Suchergebnisse

.The subject of my thesis has as its starting point a didactic aim: that of the qualitative improvement of the teaching/learning of French to/from an audience of Reunionese children. In pursuit of this goal, I have set myself the goal of developing a benchmark for assessing the morphosyntactic skills of children in Reunion Island's large kindergarten section. Enriched in particular by recent research related to the theme of the contact of languages in Creolo-French-speaking lands, my work as a didactician has tried to reconcile, or at least to confront, a sociolinguistic variationist posture with that, classically more structuralist, of a grammarian "standard-setter" in a school setting. I thus deal, from a theoretical and pragmatic point of view, with the problem of a binarized grammatical evaluation, in a diglostic context of close language contacts, where interlectal practices are legion. By considering, from a holistic perspective, questions relating to the development of reference standards and the collection of oral data from small non-reading schoolchildren, my research is actually at the crossroads of sociolinguistics, language didactics, educational sciences but also psycholinguistics and descriptive linguistics. The report of my work is divided into four parts. PART 1: Following a general introduction, the first part of my typed text shows the need for an assessment of the linguistic skills of Réunionese pupils at the end of nursery school. It also describes the general objectives, postures and intentions underlying this evaluation. The gap between the language of the school and the language of the home is considered on Reunion Island as an aggravating factor in the educational difficulties encountered by many Reunionese pupils from the very beginning of their schooling. It would seem that to become good readers, many of them do not have sufficient skills as speakers of the French language. Among the remediation proposals proposed so far by researchers who have dealt with the subject, it is often recommended that the skills acquired by students in Creole, considered their L1, be used as a basis from kindergarten onwards to compose a strategy for teaching French as a second language. Recently, the educational policies officially posted for the Academy also suggest, in a more or less vague way, the need to take into account Creole. In this perspective, which is certainly commendable if one refers to the work of didacticians and psycholinguists on strong forms of teaching in a bilingual context (e.g. Baker, Hamers and Blanc, Cummins), two central questions nevertheless appear which should therefore be raised, but which until now have hardly been asked: -What is the quality of Creole spoken by "Creole" children today? Do the little schoolchildren from Reunion, and especially those who encounter difficulties in French, really master Creole? The analysis of recent sociolinguistic works relating to language contacts and the expansion of the use of interlecte in the Reunionese community (Prudent, Ledegen, Watin, Souprayen-Cavery, Rapanoël.).), taking into account the remarks of local primary school teachers on the shortcomings of young pupils not only in French but also in Creole, and the results of surveys declaring an increase in the "transmission" of French by Reunionese mothers, led me to think that doubt on this subject is permitted or at least that the assumption "Creole L1" is to be qualified. In order to better situate the purpose and goal of my work, I therefore began by demonstrating that the situation in terms of language practices is complex and, consequently, that the didactic orientations would become more sensitive and anchored in the local situation if they were based on concrete points of reference concerning the actual degree of mastery of the two codes in question by the students. How, in fact, can we claim to be able to exploit the knowledge acquired in one language (a priori L1-créole) in order to better appropriate the other (a priori L2-français), without having taken full measure of the degree of mastery of the two languages involved? While work has begun on the communicative skills of kindergarten students (Fioux and Marimoutou), my research on local "assessments" conducted so far reveals that researchers have no relatively detailed assessment of the current language skills of Reunionese children, on the one hand in French, before the transition to written French, after three years of schooling explicitly focused on acquiring the basics of oral French, and on the other hand in Creole. Equally disconcerting, given the educational challenges, it appears that there are also no assessment tools designed for the local situation, and therefore adapted for the collection and analysis of these oral language skills among young children, whereas we are in a former French colony with a sociolinguistic situation rooted in diglossia. On what basis can we then rely to affirm that the Reunionese students of today, who are referred to en masse as "Creolophones", possess solid language skills in Creole and gaps in French when they engage in the systematic process of learning to read? It is on the basis of these questions and observations that I draft a first constituency of the objective of my work. It is a question of asking the prolegomena of an assessment assessment, linguistic, comparative, in Creole and French, whose methodological foundations would be explained, argued, but also contextualized and updated for a public of learners at the end of a large nursery section in Reunion. The aim is to provide teachers of languages working for and with small schoolchildren in Reunion with a tool that is sufficiently detailed to enrich reflection on French teaching/learning strategies, "possibly" based on the knowledge of these pupils in Creole. Although the delimitations I am proposing to establish are an integral part of the evaluation process, they are upstream of the act of evaluation. More specifically, it is a question of building an operational evaluation frame of reference presenting evaluation criteria, reference standards and pre-tested tests with a sample of children of large section, in French and Creole. Once this purpose has been clarified, I set the initial parameters of this evaluation process. Understanding it above all as "a reflection on relationships to values", I then position myself, after an epistemological approach to this not insignificant act, in favour of an evaluation that makes sense. Following in particular Hadji, Lecointe, Bonniol and Vial or Ardoino and Berger on their questioning of the technicality of docimology in search of an illusory objectivity, I undertake, like them, to shift the priority of the correctness of the results towards the logic and transparency of an objectivized process, leading to a relevant result that can be understood, located, relativized according to a transparent reading grid and the intentions underlying it. To do this, I then borrow from the educational sciences, and in particular G. Figari, the concept of referentialization, with its triple status, operational, methodological and scientific. If they were originally designed to carry out evaluations of systems (schools, training systems, curricula, etc.), I show that the general principles of referentialisation are in fact entirely transposable to the study I am conducting. Having this common thread, my referentialization begins, in a first step, with a work of reflexivity, to try to explain and situate my own posture as an evaluation designer, which engages me in an ethical responsibility. It is above all a question of taking a step back from the power held and to which I am subjected in this work of gathering and using information of social value. I therefore strive to pose and understand the social and individual issues related to this act, but also, in reference to the subjectivity inherent in any research in the humanities (de Robillard), to self-position myself in relation to my own representations and inclinations regarding the choice of a referentialization activity. A second step arising from the first also allows me to clarify my intentions in this evaluation. After a review of the pathways available to me, I conclude that in relation to the objectives, they are closer to evaluation-appraisal than evaluation-measurement and lead me to favour a qualitative approach. PART 2: The second part of my thesis, which relates the exploratory phase of my referentialization, is entirely dedicated to the modelling stage of my evaluation object. First, I report on the theoretical investigations I conducted in order to define the object to be evaluated, namely the object language. The first step is to position myself in the debate on the (im)possibility(s) of delimiting boundaries between Creole and French, which opposes structuralists and variationists, and even variationists between them. To do this, I approach the history of the contact of the languages of Reunion, from the plantation society to the departmentalized society, and compare the concepts that served as filters to describe the contact of Creole/French languages (diglossia, continuum, interlecte, macrosystem). Finally, I come to find in de Robillard's arguments, in his broader reflection on the definition of a language, the bases that push me to adopt, for the precise needs of the evaluation I am aiming for, a solid conception of the language, leading me to see Creole and French from a binarized angle. For all that, I do not abandon the study of the phenomena of mixtures noted by the Reunionese teachers among their pupils and that some (didacticians and pedagogues) praise as an asset or, on the contrary, criticize as a handicap, or even associate with the manifestation of a "semi-linguism", compared to the speeches of monolinguals. If my inclination for sociolinguistics leads me to see mixtures as some kind of discursive mode in their linguistic repertoire and to refute a treatment of mixtures from the point of view of parasitages, the question I ask myself as a didactician seeking to improve the teaching/learning process of French is the following: in the end, how can evaluators be allowed to determine, independently of recognition of the linguistic and pragmatic ability of these young pupils to "juggle" with two codes to arrive at communicating, whether the mixtures made are indicative of a) tactics of "compensating" for gaps in one language and/or the other (the skills then being better in one language than the other or insufficient in both languages), or b) relatively good "mastery" of the two codes (the skills being good in one language as well as the other), which calls for different remediation and/or teaching methods? With this in mind, I have decided to draw up an inventory of research focused on the language and linguistic evaluation of "bilingual" people. I am particularly interested in the treatment of the problem of mixtures, from the most "closed" (cf. the works of Titone, Fioux, Genelot et al.), to the most "open" (cf. the works of Moore, Cavalli, Stubbe and Peña.). By weighing them against my objectives, it seems to me that, for my type of comparative assessment, requiring quite distinct target languages, the binarized approach that can answer my initial questions proves to be relevant. Continuing my theoretical investigations, I refine my research framework by determining what a good speaker of a language implies. By approaching the notions of competence vs performance, by reviewing the points of view of language didacticians (Canale and Swain, De Pietro, Cuq, Beacco, Springer, Castellotti,.), interactionists (Hymes, Vasseur), psycholinguists (Lentin, Florin, Gombert.), pedagogues (Boisseau), researchers specializing in language evaluation (Rondal, Comblain, Piérart, Muller.).), but also by taking into consideration the directives concerning the mastery of language (Ministry of National Education) and the recommendations concerning the appropriation of foreign languages (Council of Europe), I decide to focus my reference frame on the evaluation of morphosyntactic skills, and to privilege as well the collection of samples of induced language as of spontaneous language. My exploratory phase also includes field investigations. I begin by describing the places of investigation (located mainly among Benedictine pupils of large nursery section but also at Tampon and Pau), the sampling (choice of schools, classes, children) and the means I used (ethnological approach, filmed interactions, activities carried out, protocols followed). In addition to providing me with a better knowledge of the characteristics of these young witnesses, thanks in particular to a participant observation, and to testing the relevance of different supports, tasks, evaluation approaches and inter-electoral speech transcription systems, I show that this field work allows me to make several observations that corroborate the hypothesis I had formulated during my theoretical investigations. By crossing various salient factors that I was able to identify, such as language practices (which I label without hierarchy "bi-linguisme", "mix-linguisme", "dominance in Creole" and "dominance in French"), linguistic representations, attitudes towards the school norm and the ability to discriminate between the two linguistic codes, both by the witnesses and by myself in the role of evaluator, I was indeed able to measure, in parallel with promising results, the complexity and the limits of a binarized evaluation in terms of data collection and analysis, particularly when the evaluator is faced with certain language profiles of children in this context of close language contact. Indeed, if a binary apprehension, deliberately and "classically" smoothed for teaching purposes seems appropriate for assessing and comparing the quality of children's skills in Creole and French, the local context of contact of close languages, marked by diglossic representations and far from being limited to well delimited and delimitable binary practices, leads me to think that a reference of this type is likely to have a limited scope. It is a hypothesis that it will then be up to me to verify in the continuation of my work. PART 3: Informed by a better knowledge of the potential, limits and concrete constraints of a binarised approach, the next stage of my referentialisation begins with the choice of criteria and indicators that will make it possible to evaluate young children who are not readers, orally, in French and Creole. This is the subject of the third part of my typewriting. Before getting to the heart of the matter, I begin with an indispensable preamble, it seems to me, on the balance of power at stake in normative activity (between prescription and description, priorities, relativity and arbitrariness, legitimacy(ies).). On this sensitive subject, subject to strong polemics, as well in the scientific community in general as among speakers evolving in the Reunionese community, I present in a double posture of sociolinguist and didactician, my own positioning in relation to the notion of "norm(s)". In order for my approach to be better understood and because I consider it essential to step back from a concept that often marginalizes those who use it (outside practitioners), I explicitly state the relative, constructed and yet necessary character, in my case, of the standard for this frame of reference. I also explain my legitimacy as a designer of normative references from a variationist point of view, within the theoretical framework chosen for this evaluation work. To construct the normative references of my tool, the methodological protocol that I decide to borrow is the following: 1. from already recorded descriptions of uses, - in Creole (then exist only scientific articles, grammars, dictionaries that describe only the norms of adult use (Staudacher, Watbled, Chaudenson, Ramassamy, Cellier.)), - and in French (including work on standard French (Riegel et al., Arrivé et al.)), Wagner and Pinchon.), spoken French (Gadet, Blanche-Benvéniste, Sauvageot.), regional French (Carayol, Ledegen, Béniamino and Baggioni), French spoken by children (Florin, Boisseau, Comblain.), 2. synthesize and compare these works, not only with each other but also with my own research and native speaker skills on the morphosyntactic items in question, 3.in order to be able to then proceed to a choice of criteria, whose relevance will be justified each time, for the language provoked and the spontaneous language, 4. to propose reference standards (indicators) making it possible to evaluate these criteria. For Creole, at this stage it is a question of provisional standards, 5. adjusting and updating the latter for an audience of young children, by analysing the spontaneous speech in Creole of Reunionese kindergarten children ("reference informants"), dominant in Creole or in two languages. A little more than three hundred pages of my typewriting report on the development and choice of these criteria and indicators. They quickly reveal a clear qualitative and quantitative imbalance between the state of knowledge in Creole and French. In a grammatical work, descriptive but also prescriptive, which must sort and complete, for Creole, existing descriptions certainly interesting but often contradictory, relieved of emerging varieties and completely incomplete as regards child forms, I approach the updating of the verbal theme (flexional system, analytical system, index i, truncation rules), personal pronouns, the valence of verbal themes, interrogative modality and negative modality. PART 4: The fourth and last part of my referentialization is first devoted to measuring the general parameters of designing assessment tasks and collecting data for and from