Abstract Background. In modern linguistics there is particular increasing of interest to historical research of language, especially in the field of professional vocabulary and its functioning. Such an analysis of linguistic means is relevant for all humanities and can be explained by the fact that language reflects the most important changes in the worldview and life of the Eastern Slavs, in particular in the form and content of the semantic class of words having general categorical meaning "tax". Problems of taxation and the organization of effective state tax control have interested mankind since ancient times, today they have become the subject of studies of economics and history mainly (R. Bobrynev, M. Boulenger, O. Vasilyk, B. Grekov, L. Larionov, N. Miller, N. Nechay, А. Tolkushkin). There are some researches on the history of the formation of the terminology of the Russian language in the historical aspect (V. Goncharov), however, as far as we know, the nominations that serve to denote taxes have not received comprehensive coverage in the linguistic literature yet. The purpose of our study is to analyze the nominations that form the semantic class of words meaning "tax, duty, levies". Studying the specifics of their semantics and functioning in the vocabulary context will solve a number of issues related to the history of the formation of tax terminology in general. Methods. The main research methods are descriptive and comparative-historical, with the help of which we trace changes in the specified group of lexical units, elements of quantitative analysis are also used. On the basis of 313 lexical items (nominations of taxes, processes and people related to the tax sphere), selected by the method of continuous sampling from dictionaries the historical changes that occurred to this vocabulary in the process of development were analyzed. Chronological boundaries cover the XIth-XVIIth centuries. Results. The study of the history of the tax terminology of the Russian language has both theoretical significance ‑ awareness of how the world and realities are reflected in society under the influence of various factors, as well as practical application, as this layer of vocabulary relates to various spheres of political, cultural, economic life but it is not described well enough by linguists. The nominations analyzed by us, denoting various taxes, levies, duties, units of the tax sphere, names of people and territories taxed and not taxed by tribute, make it possible to distinguish six functional-thematic groups of nominations of the tax terminology. The analysis of each of the groups allows us to conclude that the individual nominations had not one but several terminological meanings (for example, tribute). The names that reflect the genus and species nominations of fees, tributes, fines and others were very numerous. Often these nominations combine two meanings: levies and duties, duties and levies, taxes and fees, which indicates a lack of regulation in the field of tax terminology and the lexical system as a whole. We have represented productive and non-productive ways of word formation of nominations; we have found that the morphological way of creating these words is the most productive. The phenomenon of synonyms and antonyms is recorded in the system of tax terminology. Two-word (compound) names are replaced by one-word nouns. Discussion. Thus, numerous names of the tax terminology are not included in the vocabulary of modern Russian literary language. Only some of them can be found in literary works, which describe similar realities ("Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" by A. Radishchev, "Dead Souls" by N. Gogol, "Who in Russia to live well" by N. Nekrasov etc); others generally lost the meaning of "tribute, tax". We see prospects in the study of the functional dynamics of the nominations of the tax terminology system, as well as in elucidating their role in the Russian linguistic world view. Keywords: history of language, nominations for tax designation, semantics, vocabulary, word-formation model. ; Резюме Постановка проблеми. У сучасному мовознавстві відчувається посилення інтересу до історичних досліджень мови, особливо в галузі функціонування термінологічної лексики. Подібний аналіз мовних одиниць є актуальним для всіх гуманітарних наук, його значущість можна пояснити тим, що саме в мові відбиваються найважливіші за своїми наслідками зміни, що відбулися у світогляді і житті східних слов'ян, зокрема у формі та змісті семантичного класу слів, об'єднаних загальнокатегоріальним значенням «податок». Проблеми оподаткування й організації ефективного державного податкового контролю цікавили людство з давніх часів, сьогодні вони стали предметом вивчення переважно економічної науки та історії (Р. Бобринев, М. Буланже, О. Василик, Б. Греков, Л. Ларионов, Н. Міллер, Н. Нечай, О. Толкушкін). Є окремі розвідки щодо історії формування терміносистеми російської мови в історичному аспекті (В. Гончаров), однак, наскільки нам відомо, номінації, що слугують на позначення податків, ще не отримали комплексного висвітлення в лінгвістичній літературі. Мета нашого дослідження – аналіз номінацій, що утворюють семантичний клас слів зі значенням «податок, мито, побори». Вивчення специфіки їхньої семантики й функціонування в словниковому контексті дозволить з'ясувати низку питань, пов'язаних з історією формування податкової термінології в цілому. Методологія дослідження. Основними методами дослідження – описовий та порівняльно-історичний, за допомогою яких ми прослідковуємо зміни в означеній групі лексичних одиниць, було застосовано також елементи кількісного аналізу. На матеріалі 313 лексичних одиниць (номінацій на позначення податків та пов'язаних з податковою сферою), відібраних методом суцільної вибірки зі словників проаналізовано історичні зміни, які відбулися із зазначеною лексикою в процесі розвитку. Хронологічні межі охоплюють XI-XVII століття. Основні результати дослідження. Дослідження історії розвитку податкової терміносистеми російської мови має як теоретичне значення – усвідомлення того, як віддзеркалюється навколишній світ і реалії у соціумі під впливом різноманітних факторів, а також і практичне застосування, оскільки цей прошарок лексики стосується різних сфер політичного, культурного, економічного життя й недостатньо описаний лінгвістами. Проаналізовані нами номінації, що позначають різні податки, побори, повинності, одиниці податкової сфери, найменування осіб і територій, оподатковуваних і не оподатковуваних даниною, уможливили виділити шість функціонально-тематичних груп номінацій податкової терміносистеми. Аналіз кожної з груп дозволяє зробити висновки, що окремі номінації мали не одне, а кілька термінологічних значень (наприклад, данина). Багаточисельними виявилися найменування, що відображають родо-видові номінації зборів, данини, пені тощо. Найчастіше ці номінації поєднують два значення: побору і повинності, мита та збору, податку і плати, що засвідчує неврегульованість у сфері податкової термінології і лексичної системи у цілому. Нами репрезентовано продуктивні і непродуктивні способи словотворення номінацій, виявлено, що морфологічний спосіб творення зазначених слів є найбільш продуктивним. В системі податкової термінології зафіксовано явище синонімії та антонімії. Двослівні (складені) назви замінюються однослівними субстантивами (возовое від «мито з воза»; носовоiе «мито з носа судна»). Висновки і перспективи. Отже, численні найменування податкової терміносфери не увійшли до словникового складу сучасної російської літературної мови. Лише деякі з них (дань, оброкъ) можна зустріти в літературних творах, в яких описано подібні реалії («Подорож із Петербурга до Москви» О. Радищева, «Мертві душі» М. Гоголя, «Кому на Русі жити добре» М. Некрасова та інші); інші (дача, даръ) взагалі втратили значення «данини, податку». Перспективи вбачаємо у дослідженні функціональної динаміки номінацій податкової терміносистеми, а також з'ясуванні їхньої ролі у російській мовній картині світу. Ключові слова: історія мови, лексика, номінації на позначення податків, семантика, словотворча модель.
