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The global growth in energy demand continues, but the way of meeting rising energy needs is not sustainable. The use of biomass energy is a widely accepted strategy towards sustainable development that sees the fastest rate with the most of increase in power generation followed by strong rises in the consumption of biofuels for transport. Agriculture, forestry and wood energy sector are the leading sources of biomass for bioenergy. However, to be acceptable, biomass feedstock must be produced sustainably. Bioenergy from sustainably managed systems could provide a renewable and carbon neutral source of energy. Bioenergy systems can be relatively complex, intersectoral and site- and scale-specific. The environmental benefits of biomass-for-energy production systems can vary strongly, depending on site properties, climate, management system and input intensities. Bioenergy supply is closely linked to issues of water and land use. It is important to understand the effects of introducing it as well as it is necessary to promote integrated and synergic policies and approaches in the sectors of forestry, agriculture, energy, industry and environment. Biofuels offer attractive solutions to reducing GHG emissions, addressing energy security concerns and have also other socio-economic advantages. Currently produced biofuels are classified as first-generation. Some first-generation biofuels, such as for example ethanol from corn possibly have a limited role in the future transport fuel mix, other ones such as ethanol from sugarcane or biodiesel made from oils extracted from rerennial crops, as well as non-food and industrial crops requiring minimal input and maintenance and offering several benefits over conventional annual crops for ethanol production are promising. Sugarcane ethanol has greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions avoidance potential; can be produced sustainably; can be cost effective without governments support mechanisms, provide useful and valuable co-products; and, if carefully managed with due regard given to sustainable land use, can support the drive for sustainable development in many developing countries. Sugarcane ethanol - currently the most effective biofuel at displacing GHG emissions - is already mitigating GHGs in Brazil. Jatropha curcas L., a multipurpose, drought resistant, perennial plant has gained lot of importance for the production of biodiesel. However, it is important to point out that nearly all of studies have overstated the impacts of first-generation biofuels on global agricultural and land markets due to the fact that they have ignored the role of biofuel by-products. However, feed by-products of first-generation biofuels, such as dried distillers grains with soluble and oilseed meals are used in the livestock industry as protein and energy sources mitigates the price impacts of biofuel production as well as reduce the demand for cropland and moderate the indirect land use consequences. The production of second generation biofuels is expected to start within a few years. Many of the problems associated with first-generation biofuels can be solved by the production of second generation biofuels manufactured from abundant ligno-cellulosic materials such as cereal straw, sugar cane bagasse, forest residues, wastes and dedicated feedstocks (purpose-grown vegetative grasses, short rotation forests and other energy crops). These feedstocks are not food competitive, do not require additional agricultural land and can be grown on marginal and wasteland. Depending on the feedstock choice and the cultivation technique, second-generation biofuel production has the potential to provide benefits such as consuming waste residues and making use of abandoned land. As much as 97-98% of GHG emissions could be avoided by substituting a fossil fuel with wood fuel. Forest fertilization is an attractive option for increasing energy security and reducing net GHG emission. In addition to carbon dioxide the emissions of methane and nitrous oxides may be important factors in GHG balance of biofuels. Forest management rules, best practices for nitrogen fertilizer use and development of second generation technologies use reduce these emissions. Soils have an important role in the global budget of greenhouse gases. However, the effects of biomass production on soil properties are entirely site and practice-specific and little is known about long-term impact. Soil biological systems are resilient and they do not show any lasting impacts due to intensive site management activities. Land management practices can change dramatically the characteristic and gas exchange of an ecosystem. GHG benefits from biomass feedstock use are in some cases significantly lower if the effects of direct¹ or indirect (ILUC²) land use change are taken into account. LUC and ILUC can impact the GHG emission by affecting carbon balance in soil and thus ecosystem. To understand carbon fluxes in an ecosystem large ecosystem units and time scale are critical. Mitigation measures of the impact of land use change on greenhouse gas emissions include the use of residues as feedstock, cultivation of feedstock on abandoned arable land and use of feedstock by-products as substitutes for primary crops as animal feed. Cropping management is the other key factor in estimating GHG emissions associated with LUC and there is significant opportunity to reduce the potential carbon debt and GHG emissions through improved crop and soil management practices, including crop choice, intensity of inputs, harvesting strategy, and tilling practices. Also a system with whole trees harvesting with nutrient compensation is closely to being greenhouse-gas-neutral. Biochar applied to the soil offers a direct method for sequestrating C and generating bioenergy. However, the most recent studies showing that emissions resulting from ILUC are significant have not been systematically compared and summarized and current practices for estimating the effects of ILUC suffer from large uncertainties. Therefore, it seems to be delicate to include the ILUC effects in the GHG emission balance at a country level. The land availability is an important factor in determining bioenergy sustainability. However, even though food and biofuel/biomass can compete for land, this is not inevitably the case. The pattern of completion competition will e.g. depend on whether food security policies are in place. Moreover, the great potential for uncomplicated biomass production lies in using residues and organic waste, introduction of second generation biofuels which are more efficient in use of land and bioresources as well as restoration of degraded and wasted areas. Agroforestry has high potential for simultaneously satisfying many important objectives at ecosystems, economic and social levels. For example, as a very flexible, but low-input system, alley cropping can supply biomass resources in a sustainable way and at the same time provide ecological benefits in Central Europe. A farming system that integrates woody crops with conventional agricultural crops/pasture can more fully utilize the basic resources of water, carbon dioxide, nutrients, and sunlight, thereby producing greater total biomass yield. Overall, whether food prices will rise in parallel to an increase in biofuel demand will depend, more on trade barriers, subsidies, policies and limitations of marketing infrastructure than on lack of physical capacity. There are plant species that provide not only biofuel resources but also has the potential to sequestrate carbon to soil. For example, reed canary grass (RCG, Phalaris arundinacea L.) indicates the potential as a carbon sink. Harvest residues are increasingly utilized to produce energy. Sweden developed a series of recommendations and good-practice guidelines (GPG) for whole tree harvesting practices. Water has a multifarious relationship to energy. Biofuel production will have a relatively minor impact on the global water use. It is critically important to use low-quality water sources and to select the crops and countries that (under current production circumstances) produce bioenergy feedstock in the water-efficient way. However, local and regional impacts of biofuel production could be substantial. Knowledge of watershed characteristics, local hydrology and natural peak flow patterns coupled with site planning, location choice and species choice, are all factors that will determine whether or not this relationship is sustainable. For example, bioethanol's water requirements can range from 5 to 2138 L per liter of ethanol depending on regional irrigation practices. Moreover, sugarcane in Brazil evaporates 2,200 liters for every liter of ethanol, but this demand is met by abundant rainfall. Biomass production can have both positive and negative effects on species diversity. However, woodfuel production systems as well as agroforestry have the potential to increase biodiversity. A regional energy planning could have an important role to play in order to achieve energy-efficient and cost-efficient energy systems. Closing the loop through the optimization of all resources is essential to minimize conflicts in resource requirements as a result of increased biomass feedstock production. A systems approach where the agricultural, forestry, energy, and environmental sectors are considered as components of a single system, and environmental liabilities are used as recoverable resources for biomass feedstock production has the potential to significantly improve the economic, social, and environmental sustainability of biofuels. The LCA (life cycle analysis) approach takes into account all the input and output flows occurring in biomass production systems. The source of biomass has a big impact on LCA outcomes and there is a broad agreement in the scientific community that LCA is one of the best methodologies for the GHG balance calculation of biomass systems. Overall, maximizing benefits of bioenergy while minimizing negative impacts is most likely to occur in the presence of adequate knowledge and frameworks, such as for example certification systems, policy and guidelines. Criteria for achieving sustainability and best land use practices when producing biomass for energy must be established and adopted. ___________ ¹ Direct land-use change occurs when feedstock for biofuels purposes (e.g. soybean for biodiesel) displace a prior land-use (e.g. forest), thereby generating possible changes in the carbon stock of that land. ² Indirect land-use change (ILUC) occurs when pressure on agriculture due to the displacement of previous activity or use of the biomass induces land-use changes on other lands.

Abstrak Karya sastra merupakan miniatur dari dunia nyata, dimana sebuah karya sastra biasanya mengungkap beberapa masalah yang berkaitan dengan makhluk hidup termasuk isu-isu tentang hubungan manusia dengan alam. Manusia lebih cenderung melakukan kerusakan pada lingkungan daripada menjaganya, hal ini menyebabkan kehancuran bumi beserta isinya. Hal ini tergambar pada novel The Road karya McCarthy dimana lingkungan yang menjadi setting utamanya hancur berantakan. Lansekapnya tertutup oleh abu yang berterbangan. Dan ketika salju turun, ia berwarna abu-abu. Langitnya juga terlihat gelap. Oleh sebab itu, ada beberapa masalah yang berhubungan dengan kehancuran bumi yang tergambar pada novel yang kemudian memunculkan dua dasar pertanyaan (1) bagaimana kehancuran bumi digambarkan dalam novel The Road karya McCarthy? Dan (2) bagaimana kehancuran bumi memberikan dampak terhadap karakter utama dalam novel The Road karya McCarthy?. Untuk melihat masalah ini perlu teori yang pas yang biasa disebut ecocriticism. Ecocriticism melihat kehancuran bumi sebagai hasil dari tingkah laku manusia terhadap lingkungan misalnya: eksploitasi dan colonialisasi. Seperti yang dikatakan Lawrence Buell bahwa kondisi lingkungan itu ditentukan oleh manusia. Ecocriticism adalah suatu istilah yang berada dibawah payung postcolonialism dimana seorang postcolonialist meyakini bahwa kolonialisasi mempunyai campur tangan dalam penghancuran bumi. Para penjajah merasa percaya diri untuk mengeksploitasi bumi karena dianugrahi kekuatan oleh modernism. Untuk mendapatkan analisis yang jelas, skripsi ini menggunakan metode descriptive quality dimana kualitas data menjadi poin utama daripada jumlah data. Jadi, terlihat jelas bahwa kehancuran bumi terjadi diseluruh lapisan lingkungan; yaitu atmosfer, permukaan tanah, dan laut. Seluruh atmosfer dipenuhi oleh abu, debu dan karbon, tanahnya terkikis, tandus dan gundul, dan lautnya berubah menjadi abu-abu. Kehancuran bumi ini juga memberikan kesuraman tersendiri kepada tokoh si bapak dan si anak. Mereka harus melalui hidup yang keras, susah untuk bernafas, susah untuk menemukan sesuatu yang bisa dimakan dan secara mental mereka selalu takut akan ancaman-ancaman dari kehancuran bumi. Kata Kunci: kehancuran bumi, ecocriticism, postcolonialism, modernism. Abstract Literary work is a miniature of larger world or reality, whereas a literary work reveals some problems related to humans being including issues of human relationships with the environment. Humans tend to do damage to the environment rather than maintaining it, thus it causes devastation of earth. It is reflected in McCarthy's the road where the environment is devastated. The landscape save the ash on the wind, and when the snow falls, it is gray. The sky is also dark. Therefore, there are some problems of knowledge about how the devastation of earth portrays in the novel, which are delivered to two main questions of (1) How is devastation of earth depicted in Cormac McCarthy's The Road? and (2) How does devastation of earth give impacts to the main characters in Cormac McCarthy's The Road?. In case to observe these problems, it needs a suitable theory which called ecocriticism. Ecocriticism sees the devastation of earth as the result of humans' behaviour such as exploitation and colonialism of the environment, as Lawrence Buell says that the condition of the environment is determined by humans. Ecocriticism is under umbrella term of postcolonialism in which postcolonilist believes that colonization has intervention in devastating the earth. Colonizer is encouraged to exploit the nature because of power that is given by modernism. To get a clear analysis, this thesis uses descriptive quality method; it means the quality of the data becomes the reference to work rather than the quantity of the data. Thus, it is seen clearly that devastation of earth happened in the whole layers of environment; atmosphere, land and sea. The atmosphere is occupied by ash, dust and carbon, the land has eroded and barren and the sea have changed into gray. This devastation also gives a misery to the father and the son as the main characters. They have to undergo hard life; hard to breathe, hard to find food and mentally they are haunted by the devastated earth's threatens. Keywords: devastation of earth, ecocriticism, postcolonialism, modernism. INTRODUCTION Humans often feel indifferent toward nature. For them, nature is something considerably as a 'mystic' thing, when it goes right, humans forget it, when it goes wrong, they worry it. People tend to prefer natural environments more than built environments, and built environments with water, trees, and other vegetation more than built environments without such features (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989). On the other word, humans tend to permit the nature walks down by itself. They seem to just let it flow without thinking how to keep and maintenance the nature. The study of humans' relation with nature which is known as ecology was begun since years ago when humans lived in harmony with the nature. However, in line with development the nature also changes. Unfortunately, this natural changes brings devastation on earth, as Donald Hughes says that looking back to our historical ecology, Humans have related in multiple ways to the Earth's systems; some of these ways promise a sustainable balance with them, while others are destructive (Hughes, 2001: 269). Historically, through devastation of earth Humans have made major changes in their environments. This is happened almost in the whole surface, as Hughes says that devastation of earth has happened in every historical period and in every part of the inhabited Earth (2001: 1). In order to observe those processes of change that affect the relationship, ecologist studies the mutual effects that other species, natural forces, and cycles have on humans, and the actions of humans that affect the web of connections with non-human organisms and entities (id. at 4.). This ecologist's study shows that devastation of earth is the result of humans' behaviour toward environment. This bad behaviour has changed the environment that will bring devastation to the humans themselves. Humans seemingly don't care of the environment. Severity, humans tend to be more destructive. It forces some Ecocritics who concern in literary study and environment in late nineteenth criticized humans' behaviour toward nature. This criticises show how important avoiding that kind of behaviour toward nature which brings devastation of earth merely, it signed that the study of literature which related to the environment has to be discussed. There were in fact some isolated calls for an ecologically oriented criticism during the 1970s (Rigby, vol 2: 2). However, it was not until the end of the twentieth century that the study of literature and the environment was finally recognized as 'a subject on the rise'. In studying of literature, humans ordinarily focus on the relation between humans and others (society) or between humans and themselves (psychology), whereas, the relation between humans and environment actually is tightly connected. Unfortunately, the study of literature which related to the earth was often forgotten, whereas, the study of literature which related to the environment is greatly important. The study of environment is not merely observing of the nature or nonhumans aspect but it tends to study the relation among nature, earth and the humans themselves. Human actually is a part of environmental system, and therefore the environment has the crucial role in humans life in which it is become the main point of literary study. In some respects, it is perhaps not surprising that the study of literary texts should be coupled with such forgetfulness of the earth. Thus it is needed a study of humans' relation and environment. The study of literature and environment got a full attention when modern era begun to destruct the environment. Since last decade ago, especially years ago, humans consciously realized the impacts of their behaviour toward nature, moreover when they become crazier of invention, exploration and exploitation of the nature. Surely, this impact is indirectly causing ecological changes. However, actually what people do about their ecology depend on what they think about themselves in relation to things around them. Human ecology is deeply conditioned by beliefs about our nature and destiny (White 1996, 6). It can be imagined when humans were only thinking about themselves and forgetting the nature or they were just considering their needs without considering the nature needs, it can be ascertained that the nature will vanish and be extinct. This idea or thought about indifference toward nature is criticized by the Ecocritics. Ecocriticism maintains that literature may be approached in a way that examines humans as part of an ecosystem; they are neither master nor slave to it, but simply one part of an intricate system. Literature and environment truly can't be separated each other. Moreover, Lawrence Buell argues in his book The Truth of Ecology as quoted by Dana Philip that literature would be environmental. It would evoke the natural world through verbal surrogates, and would thereby attempt to bond the reader to the world as well as to discourse (Philip, 2003: 7). It can be assumed that through the literary work, the reader will be brought to the environmental world and devastation of earth. Indirectly, literature causes the reader's interpretation of the environment. Thus, it is important to understand the relation between humans and environment through literary work. It needs to notice that ecology is not a slush fund of fact, value, and metaphor, but a less than fully coherent field with a very checkered past and a fairly uncertain future (Philip, 2003: 45). By understanding the relation between humans and environment, it is beneficial to determine the act effectively on the impact of natural destruction and to integrate knowledge and actions. The study of literature and environment works in tandem in determining humans' perception and interpretation toward nature. As Lawrence Buell says that literature and environment studies must make their case for the indispensableness of physical environment as a shaping force in human art and experience, and how such an aesthetic works (2001: 9). It can be assumed that environmental interpretation is a humanistic inquiry. In other word, what people think about nature, and how they have expressed those ideas is what people interpret of the nature. Generally what people expressed the idea of the nature is a Realistic depiction of the world. Thus, it needs a tool to see this depiction. Surely Ecocriticism is a proper tool to see the depiction of the world. Ecocriticism is the most suitable binoculars to telescoped ecological issue and ecological changes in such literary work, as Sheryl Glotfelty (1996: xviii) says that Ecocriticism is the study of the relationship between literature and the physical environment, Ecocriticism takes an earth-centered approach to literary studies. Only Ecocriticicism observes the relation between humans and nonhumans aspects. What Ecocritics do, in short, is attempting to discover nature as absence, silence in texts, and construe environmental representation as a relevant category of literary (Buell, 2005: 30). Ecocriticism encourages the changing of canonisation through entering literary works which carry up natural issue. Ecocriticism ecologically oriented critique of the way in which Nature is constructed in certain canonical texts. Environmental literature constitutes the third way in which Ecocriticism recasts the canon. According to Lawrence Buell (1995, 7-8), an environmentally oriented work should display some characteristics; first, the nonhuman environment is present not merely as a framing device but as a presence that begins to suggest that human history is implicated in natural history. Second, the human interest is not understood to be the only legitimate interest. Third, Human accountability to the environment is part of the text's ethical framework. The last, some sense of the environment as a process rather than as a constant or a given is at least implicit in the text. In such literary work; Cormac McCarthy's The Road the nature as the setting represents ecological changes. Surely, this change causes devastation of earth. Nothing is more miserable on earth but devastation. The world which is the closest place we live at is not convenient again when it was devastated. Thus, literary and environment has interrelation that cannot be separated. Then, it is important to analyze such literary work through Ecocriticism. Ecological issue commonly represented by the presence of natural thing such as; tree, land and also circumstance in the novel which it become the setting. In other word, ecological issue become a centre point of setting. One of great writers in narrating the setting is Cormac McCarthy. Not only known as a king of the setting, McCarthy also has known as famous environmental setting as Addy Haddock (a writer of McCarthy's bibliography) says that his ability to provide eloquent descriptions with smoothly rolling darker undertones and poetically dismal nuances makes him become a writer with powerful setting. Thus, McCarthy is a right author referenced as a study of Ecocriticism. Indirectly, McCarthy's proficient is caused by his settled at a barn near Louisville, Tennessee. All the stones he gathered, all the wood he cut and kiln dried by himself to renovate his small house. Seemingly, McCarthy's life is not far away from the nature. Years later, after marrying fellow student Lee Holleman in 1961, he and she moved to a shack with no heat and running water in the foothills of the Smoky Mountains outside of Knoxville. These experiences of life sharpen his idea toward nature. McCarthy reveals that he is not a fan of authors who do not deal with issues of life and death; it can be assumed that his writing tends to be explored issues of life including devastation of earth. Recalling blithely the months he spent without electricity in a house in Tennessee. Without money, and he had run out of toothpaste and he was wondering what to do when he went to the mailbox and there was a free sample. It made him become more sensitive facing the nature and more respect it. In 2006, McCarthy writes The Road that grants him a change to be interviewed by Oprah Winfrey. Surely, this interview related to his writing especially devastation of earth and won Pulitzer Prize for fiction. McCarthy told Winfrey that related several stories illustrating the degree of outright poverty he endured at times during his career as a writer. He also states that his novel; The Road inspired when he was standing at the window of a hotel in the middle of the night, his son asleep nearby, he started to imagine what El Paso might look like 50 or 100 years in the future. He just had this image of these fires up on the hill. It shows the condition of the nature at the time which the hill was fired up. McCarthy can be categorized as a weird person. People usually gathered with other people who have same hobby or pleasure. However, it doesn't apply for McCarthy. As a writer, he doesn't like to gather with other writer. He would rather hang out with physicists or scientist than other writer. He does not know any writers and much prefers the company of scientists. No doubt if his knowledge of nature is rich. His knowledge of the natural world is vast and includes many of the Latin names of birds and animals. His pleasure gathering with physicists and scientist caused by his interest in science and environment, by absorbing the intelligence scientists, he realizes that in 100 years the human race won't even be recognizable. For him, what physicists did in the 20th century was one of the extraordinary flowerings ever in the human enterprise, which would much prefer to befriend a scientist than another writer. Most of McCarthy's novels are portraying about life or reality which many of them associated to ecological issue. In 1985, Blood Meridian was published. Blood Meridian portrays the desolate and indifferent 1850s Texas-Mexico borderlands. The extreme violence which takes place comments implicitly on both the environment and human nature. The novel's full title- Blood Meridian, or The Evening Redness In The West- is indicative of the novel's portrayal of the environment. A relationship between location, nature and violence is created in the symbolism of the sun as a "blood meridian". To call McCarthy's environments as constructed in Blood Meridian simply violent is an unsatisfactory conclusion. What is more appropriate and evident in the text is that man is inherently violent and the indifference of nature to this creates an amoral setting. In 1979, McCarthy published his fourth novel, Suttree. In short, Suttree tells the reader about a man named Cornelius Suttree, a fisherman, disillusioned scholar, alcoholic, nihilist, existentialist and transcendentalist. The attention to detail identified earlier in Suttree is telling in terms of his relationship with his environment. Generally, to an Ecocritical reading Suttree shows that, stripped of societal anthropocentrism, man is forced to reassess his relationship with nature. It could be said that McCarthy's prose style is often atavistic (anti-civilization, anti-materialism, anti-industrialism, anti-progress and pro-Nature) in that it both reflects natural processes and often appears primitive, stripped of culture. In 1973, Child of God was published. It was inspired by actual events in Sevier County. Child