children. Following a review of the literature on the subject (notably the work of Rondal, Moreau and Richelle, Khomsi, Florin, Brédart, Gombert, Marquillo.), I then put forward two considerations relating to relevance and validity criteria in an evaluation, when collecting data. They concern the types of activities generally proposed in language assessments (comprehension, production, detection and correction of statements), and the tasks making it possible to collect observable behaviours (with a focus on their scope, bias, supports and instructions). I close this review with my own remarks, criticisms and impressions on the experience of developing data collection tools that I was able to develop on the ground in Réunion. In a second step, I present and comment on the pilot tests I pre-tested with a hundred children of large section, during individual evaluation sessions, filmed and analyzed. This test bank is composed of 39 sheets classified according to whether it is a question of assessing competencies in Creole, competencies in French or "bilingual" competencies (translation, codic discrimination). These sheets present the evaluation tasks I have developed and pre-tested for feasibility, relevance and sensitivity. They detail, for each syntactic item evaluated, the criteria taken into consideration, the type of activity chosen, the expected performances, the supports of the test, the indications on its organisation, the instructions, but also the primer statements possibly provided for the evaluator, an analysis of examples of "correct" and "incorrect" answers collected from the pre-tested witnesses, and finally general comments on the test in question (difficulties, variants, precautions.). CONCLUSION: my typewriting ends with a general conclusion. First of all, it summarizes the different steps of my referencing as well as their results, and comes back on the improvements that could be made. It then presents the contributions of this research work, which also raises questions and allows proposals to be made. The contributions include in particular : -Theoretical but also field research with a hundred Reunionese children which allows the provision of an operational assessment tool, adapted to the characteristics of small Reunionese schoolchildren of large nursery section and proposing detailed tasks, tested and concrete normative benchmarks. These cards can be used as they stand, in the end as much by researchers in language didactics as by practitioners, who assess the oral grammatical skills of young children in Reunion Island. - In general, a methodological perspective concerning the collection and analysis of oral data from young non-reading schoolchildren in a diglostic context, and in a situation of contact with nearby languages. - An enrichment of the work of synchronic description of the peripheral French morphosyntax, but especially of the Creole of Reunion Island, in particular, a) by taking into account the intrasystemic and intersystemic variations (the current emerging forms due to the internal dynamics of Creole and to the contact with French, the childlike forms, the language of the young people), b) by the synthetic approach adopted (comparative analysis of work, elaboration of summary tables). But this work of referentialization also raises questions for research, on several points: On the didactic level : - This study showing the essential consideration of linguistic representations, language practices, pragmatic skills of students during the process of collecting oral data, what validity, what relevance can have smoothed evaluations, hermetic to the situation of contact of close languages and the specificities of children in Reunion, such as academic evaluations in French, duplications of a-contextualized metropolitan evaluations, designed for an already French-speaking monolingual public? What relevance do the proposals of didactic and explicit use, "as is", of Creole "L1" as a springboard to reach French L2, whereas the pre-tests carried out during my research already show a majority of witnesses presenting basic grammatical skills in French deficiencies, but also schoolchildren (even dominant Creolophones), encountering difficulties of expression, even comprehension, in Creole? Wouldn't most of the grammatical descriptions currently available hardly take into account the intra- and intersystemic variations of Creole, have repercussions on the scope of the didactic proposals for teaching French in partnership with Creole?In terms of research on language assessment: -The binary perspective chosen in this work, considered relevant for comparing language skills in Creole and French, has limitations and cannot, in particular, take into consideration, as it stands, all children's language profiles (for example, non-discriminatory mix-linguals). Beyond a Creole/French assessment, what alternative do we have to assess the language skills, especially morpho-syntactic, of these children whose (a)meshed speech and without a target "language" cannot be analysed in this framework? Should these "bilingual" skills be measured for themselves, without reference to Creole and French, as some researchers try to do relatively marginally in other linguistic contexts (e.g. Stubbe and Peña for American-Hispanic bilinguals in the United States)? But is what seems possible for "non collateral" languages possible for genetically and structurally related languages? Indeed, is a bilingual evaluation taking as a normative reference the morphosyntax of the entire Reunion macrosystem, thus a "fluid" language, where the evaluator does not have explicit/explicable reference standards a priori and therefore justified/justifiable, conceivable? Although it allows its pedagogical relevance to be seen, and meets the search for meaning criterion, how would it justify its objectivization when the evaluator only"feels" that it is being said and thus holds within himself "moving" rules, elusive as a native speaker of the interlecte? How can this unavoidable involvement, which derogates from the basis of any evaluation, be managed when normative references are internalized and a priori not externalisable?This research work finally makes it possible to make recommendations and proposals for areas of work concerning the teaching of French in partnership with Creole: - To endeavour to identify the conditions of awareness of codes by currently discriminating children (without school guidance), for the study of ways allowing schoolchildren, from the small section, to discriminate prototypical traits of Creole and French. - To take greater account of the heterogeneity of the language profiles of Réunionese children, who should not be considered as a linguistically homogeneous mass (even in schools in so-called disadvantaged neighbourhoods), and to continue the reflection on taking into account the Reunionese language macrosystem. – To complete the research on Creole currently spoken by the Reunionese population (children, youth, adults) and open these descriptions to all variations. - To make current the grammatical description books and to encourage the publication of scientific works (not purist), "accessible" to the public of students (future teachers) in training but also to that of teachers already in post. – To take more into account and change the negative representations of the local population (especially the parents of pupils) concerning the partnership (direct or indirect) with Creole. This subject being the object of strong tensions on the school ground, to study possibilities of alternative approaches (exploitation of the television medium, creation/exploitation of parallel educational structures as associations of the "ti lékol maron" type or leisure centres), privileging the mastery of language with a playful aspect, in a "calmed" context. ; Le sujet de ma thèse a pour point de départ une visée didactique : celle de l'amélioration qualitative de l'enseignement/apprentissage du français à/par un public d'enfants réunionnais. Dans la poursuite de cette finalité, je me suis fixé pour but l'élaboration d'un référentiel d'évaluation des compétences morphosyntaxiques d'enfants réunionnais en grande section de maternelle à La Réunion. Enrichi notamment des récentes recherches liées à la thématique du contact de langues en terres créolo-francophones, mon travail de didacticienne a tenté de concilier, ou du moins de confronter une posture de sociolinguiste variationniste à celle, classiquement plus structuraliste, de grammairienne « poseuse de normes » dans un cadre scolaire. Je traite ainsi, d'un point de vue théorique et pragmatique, la problématique d'une évaluation grammaticale binarisée, dans un contexte diglossique de contacts de langues proches, où les pratiques interlectales sont légion. En considérant, dans une perspective holistique, des questions relatives à l'élaboration de normes de référence et au recueil de données orales auprès de petits écoliers non lecteurs, ma recherche se trouve en réalité inscrite à la croisée de la sociolinguistique, de la didactique des langues, des sciences de l'éducation mais aussi de la psycholinguistique et de la linguistique descriptive.Le compte rendu de mon travail se scinde en quatre parties.PARTIE 1 : suite à une introduction générale, la première partie de mon tapuscrit montre la nécessité d'une évaluation bilan des compétences linguistiques des élèves réunionnais à la fin de l'école maternelle. Elle décrit également les objectifs généraux, les postures et les intentions qui sous-tendent cette évaluation.L'écart entre la langue de l'école et la langue de la maison est considéré à La Réunion comme un facteur aggravant des difficultés scolaires que rencontrent de nombreux élèves réunionnais dès les débuts de leur scolarisation. Il semblerait que pour devenir notamment de bons lecteurs, beaucoup d'entre eux ne disposent pas de compétences suffisantes en tant que locuteurs de la langue française. Parmi les propositions de remédiation proposées jusqu'à présent par les chercheurs ayant traité du sujet, il est souvent préconisé de prendre appui, dès la maternelle, sur les compétences acquises par les élèves en créole, considéré comme leur L1, pour composer une stratégie d'enseignement du français, qualifiée de langue seconde. Depuis peu, les politiques éducatives officiellement affichées pour l'Académie laissent entendre également à leur tour, de manière plus ou moins floue, la nécessité de prendre en compte le créole.Dans cette optique, certes louable si on se réfère à des travaux de didacticiens et de psycholinguistes sur les formes fortes d'enseignement en contexte bilingue (ex : Baker, Hamers et Blanc, Cummins), apparaissent cependant deux questions centrales qui devraient dès lors être soulevées, mais qui jusqu'à présent n'ont guère été posées : -Quelle est la qualité du créole parlé par les enfants « créolophones » d'aujourd'hui ?-Ces petits écoliers réunionnais, et notamment ceux qui rencontrent des difficultés en français, maîtrisent-ils vraiment le créole ? L'analyse des récents travaux de sociolinguistique ayant trait aux contacts de langues et à l'expansion de l'usage de l'interlecte dans la communauté réunionnaise (Prudent, Ledegen, Watin, Souprayen-Cavery, Rapanoël.), la prise en compte des remarques d'enseignants locaux du premier degré sur les lacunes des jeunes élèves non seulement en français mais également en créole, et celle des résultats de sondages déclarant une augmentation de la « transmission » du français par les mères réunionnaises, m'ont amenée à penser que le doute à ce sujet est permis ou du moins que le postulat « créole L1 » est à nuancer. Afin de mieux situer la finalité et le but de mon travail, j'ai donc entrepris dans un premier temps de démontrer que la donne en matière de pratiques langagières s'avère complexe et par conséquent, que les orientations didactiques gagneraient en sensibilité et en ancrage dans la situation locale, si elles s'appuyaient sur des points de repères concrets concernant le degré de maîtrise effective actuelle des deux codes en question par les élèves. Comment, en effet, prétendre pouvoir exploiter les acquis dans une langue (a priori L1-créole) pour mieux s'approprier l'autre (a priori L2-français), sans avoir pris la pleine mesure du degré de maîtrise des deux langues impliquées? Si des travaux ont été entamés concernant les compétences communicatives des écoliers en maternelle (Fioux et Marimoutou), mes recherches sur les « évaluations » locales menées jusque-là révèlent en effet que les chercheurs ne disposent d'aucun bilan relativement détaillé des compétences linguistiques actuelles des enfants réunionnais, d'une part en français, avant le passage au français écrit, après trois années de scolarisation pourtant explicitement axées sur l'acquisition des bases du français oral, et d'autre part en créole . Tout aussi déconcertant, eu égard aux enjeux scolaires, il apparaît qu'on ne dispose pas non plus d'outils d'évaluation pensés pour la situation locale, donc adaptés pour le recueil et l'analyse de ces compétences linguistiques orales auprès de jeunes enfants, alors qu'on se trouve dans une ancienne colonie française présentant une situation sociolinguistique ancrée dans la diglossie. Sur quelle base peut-on alors s'appuyer pour affirmer que les élèves réunionnais d'aujourd'hui, qu'on qualifie en masse de « créolophones », possèdent de solides compétences linguistiques en créole et des lacunes en français lorsqu'ils s'engagent dans le processus d'apprentissage systématique de la lecture ? C'est à partir de ces questionnements et de ces constats que j'ébauche une première circonscription de l'objectif de mon travail. Il s'agit de poser les prolégomènes d'une évaluation bilan, linguistique, comparée, en créole et en français, dont les soubassements méthodologiques seraient explicités, argumentés, mais aussi contextualisés et actualisés pour un public d'apprenants en fin de grande section de maternelle à La Réunion. Le but est de doter les didacticiens des langues œuvrant pour et auprès de petits écoliers réunionnais d'un outil suffisamment fin pour permettre d'enrichir la réflexion sur les stratégies d'enseignement/apprentissage du français, « éventuellement » à partir des acquis de ces élèves en créole. Bien que s'inscrivant en amont de l'acte d'évaluer, les délimitations que je propose d'établir font partie intégrante du processus d'évaluation. Plus précisément, il s'agit concrètement de construire un référentiel d'évaluation opérationnel présentant des critères d'évaluation, des normes de références et des épreuves pré-testées auprès d'un échantillon d'enfants de grande section, en français et en créole. Une fois ce dessein explicité, je pose les paramètres liminaires de ce processus d'évaluation. Le concevant avant tout comme « une réflexion sur les rapports aux valeurs », je me positionne alors, après une approche épistémologique de cet acte non anodin, en faveur d'une évaluation qui fasse sens. Suivant notamment Hadji, Lecointe, Bonniol et Vial ou encore Ardoino et Berger sur leurs remises en cause de la technicité de la docimologie à la recherche d'une objectivité illusoire, j'entreprends, comme eux, de déplacer la priorité de la justesse des résultats vers la logique et la transparence d'un processus objectivisé, amenant à un résultat pertinent qu'on peut comprendre, situer, relativiser en fonction d'une grille de lecture transparente et des intentions qui la sous-tendent. Pour ce faire, j'emprunte alors aux sciences de l'éducation, et notamment à G. Figari, le concept de référentialisation, au triple statut, opératoire, méthodologique et scientifique. S'ils ont été pensés originellement pour mener des évaluations de dispositifs (établissements scolaires, dispositifs de formation, curricula, etc.), je montre que les principes généraux de la référentialisation s'avèrent en réalité tout à fait transposables à l'étude que je mène. Nantie de ce fil rouge, ma référentialisation commence, dans une première étape, par un travail de réflexivité, pour tenter d'expliciter et situer ma propre posture de conceptrice d'évaluation, qui m'engage dans une responsabilité éthique. Il s'agit avant tout de prendre du recul sur le pouvoir détenu et auquel je suis soumise dans ce travail de recueil et d'utilisation d'une information à valeur sociale. Je m'attèle donc à poser et comprendre les enjeux sociaux et individuels liés à cet acte, mais également, en référence à la subjectivité inhérente à toute recherche en sciences humaines (de Robillard), à m'auto-positionner par rapport à mes propres représentations et inclinations concernant le choix d'une activité de référentialisation. Une deuxième étape découlant de la première me permet par ailleurs de préciser mes intentions dans cette évaluation. Après une revue des cheminements qui me sont offerts, j'en conclus qu'en rapport avec les objectifs visés, celles-ci se rapprochent au final plus de l'évaluation-appréciation que de l'évaluation-mesure et m'amènent à privilégier une approche qualitative.PARTIE 2 : la deuxième partie de ma thèse, qui relate la phase exploratoire de ma référentialisation, est entièrement dédiée à l'étape de la modélisation de mon objet d'évaluation. Je rends tout d'abord compte des investigations théoriques que j'ai menées afin de circonscrire l'objet à évaluer, à savoir l'objet langue. Il s'agit dans un premier temps de me positionner dans le débat sur la/les (im)possibilité(s) de délimitation de frontières entre créole et français, qui oppose structuralistes et variationnistes, et même variationnistes entre eux. J'aborde, pour ce faire, l'histoire du contact des langues de La Réunion, de la société de plantation à la société départementalisée, et confronte les concepts qui ont servi de filtres pour décrire le contact de langues