Die Infragestellung der Universalität und Exportierbarkeit der Menschenrechte setzt voraus, dass sie in einem bestimmten sozio-rechtlichen Kontext entwickelt wurden und an anderer Stelle umgesetzt werden. Wenn wir im Rahmen eines als Dogma gesetzten Universalismus bleiben, scheinen die Menschenrechte nur eine Wahrheit zu kennen: die des Verhältnisses von männlicher und "weißer" Herrschaft; Die Besonderheiten (nicht "weiß" sein) sowie die Unterschiede (Frauen sein) werden dann gelöscht. Länder im "schwarzen" Afrika sind einer international definierten mehrdimensionalen Hierarchie ausgesetzt. Infolgedessen unterliegen "schwarze" afrikanische Frauen einer doppelten Dominanz, horizontal (für ihre Farbe und für ihr Geschlecht) und vertikal (von den dominanten und von den anderen dominierten der Kette). Das gemeinsame Element, das diese beiden Situationen verbindet, ist die Tatsache, dass die Farbe "Schwarz" eine Position in der rechtlichen, sozialen, wirtschaftlichen und intellektuellen Ordnung zuweist und ein Kolonialitätsverhältnis herstellt, das sowohl von den Autoren als auch von den Opfern aufrechterhalten wird. Diskriminierende koloniale Kategorisierungen gehen davon aus, dass die ihnen von internationalen Institutionen und "westlichen" Staaten vorgelegte Entwicklungshilfe die von beiden Seiten angenommene Dominanz mitkonstruieren soll. Die Anwendung der Universalität der Menschenrechte erweist sich dann insofern als problematisch, als bestimmte kulturelle, soziale und rechtliche Besonderheiten nicht berücksichtigt werden, wie es die Menschenrechte vorschreiben.Welchen Platz nehmen "schwarze" Frauen im hierarchischen Schema des Weltsystems ein, wenn wir die Doxas der Viktimisierung und des Elends dekonstruieren und sie als neue Rechtssubjekte darstellen, die geführt und verteidigt werden müssen? Können Opfer, aber auch Vervielfältiger von Ungleichheiten und Diskriminierung von Mädchen / Frauen, bestimmte Darstellungen, die "schwarze" Frauen charakterisieren, ihre Quellen in kolonialen Zwischenräumen finden? Wie erfassen Burkinabè-Rechtsnormen Rechte in einem rechtlichen Kontext, der eine Minderwertigkeit des indigenen Rechts gegenüber dem westlichen Recht, ihrer Hauptquelle, in einem Kontext voraussetzt, in dem sich soziale Konfigurationen unterscheiden und sich laut dem Historiker Joseph Ki-Zerbo sogar oft widersprechen? ; Questioning the universality and exportability of Human Rights implies the presupposition that they were developed in a certain socio-legal context and that they are transposed elsewhere. If we remain within the framework of a universalism posited as a dogma, Human Rights seem to know only one truth: that of the relationship of male and "white" domination; the peculiarities (being not "white"), as well as the differences (being women) are then erased. Countries in "black" Africa are exposed to an internationally defined multidimensional hierarchy. As a result, "black" African women undergo a double domination, horizontal (for their color and for their sex), and vertical (by the dominant ones and by the other dominated ones of the chain). The common element that links these two situations is the fact that the color "black" assigns a position in the legal, social, economic, and intellectual order, establishing a relationship of coloniality maintained both by the authors and by the victims. Discriminatory colonial categorizations assume that development aid submitted to them by international institutions and "Western" states is in a perspective of co-constructing the domination assumed by both sides. The application of the universality of human rights then turns out to be problematic insofar as certain cultural, social and legal specificities are not taken into account as required by human rights.What place do "black" women occupy in the hierarchical scheme of the world-system when we deconstruct the doxas of victimization and miserability presenting them as new subjects of law to be guided and defended ? Often victims but also reproducers of inequalities and discrimination against girls / women can certain representations characterizing "black" women find their sources in colonial interstices? How do Burkinabè legal norms grasp rights in a legal context which supposes inferiorizing indigenous law vis-à-vis Western law, their main main source, in a context where social configurations differ, even often contradict each other according to historian Joseph Ki-Zerbo? ; La remise en cause de l'universalité et de l'exportabilité des Droits de l'Homme implique le présupposé qu'ils ont été développés dans un certain contexte sociojuridique et qu'ils sont transposés ailleurs. Si l'on reste dans le cadre d'un universalisme posé comme dogme, les Droits de l'Homme semblent ne connaître qu'une seule vérité: celle du rapport de domination masculine et « blanche »; les particularités (ne pas être « blanc »), ainsi que les différences (être des femmes) sont alors effacées. Les pays d'Afrique « noire » sont exposés à une hiérarchie multidimensionnelle définie au niveau international. En conséquence, les femmes africaines «noires» subissent une double domination, horizontale (pour leur couleur et pour leur sexe), et verticale (par les dominantes et par les autres dominées de la chaîne). L'élément commun qui relie ces deux situations est le fait que la couleur « noire » assigne une position dans l'ordre juridique, social, économique et intellectuel, établissant un rapport de colonialité entretenu tant par les auteurs que par les victimes. Les catégorisations coloniales discriminatoires supposent que l'aide au développement qui leur est soumise par les institutions internationales et les Etats «occidentaux» s'inscrit dans une perspective de co-construction de la domination assumée par les deux parties. L'application de l'universalité des droits de l'homme s'avère alors problématique dans la mesure où certaines spécificités culturelles, sociales et juridiques ne sont pas prises en compte comme l'exigent les droits de l'homme.Quelle place occupent les femmes "noires" dans le schéma hiérarchisé du système-monde lorsqu'on déconstruit les doxas de victimisation et de misérabilisme les présentant comme de nouveaux sujets de droit à guider et à défendre ? Souvent victimes mais aussi reproductrices des inégalités et discriminations contre les filles/ femmes, certaines représentations caractérisant les femmes "noires" peuvent-elles trouver leurs sources dans les interstices coloniales ? Comment les normes juridiques Burkinabè saisissent-elles les droits dans un contexte juridique qui suppose d'inférioriser le droit autochtone vis-à-vis du droit occidental, leur principale source principale, dans un contexte où les configurations sociales diffèrent, voire, se contredisent souvent selon l'historien Joseph Ki-Zerbo ? ; uhoji juu ya ulimwengu na usafirishaji wa Haki za Binadamu kunamaanisha utabiri kwamba zilitengenezwa katika muktadha fulani wa kijamii na kisheria na kwamba zimepelekwa mahali pengine. Ikiwa tutabaki katika mfumo wa ulimwengu unaosababishwa kama fundisho, Haki za Binadamu zinaonekana kujua ukweli mmoja tu: ule wa uhusiano wa utawala wa kiume na "mweupe"; upendeleo (kuwa sio "mweupe"), na vile vile tofauti (kuwa wanawake) zinafutwa. Nchi zilizo Afrika "nyeusi" zinakabiliwa na uongozi wa kimataifa unaofafanuliwa kimataifa. Kama matokeo, wanawake "weusi" wa Kiafrika wanatawaliwa mara mbili, usawa (kwa rangi yao na jinsia yao), na wima (na wale wakubwa na wale wengine wanaotawaliwa na mnyororo). Jambo la kawaida linalounganisha hali hizi mbili ni ukweli kwamba rangi "nyeusi" inapeana msimamo katika utaratibu wa kisheria, kijamii, kiuchumi, na kiakili, ikianzisha uhusiano wa ukoloni unaodumishwa na waandishi na wahasiriwa. Uainishaji wa kikoloni wa ubaguzi hudhani kuwa misaada ya maendeleo iliyowasilishwa kwao na taasisi za kimataifa na majimbo ya "Magharibi" ni katika mtazamo wa kujenga utawala unaodhaniwa na pande zote mbili. Utekelezaji wa haki za binadamu ulimwenguni pote unageuka kuwa shida kulingana na hali fulani za kitamaduni, kijamii na kisheria hazizingatiwi kama inavyotakiwa na haki za binadamu.Je! Wanawake "weusi" wanashikilia nafasi gani katika mpango wa kihierarkia wa mfumo wa ulimwengu wakati tunapounda mada za udhalilishaji na udhalili unaowasilisha kama masomo mapya ya sheria ya kuongozwa na kutetewa? Aghalabu wahasiriwa lakini pia wazalishaji wa ukosefu wa usawa na ubaguzi dhidi ya wasichana / wanawake, je! Uwakilishi fulani wa wanawake "weusi" unaweza kupata vyanzo vyao kwa njia ya ukoloni? Je! Sheria za Burkinabè zinashikiliaje haki katika muktadha wa kisheria ambao unadhania kudharau sheria za asili dhidi ya sheria ya Magharibi, chanzo kikuu chao, katika hali ambayo mipangilio ya kijamii inatofautiana, hata mara nyingi hupingana kulingana na mwanahistoria Joseph Ki-Zerbo?