of God begins with Lester Ballard's dispossession from his parent's house. McCarthy's description of Ballard's lone nomadic wandering after he inadvertently burns down his squat uses the same free indirect discourse. Child of God can also be described as an existential text, particularly for the authenticity of its protagonist. Lester Ballard's atavistic tendencies bring him closer to an animalistic level. From those all of McCarthy's novels, The Road which was published in 2006 by Vintage book publisher is the most representative novel which is related to the study of Ecocriticism. The novel is generally thick of environments' issue. The issue for instance is the fire of woods that happened along the country which give the reader an image of burned land, ash and dust everywhere and so on. Because of this reason, the writer felt that The Road is interested to be analyzed through ecological critics. In short, the novel portrays a journey of father and son as the main character in a burned land in America. The issue of devastation of earth becomes the centre point of interest which grasps the whole setting of the novel. The Road brings the readers onto 'the future' in as much as it is set in a time after an ambiguous 'end' has occurred and society has collapsed. The reverse of the most recent reissue claims that it is the first great masterpiece of the globally warmed generation. It is also the first of McCarthy's novels to have provoked Ecocritical study. This wide appeal to the novel relies strongly on its environmental themes. The use of allusion to genre and form elsewhere in McCarthy's novels can be said to universalise his appeal but in The Road the key concern is the 21st century's most immediate global problem; the irrevocable damage global industrial capitalism is doing to our environment. It is difficult to read The Road without feeling the overwhelming cumulative force of the novel's desolation, and this desolation is most prominently present in the landscapes McCarthy portrays. The setting is almost entirely bereft of life; the little that is found is often malign humanity. The Road greatly represents a study of Ecocriticism. It portrays the colourless world because of devastation of earth. This devastation issue is common object of the Ecocriticism study. The Road continually reminds us of the bleakness of the landscape in the earth. As readers, we only experience bright colours through the characters' dreams or memories, if someone happens to bruise or bleed, or through fire or flare guns. The rest of the time we see a gray ash covering the landscape. As a reality, our landscape is actually green and natural. However, The Road shows the possibility of devastation of earth when humans did devastation to the nature and they can't live in harmony with the nature. Therefore, there is no doubt that The Road becomes the most influencing novel toward environment. It proves from the acclaim written in the novel by George Monbiot, an environmental campaigner that says "It could be the most important environmental book ever. It is a thought experiment that imagines a world without a biosphere, and shows that everything we value depends on the ecosystem." According to the brief story in background of the study that gives perception about the devastation of earth in the novel, it appears two questions as the problems: 1. How is devastation of earth depicted in Cormac McCarthy's The Road? 2. How does devastation of earth give impacts to the main characters in Cormac McCarthy's The Road? METHOD The used method is descriptive quality; it means the quality of the data becomes the reference to work rather than the quantity of the data. Besides, a technique is needed to understand the data. Technique of interpretation must be used to interpret and analyze the data. Through interpretation the analysis can be worked. Interpretation is a crucial step that has to do before analyzing the data. Then, extrinsic approach is used as an approach toward the analysis in which environment belongs to it. According to method above, the first thing that has to do is collecting data. In collecting data this research focuses on reading and documentation. Reading novel. In this step, novel becomes the object of the research. The novel is entitled The Road, written by Cormac McCarthy. To collect the correctly data, it needs reading more than once, because to get interpretation, it needs understanding all contents completely with all possibilities both intrinsically and extrinsically. Inventorying data. This step is collecting data through noting the quotations related to the statement of the problems and objectives of the study, it is including in words, sentences, and discourse that can represent devastation of earth in Cormac McCarthy's The Road. Thus, all data that will be analyzed are started and sourced through the novel's contents. Classification data. It is appropriate to the statements of the problems about devastation of earth in Cormac McCarthy's The Road. Tabling the data. It is to simplify reading the data and classify data that is used in the analysis for the readers. Continuously, the selected data or the collected data, which are related to the statements of the problems and the objectives, are analyzed through Ecocriticism in depicting the devastation of earth and its impacts to the main characters in Cormac McCarthy's The Road. MODERNISM The word "modern" closely means to up-to-date, abreast of the times, and going beyond the past in more than a temporally or chronologically literal sense (Greenberg, 1979; 2). Marshall Breman as quoted Jan Rada defines modernism as a trend of thought that affirms the power of human being to create, improve, and reshape their environment, with the aid of scientific knowledge technology and practical experimentation (2008; 6). Breman then argues that modernism is as any attempt by modern men and women to become subjects as well as objects of modernization, to be modern is to find ourselves in an environment that promises us adventure, power, joy, growth, transformation of ourselves and the world-and, at the same time, that threatens to destroy everything we have, everything we know, everything we are (Berman, 1982; 5; 14). The development of modernism emerged two poles that confront each other; science and technology and natural degradation. As Helena J. Keler explanation that the image of 'creative destruction' is very important to understanding modernity precisely because it derived from the particular dilemmas that faced the implementation of the modernist project. This destruction of a holistic universe in the modern era shatters the conception of human beings and societies as total entities, instead inaugurating an era characterized by a never-ending process of internal ruptures and fragmentations within itself (Keler, 2005: 4). According to Horkheimer and Adorno as quoted by Helena, modern capitalist society is engaged in a pattern of domination: the domination of nature by human beings, domination of nature within human beings, and this system of domination is driven by fear of the human and nonhuman unknown the Other (Keler, 2005: 3). Movement of modernism manifests itself in the self-destructive nature of symbolism: when pushed to its logical extreme, the symbolist aesthetic starts to forgo any notion of an organic, necessary relationship between signifier and signified, and simply imposes a particular motif as an arbitrary symbol of something else (Hutchinson, 2011; 58). Modernism often demonstrates the destructive rather than constructive nature. Modernists argue that the ecologically destructive projects are not viable because of climate change but modernism movement (Johnston, 2012: 207). Specifically, Barbara Rose Johnston states that Human conduct that contributes to the destruction of our ecological balance. Such interpretations of environmental change, however, can have undesirable effect of deflecting responsibility, since blame is placed on a cycle of time about which a person can do nothing (Johnston, 2012: 212). Global environmental change, which spans natural sciences, policy and development studies, is currently experiencing its first waves. Perhaps it is time to recognize that already some people are getting their feet wet. On what criteria should one decide to retreat to higher ground or stick it out unmoved until the tide turns. Modernism challenges the modern project of understanding global environmental change and doing something about it when it causes problems (Blaikie, 1996: 81). According to Piers M. Blaikie, modernism First, it challenges all embracing world views or 'meta narratives' which tend to be highly teleological and assume the validity of their underlying assumptions and their claims. Thus, the role of environmental scientists in policy making as 'talking truth to power' and as the only rational and legitimate brokers between the 'real' environment and the rest of us, is rejected. Second, it challenges the tendency that is more pronounced in areas of global environmental change where the local hands on experience of the environment (land degradation, desertification and biodiversity). Third, it challenged that reality is socially constructed. An epistemology which builds models of society and environment with causal connections is challenged by one which is constituted as a series of descriptive accounts according to different actors' perceptions (Blaikie, 1996: 81). Modernism encourages people and countries to over-exploit natural resources, and contribute to reductions in spending on social and environmental welfare (Huckle, 1999: 36). Moreover, environmental reductions being blamed on the impact of foreign cultural domination this has allegedly eroded and damaged the 'essential harmony' between humans and nature (Mawdsley, 2001: 96). Evernden contends that the second instrumental vision of control and domination over nature is the historical product of modernity, more specifically of Renaissance, when a new mode of knowledge, based on reason and experimentation replaced the medieval search for knowledge as contemplation and wisdom (1992). This argument is supported that Modernity is thus responsible for creating Nature by abstracting from nature, and with it a whole history of conquest and domination comes to be enacted. In the words of C. S. Lewis: "We reduce things to mere Nature in order that we may "conquer" them. We are always conquering Nature because "Nature" is the name for what we have, to some extent, conquered" (Lewis, 1978: 42). Latest, Environmental problems and other risks encompass less than the globally catastrophic. More and more disaster experts, development agencies, and citizens' groups are supporting that the globalisation is largely responsible for such human misery (Huckle, 1999: 36). Modernism signed by the development science and technology (Somerville, 2006: 17-18). Further, given the increasing production by technologically advanced capitalism of risks that threaten us all ironically that technology induced catastrophes and environmental disasters (Simon Cottle, 1998: 8). Since the Enlightenment, technology, especially science-based technology, has offered the promise of a better world through the elimination of disease and material improvements to standards of living. On the other hand, resource extraction, emissions of dangerous materials, and pollution of air, water, and soil have created conditions for unprecedented environmental catastrophe and have already caused irreversible damage to the biosphere (Vergragt, 2006: 7). Ironically, the persisting contradictions between a better life created and supported by technology for the wealthy few, also caused the increasing environmental degradation and persistent poverty for the vast majority calls for a deeper exploration and understanding of the nature. Philip J. Vergragt then, states that technology will support and enhance a "good life" for all of its citizens, in both rich and presently poor countries, without compromising the Earth's ecosystem or the prospects of later generations (Vergragt, 2006: 8). Thus, science and technology which shaped to the sophistication give man a power to colonize the earth. POSTCOLONIALISM Environmentalism in post-colonial discourse has its beginnings in Alfred Crosby's account of the impact of European incursions into the Americas and the Pacific (Ashcroft, 2000: 71). This incursion of course destructs not only the country; physical building and ideology but also the environment and nature. The conquest and colonization of so many extra-European environments produced irreversible changes in land use, in flora and fauna and frequently damaged beyond repair traditionally balanced relations between indigenous communities and their environments, a relationship unlike that of their conquerors crucial to their understanding of their 'being' as of the land rather than merely on it (Ashcroft, 2000: 71-72). He adds that imperial incursions and colonization have been regarded as environmentally destructive, yet as Richard Grove argues, the perception of what had already been lost in Europe, the sense of intrinsic connection between the 'more-than-human' and the human, and thus the urgency of environmental preservation became strikingly evident in Europe's colonies, particularly in the late nineteenth century. Much environmentalism in theory and practice has emanated from former imperial centres such as Europe and the United States. While belated recognition of the crucial importance of other forms of life on earth is both welcome and necessary, its export and sometimes imposition on postcolonized cultures invites the obvious charge of hypocrisy and generates resentment against former imperial states which having degraded their own and their colonies' environments in the 'interests' of progress and 'development' now encourage (or impose) the theory and practices of environmental preservation on other peoples (Ashcroft, 2000: 72). This also frequently creates division within post-colonized cultures themselves, where, for instance, peoples are moved off their traditional lands to make way for game parks, essentially for the benefit of wealthy tourists. Demands for the 'global' preservation of endangered species frequently clash with the policies of post-colonized governments eager to use their regained environmental sovereignty in the interests of a modern capitalism from which it is difficult for them to escape. Devastation of earth has highlighted how human–environmental vulnerabilities are amplified not only by anthropogenic climate change but also by the capitalist exploitation of natural resources (Carrigan, 2005: 1). Harmful environmental conduct exposes several broader dimensions such as the nation's ability to use its resources as determined by domestic political processes, such as; it changes the natural forest microclimates that have been transformed into new microclimates increasing sunlight and lowering humidity (Nazzal, 2005: 6). The ecological crisis is not merely an isolated event but has its roots in the modern materialistic civilization that makes man becomes the butcher of earth (Huggan and Tiffin, 2010: 1). They argue that one way out of this morass is to insist that the proper subject of postcolonialism is colonialism, and to look accordingly for colonial/imperial underpinnings of environmental practices in both colonising and colonised societies of the present and the past (Huggan and Tiffin, 2010: 3) Colonialism greatly changed the environmental condition of colonized country. Alfred W. Crosby (Crosby 1986) as quoted by Aschroft describes the ways in which the environments of colonized societies have been physically transformed by the experience of colonial occupation, imperialism/colonialism not only altered the cultural, political and social structures of colonized societies, but also devastated colonial ecologies and traditional subsistence patterns (Ashcroft, 2000: 69). Indirectly, colonization influences ecological changes in the past which cause ecological destruction in the present day. More importantly, based on Crosby statement in Aschroft explain that introduced crops and livestock not between colonizer and colonized country only supported conquering armies and colonizing populations, radically colonizer altered the entire ecology of the invaded lands in ways that necessarily disadvantaged indigenous peoples and annihilated or endangered native flora and fauna (2000: 69). Arguably this has led to one of the most profound ecological changes the world has seen. Colonization or colonialism can be defined as the conquest and control of other people's land and goods (Loomba, 2005: 8). Colonialism means a conquest which is done by the west or European and American country toward Asia and Africa by exploitation the land, surely it causes natural destruction. Elleke Boehmer has defined colonialism as the settlement of territory, the exploitation or development of resources, and attempts to govern the indigenous inhabitants of occupied lands (Boehmer as qtd. in McLeod 2000: 8). The term colonialism is important in defining the specific form of natural exploitation that developed with the expansion of Europe over the last 400 years (Ashcroft, 2000: 40). With the end of the cold war, global infatuation with neoliberal economics has intensified the peripheralization of the South along economic, political, social, cultural and natural lines (Geeta Chowdhry and Sheila Nair, 2002: 1). Postcolonial critique bears witness to those countries and communities - in the North and the South (Bhabha, 1994: 6). The assumption of postcolonial studies is that many of the wrongs, if not crimes, against nature are a product of the economic dominance of the north over the south (Young, 2001: 6). Thus, the Norh represents the West and the South represents the East. Postcolonialism sees the natural destruction on the South as the impacts of colonization The northern environmentalism considered as the rich (always potentially vainglorious and hypocritical) and the southern environmentalism considered as the poor (often genuinely heroic and authentic) (huggan and Tiffin, 2010: 2). However, northern needs of the natural need were supplied from the south in the name of colonization. Colonialism granted imperial powers the rights to arrogate and exploit the territory of a subject people as well as to appropriate unlimited property rights, post-colonial states acted quickly to regain control over their natural resources both through expropriation of foreign property interests and through the legal arena (Nazzal, 2005: 10). Colonialism, through both practice and discourse, has separated man from his natural surroundings and has given him a false idea about the meaning of nature: on the contrary, nature is not there to be plundered, but to be cared for, tended and made to yield its produce. Then, Man is ennobled by the relationship with the environment, by his power to make things grow and watch over their growth, but the reverse also holds true: devastation returns man to his primitive condition. It is not surprising when the the nature did reverse destruction to the humans. It is the result of what they do exploit to the nature. On the other world, man as the colonizer has colonized the earth which caused the devastation of earth. (Chrisman and Williams, 1994: 1–20). Thus, postcolonialism can be considered as umbrella term of ecocriticism in which it criticizes the relation between human and nature including criticizing humans' behaviour precisely humans' exploitation toward nature. ECOCRITICISM Humans truly can't be separated with environment. human beings are engaged in the eternal search for connection, for that which connects us to others and for that which connects us to ourselves, culture, language, history, belief systems, social practice, and other influences on human development are as much a part of place as the physical landscape one crosses (Dreese, 2002; 2-3). She emphasizes that environmental factors play a crucial role in the physical, emotional, and even spiritual configurations that determine our ideas of who we are. All human beings develop their own sense of place through life that determines why they love certain regions or feel utterly alien in others. The study of relations between humans and environment called ecology. Lawrence Buell defines ecology as the study of the interactions between organisms and the environment (Buell, 2005; 139). Meanwhile, Glen A Love defines ecology as not as merely a study of the relationship between organisms and their living and nonliving environment but also a combination of science and a sense of responsibility for life (2003; 37-38). Ecology as Lawrence Buell say above is drawn in the life circle; the life processes of many organisms put into their surroundings environment whose presence of other organism affects the life processes of these and other organisms sharing the same environment. When these processes are cut by such destruction, e.g. chemical by-products of the life processes of one species (or occupational group) are harmful to another species; the relationship between the two species is "antagonistic." Increased population density increases the probability of antagonistic interactions (Catton, 1994: 80). It is essential to be aware of the environmental damage which caused by ecological changes. The development of humans' ecology slowly damages the environment. The ecology of human development involves the scientific study of the progressive, mutual accommodation between an active, growing human being and the changing properties of the immediate settings (Bronfenbrenner, 1979: 21). Imbalance fine relations between humans and environment emerged a critic called ecocritic or ecocriticism (Buell, 2005; 2). John Elder as quoted by Dana Philip says that The science of ecology confirms the indivisibility of natural process: each feature of a landscape must be understood with reference to the whole, just as the habits of each creature reflect, and depend upon, the community of life around it (1999; 581). Ecology when it counts as science tends to be a lot more reductive, thus many of the core concepts of ecology once notable for their expansiveness have in recent years been cut down to size, made more particular, or abandoned altogether. It now appears that even the ecosystem concept may not be valid biologically, but valid concept or not, an ecosystem is primarily a theoretical entity, and therefore could never be the reality that somehow underwrites poetry, even if that poetry is of the good old-fashioned, supposedly "organic" sort (Philip, 1999; 582). By that kind of reason, Elder argues that culture too may be understood organically: it is the field of relationship between organisms and, as such, a complex organism in its own right (Philip, 1999; 582). Ecology is not merely bound to science and technology, but also moral and politic. Greg Garrard assumes that ecology itself is shifting and contested, the emphasis on the moral and political orientation of the ecocritic and the broad specification of the field of study are essential (2004; 4). Problems of ecology are features of our society, arising out of our dealings with nature, from which we should like to free ourselves, and which we do not regard as inevitable consequences of what is good in that society (Garrard, 2004; 5). Lynn white, Jr argues in his article on Cheryll Glotfelty's The Ecocriticism reader: landmark in literary ecology that environmental crisis is fundamentally a matter of the beliefs and values that direct science and technology and dominating attitude toward nature (1996; 4). Discoveries in ecology and cellular biology revolutionize our sense of self, teaching us that there is no such thing as an individual, only an individual-in-context (Neil Evernden, 1996; 93). Discoveries of course get much of invention. Unconsciously, humans' behaviour (ex: exploitation) toward environment was changed. Industrial Revolution affected humanity's conception of its relationship to nature, warning that technology has created the false illusion that we control nature, allowing us to forget that our "unconquerable minds" are vitally dependent upon natural support systems (Harold Fromm, 1996; 31) Ecocritic or Ecocriticism is an umbrella term, used to refer to the environmentally oriented study of literature and (less often) the arts more generally, and to the theories that underlie such critical practice (Buell, 2005; 138). Cheryll Glotfelty simply writes the definition, ecocriticism is the study of the relationship between literature and the physical environment, ecocriticism takes an earth-centered approach to literary studies (1996: xviii). Ecocriticism might succinctly be defined as study of the relation between literature and environment conducted in a spirit of commitment to environmental praxis (Lawrence Buell as quoted by Dana Philip, 1999; 583). Ecocriticism is, then, an avowedly political mode of analysis, ecocritics generally tie their cultural analyses explicitly to a 'green' moral and political agenda. In this respect, ecocriticism is closely related to environmentally oriented developments in philosophy and political theory (Greg Garrard, 2004; 3) Ecocentrism is more compelling as a call to fellow humans to recognize the intractable, like-it-or-not interdependence that subsists between the human and the nonhuman and to tread more lightly on the earth than it is as a practical program (Lawrence Buell, 2005, 102). Ecological criticism shares the fundamental premise that human culture is connected to the physical world, affecting it and affected by it. Ecocriticism takes as its subject the interconnections between nature and culture, specifically the cultural artefacts of language and literature (Cheryll Glotfelty, 1996; xix). The majority of ecocritics, whether or not they theorize their positions, look upon their texts of reference as refractions of physical environments and human interaction with those environments, notwithstanding the artifactual properties of textual representation and their mediation by ideological and other socio-historical factors (Lawrence Buell , 2005; 30). Literary theory, in general, examines the relations between writers, texts, and the world. In most literary theory "the world" is synonymous with society-the social sphere. Ecocriticism expands the notion of "the world" to include the entire ecosphere or nonhuman, which is physical environment. Several things that have to be seen are: • Transforming this concept becomes social movement that will bring the humans into conscious of the equality between human and their environment and doesn't consider the nature into binary opposition between dominate and dominated. • Ecocriticism encourages the changing of canonisation through entering literary works which carry up natural issue. • Ecocriticism is not only an approach but also a pendadogis tool. • Ecocriticism connects the literary study with the earth to see how is the relation between humans and earth where they stand (Cheryll Glotfelty, 1996, xxii) The majority of ecocritics, whether or not they theorize their positions, look upon their texts of reference as refractions of physical environments and human interaction with those environments, notwithstanding the artifactual properties of textual representation and their mediation by ideological and other sociohistorical factors (Buell, 2005; 30). It can be assumed that Ecocrtiticism sees the text as the refraction of physical environment. Another denigrates attempts to recuperate realism as restricting the field of environmental writing, as ludicrously foreshortened in focus ("its practitioners . . . reduced to an umpire's role, squinting to see if a given depiction of a horizon, a wildflower, or a live oak tree is itself well painted and lively"), and in any case bogus, since "mimesis presumes the sameness of the representation and the represented object" (Phillips 2003: 163–4, 175). Buell has added that this is a conviction that contact (or lack ofcontact) with actual environments is intimately linked, even if not on a one-to-one basis, with the work of environmental imagination, for both writer and critic (Buell, 2005; 31). Ecocriticism can explore what we can call a discursively manipulated nonhuman world in literature, and discuss how it gets marginalized or