créole/français (diglossie, continuum, interlecte, macrosystème). J'en viens finalement à trouver dans les arguments de de Robillard, dans sa réflexion plus large sur la définition d'une langue, les bases qui me poussent à adopter, pour les besoins précis de l'évaluation que je vise, une conception solide de la langue, amenant à voir le créole et le français sous un angle binarisé.Pour autant, je n'abandonne pas l'étude des phénomènes de mélanges relevés par les enseignants réunionnais chez leurs élèves et que d'aucuns (didacticiens et pédagogues) encensent comme un atout ou, au contraire, fustigent comme un handicap, voire associent à la manifestation d'un « semi-linguisme », comparativement aux discours de monolingues. Si mon inclination pour la sociolinguistique m'amène à voir les mélanges comme un quelconque mode discursif dans leur répertoire langagier et à réfuter un traitement des mélanges du point de vue de parasitages, la question que je me pose en tant que didacticienne cherchant à améliorer le processus d'enseignement/apprentissage du français est la suivante : en fin de compte, comment permettre à des évaluateurs de déterminer, indépendamment d'une reconnaissance de la capacité linguistique et pragmatique de ces jeunes élèves à "jongler" avec deux codes pour arriver à communiquer, si les mélanges effectués sont indicateurs :-de tactiques de « compensation » de lacunes dans l'une et/ou l'autre langue (les compétences étant alors meilleures dans une langue que dans l'autre ou insuffisantes dans les deux langues),-ou d'une « maîtrise » relativement bonne des deux codes (les compétences étant bonnes dans une langue comme dans l'autre), ce qui appelle des remédiations et/ou des pistes pédagogiques différentes ? Je décide dans cette optique d'établir l'état des lieux des recherches axées sur l'évaluation langagière et linguistique de « bilingues ». Je m'intéresse notamment aux traitements de la problématique des mélanges, des plus « fermés » (cf. les travaux de Titone, Fioux, Genelot et al.), aux plus « ouverts » (cf. les travaux de Moore, Cavalli, Stubbe et Peña.). En les soupesant en regard de mes objectifs, il m'apparaît alors que, pour mon type d'évaluation comparée, requérant des langues cibles bien distinctes, l'approche binarisée qui peut répondre à mes questions de départ s'avère pertinente. Poursuivant mes investigations théoriques, j'affine mon cadre de recherche en déterminant ce que sous-entend être un bon locuteur d'une langue. En abordant les notions de compétence vs performance, en passant en revue les points de vue de didacticiens des langues (Canale et Swain, De Pietro, Cuq, Beacco, Springer, Castellotti,.), d'interactionnistes (Hymes, Vasseur), de psycholinguistes (Lentin, Florin, Gombert.), de pédagogues (Boisseau), de chercheurs spécialisés dans l'évaluation du langage (Rondal, Comblain, Piérart, Muller.), mais aussi en prenant en considération les directives en matière de maîtrise du langage (Ministère de l'Education Nationale) et les préconisations concernant l'appropriation des langues étrangères (Conseil de l'Europe), je décide de centrer mon référentiel sur l'évaluation des compétences morphosyntaxiques, et de privilégier aussi bien le recueil d'échantillons de langage provoqué que de langage spontané.Ma phase exploratoire comprend également des investigations de terrain. Je commence par décrire les lieux d'enquête (situés en grande partie auprès d'élèves bénédictins de grande section de maternelle mais également au Tampon et à Pau), l'échantillonnage (choix des écoles, des classes, des enfants) et les moyens dont j'ai usés (démarche ethnologique, interactions filmées, activités réalisées, protocoles suivis). En sus de me fournir une meilleure connaissance des caractéristiques de ces jeunes témoins, grâce notamment à une observation participante, et de tester la pertinence de différents supports, tâches, approches d'évaluation et de systèmes de transcription de la parole interlectale, je montre que ce travail de terrain me permet de faire plusieurs constats qui corroborent l'hypothèse que j'avais formulée lors de mes investigations théoriques. En croisant divers facteurs saillants que j'ai pu relever, tels que les pratiques langagières (que j'étiquette sans hiérarchie « bi-linguisme », « mix-linguisme », « dominance en créole » et « dominance en français »), les représentations linguistiques, les attitudes face à la norme scolaire et la capacité à discriminer les deux codes linguistiques, aussi bien par les témoins que par moi-même dans le rôle d'évaluateur, j'ai pu en effet mesurer, parallèlement à des résultats prometteurs, la complexité et les limites d'une évaluation binarisée en termes de recueil et d'analyse de données, notamment lorsque l'évaluateur est face à certains profils langagiers d'enfants dans ce contexte de contact de langues proches. En effet, si une appréhension binaire, volontairement et « classiquement » lissée pour des besoins didactiques semble convenir pour évaluer, comparer la qualité des compétences d'enfants en créole et en français, le contexte local de contact de langues proches, empreint de représentations diglossiques et loin de se restreindre à des pratiques binaires bien délimitées et délimitables, m'amène à penser qu'un référentiel de ce type est susceptible d'avoir une portée limitée. C'est une hypothèse qu'il m'appartiendra alors de vérifier dans la suite de mon travail.PARTIE 3 : éclairée d'une meilleure connaissance du potentiel, des bornes et des astreintes concrètes d'une approche binarisée, l'étape suivante de ma référentialisation s'engage sur le choix des critères et des indicateurs qui permettront d'évaluer de jeunes enfants non lecteurs, à l'oral, en français et en créole. Ceci fait l'objet de la troisième partie de mon tapuscrit.Avant d'entrer dans le vif du sujet, je commence par un préambule indispensable, il me semble, sur les rapports de force en jeu dans l'activité normative (entre prescription et description, priorités, relativité et arbitraire, légitimité(s).). Sur ce sujet sensible, soumis à de fortes polémiques, aussi bien dans la communauté scientifique de manière générale que parmi les locuteurs évoluant dans la communauté réunionnaise, je présente dans une posture double de sociolinguiste et de didacticienne, mon propre positionnement par rapport à la notion de « norme(s) ». Pour que ma démarche soit mieux comprise et parce que je juge essentielle cette prise de recul face à un concept marginalisant souvent celui/celle qui y a recours (en dehors des praticiens), je pose explicitement le caractère relatif, construit et pourtant nécessaire, dans mon cas, de la norme pour ce référentiel. J'explique par ailleurs également ma légitimité de conceptrice de références normatives d'un point de vue variationniste, dans le cadre théorique choisi pour ce travail d'évaluation. Pour construire les références normatives de mon outil, le protocole méthodologique que je décide d'emprunter est le suivant :1.partir de descriptions déjà consignées des usages,-en créole (n'existent alors que des articles scientifiques, des grammaires, des dictionnaires qui ne décrivent que les normes d'usage d'adultes (Staudacher, Watbled, Chaudenson, Ramassamy, Cellier.)),-et en français (comprenant les travaux sur le français standard (Riegel et al., Arrivé et al., Wagner et Pinchon.), le français parlé (Gadet, Blanche-Benvéniste, Sauvageot.), le français régional (Carayol, Ledegen, Béniamino et Baggioni), le français parlé par les enfants (Florin, Boisseau, Comblain.)), 2.synthétiser et confronter ces travaux, non seulement entre eux mais également à mes propres recherches et compétences de locutrice native sur les items morphosyntaxiques en question, 3.afin de pouvoir procéder ensuite à un choix de critères, dont la pertinence sera à chaque fois justifiée, pour le langage provoqué et le langage spontané, 4. proposer des normes de références (indicateurs) permettant d'évaluer ces critères. Pour le créole, s'agissant à ce stade de normes provisoires,5.ajuster, actualiser ces dernières pour un public de jeunes enfants, en analysant le discours spontané en créole d'enfants réunionnais de maternelle (les « informateurs de référence»), dominants en créole ou bi-lingues.Un peu plus de trois centaines de pages de mon tapuscrit rendent compte de l'élaboration et du choix de ces critères et de ces indicateurs. Elles laissent rapidement voir un déséquilibre manifeste tant qualitatif que quantitatif entre l'état des connaissances en créole et en français. Dans un travail de grammairienne, descriptive mais également prescriptive, qui doit trier et compléter, pour le créole, des descriptions existantes certes intéressantes mais souvent contradictoires, délestées des variétés émergentes et complètement lacunaires en ce qui concerne les formes enfantines, j'aborde l'actualisation du thème verbal (système flexionnel, système analytique, indice i, règles de troncation), les pronoms personnels, la valence des thèmes verbaux, la modalité interrogative et la modalité négative. PARTIE 4 : la quatrième et dernière partie de ma référentialisation est d'abord consacrée à prendre la mesure des paramètres généraux de la conception de tâches d'évaluation et du recueil de données pour et auprès d'enfants. Suite à une revue de la littérature sur le sujet (notamment les travaux de Rondal, Moreau et Richelle, Khomsi, Florin, Brédart, Gombert, Marquillo.), je mets alors en avant deux considérations relatives aux critères de pertinence et de validité dans une évaluation, lors du recueil de données. Elles concernent les types d'activités généralement proposées dans les évaluations langagières (compréhension, production, détection et correction d'énoncés), et les tâches permettant de recueillir des comportements observables (avec un centrage sur leurs portées, biais, supports et consignes). Je clôture cette revue en apportant mes propres remarques, critiques et impressions sur l'expérience d'élaboration d'outils de recueil de données que j'ai pu développer sur le terrain réunionnais.Dans un deuxième temps, je présente et commente les épreuves pilotes que j'ai pré-testées auprès d'une centaine d'enfants de grande section, lors de séances d'évaluation individuelles, filmées et analysées.Cette banque d'épreuves est composée de 39 fiches classées selon qu'il s'agit d'évaluer des compétences en créole, des compétences en français ou des compétences « bilingues » (traduction, discrimination codique). Ces fiches présentent les tâches d'évaluation que j'ai élaborées et dont j'ai pré-testé la faisabilité, la pertinence et la sensibilité. Elles détaillent, pour chaque item syntaxique évalué, les critères pris en considération, le type d'activité choisi, les performances attendues, les supports de l'épreuve, les indications sur son organisation, les consignes, mais également les énoncés-amorces éventuellement prévus pour l'évaluateur, une analyse d'exemples de réponses "correctes" et "incorrectes" recueillis auprès des témoins pré-testés, et enfin des commentaires généraux sur l'épreuve en question (difficultés, variantes, précautions.). CONCLUSION : mon tapuscrit se clôt par une conclusion générale. Celle-ci synthétise tout d'abord les différentes étapes de ma référentialisation ainsi que leurs résultats, et revient sur les améliorations qui pourraient y être apportées. Elle présente dans un deuxième temps les apports de ce travail de recherche, qui soulève aussi des questionnements et permet de faire des propositions.Les apports comprennent notamment : -Une recherche théorique mais également de terrain auprès d'une centaine d'enfants réunionnais qui permet la mise à disposition d'un outil d'évaluation opératoire, adapté aux caractéristiques de petits écoliers réunionnais de grande section de maternelle et proposant des tâches détaillées, éprouvées et des repères normatifs concrets. Ces fiches sont utilisables en l'état, au final autant par des chercheurs en didactique des langues que par des praticiens, amenés à évaluer des compétences grammaticales orales de jeunes enfants à La Réunion.-De manière générale, un éclairage méthodologique concernant le recueil et l'analyse de données orales auprès de jeunes écoliers non lecteurs dans un contexte diglossique, et dans une situation de contact de langues proches.-Un enrichissement des travaux de description synchronique de la morphosyntaxe du français, mais surtout du créole de La Réunion, notamment :»par la prise en compte des variations intrasystémiques et intersystémiques (les formes émergentes actuelles dues à la dynamique interne du créole et au contact avec le français, les formes enfantines, le langage des jeunes), »par l'approche synthétique adoptée (analyse comparée de travaux, élaboration de tableaux récapitulatifs).Mais ce travail de référentialisation soulève également des questionnements pour la recherche, sur plusieurs points :Sur le plan didactique : -Cette étude montrant l'indispensable prise en compte des représentations linguistiques, des pratiques langagières, des compétences pragmatiques des élèves lors du processus de recueil de données orales, quelle validité, quelle pertinence peuvent avoir des évaluations lissées, hermétiques à la situation de contact de langues proches et aux spécificités des enfants réunionnais, comme les évaluations académiques en français, duplications d'évaluations métropolitaines a-contextualisées, conçues pour un public monolingue déjà francophone ?-Quelle pertinence ont les propositions d'exploitation didactique et explicite, « en l'état », du créole « L1 » comme tremplin pour atteindre le français L2, alors que les pré-tests menés lors de ma recherche laissent déjà entrevoir certes une majorité de témoins présentant des compétences grammaticales de base en français lacunaires, mais également des écoliers (même dominants créolophones), rencontrant des difficultés d'expression, voire de compréhension, en créole ?-La plupart des descriptions grammaticales actuellement disponibles ne prenant guère en compte les variations intra- et intersystémiques du créole, n'y aurait-il pas des répercussions sur la portée des propositions didactiques pour l'enseignement du français en partenariat avec le créole ? Sur le plan des recherches sur l'évaluation linguistique : -La perspective binaire choisie dans ce travail, jugée pertinente pour comparer des compétences linguistiques en créole et en français, présente des limites et ne peut notamment prendre en considération, en l'état, tous les profils langagiers d'enfants (par exemple, les mix-lingues non-discriminants). Au-delà d'une évaluation créole/français, quelle alternative avons-nous pour apprécier les compétences linguistiques, notamment morpho-syntaxiques, de ces enfants dont la parole tellement (a)maillée et sans « langue » cible ne peut être analysée dans ce cadre ? Faut-il mesurer ces compétences « bilingues » pour elles-mêmes, sans référence au créole et au français, comme tentent de le faire de manière relativement marginale certains chercheurs dans d'autres contextes linguistiques (ex : Stubbe et Peña pour des bilingues américano-hispanophones aux Etats-Unis) ? Mais ce qui semble possible pour des langues « non collatérales » l'est-il pour des langues génétiquement et structurellement proches ? En effet, une évaluation bilingue prenant comme référence normative la morphosyntaxe de l'ensemble du macrosystème réunionnais, donc une langue « fluide », où l'évaluateur ne dispose pas de normes de référence explicitées/explicitables a priori et donc justifiées/justifiables, est-elle envisageable ? Bien qu'elle laisse voir sa pertinence sur le plan pédagogique, et réponde au critère de recherche de sens, comment justifierait-elle son objectivisation lorsque l'évaluateur ne fait que « « (re)sentir » que ça se dit » et donc détient en lui-même des règles « mouvantes », insaisissables de locuteur natif de l'interlecte ? Comment gérer cette incontournable implication dérogeant aux bases de toute évaluation, lorsque les références normatives sont intériorisées et a priori non externalisables ?Ce travail de recherche permet enfin d'émettre des préconisations et propositions pour des pistes de travail concernant la didactique du français en partenariat avec le créole : -S'attacher à identifier les conditions de conscientisation des codes par des enfants actuellement discriminants (sans guidage scolaire), pour l'étude de pistes permettant aux écoliers, dès la petite section, de discriminer des traits prototypiques du créole et du français.-Prendre davantage en considération l'hétérogénéité des profils langagiers des enfants réunionnais qui ne sont pas à considérer comme une masse linguistiquement homogène (même dans les écoles de quartiers dits défavorisés) et continuer la réflexion sur la prise en compte du macrosystème langagier réunionnais.-Compléter les recherches sur le créole parlé actuellement par la population réunionnaise (enfants, jeunes, adultes) et ouvrir ces descriptions à toutes les variations.-Briser le caractère ésotérique des ouvrages de descriptions grammaticales actuels et encourager la publication d'ouvrages de vulgarisation, non puristes, « accessibles » au public des étudiants (futurs enseignants) en formation mais également à celui des enseignants déjà en poste.-Prendre davantage en compte et faire évoluer les représentations négatives de la population locale (notamment les parents d'élèves), concernant le partenariat (direct ou indirect) avec le créole. Ce sujet faisant l'objet de fortes tensions sur le terrain scolaire, étudier des possibilités d'approches alternatives (exploitation du médium télévisuel, création/exploitation de structures éducatives parallèles comme des associations de type « ti lékol maron » ou des centres de loisirs), privilégiant la maîtrise du langage avec un aspect ludique, dans un contexte « apaisé ».