Die Infragestellung der Universalität und Exportierbarkeit der Menschenrechte setzt voraus, dass sie in einem bestimmten sozio-rechtlichen Kontext entwickelt wurden und an anderer Stelle umgesetzt werden. Wenn wir im Rahmen eines als Dogma gesetzten Universalismus bleiben, scheinen die Menschenrechte nur eine Wahrheit zu kennen: die des Verhältnisses von männlicher und "weißer" Herrschaft; Die Besonderheiten (nicht "weiß" sein) sowie die Unterschiede (Frauen sein) werden dann gelöscht. Länder im "schwarzen" Afrika sind einer international definierten mehrdimensionalen Hierarchie ausgesetzt. Infolgedessen unterliegen "schwarze" afrikanische Frauen einer doppelten Dominanz, horizontal (für ihre Farbe und für ihr Geschlecht) und vertikal (von den dominanten und von den anderen dominierten der Kette). Das gemeinsame Element, das diese beiden Situationen verbindet, ist die Tatsache, dass die Farbe "Schwarz" eine Position in der rechtlichen, sozialen, wirtschaftlichen und intellektuellen Ordnung zuweist und ein Kolonialitätsverhältnis herstellt, das sowohl von den Autoren als auch von den Opfern aufrechterhalten wird. Diskriminierende koloniale Kategorisierungen gehen davon aus, dass die ihnen von internationalen Institutionen und "westlichen" Staaten vorgelegte Entwicklungshilfe die von beiden Seiten angenommene Dominanz mitkonstruieren soll. Die Anwendung der Universalität der Menschenrechte erweist sich dann insofern als problematisch, als bestimmte kulturelle, soziale und rechtliche Besonderheiten nicht berücksichtigt werden, wie es die Menschenrechte vorschreiben.Welchen Platz nehmen "schwarze" Frauen im hierarchischen Schema des Weltsystems ein, wenn wir die Doxas der Viktimisierung und des Elends dekonstruieren und sie als neue Rechtssubjekte darstellen, die geführt und verteidigt werden müssen? Können Opfer, aber auch Vervielfältiger von Ungleichheiten und Diskriminierung von Mädchen / Frauen, bestimmte Darstellungen, die "schwarze" Frauen charakterisieren, ihre Quellen in kolonialen Zwischenräumen finden? Wie erfassen Burkinabè-Rechtsnormen Rechte in einem rechtlichen Kontext, der eine Minderwertigkeit des indigenen Rechts gegenüber dem westlichen Recht, ihrer Hauptquelle, in einem Kontext voraussetzt, in dem sich soziale Konfigurationen unterscheiden und sich laut dem Historiker Joseph Ki-Zerbo sogar oft widersprechen? ; Questioning the universality and exportability of Human Rights implies the presupposition that they were developed in a certain socio-legal context and that they are transposed elsewhere. If we remain within the framework of a universalism posited as a dogma, Human Rights seem to know only one truth: that of the relationship of male and "white" domination; the peculiarities (being not "white"), as well as the differences (being women) are then erased. Countries in "black" Africa are exposed to an internationally defined multidimensional hierarchy. As a result, "black" African women undergo a double domination, horizontal (for their color and for their sex), and vertical (by the dominant ones and by the other dominated ones of the chain). The common element that links these two situations is the fact that the color "black" assigns a position in the legal, social, economic, and intellectual order, establishing a relationship of coloniality maintained both by the authors and by the victims. Discriminatory colonial categorizations assume that development aid submitted to them by international institutions and "Western" states is in a perspective of co-constructing the domination assumed by both sides. The application of the universality of human rights then turns out to be problematic insofar as certain cultural, social and legal specificities are not taken into account as required by human rights.What place do "black" women occupy in the hierarchical scheme of the world-system when we deconstruct the doxas of victimization and miserability presenting them as new subjects of law to be guided and defended ? Often victims but also reproducers of inequalities and discrimination against girls / women can certain representations characterizing "black" women find their sources in colonial interstices? How do Burkinabè legal norms grasp rights in a legal context which supposes inferiorizing indigenous law vis-à-vis Western law, their main main source, in a context where social configurations differ, even often contradict each other according to historian Joseph Ki-Zerbo? ; La remise en cause de l'universalité et de l'exportabilité des Droits de l'Homme implique le présupposé qu'ils ont été développés dans un certain contexte sociojuridique et qu'ils sont transposés ailleurs. Si l'on reste dans le cadre d'un universalisme posé comme dogme, les Droits de l'Homme semblent ne connaître qu'une seule vérité: celle du rapport de domination masculine et « blanche »; les particularités (ne pas être « blanc »), ainsi que les différences (être des femmes) sont alors effacées. Les pays d'Afrique « noire » sont exposés à une hiérarchie multidimensionnelle définie au niveau international. En conséquence, les femmes africaines «noires» subissent une double domination, horizontale (pour leur couleur et pour leur sexe), et verticale (par les dominantes et par les autres dominées de la chaîne). L'élément commun qui relie ces deux situations est le fait que la couleur « noire » assigne une position dans l'ordre juridique, social, économique et intellectuel, établissant un rapport de colonialité entretenu tant par les auteurs que par les victimes. Les catégorisations coloniales discriminatoires supposent que l'aide au développement qui leur est soumise par les institutions internationales et les Etats «occidentaux» s'inscrit dans une perspective de co-construction de la domination assumée par les deux parties. L'application de l'universalité des droits de l'homme s'avère alors problématique dans la mesure où certaines spécificités culturelles, sociales et juridiques ne sont pas prises en compte comme l'exigent les droits de l'homme.Quelle place occupent les femmes "noires" dans le schéma hiérarchisé du système-monde lorsqu'on déconstruit les doxas de victimisation et de misérabilisme les présentant comme de nouveaux sujets de droit à guider et à défendre ? Souvent victimes mais aussi reproductrices des inégalités et discriminations contre les filles/ femmes, certaines représentations caractérisant les femmes "noires" peuvent-elles trouver leurs sources dans les interstices coloniales ? Comment les normes juridiques Burkinabè saisissent-elles les droits dans un contexte juridique qui suppose d'inférioriser le droit autochtone vis-à-vis du droit occidental, leur principale source principale, dans un contexte où les configurations sociales diffèrent, voire, se contredisent souvent selon l'historien Joseph Ki-Zerbo ? ; uhoji juu ya ulimwengu na usafirishaji wa Haki za Binadamu kunamaanisha utabiri kwamba zilitengenezwa katika muktadha fulani wa kijamii na kisheria na kwamba zimepelekwa mahali pengine. Ikiwa tutabaki katika mfumo wa ulimwengu unaosababishwa kama fundisho, Haki za Binadamu zinaonekana kujua ukweli mmoja tu: ule wa uhusiano wa utawala wa kiume na "mweupe"; upendeleo (kuwa sio "mweupe"), na vile vile tofauti (kuwa wanawake) zinafutwa. Nchi zilizo Afrika "nyeusi" zinakabiliwa na uongozi wa kimataifa unaofafanuliwa kimataifa. Kama matokeo, wanawake "weusi" wa Kiafrika wanatawaliwa mara mbili, usawa (kwa rangi yao na jinsia yao), na wima (na wale wakubwa na wale wengine wanaotawaliwa na mnyororo). Jambo la kawaida linalounganisha hali hizi mbili ni ukweli kwamba rangi "nyeusi" inapeana msimamo katika utaratibu wa kisheria, kijamii, kiuchumi, na kiakili, ikianzisha uhusiano wa ukoloni unaodumishwa na waandishi na wahasiriwa. Uainishaji wa kikoloni wa ubaguzi hudhani kuwa misaada ya maendeleo iliyowasilishwa kwao na taasisi za kimataifa na majimbo ya "Magharibi" ni katika mtazamo wa kujenga utawala unaodhaniwa na pande zote mbili. Utekelezaji wa haki za binadamu ulimwenguni pote unageuka kuwa shida kulingana na hali fulani za kitamaduni, kijamii na kisheria hazizingatiwi kama inavyotakiwa na haki za binadamu.Je! Wanawake "weusi" wanashikilia nafasi gani katika mpango wa kihierarkia wa mfumo wa ulimwengu wakati tunapounda mada za udhalilishaji na udhalili unaowasilisha kama masomo mapya ya sheria ya kuongozwa na kutetewa? Aghalabu wahasiriwa lakini pia wazalishaji wa ukosefu wa usawa na ubaguzi dhidi ya wasichana / wanawake, je! Uwakilishi fulani wa wanawake "weusi" unaweza kupata vyanzo vyao kwa njia ya ukoloni? Je! Sheria za Burkinabè zinashikiliaje haki katika muktadha wa kisheria ambao unadhania kudharau sheria za asili dhidi ya sheria ya Magharibi, chanzo kikuu chao, katika hali ambayo mipangilio ya kijamii inatofautiana, hata mara nyingi hupingana kulingana na mwanahistoria Joseph Ki-Zerbo?