silenced by, or incorporated into the human language (Legler, I997: 227). Nonhuman environment must be represented as an active presence and player within the text made some astute readers inclined to be sympathetic of the environment (Buell, 2005: 51). The task of ecocriticism, then, is to formulate a conceptual foundation for the study of interconnections between literature and the environment. Literature can be perceived as an aesthetically and culturally constructed part of the environment, since it directly addresses the questions of human constructions, such as meaning, value, language, and imagination, which can, then, be linked to the problem of ecological consciousness that humans need to attain. Within this framework, ecocritics are mainly concerned with how literature transmits certain values contributing to ecological thinking (Glotfelty, 1996: xxi). Ecocriticism offers researcher a way how to analyze such literary work through three steps. First is seeing the representation of nonhuman aspect. This first step is looking how is the nature like rice field, village, wilderness, forest, sea, beach, hill, mountain, valley, river, animal (or treatment toward animal) and city environment pictured in the text. Second is seeing the accusation toward ecology issues. The second step destructs how the natural issue is portrayed with the different way. For instance, the nature is pictured as an inconvenient place again for humans because of the emergence the new value; technology, capitalism, extinction of local knowledge, and development of building which is not oriented to the environment. Last is taking part of text's ideology. In this case examines the relations between writers, texts, and the world. This third step is seeing and taking part of the ideology that contains in the text. How the author's view and commitment toward the nature (Cheryll Glotfelty, 1996, xix). DEVASTATION OF EARTH Those all theories mentioned above are related to the word "devastation" which happened on earth. Modernism granted colonizer a power to devastate the earth in which postcolonialism and ecocriticism tend to criticize that devastation. Certainly, what is actually the meaning of devastation of earth? The word "devastation" itself according to Merriam-Webster dictionary means the state or fact of being rendered nonexistent, physically unsound, or useless. In other word, devastation is deterioration, destruction, vanishing of the earth through depletion of resources such as air, water and soil. Devastation of earth can be defined as a destruction of ecosystems and the extinction of wildlife. Devastation of earth is a term used to describe a situation in which a part of the natural environment (the earth) is devastated or damaged. According to Shakhashiri, earth is areas of land as distinguished from sea and air (2011: 1). It means that the earth is composed by three parts; land, sea and air. Thus, it can be ascertained that if the devastation happened on earth, it will strike those all of earth's parts. The devastation which strikes the air will harm the condition of air in the atmosphere or known as devastated atmosphere, devastation which strikes the land will harm the condition of the soil and change it into erode and barren, and devastation which strike the water will contaminate the clean water into the dirty one. The earth as mentioned above that composed from three parts; certainly those each parts have a role. Land is the surface of the earth where the creatures are growing and developing; the plantations (trees) grow well, the animals breed and the humans dwell the life. Air is the mixture of gases which surrounds the Earth in which it contains a lot of vital substances such as oxygen and ozone. And water is a clear liquid, without colour or taste, which falls from the sky as rain and is necessary for animal and plant even human life. Water is also available in the river and sea. All of those parts of the earth greatly have advantage when it states in the normal/natural condition. However, when it was devastated, the earth turns into less natural and more miserable. That is the picture of the devastation of earth. DEPICTION OF DEVASTATION OF EARTH The devastation of earth as Hughes says has happened in every historical period and in every part of the inhabited Earth (2001: 1). It means that devastation of earth happened in the whole surface of the earth. Devastation has stroked the whole environment; atmosphere, land, and sea. Postcolonialism argues that colonialism has an intervention on devastating the earth. Colonialism has devastated the earth as Ashcroft says that the conquest and colonization of so many extra-European environments produced irreversible changes in land use, in flora and fauna and frequently damaged beyond repair traditionally balanced relations between indigenous communities and their environments (2000: 71-72). He adds that imperial incursions and colonization have been regarded as environmentally destructive. Devastation of earth happened over earth. It means that devastation happened on land, atmosphere and sea. The land has changed into gullied, eroded and barren. This changing surely as the impact of devastation of earth which is done by the colonizer in colonizing the land. Everything which stands on the land has changed, There was no reborn flora and fauna in McCarthy's The Road. However, the presence of the flora and fauna is the rest of the previous world. Indeed these flora and fauna have changed as the impact of colonialism. Flora in McCarthy's The Road is dominated by the trees. However, most of the trees have changed into gray, dark and black. It is so pathetic when the father and his son faced the standing black trees and they realized that it changes. Horribly, it seems like ghost of trees. The changing of the trees is not underlined on the changes of its colour but also its presence. It means that the trees are not only changing into dark and black with its standing but also there are many trees which die and fall to the ground. The changes of fauna can be seen when the father and his son was camp in the forest and listening for any sound, it draws that the bird has changed its behaviour by holding migratory to circle the earth. The birds can no longer life in harmony with the environment by occupying the forest. It is caused the changing of trees which turn into dead. Thus, it forces the birds to change themselves. Other fauna changing draws when the father who found an odor of cows. However, the cows are extinct since years ago. He asked to himself whether the cows are really real or not. He finally realized that it is extinct. It shows that the cows are changed from the presence to absence. The burning of a certain thing; such as the trees, surely produces a residue or combustion. It can be carbon and ash. It can be imagined how large the amount of ash will be produced if the whole land of forest were burned. Certainly, the ash will cover everything that has seen. A horrible fire of forest has produced a horrible ash too till everything is covered by ash. The ash has moved along the wind till it covered the city and everything in the city, The fire of forest makes the amount of ash become uncontrolled. The moving of ash filled the air and atmosphere in which it makes everything coloured covered by ash and dust. Hence, everything becomes colourless. The ash changes the landscape become gray. It can be assumed that the graying landscape is no other causing by the moving ash. The occupying of ash in the atmosphere makes the day become unseen and dark. The result of the residual combustion is not ashes merely, but also carbons that harm the environment. Ash and carbon both fill and occupy the atmosphere. As the greenhouse effect idea, that the ash and carbon also dust which in a large amount and uncontrolled in atmosphere will form a mantle which wrapped out the whole of earth. This causes our sight of the sky become dark and gray.The sky and cloud are devoured with ash. The cloud becomes ashen and gray. Severity, the ash and carbon have contaminated everything in the air including the sea water vapor. Then, the result is clouds of ash. Ash and dust have affected the form of the cloud to become gray. Probably its content has been also affected. When the clouds changes into gray, it can be predicted that the rainwater which come down from the clouds will also be gray. It is supported with the presence of the ash mantle that wrapped up the earth. Certainly, everything which come down from the sky; rainwater has to pass this mantle, consequently the rain water will be coloured as gray by the ash mantle. The ash mantle has coloured the rain water. The rainwater which drips down to the earth is seen as the gray sheets of rain. Rainwater that is usually used by humans to fulfil their needs such as to irrigate the fields has been contaminated by ash and carbon so that its contents no longer can be used for the benefit of man. Consequently, there will be no crops and there will be no natural food. Mantle of ash has blanketed the earth during the unknown time. As described above that everything which fell from the sky will pass this mantle so that everything will be contaminated by it. The result, everything which fell will be gray. After several days the father and his son watched the gray sheets of rain, the weather quickly changes into snowy. Everyone knows as it has seen that snow is falling from the sky. The snow actually is similar to the rain, including their formed and their fell. The sea water vapor which is formed into cloud in the sky will fall as the rainwater, however, because of the extreme/cold weather, the rain water freeze into ice and it changes into snow that is white and soft. This falling snow of course has to pass the mantle of ash and it changes into gray. The next devastation of earth is turned to everything which lay on the surface of the earth covered by darkness as the ash effect. Everything stands in the earth turned to be black such as the dead trees which burned by fire forest, and the rain water and snow which fell as gray turn into black in the land. The dead trees which burned by fire forest surely create a black view of trees. The trees which burned in incompletely will make an appearance of burnt and black trees. The rainwater and snow which are grey in their falling turned to be black in the land. The large number of those rainwater and snow gathered as one in the ground create a new colour, more intense and black. The gray flakes which fell down turned to the dark slush. Dark slush can be assumed as the slush which is thicker than a flake. Thus, the slush which is as the result of flakes changes into black. It is also applied in the rainwater; the water in the land is not the whole from the rainwater, some from the river and so on. However, the thick rainwater which fell down in gray proved that its water is dominated to black water. the slush which is melted flows through the ash and turned to the black water. THE IMPACTS OF DEVASTATION OF EARTH ON FATHER'S ATTITUDE Living and dwelling in such devastated earth surely give impacts to the humans who walk over it. The father and his son reveal those kinds of impacts. The father who lived before and after unknown disaster seems undergoing a lot of impacts. It is different with his son who born after that disaster. He tends to be innocent, only watch and observe what his father did. There was an idea to end the life when the father still lived with his woman. She always forces him to end their life because there was nothing else to do in the ruined world. However, the father keep his believe that humans have to struggle. The experience of dwelling the life before the unknown disaster made him stronger. The father realized that what the environment did to him is the result what the humans did to the environment, as Lawrence Buell says that human culture is connected to the physical world; nature and environment, affecting it and affected by it. In other word, humans have affected the environment and have been affected by environment. The woman forces him because they lived in unusual life, they lived like zombie. The devastation of earth causes their life as like as zombie or walking dead in a horror film which the father and his son have a role as the victims. They have to avoid even to face the zombie to keep alive. Dwelling the life in such devastated earth; the air was filled by the ash and dust forces them to wear a mask. The devastated earth; unfriendly air forces him to wear mask (canister mask) and even wear biohazard suit. As the affection of the devastated earth, the father and his son have to worry their life, Mostly he worried about their shoes. Worrying is something that the father in his son has to do. There is no certainty living in such ruined world. It is a common thing for them to worry anytime, worrying of food and shoes. Food is essential thing to keep alive. It is the reason why they worry of food. If they can't find some foods, it means they will die. The shoes are important stuff to hold a journey. As explain before that the weather extremely changes a while. Few days were raining, and another was snowing. Shoes keep the father in his son feet to keep away from coldness and freezing which can take their life. The weather is extremely cold. It is not surprising that the weather turns to colder and colder. The weather has changed anytime; sometime it rains and often snow. The coldness of weather doesn't only force them to eat the food that already fermented as above but also threaten their life. The coldness is very extremely danger for them. Moreover it is pictured that the cold can crack the stone and takes their life off. In such condition surely makes them hard to breathe because in the coldness the air contains thin oxygen. Dwelling the life in such devastated earth actually makes him aware of surrounding even the weather. The sounds like forest fire, fallen trees, and so on makes his ears disturbed and consequently he has to keep awake. Living in such devastated earth makes him to be more aware toward everything that threatens them. The father and his son have experienced many kinds of problems. Everything that happened to him does not break his spirit to keep alive even when they are in starving. He always believes that he would find something to eat. the father always optimistic dwelling life. the devastated earth makes him become more optimistic. Struggle is a must to do to find another thing to be eaten to keep the life. Keep trying is the key for the good guys who living in the ruined environment. By keeping trying, they can survive dwelling the life in such environment. Keep trying is not enough to live in such devastated earth. Always suspect the possibility that may happen has to be done, because no one knows what will happen, but the threat of nature always happen all the time. Thus, another thing that has to do is to remain vigilant about the environment. The devastated earth forces him to become "cautious, watchful" and always "on the lookout". He believes that no one expect a trouble. However, living in the devastated earth, the thing that has to do is to always expect it. Thus he was always wary of something bad that may happen. Nothing can be expected from the nature. The father always believed it. He no longer agrees if people prepare something for tomorrow. Although he always optimistic of what he did, he never believed it. For him, even though he's preparing for tomorrow, he doesn't believe that the nature will prepare for him. What the father believes that is now or tomorrow is the same. This belief keeps the father spirit to face his following days. As a father he would often feel the pain. Physically, he is ill of facing the devastated earth. And mentally, he is ill of the feeling of bearing the responsibility as a father who is responsible for the survival of his son and his own life. However nature should never take the life of his son. He would bet his life for the life of his son. Often he complains to himself about his illness. He pretends as tough man in front his son but actually he felt tremendous pain. It's just that he does not want his son to know. THE IMPACTS OF DEVASTATION OF EARTH ON SON'S ATTITUDE Being born in the devastated earth which the unknown disaster has swept it surely affects the son's behaviour toward environment. The greyscale image of environment has saved well in his mind that forces him to expect something else, something in colour. When they continue their journey, the son had found some crayons. These crayons change his mind that something left on earth in colour. Thus, environment is not filling of gray merely. The crayons seem like a hope for

Emergent health challenges related to work Work is not only central to population health but is also a significant driver of social inequality in health (1). In a recent Lancet series on work and health, the authors outlined six emergent challenges concerning work: the impact of technology, the intersection of work with sociodemographic health determinants, migrant work, precarious employment, long working hours, and climate change (1). The authors of the Lancet series also presented recommendations for future research, advocating for the utilization of mixed-methods, innovative analytical approaches (eg, causal modeling), realist evaluation, and interdisciplinary collaboration. Although each of these approaches are highly relevant, their integrated application was only vaguely outlined.
We believe that each of these work and health challenges show features of complex adaptive systems. They are multifaceted, constantly evolving, and emerge from our complex and disordered real world, which is often characterized by interactions, non-linearity, interference, feedback loops, and adaptation. Consequently, future research on work and health may benefit from adopting a complex systems perspective to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the drivers of these challenges (2–4). We have recently developed an interdisciplinary framework for knowledge production aimed at understanding complex health issues within the domain of public health, rooted in complex systems theory (5). This framework can serve to organize our thinking, formulate research questions, and integrate methodologies related to each of these six work and health challenges.
Briefly outlined, the Health Complexity framework relates to three core dimensions in which complex health issues may be conceptualized: patterns, mechanisms, and dynamics (5). Patterns: Looking for specific patterns of disease or risk factors allows us to empirically identify health issues that emerge from the mechanisms and dynamics of the underlying systems, eventually allowing us to discover vulnerable subgroups, and thereby set boundaries for targeted interventions. Mechanisms: Understanding the core mechanisms that give rise to these emergent health patterns and how they are connected across scales through interactions and interference can help us identify potential leverage points for intervention. Dynamics: Building evidence on the dynamics that make patterns and mechanisms change over time will allow us to identify vicious circles associated with particularly high morbidity.
Between them, these dimensions cover seven key features of complex systems (emergence, interactions, non-linearity, interference, feedback loops, adaptation, and evolution), which we have highlighted as central to public health. The Health Complexity framework builds upon the ideas of methodological pluralism (6–8) and is intended to be an overarching framework for interdisciplinary and collaborative research on complex health issues, also in the field of work and health. As an illustration, we will outline the elements needed to examine one of these challenges – precarious employment – through a complex systems lens, particularly highlighting how this approach influences the way we phrase research questions on health problems that do justice to the complexity of the real world.
Precarious employment viewed through a complex systems lens With globalization and technological advancements, there has been a shift towards a gig economy. This has led to an increase in temporary, part-time, and freelance work, which often lacks stability and benefits. Precarious employment specifically refers to such work characterized by employment insecurity, income inadequacy, and lack of rights and protection (9). The lack of stability and benefits associated with precarious employment combined with poor working conditions have been shown to have negative effects on physical and mental health (10–13). Workers may experience higher levels of stress, depression, and other health problems due to financial insecurity and lack of access to healthcare, which collectively may be an important driver of health inequality and of health decline. In a life course perspective, there may also be important feedback mechanisms exacerbating such inequality, with poor health not only being a consequence of precarious employment, but workers with poor health may be more likely to be excluded from stable work (14). Overall, the increasing prevalence of precarious employment represents a substantial challenge for public health, which can be seen as a sort of byproduct of larger societal trends. We believe that employing a complex systems lens can help us generate relevant scientific knowledge about the fundahttps://www.sjweh.fi/editoi.sjweh.fi/pics/update_u_3.gifmental drivers of this problem. This essentially entails three interlinked steps organized around the three core dimensions of the Health Complexity Framework (figure 1).
Patterns: As a first step, we need to zoom out and understand the health effects associated with emergent patterns of precarious employment in their context across time and space, asking questions such as: •How does precarious employment change over time, and how does this changing pattern affect population health? •Are there certain population groups, defined, eg, by socioeconomic status, age, occupation, migrant status, or geographical regions who experience more adverse health effects by precarious employment than others?
Systematically evaluating health patterns associated with precariousness can help us define boundaries for targeted prevention. Employing classical epidemiological surveillance methods alongside data science techniques for uncovering patterns within multidimensional large-scale datasets serves as key examples of such pattern identification.
Mechanisms: As a second step, we need to understand what mechanisms underlying the health effects of precariousness and how elements of these mechanisms are connected across scales, from cells to society, asking questions such as: •How do mechanisms interact across biological, behavioral, social, and societal scales to create the rising public health problems associated with precarious employment? •Does precarious employment and its associated health problems cluster and spread across social networks and/or across occupational and economic sectors?
Systematically evaluating the interconnectedness between mechanisms and individuals across various scales can help us identify leverage points for intervention. Whereas biomedical studies can contribute to uncovering the biological mechanisms linked to precarious employment, such as the embodiment of stress (15), the social sciences may offer profound insights into macro-scale mechanisms involving political, economic, and social structures.
Dynamics: As a third step, we need to explore how the health effects of precarious employment change over time due to dynamic processes like adaptation and feedback, asking questions such as: •How do national political and social contexts adapt to historical changes in the labor market including the increase in precarious employment, and what is the impact of this adaptation when it comes to how and to what extent precarious employment can affect the health of individuals and populations? •Is there a reinforcing feedback mechanism between social disadvantage, precarious employment, and health? This mechanism could create a vicious circle—for example, social disadvantage increasing the likelihood of precarious employment, which then leads to health consequences that may further reinforce social disadvantage.
Systematically assessing such dynamism can help us intervene on vicious circles that generate excessive burdens of disease in specific population groups. Systems methodology, including formal conceptual model building and computational simulations, are essential in creating such evidence.
Integrating interdisciplinary knowledge across these dimensions will provide a systematic and comprehensive understanding of the patterns of precarious employment and health, the underlying connected mechanisms generating these patterns, and the dynamics that makes them change over time. Some dimensions, like the patterns of precarious employment and health, may already be well-researched, while other dimensions such as dynamics require further investigation. We argue that it is essential to systematically explore all these dimensions to comprehensively understand a complex issue. Leaving out one of these core dimensions may leave blind spots that will render our understanding of precarious employment and health incomplete and thereby impact the efficiency of future interventions. In this editorial, we have focused on how to phrase research questions when applying a complex systems lens on precarious employment and health. This clearly needs to be matched by the integration of an interdisciplinary set of methods and data. An overview of such methods and data can be found in Rod et al (5).
Are we at the brink of a 'complexity turn' in public health? We believe that we are witnessing a shift in public health away from the traditional model of evidence, which primarily focused on empirically testing predefined hypotheses of single exposures and outcomes. Instead, there is a growing recognition of public health issues as complex, involving the complex interactions of biological, social, psychological, economic, and other processes across various levels and time scales (2–5, 16–20). These dynamics may show nonlinearity and adaptability. This paradigm shift is particularly important to our understanding of the relationship between work and health, including the emergent challenges outlined in the Lancet series, where contextual factors and interactions across micro-, meso- and macro-levels emerge as main drivers of dynamic change in employment condition. Formalizing this turn towards complexity in public health requires not only a realignment of our research questions as outlined for precarious employment above, but also necessitates the integration of traditional epidemiological methods with systems methodologies, such as computational simulation modeling (3, 18). Furthermore, it calls for sustained support for interdisciplinary collaboration and substantial investment in a diverse array of data types. These include multi-scale data, spatial data, time-series data, life-course data, network data, and multi-generational data, among others. This shift in our understanding of public health also impacts our approach to evidence synthesis. Traditionally, evidence synthesis has been relatively straightforward, typically summarized in systematic reviews or meta-analyses focusing on single isolated risk factors. However, with a complex systems perspective, we must transition towards a dynamic evidence synthesis framework. This approach involves an ongoing process of data-driven discoveries, hypothesis testing, and theory building. By adopting this dynamic approach, we can effectively synthesize evidence on complex research questions while continuously assessing which dimensions remain unresolved and understudied. These unresolved or understudied aspects should serve as guiding principles for future studies and research programs, also on work and health.
Funding NHR acknowledge funding from the European Union (ERC, LAYERS, project no. 101124807). The views and opinions expressed are, however, those of the author(s) only and do not necessarily reflect those of the European Union or the European Research Council. Neither the European Union nor the granting authority can be held responsible for them.
