72. El tío Blanco "El Resaor" por ser quién diariamente en la Ermita de S. Roque rezaba el Santo Rosario, todas las tardes, en su juventud fue carnicero 73. Luis Martinez El Pastiser muy limpio y trabajador. Nació en Madrid y murió en Burjassot 74. Asomado a la ventana el reverendisimo D. Francisco Pastor, que fue por muchos años el vicario de la Ermita de S. Roque y muy amante de Burjassot 75. Dos vecinos muy conocidos, el Gran Tremendo Francisco Ballester muy especializado en la degustación de vinos y aceites y el otro Vicente Muños Culot fue peluquero y muy amante de hacer favores 76. Una casa de campo Masía del Perol donde desfilaron de todas las clases sociales, se llegó a decir la Masia de tot el Món 77. Presidencia de las autoridades valencianas el día que se dio sepultura en la Ermita de S. Roque al Patriarca de las Indias Ilmo. y Revd. Señor D. Francisco Muñoz Izquierdo 78. Entrada oficial del último Sr. Cura antes del año 1936, siendo alcalde D. Bernardo Almenar 79. Las autoridades de Valencia, saliendo de la ermita después de dar sepultura cristiana al Patriarca de las Indias en la Ermita de S. Roque de Burjassot 80. Otro momento de la entrada del Revd. Sr. Cura con las autoridades y vecinos en masa 81. Auto servicio público, fue muy del agrado el servicio por parte del público en general, su primer conductor fue Pepe Moscardó 82. Salida de los niños de la Ermita, en un día de fiesta 83. El segundo día de funcionar el tren eléctrico, al paso por la estación de Burjassot 84 El gran Ramonet el del Molino de la Sal, representando al alcalde a la antigua usanza, acompañado del alguacil Ramón Llopis El Rinconero en la semana fallera en el año 1940, en Burjassot [85]. El sastre de caballerías, el guarnicionero más antiguo que se conoce por el renombre Calatrava en un día de monte [86-87]. En Zaragoza los equipiers de Burjassot en la Puerta del Pilar presididos por el Muy Reverendisimo D. Salvador Soriano por aquel entonces era tenor de la Catedral de Zaragoza por el año 1920 [88-89]. Dos momentos, uno en la Capilla del Asilo Sequera y otro por una de las calles de Burjasot D. Manuel Muñoz Riera [90]. D. Manuel Muñoz en el cementerio momentos antes de darle sepultura ya en tiempos de la República [91]. Entre cuatro verdaderos compatriotas en el momento de darle sepultura en el cementerio de Burjasot a D. Manuel Muñoz cura Asilo Sequera [92]. Ancianos en el jardín del Asilo Sequera tomando el sol [93]. Autoridades el día 12 octubre 1926 presenciando la comida que se les servia a los ancianos desamparados en el asilo [94]. Cuatro conocidos carniceros Quico Moreneta Ramonet Roquet [95]. Un ejemplar su peso en canal 482 Kg [96]. Días antes de la Coronación de la Virgen de la Cabeza por el año 1927 mi padre con su nietecita Lolita
First published in 1869 under title: Moral philosophy. ; CHAPTER IX. DUTIES -- SELF-CULTURE -- Aesthetic -- Its expensiveness -- Elevating tendency -- Increases power -- False refinement -- Fastidiousness -- The cultivated lady -- Culture, how attained -- Degree of attention proper -- Other demands to be cousidered -- Physical culture a duty -- Health -- Manual skill --Manners and habits -- Predominance of the soul -- CHAPTER X. DuTIES -- USEFULNESS -- The true aim -- The natural impulse -- Proper occupation -- Notoriety not usefulness -- Wealth and its uses -- Special obligation of the rich -- Social influence -- Difficulties and duties -- Special duties of the young -- The great want -- CHAPTER XL. DUTIES -- FIDELITY --Faithfulness in contracts -- Binding force -- Threats and promises -- In what sense binding -- When null -- Conditions -- Express and implied contracts -- Effect of the oath -- Marriage engagements -- CHAPTER XII. DUTIES -- VERACITY -- ItS nature and obligation -- Significance of the oath -- Its rightfulness -- Profanity -- Violations of veracity -- Limits of the obligation -- Words and gestures -- Legal practice -- Instinct of veracity -- CHAPTER XIII. DUTIES -- CHASTITY -- Nature of the duty -- Effect and criminality of unchastity -- Injustice of society -- Marriage provided for -- Its nature and conditions -- Moral law of divorce -- Civil law -- Incest -- Concluding remarks. ; SECOND DIVISION -- PERSONAL RIGHTS AND DUTIES -- Managing the market -- Cicero's example -- Law of wages Woman's wages -- Work that is above wages -- Violations of the right of property -- Bankrupt laws -- Prevalence of fraud upon the government -- Mischief of repudiation -- Immorality of gambling --Conflict of labor and capital -- CHAPTER VI. DUTIEs -- PIETY -- Origin of duties -- Nature of piety -- Its relation to religion -- Morality and religion -- Morality attained by religion -- Opposite of piety -- Duty of worship -- Possibility of prayer -- Speculative objections -- Social and public prayer -- The Sabbath -- Change of day -- Obligation permanent -- Proper observance -- Duty of promoting religion -- CHAPTER VII. Bums -- PHILANTHROPY -- PATRIoTIsM --Nature of philanthropy --Its relation to religion -- Its scope -- Proper test -- Misanthropy -- Patriotism as a virtue -- Required by benevolence -- Things opposed to patriotism -- CHAPTER VIII. DUTIES -- SELF-CULTURE -- Its nature and reasons -- Extends to all the faculties -- Spiritual culture -- Its relation to virtuous character --Intellectual culture -- Things to be held subordinate -- Kind of knowledge to be sought -- Culture of the sensibility -- Gives power --Relation to moral character -- Control indirect -- Associations --Books -- Perfection of character. ; CHAPTER III. RIGHTS -- LIBERTY -- Definition and extent -- Basis of the right -- Misapprehension of its origin -- Application to different powers --Principle of toleration -- Freedom of the press -- Free discussion -- Intervention of government in worship and education -- Subjective limitations -- Respect to the consciences of others -- Use of definite rules -- Violations of liberty -- Its defense -- CHAPTER IV. RIGHTS -- REPUTATION -- The interest involved -- How a good -- The precept -- Temptations to its violation -- Duty of exposing wrong -- Slander in truth-telling -- CHAPTER V. RIGHTS -- PROPERTY -- Origin of the right -- The precqpt -- Property, how acquired -- Transferable -- Right of discovery -- Effect of long possession -- Things not to be appropriated -- Animals made property, human beings not -- Limitations of the right -- Law of exchange -- Duty of the vender -- Standard of value. ; SECOND DIVISION -- PERSONAL RIGHTS AND DUTIES -- CHAPTER I. GENERAL PRLNCIPLES -- BaSIS of rights -- The comprehensive right -- Inalienable rights -- Basis of duties -- Correlation of rights and duties -- Positive and negative precepts -- Subjects of rights and duties -- The rights of brutes -- Superior right of rational beings -- CHAPTER II. RIGHTS -- LIFE -- Basis of the right -- Guilt of murder -- Malice and hatred -- Manslaughter -- Related crimes -- Right of self-preservation limited -- Self-defense -- Protection of property -- Carrying weapons -- Dueling -- Objections to self-defense -- Euthanacia. ; CHAPTER VIII. FAMILV GOVERNMENT -- Has a natural foundation -- Limited in its subjects -- Wide in its application to interests -- Mode of constitution -- Question of headsbip -- A relation of confidence -- To be entered upon with deliberation -- Maintained with care -- A natural sphere for each -- Relations of the family to the state and to society -- CHAPTER IX. DUTIES OF PARENT AND CHILD -- OF TEACHER AND PUPIL -- Chief work of the family -- Place of parental affection -- Leading duty of the parent -- Duty of obedience and its natural termination -- Claim of the child -- Limit of obedience -- Duty in maturity toward dependent parents -- The teacher's authority -- Its extent -- Need of closer definition -- The pupil's duty -- Unnatural antagonism -- Mutual regard -- Unfavorable tendencies -- Extreme in dividualism -- Independence of opinion. ; PART 11. PRACTICAL ETHICS -- PRELIMINARY REMARKS -- FIRST DIVISION -- CHAPTER V. PENALTIES IN CIVIL GOVERNMENT -- Uses of penalties -- Dangerous tendency -- Capital punishment -- Reasons for it -- Objection -- CHAPTER VI. LIMITS OF OBEDIENcE TO CIVIL GOVERNMENT -- GOvernment subordinate -- The higher law applied to a democratic state -- No general formula -- Laws, just, indifferent, unjust -- Two possible courses -- Duty of a subordinate magistrate -- Right of revolution -- Apprehended tendency -- Errors in two directions -- CHAPTER VII. THE RELATIONS OF NATIONS To EACH OTHER -- Obligation of nations limited -- Laws of nations -- Duty to respect each other's sovereignty -- Duty in case of rebellion -- In treaties -- In commercial intercourse -- Duty of self-preservation -- The rightfulness of war -- In case of resistance at home -- In case of aggression from without -- In defense of the weak -- In suppression of out rage -- In justifiable revolution -- Objections -- The true aim in war -- Duties in war. ; CHAPTER I. GOVERNMENT -- ITS NATURE AND F0UNDATI0N -- Definitions -- Relation of sanctions to government -- Object of government -- Its right to exist -- The right to govern -- Duty to govern -- Designation of the ruler -- Form of government -- Extent of authority -- Not dependent on desire of the governed -- CHAPTER II. THE DIVINE GOVERNMENT -- Its constitution -- Why God assumes the government -- The divine law -- How known to men -- Revealed law --Authority of examples -- The Saviour's example -- Genuine virtue required -- Personality of the law -- Application to communities -- Dealing with nations -- National sins -- CHAPTER III. PENALTIES UNDER THE DIVINE GOVERNMENT -- Nature of penalty -- Effects of penalty -- Relation of penalty to desert -- True reason of penalty -- Its extent -- Discipline and penalty -- Necessity of penalty in the divine government -- Degree and duration -- Guilt everlasting -- Natural consequences not penalty -- Physical law and penalty -- Remorse and penalty -- Providential conse quence -- CHAPTER IV. CIVIL GOVERNMENT -- Its foundation -- Right to govern -- The form of government -- A legitimate government -- A tyranny -- Constitutions -- Not a social compact -- Right and duty of voting -- The ruler a servant -- Doctrine of instruction -- Right of the majority -- Principle of representation -- The will of the governed a controlling element -- General tendency to democracy -- Relation of law to righteousness -- Mistakes. ; CHAPTER XI. -- THEORIES OF OBLIGATION -- Of right as ultimate -- Of obligation as originating in the will of God -- Difficulties -- Reason not ultimate -- Obligation known intuitively -- No character in God -- Relativity of morality -- Unscriptural -- Founded in the reason or nature of God -- Of spiritual worthiness as ultimate -- Hickok's view -- Janet's -- Seelye's -- Personal perfection not the true aim the term good -- Ambiguous use -- Virtue as ultimate -- Complacency not virtue -- Virtue a quality of choice, not its object -- Of abstract right as ultimate -- Axiom of the theory -- Does not explain the virtues -- Gives no unity to virtue -- Rightness not the final motive -- Maxim of the theory -- Acting from principle -- Rightness not ultimate -- Incidental advantages of the theory of benevolence. ; CHAPTER X. THEORIES OF OBLIGATION -- The question -- Different answers -- Reason for the difference -- Socrates and Plato -- Aristotle -- Doctrine of the Stoics -- Of the Epicureans -- Modern views -- Paley -- Taylor -- Difficulties -- Psychological error -- No freedom -- Misrepresents benevolence -- Mistakes the motive -- Makes no difference between the good and the bad -- Does not accord with Scripture -- Utilitarianism -- Misapplication of the term -- Needed discrimination -- "Holy Happiness" -- Kind of happiness to be sought -- Spencer's "Ethics." ; CHAPTER VIII. CONSCIENCE -- IS IT A GUIDE? -- Definition and office -- Impulse of Conscience -- Approval and condemnation -- Aesthetic conscience -- Conscience as a guide -- Intervention of judgment -- Different views -- Whately and Alexander -- Sins of ignorance -- Rational conscience the guide, not the emotional, nor the casthetic -- Conscientiousness -- Paul -- Honesty -- Sincerity --Conscience educated, enlightened, perverted -- Feeling of obligation -- CHAPTER IX. UNITY OR SIMPLICITY OF MORAL AcTI0N -- Virtue and sin contradictory -- Their coexistence impossible -- Different hypotheses to explain their coexistence -- Imperfect powers -- From the fall --From past sin -- Right intention with wrong thoughts and feelings -- Mixed motives -- Partial regard for good -- Lack of intensity -- Right ultimate choice and wrong acts -- The teaching of the Scriptores -- Practical teaching -- N.W. Taylor -- Objections and answers -- Prevailing consciousness -- Negative testimony -- No room for improvement -- Degrees of goodness -- Degrees of sinfulness -- Temptation and guilt -- Knowledge of past sinfulness -- General bearing of the doctrine. ; CHAPTER VI. ADDITIONAL REMARKS AND INFERRNCES -- Universality of the law of benevolence -- Works of supererogation impossible -- Morality personal, not transferable -- Ambiguity of the term character -- The seat of moral depravity -- Total moral depravity -- The moral change required -- Relation of emotion to the moral state -- Moral character in consciousness -- Moral consistency -- CHAPTER VII. RIGHT AND WRONG -- DUTY, KNOWN ANO UNKNOWN -- NEED OF A REvELATI0N -- Ambiguity of the terms right and wrong -- Absolute right and wrong -- Relative right and wrong -- Objective and subjective right and wrong -- Right and wrong per se -- The expedient and the right -- Our knowledge of the right -- End and means -- Doing evil that good may Come -- Least of two evils -- Known and unknown dUty -- Need of revelation to furnish motive and to indicate objective duty. ; CHAPTER V. OF PARTICULAR VICES -- Their common element -- Their relation to sinful character -- Their origin -- Sensuality -- Ambition -- Avarice -- Pride and vanity -- Selfishness -- The desire not sinful -- Malevolent impulses -- Natural or impulsive goodness -- Two characters possible -- Apparent goodness -- Right moral judgments -- Kindly affections -- Devotional feelings -- Impulsive virtues, their relation to true virtue -- Imitative goodness -- Deficiency exhibited -- Are the impulsive virtues sinful? -- Their utility. ; PART 1.