Most forests in Baden-Württemberg and Germany are managed, among other objectives, for the production of timber. In Germany and the EU there is a strong political direction towards a more bio-based economy to decrease the reliance on fossil fuels and to reduce the emissions caused by using fossil fuels and energy-intensive materials. Accordingly, policies and strategies have been developed to promote the use of bio-based materials. Currently, most biomass used for the bioeconomy is being harvested from forests. The increasing demand could lead to intensified harvesting of woody biomass from existing forests. This has raised concerns about possible impacts on biodiversity of forests. The influence of forest harvesting on biodiversity is difficult to assess in a comprehensive way and is typically only done in experiments or case studies. Hence there is no information for the total forest area of any given region, because we do not have a consistent monitoring of forest biodiversity. Instead of measuring different elements of biodiversity directly, it is possible to use the structural diversity of forests, which indicates the diversity of habitats, as a surrogate. This approach was used in this study to develop a tool that could be used to address future impacts and to identify thresholds of harvesting intensity that cause little or no harm on forest structural diversity. On basis of the second National Forest Inventory of Germany for the state of Baden-Württemberg (NFI2002), this project developed an index (FSI: Forest Structure Index) to assess the level of structural diversity. To include as many aspects of structural diversity in forests as possible, this index was calculated using eleven variables that were derived from this set of forest inventory data and cover important aspects of structural diversity. The many variables sampled in the NFI of Germany allow an assessment of different structural aspects, which are required to quantify structural diversity. The result was an assessment of the presence / absence or expression of structural elements and thereby structural diversity across many sites. The FSI was also calculated for NFI2012 and changes over a period of ten years (2002 – 2012) were analysed for different types of forests. The results show that NFI data of Germany and other countries with similar types of inventories can be used to calculate an index to describe structural diversity of forests; most of the important aspects of structural diversity can be derived from NFI data and were included in the FSI. Some aspects such as information on the litter-layer or microhabitats, however, remain excluded. The results show an increase in structural diversity for most of the analysed types of forests for the period 2002 – 2012, only young stand development phases showed a decrease of structural diversity (chapter 2). While there are always some taxonomic groups (TGs) that are related to particular structural attributes, we don't know whether the whole range of different taxonomic groups in forests is actually related to the suite of structural attributes. To assess how well the FSI captured the variation in occurrence of forest-dwelling species I calibrated the index of structural diversity against comprehensive data on forest biodiversity. These data were available from the German Biodiversity Exploratories, where many different taxonomic groups (like birds, bats, vascular plants, bryophytes, lichen, fungi and different groups of insects) were measured on the same forest plots. For some of the tested taxonomic groups (e.g. the group of birds and deadwood fungi), the overall FSI-score can be used to successfully describe the presence / absence of species or the diversity of TGs across different types of forest stands. In addition, knowledge about important structural elements for individual tested TGs can be gained by analysing the correlation with single variables of the index. Subsequently taxon-specific indices could be developed on this basis. Some TGs were related to the structural diversity index only in single regions or in particular types of forest stands. Variation within a third class of TGs (e.g. orthoptera and hymenoptera) was not explained by the performance of the FSI. Here, either other structural elements may be important for the habitat of these taxonomic groups, or they may be more dependent on the abiotic environment or management related aspects (chapter 3). In a third step, harvesting intensities for the period 2002 - 2012 were calculated on the basis of NFI data and combined with changes of the developed index at the plot-level. For this purpose, the influence of increasing harvesting intensities in different types of forests were analysed and recommendations for suitable harvesting intensities, regarding the maintenance of structural diversity, were made. This calculation was based on 10%-classes for harvesting intensities. This was necessary because the NFI of Germany uses the angle-count sampling method for many tree-related variables and hence plot information is not representative for the forest stands in which it was sampled. The influence of harvesting intensity on changes in the structural diversity index between inventory periods was therefore aggregated to form larger classes such as forest types or different stand development phases to produce more reliable and plausible results. These results show that some types of forests are influenced more negatively by increasing harvesting intensities than others. For all forest types analysed, except young stand development phases, a slight increase in structural diversity as expressed by the developed diversity index, was found for the period 2002 – 2012. Harvesting removals in this period were less than the biomass increment, indicating that future harvesting could theoretically be intensified without a loss in structural diversity, especially in conifer-dominated stands (mainly middle-aged spruce-dominated stands). Broadleaf-dominated forest stands show less potential for increasing harvesting intensity before a loss in structural diversity will be observed (chapter 4). With this structural diversity index, originally developed for the large-scale forest inventory data of Baden-Württemberg, an assessment of structural diversity can be performed. Changes over 10-year periods can be analysed and recommendations for suitable harvesting intensities at the level of forest types can be developed. Results of our study show the potential for using structural variables of forests, derived from large-scale inventory data of Germany, to describe species diversity of some tested taxonomic groups like birds or deadwood fungi. As a next step, the potential for predicting the presence or diversity of single taxonomic groups by structural elements and their expressions on inventory plots could be examined, such as where data on species is missing, and to extrapolate this information to a larger scale. So far, a tool to assess the level of structural diversity across many sites has been missing. The FSI developed in this study can be used to support decision making processes or societal debates on the use of forests. In general, harvesting activities do not necessarily influence the level of structural diversity negatively. In some types of forests, low harvesting intensities can even have slightly positive effects on structural diversity and thereby also on species diversity. These results indicate the possible increase in harvesting intensity in some types of forest stands and the amount of additional harvested woody biomass from existing forests could be used to support a growing bioeconomy sector in Baden-Württemberg or Germany.