References 1. Frank J, Mustard C, Smith P, et al. Work as a social determinant of health in high-income countries: past, present, and future. The Lancet 2023; 402: 1357-67. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(23)00871-1 2. Rutter H, Savona N, Glonti K, et al. The need for a complex systems model of evidence for public health. Lancet 2017; 390: 2602-4. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31267-9 3. Stronks K, Crielaard L, Rod NH. Systems Approaches to Health Research and Prevention. In: Ahrens W, Pigeot I, eds. Handbook of Epidemiology. New York, NY: Springer, New York, NY, 2024: 1-29. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-6625-3_70-1 4. Roux AVD. Complex Systems Thinking and Current Impasses in Health Disparities Research. Am J Public Health 2011; 101: 1627. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2011.300149 5. Rod NH, Broadbent A, Rod MH, Russo F, Arah OA, Stronks K. Complexity in Epidemiology and Public Health. Addressing Complex Health Problems Through a Mix of Epidemiologic Methods and Data. Epidemiology 2023; 34: 505-14. https://doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0000000000001612 6. Ogilvie D, Bauman A, Foley L, Guell C, Humphreys D, Panter J. Making sense of the evidence in population health intervention research: Building a dry stone wall. BMJ Glob Health 2020; 5. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2020-004017 7. Vandenbroucke JP, Broadbent A, Pearce N. Causality and causal inference in epidemiology: the need for a pluralistic approach. Int J Epidemiol 2016; 45: 1776-86. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyv341 8. Illari PM, Russo F. Causality: philosophical theory meets scientific practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014. 9. Kreshpaj B, Orellana C, Burström B, et al. What is precarious employment? A systematic review of definitions and operationalizations from quantitative and qualitative studies. Scand J Work Environ Health 2020; 46: 235-47. https://doi.org/10.5271/sjweh.3875 10. Matilla-Santander N, Muntaner C, Kreshpaj B, et al. Trajectories of precarious employment and the risk of myocardial infarction and stroke among middle-aged workers in Sweden: A register-based cohort study. The Lancet Regional Health - Europe 2022; 15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lanepe.2022.100314 11. Matilla-Santander N, Matthews AA, Gunn V, et al. Causal effect of shifting from precarious to standard employment on all-cause mortality in Sweden: an emulation of a target trial. J Epidemiol Community Health 2023; 77: 736-43. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech-2023-220734 12. Jonsson J, Muntaner C, Bodin T, et al. Low-quality employment trajectories and risk of common mental disorders, substance use disorders and suicide attempt: a longitudinal study of the Swedish workforce. Scand J Work Environ Health 2021; 47: 509. https://doi.org/10.5271/sjweh.3978 13. Rönnblad T, Grönholm E, Jonsson J, et al. Precarious employment and mental health: a systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Scand J Work Environ Health 2019; 45: 429-43. https://doi.org/10.5271/sjweh.3797 14. Junna L, Moustgaard H, Martikainen P. Health-related selection into employment among the unemployed. BMC Public Health 2022; 22: 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-13023-0 15. McEwen BS. Neurobiological and Systemic Effects of Chronic Stress. Chronic Stress (Thousand Oaks) 2017; 1. https://doi.org/10.1177/2470547017692328 16. Page SE, Zelner J. Population Health as a Complex Adaptive System of Systems. In: Apostolopoulos Y, Lich KH, Lemke MK, eds. Complex Systems and Population Health, 1st edn. New York: Oxford University Press, 2020: 33-44. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190880743.003.0003 17. Rod MH, Rod NH, Russo F, Klinker CD, Reis R, Stronks K. Promoting the health of vulnerable populations: Three steps towards a systems-based re-orientation of public health intervention research. Health Place 2023; 80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2023.102984 18. El-Sayed AM, Galea S. Systems Science and Population Health. New York: Oxford University Press, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190492397.003.0017 19. Luna Pinzon A, Stronks K, Dijkstra C, et al. The ENCOMPASS framework: a practical guide for the evaluation of public health programmes in complex adaptive systems. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act 2022; 19. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-022-01267-3 20. Stronks K, Nicolaou M. Embracing complexity in social epidemiology. Lancet Public Health 2018; 3: e352-3. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(18)30137-3

"Major technological advances in the last few years have increased our knowledge of the role that genetics has in occupational diseases and our understanding of genetic components and the interaction between genetics and environmental factors. The use of genetic information, along with all of the other factors that contribute to occupational morbidity and mortality, will play an increasing role in preventing occupational disease. However, the use of genetic information in occupational safety and health research and practice presents both promise and concerns [McCanlies et al. 2003; Kelada et al. 2003; Henry et al. 2002; Christiani et al. 2001; Schulte et al. 1999]. Use of genetic information raises medical, ethical, legal and social issues [Clayton 2003; Ward et al., 2002; McCunney 2002; Christiani et al 2001; Rothstein 2000a; Schulte et al. 1999; Lemmens 1997; Barrett et al. 1997, Van Damme et al. 1995; Gochfeld 1998; Omenn 1982]. The purpose of this report is to bring together the diverse literature and opinions on genetics in the workplace, to highlight important issues, and to provide some considerations for current and future practice. Occupational safety and health professionals and practitioners may have particular interest in this report as the understanding of gene-environment interactions at the mechanistic and population levels may result in improved prevention and control strategies. This report is divided into topic areas for ease of reading. Specifically, the role of genetic information in occupational disease is discussed in Chapter 2, followed in Chapter 3 by a presentation of how genetics is incorporated into occupational health research. Health records as a source of genetic information are discussed in Chapter 4. The report continues in Chapter 5 with a focus on genetic monitoring, followed in Chapter 6 by a theoretical discussion of genetic screening. The final chapter presents an overview of the most important aspects of this report, which are the ethical, social, and legal implications of genetics in the workplace. In addition, ethical issues specific to health records and genetic testing are discussed in Chapters 4 and 6, respectively. To assist our audience in finding additional sources of information or more in-depth discussion of the issues surrounding genetic information, a list of web sites is provided at the conclusion of this document. Role of Genetic Information in Occupational Disease: The role of genetic information in occupational disease is being explored. The framework for considering genetics in the exposure to disease paradigm arose from a National Academy of Sciences review on biomarkers [NRC 1987]. Biomarkers are measurements using biological tissues that give information about exposure, effect of exposure, or susceptibility. Evaluation of genetic damage can provide information about exposure or effect of exposure. However, the presence of a specific genetic biomarker will not itself result in an occupational disease; exposure to a workplace hazard is necessary. The presence of a disease risk biomarker in the absence of exposure may be innocuous. The study of biomarkers of genetic susceptibility in the context of workplace exposures can provide information about gene-environment interactions. One major emphasis of genetic research in occupational disease has been in the area of response variability. Extensive variability in the human response to workplace exposures has been observed. Genes can have multiple variations known as polymorphisms, which may contribute to some of this variability [Grassman et al. 1998]. Research has been conducted over the last approximately 30 years to identify the role of genetic polymorphisms in a wide range of occupational and environmental diseases, particularly those involving occupational carcinogens [Hornig 1988; Berg 1979]. The risk of biological effects or diseases attributable to an occupational exposure can be decreased, unchanged, or increased among individuals with certain genetic polymorphisms. Incorporating Genetics into Occupational Health Research: The main influence on genetic research with respect to occupational health is the large number of technological advances in molecular biology. Because of these new techniques, it is now feasible to evaluate the relationship of disease with individual genes and their variants or even with the whole genome. These technologies promise to set the stage for new discoveries in understanding mechanisms and the preclinical changes that might serve as early warnings of disease or increased risk [NRC 2007]. " ; (Cont'd) "They also present difficult challenges in terms of handling large data sets, understanding the normal range, standardizing technologies for comparison and interpretation, and communicating results [King and Sinha 2001; Wittes and Friedman 1999]. As our understanding of the role of specific genes and their variants increases, genetic tests are being developed to look at specific genotypes. One critical issue in genetics is the validity of such genetic tests. Much contemporary genetic research involves the collection of biological specimens (usually DNA in white blood cells) that are then tested either for changes (damage) to genetic material or for genetic polymorphisms. These genetic tests, while useful in occupational health research, are not ready for clinical use; in other words, they are not validated for clinical interpretation. Validation is a process by which a test's performance is measured both in the laboratory and in populations, resulting in the evaluation of the clinical utility or the risks and benefits of the test. Until clinically validated, the information from such tests may be meaningless with regard to an individual's health or risk. In contrast, genetic tests may be validated for assessing exposure or effect modification in research even if they have no clinical utility. Health Records: A Source of Genetic Information: Genetic tests are not the only source of genetic information in the workplace. Genetic information is kept in workers' personnel and workplace health records [Rothenberg et al. 1997]. This information is in the family history of diseases with known strong genetic etiologies as well as in the results of physical examinations and common laboratory tests. This type of information is reported routinely by workers or obtained by employers from workers' job applications, health questionnaires, health and life insurance applications, physicals, and workers' compensation proceedings [Anderlik and Rothstein 2001]. The line between what is and is not genetic information in health records is unclear. States have enacted legislation with widely varying definitions of what constitutes genetic information from an employee's health record. Questions concerning confidentiality, privacy and security remain as the handling of health records may be influenced by various federal and state regulations. Genetic Monitoring and Occupational Research and Health Practice: Genetic information can be a scientific tool to understand mechanisms and pathways in laboratory research and as independent or dependent variables in population research studies of workers. In occupational safety and health practice, genetic tests may be used in a variety of ways. As in other areas of health science, genetic information may be used in the differential diagnosis of disease, allowing clinicians to consider or exclude various diagnoses. Monitoring for the effects of exposure on genetic material, such as chromosomes, genes, and constituent deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), has been used to evaluate risks and potential health problems for more than 50 years, particularly those from ionizing radiation [Mendelsohn 1995; Langlois et al. 1987; Berg 1979]. Such monitoring is not unlike monitoring for metals in blood, solvents in breath, or dusts in lungs and presents less ethical concern than assessing heritable effects [Schulte and DeBord 2000]. Tests for genetic damage have been advocated as a way to prioritize exposed individuals for more thorough medical monitoring [Albertini 2001]. Genetic monitoring highlights the confusion that exists between individual and group risk assessment. Unlike other monitoring methods, the risks linked to cytogenetic changes are interpretable only for a group, not for an individual [Schulte 2007; Murray 1983; Lappe 1983]. Currently, no U.S. regulations exist that mandate genetic monitoring. Questions arise whether genetic monitoring indicates a potential health problem, an existing health problem, or compensable damage. More research is needed to understand the science before the individual's risk of disease can be interpreted from genetic monitoring results. However, genetic monitoring to determine exposure may be useful for the occupational health practitioner Theoretical Use of Genetic Screening and Occupational Health Practice: Genetic monitoring may have some application in occupational health practice, but perhaps the most controversial use of genetic information would be in making decisions about employment opportunities and health and life insurance coverage [Schill 2000; Bingham 1998; Van Damme et al. 1995; Murray 1983; Lappe 1983]. This would occur primarily as a result of genetic screening, in which a job (and insurance) applicant or a current worker might be asked to undergo genetic testing to determine if he or she has a certain genotype. However, the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008 (GINA) prohibits discrimination on the basis of genetic information with respect to health insurance and employment [U.S. Congress 2008]. Genetic screening which was not strictly prohibited by the Americans With Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) is now prohibited. Under ADA an employer may not make medical inquiries about an applicant until a conditional offer has been extended. Once the offer has been tendered, an employer could have obtained medical, including genetic, information about a job applicant. ADA did not prohibit obtaining genetic information or genetic screening, nor did it prohibit an employer from requesting genetic testing once an applicant has been hired provided the testing is job related. and can be used for the purposes of job placement after a conditional job offer is made. Most criteria for genetic screening programs indicate that participation should be voluntary, with informed consent in place. Genetic screening for these purposes cannot be supported at this time because of the current lack of linkage of causation of a given genetic polymorphism with a given occupational disease and its implications with regard to the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSH Act of 1970) that the workplace be safe for all workers [OSHA 1980b]. Accurate genetic screening information may eventually be useful to workers considering employment options. Obtaining this information for the worker would become appropriate only after the screening tests have been validated regarding risk. Various ethical arguments have been advanced in the discussion of genetic screening, and a broad range of implications of genetic testing has been discussed in the literature and in this document, including the oversight of genetic testing laboratories. The Ethical, Social, and Legal Implications of Genetics in the Workplace: A concern about the use of genetic information in occupational safety and health is that the emphasis in maintaining a safe and healthful workplace could shift from controlling the environment to excluding the vulnerable worker. This would be counter to the spirit and the letter of the OSH Act of 1970 [OSHA 1980b]. Actions that attempt to depart from providing safe and healthful workplaces for all should not be supported. Nevertheless, understanding the role of genetic factors in occupational morbidity, mortality, and injury is important and could lead to further prevention and control efforts. However, occupational safety and health decision-makers, researchers, and practitioners may find that genetic factors do not contribute substantially to some occupational diseases. Environmental risk factors will probably always be more important for developing strategies for prevention and intervention in occupational disease and ultimately for the reduction of morbidity and mortality. The challenge is to identify and apply genetic information in ways that will improve occupational safety and health for workers. The use of genetic information in occupational safety and health research requires careful attention because of the real or perceived opportunities for the misuse of genetic information. Society in general and workers in particular have concerns that discrimination and lack of opportunity will result from the inappropriate use of genetic information [MacDonald and Williams-Jones 2002; Maltby 2000]. While only sparse or anecdotal information supports this contention, a wide range of workers, legislators, scientists, and public health researchers have concern that such discrimination could occur. Thus, GINA and other regulations were passed to prevent the potential misuse and abuse of genetic information in the workplace. Examples of safeguards include rules and practices for maintaining privacy and confidentiality, prohibition of discrimination, and support of a worker's right of self-determination (autonomy) with regard to genetic information. Many of these safeguards have been built into biomedical research in general, and occupational safety and health research in particular, through guidance given in the Nuremberg Code [1949], the Belmont Report [1979], and the Common Rule (45 CFR. 46) [DHHS 2005; CFR 2007], as well as in the National Bioethics Advisory Commission (NBAC) reports [1999], the ADA [1990], Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) [1996] and GINA in 2008 [U.S. Congress 2008]. ADA and HIPAA provided some safeguards against the potential misuse of genetic information in the workplace before GINA was signed and in 2000, Executive Order 13145 was signed that prohibits discrimination in federal employment based on genetic information [65 Fed. Reg. 6877 (2000)]. In summary, the use of genetic information in the workplace has the potential to affect every worker in the United States. This NIOSH document provides information on the scientific, legal, and ethical issues with regard to the use of genetics in occupational safety and health research and practice." - NIOSHTIC-2 ; Introduction -- The Role of genetic information in occupational disease -- Incorporating genetics into occupational health -- Research -- Health records: a source of genetic information -- Genetic monitoring: occuptional research and practice -- The Theoretical use of genetic screening and occupational health practice. -- The Ethical, social, and legal implications of genetics in the workplace ; "November 2009." ; Also available via the World Wide Web. as an Acrobat .pdf file (1.62 MB, 151 p.). ; Includes bibliographical references (p. 81-114) and index.

This dissertation consists in an empirical study of the relationship between democracy and political confidence in East Asia, a region of our globe that goes from Mongolia to Indonesia, as Northern and Southern limits, and from Myanmar to Japan, as Western and Eastern borders. The study of individuals' confidence in public institutions, often linked with the more general discussion about political legitimacy, arguably represents one of the most analysed and debated topics of political science. Nonetheless, the almost entirety of our knowledge about this relationship derives from theoretical discussion and empirical investigations about the impact, or potential impact, of citizens' confidence in institutions on democratic viability. Although during the last two decades a burgeoning number of studies about the the interplay between institutions and individuals' political confidence has been produced, studies investigating this relationship from the opposite perspective, namely the extent to which democracy impacts on individual confidence in institutions, has been seldom investigated. Institutional studies of political confidence have been increasingly focusing on the extent to which the economic or political performance of state institutions and authorities, or other features of the political system, such as the fairness, responsiveness, and honesty of political process, affect citizens' confidence in institutions. In those few cases in which the essential features of a democratic system have been considered as potential antecedents of individual confidence in institutions these effects have been investigated in and across democratic regimes, especially in the European and North American contexts. As a consequence, what it is contended is that our knowledge of this relationship, and the largely positive view about said relationship, is to a large extent contingent on the contexts in which it has been studied. For this reason, this work steps out from the usual yard of normative debates and empirical studies about this topic, and focuses on East Asia, a region of our globe providing several opportunities (and challenges) to empirically investigate individual confidence in institutions and its interplay with political institutions. East Asia nowadays represents one of the most heterogeneous regions of our world on a plethora of structural and systemic features. Among these, East Asia presents a remarkable variety of political systems, ranging from single-party autocratic regimes to pluralistic liberal-democracies, and including several types of 'hybrid' regimes, fitting in neither categories. Since the late 1990s and early 2000s data about individual attitudes and behavior across this variety of regimes have been collected, allowing scholars and researchers to reassess, and in some cases challenge, issues and assumptions about a long list of political phenomena, including political confidence. In- deed, while individual-level studies of political confidence in this region have shown that the dynamics generating different degrees of confidence across individuals overlap with those seen in other regions of our globe, descriptive studies of cross-national variations of political confidence in this region have shown that individual confidence in institutions, during the last two decades, has been invariably higher in non-democratic regimes as compared to democratic countries. Several hypotheses and arguments, although scarcely investigated, have been developed in order to explain these aggregate regularities. Some authors attempted to explain these variations following socio-deterministic theories about an increasing mismatch between individual basic orientations to politics and the reality of their political systems determined by socioeconomic modernization, that is the so-called 'critical citizens' theory, or enduring cultural traditions, the so-called 'Asian Values' argument. Others have pointed their attention on differences in terms of (especially economic) performance of East Asian governments. Still others have called into question the reliability and validity of individual confidence measures in non-democratic settings. Few scholars have considered the idea that these differences may be related to structural characteristics of the political processes that differentiate democratic regimes from non-democratic ones. In this work, although accounting for alternative explanations both theoretically and empirically, this latter perspective is developed and investigated. Building on arguments and evidence concerning the effects of political competition outputs (namely, election results) on individual-level variations of confidence in institutions, and relying on the renowned theoretical and analytical comparative framework developed by Robert Dahl (1971) in its seminal study on political participation and opposition, this thesis aims to investigate how an essential characteristic of any political system, namely the extent to which a regime provides institutional guarantees for public contestation to a more or less broad share of its population, affects individuals' confidence in institutions. In order to provide a rigorous, specific, but also comprehensive empirical assessment of this topic, this dissertation is structured as follows. Chapter 1 is dedicated to a theoretical and conceptual discussion about the notion of political confidence and the main explanations of its origins, starting from which the broad research question inspiring this dissertation is presented. About the former topic, building on relatively recent theoretical and conceptual developments, what it is contended is that the notion of confidence is conceptually distinct to the notion of trust, and the former should be preferred to the latter in order to conceptualize the relationship between individuals and public institutions (Ch. 1, Sect. 1.2.1). Furthermore, the relationship between this notion and the related concepts of regime legitimacy and political support is critically assessed in order to define the peculiar nature of the individual attitude under investigation (Ch. 1, Sect. 1.2.2). The chapter, then, continues with a reassessments of the second topic mentioned above, namely a review of theories and explanations of political confidence, based on the ubiquitous categorization of theories of political phenomena distinguishing between culturalist and institutionalist arguments (Ch. 1, Sect. 1.3). Building on these two sections the chapter ends with a discussion concerning the scope of these explanations, and briefly reviewing the debate about the relationship between democracy and political confidence (Ch. 1, Sect. 1.4). In particular, what is claimed is that, while providing opposite and to some extent irreconcilable perspectives about the determinants of political confidence, current theories and explanations of this phenomenon lack arguments assessing the systemic impact of democracy on individual confidence in institutions, for both theoretical reasons and the already mentioned focus of theoretical discussions and empirical investigation on democratic settings, driving to a contingent understanding of the relationship between democracy and political confidence. What it is contended, thus, is that for assessing this issue a different analytical strategy is needed. Chapter 2 is, thus, dedicated to developing the specific argument of this thesis (Ch. 2, Sect. 2.2), discussing the state of art of the empirical research dedicated to political confidence in East Asia, thus introducing the geopolitical context in which this work is situated (Ch. 2, Sect. 2.3), and finally presenting the research design adopted to investigate the main puzzle and related research questions of this research effort (Sect. 2.4). The first section (Sect. 2.2.1) clarifies which is the notion of democracy adopted in this study, that consists in Dahl's (1971, 1989, 1998) notion of polyarchy and the theoretical and analytical framework that has been produced around this notion (e.g. Coppedge and Reinicke 1990; Coppedge et al. 2008; Teorell et al. 2019). The section then continues (Sect. 2.2.2) with an explanation of why varying levels of democracy are interpreted as variations of levels of public contestation, one of the two dimensions informing the notion of democracy used in this work. The following pages are then dedicated to a discussion about why and how variations of institutional features and dimensions identified by the notion of democracy used in this thesis can be related to varying levels of individuals' confidence in institutions (Sect. 2.2.3). What it is contended is that variations of these attributes shape the structure of incentives and constraints affecting individuals assessments of institutions and authorities trustworthiness, and that higher degrees of public contestation are likely to produce both positive and negative incentives for individuals' confidence in public institutions. The following section is then dedicated to the state of art of the study of political confidence in this region, that highlights the main findings and gaps about aggregate- level and individual-level studies of political confidence in this region. By doing so, in this section the East Asian context is presented and the opportunities and challenges given by the structural heterogeneity of this region are discussed, and the necessity of a study able to fill the the lack of contextual analyses of political confidence in this region is underlined. Then, Finally, the chapter ends presenting the specific research questions investigated in the following chapters and the research strategy employed to address these questions (Sect. 2.4.1), as well as the main individual-level and contextual-level data bases of this empirical study (Sect. 2.4.2). The following three chapters of the thesis (Chs. 3, 4, and 5) consist in the three sets of empirical analyses used to address the research questions and the main hypothesis grounding this work. Chapter 3 presents a dimensionality analysis of political confidence in East Asia. What it is claimed is that in order to properly analyse the relationship between democracy and political confidence, what is needed is a prior assessment of whether East Asians confidence in institutions represent a single and general assessment of public institutions, or rather a multidimensional attitude (an assessment seldom performed in previous research). Consequently, this chapter, building on the ongoing debate about political confidence dimensionality in Europe (Ch. 3, Sect. 3.2), and after presenting the main expectations derived by translating this debate in investigates this issue through the means of exploratory and (multi-group) confirmatory factor analyses (EFA and CFA), applied to (almost) all the studies composing the first four rounds of the ABS (Ch. 3, Sect. 3.3). The main finding of this chapter is that, despite the crucial diversities of the countries included in this study on a series of structural factors potentially affecting the way in which East Asians organize their attitudes toward public institutions, a common factor structure of political confidence in this region can be found, and that this configuration consists in a two-dimensional conception distinguishing between confidence in political institutions (e.g. national governments and national assemblies) and confidence in implementative institutions (e.g. civil services and police forces). Chapter 4 is then dedicated to an analysis of these two types of political confidence in the aggregate. In the first part of the chapter, a descriptive analysis of East Asians' confidence in both political and implementative institutions is provided (Ch. 4, Sect. 4.2). In this part the cross-national variations of political confidence already highlighted by previous research are presented, although in a broader picture, spanning across approximately fifteen years of evidence provided by the ABS data. The stable differences between East Asian countries are then assessed through a bivariate and multivariate correlational analyses, performed in order to test alternative explanations of these cross-national patterns (Ch. 4, Sect. 4.4 and Sect. 4.5). What it is shown is that the selected indicator of political contestation levels consistently negatively correlates with the index dedicated to ABS respondents' political confidence, representing the best predictor of cross-national variations of aggregate levels of these attitudes, outperforming all the alternative explanations. What the chapter shows, however, is that the impact of contestation on aggregate levels of political confidence is much stronger for confidence in political institutions as compared to confidence in implementative ones. Chapter 5 then represents the last empirical chapter of this dissertation, and presents a multilevel analysis of political confidence, spanning across the second, third, and fourth rounds of the ABS, and providing an assessment of both individual-level and contextual-level determinants of political confidence, and their interplay. After providing hypotheses concerning the relationship between relevant individual-level antecedents of political confidence as identified by previous research, and expectations concerning the direct and indirect effect of the contextual variable of interest (Ch. 5, Sect. 5.2), a series of hierarchical linear regression models (HLMs) are performed in order to account for both individual-level and contextual-level variation of political confidence (Ch. 5, Sect. 5.4). What these models provide is, first, a reassessment of previous findings about the direct effect of political contestation on confidence in political institutions and confidence in implementative institutions, partially confirming previous results, but also highlighting even more the different impact of political contestation on the two indices of political confidence, strong and statistically significant for average levels of confidence in political institutions, while much weaker and even not significant in affecting confidence in implementative ones. Second, the HLMs return a clear picture about the individual-level determinants of political confidence in this region, showing how institutional performance indicators represent the best individual-level predictors of confidence across all the contexts considered, and how their effects vary according to the type of political confidence taken into account. Third, these models show how the indirect effect of political contestation, considered as a moderating factor of the effect of some individual-level determinants, operates differently according to the type of political confidence considered, moderating the effect of individual-level variables when considering confidence in implementative institutions but not in the case of the other type investigated in this work. The chapter, hence, returns a rather puzzling scenario that is further discussed in the last section of this chapter (Ch. 5, Sect. 5.5). The dissertation, then, concludes with a reassessment of the main findings proposed in previous chapters, the limitations of the study, and the main implications for the empirical study of political confidence in East Asia and beyond.