--THEORETICAL -- CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY DEFINITIONS. -- Divisions of the science -- Topics treated of -- Obligation a simple idea -- Undefinable --Attempted definitions --A moral being or person --Essential attributes -- Intellect -- Sensibility -- Free-will -- A moral act -- The moral element, where found -- Different forms of voluntary action -- More exact location of the moral element -- Character and intention -- Two kinds of moral action -- CHAPTER II. RIGHT OR VIRTUOUS ACTION -- The true good -- Absolute and relative good -- Illustrations of the two -- Mere animal life valuable -- The Summum Bonum -- No comparison of the two forms of good -- Happiness -- Obligation, how perceived -- Regard to our own good -- Of virtue as good -- Of benevolence as virtue -- Benevolence in consciousness -- CHAPTER III. WRONG OR SINFUL ACTION -- Its nature -- Its motive -- Its form, how determined --Gratification of desire not sin -- Sin subordinates reason -- No rational end in sin -- Sin not a choice of evil -- Sin not selfishness --Impossibility of making one's own good the supreme end -- Sin in consciousness -- Self-gratification not the intelligent end -- Sin subjection to impulse, or carnal-mindedness -- Desires and passions not sinful -- Their uses -- CHAPTER IV. OF THE PARTICULAR VIRTUES -- Benevolence the root -- Constitutes right character -- Its relation to the particular virtues, and to right acts -- Love -- Gratitude -- Justice not an independent -- virtue -- Mercy not opposed to justice -- Self-denial --Veracity -- Humility -- Faith -- Obedience -- The teaching of Scripture -- Misapprehensions of benevolence -- Interdependence of the virtues. ; Mode of access: Internet.
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Karanji Khurd microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 446 ha in Karanji Khurd microwatershed in Humnabad taluk of Bidar district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought prone with an average annual rainfall of 811 mm of which about 609 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 109 mm during north-east and the remaining 93 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 96 per cent is covered by soils, one per cent covered by rock lands and 3 per cent by others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 5 soil series and 17 soil phases (management units) and 3 land use classes. The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from the 1st week of June to 2nd week of October. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. About 85 per cent area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture and 15 per cent is not suitable for agriculture but well suited for forestry, pasture. About 85 per cent of the soils are deep to very deep (100- >150 cm) and 11 per cent are very shallow (25-50 cm) soils. Entire area has clayey soils at the surface. Entire area is covered by non-gravelly soils. About 44 per cent of the area has soils that are very high (>200mm/m) in available water capacity, 18 per cent medium (100-150 mm/m) and about 33 per cent low (50-100 mm/m) and very low (0.75%), 4 per cent is low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus. About 21 per cent area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium. Available sulphur is low (20 ppm). Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) and 8 per cent deficient (0.6 ppm). The land suitability for 19 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, farm price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 197 (44) 82 (19) Sapota - 146 (33) Maize - 82 (19) Jackfruit 66 (15) 79 (18) Red gram - 279 (63) Jamun 66 (15) 276 (62) Sunflower 197 (44) 82 (18) Musambi - 343 (77) Cotton 197 (44) 82 (18) Lime - 343 (77) Sugarcane - 82 (18) Cashew 3 (<1) 165 (37) Soybean 241 (54) 39(9) Custard apple 69 (16) 294 (66) Bengalgram 241 (54) 39(9) Amla 66(15) 297 (67) Guava - 146 (33) Tamarind 66(15) 276 (52) Mango - 78 (18) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 3 identified LCUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fibre and horticulture crops that helps in maintaining the ecological balance in the microwatershed Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges that would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass. This would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also help in mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Karanji Khurd micro-watershed (Raipalli sub-watershed, Humnabad taluk, Bidar district) is located in between 17039' – 17041' North latitudes and 77012' – 77015' East longitudes, covering an area of about 446 ha, bounded by Mustari, Chitgoppa, Bannahalli and Bilkhera villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120- 150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Karanji Khurd micro-watershed in Raipalli sub-watershed, Humnabad taluk and Bidar district are presented here. Social Indicators; Male and female ratio is 71.1 to 28.9 per cent to the total sample population. Younger age group of 18 to 30 populations is around 60.0 per cent to the total population. Literacy population is around 82.2 per cent. Social groups belong to scheduled caste is around 30.0 per cent. Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is the source of energy for a cooking among 60.0 per cent. About 75.0 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card. Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 70.0 per cent. Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 60.0 per cent of sample households. Rural migration to urban centre for employment is preventing among 10.0 per cent of farm households. Women participation in decisions making are around 50.0 per cent of households were found. Economic Indicators; The average land holding is 1.3 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to small and medium farmers. Total cultivated area by dry land condition of among sample households. 2 Agriculture is the main occupation among 38.2 per cent and agriculture is the main agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 29.4 per cent of sample households. The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 112687 per household. Mobile and television are popular communication mass media. The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 250 per household, around 10 per cent of sample farmers having weeder. The average value of livestock is around Rs. 19500 per household; about 20.0 per cent of household are having livestock. The average per capita food consumption is around 835.1 grams (1698.4 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition recommendation at 827 gram. Around 40.0 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation. The annual average income is around Rs.42793 per household. About 90.0 per cent of farm households are below poverty line. The per capita monthly average expenditure is around Rs.1765. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services; The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use. The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 982 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 417469 per year for the total area of 445.9 ha. The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 6636/ ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in red gram (Rs. 9600) followed by soybean (Rs. 3671). The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in redgram (Rs. 48024) followed by soybeans (Rs. 20594). Economic Land Evaluation; The major cropping pattern is redgram (90.6 %) and soybean (9.4 %). In Karanji Khurd micro watershed, major soils are Devgiri (DGR) series is having deep soil depth covers around 1.5 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing red gram. BNG soil series are having very deep soil depth covers around 44.2 % of area; the crops are redgram (88.3 %) and soybean (11.7 %). The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for red gram ranges between Rs. 36603/ha in BGN soil (with BCR of 1.32) and Rs. 30426/ha in DGR soil (with BCR of 1.19). 3 In soybean the cost of cultivation in BGN soil is Rs 28478/ha (with BCR of 1.13). The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM. It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions; Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices. Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments. By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households. By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in redgram (39.4 to 50.8 %) and soybean (23.8 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
El consentimiento informado (CI) en medicina corre el riesgo de quedar reducido a un formalismo legal sin valor moral; esto puede suceder por dos cosas: 1) como consecuencia de que el paciente no comprenda con suficiencia el concepto de autonomía y 2) debido a la disminución de la autonomía práctica del paciente por efecto de la autoridad del personal médico o de las instituciones de salud. Este artículo tiene como fin mostrar bajo qué condiciones se puede evitar la reducción del CI a un formalismo legal desprovisto de valor moral. Para servir a este propósito, se considera el concepto de autonomía relacional como eje articulador que pone en relación al paciente con su comunidad moral y con el médico, lo que impulsa al personal de la salud a proporcionar las condiciones para tal fin. Así, se afirma que la valía moral del CI puede conservarse, primero, a partir de una concepción relacional de la autonomía y, segundo, mediante la aplicación, por parte del médico y de la institución, de un protocolo que disminuya la posibilidad de choque entre la autonomía y la autoridad. ; The Informed Consent (IC) in medicine runs the risk of being reduced to a legal formality without moral value. This can happen for two reasons: 1) because the patient does not understand sufficiently the concept of autonomy and 2) due to the decrease, in the practice, of the patient´s autonomy by the impact of the authority of the medical staff or health institutions. So, this article aims at showing under what conditions it is possible to avoid this reduction of the IC. To serve this purpose, the concept of relational autonomy is considered as the axis that relates the patient with his moral community and his physician, and this impels to health personnel to provide the conditions for that purpose. Thus, it is stated that the moral worth of the IC can be keep up, first, from a relational conception of autonomy and, second, through application, by the doctor and the institution of a protocol that reduces the possibility of shock between autonomy and authority.