The value of Patriotism is an important identity that is shaped in the shadow of the internal and external conjuncture for the people who have a strong sense of belonging. This research, which addresses the views of Afghan refugee students attending to secondary education on patriotism, clearly demonstrates how effective their situation is. When the residence time of Afghan students in Turkey was examined, despite living a short time in Turkey, it is a remarkable situation for majority of them to adapt to the environment in a short time, to speak colloquial Turkish well, and to answer to the questions heartily. In this context, it is thought that the reason why Turkish citizens treat them well is that they love Turkey and Turkish people. It is clear that the main reason for them to immigrate to Turkey is the war in Afghanistan and the wish to get better education in Turkey. Afghan students are very happy to be in Turkey. It is because Turkey is in peace, there is no war, and almost all Afghan children at school age can attend to schools. This is partly compatible with the findings of Tosun et al (2018) that Muslim students from foreign countries do not feel themselves foreigner in Eskişehir in terms of religion. All the students except one have declared that they want to return their country after the war has ended, which suggests that the bond to their homeland is still strong. The drawings that Afghan students did in their mind, and the statements for those drawings point out the themes of Beautiful Turkey, Helpful Turkey and Muslim Turkey. The fact that most of the students have drawn Turkey as a peaceful, safe and liveable country is compatible with their previous statements. They remarked in their statements that among the reasons of their happiness to be in Turkey are that they live in peace and safe. In addition, their drawings of Turkey with Turkish flag can be explained as their respect and trust in Turkey. In one drawing, the animation of Turkey with ambulance shows that he finds Turkish people to be very helpful. It has been determined that Afghan students do not have enough knowledge about the independence anthem of Turkey. This can be because the students are here for about a year. However, few students who have been living in Turkey for 7 years admit that they do not fully know the Turkish anthem. The definition of patriotism by the students are on fighting and dying for homeland. It is clear that the value of patriotism is on the top of their priorities. This finding is compatible with those of Özensel (2007), Gömleksiz and Cüro (2011), and Elban (2015) that the levels of the students' attitudes to the value of patriotism are high. The patriotic recipes of the students draw attention to the emphasis on fighting for the sake of the homeland and dying. In this respect, it is understood that patriotism places students at the top of their value hierarchy. These results of the study are consistent with those of Özensel (2007), Gömleksiz and Cüro (2011) and Elban (2015) that students' positive attitude towards patriotism is high. In addition to dying for homeland, it is important for students to see scientific, religious, social Journal of Social And Humanities Sciences Research (JSHSR) 2018 Vol:5 Issue:29 pp:3806-3817 Jshsr.com Journal of Social and Humanities Sciences Research (ISSN:2459-1149) editor.Jshsr@gmail.com 3816 and individual benefits as part of patriotism. In the definitions of the students, it is important that they consider the struggling and dying for homeland, producing scientific, religious, social and individual benefits as the part of patriotism. We concluded that Afghan students keep love for their homeland, they were forced to migrate Turkey due to compelling reasons, they are very happy with Turkish people as they welcome afghan immigrants to their country, and the aids by Turkish people, and they have positive feelings to Turkey and Turkish people ; There is a compelling and internal relationship between patriotism and the state organism and its political body, as a feeling that manifests itself in all areas and periods of life. The purpose of this research is to determine the understanding of patriotism of Afghan refugee students in secondary schools in Erzincan and their national feelings and awareness of national consciousness for Turkey they live in. Qualitative research method and case study pattern were used in the study. The universe of the research was made up of Afghan students at Imam Hatip High School and Fatih Vocational and Technical Anatolian High School in the province of Erzincan in the 2016-2017 academic year. The study group consisted of a total of twelve students who were chosen by the maximum diversity sampling among these students. Focus group interview was used as data collection technique and semi-structured interview form as data collection tool. Students' drawings and descriptions are grouped into three sub-themes such as Beautiful Turkey, Helpful Turkey and Muslim Turkey. The definition of patriotism is gathered in four subthemes such as fighting/dying, serving/beautifying, protecting citizens and training. According to the results of the survey, Afghan students keep on their love for their homeland, they are forced to migrate to Turkey, they are happy with the help and behaviour of Turkish people against them. They maintain that they have positive feelings against Turkey and the Turkish people./Yaşamın her alanı ve her döneminde vatanseverlik ile devlet ve devletin siyasi yapılanması arasında kendini gösteren bir duygu olarak, zorunlu ve içsel bir ilişki vardır. Bu araştırmanın amacı, Erzincan`da ortaöğretim okullarında öğrenim gören Afgan Mülteci öğrencilerin Vatanperverlik anlayışlarının belirlenmesi, şu anda yaşadıkları ülke olan Türkiye'ye karşı milli duygularının ve milli şuur farkındalıklarının tespit edilmesidir. Araştırmada nitel araştırma yöntemi ve durum çalışması deseni kullanılmıştır. Araştırmanın evrenini 2016-2017 eğitim-öğretim yılında Erzincan il merkezinde bulunan İmam Hatip Lisesi ve Fatih Mesleki ve Teknik Anadolu Lisesinde okuyan Afgan mülteci öğrenciler; çalışma grubunu da bu öğrenciler arasından maksimum çeşitlilik örneklemesiyle seçilen toplam on iki öğrenci oluşturmaktadır. Araştırmada veri toplama tekniği olarak odak grup görüşmesi, veri toplama aracı olarak da yarı yapılandırılmış görüşme formu kullanılmıştır. Araştırmada elde edilen veriler, betimsel analiz yöntemiyle değerlendirilmiştir. Öğrencilerin çizim ve açıklamaları; Güzel Türkiye, Yardımsever Türkiye ve Müslüman Türkiye şeklinde üç alt temada toplanırken vatanseverlik tarifleri savaşmak/ölmek, hizmet etmek/güzelleştirmek, vatandaşlara sahip çıkmak, okumak şeklinde dört alt temada Afganlı Öğrencilerin öz vatanlarına karşı sevgilerinin devam ettiği, mücbir sebeplerle Türkiye`ye göç etmek zorunda kaldıkları, Türkiye`de kendilerine sunulan yardım vb. imkanlar ve Türk vatandaşlarının kucak açması sebebiyle mutlu oldukları, Türkiye`ye karşı ve Türk halkına karşı olumlu duygular besledikleri görülmüştür.