The aim of this report is to provide a broad overview of the current state of gender equality in Tajikistan. While the Europe and Central Asia (ECA) region traditionally surpassed many other regions in terms of gender equality, this advantage has been eroding in recent decades. Particularly in Tajikistan, concerns have been raised that men and women have unequally born the consequences of economic, political, and social transitions after independence in 1991. The report examines several dimensions of gender equality both quantitatively and qualitatively. Tajikistan has set up a legal framework that enshrines principles of equality and non-discrimination, but better implementation results require continued efforts. Prevailing social norms and patriarchal systems of decision-making limit women s ability to make effective choices be it at home or at work. The paper is structured along the following lines. The first section introduces the idea of agency that will remain an important issue throughout the report. This is followed by an analysis of disparities in human capital endowment, including health and education. Gender gaps in the Tajik labor market and entrepreneurial activities of men and women are discussed in the fourth and fifth section. The final section concludes with some policy recommendations that might be beneficial for discussions among policy-makers, civil society actors, and development partners.

Special economic zones can be an effective instrument to promote industrialization if implemented properly in the right context. In China, starting in the 1980s, special economic zones were used as a testing ground for the country's transition from a planned to a market economy, and they are a prime example of China's pragmatic and experimental approach to reforms. One of the great special economic zone success stories in China is the Suzhou Industrial Park, a modern industrial township developed in the early 1990s through a Sino-Singapore partnership. It is successful not just in the economic sense, but also in terms of urban and social development in an eco-friendly way. One key lesson is that in a weak market environment, a facilitating and reform-oriented host government, coupled with foreign expertise and knowledge as well as a "whole value chain" approach can go a long way in developing urban-industry well-integrated special economic zones. This paper is intended to examine the success factors and key lessons of the Sino-Singapore Suzhou Industrial Park, which can be useful for other developing countries.

The political and security transition continues to take a heavy toll on Afghanistan's economy. Economic growth is estimated to have fallen further to 2 percent in 2014 from 3.7 percent in 2013 and an average of 9 percent during 2003-12. Political uncertainty combined with weak reform progress dealt a further blow in 2014 to investor and consumer confidence, already in a slump from uncertainty building since 2013. As a result, growth in the non-agricultural sectors (manufacturing, construction, and services) is estimated to have fallen further in 2014. The agricultural harvest in 2014 was strong for the third year in a row, but was up only marginally from the bumper year of 2012. Agriculture benefited from robust cereals production thanks both to well distributed, timely rainfall and an increase in irrigated area for wheat cultivation. The growth outlook for 2015 remains weak. Afghanistan faces the dual challenge of restoring confidence in its economic prospects and addressing formidable medium term development challenges. The new government articulated its development vision and a bold reform program through its paper 'realizing self-reliance: commitments to reforms and renewed partnership' presented at the London Conference on Afghanistan in December 2014. The paper presents the government's plans for tackling corruption and building better governance, restoring fiscal sustainability, bolstering private sector confidence, promoting growth, and improving security and political stability. Successful implementation of this bold reform program under difficult circumstances is the major challenge facing Afghanistan.

The state-owned enterprise (SOE) landscape has become increasingly diverse. There used to be some relatively well-defined criteria, but with the growing complexity of state participation in the economy, there is no longer a uniform definition, and especially because the definition of a SOE has always been country-specific. SOE reforms can have major positive impacts not only by reducing fiscal risks by decreasing hidden subsidies, direct transfers, and overstaffing, but also by strengthening competition and developing capital markets. SOE reforms in developing countries began in the 1960s because of the poor performance of many of the SOEs. The reform movement sought to strengthen the internal capacity of SOEs. To enrich the discussion about possible avenues for performance-enhancing SOE reforms, this report presents the main principles of good governance of SOEs with references to the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) guidelines on corporate governance of SOEs (OECD 2005). This document is divided into six parts: (1) an effective legal and regulatory framework for SOEs; (2) the state as an owner; (3) equitable treatment of shareholders; (4) relations with stakeholders; (5) transparency and disclosure; and (6) the responsibilities of the boards of SOEs.

Real gross domestic product (GDP) growth, which was estimated at 7 percent in 2009, is expected to increase to 7.8 percent in 2010 driven largely by resource sectors. Out of this growth of 7.8 percent, around 3.3 percentage points comes from power sector (mainly NT2 - nearly 3 percentage points), 0.9 percentage points from agriculture, around 0.4 percentage points for each of mining and construction, 0.8 percentage points from manufacturing and about 1.7 percentage points from services sector (tourism and retail trade, financial sector services as a result of the recent sharp increases in bank lending, and transport and telecommunication services). Real gross national income (GNI) is expected to slow to nearly 6 percent this year compared to 9.5 percent in 2009 due to significant outflows of income (profit repatriation and interest payment) from resources sectors (mining and hydropower). Although international reserves remained fairly stable during the last six months, net foreign assets dropped by 25 percent. Gross official Reserves at the Bank of Lao PDR were estimated at about $635 million during Oct 2009-Mar 2010 of which $65 million can be attributed to an increase in the International Monetary Fund's (IMF's) SDR allocation in late 2009 and $63 million have been borrowed from domestic banks through sales of foreign currency denominated bonds by the Bank of Lao (BoL). Net foreign assets declined by 25 percent in 2009 and 23 percent in Mar 2010 due to rapid credit expansion and import growth. The current account deficit is projected to decline from 10.6 percent of GDP in 2009 to 7.7 percent in 2010 supported by strong export growth, and in particular NT2 exports of electricity to Thailand. The capital account surplus is expected to decrease slightly from 10.6 percent of GDP in 2009 to 10.1 percent this year although FDI started to rebound. The overall balance is likely to turn into surplus in 2010 to about 2.4 percent of GDP. Credit grew rapidly in 2009 and in the first quarter of 2010 but is expected to slow by end?2010. Credits grew by about 90 percent last year and during Jan-Mar 2010 partly due to BOL's direct lending to local projects to finance public infrastructure and associated imports (about 22 percentage points of total credit growth). As the Government of Lao (GOL) made a decision to stop quasi?fiscal activities in September 2009 and bank liquidity tightened (loan to deposit ratio increased significantly to 73 percent by end-2009 from 55 percent in 2008), credit growth is expected to slow in 2010.

A1 Predictive and prognostic biomarker panel for targeted application of radioembolisation improving individual outcomes in hepatocellular carcinoma, Jella-Andrea Abraham, Olga Golubnitschaja, A2 Integrated market access approach amplifying value of "Rx-CDx", Ildar Akhmetov, A3 Disaster response: an opportunity to improve global healthcare, Russell J. Andrews, Leonidas Quintana, A4 USA PPPM: proscriptive, profligate, profiteering medicine-good for 1 % wealthy, not for 99 % unhealthy, Russell J. Andrews, A5 The role of IDO in a murine model of gingivitis: predictive and therapeutic potentials, Babak Baban, Jun Yao Liu, Xu Qin, Tailing Wang, Mahmood S. Mozaffari, A6 Specific diets for personalised treatment of diabetes type 2, Viktoriia V. Bati, Tamara V. Meleshko, Olga B. Levchuk, Nadiya V. Boyko, A7 Towards personalized physiotherapeutic approach, Joanna Bauer, Ewa Boerner, Halina Podbielska, A8 Cells, animal, SHIME and in silico models for detection and verification of specific biomarkers of non-communicable chronic diseases, Alojz Bomba, Viktor O. Petrov, Volodymyr G. Drobnych, Rostyslav V. Bubnov, Oksana M. Bykova, Nadiya V. Boyko, A9 INTERACT-chronic care model: Self-treatment by patients with decision support e-Health solution, Hans-Peter Brunner-La Rocca, Lutz Fleischhacker, Olga Golubnitschaja, Frank Heemskerk, Thomas Helms, Tiny Jaarsma, Judita Kinkorova, Jan Ramaekers, Peter Ruff, Ivana Schnur, Emilio Vanoli, Jose Verdu, A10 PPPM in cardiovascular medicine in 2015, Hans-Peter Brunner-La Rocca, A11 Magnetic resonance imaging of nanoparticles in mice, potential for theranostic and contrast media development – pilot results, Rostyslav V. Bubnov, Sergiy A. Grabovetskyi, Olena M. Mykhalchenko, Natalia O. Tymoshok, Oleksandr B. Shcherbakov, Igor P. Semeniv, Mykola Y. Spivak, A12 Ultrasound diagnosis for diabetic neuropathy - comparative study, Rostyslav V. Bubnov, Tetyana V. Ostapenko, A13 Ultrasound for stratification patients with diabetic foot ulcers for prevention and personalized treatment - pilot results, Rostyslav V. Bubnov, Nazarii M. Kobyliak, Nadiya M. Zholobak, Mykola Ya. Spivak, A14 Project ImaGenX – designing and executing a questionnaire on environment and lifestyle risk of breast cancer, John Paul Cauchi, A15 Genomics – a new structural brand of predictive, preventive and personalized medicine or the new driver as well?, Dmitrii Cherepakhin, Marina Bakay, Artem Borovikov, Sergey Suchkov, A16 Survey of questionnaires for evaluation of the quality of life in various medical fields, Barbara Cieślik, Agnieszka Migasiewicz, Maria-Luiza Podbielska, Markus Pelleter, Agnieszka Giemza, Halina Podbielska, A17 Personalized molecular treatment for muscular dystrophies, Sebahattin Cirak, A18 Secondary mutations in circulating tumour DNA for acquired drug resistance in patients with advanced ALK + NSCLC, Marzia Del Re, Paola Bordi, Valentina Citi, Marta Palombi, Carmine Pinto, Marcello Tiseo, Romano Danesi, A19 Recombinant species-specific FcεRI alpha proteins for diagnosis of IgE-mediated allergies in dogs, cats and horses, Lukas Einhorn, Judit Fazekas, Martina Muhr, Alexandra Schoos, Lucia Panakova, Ina Herrmann, Krisztina Manzano-Szalai, Kumiko Oida, Edda Fiebiger, Josef Singer, Erika Jensen-Jarolim, A20 Global methodology for developmental neurotoxicity testing in humans and animals early and chronically exposed to chemical contaminants, Arpiné A. Elnar, Nadia Ouamara, Nadiya Boyko, Xavier Coumoul, Jean-Philippe Antignac, Bruno Le Bizec, Gauthier Eppe, Jenny Renaut, Torsten Bonn, Cédric Guignard, Margherita Ferrante, Maria Liusa Chiusano, Salvatore Cuzzocrea, Gerard O'Keeffe, John Cryan, Michelle Bisson, Amina Barakat, Ihsane Hmamouchi, Nasser Zawia, Anumantha Kanthasamy, Glen E. Kisby, Rui Alves, Oscar Villacañas Pérez, Kim Burgard, Peter Spencer, Norbert Bomba, Martin Haranta, Nina Zaitseva, Irina May, Stéphanie Grojean, Mathilde Body-Malapel, Florencia Harari, Raul Harari, Kristina Yeghiazaryan, Olga Golubnitschaja, Vittorio Calabrese, Christophe Nemos, Rachid Soulimani, A21 Mental indicators at young people with attributes hypertension and pre-hypertension, Maria E. Evsevyeva, Elena A. Mishenko, Zurida V. Kumukova, Evgeniy V. Chudnovsky, Tatyana A. Smirnova, A22 On the approaches to the early diagnosis of stress-induced hypertension in young employees of State law enforcement agencies, Maria E. Evsevyeva, Ludmila V. Ivanova, Michail V. Eremin, Maria V. Rostovtseva, A23 Сentral aortic pressure and indexes of augmentation in young persons in view of risk factors, Maria E. Evsevyeva, Michail V. Eremin, Vladimir I. Koshel, Oksana V. Sergeeva, Nadesgda M. Konovalova, A24 Breast cancer prediction and prevention: Are reliable biomarkers in horizon?, Shantanu Girotra, Olga Golubnitschaja, A25 Flammer Syndrome and potential formation of pre-metastatic niches: A multi-centred study on phenotyping, patient stratification, prediction and potential prevention of aggressive breast cancer and metastatic disease, Olga Golubnitschaja, Manuel Debald, Walther Kuhn, Kristina Yeghiazaryan, Rostyslav V. Bubnov, Vadym M. Goncharenko, Ulyana Lushchyk, Godfrey Grech, Katarzyna Konieczka, A26 Innovative tools for prenatal diagnostics and monitoring: improving individual pregnancy outcomes and health-economy in EU, Olga Golubnitschaja, Jan Jaap Erwich, Vincenzo Costigliola, Kristina Yeghiazaryan, Ulrich Gembruch, A27 Immunohistochemical assessment of APUD cells in endometriosis, Vadym M. Goncharenko, Vasyl O. Beniuk, Olga V. Kalenska, Rostyslav V. Bubnov, A28 Updating personalized management algorithm of endometrial hyperplasia in pre-menopause women, Vadym M. Goncharenko, Vasyl O. Beniuk, Rostyslav V. Bubnov, Olga Melnychuk, A29 The personified treatment approach of polimorbid patients with periodontal inflammatory diseases, Irina A. Gorbacheva, Lyudmila Y. Orekhova, Vadim V. Tachalov, A30 Ukrainian experience in hybrid war – the challenge to update algorithms for personalized care and early prevention of different military injuries, Olena I. Grechanyk, Rizvan Ya. Abdullaiev, Rostyslav V. Bubnov, A31 Tear fluid biomarkers: a comparison of tear fluid sampling and storage protocols, Suzanne Hagan, Eilidh Martin, Ian Pearce, Katherine Oliver, A32 The correlation of dietary habits with gingival problems during menstruation, Cenk Haytac, Fariz Salimov, Servin Yoksul, Anatoly A. Kunin, Natalia S. Moiseeva, A33 Genomic medicine in a contemporary Spanish population of prostate cancer: our experience, Bernardo Herrera-Imbroda, Sergio del Río-González, Maria Fernanda Lara, Antonia Angulo, Francisco Javier Machuca Santa-Cruz, A34 Challenges, opportunities and collaborations for