Anadolu, bin yıllar boyunca birçok medeniyete ev sahipliği yapmış, birçok kültürü, birçok dili bünyesinde barındırmış, prehistorik dönemlerden günümüze insanlara yurt olmuş toprak parçasıdır. XIX. yüzyılın başlarından itibaren Batılı arkeologların ilgisini çeken bu topraklar, XX. yüzyılın ortaları ile Sualtı Arkeologlarının ilgisini çekmeye başlamıştır. Özellikle sualtı araştırmaları Anadolu'nun güney ve batı kıyılarında yoğunlaşmıştır. Marmara Denizi'nde Marmara Adası etrafında, Küçükçekmece Gölü'nde sualtı araştırmaları yapılırken, Güney Marmara kıyılarında sadece 2008 yılında Kyzikos (Erdek)'te sualtı çalışmaları gerçekleştirilmiştir. Marmara Denizi, özellikle günümüzden 7100 yıl önce Ege ve Karadeniz ile birleşmesinden sonra önemini arttırmıştır. Bu tarihten sonra, Karadeniz'in kuzeyindeki medeniyetler ile Akdeniz medeniyetleri arasında bir köprü vazifesi görmüştür. Neolitik dönemden itibaren çevresinde yaşam izleri tespit edilen Marmara Denizi, özellikle kolonizasyon hareketlerinden sonra bir çok kente ev sahipliği yapmıştır. Çanakkale Boğazı üzerinden Marmara Denizi'ne giren Akdeniz medeniyetleri Marmara Denizi kıyılarında koloni kentleri kurmuşlardır. Marmara Denizi'nin güney kıyıları uzun yıllar araştırmacıların dikkatini çekmeyi beklemiştir. Anadolu topraklarının diğer bölümleri ile karşılaştırıldığında, Güney Marmara kıyılarının ne kadar boşlandığı daha net anlaşılmaktadır. Bu sebep ile, bu çalışmanın alanı olarak Güney Marmara bölgesinin antik limanları seçilmiştir. Güney Marmara kıyılarında dört farklı ilin (Çanakkale, Balıkesir, Bursa, Yalova) sınırları mevcuttur. Bakanlık her çalışma döneminde bir il için çalışma izni vermektedir. Bir dönemde bir ilin kıyı şeridinin araştırılması imkansız olduğu için çalışmamız yalnızca Bursa il sınırları içerisindeki antik limanlar ile sınırlandırılmıştır. Marmara Denizi'ndeki 135 kilometrelik Bursa kıyılarının yanı sıra İznik ve Uluabat göllerinin kıyıları da taranmıştır. Çalışmalarımıza başlamadan önce tüm antik kaynaklar, geç dönem seyyahları ve modern araştırmacılardan bölge ile ilgili bilgiler derlenmiştir. Strabon, Herodotos, Pseudo-Skylaks, Apollonius Rhodius, Xenephon, Yaşlı Plinius, Dio Chysostum, Claudius Ptolemy, Stephanos Byzantinos, Pomponius Mela ve Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus gibi bölge hakkında bilgi veren antik yazarlar incelenmiştir. Ayrıca, Seyyid Muradi, İbn Battuta, Polonya'lı Simeon, Evliya Çelebi, Jean Thevenot, Richard Pockocke ve Charles Texier gibi seyyahların bölge limanları ve liman kentleri üzerlerine yazdığı bilgiler toplanmış ve araştırmalar esnasında yol gösterici olarak göz önünde tutulmuştur. Tüm bu kaynaklarda, özellikle kıyı kentleri ve liman yapıları üzerinde durulmuştur. Özellikle deniz ticaretinin başladığı dönemlerden itibaren, antik limanlar kent bölünmesi içinde en önemli noktalar konumuna gelmişlerdir. Ticaretin kentte başladığı ilk yer olmaları nedeni ile yaşamın direkt içinde olmuşlardır. Limanlar, gemilerin barınmalarına, yük alıp boşaltmalarına, yolcu indirip bindirmelerine yarayan doğal veya yapay sığınaklardır. Kente gelen tüccarların ilk ve son gördükleri yer limanlardır. Fakat, bu kadar önemli bir konumda olmalarına rağmen, araştırmacılar tarafından hak ettiği önemi yıllar boyunca görmemişlerdir. Bugüne kadar Anadolu kıyılarında limanlar üzerine yapılan çalışmaların sayısı bunu göstermektedir. Çalışma konumuz olan Bursa ili kıyılarında bugüne kadar yapılmış bir çalışma bulunmamaktadır. İnsan elinden çıkmış olan bilinen en eski su taşıtı M.Ö. 6000 yıllarına tarihlenirken, bilinen en eski liman yapısı M.Ö. 3000'lere tarihlenmektedir. İnsanoğlunun artan ihtiyaçları doğrultusunda kullandıkları su taşıtlarının ebatlarının büyümesi neticesinde yerleşimlerde deniz taşıtlarını koruyacak güvenli alanlara ihtiyaç doğmuştur. Gemilerin karaya çekilemeyecek boyuta gelmelerinden ve sualtında inşa fırsatı veren hidrolik çimentonun kullanılması ile liman yapıları karşımıza çıkmaya başlamıştır. Limanlar, kentlerin kuruldukları yerlere göre farklı şekillerde inşa edilmişlerdir. Bulundukları yere göre ve işlevlerine göre limanları iki ayrı başlık altında gruplamak mümkündür. Bulundukları yere göre, Deniz Limanları ve Tatlı Su Limanları olarak adlandırılmışlardır. Deniz Limanları ise yine kendi içinde, kıyı şeridinin farklılık göstermesi nedeni ile doğal veya yapay limanlar olarak ikiye ayrılırlar. Göl, nehir gibi tatlı suların kıyı şeritlerinin düz olması nedeniyle bilinen tüm tatlı su limanları yapaydır. Bir limanın yapay veya doğal liman olmasını belirleyen faktör liman havzasının inşa şeklidir. Doğal limanlar, koylarda inşa edildiği için liman olarak koyun su havzası kullanılmıştır. Yapay limanlarda ise, su havzası dalgakıran veya mendirekler yardımı ile yapılmaktadır. Ayrıca antik limanlar fonksiyonlarına göre askeri limanlar, ticari limanlar ve özel limanlar olarak üç başlık altında toplamak mümkündür. Dünya üzerindeki liman araştırmaları XX. yüzyılın başlarında başlamıştır. Anadolu kıyılarında ilk araştırmalar ise 1960'dan sonra başlamaktadır. Anadolu kıyılarında bugüne kadar Phaselis, Limantepe, Myndos, Kyzikos ve Küçükçekmece göllerinde gerçekleştirilmiştir. Fakat son 20 yıl içerisinde üniversitelerde yüksek lisans ve doktora seviyelerinde liman araştırmalarının yapılması gelecek için umut vaat edicidir. Bursa kıyıları, Anadolu toprakları gibi birçok medeniyete ev sahipliği yapmıştır. Antik kaynaklardan bildiğimiz kadarı ile bölgede oturan en eski medeniye Bebrklerdir. Bölgede genel olarak yaşayan halk Trak kökenli halklardır. Mysialılar, Frigyalılar ve Bithynialılar arasında bölgede bir hakimiyet savaşı söz konusudur. Kimi zaman Bursa kıyı şeridi Mysialıların kontrolüne geçerken, kimi zaman Bithynialılar kontrolünde olmuştur. Kimi antik kaynağa göre Kios (Gemlik) Mysia kenti iken, kimine göre Phygia, kimine göre ise Bithynia topraklarındadır. Persler M.Ö. 547 yılında Lidya Krallığı'nı yok edince bölgeye hakim olmuşlardır. Perslerin tüm Anadolu'da uzun yıllar hakimiyetlerinden söz etmek mümkündür. Fakat, M.Ö. V. yüzyılın ortasından sonra Bursa kıyıları da dahil olmak üzere, Marmara Denizi'nin güney kıyılarında Yunanlıların hakim olduğu bilinmektedir. Büyük İskender'in M.Ö. 333 yılında Anadolu'ya girmesi ile Perslerin Anadolu'daki hakimiyetleri yok olmuştur. İskender, Bithynia üzerine saldırı yapsa da, burası ile fazla ilgilenmeyerek Anadolu içlerine yürüyüşüne devam etmiştir. M.Ö. 202 yılına kadar Bursa ilindeki Kios, Myrleia gibi önemli yerleşimler bu dönemde kent devletleri statüsünde gözükmektedir. M.Ö. 202 yılında Prusias tarafından yeniden inşa edilen şehirler Bithynia Krallığı hakimiyetine girmişlerdir. M.Ö. 75/74 yılında Bithynia toprakları miras yolu ile Roma İmparatorluğu'na devredilmiştir. Bu dönemde Mithradates ile Pompeius arasında bölge için önemli mücadeleler olmuştur. Bursa kıyılarında kısa bir süre Mithradates'in egemenliği söz konusu olsa da, M.Ö. 63 yılından sonra ise Roma İmparatorluğu hakimiyetindedir. M.S. 395 yılında Roma İmparatorluğu'nun ikiye bölünmesinden sonra Bursa ili kıyılarındaki yerleşimlerde Doğu Roma İmparatorluğu hakimiyetine girmişlerdir. Uzun yıllar Bizans (Doğu Roma) İmparatorluğu hakimiyetinde kalan kıyı şeridi yerleşimleri, M.S. 1320'den sonra Osmanlı İmparatorluğu hakimiyetine girmişlerdir. Kolonizasyon hareketleri sonrası Marmara Denizi'nde ticari bir hareketlilik söz konusu olmuştur. Çanakkale Boğazı üzerinden Marmara Denizi'ne giren halklar yeni koloni kentleri kurmuşlardır. Bu kurulan kentler ve siyasi olaylar hakkındaki bilgiler deniz ticaret rotalarını çizmemize yardımcı olmuştur. Antik dönemde denizciler istedikleri zaman sefer yapamıyorlardı. M.S. IV. yüzyılın sonlarında yaşamış olan antik yazar Vagetius denizcilerin sefer takvimi hakkında bilgi vermektedir. Vagetius'a göre Antik Dönem denizciliği için meteoroloji ve hakim rüzgarlar oldukça önemlidir. Gemilerin sefer yapmalarına uygun belirli tarihler mevcuttur. Denizin şiddeti ve durumu tüm yıl sefer yapılmasına imkan sağlamamaktadır. 27 Mayıs'tan 14 Eylül'e kadar sefer yapmak güvenli iken, bu tarihten itibaren yaklaşık 11 Kasım tarihlerine kadar sefer için hava şartları ve denizler şüpheli ve tehlikelidir. 11 Kasım'dan 10 Mart'a kadar ise denizlerin tamamen sefere uygun olmadığından bahsetmektedir. Denizciler, uygun hava şartları için sefer mevsimini beklemek zorundaydılar. M.S. XVII. yüzyılda da Vagetius'un verdiği tarihler sefer için geçerliliğini korumaktadır. 1775-1776 yılındaki Seyir Defteri'nde Osmanlı gemilerinin Nisan – Kasım ayları arasında sefer yaptığı anlaşılmaktadır. Vagetius'un bahsettiği tarihlerden günümüze yaklaşık 1500 yıl geçmesine ve gelişen gemi teknolojilerine rağmen, Marmara Denizi'nde Mudanya – İstanbul seferini yapan gemiler hava şartları nedeni ile en çok Kasım - Mart aylarında iptal edilmektedir. M.S. IV. yüzyıl ile M.Ö. VII. yüzyıl arasında coğrafyada ve iklim kuşaklarında çok fazla değişiklik olmadığına göre, Vagetius'un vermiş olduğu dönemlerin VII. yüzyıldan itibaren geçerli olduğunu düşünmek yanlış olmayacaktır. Antik kaynaklara göre, kurulan ilk koloni kentleri Marmara Denizi'nin güney kıyılarında kurulmuştur. M.