Con el estudio de caso de Joaquín Muñoz Delgado, natural de Lorca, procesado por la Inquisición de México en 1784 y otros profesionales con conocimientos científico-tecnológicos, nos proponemos como objetivos de esta tesis doctoral entender la influencia del reformismo de la Monarquía. Saber si la tecnología y su apropiación cultural pudieron influir en la modernización del pensamiento de esos profesionales y cómo difundieron ese pensamiento entre la sociedad española de finales del XVIII y principios del XIX. Demostrar que la Ilustración española fue lo suficientemente activa para que las ideas ilustradas calaran en esos profesionales, entre los que surgiría un pensamiento contemporáneo. Intentaremos demostrar que la tecnología era considerada ya como paradigma de cultura, poder y ascensión social. Por último objetivo, iniciar una vía de investigación que estudie esos grupos de profesionales que podrían ser el enlace entre la cultura ilustrada de élite y la cultura popular de la España del XVIII. La metodología utilizada será la propia de la historia cultural, que aúna conocimientos y metodologías de diferentes disciplinas. Además del enfoque biográfico y la metodología del "cambio de escala" usado en microhistoria. También el análisis típico de la historia del discurso, que entronca directamente con la historia de los conceptos y las metáforas, utilizando el enfoque de la historia cultural de la tecnología. Los principales archivos y fuentes documentales consultadas para la investigación han sido: el proceso de fe de Muñoz y Laxe en el AGN de México y AHN de Madrid, La alegación fiscal de Olmedo en el AHN, el testamento de Muñoz en el AHP de Málaga y un pleito de Muñoz en el Archivo del Palacio Real, junto a varios procesos y alegaciones por el delito de proposiciones de otros profesionales. Como conclusiones decir que la tesis profundiza en el pensamiento ilustrado a niveles cotidianos. Dicho pensamiento se había permeado ya a grupos de la sociedad española. Profesionales que utilizaron el discurso ilustrado, enfrentando un nuevo paradigma científico-tecnológico contra el existente mágico-religioso, para subvertir la situación de privilegio, creando conflictos que obligaban a tener en cuenta la relación entre mérito y progreso alentada por la Monarquía. La figura de Muñoz se identifica como el eslabón perdido de la Ilustración española, el representante arquetípico de los profesionales antes mencionados, el enlace entre el pensamiento ilustrado de élite y el pueblo llano. Un grupo que se encuentra a nivel popular y que será agente de descrédito del pensamiento tradicional, mucho más peligroso que la alta cultura ilustrada, ya que adapta ese pensamiento al discurso popular. Un término medio diferente, políticamente activo, muy subversivo y culturalmente muy corrosivo desde el punto de vista de la tradición. "Espíritus fuertes", "Libertinos del día" que instrumentalizaban el discurso ilustrado desmontando cualquier argumentación teológica, amparándose en el uso de conceptos y metáforas tecnológicas. La riqueza de pensamiento desarrollado por Muñoz, su hermano Fermín Olmedo y su amigo Francisco Laxe, representantes de la Ilustración radical, ateos materialistas y de pensamiento transformista, nos aporta una recepción de las ideas ilustradas, la apropiación, transformación y difusión de dichas ideas. En contrapartida, los defensores de la estructura del Antiguo Régimen no estaban dispuestos a ceder y por supuesto no sólo fue un conflicto de ideas. El discurso ilustrado impregnó la retórica oficial de la Monarquía y se abrían nuevas oportunidades de promoción generando conflictos. El proceso de Muñoz muestra las ambigüedades de un periodo de incertidumbre donde la lucha, inherente a las dinámicas de competición por la hegemonía, estaba abierta y protagonizaría las décadas siguientes. Futuros estudios microhistóricos y prosopográficos de estos grupos de profesionales nos ayudarán a conocer mejor la Ilustración española. ABSTRACT: With the case study of Joaquin Muñoz Delgado, a native of Lorca, tried by the Inquisition in Mexico in 1784 and other professionals with scientific and technological knowledge, we set the objectives of this dissertation: to understand the influence of reformism of the Monarchy, to know if technology and cultural appropriation could influence in the modernization of thinking of these professionals and how to spread the utilitarian and progressive thinking among the Spanish society of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Also to demonstrate that the Spanish Enlightenment was active enough for the Enlightenment ideas to permeate these professionals, among which a contemporary thinking would arise. We try to demonstrate that the technology was already considered as a paradigm of culture, power and social ascension. As final purpose, start a research pathway to study these groups of professionals who could be the link between enlightened elite culture and popular culture of the eighteenth century Spain. The methodology used is the own of cultural history, which combines knowledge and methodologies from different disciplines. In addition the biographical approach and methodology of the "change of scale" used in micro-history. Also the typical analysis of the history of speech, which is directly linked to the history of concepts and metaphors, using the approach of cultural history of technology. The main files and consulted documentary sources for research were: the process of faith Muñoz and Laxe in the AGN of Mexico and AHN Madrid, tax claim Olmedo in the AHN, the will of Muñoz in the AHP of Malaga and a lawsuit of Muñoz in the Archives of the Royal Palace, with several processes and claims for the crime of propositions from other professionals. As conclusions say that the thesis delves into Enlightenment thought to everyday levels. Such thinking had already permeated Spanish society groups. Professionals who used the illustrated speech, facing a new scientific-technological paradigm against the old magic-religious paradigm, to subvert the privileged position, creating conflicts that forced them to take into account the relationship between merit and progress encouraged by the Monarchy. Muñoz figure is identified as the missing link of the Spanish Enlightenment, the archetypical representative of the aforementioned professionals, the link between the enlightened elite and the common people. People that are at a popular level and that will be discrediting agents of traditional thinking; much more dangerous than high enlightened culture because they adapt this kind of thought to popular discourse. A different point of view, politically active, very subversive and culturally highly corrosive from the standpoint of tradition. "Strong spirits", "Libertines of the day" who instrumentalized the enlightened speech, removing any theological argument, relying on the use of concepts and technological metaphors. The richness of thought developed by Muñoz, his brother Fermín Olmedo and his friend Francisco Laxe, representatives of the radical Enlightenment, materialistic atheists and with a transformist thought, gives us a reception of enlightened ideas, appropriation, transformation and dissemination of these ideas. On the other hand, defenders of the old regime structure were not willing to give up and of course it was not just a conflict of ideas. The illustrated speech permeated the official rhetoric of the Monarchy and opened new promotional opportunities, generating conflicts. The process of Muñoz shows the ambiguities of a period surrounded by uncertainty where the struggle, inherent in the dynamics of competition for hegemony, was open and would carry out during the following decades. Future micro-historical studies and prosopography studies about these professional groups will help us better to understand the Spanish Enlightenment.