personalized medicine applicability in uro-oncological disease, Bernardo Herrera-Imbroda, Sergio del Río-González, Maria Fernanda Lara, A35 Metabolic hallmarks of cancer as targets for a personalized therapy, John Ionescu, A36 Influence of genetic polymorphism as a predictor of the development of periodontal disease in patients with gastric ulcer and 12 duodenal ulcer, Alfiya Z. Isamulaeva, Anatoly A. Kunin, Shamil Sh. Magomedov, Aida I. Isamulaeva, A37 Challenges in diabetic macular edema, Tatjana Josifova, A38 Overview of the EPMA strategies in laboratory medicine relevant for PPPM, Marko Kapalla, Juraj Kubáň, Olga Golubnitschaja, Vincenzo Costigliola, A39 EPMA initiative for effective organization of medical travel: European concepts and criteria, Vincenzo Costigliola, Marko Kapalla, Juraj Kubáň, Olga Golubnitschaja, A40 Design and innovation in e-textiles: implications for PPPM, Anthony Kent, Tom Fisher, Tilak Dias, A41 Biobank in Pilsen as a member of national node BBMRI_CZ, Judita Kinkorová, Ondřej Topolčan, A42 Big data in personalized medicine: hype and hope, Matthias Kohl, A43 The 3P approach as the platform of the European Dentistry Department (DPPPD), Anatoly A. Kunin, Natalia S. Moiseeva, A44 The endometrium cytokine patterns for predictive diagnosis of proliferation severity and cancer prevention, Andrii I. Kurchenko, Vasyl A. Beniuk, Vadym M. Goncharenko, Rostyslav V. Bubnov, Nadiya V. Boyko, Andriy M. Strokan, A45 A monocyte-based in-vitro system for testing individual responses to the implanted material: future for personalized implant construction, Julia Kzhyshkowska, Alexandru Gudima, Ksenia S. Stankevich, Victor D. Filimonov4, Harald Klüter, Evgeniya M. Mamontova, Sergei I. Tverdokhlebov, A46 Prediction and prevention of adverse health effects by meteorological factors: Biomarker patterns and creation of a device for self-monitoring and integrated care, Ulyana B. Lushchyk, Viktor V. Novytskyy, Igor P. Babii, Nadiya G. Lushchyk, Lyudmyla S. Riabets, Ivanna I. Legka, A47 Targeting "disease signatures" towards personalized healthcare, Mira Marcus-Kalish, Alexis Mitelpunkt, Tal Galili, Neta Shachar, Yoav Benjamini, A48 Influence of the skin imperfection on the personal quality of life and possible tools for objective diagnosis, Agnieszka Migasiewicz, Markus Pelleter, Joanna Bauer, Ewelina Dereń, Halina Podbielska, A49 The new direction in caries prevention based on the ultrastructure of dental hard tissues and filling materials, Natalia S. Moiseeva, Anatoly A. Kunin, Dmitry A. Kunin, A50 The use of LED radiation in prevention of dental diseases, Natalia S. Moiseeva, Yury A. Ippolitov, Dmitry A. Kunin, Alexei N. Morozov, Natalia V. Chirkova, Nakhid T. Aliev, A51 Status of endothelial progenitor cells in diabetic nephropathy: predictive and preventive potentials, Mahmood S. Mozaffari, Jun Yao Liu, Babak Baban, A52 The status of glucocorticoid-induced leucine zipper protein in salivary gland in Sjögren's syndrome: predictive and personalized treatment potentials, Mahmood S. Mozaffari, Jun Yao Liu, Rafik Abdelsayed, Xing-Ming Shi, Babak Baban, A53 Maximal aerobic capacity - important quality marker of health, Jaroslav Novák, Milan Štork, Václav Zeman, A54 The EMPOWER project: laboratory medicine and Horizon 2020, Wytze P. Oosterhuis, Elvar Theodorsson, A55 Personality profile manifestations in patient's attitude to oral care and adherence to doctor's prescriptions, Lyudmila Y. Orekhova, Tatyana V. Kudryavtseva, Elena R. Isaeva, Vadim V. Tachalov, Ekaterina S. Loboda, A56 Results of an European survey on personalized medicine addressed to directions of laboratory medicine, Mario Pazzagli, Francesca Malentacchi, Irene Mancini, Ivan Brandslund, Pieter Vermeersch, Matthias Schwab, Janja Marc, Ron H.N. van Schaik, Gerard Siest, Elvar Theodorsson, Chiara Di Resta, A57 MCI or early dementia predictive speech based diagnosis techniques, Matus Pleva, Jozef Juhar, A58 Personalized speech based mobile application for eHealth, Matus Pleva, Jozef Juhar, A59 Circulating tumor cell-free DNA as the biomarker in the management of cancer patients, Jiří Polívka jr., Filip Janků, Martin Pešta, Jan Doležal, Milena Králíčková, Jiří Polívka, A60 Complex stroke care – educational programme in Stroke Centre University Hospital Plzen, Jiří Polívka, Alena Lukešová, Nina Müllerová, Petr Ševčík, Vladimír Rohan, A61 Sleep apnea and sleep fragmentation contribute to brain aging, Kneginja Richter, Lence Miloseva, Günter Niklewski, A62 Personalised approach for sleep disturbances in shift workers, Kneginja Richter, Jens Acker, Guenter Niklewski, A63 Medical travel and innovative PPPM clusters: new concept of integration, Olga Safonicheva, Vincenzo Costigliola, A64 Medical travel and women health, Olga Safonicheva, A65 Continuity of generations in the training of specialists in the field of reconstructive microsurgery, Maxim Sautin, Janna Sinelnikova, Sergey Suchkov, A66 Telemonitoring of stroke patients – empirical evidence of individual risk management results from an observational study in Germany, Songül Secer, Stephan von Bandemer, A67 Women's increasing breast cancer risk with n-6 fatty acid intake explained by estrogen-fatty acid interactive effect on DNA damage: implications for gender-specific nutrition within personalized medicine, Niva Shapira, A68 Cytobacterioscopy of the gingival crevicular fluid as a method for preventive diagnosis of periodontal diseases, Aleksandr Shcherbakov, Anatoly A. Kunin, Natalia S. Moiseeva, A69 Use of specially treated composites in dentistry to avoid violations of aesthetics, Bogdan R. Shumilovich, Zhanna Lipkind, Yulia Vorobieva, Dmitry A. Kunin, Anastasiia V. Sudareva, A70 National eHealth system – platform for preventive, predictive and personalized diabetes care, Ivica Smokovski, Tatjana Milenkovic, A72 The common energy levels of Prof. Szent-Györgyi, the intrinsic chemistry of melanin, and the muscle physiopathology. Implications in the context of Preventive, Predictive, and Personalized Medicine, Arturo Solís-Herrera, María del Carmen Arias-Esparza, Sergey Suchkov, A73 Plurality and individuality of hepatocellular carcinoma: PPPM perspectives, Krishna Chander Sridhar, Olga Golubnitschaja, A74 Strategic aspects of higher medical education reforms to secure newer educational platforms for getting biopharma professionals matures, Maria Studneva, Sihong Song, James Creeden, Мark Мandrik, Sergey Suchkov, A75 Overview of the strategies and activities of the European Federation of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, (EFLM), Elvar Theodorsson, EFLM, A76 New spectroscopic techniques for point of care label free diagnostics, Syed A. M. Tofail, A77 Tumor markers for personalized medicine and oncology - the role of Laboratory Medicine, Ondřej Topolčan, Judita Kinkorová, Ondřej Fiala, Marie Karlíková, Šárka Svobodová, Radek Kučera, Radka Fuchsová, Vladislav Třeška, Václav Šimánek, Ladislav Pecen, Jan Šoupal, Štěpán Svačina2, A78 Modern medical terminology (MMT) as a driver of the global educational reforms, Evgeniya Tretyak, Maria Studneva, Sergey Suchkov, A79 Juvenile hypertension; the relevance of novel predictive, preventive and personalized assessment of its determinants, Francesca M. Trovato, G. Fabio Martines, Daniela Brischetto, Daniela Catalano, Giuseppe Musumeci, Guglielmo M. Trovato, A80 Proteomarkers Biotech, George Th. Tsangaris, Athanasios K. Anagnostopoulos, A81 Proteomics and mass spectrometry based non-invasive prenatal testing of fetal health and pregnancy complications, George Th. Tsangaris, Athanasios K. Anagnostopoulos, A82 Integrated Ecosystem for an Integrated Care model for Heart Failure (HF) patients including related comorbidities (ZENITH), José Verdú, German Gutiérrez, Jordi Rovira, Marta Martinez, Lutz Fleischhacker, Donna Green, Arthur Garson, Elena Tamburini, Stefano Cuomo, Juan Martinez-Leon, Teresa Abrisqueta, Hans-Peter Brunner-La Rocca, Tiny Jaarsma, Teresa Arredondo, Cecilia Vera, Giuseppe Fico, Olga Golubnitschaja, Fernando Arribas, Martina Onderco, Isabel Vara, on behalf of ZENITH consortium, A83 Predictive, preventive and personalized medicine in diabetes onset and complication (MOSAIC project), José Verdú, Francesco Sambo, Barbara Di Camillo, Claudio Cobelli, Andrea Facchinetti, Giuseppe Fico, Riccardo Bellazzi, Lucia Sacchi, Arianna Dagliati, Daniele Segnani, Valentina Tibollo, Manuel Ottaviano, Rafael Gabriel, Leif Groop, Jacqueline Postma, Antonio Martinez, Liisa Hakaste, Tiinamaija Tuomi, Konstantia Zarkogianni, on behalf of MOSAIC consortium, A84 Possibilities for personalized therapy of diabetes using in vitro screening of insulin and oral hypoglycemic agents, Igor Volchek, Nina Pototskaya, Andrey Petrov, A85 The innovative technology for personalized therapy of human diseases based on in vitro drug screening, Igor Volchek, Nadezhda Pototskaya, Andrey Petrov, A86 Bone destruction and temporomandibular joint: predictive markers, pathogenetic aspects and quality of life, Ülle Voog-Oras, Oksana Jagur, Edvitar Leibur, Priit Niibo, Triin Jagomägi, Minh Son Nguyen, Chris Pruunsild, Dagmar Piikov, Mare Saag, A87 Sub-optimal health management – global vision for concepts in medical travel, Wei Wang, A88 Sub-optimal health management: synergic PPPM-TCAM approach, Wei Wang, A89 Innovative technologies for minimal invasive diagnostics, Andreas Weinhäusel, Walter Pulverer, Matthias Wielscher, Manuela Hofner, Christa Noehammer, Regina Soldo, Peter Hettegger, Istvan Gyurjan, Ronald Kulovics, Silvia Schönthaler, Gabriel Beikircher, Albert Kriegner, Stephan Pabinger, Klemens Vierlinger, A90 Rare disease diobanks for personalized medicine, Ayşe Yüzbaşıoğlu, Meral Özgüç, Member of EuroBioBank - European Network of DNA, Cell and Tissue Banks for Rare Diseases

In: 45th R3Nordic Symposium. Cleanroom Technology, Contamination Control and Cleaning. Wirtanen, Gun & Salo, Satu. VTT Technology 168, 139 - 141 ; Food safety is related to the absence or presence of levels of foodborne hazards in food at the point of consumption. The EC Regulation 852/2004 covers the principal objective of the general hygiene rules to ensure a high level of consumer protection with regard to food safety. However, food safety is the joint responsibility of many people and it is principally ensured through the combined efforts of all the parties in the food chain. Legislative demands set the basic requirements for the manufacturing of safe food products whereas food safety management systems and food safety guidelines and standards based on given legislation help the food industry to keep up with current food safety requirements. Hygiene survey is a practical tool for controlling hygiene in food plants. By using an efficient sampling of the surfaces of the process line, it is possible to reduce the amount of low-quality food leaving the plant. Hygiene survey can include checking of the amount of surface-attached soil including protein, polysaccharides, other organic and inorganic residues, biofilm, dead and/or living microbes in general, or specific pathogens and other harmful microbes. Hygiene survey also helps with tracing contamination sources and in optimising cleaning systems. There are several sources of microbial contamination: raw materials, process equipment, environmental surfaces, air, personnel and the final product. In some cases demands for better hygiene have been made because of prolonged shelf-life of products, centralized production and long-distance transportation, less time spent on cleaning and demands for environmentally safe cleaning agents (Salo, 2006). Quantification of the actual number of microbes from surfaces is difficult due to strong microbial adherence of biofilms. In addition, detection of biofilms using traditional swabbing method often gives incorrect results due to strong microbial adherence. Most techniques underestimate the number of microbes on a surface. Hygiene surveys from surfaces are challenging; the measuring should be quickly performed, directly from the surface and without damaging the surface, and the microbes need to be detached completely. However, it is difficult to measure biofilm and biotransfer potential because the conventional microbiological methods used to assess equipment hygiene have not been developed for detecting biofilm. Reliable results are only possible if the biofilm is properly detached and the cultivation is performed under reproducible conditions or if the measurement can be performed without detaching the microbes. Microscopy is very often used as a reference method for swabbing and cultivation. It has been reported that the cells counted by direct microscopy consistently give results one log unit higher than the cultivation methods. Moreover, observations of surfaces using epifluorescence microscopy have clearly revealed that even when vigorous swabbing is applied only a small part of the actual biofilm including the cells in it is detached (Wirtanen, 1995). On the other hand, use of excessive agitation and strong chemicals for detachment of surface-adherent cells may harm the cells, thus making them unable to grow in the cultivation procedure. Choosing sampling sites in food plants and especially in equipment with complicated structures is challenging, since most likely the microbial residues are in curvatures, con-nections, propellers, or on uneven surfaces which are not easy to reach with sampling tools. Quantification of the swabbed areas in places like these is challenging. Contact agar applications with ridged frames are only suitable for sampling of smooth and straight surfaces (Salo et al., 2008). Preventive risk-based food safety management systems such as HACCP require that hygiene monitoring should provide results rapidly in order to be able to perform corrective actions. ATP bioluminescence and protein detection kits for instance can provide a real time estimation of overall cleaning efficacy or protein residues, respectively. The detection and enumeration of indicator organisms is widely used to assess the efficacy of sanitation procedures. Escherichia coli counts can be used as an indirect measure of faecal contamination. The use of Enterobacteriaceae as hygiene indicators instead of coliforms or E. coli yields much more precise results. Interpretation of the results from hygiene monitoring is often carried out case by case since there are quite many factors affecting an acceptable level of cleanliness. The ac-ceptable level depends on the purpose of the surface. The surfaces in contact with ready-to-eat food products must be much cleaner than other surfaces in the process plant in contact with products which will be pasteurised or surfaces in no direct contact