Ö. 756 yılında Kyzikos, M.Ö. 709 yılında Parion, M.Ö. 712 yılında Astacus, Marmara Denizi'ndeki koloni kentlerinin ilk öncüleridir. Kios'un kuruluşu ise M.Ö. 627 yılına tarihlenmektedir. Marmara Denizi'nin kuzey kıyılarında yer alan, Chalkedon M.Ö. 685'te, Selymbria M.Ö. 668'den önce, Byzantium M.Ö. 668'te, Perinthos M.Ö. 602'de, Thracia Chersonesus (Gelibolu) M.Ö. 561'de kolonileştirilmişlerdir. Marmara Denizi'ndeki kolonizasyon hareketlerine baktığımızda Çanakkale Boğazı'ndan Marmara Denizi'ne girildikten sonra en erken koloni kentlerinin Marmara'nın güney kıyılarında kurulduğu görülmüştür. Bu da güney kıyılarında bir ticaretin olduğunu kabul etmemize nedendir. M.Ö. V. yüzyılda dönemin önemli deniz gücü Atina liderliğinde, Perslere karşı ortak mücadele etmek amacı ile Delos Birliği kurulmuştur. Birliğin ilk işi Çanakkale Boğazı'nı ve Marmara kıyılarını Perslerden temizlemek olmuştur. M.Ö. V. Yüzyıldaki deniz ticareti ile ilgili elimizdeki en önemli arkeolojik verilerin başında Atina Vergi Listeleri gelmektedir. Bu listelerde Attika-Delos Deniz Birliği'ne vergi veren kentler ve vergi oranları gözükmektedir. Buna göre Marmara Denizi kıyısında vergi veren birçok kentin adı ile karşılaşmaktayız. Bu kentlerden bazılarının vergi oranları da gözükmektedir. Bu listelere göre, Marmara Denizi'nin güney kıyılarında kurulmuş olan Parion 1 talent, Procennesos 3 talent, Kyzikos 9 talent, Kios 1000 drahmi, Astacus 1 talent 300 drahmi vergi verir iken, kuzey kıyılarındaki Perinthos 10 talent, Selymbria 6 talent, Byzantium 15 talent, Chalcedon 7 talent vergi vermektedir. Vergi oranlarının şehirlerin ekonomik durumu ile doğru orantılı olduğu düşünülürse, M.Ö. V. yüzyılda kuzey kıyılardaki kentlerin güney kıyılarındaki kentlerden daha zengin olduğunu ortaya koymaktadır. Bu gelişmiş ekonomi bize dönemin deniz ticaret rotalarını da vermektedir. Marmara Denizi'nin ticaret rotaları M.Ö. VIII. yüzyıl içerisinde güney kıyılarında daha aktif iken, M.Ö. V. yüzyıl ile birlikte ana ticaret rotası kuzey kıyılarına kaymıştır. Bu dönemde, Marmara Denizi'nin hakimiyeti tamamen Perslerin elinde gözükmektedir. Bu dönem Persler ile Yunanlıların büyük mücadeleleri vardır. Marmara Denizi'nin bir Pers gölü haline gelmesi nedeni ile Pers satraplığına bağlı tüm kıyılarda özgürce bir dolaşımdan söz etmek olasıdır. M.Ö. V. yüzyılın ortasından sonra Marmara Denizi de dahil olmak üzere Ege Denizi kıyılarında Attika Delos Deniz Birliği'nin etkisi gözükmektedir. Fakat Anadolu'daki Pers varlığı Marmara Denizi'ndeki ticaret yollarını güney kıyılarından uzak tutmuş olmalıdır. M.Ö. IV. yüzyılın sonlarında özellikle Kios'un bastırdığı altın sikkeleri kentin ekonomisinin iyiliğine işaret etmektedir. Bu da, Bursa ili topraklarındaki kentlerinde bu dönemde ticaret yolları üzerinde bulunduğunu göstermektedir. Roma Dönemi'nde tüm Marmara Denizi kıyıları Roma İmparatorluğu güvencesi altına alınmıştır. Kuzeyde Perinthos, bölgenin en önemli limanı ve Via Egnatia yolunun başlangıç noktasıdır. Ayrıca kent, Roma ordularının geçiş istasyonu ve toplanma noktası olarak oldukça önemli bir konumda bulunmaktadır. Roma dönemi kentlerine ve bölgedeki siyasi olaylara göz attığımızda Marmara'nın güney kıyıları çok daha problemlidir. Özellikle Mitridates VI'nın Bithynia kıyılarında Romalılara üstünlük kurması ve Nikaia (İznik), Mryleia (Mudanya) ve Kios (Gemlik) gibi kıyı kentlerini ele geçirmesi nedeni ile bu bölge Romalılar için ticarete elverişsiz duruma gelmiştir. M.Ö. 74 yılında Bithynia topaklarının vasiyet yolu ile Roma İmparatorluğuna bağlanmış ve M.Ö. I. yüzyılın ikinci yarısında Apameia, "Colonia Iulia Concordia Apamea" ismi ile bir Roma kolonisi olmuştur. Güney kıyıları da güvenlik altına alındıktan sonra tüm Marmara Denizi kıyıları ticarete elverişli duruma gelmiş olmalıdır. Perinthos'ta bulunan ve M.S. III. Yüzyıla tarihlenen bir yazıt Roma döneminde Perinthos ile Apameia'nın iyi ilişkiler içinde olduğunu, hatta Perinthos'ta "Apameia'yı Sevenler Cemiyeti" olduğunu göstermektedir. Bu dönemde bütün Marmara Denizi sınırları içerisinde bir ticaretin olduğu görülmektedir. Ayrıca Romalıların Marmara Denizi'nin iki yanında birer koloni kurması ve bu kolonilerin irtibatta olmaları bir tesadüf olmamalıdır. Perinthos'un Via Egnatia ile Roma ve Trakya kentlerine bağlandığı gibi, Colonia Iulia Concordia Apameia'nın da Anadolu içleri ile Prusa üzerinden bağlantısı vardır. Tüm bu veriler ışığında, M.Ö. 6000'lerde insanoğlu Marmara Denizi'ni besin sağlama amacı ile kullanmaya başlamıştır. M.Ö. VIII. yüzyıl ile birlikte Marmara Denizi deniz ticaretinde ismini duyurmuştur. Arkaik, Klasik, Helenistik, Roma, Bizans ve Osmanlı dönemleri boyunca siyasi etkiler nedeni ile farklı deniz rotaları oluşmuştur. Her dönemde, değişen deniz rotaları kentlerin gelişmelerini etkilemiştir. Marmara Denizi deniz rotası üzerindeki kentler, gelişmeye sürekli devam etmiştir. Perinthos Antik Kenti ile Via Egnatia örneğinde olduğu gibi, limanlar bir yol ağı ile iç bölgelere ulaşıma sahip olmalıdırlar. Bu nedenle bölgede yol ağları üzerine de bir çalışma gerçekleştirilmiştir. Liman kentleri ile iç bölgeleri bağlayan yollar tespit edilmeye çalışılmıştır. Antik kaynaklardan bildiğimiz Prusa – Apameia bağlantısına ait arkeolojik bir veri ile karşılaşılmamıştır. Fakat yazıtlar ışığında Nicaea'dan Kios'a ulaşan bir yolun varlığı bilinmektedir. Bursa ili kıyıları kıyı yapısı, kayaç ve toprak yapısı ile antik kentlerin konumları karşılaştırılmıştır. Bu karşılaştırma sonucunda kıyı şeridi, kayaç ve toprak yapısı ile antik kentlerin konumları arasında bir bağlantı bulunamamıştır. Tarım toprakları haritası incelendiğinde ise, tüm önemli antik kentlerin (Myrleia, Kios, Daskyleion ad Mare) günümüzde zeytin dikim alanlarında kurulduğu ve verimli topraklara sahip olduğu anlaşılmıştır. Plakia Antik Kenti'nin konumu bazı antik kaynaklar tarafından verilse de, yeri hakkında soru işaretleri mevcuttur. Kent hakkında bilinenler, Rhyndakos Nehri'nin batısında, Pelasg kolonisi ve kıyı yerleşmesi olmasıdır. Yaptığımız araştırmalar esnasında, Kurşunlu/Karacabey'de sualtında oldukça tahrip edilmiş dalgakıran yapısı ile karşılaşılmıştır. Araştırma sahamızın başladığı alandan itibaren Rhyndakos Nehri'ne kadar tespit edilen tek liman kalıntısı burasıdır. Liman'ın üst kısmında bulunan manastır ve mimari parçalar bölgenin tarihini çok daha eskiye götürmektedir. Tespit ettiğimiz limanın, erken dönemlerde Plakia halkı tarafından kullanılan bir liman, Geç Antik Çağ'da ise Manastır Limanı olarak görev yaptığı düşünülmektedir. Burasının kesin olarak Plakia Antik Kenti'ne ait bir liman demek için en azından yazıtlar ile desteklenmesi gerekmektedir. Bu nedenle, bölgede başka bir liman kalıntısı bulunmamasından dolayı burasını Plakia Antik Kenti'nin limanı olarak tanımlamak uygun görülmüştür. Liman, iki dalgakıran yardımı oluşturulmuş, yapay deniz limanıdır. Dalgakıranlar iri düzensiz taşların yığılması ile meydana getirilmiştir. Daskyleion ad Mare ile Eşkel Limanı eşleştirilmesi XX. yüzyılın başlarında yapılmıştır. Bu nedenle, kentin limanını aramaya yönelik çalışmalar yapılmıştır. Eski fotoğraflardan kentin limanı tespit edilmiş, modern yapılaşmanın dalgakıran ve liman üzerindeki tahribatı belgelenmiştir. Kentin bir tek limanı olduğu ve bunun da koyun içinde inşa edildiği anlaşılmıştır. Dalgakıranı iri, düzensiz taşların yığması ile meydana getirilmiştir. Ketendere'nin gerek konumu, gerekse buluntuları nedeni ile bir kent olarak algılanmaması gerektiği anlaşılmıştır. Ketendere deresinin batı kısmında iri düzensiz taşların yığılması ile meydana getirilmiş bir dalgakıran yapısı tespit edilmiştir. Antik limanlar ve tatlı su kaynaklarının bağlantısı göz önüne alınarak burasının çok küçük deniz taşıtları için kullanıldığı ve Caesarea Germanica kentine ait olması gerektiği görüşü bildirilmiştir. Kapanca Limanı'nda yapılan çalışmalarda 2 adet dalgakıran yapısı tespit edilmiştir. Bu dalgakıranların, iri düzensiz taşların yığılması işe meydana getirildiği anlaşılmıştır. Yüzyıllardır yeri tartışma konusu olan Caesarea Germanica Antik Kenti ile Kapanca Limanı'nın ortak yönleri gösterilerek, burasının Caesarea Germanica olması gerektiği ifade edilmiştir. Trilye kıyılarında yapılan araştırmalar neticesinde ne yazık ki antik döneme tarihleyebileceğimiz hiç bir liman yapısı ile karşılaşılmamıştır. Trilye kıyı şeridindeki modern yapılaşma ve liman tahribatın en büyük sorumlularıdır. Trilye'de yapılmış olan çalışmalar incelendiğinde, burasının bir yerleşim yerinden çok bir kült olanı olarak algılanması gerektiği anlaşılmıştır. Mudanya sınırlarında yaptığımız araştırmalar daha önceden yeri tespit edilmiş olan akropol çevresinde yoğunlaştırılmıştır. Roma Dönemi'nden itibaren Bursa için çok önemli bir liman şehri olan Mudanya'da kıyı şeridinde antik döneme tarihlenebilecek herhangi bir liman kalıntısı tespit edilememiştir. Eşkel, Trilye gibi Mudanya kıyı şeridinin de yoğun olarak doldurulduğu ve yapılaşmaya gidildiği anlaşılmıştır. 