Introducción Las Instrucciones Previas suponen una reafirmación de la autonomía de los ciudadanos en momentos de incapacidad para la toma de decisiones. España, a pesar del gran desarrollo legislativo al respecto, presenta un limitado conocimiento y uso del documento de Instrucciones Previas entre la población. Objetivo Evaluar el conocimiento, formalización y actitud hacia el documento de Instrucciones Previas de los usuarios del Servicio Murciano de Salud, así como analizar sus deseos de cuidados al final de la vida y preferencias de tratamiento de soporte vital. También investigamos sobre la predisposición de los ciudadanos a la donación de órganos para trasplante y los factores asociados. Material y métodos Estudio observacional descriptivo transversal, desarrollado en consultas de Atención Primaria de las Áreas de Salud I, III, IV y VII del Servicio Murciano de Salud, desde Septiembre de 2012 a Junio de 2013. Como herramienta de recogida de datos, se empleó una encuesta diseñada ad hoc. Dicha encuesta, autocumplimentada por los participantes, recogía las variables sociodemográficas del usuario, variables relacionadas con su salud y experiencias vitales, así como el grado de conocimiento, formalización y actitud hacia el documento de Instrucciones Previas, y los deseos de cuidados al final de la vida. Las preferencias de tratamiento de soporte vital fueron recogidas mediante el cuestionario Life Support Preferences Questionnaire (LSPQ). La población de estudio estuvo compuesta por usuarios del Servicio Murciano de Salud que acudieron a consultas de Atención Primaria. Se repartieron 1200 encuestas, de las cuales fueron realizadas 1051. Resultados La muestra presentó una edad media de 39,65 años (DE: 14,46; Rango: 18-87), siendo el 60,1% del total mujeres. El 56,3% tenía estudios universitarios, el 92,6% era de origen español y el 72,2% se declaró católico. El 52,6% manifestó tener un estado de salud bueno o muy bueno, y el 27,4% había sufrido la pérdida de un familiar en el último año. El 65,7% desconocía el documento de Instrucciones Previas, y solo el 3,3% lo había formalizado. El 24,8% lo realizaría en los próximos tres meses. Tras el análisis de regresión logística se asociaron al desconocimiento del documento tener bajo nivel de estudios, ausencia de enfermedades crónicas y ausencia de actividad laboral. El 47,8% había pensado alguna vez sobre cómo le gustaría ser tratado al final de la vida; el 88,2% hablaría sobre este tema con su familia; el 42,6% lo había hecho en alguna ocasión. Al 50% le gustaría que su médico le preguntara sobre este asunto. El 74,2% preferiría morir en su casa y el 45,6% ser enterrado. El 71,8% donaría sus órganos para trasplante, y los factores que resultaron estar asociados a una actitud desfavorable hacia la donación fueron bajo nivel de estudios, ser extranjero, ser varón y tener un mal estado de salud. Los participantes mostraron una actitud positiva hacia los tratamientos de soporte vital, excepto en el caso de muy mal pronóstico, encontrándose como factores asociados al rechazo del tratamiento la edad, las creencias religiosas y las experiencias vitales. Conclusiones Existe un escaso conocimiento y uso del documento de Instrucciones Previas entre la población, evidenciando la necesidad de iniciar proyectos de formación a los profesionales y de promoción entre los ciudadanos. La comunicación sobre los deseos al final de la vida del paciente no alcanza los niveles deseados en las consultas médicas ni en las familias, así que debe ser mejorada para conseguir una adecuada Planificación Anticipada de Decisiones. Aunque la predisposición de la población para la donación de órganos para trasplante alcanza niveles considerables, las instituciones deben seguir fomentando la donación. Múltiples factores y circunstancias influyen en las preferencias de tratamiento de soporte vital, por lo cual los profesionales sanitarios deben explorar los deseos de los pacientes y tener en cuenta sus características individuales. Introduction Advance Directives mean a reaffirmation of citizens' autonomy in times of disability for taking decisions. Spain, in spite of the great legislative development in this subject, shows a limited knowledge and use of Advance Directives among the population. Objective To evaluate knowledge, completion rates and attitude towards Advance Directives for users of the Murcia Health Service, as well as to analyse their wishes of care at the end of life and preferences for life support treatment. We also perform research into the predisposition of citizens towards organ donation for transplantation and associated factors. Material and methods Descriptive cross-sectional study developed in Primary Care Centres from Health Areas I, III, IV and VII from the Murcia Health Service, from September 2012 to June 2013. An ad hoc designed survey was used as a tool for gathering data. That survey, filled in by the participants, contained sociodemographic variables from users, variables related with their health and life experiences, as well as the level of knowledge, completion rates and attitude towards Advance Directives, and their wishes of care at the end of their lives. Preferences for life support treatment were gathered by a Life Support Preferences Questionnaire (LSPQ). The studied population was made up of users of the Murcia Health Service that went to Primary Care Centres. 1200 surveys were delivered, of which1051 were completed. Results The mean age of participants was 39.65 years (SD: 14,46; Range: 18-87), 60,1% were women. 56,3% had a university education, 92,6% were Spanish and 72,2% declared themselves as Catholic. 52,6% expressed having a good or very good state of health, and 27,4% had suffered the loss of a relative in the last year. 65,7% did not know Advance Directives, and just 3,3% had completed it. 24,8% would do it in the three next months. After logistic regression analysis, low education level, lack of chronic disease and lack of labour activity were the primary factors relating to the lack of awareness of the document. 47,8% had at some point thought about how they would like to be treated at the end of their lives; 88,2% would talk about this with their families; 42,6% had discussed it at some point. 50% would like their doctor to ask them about this. 74,2% would prefer to die in their home and 45,6% would like to be buried. 71,8% would donate their organs for transplantation, and the factors that seemed to be related to an unfavourable attitude towards donation were low level education, being a foreigner, being male and having a bad state of health. Participants showed a positive attitude towards life support treatments, apart from the case of a very bad prognosis, factors related to the rejection of treatment were found to be age, religious beliefs and life experiences. Conclusions There is a lack of knowledge and use of Advance Directives among the population, making clear the need to start training projects for professionals as well as promotion projects among the citizens. Communication about citizens' wishes at the end of their lives does not reach desired levels in medical consultations or families, so it must be improved in order to get a proper Advanced Care Planning. Although the population predisposition for organ donation for transplantation reaches considerable levels, institutions must continue encouraging donation. Multiple factors and circumstances have influenced in preferences for life support treatment, therefore health professionals must explore the wishes of patients and keep in mind their individual characteristics.