The events of 2023 have not only highlighted gendered concerns in the region's top political and economic struggles but also its very centrality.Enheduanna editor, Faria Nasruddin, reviews the status of and major developments for women in the Middle East and North Africa, as well as gender policy on the international stage and its regional implications. The year 2023 was marked by important advancements in gender policy in workforce developments and climate solutions yet saw a deterioration of conditions for women and girls in Iran, Afghanistan, and the Palestinian Territories. Looking to 2024, the needs of women and girls will need to be taken into account in policymaking circles. A feminist foreign policy that calls for a human-centered approach to security and, as UN Deputy Secretary General Amina Mohammed said, "a shift of mindset away from confrontation and toward dialogue, engagement [and] cooperation" could facilitate stable and sustainable peace and prosperity in the region. Female workforce participation initiatives The Middle East & North Africa has one of the lowest rates of female labor force participation globally. The latest estimate from the World Bank shows that only 19 percent of women over the age of 15 in MENA participate in the workforce. Within the region, however, there is a wide spectrum, with countries like Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, the UAE, and Israel well over the average at or around 50 percent, while countries like Algeria, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Syria and Palestine significantly below the mean. MEP's report "Women Entrepreneurship in MENA," published March 2023, defined key barriers women face in the private sector: mismatched education and skill-building, difficult legal environments and the persistence of discriminatory laws in practice, unsafe and inaccessible transportation, the uneven transition to the digital economy, and socio-cultural mindsets about the roles and capabilities of women. While this year has seen success in initiatives like the Oasis program in Jordan and Syria that provides childcare services, cash-for-work, and skill development to women—with a particular focus on women with disabilities—challenges are still abundant in a rapidly shifting economy. STEM Enables Women's Economic Empowerment in the MENA Region Lebanon Has a Chance to Rebuild a Private Sector Centered on Women Gender mainstreaming at COP28 The UNFCCC's COP28 was held in Dubai, UAE, in December 2023; the second consecutive year the climate conference has taken place in the MENA region. The previous conference in Sharm El-Sheikh, Egypt, was largely criticized for underrepresenting women in negotiations. By contrast, COP28 was marked by the announcement of the Gender Responsive Just Transition & Climate Action Partnership convened by Emirati ministers and supported by the UNFCCC. Sixty-eight countries have signed onto the commitment to improve gender and environmental data to enhance financing to the most impacted regions and to generate opportunities for those most affected by the climate crisis. The International Labor Organization states that 1.2 billion jobs—the majority held by women—are at risk due to the climate crisis. The partnership aims to support women as the global economy transitions to a low-carbon and sustainable model. The second round of review will be in three years, during COP31. Green Building Addresses Energy Crisis in Iraq Women at the Forefront of Environmental Protection in Oman Women remain under stifling repression in Taliban-ruled AfghanistanThis year, the UN reported that Afghanistan was the most repressive country in the world for women and girls. Since the Taliban took over the government in August 2021, they have initiated a series of increasingly harsh restrictions on women's participation in education and the workforce, as well as freedom of movement and dress. The regime of gender apartheid is compounded by the severe humanitarian crisis worsened by a prolonged drought and a series of 6.3-magnitude earthquakes which struck the northwestern province of Herat in October 2023. A rapid gender analysis by the Gender in Humanitarian Action Working Group in November 2023 revealed that an estimated 29.2 million people in Afghanistan need urgent humanitarian aid to survive, 15.3 million people are affected by food insecurity, and 25% of the population does not have access to basic health services. The effects on women and girls—especially those in female-headed households—are significant and range from increased risk of forced and early marriage to mental health challenges and malnutrition, perpetuating cycles of poverty and dependency in the long term. Moreover, earlier this year, the government of Pakistan issued a decree for all undocumented refugees from Afghanistan to return to their country of origin. Since the decree went into effect, 400,000 people have returned to Afghanistan (80% of whom are women and children). The conditions in Afghanistan that drove emigration persist and restrictions on women increase by the day with no sign of change from the Taliban, pressure or engagement from the international community, or long-term plan to support the rights and freedoms of Afghan women and girls. In the Shadows of Silence: Unveiling Afghanistan in the Global Face of Patriarchy The first anniversary of "Zan. Zendegi. Azadi!" September 16th marked the first anniversary of 22-year-old Kurdish-Iranian woman Mahsa Amini's death at the hands of Iran's morality police and subsequent protests that rocked Iranian society. Throughout the year, the resilience of the Iranian women was on full display: 20% of women are reported to be defying the mandatory hijab laws, and jailed activists like Nargess Mohammadi—who received the 2023 Nobel Peace Prize—smuggle letters out of prisons and continue their defiance through hunger strikes. Although organized diaspora groups like the Alliance for Freedom and Democracy in Iran (AFDI) splintered and the Iranian regime has cracked down on protestors by issuing increasingly stricter edicts on the hijab and by using new surveillance technology, the "Zan, Zendegi, Azadi!" or "Woman, Life, Freedom" movement's spirit continues with widespread support for and respect for women's rights at its core. For Iranian Women, a Bittersweet CelebrationHijab, See-Through Clothing, and Exercises in Futility Nobel Peace Prize Shines a Light on Iranian Women's Resilience: The Nargess Mohammadi Story Iran: Violence Against Women Gender-based violence in the Israel-Hamas War The October 7th Hamas attack on Israel spurred a new stage in the 70-year Israel-Palestine conflict and was marked by unprecedented levels of gender-based violence against civilian populations. Eyewitness reports and investigations on the weaponization of sexual violence show seven different locations where Hamas fighters committed sexual and gender-based violence. In Gaza, women and children have borne the brunt of Israel's military campaign, comprising over 2/3 of those reported to have been killed in the war (12,882 total as of January 2, 2024). Moreover, women (and children) are disproportionately affected , by the going humanitarian crisis and the 2,784 newly formed female-headed households face challenges finding and accessing food, water, shelter, and medical care; 50,000 pregnant women have precarious access to medical care amid displacement and infrastructure collapse. Additionally, video footage and photos issued by the IDF showcased how Israeli forces are deploying gendered tactics of violence against Gazan civilians, like stripping and detaining civilian men, designed to further the humiliation of Palestinians in the strip. Examining how gender-based violence is deployed as a tactic of war and seeking accountability and justice for survivors on all fronts in the wake of conflict will be one step only in the larger process of de-escalation. Unraveling the Multi-Faceted Impact of Armed Conflict on Women in the Gaza Strip The Precedent of October 7th in the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict: Systemic Gender and Sexual-Based Violence Palestinian and Israeli Women Speak: Regaining Humanity at a Time of Violence Looking forward to 2024: Towards a Feminist Foreign PolicyThe events of 2023 have not only highlighted gendered concerns in the region's top political and economic struggles but also its very centrality. If progress toward a more stable and prosperous region is to be made, then gender must be at the top of policymakers' agendas for the coming year. It is worth highlighting two issue areas in particular with far-reaching implications on regional security and prosperity: With the digital transformation taking root, it is imperative that women are not left behind. There is already a significant gender divide in access to, use of, and experience with technology. As technology like AI develops, it is being deployed as another mechanism to facilitate gender-based violence and repression, like in Iran. Yet, further technological advances will impact spaces where women typically face barriers to entry, like the economy and civil society. With more data from the MENA region on women's experiences to inform regulations and programs on using these new third spaces, its potential to empower, rather than harm, women can be harnessed. Escalation across the MENA region in Israel, the Palestinian Territories, as well as by Iran and its proxies leads to questions about what the "day after" will look like in these contexts, but it is evident that when it does occur, de-escalation and rebuilding will take the form of gradual stages. As a result, centering the response on the needs of women and girls should happen now rather than down the line. Arguably more complex than physical or material reconstruction is the interpersonal healing that will need to take place for communities to learn to trust, cooperate, and engage with each other — in this, women are crucial agents of change. Addressing how women and girls have been impacted by conflict and including them in the post-conflict reconstruction process can not only patch matters but open the potential to build more inclusive and empowered societies and economies.The views expressed in this article are those of the author and do not express the official position of the Wilson Center.

The events of 2023 have not only highlighted gendered concerns in the region's top political and economic struggles but also its very centrality.Enheduanna editor, Faria Nasruddin, reviews the status of and major developments for women in the Middle East and North Africa, as well as gender policy on the international stage and its regional implications. The year 2023 was marked by important advancements in gender policy in workforce developments and climate solutions yet saw a deterioration of conditions for women and girls in Iran, Afghanistan, and the Palestinian Territories. Looking to 2024, the needs of women and girls will need to be taken into account in policymaking circles. A feminist foreign policy that calls for a human-centered approach to security and, as UN Deputy Secretary General Amina Mohammed said, "a shift of mindset away from confrontation and toward dialogue, engagement [and] cooperation" could facilitate stable and sustainable peace and prosperity in the region. Female workforce participation initiatives The Middle East & North Africa has one of the lowest rates of female labor force participation globally. The latest estimate from the World Bank shows that only 19 percent of women over the age of 15 in MENA participate in the workforce. Within the region, however, there is a wide spectrum, with countries like Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, the UAE, and Israel well over the average at or around 50 percent, while countries like Algeria, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Syria and Palestine significantly below the mean. MEP's report "Women Entrepreneurship in MENA," published March 2023, defined key barriers women face in the private sector: mismatched education and skill-building, difficult legal environments and the persistence of discriminatory laws in practice, unsafe and inaccessible transportation, the uneven transition to the digital economy, and socio-cultural mindsets about the roles and capabilities of women. While this year has seen success in initiatives like the Oasis program in Jordan and Syria that provides childcare services, cash-for-work, and skill development to women—with a particular focus on women with disabilities—challenges are still abundant in a rapidly shifting economy. STEM Enables Women's Economic Empowerment in the MENA Region Lebanon Has a Chance to Rebuild a Private Sector Centered on Women Gender mainstreaming at COP28 The UNFCCC's COP28 was held in Dubai, UAE, in December 2023; the second consecutive year the climate conference has taken place in the MENA region. The previous conference in Sharm El-Sheikh, Egypt, was largely criticized for underrepresenting women in negotiations. By contrast, COP28 was marked by the announcement of the Gender Responsive Just Transition & Climate Action Partnership convened by Emirati ministers and supported by the UNFCCC. Sixty-eight countries have signed onto the commitment to improve gender and environmental data to enhance financing to the most impacted regions and to generate opportunities for those most affected by the climate crisis. The International Labor Organization states that 1.2 billion jobs—the majority held by women—are at risk due to the climate crisis. The partnership aims to support women as the global economy transitions to a low-carbon and sustainable model. The second round of review will be in three years, during COP31. Green Building Addresses Energy Crisis in Iraq Women at the Forefront of Environmental Protection in Oman Women remain under stifling repression in Taliban-ruled AfghanistanThis year, the UN reported that Afghanistan was the most repressive country in the world for women and girls. Since the Taliban took over the government in August 2021, they have initiated a series of increasingly harsh restrictions on women's participation in education and the workforce, as well as freedom of movement and dress. The regime of gender apartheid is compounded by the severe humanitarian crisis worsened by a prolonged drought and a series of 6.3-magnitude earthquakes which struck the northwestern province of Herat in October 2023. A rapid gender analysis by the Gender in Humanitarian Action Working Group in November 2023 revealed that an estimated 29.2 million people in Afghanistan need urgent humanitarian aid to survive, 15.3 million people are affected by food insecurity, and 25% of the population does not have access to basic health services. The effects on women and girls—especially those in female-headed households—are significant and range from increased risk of forced and early marriage to mental health challenges and malnutrition, perpetuating cycles of poverty and dependency in the long term. Moreover, earlier this year, the government of Pakistan issued a decree for all undocumented refugees from Afghanistan to return to their country of origin. Since the decree went into effect, 400,000 people have returned to Afghanistan (80% of whom are women and children). The conditions in Afghanistan that drove emigration persist and restrictions on women increase by the day with no sign of change from the Taliban, pressure or engagement from the international community, or long-term plan to support the rights and freedoms of Afghan women and girls. In the Shadows of Silence: Unveiling Afghanistan in the Global Face of Patriarchy The first anniversary of "Zan. Zendegi. Azadi!" September 16th marked the first anniversary of 22-year-old Kurdish-Iranian woman Mahsa Amini's death at the hands of Iran's morality police and subsequent protests that rocked Iranian society. Throughout the year, the resilience of the Iranian women was on full display: 20% of women are reported to be defying the mandatory hijab laws, and jailed activists like Nargess Mohammadi—who received the 2023 Nobel Peace Prize—smuggle letters out of prisons and continue their defiance through hunger strikes. Although organized diaspora groups like the Alliance for Freedom and Democracy in Iran (AFDI) splintered and the Iranian regime has cracked down on protestors by issuing increasingly stricter edicts on the hijab and by using new surveillance technology, the "Zan, Zendegi, Azadi!" or "Woman, Life, Freedom" movement's spirit continues with widespread support for and respect for women's rights at its core. For Iranian Women, a Bittersweet CelebrationHijab, See-Through Clothing, and Exercises in Futility Nobel Peace Prize Shines a Light on Iranian Women's Resilience: The Nargess Mohammadi Story Iran: Violence Against Women Gender-based violence in the Israel-Hamas War The October 7th Hamas attack on Israel spurred a new stage in the 70-year Israel-Palestine conflict and was marked by unprecedented levels of gender-based violence against civilian populations. Eyewitness reports and investigations on the weaponization of sexual violence show seven different locations where Hamas fighters committed sexual and gender-based violence. In Gaza, women and children have borne the brunt of Israel's military campaign, comprising over 2/3 of those reported to have been killed in the war (12,882 total as of January 2, 2024). Moreover, women (and children) are disproportionately affected , by the going humanitarian crisis and the 2,784 newly formed female-headed households face challenges finding and accessing food, water, shelter, and medical care; 50,000 pregnant women have precarious access to medical care amid displacement and infrastructure collapse. Additionally, video footage and photos issued by the IDF showcased how Israeli forces are deploying gendered tactics of violence against Gazan civilians, like stripping and detaining civilian men, designed to further the humiliation of Palestinians in the strip. Examining how gender-based violence is deployed as a tactic of war and seeking accountability and justice for survivors on all fronts in the wake of conflict will be one step only in the larger process of de-escalation. Unraveling the Multi-Faceted Impact of Armed Conflict on Women in the Gaza Strip The Precedent of October 7th in the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict: Systemic Gender and Sexual-Based Violence Palestinian and Israeli Women Speak: Regaining Humanity at a Time of Violence Looking forward to 2024: Towards a Feminist Foreign PolicyThe events of 2023 have not only highlighted gendered concerns in the region's top political and economic struggles but also its very centrality. If progress toward a more stable and prosperous region is to be made, then gender must be at the top of policymakers' agendas for the coming year. It is worth highlighting two issue areas in particular with far-reaching implications on regional security and prosperity: With the digital transformation taking root, it is imperative that women are not left behind. There is already a significant gender divide in access to, use of, and experience with technology. As technology like AI develops, it is being deployed as another mechanism to facilitate gender-based violence and repression, like in Iran. Yet, further technological advances will impact spaces where women typically face barriers to entry, like the economy and civil society. With more data from the MENA region on women's experiences to inform regulations and programs on using these new third spaces, its potential to empower, rather than harm, women can be harnessed. Escalation across the MENA region in Israel, the Palestinian Territories, as well as by Iran and its proxies leads to questions about what the "day after" will look like in these contexts, but it is evident that when it does occur, de-escalation and rebuilding will take the form of gradual stages. As a result, centering the response on the needs of women and girls should happen now rather than down the line. Arguably more complex than physical or material reconstruction is the interpersonal healing that will need to take place for communities to learn to trust, cooperate, and engage with each other — in this, women are crucial agents of change. Addressing how women and girls have been impacted by conflict and including them in the post-conflict reconstruction process can not only patch matters but open the potential to build more inclusive and empowered societies and economies.The views expressed in this article are those of the author and do not express the official position of the Wilson Center.