1860'lı yıllarda kıyı şeridinde sözü edilen dalgakıran yapılarının bu yapılaşma nedeni yok olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Mudanya – Gemlik arasındaki araştırmalar neticesinde Sırakayalar Mevkii'nde liman yapısı tespit edilmiştir. Dalgakıranlar iri düzensiz taşların dizilmesi ile meydana gelmiştir. Limanın fonksiyonunu anlamak için çevrede yaptığımız araştırmalarda limanın yamaçlarındaki tepe üzerinde yol yapımı ve taş ocağı nedeni ile yoğun tahribatın olduğu gözlenmiştir. Hangi kente ait olduğunu tespit etmek için yaptığımız araştırmalarda, ismi bilinen fakat yeri hakkında soru işaretleri olan Bryllion Antik Kenti ile ortak noktaları tespit edilmiştir. Bu limanın yaklaşık olarak üç kilometre iç kısmında bulunan Gündoğdu'da bulunan antik kent ile bağlantısının olduğu anlaşılmıştır. Bazı bilimadamlarının Paladari olarak isimlendirdiği kentin erken dönemleri hakkında hiçbir bilgi yoktur. Antik yazarlardan bölgede olması muhtemel kentler araştırılmış ve eşlenen tek yerleşim ile filolojik eşleştirilme yapılmaya çalışılmıştır. Tüm veriler göz önünde tutulduğunda Gündoğdu'daki antik kentin Bryllion, limanın arkasındaki tepe üzerinde de Bryllion'un epineonu olan Tereia'nın bulunması gerektiği düşünülmüştür. Bu nedenle kayıp kent Bryllion ile Gündoğdu yakınındaki Çiftekayalar'ın aynı yer olduğu ifade edilmiştir. Özellikle M.S. X. yüzyıldan sonra bölge için önemli bir gemi üretim merkezi olarak bilinen Gemlik'te yapılan araştırmalar neticesinde antik döneme tarihlenebilecek herhangi bir liman veya tersane yapısı ile karşılaşılmamıştır. Kıyı şeridinin tamamen dolduğu ve yeniden yapılaşmanın olduğu anlaşılmıştır. İznik Gölü'nde yapılan araştırmalar esnasında dört farklı noktada iskele kazıkları tespit edilmiştir. Bu kazıkların yerleri ile, bölgede yerleri tahmin edilen antik kentler karşılaştırıldığında birebir örtüşme söz konusudur. Ahşapların tatlı sularda binyıllar boyunca bozulmadan kalabildiği bilinmektedir. Bodrum, Myndos, Antalya, Plakia, Eşkel, Gemlik örneklerinden de bildiğimiz gibi limanların olduğu yerler binyıllar boyunca aynı işlevde yaşamlarını sürdürmüşlerdir. Bu durum göllerde de söz konusu olmalıdır. İznik kenti çevresinde yaptığımız araştırmalarda dalgakıran benzeri bir yapı ile karşılaşılmamıştır. Kentin göl kısmında yoğun dolgu bulunmaktadır. Göl Kapı önünde tespit edilen kazıklar muhtemelen antik kentin iskelesini işaret ediyor olmalıdır. Yüzyıllar boyunca aynı mevki, eskiyen ahşapların yenilenmesi ile kullanılmış olmalıdır. Uluabat Gölü'nde yaptığımız çalışmaların sonuçları İznik Gölü'nde yaptığımız çalışmaların sonuçları ile benzerlik göstermektedir. Her iki gölde de dalgakıran veya mendirek yapısına rastlanmamıştır. Gölyazı (Apollonia ad Rhydakos)'ta yaptığımız çalışmalar neticesinde insitu şeklinde bulunan bağlama taşı limanın tam yerini bize göstermektedir. Bağlama taşı gölden yaklaşık 16 metre içeride bulunmaktadır. Aradan geçen yol ile, olması muhtemel kalıntılar tahrip edilmiştir. Antik kaynaklardan Miletopolitis Gölü kıyısında kurulduğunu bildiğimiz Miletopolis kenti günümüzde tamamen karasal bir alandadır. En yakın göl Uluabat Gölü olup, arasındaki mesafe kuş uçuşu 20 kilometredir. Strabon'un bahsettiği gölü bulmak için çevre topografyası ve coğrafyası üzerine yapılan araştırmalar ile kuruyan gölün sınırları tespit edilmiştir. Müze Müdürlüğü'nün yaptırdığı kazılar neticesinde ortaya çıkan yapılar ve topografya ışığında limanın nerede olması gerektiği açıklanmıştır. Rhyndakos Nehri'nin Uluabat Gölü ve Marmara Denizi arasında kalan kısımdaki çalışmalarda herhangi bir liman yapısı bulunamamıştır. Buradaki çalışmalarda orta boyda balıkçı teknelerinin bile günümüzde bu nehirde yolculuk ettiği ve kıyıda herhangi bir liman yapısına gereksinim duymadan demirleyebildiği anlaşılmıştır. Bu alandaki çalışmalara, herhangi bir buluntu olmaması nedeni ile ayrı bir başlık açılmamıştır. Kıyı şeridindeki ve göllerdeki çalışmalar göstermiştir ki, Bursa il sınırlarında tespit edilen tüm deniz limanlarında dalgakıranlar iri, düzensiz taşlar yardımı inşa edilmiştir. Tatlı sularda ise, herhangi bir dalgakıran yapısı ile karşılaşılmamaktadır. Tatlı sularda liman için ekstra yapılaşma gerekmemektedir. 135 kilometrelik kıyı şeridinde üç adet dalgakıran yapısı tespit edilmiştir. Eşkel, Trilye, Mudanya, ve Gemlik gibi halen yaşamın sürdüğü yerleşim yerlerinde limanların tahrip ve yok edildiği anlaşılmıştır. Kıyı şeridinin düz olması nedeni ile doğal liman hiç yoktur. Tespit edilen limanların hepsi yapay deniz limanıdır. M.Ö. VII. yüzyıldan itibaren deniz ticaretinde aktif olan Marmara Denizi kıyılarındaki limanları tarihlemek için yeterli veri mevcut değildir. Dalgakıranların yapım şeklinden tarihleme yapılamamaktadır. Fakat buluntular ışığında; Plakia Antik Kenti M.Ö. IV. yüzyıl; Daskyleion ad Mare M.Ö. IV. yüzyıl; Caesarea Germanica M.S. I. yüzyıl; Apameia/Myrleia M.Ö. IV. yüzyıl; Bryllion ve Kios M.Ö. V. yüzyıl'a tarihlendirilmektedirler. Plakia – Daskyleion ad Mare arasındaki mesafe 33 kilometre; Daskyleion ad Mare – Caesarea Germanica arası 5 km; Caesarea Germanica – Apamia/Myrleia arası 14 km; Apameia/Myrleia – Bryllion arası 9 km ve Bryllion – arası 17 kilometredir. Aralarındaki mesafeler bakımından bir ortaklık gözükmemektedir. Bu nedenle, bölgede liman kentleri kurulurken aralarındaki mesafeden çok coğrafya şartlarına dikkat edilmiştir. ; From prehistoric times to modern times, Anatolia has been home to many civilizations. It has hosted many cultures and many different languages have been spoken on this very piece of land. Since the 19th century, these lands attracted the attention of western archaeologists. Then, in the middle of the 20th century, it started to attract the attention of underwater archaeologists. Underwater research is particularly concentrated on the south and west coasts of Anatolia. While underwater research has been carried out around Marmara Island, at the lake of Küçükçekmece at the Marmara Sea, the only underwater research carried out in 2008 happened at Kyzikos (Erdek) at the south coasts of Marmara Sea. Around 7,100 years ago, after the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea connected, the importance of the Marmara Sea increased. After this period, it had officiated as a bridge between the civilization of the Northern Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea. With the Neolithic Period, signs of life started to be detected around Marmara Sea and then with the colonization movements, the area hosted many cities. Mediterranean civilizations entering the Marmara Sea through the Dardanelles started to establish colonial cities at the coasts of Marmara. The south coasts of the Marmara Sea waited to attract the attention of researchers for long years. This can be seen clearly when, compared with the other parts of the Anatolian lands, the Marmara coasts were neglected. For this reason, the southern Marmara region's harbors were chosen as the area of this research. Four different provinces (Çanakkale, Balıkesir, Bursa, Yalova) had borders at the coasts of the Marmara Sea. The Turkish Ministry is providing a working permission for each province, at each period. As it was impossible to investigate the coastline of a province at a period, the research was limited to ancient harbors with the border of Bursa Province. Apart from the 135m areas at the coastline of Marmara Sea, the coasts of İznik and Uluabat lakes were also investigated. Information about the area was gathered from ancient resources, late antique travelers and modern research. The writing of the ancient authors, who gave information about the harbors of the region and harbor cities (including Strabo, Herodotus, Pseudo-Skylaks, Apollonius Rhodius, Xenophon, Pliny the Elder, Dio Chrysostom, Claudius Ptolemy, Stephanos Byzantinos, Pomponius Mela and Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus) were examined. Moreover, writing of the travelers such as Seyyid Muradi, İbn Battuta, Polish Simeon, Evliya Çelebi, Jean Thevenot, Richard Pockocke and Charles Texier were collected and considered as an adviser during the research. In all these resources, particular emphasis was laid on coastal cities and harbor structures. Since the period when maritime trade began, harbors become the most important points in the segmentation of the cities. Because they are the places where trade originated in the city, they were directly integrated into daily life. Harbors are natural or artificial places where the ships find shelter, load and unload goods, and board and drop off passengers. The first and last thing that a merchant coming to the city saw was the harbor. However, despite being in such an important position, they have not received enough attention from researchers over the years. The number of studies on the harbors of Anatolian coasts demonstrates that thus far. At the Bursa Province coastline, no research was held until today. The earliest sea-faring vessel made by humans dates back to 6000 BC, and the earliest harbor structure dates back to 3000 BC. According to the growing needs of people, water vessels also grew in size, and people needed places to protect these vessels. As a result of the size of the vessels becoming too big to be pulled to the coast easily, as well as the invention of hydrophilic cement allowing constructions underwater, harbors structures were constructed. Harbors were constructed in different ways depending on where they were found in the city. It is possible to divide harbors in two groups, according to the places where harbors were constructed and their respective functions. According to location, harbors are divided into sea harbors and freshwater harbors. Because of the diversity of coastline, sea harbors can be further categorized into natural and artificial harbors. Because lake and river coastlines are flat, all the freshwaters harbors are artificial. The main factor that determines whether the harbor is artificial or natural is the construction form of harbor's basin. Because natural harbors were constructed at bays, the natural basin of the bay would be used to form the harbor. Artificial harbors are constructed with the support of water basins, breakwaters and moles. Additionally, ancient harbors are divided even further, according to their functions: military harbors, trade harbors and private harbors. Harbor research around the world started in the 20th century AD. ; Bursa Metropolitan Municipality