with foods. Special attention should also be paid to the surfaces next to food contact surfaces since there is a high risk of spreading contamination to food products (Salo et al., 2006). The cleanliness level of the processed product depends also on the spoilage sensitivity and the wanted self-life of the product. The available recommended guidelines and standards for aerobic colony counts for clean surfaces vary widely, being 0 - 80 CFU/cm2 (Griffith, 2005). The threshold limit for clean surface must be based upon a perception of a specific risk and the decided acceptable level. Alternatively, microbial yield obtained from surface after correct imple-mentation of a well-designed cleaning programme can be used as a desired value (Griffith, 2005). Comprehensive studies performed by Griffith (2005) have indicated that in many cases levels of <2.5 CFU/cm2 for general surface count are attainable and these are relatively close to majority of suggested standards. In the microbial survey described in Salo et al., 2006 the threshold limit for clean surface was set based in perception of risk to <2 CFU/cm2. Suitable methods for detecting cleanliness of process surfaces vary according to the situation studied. All available methods have limitations and the suitability of the method strongly depends on the type of microbes and the microbial load present. Traditional sampling with swabs prior to culturing does not detach all microbes attached to the surface. Swabbing can be improved by moistening the surface with mild surfactant solution. Also flexible contact agar is suitable for the detection of microbes from process equipment, and if the microbial load is less than 30 CFU/cm2 the microbial colonies can be counted. It is recommended to use more than one detection method in new environment to validate the results obtained. A clean surface has to be free of microbes, physical particles and chemicals. Chemical residues remaining after cleaning and disinfection can be detected using rapid methods based on bioluminescence of sensitive photobacteria. Visual observation of the cleaning results is an important practical method which can be improved by using UV-light and possibly fluorescent stain. This type of assessment is not very accurate but is a practical choice especially for large equipment such as fermentation tanks. ; Food safety is related to the absence or presence of levels of foodborne hazards in food at the point of consumption. The EC Regulation 852/2004 covers the principal objective of the general hygiene rules to ensure a high level of consumer protection with regard to food safety. However, food safety is the joint responsibility of many people and it is principally ensured through the combined efforts of all the parties in the food chain. Legislative demands set the basic requirements for the manufacturing of safe food products whereas food safety management systems and food safety guidelines and standards based on given legislation help the food industry to keep up with current food safety requirements. Hygiene survey is a practical tool for controlling hygiene in food plants. By using an efficient sampling of the surfaces of the process line, it is possible to reduce the amount of low-quality food leaving the plant. Hygiene survey can include checking of the amount of surface-attached soil including protein, polysaccharides, other organic and inorganic residues, biofilm, dead and/or living microbes in general, or specific pathogens and other harmful microbes. Hygiene survey also helps with tracing contamination sources and in optimising cleaning systems. There are several sources of microbial contamination: raw materials, process equipment, environmental surfaces, air, personnel and the final product. In some cases demands for better hygiene have been made because of prolonged shelf-life of products, centralized production and long-distance transportation, less time spent on cleaning and demands for environmentally safe cleaning agents (Salo, 2006). Quantification of the actual number of microbes from surfaces is difficult due to strong microbial adherence of biofilms. In addition, detection of biofilms using traditional swabbing method often gives incorrect results due to strong microbial adherence. Most techniques underestimate the number of microbes on a surface. Hygiene surveys from surfaces are challenging; the measuring should be quickly performed, directly from the surface and without damaging the surface, and the microbes need to be detached completely. However, it is difficult to measure biofilm and biotransfer potential because the conventional microbiological methods used to assess equipment hygiene have not been developed for detecting biofilm. Reliable results are only possible if the biofilm is properly detached and the cultivation is performed under reproducible conditions or if the measurement can be performed without detaching the microbes. Microscopy is very often used as a reference method for swabbing and cultivation. It has been reported that the cells counted by direct microscopy consistently give results one log unit higher than the cultivation methods. Moreover, observations of surfaces using epifluorescence microscopy have clearly revealed that even when vigorous swabbing is applied only a small part of the actual biofilm including the cells in it is detached (Wirtanen, 1995). On the other hand, use of excessive agitation and strong chemicals for detachment of surface-adherent cells may harm the cells, thus making them unable to grow in the cultivation procedure. Choosing sampling sites in food plants and especially in equipment with complicated structures is challenging, since most likely the microbial residues are in curvatures, con-nections, propellers, or on uneven surfaces which are not easy to reach with sampling tools. Quantification of the swabbed areas in places like these is challenging. Contact agar applications with ridged frames are only suitable for sampling of smooth and straight surfaces (Salo et al., 2008). Preventive risk-based food safety management systems such as HACCP require that hygiene monitoring should provide results rapidly in order to be able to perform corrective actions. ATP bioluminescence and protein detection kits for instance can provide a real time estimation of overall cleaning efficacy or protein residues, respectively. The detection and enumeration of indicator organisms is widely used to assess the efficacy of sanitation procedures. Escherichia coli counts can be used as an indirect measure of faecal contamination. The use of Enterobacteriaceae as hygiene indicators instead of coliforms or E. coli yields much more precise results. Interpretation of the results from hygiene monitoring is often carried out case by case since there are quite many factors affecting an acceptable level of cleanliness. The ac-ceptable level depends on the purpose of the surface. The surfaces in contact with ready-to-eat food products must be much cleaner than other surfaces in the process plant in contact with products which will be pasteurised or surfaces in no direct contact with foods. Special attention should also be paid to the surfaces next to food contact surfaces since there is a high risk of spreading contamination to food products (Salo et al., 2006). The cleanliness level of the processed product depends also on the spoilage sensitivity and the wanted self-life of the product. The available recommended guidelines and standards for aerobic colony counts for clean surfaces vary widely, being 0 - 80 CFU/cm2 (Griffith, 2005). The threshold limit for clean surface must be based upon a perception of a specific risk and the decided acceptable level. Alternatively, microbial yield obtained from surface after correct imple-mentation of a well-designed cleaning programme can be used as a desired value (Griffith, 2005). Comprehensive studies performed by Griffith (2005) have indicated that in many cases levels of <2.5 CFU/cm2 for general surface count are attainable and these are relatively close to majority of suggested standards. In the microbial survey described in Salo et al., 2006 the threshold limit for clean surface was set based in perception of risk to <2 CFU/cm2. Suitable methods for detecting cleanliness of process surfaces vary according to the situation studied. All available methods have limitations and the suitability of the method strongly depends on the type of microbes and the microbial load present. Traditional sampling with swabs prior to culturing does not detach all microbes attached to the surface. Swabbing can be improved by moistening the surface with mild surfactant solution. Also flexible contact agar is suitable for the detection of microbes from process equipment, and if the microbial load is less than 30 CFU/cm2 the microbial colonies can be counted. It is recommended to use more than one detection method in new environment to validate the results obtained. A clean surface has to be free of microbes, physical particles and chemicals. Chemical residues remaining after cleaning and disinfection can be detected using rapid methods based on bioluminescence of sensitive photobacteria. Visual observation of the cleaning results is an important practical method which can be improved by using UV-light and possibly fluorescent stain. This type of assessment is not very accurate but is a practical choice especially for large equipment such as fermentation tanks.

Bullying behaviour can have a negative impact on a child's physical and psychological health. Bullying in the classroom is a challenge for early-childhood educators. Preschool is the first place outside the home where children face social challenges when interacting with their classmates. Child-Friendly Class is the first step and part of the Children Friendly School (CSF) as a UNICEF program and an important Indonesian government policy to prevent the emergence of child bullying behaviour. This study aims to identify needs in the process of developing a Child-Friendly Classroom Management model to anticipate bullying behaviour. This research and development method uses an adaptation of the Rowntree model which includes three stages of the process and data collection techniques using interviews, questionnaires, and observation. The results of this study indicate that the preparation of an effective classroom management guidebook to create child-friendly classes needs to be followed up immediately. Several findings related to teachers' perceptions of classroom management, and child-friendly classes prove that child-friendly classes have not been implemented properly in PAUD institutions, with bullying behaviour still appearing in early childhood in PAUD institutions. PAUD teachers understand that it is important to implement classroom management but so far there has been no manual on how to manage effective classrooms as well as training related to the implementation of effective classroom management. The creation of child-friendly classes is believed to be able to help teachers suppress the emergence of bullying behaviour in early childhood. Keywords: Child-Friendly Classroom Management, Bullying Prevention, Early Childhood Education References: Allday, R. A., Hinkson-Lee, K., Hudson, T. M., Neilsen-Gatti, S., Kleinke, A., & Russel, C. S. (2012). Training General Educators to Increase Behavior-Specific Praise: Effects on Students with EBD. Behavioral Disorders, 37, 87–98. Alsaker, F. D., & Valkanover, S. (2012). The Bernese Program against Victimization in Kindergarten and Elementary School. New Directions for Youth Development, 2012(133), 15–28. https://doi.org/10.1002/yd.20004 Arseneault, L., Walsh, E., Trzesniewski, K., Newcombe, R., Caspi, A., & Moffitt, T. E. (2006). Bullying Victimization Uniquely Contributes to Adjustment Problems in Young Children: A Nationally Representative Cohort Study. PEDIATRICS, 118(1), 130–138. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2005-2388 Benedict, E., Horner, R. H., & Squires, J. (2007). Assessment and Implementation of Positive Behavior Support in Preschools. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 27, 174–192. Boz, Y. (2008). Turkish student teachers' concerns about teaching. 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ARCH GEN PSYCHIATRY, 66(9), 9. Tauber, R. T. (2007). Classroom Management: Sound Theory and Effective Practice. Praeger Publishers. https://books.google.la/books?id=XiQFyR41kysC Ttofi, M. M., & Farrington, D. P. (2011). Effectiveness of school-based programs to reduce bullying: A systematic and meta-analytic review. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 7(1), 27–56. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-010-9109-1 Ttofi, M. M., & Farrington, D. P. (2012). Bullying prevention programs: The importance of peer intervention, disciplinary methods and age variations. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 8(4), 443–462. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-012-9161-0 Unal, Z., & Unal, A. (2012). The Impact of Years of Teaching Experience on the Classroom Management Approaches of Elementary School Teachers. International Journal of Instruction, 5, 41–60. UNICEF. (2007). Implementation Handbook for The Convention on The Rights of The Child (3th Edition). UNICEF. Vaillancourt, T., McDougall, P., Hymel, S., Krygsman, A., Miller, J., Stiver, K., & Davis, C. (2008). Bullying: Are researchers and children/youth talking about the same thing? International Journal of Behavioral Development, 32(6), 486–495. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025408095553 Vlachou, M., Andreou, E., Botsoglou, K., & Didaskalou, E. (2011). Bully/Victim Problems Among Preschool Children: A Review of Current Research Evidence. Educational Psychology Review, 23(3), 329–358. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-011-9153-z Vlachou, M., Botsoglou, K., & Andreou, E. (2014). Bullying/Victimization in Preschool Children. https://doi.org/10.13140/2.1.5086.1764 Vreeman, R. C., & Carroll, A. E. (2007). A systematic review of school-based interventions to prevent bullying. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 161 1, 78–88. Witvliet, M., Olthof, T., Hoeksma, J. B., Goossens, F. A., Smits, M. S. I., & Koot, H. M. (2010). Peer Group Affiliation of Children: The Role of Perceived Popularity, Likeability, and Behavioral Similarity in Bullying. Social Development, 19(2), 285–303. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2009.00544.x Yaşar, M. (2017). Adaptation of General System Theory and Structural Family Therapy Approach to Classroom Management in Early Childhood Education* *. 32.