DOI:10.1590/2179-8966/2020/52670ApresentaçãoSetembro 2020 Nossas saudações às leitoras e aos leitores da Revista Direito e Práxis! Seguimos nesse difícil ano de 2020 confrontados pela pandemia da Covid 19. De certa forma, a crise sanitária revela eloquentemente a desigualdade estrutural de nosso país e, por isso mesmo, nos desafia em nossa capacidade de análise, reflexão e conceitualização. Mais do que nunca os estudos críticos no direito são importantes para buscarmos novos e melhores arranjos sociais. Nesse sentido, nossa sessão de artigos inéditos traz doze trabalhos de alta qualidade de pesquisadoras e pesquisadores nacionais e internacionais nas áreas do Direito e Economia, Estudos Decolonais, Criminologia Crítica, Teoria Crítica, Direito Achado na Rua e Debates Sócio-Ambientais, dentre outros temas mais do que atuais para as pesquisas nos campos da teoria, filosofia e sociologia do direito. Essa edição também conta com uma resenha do livro "Imperialismo, Estado e Relações Internacionais" (2018) do professor Luis Felipe Osório.Além disso, o dossiê desta Edição de setembro de 2020 não poderia ter um foco temático capaz de refletir de forma tão adequada a trágica atual situação que vivemos. No momento em que os editores do dossiê entraram em contato conosco falando sobre sua ideia, não poderíamos prever que nos defrontaríamos com uma crise de saúde pública de tão intensa proporção e com uma crise democrática tão grave após o advento da Constituição de 1988. Pois bem, nesse número da Revista Direito e Práxis (Vol. 11, n. 3, 2020, 31ª edição – set-dez), trazemos um dossiê especial e necessário organizado por Rafael Vieira (Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro) e Hannah Franzi (Universidade de Bremen) que marca a recepção da obra de Walter Benjamin para as pesquisas críticas no campo do direito. O dossiê, intitulado "Walter Benjamin e o Direito", traz trabalhos inéditos e seminais que inauguram recepções de Benjamin no campo jurídico e também na América Latina.Os editores convidados fizeram um primoroso trabalho de curadoria trazendo trabalhos de pesquisadores renomados e bastante discutidos na academia brasileira como Judith Butler, Enzo Traverso e Michel Löwy. Contudo, não deixaram de inovar, pois também apresentam trabalhos de pesquisadores mais jovens e altamente qualificados ou, ainda, comentadores que não são tão conhecidos na tradição jusfilosófica brasileira. Para avançar nos debates sobre a exceção, o dossiê também traz traduções inéditas de Walter Benjamin – "O Direito de usar a violência" (1920) e "Marcel Brion, Bartolomé de las Casas, "Padre de los índios" (1929) – direto do alemão para o português em primeira tradução, além de trabalhos de seus comentadores, como Werner Hamacher. Agradecemos aos editores convidados pela tarefa desempenhada com tanta qualidade e pela confiança em nossa públicção, bem como a todos os tradutores e tradutoras que contribuíram para possibilitar a divulgação em língua portuguesa de materais inéditos e tão relevantes para as pesquisas benjaminianas no Brasil e América Latina.Relembramos que as políticas editoriais para as diferentes seções da Revista podem ser acessadas em nossa página e que as submissões são permanentes e sempre bem-vindas! Agradecemos, como sempre, às autoras e aos autores, avaliadoras e avaliadores e colaboradoras e colaboradores pela confiança depositada em nossa publicação.Boa Leitura!Equipe Direito e Práxis***PresentaciónSeptiembre 2020 Continuamos en este difícil año de 2020 enfrentados por la pandemia Covid 19. De alguna manera, la crisis sanitaria revela elocuentemente la desigualdad estructural de nuestro país y, por ello, nos desafía en nuestra capacidad de análisis, reflexión y conceptualización. Más que nunca, los estudios críticos en derecho son importantes para buscar nuevos y mejores arreglos sociales. En este sentido, nuestra sección de artículos inéditos cuenta con doce trabajos de alta calidad de investigadores nacionales e internacionales en las áreas de Derecho y Economía, Estudios Decoloniales, Criminología Crítica, Teoría Crítica, Derecho Encontrado en la Calle y Debates Socioambientales, entre otros temas más de actualidad para la investigación en los campos de la teoría, la filosofía y la sociología del derecho. Esta edición también incluye una reseña del libro "Imperialismo, Estado y Relaciones Internacionales" (2018) del profesor Luis Felipe Osório.Además, el dossier de esta edición de septiembre no podría tener un enfoque temático capaz de reflejar de forma tan adecuada la situación actual que estamos viviendo. Cuando los redactores del dossier se pusieron en contacto con nosotros para hablarnos de su idea, no podíamos prever que nos encontraríamos ante una crisis de salud pública de tan intensa proporción y con una crisis democrática tan grave desde la llegada de la Constitución de 1988. Por tanto, en este número de Revista Direito e Praxis (Vol. 11, n. 3, 2020, 31ª edición – Sep-Dic), traemos un dossier especial y necesario organizado por Rafael Vieira (Universidad Federal de Río de Janeiro) y Hannah Franzi (Universidad de Bremen) que marca la recepción del trabajo de Walter Benjamin para la investigación crítica en el campo del derecho. El dossier, titulado "Walter Benjamin y el Derecho", trae obras inéditas y seminales que subrayan las recepciones de Benjamin en el ámbito jurídico y también en América Latina.Los editores invitados hicieron un minucioso trabajo curatorial trayendo trabajos de reconocidos investigadores, los quales dejá ampliamente discutidos en la academia brasileña como Judith Butler, Enzo Traverso e Michel Löwy. Sin embargo, no dejaron de innovar, ya que también presentan trabajos de investigadoras más jóvenes y altamente calificadas o comentadores aún no tan conocidos en la tradición jusfilosófica brasileña. Para avanzar en los debates sobre la excepción, el dossier también incluye traducciones de obras de Walter Benjamin – "El derecho a utilizar la violencia" (1920) y "Marcel Brion, Bartolomé de las Casas. 'Padre de los Índios' " (1929) – directo del alemán al portugués y al español, así como obras de comentadores, como Werner Hamacher. Agradecemos a los editores invitados el trabajo realizado con tanta calidad y la confianza en nuestra publicación, así como a todos los traductores que contribuyeron a posibilitar la difusión en portugués de materiales inéditos tan relevantes para la investigación de Benjamin en Brasil y América Latina.¡Le recordamos que en nuestra página se puede acceder a las políticas editoriales de las diferentes secciones de la Revista y que los envíos de artigos son permanentes y siempre bienvenidos! Agradecemos, como siempre, a autores, revisores y colaboradores la confianza depositada en nuestra publicación.¡Buena lectura!Equipo Direito e Praxis***PresentationAugust 2020 The current health crisis puts a spotlight on the structural inequalities around the world and specially in our country. The pandemic challenges our capacity of analysis, reflection and conceptualization. Now more than ever critical study of Law became important in the search for new social arrangements and alternatives. Looking through this perspective, our section of new articles brings twelve works by national and foreign researchers, with topics ranging from of Law and Economics, Decolonial Studies, Critical Criminology, Critical Theory, Law Found on the Street, Socioenvironmental Debates, among other themes from the fields of theory, philosophy, and sociology of the law. Moreover, considering our current situation, this monthly edition's dossier could not have a more adequate theme to focus on. At the moment that our guest editors came in touch with us to explain their ideas, we could not know that a health crisis of such grave proportions, as well as a deep crisis of democracy not seen since the advent of the 1988's Constitution, would evolve. Thus, in this issue of Direito e Práxis Journal (Vol. 11, n. 3, 2020, 31st edition, Sep-Dec) we bring forth a special dossier assembled by Rafael Vieira (UFRJ – Federal University of Rio de Janeiro) and Hannah Franzi (Bremen University), which marks the reception of works of Walter Benjamin by the critical research on the field of Law. The dossier titled "Walter Benjamin and the Law" contains seminal and new articles which tackle Benjamin's works on the judiciary field in Latin America. Our guest editors achieved a remarkable result gathering articles from renowned and disseminated researchers as Judith Buttler, Enzo Traverso, and Michel Löwy. They also were able to bring a set of works from several young and upcoming names in the field, and even from some commentators on the Brazilian jus-philosophical tradition. In order to advance on the debates on the "exception question", the dossier also brings translations of Walter Benjamin's "The Right to Use Violence" (1920) and "Marcel Brion, Bartolomé de las Casas. 'Padre de los Índios' "(1929), from German to Portuguese and Spanish, as well as works from their commentators, like Werner Hamacher. We thank the guest editors for the excellent work and for the confidence placed in our publication. We thank also the translators responsible for enabling the dissemination of such an important material on Walter Benjamin for the research on these topics in Brazil and Latin America. We also would like to remind that the editorial policies for the different sections of the Journal are available on our homepage and that submissions are always welcome. As always, we thank all the authors, reviewers and contributors for the confidence placed on our publication.Enjoy the read!Direito e Praxis Team

My PhD thesis focuses on the role urban planning can play in the management of diversity in the city. In European countries, migration policies have failed to create a common and shared space to deal with the numerous questions raised by the so called "migration crisis" creating informal, legal, passive or active boundaries for foreigners. However, even when absent at the level of government we can nevertheless observe informal practices that are put in place by migrants to give an answer to their immediate needs and that can be used as a magnifying glass of more deeply rooted socio-political needs. I argue that these dynamics can be observed in same particular space as multiethnic markets in the city where informal practices could be looked as clues in order to suggest new policies. Urban planning has a crucial role to play in these policies, enhancing the creation of new forms of 'living the city' and a renewed form of urban citizenship can represent a pivotal point to commit urban planning in the quest for spatial and social justice (Sandercook, 1996). Notions of formal citizenship have changed within the context of contemporary massive urban migration (Penninx et al., 2004).The search for new models of integration has been the priority of States concerned by both the problem of the second generation without legal rights, and new incoming groups. Better integration of migrant groups and guarantees of security have been the leitmotiv in the European political discourses in this search. However, the gap between the policies defined at the national level and the implemented policies on the ground increased, because local experiences do not resonate with the abstract frame of the national policy directives. This gap leads to a further growing apart of formal and informal practices of citizenship. Usually these conflicts show themselves in sensitive urban space like squares, ethnic streets or suburbs. However, before their final outbreaks, these conflicts are informal and can be observed in shared and everyday urban space as streets, squares and markets. I suggest that these practices are insurgent (Holston,1996) that means they are a direct response to some gap into the management policies of the multicultural issue in the market and as a consequence in the city. These practices show the weakness or the failures of policies when national or local governments decided to rationalize, restrict and underestimate the relevant role of the space in the integration policies. In fact, the neglected part of the policies is the power of diversion (Olivier de Sardan, 2008) that those subjected to certain policies exert as an option strategy. This means that people can sometimes act in open contrast with policies that seemingly stimulate integration while they increase cultural, economic or political segregation. These dynamics reveal some problems entangled in the national policies that can be listed as follows:– A misunderstanding of the importance of cultural differences, and of the fact that they are not fixed in a time or in a space but adjustable, flexible and dynamic; – Misinterpretation of the practices that immigrants bring with them that could be seen as illegal or could be in contrast with the customary and formal understanding of a space;– Unawareness or underestimation of the asymmetrical local power relations and their consequences on the everyday life and on the relation with the policies themselves. This includes the overcoming of the concept of a single public interest in favour of a wider view of several public interests, sometimes struggling against each other;– The fear of more forward-looking policies that need an upturning of the present fixed idea of national identity;– Underestimation of the potential of multicultural planning in improving public, multicultural and accessible space in the city I conclude the dissertation with a deep rethinking of the notion of citizenship that has to take into account the needs behind the everyday informal practices as a core objective for more encompassing integration policies. I push forward the notion of metrozenship made by Oren Yiftachel and using it as a tool for a new social impact assessment aimed at foreseeing the possible consequences of a policy before its implementation. The very last part of the dissertation is dedicated to the theorical analysis of the market space as an heterotopia (Foucault, 1974). I argue that this comparison can open and widen the possibility for the urban planning to think at such space and to use it as a microcosm in which experiment new forms of living the diversity. ; Ma thèse de doctorat porte sur le rôle que l'urbanisme peut jouer dans la gestion de la diversité dans la ville. Dans les pays européens, les politiques migratoires n'ont pas réussi à créer un espace commun et partagé pour répondre aux nombreuses questions soulevées par la crise des migrations créant des frontières informelles, légales, passives ou actives pour les étrangers. Cependant, même en l'absence du gouvernement, nous pouvons néanmoins observer des pratiques informelles mises en place par les migrants pour répondre à leurs besoins immédiats et qui peuvent être utilisées comme une loupe de besoins sociopolitiques plus enracinés. Je soutiens que ces dynamiques peuvent être observées dans des espaces particuliers comme les marchés multiethniques dans la ville où les pratiques informelles pourraient être considérées comme des indices pour suggérer de nouvelles politiques.La planification urbaine a un rôle crucial à jouer dans ces politiques, l'amélioration de la création de nouvelles formes de «vivre la ville» et une forme renouvelée de citoyenneté urbaine peuvent représenter un point essentiel pour engager l'urbanisme dans la recherche de la justice spatiale et sociale (Sandercook, 1996). Les notions de citoyenneté formelle ont changé dans le contexte de la migration urbaine massive contemporaine(Penninx et al., 2004). La recherche de nouveaux modèles d'intégration a été la priorité des États concernés tant par le problème de la deuxième génération sans droits légaux que par les nouveaux groupes entrants. Une meilleure intégration des groupes de migrants et des garanties de sécurité ont été le leitmotiv dans les discours politiques européens dans cette recherche. Toutefois, l'écart entre les politiques définies au niveau national et les politiques mises en œuvre sur le terrain a augmenté, car les expériences locales ne sont pas en accord avec le cadre abstrait des directives de politique nationale. Cet écart conduit à une plus grande différenciation des pratiques formelles et informelles de la citoyenneté. Habituellement ces conflits se manifestent dans l'espace urbain sensible comme les places, les rues ethniques ou les banlieues. Cependant, avant leur éclosion finale, ces conflits sont informels et peuvent être observés dans l'espace urbain partagé et quotidien comme les rues, les places et les marchés.Je suggère que ces pratiques sont insurgées ("insurgent", Holston, 1996) qui signifie qu'elles sont une réponse directe à un certain écart dans les politiques de gestion de la question multiculturelle sur le marché et, par conséquent, dans la ville. Ces pratiques montrent la faiblesse ou parfois les échecs des politiques lorsque les gouvernements nationaux ou locaux ont décidé de rationaliser, de restreindre et de sous-estimer le rôle pertinent de l'espace dans les politiques d'intégration. En fait, la partie négligée des politiques est le pouvoir de détournement (Olivier de Sardan, 2008) que ceux soumis à certaines politiques exercent comme une stratégie d'option. Cela signifie que les gens peuvent parfois s'opposer ouvertement à des politiques qui semblent stimuler l'intégration tout en augmentant la ségrégation culturelle, économique ou politique. Ces dynamiques révèlent certains problèmes qui se retrouvent dans les politiques nationales qui peuvent être énumérées comme suit:– Une méconnaissance de l'importance des différences culturelles et du fait qu'elles ne sont pas fixées dans un temps ou dans un espace mais réglables, flexibles et dynamiques;–Une interprétation erronée des pratiques que les immigrants apportent avec eux, qui pourrait être considérée comme illégale ou pourrait être en contraste avec la compréhension habituelle et formelle d'un espace;– Incapacité ou sous-estimation des relations asymétriques de pouvoir local et de leurs conséquences sur la vie quotidienne et sur la relation avec les politiques elles-mêmes. Cela comprend la suppression du concept d'intérêt public unique en faveur d'une vision plus large de plusieurs intérêts publics, parfois en lutte les uns contre les autres;–La crainte de politiques plus tournées vers l'avenir qui ont besoin d'un renversement de l'idée fixe actuelle de l'identité nationale;– Sous-estimation du potentiel de la planification multiculturelle dans l'amélioration de l'espace public, multiculturel et accessible dans la villeJe termine la thèse par une réflexion approfondie sur la notion de citoyenneté qui doit tenir compte des besoins qui sous-tendent les pratiques informelles quotidiennes comme un objectif essentiel pour des politiques d'intégration plus globales. Je fais avancer la notion de métrozenship faite par Oren Yiftachel (Yiftachel, 2014) et en l'utilisant comme un outil pour une nouvelle étude d'impact social visant à prévoir les conséquences possibles d'une politique avant sa mise en œuvre. La dernière partie de la dissertation est consacrée à l'analyse théorique de l'espace du marché comme une hétérotopie (Foucault, 1974). Je prétends que cette comparaison peut ouvrir et élargir la possibilité pour l'urbanisme de penser à tel espace et de l'utiliser comme un microcosme dans lequel expérimenter de nouvelles formes de vivre la diversité.

Maritime piracy is still one of the most interesting manifestations of human activity by reason of the fact that it has, directly or indirectly, a number of points of contact between different problems of social, religious, political, economical and, of course, historical matter. Specifically, South-east Asia is a great example of how history, politics and religion are strongly and crucially imbued with the maritime banditry phenomenology. During the era of great maritime political entities exercising dominion along the Malay and Indonesian coasts, predation assumed character of endemicity going to fit firmly within the society, politics and economy networks. Inside Zhu Pan Zhi, the reports of the Song Dynasty about the barbarian peoples, is it possible to read about the piracy in the Great Southern Ocean (Nanyang) «the foreign ships were often attacked by pirates. The captives were the favourite of pirates, one captive can sell for 2 liang or 3 liang gold, the piracy prevents the merchants from visiting the ports» . Of great interest it is also the description of piracy in waters near Singapore (Temasek) and south of the straits that, in 1349, appeared in these terms: «The Dragon-teeth Strait (longyamen) is between the two hills of Temasek barbarians, which look like dragon's teeth'. Through the centre runs a waterway. The fields are barren and rice harvest is poor. The climate is hot with heavy rain in April and May. The inhabitants are addicted to piracy […] when junks sail to the European Ocean (Indian Ocean), the local barbarians allow them to pass unmolested, but when the junks reach the Auspicious Strait (Jilimen) on their return voyages, some 200-300 pirate prahus (boats) will put out to attack the junks for several days, the crew of junks have to fight with their arms and setting up cloth screen as a protection against arrows. Sometimes, the junks are fortunate enough to escape with a favouring wind; otherwise, the crews are butchered and the merchandise becomes pirates' booty» . As can be seen from the text, also the physical elements (water, poor soil, distress sea routes, monsoon climate) play an important role in explaining the aforementioned endemicity of pirate phenomenon: in one of the most relevant work by Anthony Reid, a supporter of the Braudelian method of historical investigation, it is reported that few major areas of the world have been so deeply marked by nature such as South-east Asia, going to emphasize the importance of geography in the study of human activities. During the first part of my research, a question to which I have tried to answer was to understand the extent to which individuals, who are placed in a given geographical and historical context, act in a manner consistent with that particular geo-cultural system and how, external elements in that system, can help to change the perspective of action; in essence, I have tried to study how and to what extent India, China and Europe (Western Culture) have affected the history of the indigenous population of South-east Asia and the Straits of Malacca and Singapore in particular. The constitution of the great European colonial empires stretched from the Malacca Straits to the South China Sea, marked the beginning of a progressive modification process of maritime piracy both in terms of objectives to be achieved and also procedures to be followed; Nicholas Tarling lucidly points out in this regard "the old empires decayed, but were not replaced, and with their boundaries marauding communities appared, led by the adveturous Sharifs, or deprived aristocracies, or hungry chiefs" . The main ethnic groups who practiced piracy, the Riau-Lingga Malay, Bugis and Dayak of East Malaysia and Brunei, and Ilanun Balangingi from the southern Philippines and the Sulu sea, became corsairs in the pay of the colonial authorities and all those princes or sultans deprived of their possessions. However, alongside the politically motivated piracy, continued to resist a kind of maritime banditry conducted by fishing associations, outcasts or Chinese immigrants and so-called nomads people of the sea (Orang Laut), clanic and personalistic in nature whose cultural substrate was made up of bonds of friendship, kinship and blood. The remarkable fact is that the two types of piracy are not mutually exclusive but, on the contrary, represented the two faces of a coin and it was not unusual for pirates and corsairs to exchange roles when political or economic contingencies were changed. Interesting in this regard it was been the reading and examination of archival documents found at the National Archives in London (The National Archives) showing exchanges of correspondence and minute of some of the leading authorities of the British Straits Settlements between the first and second half of the nineteenth century. A set of letters that, given its enormous historical and political significance I decided to bring entirely, contains the correspondence (1863-67) between the Straits Settlements Governor Orfeur Cavenagh, Abu Bakar ibn Temenggong Daing Ibrahim Temenggong of Johor and Inche Wan Ahmed, exiled prince of Pahang become rebellious and pirate. Proceeding with the analysis of the phenomenon and given the interest of the international community for the sea routes passing into the Straits of Malacca and Singapore, the next questions concerned what was the real impact of piracy on maritime trade, what costs in human and social terms it produced, which law enforcement measures riparian states and foreign countries (in colonial and post-colonial age) have come into force; in addition to these I had tried to understand who is the pirate, what are the main reasons for his actions, what is the connection, if does exist, between piracy, terrorism and organized crime. In this direction, starting from the definitions of piracy given by the International Maritime Organization and the International Maritime Bureau, I examined most of the international conventions and regional agreements in which the issue of maritime security and cooperation between states and supranational bodies is addressed, placing special attention to the rules and clauses contained in the treaties able to activate those mechanisms for cooperation and burden sharing (burden-sharing) indispensable to the solution or, more realistically, the containment of the problem. Of great relevance to this line of analysis it has proved useful the socio-anthropological approach by Carolin Liss on the links between maritime banditry, criminal syndicates and terrorist groups (criminal syndicate) and the statistical and methodological approach by Karsten von Hoesslin focused on quantity, quality and type of assaults committed at sea. Concluded the second part of the thesis, I went to compare what is written in both historical and contemporary perspective to understand what kind of conclusion emerged from the results of my research; I asked myself, therefore, a further question: taking as a fixed point the thought of Braudel and Reid, following the method of analysis of Liss and Hoesslin, examine the archival documents and translations of ancient texts on the subject (the Sejarah Melayu and Suma Oriental of Tome Pires), given the availability (more or less declared) from South-east Asian newly established states (post-independence) to cooperation and given the interest of third actors in the straits, is it conceivable and correct to sustain now, in the first half of the new millennium, the possibility of a modification of the ancient customs and traditions and entrenched rivalry between neighboring countries on the basis of a new collective consciousness directed to a harmonious resolution, conveyed by a general law, of the phenomenon of maritime piracy? Or are we facing with a false hub of history, with a point that falsely or inappropriately is considered the turnaround from a tradition that has its roots in the coastal kingdoms of the sixth century and which is the sub-cultural layer of those population who have made the sea their source of wealth and power? To say it once again with Braudel, has the longue durée history undergone a change of route or will it repeat and renew her cycle again and again, sweetened by new technological tools and new forms of politics and economics? And if a change is in place, why now and how does it happen? Will history repeat itself? To give an answer, as thoroughly as possible, to this question I tried to define some of those steps that the countries of ASEAN should follow in order to effectively combat maritime piracy, terrorism widespread locally and organized crime; what could be the milestones in the process of construction of a shared legal system able to provide answers to many of the legal issues including the lack of a common legislation on maritime security. The watchword in the near future will have to be 'mutual legal assistance' in view of the implementation, in national legal corpora, of all those rules necessary to give effect to the directions contained in international conventions. Eventually, I propose a different and further reading of all those theories that track in failure or in the great inefficiency of coordinating policies in the field of maritime safety, the proliferation of piracy. Though I substantially agree with some of those interpretations, two points are critical and deserves attention: the lack of a proper historical and historiographical perspective of analysis and what I have called the axiom of the ultimate solution.