IntroductionOver the last decade, we have witnessed a number of changes to our welfare state. With the 1996 bi‐partisan‐supported welfare reform legislation (Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act; PRWORA), the federal government devolved much of the responsibility for public assistance to the states, instituted time‐limited assistance, and aimed to curb non‐marital childbirths, encourage marriage, and push welfare recipients to become economically self‐sufficient. After PRWORA, a slew of scholars from multiple academic disciplines sought to understand the implementation and implications of the changes to the welfare system for poor families as well as those agencies, staff, and programs that serve them. In this article, Kissane and Krebs synthesize some major findings from this research on welfare reform and its effects. Courses using such a review might situate the exploration of welfare reform within a larger investigation of America's welfare state, poverty, and/or social policy.Author recommendsBrown, Michael K. 1999. Race, Money and the American Welfare State. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Through a detailed examination of social policy from the New Deal through the Reagan administration, Brown explores,'how both race and social class bear on the political development of the American welfare state' (p. xiv). As the title of the books suggests, Brown pays particular attention to taxes, fiscal capacity and spending in his account.DeParle, Jason. 2004. American Dream: Three Women, Ten Kids and a Nation's Drive to End Welfare. New York: Penguin Press.DeParle, a New York Times journalist, moves effortlessly between exploring developments in American welfare policy and chronicling the lives of three poor women. He vividly depicts the complexity of the women's lives in the wake of the changes to the welfare system, while also providing fascinating details on the origins and implementation of welfare reform.Edin, Kathryn and Laura Lein. 1997. Making Ends Meet: How Single Mothers Survive Welfare and Low‐Wage Work. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.This book presents findings from Edin and Lein's comprehensive, multi‐city qualitative study on the monthly budgets of low‐wage workers and welfare‐reliant women, as well as their strategies for making ends meet. They find that both groups rely on their networks for in‐kind and cash assistance, aid from non‐profit organizations, and earnings from informal work to survive. Edin and Lein also investigate the relative costs and benefits (both tangible and intangible) of work versus welfare.Esping‐Andersen, Gøsta. 1990. The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.An essential book if one is interested in the development of welfare states across advanced Western societies. Esping‐Andersen delineates three typologies of welfare state regimes (conservative, liberal, and social) and explores the factors that establish the differences in welfare states.Gilens, Martin. 1999. Why Americans Hate Welfare: Race, Media, and the Politics of Antipoverty Policy. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.In this well‐researched book, Gilens explores public opinion on anti‐poverty policies and the media's role in shaping how the public thinks about welfare. His chapters on the media's representations of poverty and welfare are particularly enlightening.Gordon, Linda. 1994. Pitied But Not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.In this book, Gordon, a social historian, argues that reformers working in the women's movement during the Progressive Era had a significant effect on the development of the welfare state; however, they also helped to cement racial and gender stratification within it and ultimately limit its full development.Hays, Sharon. 2003. Flat Broke with Children: Women in the Age of Welfare Reform. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.In Flat Broke with Children, Hays, a sociologist, does a wonderful job exploring the cultural values behind welfare reform, detailing the contradictory nature of its requirements and procedures, and situating welfare recipients and their behavior within the larger American cultural context. Through her analysis of data collected from years of fieldwork in welfare offices in two states, Hays also investigates how poor women and welfare staff experience and think about welfare reform.Iceland, John. 2006. Poverty in America: A Handbook. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.This book is an excellent overview of poverty in America. Iceland clearly details views on poverty, how we measure poverty, the characteristics of the poverty population, and the causes of poverty.Katz, Michael B. 2001. The Price of Citizenship: Redefining the American Welfare State. New York, NY: Metropolitan Books.In this expansive work, Katz, a social historian, details recent developments across various areas of the American welfare state (although he focuses on anti‐poverty policies), while situating these developments within a larger historical context. In particular, he shows how public social policy in recent decades has shifted around three 'great objectives': (i) to end dependence; (ii) to devolve authority; and (iii) to apply market models to social policy.Piven, Frances F. and Richard A. Cloward. 1993. Regulating the Poor: The Functions of Public Welfare (updated edition). New York, NY: Vintage Books.In this classic, Piven and Cloward advance their theory that 'expansive relief policies are designed to mute civil disorder, and restrictive ones to reinforce work norms' (p. xv). Their book explores a large span of history – from early poor relief in France and England to developments under the Bush administration.Online materials Catholic Campaign for Human Development (CCHD) http://www.nccbuscc.org/cchd/povertyusa/ This website includes some facts about poverty, as well as ideas for educators on ways to generate discussion on poverty. The 'getting involved' section of the website is particularly useful, providing, among other things, a poverty quiz, interactive maps, information on CCHD funded programs, a 'poverty tour' that addresses issues with the federal poverty line, and ways to get involved. Global Rich List http://www.globalrichlist.com/ This website allows you to situate your annual income in the context of the world's population. It is a great little teaching tool to introduce concepts of relative poverty, income inequality, and global poverty to students. Green Book from House Ways and Means Committee http://www.gpoaccess.gov/wmprints/green/index.html The Green Book is an excellent resource for descriptions and historical data on many U.S. social welfare programs, such as the Social Security, Supplemental Security Income (SSI), Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF), Foster Care, Medicaid, and Food Stamp programs. MDRC http://www.mdrc.org/ Known best, perhaps, for its evaluations of welfare policies and programs that incorporate random assignment, MDRC provides detailed information on programs and policies that affect the poor. Among other things, the website includes publications, working papers, policy briefs, and videos detailing research findings. The National Center for Children in Poverty (NCCP) http://www.nccp.org/ The NCCP at Columbia University provides statistical information and fact sheets on poverty and policy issues, often with a focus on the links between family economic security and child development. Individuals might find particularly useful the 'State Profiles' section of the website, which allows one to view demographic information (often in clear charts and graphs), issue areas, and policies for the state of one's choosing. U.S. Census Bureau http://www.census.gov/ The census website provides an extensive array of data on the U.S. population and economy. Besides navigating from the above link, data and reports on poverty can also be found directly at http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/poverty/poverty.html. The World Bank http://www.worldbank.org/ The World Bank's website provides resources valuable to exploring worldwide poverty and situating the U.S. globally. In particular, the PovertyNet area (http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTPOVERTY/0,,menuPK:336998~pagePK:149018~piPK:149093~theSitePK:336992,00.html) of the website presents detailed information and data on poverty and related issues that researchers, educators, and practitioners may find useful.Additional online resourcesScores of additional organizations and centers (too many to list) conduct and disseminate research on issues related to the economy, welfare, public policy, and poverty. What follows is a list of some other key organizations and centers, alongside links to their websites:
Brookings Institute (http://www.brookings.edu) Center on Budget and Policy Priorities (http://www.cbpp.org/) Center for Law and Social Policy (http://www.clasp.org/) Center for Research on Child Wellbeing (CRCW) (http://crcw.princeton.edu/) Child Trends (http://www.childtrends.org/) Heritage Foundation (http://www.heritage.org/) Institute for Research on Poverty (http://www.irp.wisc.edu/) Joint Center for Poverty Research (http://www.jcpr.org/) National Poverty Center (http://www.npc.umich.edu/) Urban Institute (http://www.urban.org/)
Sample syllabusPoverty, Welfare, and the Safety Net (excerpt from syllabus)Description of courseThe terms 'safety net' and 'welfare state' commonly refer to a range of public and non‐governmental programs and policies that seek to protect individuals and their families from distress and hardship and/or improve the quality of their lives. In this course, we will primarily explore facets of the American welfare state that seek to assuage poverty and its effects. Although we will largely approach this topic from a sociological perspective, this area of inquiry is quite interdisciplinary. Consequently, we will be reading works from other academic disciplines throughout the course.This is an advanced course, designed for students who already have substantial familiarity with the causes and consequences of poverty. In the first third of the course, we will investigate the early development of our nation's welfare state, from poorhouses and outdoor relief to mothers' pensions and the New Deal. We then move to exploring Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) and anti‐poverty policies of the 1960s and 1970s. Next, we examine changes in federal welfare policy over the last couple of decades, focusing on the welfare reforms of the 1990s, the consequences of these reforms, and the experiences of poor women since these changes. We end the course by looking in more depth at the private safety net (particularly, secular and faith‐based organizations that serve the poor), public opinion, and future directions for welfare policy.Course outline and reading assignments Week 1. Introduction to poverty and the course Iceland, John. 2006. Chapters 3–5 (pp. 20–97). Poverty in America: A Handbook. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Rank, Mark. 2003. 'As American as Apple Pie: Poverty and Welfare.'Contexts 2(3): 41–46.Optional: Katz, Michael B. 2001. 'Poverty and Inequality in the New American City' (pp. 33–56). The Price of Citizenship: Redefining the American Welfare State. New York, NY: Metropolitan Books. Week 2. What is welfare? Why have welfare states? Katz, Michael B. 2001. 'The Invention of Welfare' (pp. 1–8) and 'The American Welfare State' (only pp. 9–17). The Price of Citizenship: Redefining the American Welfare State. New York, NY: Metropolitan Books.Howard, Christopher. 1993. 'The Hidden Side of the American Welfare State.'Political Science Quarterly. 108(3): 403–436 (note: pages 420–433 are optional).T. H. Marshall. 1977. Selection from 'Citizenship and Social Class' in Class, Citizenship, and Social Development: Essays by T.H. Marshall. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.UN Declaration of Human Rights (http://www.un.org/Overview/rights.html) Week 3. Early developments Piven, Frances F. and Richard A. Cloward. 1993. 'Relief, Labor, and Civil Disorder: An Overview' (pp. 3–42). Regulating the Poor: The Functions of Public Welfare (updated edition). New York, NY: Vintage Books.Katz, Michael B. 1996. 'The Origins and Failure of the Poorhouse' and 'Outdoor Relief' (pp. 3–59). In the Shadow of the Poorhouse: A Social History of Welfare in America: Tenth Anniversary Edition. New York, NY: BasicBooks. Week 4. Mothers pensions, the New Deal, and ADC Piven, Frances F. and Richard A. Cloward. 1993. Chapter 2–3 (pp. 45–119). Regulating the Poor: The Functions of Public Welfare (updated edition). New York, NY: Vintage Books.Linda Gordon. 1994. Selection from Pitied But Not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Brown, Michael K. 1999. Chapter 2 (pp. 63–96). Race, Money and the American Welfare State. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Quadagno, Jill S. 1994. 'Unfinished Democracy' (only pp. 17–25). The Color of Welfare: How Racism Undermined the War on Poverty. New York, NY and Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Optional: DeParle, Jason. 2004. Chapter 2 (pp. 20–37). American Dream: Three Women, Ten Kids and a Nation's Drive to End Welfare. New York, NY: Penguin Press. Week 5. AFDC, welfare rights, and anti‐poverty policies in the 1960s and 1970s Piven, Frances F. and Richard A. Cloward. 1993. Chapters 4 and 6 (pp. 123–146; pp. 183–199). Regulating the Poor: The Functions of Public Welfare (updated edition). New York, NY: Vintage Books.Quadagno, Jill S. 1994. Selection from The Color of Welfare: How Racism Undermined the War on Poverty. New York, NY and Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Tilmon, Johnnie. 1972. 'Welfare is a Women's Issue.'Ms. Spring: 2 pages. http://www.msmagazine.com/spring2002/tillmon.aspDeParle, Jason. 2004. Chapters 3 and 5 (pp. 38–57; 85–100). American Dream: Three Women, Ten Kids and a Nation's Drive to End Welfare. New York, NY: Penguin Press. Weeks 6 and 7. Devolution, the 1980s and 90s, and 'ending welfare as we know it' Katz, Michael B. 2001. 'The Family Support Act' (pp. 71–76); 'Governors as Welfare Reformers' (pp. 77–103); and 'Fighting Poverty 1990s Style' (pp. 293–316). The Price of Citizenship: Redefining the American Welfare State. New York, NY: Metropolitan Books.Hays, Sharon. 2003. Chapter 1 (pp. 3–31). Flat Broke with Children. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.DeParle, Jason. 2004. Chapters 4; 6–9 (pp. 58–81; 101–174). American Dream: Three Women, Ten Kids and a Nation's Drive to End Welfare. New York, NY: Penguin Press.Optional: Katz, Michael B. 2001. 'Urban Social Welfare in an Age of Austerity' (pp. 104–136). The Price of Citizenship: Redefining the American Welfare State. New York, NY: Metropolitan Books. Week 8. Assessing welfare reform Kissane, Rebecca Joyce and Richard Krebs. 2007. 'Assessing Welfare Reform, Over a Decade Later.'Sociology Compass 1(2): 789–813. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9020.2007.00029.x.Katz, Michael B. 2001. pp. 328–340 of 'The End of Welfare'The Price of Citizenship: Redefining the American Welfare State. New York, NY: Metropolitan Books. Weeks 9–11. A closer look at life after welfare reform Hays, Sharon. 2003. Chapters 2–8 (pp. 33–240) Flat Broke with Children: Women in the Age of Welfare Reform. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.DeParle, Jason. 2004. Chapters 10–18 (pp. 175–322). American Dream: Three Women, Ten Kids and a Nation's Drive to End Welfare. New York, NY: Penguin Press. Week 12. The Private Safety Net: Nonprofit, Community‐Based Service Provision Katz, Michael B. 2001. 'The Independent Sector, the Market and the State' (only pp. 137–155 and 162–170). The Price of Citizenship: Redefining the American Welfare State. New York, NY: Metropolitan Books.Kissane, Rebecca Joyce. 2003. 'What's Need Got to Do with It? Why Poor Women Do Not Use Nonprofit Social Services.'Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare. 30(2): 127–148.Kissane, Rebecca Joyce. 2006. 'Responsible but Uninformed? Nonprofit Executive and Program Directors' Knowledge of Welfare Reform.'Social Service Review. 80(2): 322–345.Reread 'Nonprofit organizations and welfare reform' (pp. 802–804) in Kissane, Rebecca Joyce and Richard Krebs. 2007. 'Assessing Welfare Reform, Over a Decade Later.'Sociology Compass 1(2): 789–813. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9020.2007.00029.x.Edin, Kathryn and Laura Lein. 1998. 'The Private Safety Net: The Role of Charitable Organizations in the Lives of the Poor.'Housing Policy Debate. 9(4): 541–573. Week 13. The Private Safety Net, continued: Faith‐based organizations (FBOs) Katz, Michael B. 2001. 'Faith, Charity, and Inner Cities' (pp. 155–162). The Price of Citizenship: Redefining the American Welfare State. New York, NY: Metropolitan Books.Twombly, Eric. 2002. 