Il dibattito pubblico riguardante molte decisioni cruciali dell'agenda politica contemporanea, dal problema dell'allocazione delle risorse sanitarie, alle previsioni di mercato e alle valutazioni di impatto ambientale o di sicurezza, è permeato dall'appello sempre più sistematico al parere dei tecnici e degli "scienziati". Mentre un peso e un'autorità crescenti sono attribuiti alla scientific advisory, non mancano episodi e vere e proprie esplosioni di scetticismo e polemica, che investono sia questioni interne alla consulenza scientifica' cioè di affidabilità, accuratezza e in generale di correttezza metodologica, sia esterne, che mettono cioè in discussione il ruolo stesso della scientific advisory nelle questioni di scelta sociale. Per citare solo alcuni tra i casi pi√π noti e recenti, basti il riferimento al "processo degli scienziati" per le presunte previsioni inadeguate sul terremoto dell'Aquila, al "caso Stamina" o alla querelle sulla correlazione tra autismo e vaccino MMR , ma anche al dibattito più di vecchia data circa l'utilizzo di evidenze genetiche nei processi criminali. Il nodo problematico sollevato da questi episodi esemplari è da rintracciarsi, a mio avviso, nella legittima distinzione dei ruoli tra lo scienziato e il "policy maker" e, più in generale, sul peso da attribuire all'evidenza e al parere scientifico nell'ambito della scelta pubblica, che coinvolge inevitabilmente considerazioni morali e "di valore". Può il parere "esperto" esaurire tutti i requisiti necessari a determinare univocamente la scelta sociale? Oppure altri "valori" esterni devono necessariamente contribuire al processo decisionale? E se sì, in che modo? Da dove provengono tali valori? Come può l'intromissione dei valori nel piano della ricerca scientifica non minarne la legittimità e adeguatezza metodologica? Queste sono alcune delle domande che intendo analizzare nel presente lavoro di tesi. In particolare, mi concentrerò sull'ambito più ristretto della valutazione e gestione del rischio, in cui le "informazioni scientifiche", in termini di distribuzioni di probabilità, giocano un ruolo cruciale. Rispetto a questa specifica tematica, mi chiederò quindi se le contemporanee e diffusissime tecniche del risk assessment, risk management e cost-benefit analysis incorporino tutte le istanze legittimamente presenti in una decisione in condizioni di rischio e se siano adeguate a tale scopo; quali altre componenti "morali'', escluse dal modello standard, siano eventualmente da soppesare e in che modo. Come primo approccio alla questione, illustrerò un esempio storico particolarmente illuminante, la querelle sul vaccino contro il vaiolo tra Daniel Bernoulli e Jean-Baptiste Le Ronde D'Alembert, che ebbe luogo nella seconda met√† del XVIII secolo. Questo caso rappresenta a mio parere uno dei primi tentativi di analisi del rischio, attraverso il calcolo della probabilità, applicato a una decisione di forte portata '"morale" e rilevanza pubblica. Esponendo nei suoi dettagli tecnici il modello matematico costruito da Bernoulli per dimostrare l'opportunità sociale dell'inoculazione stato inscindibilmente legato agli esiti dell'applicazione di questa disciplina a questioni di scelta pubblica. Questo punto si rivelerà di importanza cruciale più avanti, nella discussione sull'intrinseca presenza di valori in ogni parere scientifico che si limiti anche solo a fornire una distribuzione di probabilità. Le posizioni antitetiche di Bernoulli e D'Alembert, inoltre, costituiscono una prima esplicita polarizzazione, riscontrabile anche nel dibattito attuale, sull'adeguatezza del "calcolo matematico" nel fornire una guida legittima alle decisioni pratiche. Se Bernoulli conclude infatti la sua analisi formulando la famosa massima, che impone di tenere in considerazione e farsi guidare da tutte le informazioni "scientifiche" disponibili, anche quando siano lacunose, imprecise e manchevoli, D'Alembert non abbandona invece una visione critica e scettica sulla possibilità dell'analisi tecnica di catturare l'esperienza morale e profondamente individuale del "correre un rischio". Sebbene queste posizioni siano state riformulate in seguito al "raffinamento'' teorico del "calcolo matematico'', le istanze promosse dai due philosophes contengono già in nuce molti elementi del dibattito novecentesco e contemporaneo. Nel capitolo successivo, analizzerò, a partire da una breve parentesi storica, l'apparente "trionfo" della massima di Bernoulli, mostrando come in molti ambiti, a partire quello dell'allocazione delle risorse sanitarie, procedure meramente tecniche come il risk managing vengano spesso impiegate in modo esclusivo e conclusivo. La gestione del rischio, in questo senso, sembrerebbe poter essere legittimamente esaurita dal puro calcolo di quale alternativa abbia una maggiore utilità attesa, o dalla cost-benefit analysis, senza chiamare in causa ulteriori "valutazioni morali". Discipline come il risk management, infatti, mirano a fornire una risposta puramente procedurale a tutti i problemi di gestione e allocazione del rischio. Nella conclusione del Capitolo 2, illustrerò due esempi contemporanei e controversi di applicazione delle tecniche di risk assessment, riguardanti rispettivamente il problema dell'allocazione delle risorse sanitarie e la selezione di siti idonei per lo stoccaggio di scorie radioattive. Parallelamente all'esposizione di questi casi, comincerò ad illustrare alcuni dei principali problemi legati tanto alla cost-benefit analysis in quanto tale, come la questione teorica dell'incommensurabilità degli esiti, quanto all'applicazione della cost-benefit analysis a questioni di scelta pubblica. In particolare, rispetto a quest'ultimo tema, rifletterò sulle implicazioni dell'utilizzo delle procedure di risk managing per il mito della scienza come priva di valori (il "value free ideal''). Le posizioni che presento come dominanti nel Capitolo 2, tuttavia, non sono state immuni da critiche, che hanno evidenziato come considerazioni valoriali vengano implicitamente riproposte nel calcolo dell'utilità attesa, mettendo in luce quindi l'inadeguatezza delle pretese di "oggettività" di queste tecniche di gestione del rischio. In particolare, svilupperò questo problema teorico nel terzo capitolo illustrando il cosiddetto "Paradosso di Rudner", secondo cui lo scienziato in quanto tale non può esimersi dal formulare giudizi morali nel fornire un parere o una consulenza scientifica. In questo senso, obietta Rudner, il "peso" della componente valoriale verrebbe semplicemente inglobato nella consulenza scientifica, tutt'altro dunque che neutrale, con uno "sconfinamento" o invasione di campo, altamente problematico. In questa sede, proporrò anche una discussione più esaustiva sul problema del rischio induttivo e le sue implicazioni per il value free ideal, a partire dalle trattazioni classiche di Churchman, Frank e Rudner stesso fino alla sintesi di Douglas e alla proposta di Betz, passando per autori come McMullin e Laudan. In particolare, chiuderò questa riflessione con il problema provvisorio di discriminare tra componenti valoriali che possono legittimamente interessare il lavoro scientifico e i valori che invece devono essere necessariamente esclusi da un modello adeguato di indagine scientifica, divisione spesso riproposta come la dicotomia tra valori epistemici e non epistemici. L'argomento del rischio induttivo, d'altra parte, costituisce a mio avviso la sfida più ardua per i sostenitori del value-free ideal, e diverse versioni e i rispettivi possibili contro argomenti, rispetto al tema specifico della scientific advisory, verranno vagliati nel corso di questo lavoro. Nel capitolo seguente, in risposta a questa legittima preoccupazione e alle problematiche sollevate da Churchman e Rudner, prenderò in considerazione un tentativo di soluzione formulato da Jeffrey, che propone un modello per una coerente "divisione del lavoro" tra scienziato e "policy maker". Tale proposta, come nota efficacemente Douglas, mira a riproporre il value free ideal, cioè il mito di una scienza isolata dal resto della comunità e indipendente da considerazioni etiche, cercando però di fare i conti con l'argomento del rischio induttivo. Questa via d'uscita, a mio parere, non risulta certamente conclusiva per quanto riguarda la riaffermazione del value-free ideal, sebbene sia stata riproposta anche recentemente da Betz come risposta adeguata al problema di Rudner. Nonostante questo fallimento, l'argomento di Jeffrey costituisce a mio avviso un buon punto di partenza da cui analizzare il rapporto tra scientific advisory e scelta pubblica, proponendone per la prima volta un modello teorico positivo. In questo senso, la proposta di Jeffrey si fa carico e riconosce la cosiddetta massima di Bernoulli, per cui le informazioni scientifiche non possono essere ignorate nel processo di deliberazione. Tale principio esprime infatti, a mio parere, un intuitivo appello al "buonsenso" e non può essere travolto dallo scetticismo sull'inadeguatezza e sull'intrinseca "connivenza" tra giudizi di valore e parere tecnico, come una completa resa alle considerazioni di Rudner sembrerebbe paventare. D'altro canto, la consapevolezza che le considerazioni valoriali non possono essere eliminate dalle decisioni di carattere pubblico impone inevitabilmente una maggiore attenzione nel valutare, comunicare e soppesare la consulenza scientifica. Il modello di Jeffrey, pur ingenuo e problematico, rappresenta sicuramente un primo tentativo di soddisfare entrambe le motivazioni e componenti che concorrono a formulare il problema della scientific advisory. Solo una volta scardinato completamente il mito di una comunità scientifica isolata dal suo ruolo sociale, infatti, il tema del rapporto con la cittadinanza e gli organi decisionali può essere analizzato con l'attenzione e la precisione che la sua rilevanza pubblica ed etica impone. Nell'ultima parte di questo lavoro illustrerò l'evoluzione e le implementazioni della posizione espressa da Jeffrey attraverso l'esempio del Principio di Precauzione, che costituisce a mio avviso un tentativo di bilanciare le procedure standard di gestione del rischio con considerazioni esterne, mediante un opportuno criterio di decisione alternativo alla massimizzazione dell'utilità attesa. In particolare, cercherò di caratterizzare, nell'esposizione di questo Principio, come un'analisi "tecnica" del rischio possa consentire anche a considerazioni di tipo morale di svolgere un ruolo effettivo nel processo decisionale. In questo senso, nonostante i molti problemi teorici e una formulazione ancora inadeguata, tale Principio rimane un candidato promettente come modello di gestione del rischio collettivo. In particolare, dopo aver illustrato la fortuna e il dibattito intorno al Principio di Precauzione, ne propongo una sua caratterizzazione nei termini del criterio di decisione del Maximin, seguendo le riflessioni di Hansson, Gardiner e Ackermann. Esploro in seguito anche una formulazione procedurale o epistemica del Principio di Precauzione, mostrando come una sua interpretazione nella forma di meta-principio possa tenere conto dell'argomento del rischio induttivo elaborato da Rudner, prendendolo come punto di partenza per un modello propositivo e positivo di scienza coinvolta con il piano dei valori. In quest'ultimo capitolo, più che formulare una proposta conclusiva ed esaustiva, suggerisco alcuni spunti ed esempi di applicazione del Principio di Precauzione, come il caso della tossicologia illustrato da Steel, per mostrare come un lavoro di ricerca a partire da questo criterio possa effettivamente fornire una guida pratica per il rapporto tra pannelli scientifici e organi decisionali. La "via di Bernoulli'', una volta imboccata, resta a mio parere impossibile da abbandonare, senza palesi e inaccettabili violazioni di un principio basilare di razionalità a cui non siamo disposti a rinunciare da un punto di vista normativo. D'altra parte, il primato indiscusso e di default attribuito al parere scientifico nelle decisioni di scelta pubblica deve essere adeguatamente bilanciato da un'opportuna riabilitazione della componente valoriale, ormai resa evidente dal crollo del value-free ideal. Il fallimento del mito di una scienza priva di valori, ormai evidente nella gestione di problemi complessi, di cui il cambiamento climatico e solo l'esempio più lampante, non può però risolversi con una conclusione pessimistica sul ruolo e sui compiti dell'indagine scientifica. Al contrario, se giudizi morali e soggettivi non possono, per ragioni intrinseche alla pratica della scientific advisory, essere eliminati dal processo decisionale, una sistematica e trasparente esposizione dei valori che si vogliono tenere in considerazione diventa tanto cruciale quanto le questioni di correttezza metodologica interne alla comunità scientifica. Solo riconoscendo che entrambe le componenti sono essenziali e inscindibili nella prassi della scientific advisory può portare a formulare criteri di decisione e divisione del lavoro coerenti e legittimamente difendibili.

The three countries covered in this first report, Mali, Chad and Niger, share a number of common characteristics and face a similar set of challenges, which provides the foundation for this joint-review approach. All three are low-income landlocked economies. Each relies heavily on the agricultural sector as its primary source of income and livelihoods, and each has a large livestock subsector that is based in part on traditional nomadic pastoralism. All countries have important natural resource industries, gold for Mali, uranium and oil for Niger, and oil for Chad, which represent the bulk of export earnings and public revenue. This dependence on the primary sector renders these economies highly vulnerable to weather-related shocks and volatile commodity prices. Each is struggling to overcome a legacy of instability and violence, which is complicated both by the fragility of domestic socio-political conditions and the severity of regional security challenges. Finally, all three countries are members of a monetary union that uses a regional currency pegged to the euro and exercises significant influence over the macroeconomic policies of its member states. At the center of the trade-off between stabilization and development lies public investment management, at macroeconomic and financial management levels. Faced with repeated negative shocks, countries tend to cut ongoing and planned public investment projects which are often designed to reduce drivers of fragility and strengthen the resilience of economies, thus perpetuating risks of falling into fragility traps. Hence, Section three discusses the impact of public investment volatility on its quality in Chad, Mali and Niger, and explores possible options in terms of macroeconomic and public financial management to smooth public investment budget execution.