This thesis contributes to a current debate on how to balance conservation and development goals. Globally, land set aside for the protection of biodiversity has increased exponentially over the last 30 years. Despite contemporary efforts to share protected area (PA) benefits with the local people in proximity to the PAs, in particular tourism revenues, the social impacts of establishing and maintaining these areas remain a contentious issue. It is in this context that this study was conducted at Bwindi Impenetrable National Park in Uganda. The specific research questions of the study were: i. To what extent does tourism revenue-sharing promote conservation and poverty reduction? ii. What is the nature of benefits derived and costs incurred by communities adjacent to the PA? iii. How are the benefits and costs distributed, and how does this affect people"s attitudes towards the PA? iv. How do local people describe their situation as neighbours of a PA? These questions have been addressed in four separate, but interrelated studies. Data were collected using a mixed methods approach. Secondary data in the form of written sources on Bwindi was used in addition to primary data gathered through a combination of participant observations, interviews with key informants, structured interviews, semistructured interviews, and unstructured interviews. The findings reveal serious inadequacies in the tourism revenue-sharing arrangement that severely constrain the potential for poverty reduction. This also reduces its potential local support effect for the conservation. Whereas an average household reports an annual total income of US$1038, the average benefit from revenue sharing is only US$12 (or 1.2%). Any positive effect from this contribution is further reduced by problems in the allocation-making processes and associated nepotism; this is because the revenues are planned for and distributed by inept local institutions under complex institutional arrangements that lack real local participation and involvement. In addition to the direct sharing of tourism revenues there are a number of other activities that could fall under a general framework of "Development Through Conservation" (e.g. support to private tree planting). Another activity is park-related employment. Each of these two sources contributes about 2% to an average household"s annual income. Costs include the traditional costs of physical evictions. However, the scope of this thesis is limited to the recurrent costs associated with restrictions on access to resources and damage caused by wildlife. A household bordering on the park foregoes on average about 6% of its annual income because of these restrictions on access to forest resources and on average loses another 10% of its annual income as a result of damage caused by wildlife. For some households, losses from wildlife damage can approach as much as 26% of the household income. What emerges is a situation where local people largely subsidise conservation through the high local costs. The estimated reported average local income is US$ 0.5/ per adult equivalent unit/day. Moreover, because of the problems in decision-making and the associated nepotism, tourism revenues often do not accrue to cost victims. In practice, PA benefits are often subject to local elite capture. This increases local inequality and compromises the ability of the PA to contribute to poverty reduction and improve state local people relations. In spite of this, there seems to be improved attitudes among local people towards the park, with 78 percent of our respondents believing that Bwindi"s conversion to a national park was a good thing, and despite the lack of individual benefits. People seem to be concerned about nature and the forest regardless of possible monetary transfers. Local perceptions furthermore seem to be characterised by an ambivalence that significantly deviates from the win-win narrative frequently presented by external actors. Local actors or households do regard the present situation as unsatisfactory (a perception which is well-grounded and generally supported by the socio-economic studies in this thesis). However there is some prospect of an improved situation in the future, particularly with regard to tourism because there are promises of improvements in the amount of revenues set aside for local people. Social, political and economic issues relating to PAs are presented and discussed in this thesis. Wider implications and representivity of the findings for other protected area policies in Uganda and elsewhere are several. It is observed that the eventual successes of PAs for the future will depend not only on the overall benefits and costs that eventually reach local communities but also on the distribution of costs and benefits, the implications for damage compensation, and impact on local inequality and the compatibility of present management with local social values, and norms and perceptions of rights and duties Local narratives form important insights in this context and need to be taken much more seriously in endeavours for rights-based development, local involvement and real participation. The local narratives should thus inform policy and practice, and act as a possible counter to the narratives produced by powerful external actors. ; Denne avhandlingen bidrar til en pågående debatt om naturvern og utvikling. Verdens verneområder for biologisk mangfold har økt eksponensielt de siste 30 årene. Det har vært mange forsøk på å dele inntekter fra turisme i verneområder med lokalbefolkningen. Likevel er fortsatt de sosiale kostnadene ved verneområder et omstridt spørsmål. Dette er bakgrunnen for studien av Bwindi Impenetrable National Park i Uganda. Studiens problemstillinger har vært: i. I hvilken grad bidrar lokalbefolkningens tilgang til inntekter fra turisme til naturvern og reduksjon av fattigdom? ii. Hvilke goder og kostnader av verneområdet får de nærmeste lokalsamfunnene? iii. Hvordan er goder og kostnader fordelt, og hvordan påvirker dette folks holdninger til verneområdet? iv. Hvordan beskriver folk som er naboer til verneområdet sin egen situasjon og sitt forhold til parken? Disse spørsmålene har blitt besvart i fire ulike delstudier. Data ble innsamlet ved hjelp av ulike metoder. Sekundærdata som skriftlige kilder om Bwindi ble brukt i tillegg til primærdata innsamlet ved en kombinasjon av deltakende observasjon, intervjuer med nøkkelinformanter og strukturerte og ustrukturerte intervjuer. Funnene avslører alvorlig begrensninger i fordelingen av inntekter fra turisme, noe som i betydelig grad begrenser potensialet for reduksjon av fattigdom. Dette begrenser også mulighetene for å få lokal støtte for naturvernet. Mens et gjennomsnittlig hushold oppgir en årsinntekt på 1038 USD er gjennomsnittlig inntekt fra den naturbaserte turismen på bare 12 USD i året (eller 1.2% av samlede inntekter). Positive effekter av dette bidraget reduseres ytterligere av problemer med selve fordelingsprosessen knyttet blant annet til nepotisme. Dette skyldes til dels at inntektsfordelingen er planlagt for og distribuert gjennom svake lokale institusjoner med komplekse institusjonelle arrangementer og der lokal deltakelse i stor grad er fraværende. I tillegg til direkte fordeling av inntekter fra turisme, er det også en rekke andre aktiviteter som kunne falle inn under "naturvernbasert utvikling" (for eksempel støtte til privat treplanting). En annen aktivitet er arbeidsplasser generert av nasjonalparken. Hver av disse to kildene bidrar gjennomsnittlig med 2% av husholdets årlige inntekt i følge våre undersøkelser. Avhandlingen konsentrerer seg om kostnader forbundet med begrensninger på tilgang til ressurser og skader forårsaket av vilt. Et hushold i nærheten av nasjonalparken gir i gjennomsnitt fra seg 6 % av dets årlige inntekt på grunn av førstnevnte begrensninger og 10% mistes i form av skader på avling og husdyr forårsaket av parkens ville dyr. For noen hushold vil slike viltskader kunne beløpe seg til 26% av husholdets inntekter. Resultatet er at lokalbefolkningen ender opp med å subsidiere naturvernet gjennom å bli påført høye lokale kostnader. Den estimerte gjennomsnittlige lokale inntekten er 0.5 USD pr voksen pr dag. På grunn av de nevnte problemene med forvaltningen tilfaller sjelden turistinntekter de som bærer de direkte kostnadene. Det er i praksis lokale eliter som tilriver seg mesteparten av inntektene fra nasjonalparken. Dette øker lokal ulikhet og begrenser mulighetene for naturvernet til å bidra til å redusere fattigdom og å forbedre forholdet mellom staten og lokalbefolkningen. På tross av dette, virker det som holdningene blant lokalbefolkningen til parken i seg selv har bedret seg. Blant våre respondenter var 78 % positive til at Bwindi er en nasjonalpark, til tross for mangelen på individuelle nyttevirkninger fra parken. Folk virker opptatt av vern av naturen og skogen uavhengig av pengeoverføringer. Lokale betraktninger er videre karakterisert av en ambivalens som avviker fra et vinnvinn- narrativ som ofte presenteres av eksterne aktører. Lokalbefolkningen ser ikke på den aktuelle situasjonen som tilfredsstillende. Det kan imidlertid være håp om forbedringer, fordi det er løfter om at en større andel av inntektene fra turisme skal tilfalle lokalbefolkningen. Sosiale, politiske og økonomiske sider ved vern av nasjonalparker blir presentert og diskutert i denne avhandlingen. Det er flere implikasjoner av disse funnene for andre verneområder i Uganda og andre steder. Mulighetene for at verneområder skal lykkes i fremtiden er ikke bare avhengig av generelle inntekter og kostnader, men også av fordelingen av disse inntektene og kostnadene, kompensasjon for skader forårsaket av vilt, konsekvenser for lokal ulikhet og hvordan forvaltningen forholder seg til lokale sosiale verdier, normer, rettigheter og plikter. Lokale narrativer representerer viktige innsikter i denne sammenheng og de må tas mye mer alvorlig i nye forsøk på en rettighetsbasert utvikling som innebærer reell lokal deltakelse. Politikkutforming og praksis bør derfor basere seg på slike lokale mot-narrativer som ofte står i motsetning til narrativer produsert av mektige eksterne aktører. ; Nordiska Afrikainstitutet (NAI) ; Norsk institutt for naturforskning (NINA)

Slavery is a historical antecedent, which affected all continents, sometimes simultaneously, sometimes successively; its genesis is the sum of all that happened during an intermediate period of history. Paradoxically, slavery and slave trade still exist today under various pseudonyms: servants, nannies, prostitutes, indentured servants, extremely low paid workers. The examination here is confined to the Atlantic Slave Trade and its implications to Africa and its people, both in Africa and in Diaspora. Various aspects and instruments of law, particularly, international and inter-temporal law were examined to justify or repudiate the demand for compensation vis-à-vis reparation. The Atlantic Slavery, which began in the year 1440 was first abolished in 1787 throughout British Empire and in 1833, the British parliament abolished slavery in its colonies. In 1838, the slaves were emancipated and by 1880, slavery had been abolished in southern United States and across the world an estimated figure of over 14 million blacks was forcibly transported to overseas countries. This figure does not include those who died before they arrived to their various destinations. The thesis that slavery and slave trade contributed to the development of capitalism because slave trade constituted an essential element in the early mercantilist stage of capitalist development and abolition, which was a reflex of the resulting industrialism and its free commercial policies may have adherence here and there. Apparently, the increased demand for slaves not only reallocated resources, but also produced externalities thought to impede long-time development in Africa. These impediments were constraints on the growth of African states, increase in ethnic and socio stratification and sustained a culture of political violence. The history of West Africa will be used as a model for the economic marginalisation and depopulation of Africa. While most scholars agree that the depopulation of Africa was a consequence of Atlantic Slave Trade and must have reduced the aggregate population between 1700 and 1850, nevertheless it is problematic to assess the causal impact of slave population growth and development. The regular slave raiding was a constraint to production, social life obscured the ethnic boundaries and the inability to distinguish insider from outsider as the people scattered to escape the risk of being caught. Between the 16th and 19th centuries more than 14 million slaves were produced in Africa and transported to overseas. Book one Chapter I addresses the term "Slavery" and its concepts in all its ramifications. The instruments of semantics, philology and biology e.t.c. were used to arrive at an acceptable definition of slavery. Chapter II have as its priority the examination of slavery as an ancient institution of all cultures and the subsequent break of this culture by the Europeans. Enough evidence were advanced to prove that almost every continent and country practiced one form or another of slavery and slave trade, but this seemingly established culture and norm were put to question by the Europeans. The practice of the Atlantic triangular slave trade and the colonial Plantation economy with the attendant exploitation of the slave workers were extensively discussed in this chapter. Chapter III have as its priority racism, cultural differences, and above all, economics as the motives for Atlantic slave trade vis-à-vis triangular slave trade. The roles and the works of intellectuals, movies, newspapers, and physical contacts with the Africans contributed to slavery and also to the Atlantic slave trade. Book Two Chapter IV dealt with the examination and analysis of the motives of Atlantic slavery and slave trade using the economic, social and political yardstick as the most compelling factors. Mathematical calculations and economic diagrams were used here to describe the demand and supply of slaves and its effect on African economies. In Book Two, the implications of Atlantic slave trade to Africa and its people in strictly economic and demographical terms were examined. Chapter V presented various definitions of natural law and present its prominent progenitors and contributors. The role of natural law in the examination of the atrocities of the Atlantic slave trade cannot be underestimated considering the fact that during this period, international law or positive law as we understand it today, had hardly existed therefore, the only appropriate yardstick open for the examination of the treatment and trade of the Africans appear to be the instrument of natural law vis-à-vis moral law. Chapter VI examined in detail the merits and demerits of the concept of "Pacta sunt servanda" as applied by the Europeans in trade with his African partners. The unfolding implications that resulted because of the failure of adherence to "Pacta sunt servanda" to the contracting persons, nations, villages also featured here prominently. It is on record that the European expansion over other parts of the world was undertaken by the acts of states and governments and later also private business partners participated in the slave trade. Therefore, the implication of this under international law was evaluated. Chapter VII combined the extent and influence of the Radbruch's Formula of Ratio Juris, its logicality and the nature of legal theory and Robert Alexy's conceptual analysis and the theory about the nature of law to determine the degree of morality and justice embodied in the slave laws enacted in the United States during the Atlantic Slave Trade. For example, Radbruch postulated that the objective of legal philosophy is to appraise the law in terms of congruency with its ultimate goal, i.e. to realize the ideas of law. Chapter VIII highlighted the abolition and emancipation of slavery and emphasized the role of Quakers, Anglicans and most importantly anti-slavery campaigners, like Granville Sharp and Thomas Clarkson. They initiated, campaigned and fought for the abolition and emancipation of African slavery, without which the history of Africa and its people would have being hitherto be rewritten today. Just as the instruments of publications, sermon, pamphlets, treatise, poems, narratives, newspaper articles, reports and petitions were used to promote and aggravate Atlantic slave trade and slavery so also were these instruments used to fight for the emancipation of slavery. Though the cause of reparation for Africans and Africans in Diaspora cannot be seriously questioned, particularly under natural law and the laws of morality, the conceptual, legal, moral and historical issues were discussed extensively in Chapter IX. The normative arguments for and against reparations and the identity of beneficiaries and those sued for reparations were the object of analysis. Causation and attenuation arguments of reparations, particularly in tort liability, for example, act attenuation, victim attenuation and wrongdoer attenuation will help to determine culpability. Tort law analogy in slavery reparations and more so lawsuits for Jim Crow, constitutional requirements and unjust enrichment are all indispensable legal instruments to ascertain the merits and demerits of reparations. The concepts of restitution and genealogical determinism are also essential parts of this chapter. And finally, the philosophy of Libertarianism also constituted to the evaluation of the case for reparations. Reparation has been a common feature or idea in public international law before the emergence of international human rights law. The various international courts have defined the notion of reparation in relation to the notion of international responsibility of the state in • Art. 31: ILC (s. pages 238, 241) • Art. 3: ILC • Art. 13 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) • Art. 11(2) • Art. 7(1) The international law advances that any conduct, which is attributable to the state and which constitutes a breach of an international obligation of the state is an international wrongful act and comes under the state responsibility. The international law that adjudicates on state responsibility stipulates that there must be a link between a past wrong and present claim, consequently any legal claim for reparation at the international level will be confronted with the problem of proving that the present day western countries caused the injury inflicted on slaves. Other bodies of law like restitution, which deals with benefit-based liability or benefit-based recovery, has become an increasingly powerful tool in the case of reparation, particularly for mass wrongs. The merits and demerits were done justice to in this Dissertation. Natural Law has played an important role in the affairs of men through the ages because it entails basic principles of moral law and legislation and is in some cases objective, accessible to reason and based on human nature. Though, the concept of natural law is controversial, however, the Nuremberg War-Crimes trials after World War II, had no foundation in written laws. The prosecutors and judges justified their sentences on the assumption of natural laws binding all human beings and the present insistence on human rights also implies the affirmation of a kind of natural law. Natural law is therefore, a reflection of morality and consequently, legally valid if they conform to morality. He appraised human rights as surpassing all written laws and advanced that the law of nature should be sufficient to address the issue of restitution. Therefore, the kidnappings, the involuntary enslavement, the killings or murder of protesting or rebellious African slaves were an offence and a crime that needed to be addressed. Africa and the Africans in Diaspora can seek for justice albeit post mortem of the slaves.

Tutkin väitöskirjassani kolmea 1800-luvun loppupuolella Ruotsissa ja Suomessa tehtyä aloitetta aikuiskasvatuksen toteuttamiseksi. Tutkin hankkeiden merkitystä tarkastelemalla aloitteentekijöitä, heidän ideoitaan, uusien instituutioiden perustamis- ja vakiintumisprosesseja sekä instituutioiden luonnetta ja asemaa paikallisyhteisössä 1800-luvun lopulla ja 1900-luvun alussa. Tarkastelu valottaa, miksi kyseessä ollut aikuiskasvatus nousi tärkeäksi ja millaisia muutoksia se sai aikaan kasvatuksen sosiaalisissa käytännöissä. Aikakauden aikuiskasvatuskäytännöt muotoutuivat yksityisten ja paikallisten aloitteiden pohjalta ilman valtiollisen aikuiskoulutuspolitiikan vaikutusta. Kohteena onkin paikallistaso, Göteborgin ja Tampereen kaupungit. Tutkin uusia aikuiskasvatuksen käytäntöjä sosiaalisina innovaatioina ja hankkeita innovaatioprosesseina, jotka ulottuvat ideoista, motiiveista ja esikuvista lopputuloksiin. Tarkastelen uusien käytäntöjen syntyä ja muotoutumista aikakauden yhteiskunnallisessa, poliittisessa ja kulttuurisessa kontekstissa, ja lähestymistapa on vertaileva. Lähdemateriaalina on käytetty arkistokokoelmia, toimintakertomuksia, sanomalehtiä ja muita aikalaisjulkaisuja. Hankkeet olivat luonteeltaan vapaata sivistystyötä, tarkoituksenaan yleissivistävän ei-ammatillisen opetuksen tarjoaminen. Göteborgin vapaa akatemia oli vuonna 1864 esitelty suunnitelma, joka ei koskaan toteutunut tarkoitetussa muodossa. Yhtenä sen tuloksena oli kuitenkin käytäntö, jossa Göteborgin korkeakoulu otti tehtäväkseen järjestää yleisölle avoimia akateemisia luentoja. Vapaan akatemian ideaa ja luentotoimintaa ei ole aikaisemmin tarkasteltu aikuiskasvatuksen näkökulmasta. Göteborgin työväenopisto perustettiin vuonna 1883 huolehtimaan työväenopetuksesta kansantajuisten tieteellisten luentojen avulla ja aloite Tampereen työväenopiston perustamiseksi tehtiin ensimmäisen kerran 1890-luvun alussa. Vaikka työväenopistot ovat tunnettuja aikuiskasvatuksen instituutioita, niiden historiasta on tehty vain vähän tieteellistä tutkimusta. Tämä koskee etenkin Ruotsia. Toiminta aikuisten opetuksen aikaansaamiseksi merkitsi muutoksia ajattelutavoissa. Ymmärrettiin että muutkin kuin lapset ja nuoret tarvitsivat opetusta samoin kuin ymmärrettiin, että sitä tarvitsivat myös ne, jotka olivat jääneet koulutusjärjestelmän ulkopuolelle tai ne, joille järjestelmä tarjosi vain vähän mahdollisuuksia. Sen lisäksi aikuiskasvatusaloitteiden tekijät muotoilivat elinikäisen tai jatkuvan oppimisen ajatuksen idun. Näin ollen vapaan akatemian ja työväenopistojen suunnitelmia ei kehitelty pelkästään paikkaamaan koulujärjestelmän puutteita vaan myös luomaan täysin uudenlaisia käytäntöjä ja tarjoamaan sellaista, mihin olemassa olleet oppilaitokset eivät pystyneet. Hankkeet saivat alkunsa murrosaikana ja liittyivät modernisaation erilai- siin puoliin: kansalaisen roolin muutokseen, naisten ja työläisten oikeuksien nousemiseen ajankohtaisiksi kysymyksiksi, uskonnonvapauden tavoitteluun sekä tiedon merkityksen kasvamiseen yksilöiden ja yhteiskunnan elämässä. Aloitteiden tekijät pyrkivät vastaamaan kasvavien kaupunkiyhteiskuntien tar- peisiin sivistyksen keinoin; tarpeet ja ratkaisut tosin vaihtelivat sen mukaan mihin yhteiskuntaluokkaan kiinnitettiin huomiota. Murroksesta nousevat syyt, erilaisia kussakin hankkeessa, saivat heidät toimimaan mutta lisäksi heillä oli myös omia erityisiä motiivejaan ja odotuksiaan. Nämä motiivit ja päämäärät muokkasivat heidän ideoitaan ja vaikuttivat siihen, mistä malleja haettiin suunnitelmille. Prosessit, joiden myötä uudet aikuiskasvatuksen käytännöt saivat alkunsa ja institutionalisoituivat, heijastavat aikalaisten asenteita uusia ideoita kohtaan. Lopputulokset eivät olleet itsestään selviä, sillä vaihtoehtoisia malleja oli olemassa, suunnitelmat ja uudet käytännöt kohtasivat vaikeuksia ja alkuperäisiä ideoita muokattiin paikallisiin oloihin sopiviksi. Yksityisten kansalaisten aloitteellisuus sivistyslaitosten perustamiseksi omissa kotikaupungeissaan samoin kuin kaupunkien tarjoama rahoitus ja muu tuki kertovat paikallisen toiminnan merkityksestä aikuiskasvatuksen muotoutumisen varhaisvaiheessa. Uudet toiminnan muodot vaikuttivat kasvatuksen sosiaalisiin käytäntöihin lisäämällä mahdollisuuksia sivistyksen hankkimiseen ja laajentamalla sivistystyön vaikutuspiiriä. Ne tarjosivat tilaisuuden aikaisempaa säännöllisempään osallistumiseen, vaikka eivät tuottaneetkaan muodollisia pätevyyksiä, sekä houkuttelivat piiriinsä huomattavia määriä kaupunkilaisia. Ne myös toivat sivistyksen ja opetuksen piiriin ihmisiä, joilla oli vain lyhyt pohjakoulutus, ja tarjosivat täydentävää opetusta niille, joiden ei ollut aikaisemmin mahdollista hankkia uusien instituutioiden tarjoaman tiedon ja taidon kaltaista oppia. Naiset olivat tärkeä kohderyhmä ja muodostivat myös tosiasiassa merkittävän osan yleisöstä. Osallistujat eivät olleet pelkästään aikuisia, sillä työväenopistojen iltakurssit vetivät puoleensa myös työssä käyvää nuorisoa, jonka asema opiskelun kannalta oli samanlainen kuin aikuisten. Työläisille suunnattujen oppilaitosten kyky saavuttaa kohderyhmänsä on joskus kyseenalaistettu, mutta sekä Göteborgin että Tampereen työväenopistot onnistuivat siinä. Suunnitelma Göteborgin vapaasta akatemiasta osoittaa, että varhaisen aikuiskasvatuksen kohderyhmä ei aina ollut työväestö tai rahvas, sillä sen opetus oli suunnattu kaupungin porvaristolle. Tampereen työväenopiston tapaus osoittaa, että sen tarjoamalla opetuksella oli vaikutuksia aktiivisen kansalaisuuden edistämiseen, sillä se osaltaan valmensi opiskelijoitaan kansalaisyhteiskunnassa ja kunnallispolitiikassa ja -hallinnossa toimimiseen. Inhimillisen ja sosiaalisen pääoman käsitteiden pohjalta jaoin opiston mahdollistamat resurssit tieto- ja taitoresursseihin sekä sosiaalisiin resursseihin. Edellisiä karttui luennoista ja käytännöllistä opetusta tarjonneista kursseista; jälkimmäisiä muodostui osittain suunniteltujen opetusjärjestelyjen avulla mutta myös opiskelun sivutuotteena sekä opiston piirissä vietetystä seuraelämästä. ; This study explores three adult education initiatives originating in Sweden and Finland during the latter half of the nineteenth century. Their significance is analysed by scrutinizing the initiators and their ideas, the processes whereby the ideas became established practices, the nature of these practices or institutions and their role in the local community at the end of the nineteenth and at the beginning of the twentieth century. These analyses shed light on why the adult education at issue became important and what changes in social patterns of education the new practices brought about. The study focuses on the formative period of adult education prior to the era of governmental adult education policies. This period was characterized by private and local initiatives and thus the setting of the study is the local level, the Swedish city of Gothenburg and the Finnish city of Tampere. The new practices of adult education are regarded as social innovations and explored from the perspective of the innovation process, extending from the ideas, motives and models to the outcomes. The emergence and formation of the activities are examined in the social, political and cultural context of the period and the approach of the study is comparative. The sources consist of various archive materials, reports, newspapers and other publications. These three initiatives represented liberal adult education offering general, non-vocational education. Free Academy in Gothenburg was an adult education plan introduced in 1864. It was never implemented as envisaged but ultimately resulted in a practice whereby Gothenburg University College committed itself to organizing public lectures. The idea of Free Academy and the lecturing activities have not earlier been discussed in terms of adult education. The Gothenburg Workers' Institute was founded in 1883 to cater for workers' education in the form of popular scientific lectures and the initiative for the Tampere Workers' Institute was taken at the beginning of the 1890s. Although the workers' institutes are well-known institutions of adult education, very little scholarly research has been conducted on them, on the Swedish institutes in particular. Promoting the education of adults implied changes in contemporary thinking. It was recognized that children and adolescents were not the only ones needing education just as it was recognized that those outside the education system or those to whom this system had little to offer also needed education. In addition, the initiators raised an embryonic idea of continuing or lifelong education. Thus, the plans for Free Academy and the workers' institutes were not developed solely to compensate for the inadequacies of the education system but also to create entirely new educational practices and offer something the existing institutions could not. The initiatives originated in a period of transition and exemplified different aspects of modernization: the changing role of the citizen, the emerging questions of women's and workers' rights, the pursuit of religious freedom and the increasing importance of knowledge in the lives of individuals and society. The initiators attempted to meet the needs of expanding urban societies by means of education although the needs met and the solutions offered differed according to social class. Reasons arising from such transitions, different in each case, motivated the initiators but they also had more particular interests and expectations. Their motives and goals shaped their ideas and influenced their choices of models for their plans. This study also reveals how the processes whereby the adult education practices emerged and became institutionalized reflect the attitudes towards the initiatives and the esteem in which they were held. The outcomes were not self-evident as there were also other models, the plans and new institutions faced challenges and the original ideas were adapted to suit local conditions. The initiatives taken by private citizens to create institutions in their home towns and the essential role of local funding and other support indicate the significance of the action on local level for the formation of early adult education. The new practices influenced the social patterns of education by increasing educational opportunities and by extending the sphere of influence of education. They offered opportunities for more regular study, albeit not producing any qualifications, and attracted considerable numbers of townspeople. They extended the sphere of education to people who had short earlier schooling and offered further education to people who had previously lacked the opportunities for the kind of education the new institutions now offered. Women were both a target and an actual audience. Participants were not only adults; the workers' institutes with their evening courses also attracted young people in an adult-like position with regard to schooling due to their daily work. The ability of the educational institutions aimed at workers to reach their target group has sometimes been questioned but it is obvious that the Gothenburg and Tampere Workers' Institutes succeeded in this. The plan for Free Academy and the subsequent lecturing activities show that not all early adult education was intended for workers and the common people as in this case the target group was the local bourgeoisie. As regards the effects of adult education, the case of the Tampere Workers' Institute reveals that it contributed to active citizenship by preparing its students to act in civic society and in local government. Drawing on the ideas of human and social capital, the resources the institute could generate for them can be divided into knowledge and skills resources on the one hand, and social resources on the other. The former could be accumulated by attending lectures and practically oriented courses, the latter with the help of planned teaching arrangements but also as a by-product of educational and social activities.