'Religious Versus Secular Human Service Organizations: Implications for Public Policy.'Social Science Quarterly. 83(4): 847–961.Kissane, Rebecca Joyce. 2007. 'How Do Faith‐Based Organizations Compare to Secular Providers? Nonprofit Directors' and Poor Women's Assessments of FBOs.'Journal of Poverty. 11(4): 91–115.Sherman, A. L. 2003. 'Faith in Communities: A Solid Investment.'Society. 40(2): 19–26.DiIulio Jr., John J. 2007. Selection from Godly Republic: A Centrist Blueprint for America's Faith‐Based Future. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Scott W. Allard. 2007. 'Access and Stability: Comparing Faith‐based and Secular Nonprofit Service Providers.' A paper presented at the National Poverty Center at the University of Michigan 2007 conference, 'The Impact of Religion and Faith‐Based Organizations on the Lives of Low Income Families.'Optional: Smith, Steven Rathgeb and Michael R. Sosin. 2001. 'Varieties of Faith‐Related Agencies.'Public Administration Review. 61(6): 651–670. Week 14. Public Opinion, the Media, and Policy Gilens, Martin. 1999. Chapters 2–3 (pp. 31–79); Chapter 5 (only pp. 111–132); Chapter 6 (pp. 133–153) and Chapter 8 (only pp. 184–203). Why Americans Hate Welfare. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Reingold, David A. and Helen Liu. Forthcoming. 'Do Poverty Attitudes of Social Service Agency Directors Influence Organizational Behavior?'Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly.Optional: Misra, Joya, Stephanie Moller, and Marina Karides. 2003. 'Envisioning Dependency: Changing Media Depictions of Welfare in the 20th Century.'Social Problems. 50(4): 482–504. Week 15. Future directions and course wrap‐up Katz, Michael B. 2001. 'Work, Democracy, and Citizenship' (pp. 341–359). The Price of Citizenship: Redefining the American Welfare State. New York, NY: Metropolitan Books.DeParle, Jason. 2004. Epilogue (pp. 323–338). American Dream: Three Women, Ten Kids and a Nation's Drive to End Welfare. New York, NY: Penguin Press.Gilens, Martin. 1999. 'The Politics of the American Welfare State' (pp. 204–216). Why Americans Hate Welfare. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Rector, Robert. 2005. 'Welfare Reform and the Healthy Marriage Initiative.' Statement before the Sub‐committee on Human Resources of the Committee on Ways and Means U.S. House of Representatives. Available at http://www.heritage.org/Research/Welfare/tst021005a.cfmCoontz, Stephanie and Nancy Folbre. 2002. 'Marriage, Poverty, and Public Policy: A Discussion Paper from the Council on Contemporary Families.' The American Prospect. March 19, 2002. Available at http://www.prospect.org/cs/articles?article=marriage_poverty_and_public_policyFilms and videosA Day's Work, A Day's Pay (57 min)This documentary, based in New York City, follows three welfare recipients participating in the city's welfare‐to‐work program. The film not only documents the problems with the city jobs that the welfare recipients have to perform, but it also explores how the welfare recipients become social activists.Eating Welfare (57 min)Told through the youth of the community, this documentary investigates welfare reform's effect on Southeast Asian refugee families living in the Bronx. The film highlights problems particular to this population, as well as general issues facing the welfare recipients under workfare.Ending Welfare As We Know It (90 min)Take it From Me: Life After Welfare (75 min)These two documentaries follow welfare families as they deal with the consequences of welfare reform and the complexities of their lives.Poverty Outlaw (1 h)This documentary follows the development of the Kensington Welfare Rights Union (KWRU), 'a multiracial organization of, by and for poor and homeless people' located in Philadelphia (http://www.kwru.org/), as well as the hardships experienced by its members and other individuals living in poverty in America. A subsequent film, Outriders (1999; 1 h), follows KWRU on its New Freedom Bus Tour, in which the organization sought to document economic human rights violations across America.Tempting Faith: Is Charitable Choice Working? (57 min)This documentary explores the Charitable Choice provision of the 1996 welfare reform legislation through an examination of faith‐based programs in Indiana, North Carolina, and Massachusetts. The film includes views on both the pros and cons of faith‐based initiatives.Waging a Living (85 min)This documentary focuses on the lives of four low‐wage workers as they struggle to make ends meet.Welfare Reform: Social Impact (29 min)This program, released shortly after the passage of welfare reform, explores the history of welfare and issues surrounding welfare reform. It includes interviews with Wisconsin Governor Tommy Thompson, Wendell Primus, and Rebecca Blank.Seminar/Project ideas1. This activity uncovers students' misunderstandings regarding poverty and welfare.Early in the semester (usually the first day of class), students take a 'poverty and welfare quiz' in which they answer factual and attitudinal questions on poverty and welfare. Instructors can then use the survey answers as springboards for weekly discussions on topics covered in the course. As the semester progresses, the students usually discover that they held many misconceptions regarding poverty and welfare.2. This activity explores the hidden assumptions and meanings behind the words 'dependent' and 'independent.' Other words or phrases could also be explored in this manner, such as 'deserving' and 'undeserving' poor.Ask the students to list (in separate columns) images, individuals, and/or circumstances that come to mind when they hear the words 'dependent' and 'independent'. Then, as a class or in small groups, discuss and assess the students' lists. How are these lists culturally specific? Do visions of race, ethnicity, class, gender, age and household structure come into play? How? Why do you think certain images come to mind when you hear these words? How do our understandings of 'dependence' and 'independence' relate to our understandings of welfare and poverty? To anti‐poverty policies?3. Among other topics, this activity can be used to launch discussions of deserving versus undeserving poor, universal versus means‐tested transfers, barriers to self‐sufficiency and employment, and notions of 'governmental assistance.'Break the students into small groups and give each group a sheet of paper with about six profiles that cover a variety of individuals and family types. For example, one profile might depict a 30‐year‐old housewife with two children whose husband works. Another might be an unemployed, divorced woman with six children who is clinically depressed, etc. Create profiles in such a way that students will likely consider in their working groups the employment, marital status, age, gender, child‐bearing, physical and mental health, and race and ethnicity of their profiled individuals. Have each group discuss to whom they would give governmental assistance, in what order they would distribute the aid, and what they would give each profiled family. Reconvene the class and compare the groups' decisions. What did the groups' consider 'governmental assistance'? How did they decide how they would distribute the aid? Who was 'worthy' of help? Did they feel as if they needed additional information to make their decisions? What information did they want to have that the profiles did not provide? Why would that information be important to their deliberations?4. This written assignment allows students to investigate a program or policy not covered comprehensively in the course.Each student will choose a program or policy aimed to assuage poverty and/or its effects that we do not cover extensively in this course [e.g., Head Start, Unemployment Insurance, Supplemental Security Income (SSI), public housing programs, etc]. All topics must be approved prior to beginning work on the project. After choosing a topic, students will write a final paper that includes the following components:
An introduction. What is the program? How is it meant to assuage poverty or its consequences? Why should we care about your topic? A brief review of the history of the policy or program. When was the program started? Why? By whom? What key changes have occurred to the program over the years? A review of the social science research literature on the program. What data and research are available on your program? What does the empirical research tell us about the program's effectiveness, clientele, take‐up rates, strengths, weaknesses, etc? Specific policy recommendation(s). How can your program be improved? (Note: your recommendation(s) should be based on the empirical evidence not value‐laden opinions)
Instructors may want to add a final presentation to the above assignment. Having students present as part of a panel may be particularly effective if students' topics cluster around several areas, for example 'educational policy', 'family policy', 'housing policy', etc.