Background Knowledges about health inequalities and their causes are a central concern in public health. Generally, these relate to the social patterning of health and the forces that affect health conditions in daily life. However, public health decision making has been criticized for excluding knowledges of particular importance for health equity. This poses a challenge since knowledges and understandings shape what policies and interventions are viewed as relevant, reasonable or even possible to think of. If certain knowledges are left out, there is a risk that both knowledge making and decision making with respect to health inequalities will exclude important measures. Since intersectionality encompasses a wide range of knowledge-making practices centered around social justice, it may contribute diverse knowledges of importance to health equity. Intersectionality has recently gained traction within public health and represents an important shift in conceptualizing how different dimensions of inequalities, such as sexism, classism and racism, interlock to generate social exclusion and marginalization instead of working separately, one by one. Aim The overall aim of this thesis is to explore the possibility of using intersectionality as a tool for knowledge diversification within public health. The specific research question is: What knowledges and understandings of health inequalities do the inter-categorical (studies I and II) and post-categorical (studies III and IV) approaches to intersectionality contribute and how are such contributions made? Material and methods The method of the cover story can be understood as a way of studying science or as a retrospective self-reflection based on the four individual studies, making up the material of the thesis. Specifically, the material was reassembled and retold in order to show how certain intersectional approaches generate different types of knowledges and understandings of health inequalities by involving different ways of operationalizing inequalities and managing categories. In study I, a scoping review of the quantitative international literature was undertaken with the aim of mapping and describing inter-categorical inequalities in mental health. Study II was a quantitative analysis of a population-based survey with the aim of mapping inter-categorical inequalities in mental health in the Swedish adult population. Study III was a policy analysis of a government bill that proposes a national strategy on alcohol, drugs, tobacco and gambling with the study aim to examine the equity-perspective of the bill through an intersectional lens. Study IV was a post-qualitative inquiry based on participatory observations and interviews with the study aim to explore the becoming of social divisions among seniors as they participate in health-promoting activities. Results The inter-categorical approach to intersectionality (applied in studies I and II) generated knowledges about health inequalities as quantitative mean differences between population groups, and highlighted unexpected patterns and unpredictable inequalities in mental health. This implies the importance of building responsive systems that regularly monitor inequalities across different intersectional positions and contexts so that services can be directed and adapted to those most in need. The post-categorical approach to intersectionality (applied in studies III and IV) generated knowledges about health inequalities as processes of marginalization, resistance, exclusion, or inclusion, and highlighted difficult trade-offs with respect to public health policy and practice. This enables a transformative way of thinking by providing the possibility of doing things differently in everyday practices in which marginalization and resistance becomes. Conclusion Different approaches to intersectionality contribute diverse knowledges and understandings about health inequalities. This is important since it expands the possibilities for fair decision making and health equity through different outlooks on social justice. Knowledge diversification through intersectionality could be particularly useful to release tension due to the restrictive forces of public health decision making and to increase accountability for the multiple social interests of the population. Thus, it has the potential to make public health decision making more flexible, transparent, reflexive, and democratic. ; Bakgrund Kunskaper om ojämlikheter i hälsa och deras orsaker är centrala inom folkhälsa. Dessa handlar generellt om hur hälsan är fördelad i befolkningen och om de strukturer som utgör förutsättningarna för hälsa i det dagliga livet. System för beslutsfattande inom folkhälsa har dock kritiserats för att utesluta vissa typer av kunskaper med särskild betydelse för jämlik hälsa. Det är en utmaning eftersom kunskaper och förståelser formar vad som anses vara relevanta, rimliga eller ens tänkbara åtgärder. Om vissa kunskaper utelämnas riskerar kunskapsproduktionen och beslutsfattandet att bortse från åtgärder med potential att öka jämlikheten i hälsa. Eftersom intersektionalitet är ett mångfacetterat begrepp som inbegriper en rad olika kunskaps-skapande praktiker med fokus på social rättvisa kan det bidra med kunskapsbredd för jämlik hälsa. Begreppet har nyligen vunnit mark inom folkhälsa och bidragit med en förändring i sättet att tänka kring hur dimensioner av ojämlikhet som sexism, klassism, och rasism gemensamt, snarare än var för sig, bidrar till socialt utanförskap och marginalisering. Syfte Det övergripande syftet är att utforska möjligheterna att använda intersektionalitet som ett verktyg för kunskapsbreddning inom folkhälsa. Den specifika frågeställningen är: Vilka kunskaper och förståelser om ojämlikheter i hälsa bidrar den inter-kategoriska (studie I och II) och post-kategoriska (studie III och IV) ansatsen till intersektionalitet med och hur? Material och metod Ramberättelsens metod kan förstås som ett sätt att studera vetenskap eller som en retrospektiv självreflektion baserad på avhandlingens material i form av fyra individuella studier. Mer specifikt har materialet omorganiserats och återberättats för att visa på hur vissa intersektionella ansatser generar olika kunskaper och förståelser om ojämlikheter i hälsa genom olika sätt att operationalisera ojämlikheter och hantera kategorier. Studie I var en kartläggande översikt baserad på internationell litteratur med syftet att kartlägga och beskriva inter-kategoriska ojämlikheter i psykisk hälsa. Studie II var en kvantitativ analys av en befolkningsbaserad enkätstudie med syftet att kartlägga inter-kategoriska ojämlikheter i psykisk hälsa i den svenska vuxna befolkningen. Studie III var en policyanalys av regeringens proposition om en ny strategi för alkohol, narkotika, dopning, tobak och spel om pengar med syftet att undersöka propositionens jämlikhetsperspektiv utifrån ett intersektionellt ramverk. Studie IV var en post-kvalitativ undersökning baserad på deltagande observationer och intervjuer med syftet att utforska uppförandet av sociala skillnader under hälsofrämjande aktiviteter för seniorer. Resultat Den inter-kategoriska ansatsen (studie I och II) generade kunskaper om ojämlikheter i hälsa som kvantitativa medelvärdesskillnader mellan intersektionella grupper vilket belyste oväntade mönster och oförutsedda ojämlikheter i psykisk hälsa. Detta ansågs antyda vikten av att bygga lyhörda system som regelbundet övervakar ojämlikheter mellan olika intersektionella positioner och sammanhang så att åtgärder kan formas och riktas med hänsyn till de med störst behov. Den post-kategoriska ansatsen (studie III och IV) genererade kunskaper om intersektionella ojämlikheter i hälsa som processer i termer av marginalisering, motstånd, uteslutning och inkludering vilket belyste svåra avvägningar inom folkhälsopolicy och praktik. Detta ansågs möjliggöra ett transformativt tankesätt genom att bidra med möjligheten att göra saker annorlunda i den dagliga praktiken där marginalisering och motstånd uppstår. Slutsats Olika intersektionella ansatser bidrar med olika kunskaper och förståelser av ojämlikheter i hälsa. Detta är viktigt eftersom det utvidgar möjligheterna till ett välavvägt beslutsfattande och en jämlik hälsa genom olika syn på social rättvisa. Kunskapsbreddning genom intersektionalitet kan vara särskilt användbart för att öka ansvarsskyldigheten gentemot befolkningens olika intressen och behov. På så sätt har intersektionalitet potential att bidra till ett mer flexibelt, transparent, reflexivt och demokratiskt beslutsfattande inom folkhälsa.

Purpose. Based on the comparative analysis of the European and post-Soviet countries, the purpose of the article is to study one of the manifestations of gender discrimination, namely the problem of gender equality in the sphere of labor. It involves the consistent solution to the following tasks: a) to emphasize the basic principles of gender international and legal policy; b) to reflect the praxeological dimension of providing the equal social and economic opportunities for men and women at current level; c) to emphasize the key criterion for ensuring the equality in socio-cultural sphere – equality in political life; d) to study the educational level of women and the possibility of self-realization in employment equal to men. Theoretical basis. The authors proceed from the standpoint that gender equality at the present stage has become a priority of legal policy and an important principle of the state (legal and democratic) of pro-European orientation. It is characterized in the legal plane, first of all, by the equality of the social roles of men and women, and the overcoming of the gender hierarchy of social ties, in which men are perceived as higher beings by their mental and physical abilities, and their activities are more significant and of priority in comparison with the activities of women. Originality. The authors have substantiated that in many economically developed countries the problem of providing a gender is still relevant, but most of the crisis problems in this area have found their legal regulation. The motivated position of the authors is that the level of education and professionalism of women cannot serve a reason for discrimination against women, which now exists in the economic and political sphere in the post-Soviet space. Conclusions. Gender stereotypes remain the priority in woman's keeping family household, which creates significant inequalities of women and men at the labor market. Specialized regulatory acts in the field of gender declare the equality of men and women, while labor law defines a number of norms and guarantees that complicate the employment of women. In order to improve the situation we propose to implement a number of measures, such as, creation and financial support of the programs at the state level for supporting maternity, family and childhood; examination of all normative acts and concerning the issue of gender asymmetry, and especially the norms of labor law; introduction of state monitoring of employment and income of persons as to the complying with the principle of gender equality; introduction of quotas for women's participation in political activities, in the work of the government and parliament, etc. ; Цель. Целью предлагаемой статьи является исследование на основе компаративистского анализа законодательства стран европейского и постсоветского пространства одного из проявлений гендерной дискриминации, а именно: гендерного неравенства в сфере труда. Поставленная цель предусматривает разрешение следующих задач: а) акцентировать, какими именно фундаментальными нормами регламентируется гендерная международно-правовая политика; б) осветить праксиологический аспект обеспечения равных социально-экономических возможностей для мужчин и женщин на современном уровне; в) акцентировать на ключевом критерии обеспечения равенства в социокультурной сфере – равенстве в политической жизни; г)изучить образовательный уровень женщин и возможности равной с мужчинами самореализации в сфере занятости. Теоретический базис. Авторы исходят из того, что гендерное равенство на современном этапе стало приоритетом правовой политики и весомым принципом правового, демократического государства проевропейской ориентации. Эта политика в правовой плоскости характеризуется прежде всего равенством социальных ролей мужчин и женщин, преодолением гендерной иерархичности социальных связей, в которых мужчины заведомо воспринимаются как высшие по интеллектуальным и физическим способностям существа, их деятельность является наиболее значимой и приоритетной по сравнению с деятельностью женщин. Научная новизна. Авторами обосновывается, что во многих экономически развитых странах проблема обеспечения ґендера хотя и остается актуальной, однако большая часть кризисных проблем в данном направлении нашли свое правовое регулирование. Мотивированная позиция авторов состоит в том, что уровень образованности, профессионализма женщин не может служить причиной их дискриминации, характерной для экономической и политической сфер на постсоветском пространстве. Выводы. Гендерные стереотипы оставляют приоритет женщин в ведении семейного и бытового домохозяйства, что порождает значительное неравенство женщин и мужчин на рынке труда. Специализированные нормативные акты в сфере ґендера декларируют равенство полов, при этом трудовое законодательство содержит ряд норм и гарантий, усложняющих трудоустройство женщин. Для улучшения ситуации предлагается предпринять ряд мер, в числе которых создание и материальное обеспечение на государственном уровне программ по поддержке материнства, семьи и детства; экспертиза всех нормативных и подзаконных актов в вопросе гендерной асимметрии, особенно норм трудового права; государственный мониторинг состояния трудоустройства и оплаты труда лиц в отношении соблюдения принципа гендерного равенства; введение квот на участие женщин в политической деятельности, в работе правительства и парламента и т.д. ; Мета. Метою статті є дослідження на основі компаративістського аналізу законодавства країн європейського та пострадянського простору одного з проявів ґендерної дискримінації, а саме: ґендерної нерівності у сфері праці. Це передбачає послідовне розв'язання таких задач: а) акцентувати, якими саме засадничими нормами регламентується ґендерна міжнародно-правова політика; б) відобразити праксеологічний вимір забезпечення рівних соціально-економічних можливостей для чоловіків та жінок на сучасному рівні; в) наголосити на ключовому критерії забезпечення рівності в соціокультурній сфері – рівності в політичному житті; г) вивчити освітній рівень жінок та можливість рівної з чоловіками самореалізації у сфері зайнятості. Теоретичний базис. Автори виходять із позиції, що ґендерна рівність на сучасному етапі стала пріоритетом правової політики і вагомим принципом (правової, демократичної) держави проєвропейської орієнтації. Ця політика у правовій площині характеризується передусім рівністю соціальних ролей чоловіків і жінок, подоланням ґендерної ієрархічності соціальних зв'язків, у яких чоловіки зазнаки сприймаються як вищі за розумовими та фізичними здібностями істоти, їхня діяльність є найбільш значущою та пріоритетною порівняно з діяльністю жінок. Наукова новизна. Авторами обґрунтовано, що у багатьох економічно розвинутих країнах проблема забезпечення ґендера хоча й залишається актуальною, однак більшість кризових проблем у цьому напрямі знайшли своє правове регулювання. Мотивованою позицією авторів є те, що рівень освіченості, фаховості жінок не може слугувати причиною для дискримінації жінок, що нині існує в економічній та політичній сфері на пострадянському просторі. Висновки. Ґендерні стереотипи залишають пріоритет жінки у веденні сімейного та побутового домогосподарства, що створює значну нерівність жінок і чоловіків на ринку праці. Спеціалізовані нормативні акти у сфері ґендера декларують рівність статей, при цьому трудове законодавство визначає ряд норм та гарантій, які ускладнюють працевлаштування жінок. Для покращення ситуації пропонується втілити низку заходів, у числі яких: створення та матеріальне забезпечення на державному рівні програм щодо підтримки материнства, сім'ї та дитинства; експертиза всіх нормативних та підзаконних актів щодо питання ґендерної асиметрії, особливо норм трудового права; запровадження державного моніторингу стану працевлаштування та оплати праці осіб щодо дотримання принципу ґендерної рівності; уведення квот на участь жінок у політичній діяльності, у роботі уряду та парламенту тощо.