This dissertation studies 'the Arctic in Change'. In contrast to a traditional research setting, its aim is to engage with questions that respond to both 'the Arctic' and 'in Change' as preformed answer and outcome. Since 'the Arctic' is not constituted by a single definition, mode, science, art, discipline, method, state, continent, image, symbol, instance, agent or unit, it is considered and treated with the means and matters of bricolage in the spirit of post-qualitative inquiry. Accordingly, this approach requires involvement from a multiplicity of theoretical, methodological and research material: the intra-actions of performativity theory, the genealogy of discursive material practices, studies on perception, visual culture, aesthetics and ethics, art & design, ecology and ethology, as well as the politics residing in them. Furthermore, the recognition of the partiality, influence and agency of the elements constituting this study beyond the rationalised and controlled research design requires a more fluid manner of writing, deriving from the ideals of writerly and open text, infused with inter- and intratextuality and co-conducted in phenomenological writing to produce a novel conduct in avoiding firm structuring and hierarchy while pursuing open-ended objectives. The analysis begins by compromising the cohesion of Arctic representations as objects with unaltered identities, exhibiting a diorama of a polar bear. The seemingly neutral and passive object occupies several inherited subject positions that emerge from it as material outcomes. The representation holds the capacity to record the audience's corporeality through sensory and motoric traces and to perform through their bodies as fixed prepositions. The encounter endangers and re-establishes the participatory subject and object positions as co- and counter to each other. How representations are conducted is foremost a question of the manipulation of distance, which proceeds from aesthetics to epistemological and ontological conditions. Different characteristics emerge, disappear, become manageable or are in reach depending on their distance, which is defined as the relationship between the point of perception and the perceived. Attempts to overcome this distance with various scientific technologies and artistic techniques are inevitably influenced by what comes in-between. To penetrate the distance with direct bodily engagements for the purpose of Arctic investigation, is an act limited to the ontology of the knowing body. In order to perform under the natural and cultural environmental conditions related to the Arctic, the body is contained and reproduced as non-Arctic with specific material arrangements within the research vessel, from labour to recovery, to maintain it as a societal human subject. These discursive–material arrangements constitute the human body through an incorporeal–animal binary, constructed within the equipment of ergonomics and exercise inherited from agriculture and industrialisation. When the same adjustment, human–animal, is conducted in micro-space, it is transferred into the colonial project of discipline and cultivation as a rectilinear school: it emerges as an invasive species in the regional circular 'ecology' and as cultural violence towards the landscape that is formed by seasonal and regional movement that happens in circles, conducting the livelihood and the identity of the People. The reading and rewriting of the landscape, as well as the history and memory of the bodies within it, do not place these human–animal binaries beneath one another, but rather within an act of performative restructuring. While certain iconic animals, are considered representatives of the Arctic region, in the animal activist's attempt to speak for the other, to witness animal subjectivity with documentary techniques and technologies, they do not succeed in ethically mediating or negotiating the subjectivity of the animal-other as such. Such technique produces a hybrid subjectivity of the human, animal and recording technology combined that also fails to free itself from the weight of the genealogy of the human–animal relations of trapping, hunting, slaughter and putting on display. While problematising the capability to engage with the animal subject as an animal, the study further indicates the 'small other' taking place in subject–object encounters, restating 'in-between' as 'in-the-midst'. The human–animal relation contained in an artefact, and its capacity to contain and surface such genealogies, is finally studied in the context of contemporary political debate on the use, meaning and matter of the inuksuit, communities building and enacting stone figures erected traditionally by the Inuit for various purposes. While the inuksuit have been adopted by the national state with its colonial practices towards the indigenous peoples, the inukshuk re-emerges as a re-establishment of identity and power over life and region, natural, social and political bodies. The questions throughout the thesis suggest that 'the Arctic' is not accessible or returnable as the 'truth'; it is not capable to exist in the Lacanian Real, resisting all definitions and relations. It is composed in linguistic, imaginary and symbolic manner and matter as a figuration 'arcticulated' into an entity existing only 'in Change'. This entity is to be expressed with a figure that bends and reads in multiple modes. The Arctic is therefore a bearing in which one can dwell as a human being, where this being owes and invests itself in an intra-face, named a 'homunculus', a transferring and conducting of human characteristics. The outcomes ought to enable radical and critical thinking towards the 'taken for granted' truths of the Arctic as an object of inquiry through established metatheoretical conceptualisations. The 'homunculus' is offered as a guide for understanding the forms and matters of politics on the issue in a new way in order to have an impact on political science and beyond. ; Väitöskirjan tutkimuskohteena on "Arktinen muutoksessa". Perinteisesti tutkimuskysymyksestä johdettavan tutkimusasetelman sijaan tutkimuskohteen osat "Arktinen" ja "muutoksessa" tulkitaan ennakko-olettamina, tutkimusvastauksina, jolloin tutkimustavoitteeksi syntyy näihin lopputulemiin johtavien tutkimuskysymysten löytäminen. Koska Arktinen ei koostu yhdestä määritelmästä, modaliteetista, tieteen- tai taiteenalasta, oppiaineesta, metodista, valtiosta, mantereesta, kuvasta, symbolista, tilanteesta, toimijasta tai yksiköstä, käsitellään sitä brikolaasina jälkilaadullisen tutkimuksen hengessä. Lähestymistapa edellyttää useiden erilaisten teoreettisten, metodologisten ja tutkimusaineistollisten lähtökohtien hyödyntämistä performatiivisuusteoriasta genealogiaan, havainnon, visuaalisen kulttuurin, estetiikan, etiikan ja taiteen tutkimukseen, ekologiasta eläinten käyttäytymistieteeseen, sekä niiden poliittisen luonteen tunnistamiseen. Tavoitteen saavuttaminen edellyttää tiukasti kontrolloitua tutkimusasetelmaa ja raportointia joustavampaa kirjoittamistapaa, liikkuen fenomenologisesta kirjoittamisesta ja avoimesta tekstistä, intertekstuaalisuuteen ja intratekstiin, välttäen tutkimusta rajoittavia rakenteita ja hierarkioita, uudenlaisten sisältöjen ja avointen lopputulosten tuottamiseksi. Tutkimusanalyyttinen matka alkaa Arktisen representaatioiden koheesion ja identiteetin muuttumattomuuden kyseenalaistamisella. Tiedekeskuksen jääkarhudiorama ymmärretään performatiivisena artefaktina, joka ilmeisen neutraalina ja passiivisena esillepanona sisällyttää joukon polveutuvia subjektipositioita ja materiaalisia voimasuhteita. Jääkarhun representaatiolla on kapasiteetti tallentaa yleisön ruumiillisuus sensorisina ja motorisina jälkinä, ja liikuttaa yleisöään prepositioihin, asemoiden subjektin ja objektin tietynlaiseen keskinäissuhteeseen. Representaatioiden tuottamisessa on keskeisesti kysymys etäisyyden manipuloinnista, edeten estetiikasta, epistemologisiin ja ontologisiin kysymyksiin. Eri piirteet ilmaantuvat, katoavat, tulevat hallittaviksi tai tavoitettaviksi riippuen etäisyydestä eli suhteesta havaitsijan ja havainnoitavan välillä. Yritykset ylittää etäisyys tieteen käyttämien teknologioiden sekä taiteellisten tekniikoiden avulla tuottavat välittävän ja väliin tulevan tason, josta tulee erottamaton osa havainnoitavaa kohdetta. Yritys ylittää etäisyys Arktiseen suoran kehollisen kontaktin keinoin rajoittuu väistämättä tietävän kehon ontologiaan. Kuten tutkimusaluksella, Arktisen luonto- ja kulttuuriympäristössä suoriutuva keho on säilötty ja uudelleentuotettu ei-arktisena erityisillä materiaalisilla järjestelyillä ja tekniikoilla, säilyttääkseen inhimillisen kehon länsimaiseen yhteiskuntaan sovitettavana. Ihmiskehoa tukeva eläinten hyötykäytöstä liikkumisessa sekä maatalouden ja teollisuuden voimansiirrossa. Näin ollen ihmiskehoa muokkaavat diskursiivismateriaaliset käytännöt rakentuvat ihmisen ja eläimen yhdistävästä teknologisesta suhteesta, jossa eläimen ruumiillisuus on muutoin poissaolevana. Kun ihmisen ja eläimen agraarisesta suhteesta syntyvä mikro-tilallinen rakennekaava siirretään osaksi koloniaalista koulutusta ja kurinpitoa, ilmenee kultivointi suorakaiteenmuotoisena kouluympäristönä. Lineaarisuus ja suorakulmaiset muodot toimivat vieraslajin tavoin vaarantaen alueellisen kehällisen ekologian, toimien kulttuurisena väkivaltana kehällisen ja kausittaisen liikkeen muodostamaa maisemaa kohtaan, joka liittyy erottamattomana osana luontaiselinkeinoihin ja alueelliseen ryhmäidentiteettiin. Maiseman lukeminen ja uudelleenkirjoittaminen, ja sen sisältämien kehojen historia ja muisti, eivät aseta eläin-ihmis binaarin osapuolia toisilleen alisteisiksi, vaan keskinäiseen performatiiviseen suhteeseen. Tiettyjen ikonisten eläinten, kuten poron, tunnistetaan edustavan Arktista aluetta. Eläinaktivistiset yritykset todistaa eläimen subjektiivista kokemusta eri dokumentointitekniikoiden ja teknologioiden välittämänä epäonnistuvat todentamaan eläimen kokemuksen eettisesti. Kyseiset tekniikat tuottavat eläimen sijaan hybridisen subjektiviteetin koostuen ihmisen, eläimen ja tallentavan teknologian yhdistelmästä, joka ei onnistu vapautumaan tappamisen genealogiastaan, kuten ansapyynnistä, metsästyksestä, teurastuksesta ja voitonmerkeistä. Eläimen subjektiviteetin autenttisen esittämisen problematiikka paljastaa "pienen toisen" läsnäolon subjektin ja objektin välisessä suhteessa, jolloin suhteen tarkastelu "toista" kohtaan muuttuu välisestä keskiseksi. Ihmisen ja eläimen suhteen genealogian tallentuminen artefaktiin, joka toimii niin säilönä kuin esiintulopintana, tutkitaan lopuksi osana poliittista debattia koskien Kanadan Inuiitti- yhteisöjen eri tarkoituksiin perinteisesti kivistä pystyttämien inuksuk-hahmojen käyttöä ja merkitystä. Inukshuk edelleen toimii maisemallisesti alkuperäiskansaan kuuluvia ihmisiä toisiinsa, elinkeinoonsa, sekä ympäristönsä eläimistöön konkreettisesti sitovana sosiaalisen ja poliittisena ruumiina, samalla kun kansallisvaltio on kolonisoinut sen käyttöä. Kysymykset läpi tutkielman johtavat ymmärrykseen että "Arktinen" ei avaudu tai palaudu "totuudeksi" Lacanilaisessa ymmärryksessä, jossa "Todellinen" vastustaa kaikkia määritelmiä ja suhteellistuksia. Arktinen koostuu lingvistisestä, kuvitteellisesta, kuvallisesta ja symbolisesta hahmotelmasta, joka on "arktikuloitu" olevaksi vain "muutoksesssa". Tämän kokonaisuuden voi ilmaista hahmolla, joka taipuu ja on luettavissa eri modaliteeteissa. Arktinen on siten asema ja suuntima, jossa voidaan säilyä ihmisinä, investoiden siihen oman inhimillisen jälkensä 'homunculuksen'. Tutkimustuloksen on tarkoitus mahdollistaa radikaali ja kriittinen tapa ajatella Arktista totuudellisuutta, joka on "otettu annettuna", kehitettyjen metateoreettisten konseptien avulla. Homunculus toimii oppaana ymmärrykseen arktisen poliittisuudesta, uudistaen käsityksiämme yli politiikkatieteen rajojen.

Background. According to domestic scientists, 75% of combat veterans diagnosed with symptoms that can diagnose mental and behavioral disorders because of alcohol consumption. Almost 100 thousand patients with alcohol dependence registered at the narcological dispensaries annually in Ukraine. The aim of the study was to study the pharmaceutical provision of addiction syndrome because of alcohol use (F10.2) with the definition of the parameters of the control regime among participants in combat operations. Materials and methods. In order to achieve this goal, existing international and domestic legislative, normative and legal, methodological documents; scientific sources; instructions for medical use of medicines; Internet-resources that processed using normative legal, documentary, forensic, pharmaceutical, comparative and graphical methods of analysis were used. Results. The consistency of the pharmacotherapy principles of alcohol addiction syndrome (F10.2) at the international and national levels was clarified by comparative analysis of the clinical and pharmacological groups of medicines in the following regulatory documents: Drugs used in alcohol dependence EBM Guidelines 8.9.2017 (Latest changes 8.9. 2017 Kaarlo Simojoki); the Order of the Ministry of Healthcare of Ukraine No. 681 dated September 21, 2009 "On Approval of Clinical Protocols for the Provision of Medical Aid in the Specialty "Narcology"; the Order of the Ministry of Healthcare of Ukraine No. 868 dated May 10, 2018 "On approval of the tenth issue of the State Form of Medicines and ensuring their availability"; the Decree of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine No. 333 dated September 25, 2009 "Some issues of state regulation of prices for medicines and medical products", which approved the National List of Basic Medicines. Conclusions. The pharmaceutical provision for addiction syndrome because of alcohol consumption (F10.2) studied with determination of the parameters of the control regime among the participants of the military operations. Analyzed the rubricification of code F10.2 "Addiction syndrome due to alcohol use" for ICD-10 numbering 11 items. Systematized the clinical and pharmacological groups of medicinal products used for the pharmaceutical provision of addiction syndrome due to the use of alcohol among participants of military operations. Based on the analysis of the regulatory framework, determined that in the clinical protocols of the provision of medical care in the specialty "Narcology" all studied clinical and pharmacological groups of medicines for the pharmacotherapy of addiction syndrome due to alcohol use were included; in the State Form of Medicine there are no sensitizing drugs; in the National List of Essential Medicines there are no 4 clinical and pharmacological groups: psychoanalyptics (antidepressants), sensitizing drugs, peripheral vasodilators, derivatives of g-aminobutyric acid (sodium oxybutyrate), parameters of the control regimen of drugs for pharmacotherapy of addiction syndrome due to alcohol use Participants in military operations. Noted that the special regime of control has according to the classification and legal group 3 psychotropic drugs (diazepam, sodium oxibiturate and phenobarbital), which should be located in healthcare institutions on the subject and quantitative accounting. Proved in the comparative aspect, the features of licensing of studied medicinal products in medical and pharmacy establishments of healthcare. Regarding the legal status of the investigational medicinal products, taking into account the parameters of their control regime, they will increase the level of their legal, informational and physical accessibility for doctors, pharmacists and patients, and also proper organization of circulation procedure of such drugs on the stages of the appointment, discharge, storage, accounting, quality control and delivery in accordance with the current legislation of Ukraine. ; Актуальность. По данным отечественных ученых, у 75% ветеранов боевых действий отмечаются симптомы, которые позволяют диагностировать психические и поведенческие расстройства вследствие употребления алкоголя. В Украине ежегодно почти 100 тысяч пациентов с алкогольной зависимостью становятся на учет в наркологические диспансеры. Цель исследования: Изучить фармацевтическое обеспечение синдрома зависимости вследствие употребления алкоголя (F 10.2) с определением параметров режима контроля среди участников боевых действий. Материалы и методы. Для достижения поставленной цели были использованы действующие международные и отечественные законодательные, нормативно-правовые и инструктивно-методические документы; научные источники; инструкции по применению лекарственных средств; Internet-ресурсы, которые были обработаны с применением нормативно-правового, документального, судебно-фармацевтического, сравнительного и графического методов анализа. Результаты. Согласованность принципов фармакотерапии синдрома зависимости от алкоголя (F 10.2) на международном и национальном уровнях определялась путем сравнительного анализа клинико-фармакологических групп лекарственных средств в таких нормативно-правовых документах: Drugs used in alcohol dependence EBM Guidelines 8.9.2017 (Latest change 8.9. 2017 Kaarlo Simojoki); приказ МЗ Украины № 681 от 21.09.2009 г. «Об утверждении клинических протоколов оказания медицинской помощи по специальности "Наркология"»; приказ МЗ Украины № 868 от 10.05.2018 г. «Об утверждении десятого выпуска Государственного формуляра лекарственных средств и обеспечения его доступности»; Постановление КМ Украины № 333 от 25.09.2009 г. «Некоторые вопросы государственного регулирования цен на лекарственные средства и изделия медицинского назначения», которым утвержден Национальный перечень основных лекарственных средств. Выводы. Изучено фармацевтическое обеспечение синдрома зависимости вследствие употребления алкоголя (F 10.2) с определением параметров режима контроля среди участников боевых действий. Проанализирована рубрификация кода F10.2 «Синдром зависимости вследствие употребления алкоголя» согласно МКБ-10, которая насчитывает 11 позиций. Систематизированы клинико-фармакологические группы лекарственных средств, которые используются для фармацевтического обеспечения синдрома зависимости вследствие употребления алкоголя среди участников боевых действий. На основании анализа нормативной базы определено, что в клиническом протоколе оказания медицинской помощи по специальности «Наркология» включены все исследуемые клинико-фармакологические группы лекарственных средств для фармакотерапии синдрома зависимости вследствие употребления алкоголя; в Государственном формуляре лекарственных средств отсутствуют сенсибилизирующие лекарственные средства; в Национальном перечне основных лекарственных средств отсутствуют 4 клинико-фармакологические группы: психоаналептики (антидепрессанты); сенсибилизирующие лекарственные средства; периферические вазодилататоры, производные g-аминомасляной кислоты (натрия оксибутират). Установлены параметры режима контроля лекарственных средств для фармакотерапии синдрома зависимости вследствие употребления алкоголя среди участников боевых действий. Указано, что специальный режим контроля имеют по классификационно-правовой группе 3 психотропные лекарственные средства (диазепам, натрия оксибутират и фенобарбитал), которые должны находиться в учреждениях здравоохранения на предметно-количественном учете. В сравнительном аспекте обоснованы особенности лицензирования оборота лекарственных средств в медицинских и аптечных учреждениях. Внедрение в деятельность учреждений здравоохранения данных относительно правового статуса лекарственных средств с учетом параметров их режима контроля обеспечит повышение уровня их правовой, информационной и физической доступности для врачей, провизоров и пациентов, а также надлежащую организацию порядка обращения таких лекарственных средств на этапах назначения, выписки, хранения, учета, контроля качества и отпуска в соответствии с требованиями действующего законодательства Украины. ; Актуальність. За даними вітчизняних вчених, у 75% ветеранів бойових дій відзначаються симптоми, які дозволяють діагностувати психічні і поведінкові розлади внаслідок вживання алкоголю. В Україні щороку майже 100 тисяч пацієнтів з алкогольною залежністю поступають на облік у наркологічні диспансери. Мета дослідження: вивчити фармацевтичне забезпечення синдрому залежності внаслідок вживання алкоголю (F 10.2) з визначенням параметрів режиму контролю серед учасників бойових дій. Матеріали та методи. Для досягнення поставленої мети було використано чинні міжнародні та вітчизняні законодавчі, нормативно-правові та інструктивно-методичні документи; наукові джерела; інструкції для медичного застосування лікарських засобів; Internet-ресурси, які було оброблено із застосуванням нормативно-правового, документального, судово-фармацевтичного, порівняльного та графічного методів аналізу. Результати. Узгодженість принципів фармакотерапії синдрому залежності від алкоголю (F 10.2) на міжнародному і національному рівнях з'ясовувалася шляхом порівняльного аналізу клініко-фармакологічних груп лікарських засобів у таких нормативно-правових документах: Drugs used in alcohol dependence EBM Guidelines 8.9.2017 (Latest change 8.9.2017 Kaarlo Simojoki); наказ МОЗ України № 681 від 21.09.2009 р. «Про затвердження клінічних протоколів надання медичної допомоги зі спеціальності "Наркологія"»; наказ МОЗ України № 868 від 10.05.2018 р. «Про затвердження десятого випуску Державного формуляра лікарських засобів та забезпечення його доступності»; Постанова КМ України № 333 від 25.09.2009 р. «Деякі питання державного регулювання цін на лікарські засоби і вироби медичного призначення», якою затверджено Національний перелік основних лікарських засобів. Висновки. Вивчено фармацевтичне забезпечення синдрому залежності внаслідок вживання алкоголю (F 10.2) з визначенням параметрів режиму контролю серед учасників бойових дій. Проаналізовано рубрифікацію коду F10.2 «Синдром залежності внаслідок вживання алкоголю» за МКХ-10, що налічує 11 позицій. Систематизовано клініко-фармакологічні групи лікарських засобів, що використовуються для фармацевтичного забезпечення синдрому залежності внаслідок вживання алкоголю серед учасників бойових дій. На підставі аналізу нормативної бази визначено, що в клінічному протоколі надання медичної допомоги зі спеціальності «Наркологія» включено всі досліджувані клініко-фармакологічні групи лікарських засобів для фармакотерапії синдрому залежності внаслідок вживання алкоголю; у Державному формулярі лікарських засобів відсутні сенсибілізуючі лікарські засоби; у Національному переліку основних лікарських засобів відсутні 4 клініко-фармакологічні групи: психоаналептики (антидепресанти); сенсибілізуючі лікарські засоби; периферичні вазоділататори; похідні g-аміномасляної кислоти (натрію оксибутирату). Встановлено параметри режиму контролю лікарських засобів для фармакотерапії синдрому залежності внаслідок вживання алкоголю серед учасників бойових дій. Зазначено, що спеціальний режим контролю мають за класифікаційно-правовою групою 3 психотропні лікарські засоби (діазепам, натрію оксибутират і фенобарбітал), які повинні бути в закладах охорони здоров'я на предметно-кількісному обліку. У порівняльному аспекті доведено особливості ліцензування обігу досліджуваних лікарських засобів у медичних та аптечних закладах охорони здоров'я. Висновки. Впровадження в діяльність закладів охорони здоров'я даних щодо правового статусу досліджуваних лікарських засобів з урахуванням параметрів їх режиму контролю забезпечить підвищення рівня їх правової, інформаційної та фізичної доступності для лікарів, провізорів і пацієнтів, а також належну організацію порядку обігу таких лікарських засобів на етапах призначення, виписування, зберігання, обліку, контролю якості та відпуску відповідно до вимог чинного законодавства України.