The Urban Millennium, as the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA, 2007)1 terms this century's anticipated mass urbanisation, is well upon us. Yet what is this millennial thing that we enter into or that, more precisely, is settling upon us? The sheer volume of discourses seeking to account for the urban likely point to deeper cultural anxieties about the worth, utility, and even the sense of cities. Worse, the plethora of claims on the evolving value of urban place potentially operate as cover for something far more disconcerting – what Jean-Luc Nancy, recognising a lapse in world-naming and centring (as found in the perenial papal address Urbi et orbi), has referred to as a building "glomicity", a planetary urbanism without urbanity or civility (2007: 37). For Saskia Sassen, cities contribute to a "savage sorting" subsisting with the hyper-financialisation and reduction of the social and public realms worldwide (2014: 4). As such we might wonder at the sheer brutality (nevermind banality) of the commodification unfolding with the network vectors of the urban phenomenon. Further, if we follow Arjun Appadurai and James Holston (2003), cities – with their sorting out of the trustworthy from the suspicious, the haves from the have-nots and the positing of new economic and cultural elites - are at one level antithetical to national territoriality, and at another, are incubators precisely where the tumult of citizenship is worked out against a backdrop of highly contested, sometimes violently contested, identity claims. Henri Lefebvre (2003), rejecting appeals to 'the city' itself as a meaningful measure of post-industrial sociality, has asserted, as early as the 1960s, the irreversable presencing of a global, "urban phenomenon", one problematically fitting out the world according to the socioeconomic and sociopolitical fields of global capitalism. Such a phenomenon, for Lefebvre, testifies to a plethora of far from synchronous logics – of "things (objects) [,…] of play (or sports)", of capital etc. – to the point that "there are faults, voids, and lacunae everywhere" (2003: 86). Consequently, any analysis of the operational levels of the urban phenomenon and its object and spatial fields, reveal a remainder irreducable to the logistics attempting to take hold of it. If for Lefebvre something like a "differential space" - of heterogenous aggregation or accumulation (2003: 125) - defines the urban, and one only operates within it as if in a "blind field", a quest to know the urban phenomenon comes up against a "virtual object" of uncertain ontological basis. If for Lefebvre, in the previous century a metaphilosophy of the urban was demanded (2003: 64-65) , what contra-philosophy might be aposite for this urban millennium? With this in mind, we invite you to contribute your own projects and thoughts on an urban metaphilosophy in the forthcoming issue of Interstices, Journal of Architecture and Related Arts titled "The Urban Thing". For Bruno Latour (reading Martin Heidegger), the etymology of the word 'thing' reveals beneath our now routine association of it with mute objects and brute materiality, a cluster of older associations centred on public assembly and political convening. Taking things themselves to be indicative of complex assemblies, Latour calls for a substitution of a Realpolitik - itself underwritten by a human/nonhuman division - by a Dingpolitik, a new attendance on the articulatory, conjoining agency of things themselves. What might a Dingpolitik of the urban that resists or is richer in intimacy than commodity culture offer? What ontological frameworks might counter older logics of expulsion? Might the new object ontologies centred on the autonomy of things offer renewed vantage - Karen Barad's "material-discursive practices" (2007: 146), Graham Harman's (2005) "object orientated philosophy" or Katherine Hayles' (2013) speculative aesthetics for instance? Are there as yet unrecognised complexities harboured by our culture of ubiquitous things as suggested in Bill Brown's "thing theory" (2004)? Or might today's exclusionary logic directed to peoples and biosphere draw on Giorgio Agamben's (2007) thinking through of the cultic drive underwriting capitalist profanation? Do Tonino Griffero's (2014) atmospheric "quasi-objects" or Latour's "phantom public" provide better expositional tools for apprehending the urban phenomenon today? Indeed, what do we get at all by thinking about phenomena and things themselves as 'urban things'? Please submit full papers for the Interstices 16 journal issue to Dr Susan Hedges (shedges@aut.ac.nz) by 19 June 2015. Interstices accepts both academic and practice-oriented, fully written as well as visual, contributions that engage with the issue theme. For the double blind refereed section of the journal, we welcome submission of 5000 word papers and visual submissions with an accompanying text of approximately 500 words. For the non-refereed section, we welcome papers up to 2500 words and project reports and reviews of up to 1000 words. Visit our website to view the Guidelines for Submissions for details about the reviewing process, copyright issues and formatting: http://interstices.ac.nz/information-for-contributors/guidelines-for-submissions/. We look forward to your contribution! Issue Editors: Andrew Douglas & Hannah Hopewell References: Agamben, G. (2007). Profanations (J. Fort, Trans.). New York, NY: Zone Books. Appadurai, A. & Holston, J. (2003). Cities and citizenship. In N. Brenner, B. Jessop. M. Jones, G. MacLeod (Eds.), State/space: A reader (pp. 296-308). Malden, MA: Blackwell. Barad, K. (2007). Meeting the universe halfway: Quantum Physics and the entanglement of matter and meaning. Durham, NC & London, England: Duke University Press. Brown, B. (2004). Thing theory. In Brown, B. (Ed.), Things (pp. 1-22). Chicago, Ill & London, England: The University of Chicago Press. Griffero, T. (2014). Atmospheres: Aesthetics of emotional space (S. De Sanctis, Trans.). Farnham, England & Burlington, VT: Ashgate Press. Harman, G. (2005). Guerrilla metaphysics: Phenomenology and the carpentry of things. Peru, IL: Open Court Publishing. Hayles, N. K. (2014). Speculative aesthetics and object orientated inquiry (OOI). Speculations: A journal of speculative realism, 158-179. Latour, B. (1993). We have never been modern (C. Porter, Trans.). Cambridge, MA & London, England: Harvard University Press. Latour, B. (2005). From Realpolitik to Dingpolitik, or how to make things public. In, Making things public – atmospheres of democracy, exhibition catalogue, March-August 2005, ZKM Centre for Art and Media, Karslruhe. Lefebvre, H. (2003). The urban revolution (R. Bononno, Trans.). Minneapolis, MN & London, England: University of Minnesota Press. Nancy, J.-L. (2007). Urbis et Orbi (F. Raffoul & D. Pettigrew, Trans.). In The Creation of the world or Globalization (pp. 31-56). New York, NY: Suny Press. Sassen, S. (2014). Expulsions: Brutality and complexity in the Global Economy. Cambridge, MA & London, England: Harvard University Press.
This thesis shall represent the arbitration regime under the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) in connection with protection mechanism of Bilateral Investment Treaties (BITs). It shall analyse the achievements of ICSID and BITs and their influence of foreign direct investments, investors and the host country. Finally, this thesis will try to assess the achievements in this area and discuss advantages or disadvantages for the involved parties. Individuals and corporations are interested in foreign direct investments (FDI) to exploit new markets, to realize or to sell business ideas, and to raise their market value or personal wealth. Under an economical point of view, money or investments always found its way to the most efficient places on earth which were able to be reached in any century to produce a better or the same product or service for a better price. The raising of profit margins was the driving force to explore new markets; also foreign governments tried to attract investors from all over the world to create new jobs and import new technology for their economies to raise the capacity to compete on an international level. In the early nineteenth century the prevalent form of foreign direct investment was that carried out through loans and government bonds. In contrast, modern foreign investment is more characterized by direct investment on the spot: the building of infrastructure, like railroads or telephone networks, and the establishment of joint-ventures in the car industry, to name but two examples. Investment abroad also means to play in a new and unknown playground. Investors have to place their money in a foreign environment under different laws, different rights and duties, and with unknown future protection of their investments. This makes foreign direct investments an uncertain game, and uncertainty did always keep investors from direct investments in a foreign and unknown country. Furthermore, not only the unknown environment is an investment obstacle, investors also were faced with problems with governments in the foreign market. First foreign governments promoted foreign direct investments to raise their economic power. Large infrastructure projects had an important effect on the countries where they were constructed: they were the basis for a faster growing economy. Later the same governments or new political powers changed government positions regarding foreign investment and they restricted investment related money transfers of investors out of the investment area or they initiated measures and laws to expropriate the property of investors without financial compensation. The big infrastructure investments were seen as a necessity for the welfare of the citizens and as a security of the host state. Many host countries felt that these projects should be controlled by the government and not by foreigners. The treatment of aliens by governments was, and still is, dependent on political theories and influences. A change of the investment climate, the "political risk", can be a huge uncertainty for foreign direct investments. Every investor has to ensure that the investment is lucrative and that he has the possibility to reduce risks and cost in case of changes of the investment climate. In the past foreign investors had no direct way to enforce investments claims against a foreign state for its sovereign acts or for breach of customary international law. Instead, investors had to rely upon their own government taking up the claim on their behalf and try to solve the dispute by diplomatic measures. This dependence on others was inconvenient and unpredictable, and therefore dissatisfying for alien investors. The settlement of foreign investment disputes in the past was a question of political influence and economic power. Individuals or corporations had to influence their governments to take up their case on the state's behalf. This was only possible for very important and influential investors. The investor's state then sent warships to threaten the offending state until reparations were paid. This "gunboat diplomacy" was exercised frequently by European powers until the early twentieth century, for example when faced with Venezuela's default on its sovereign debt in 1902, the governments of Great Britain, Germany and Italy sent warships to the Venezuelan coast to demand reparation for the losses incurred by their nationals. The need for security and predictability for foreign investments was one of the main reasons to establish diplomatic relations with other states. Various ideas from the point of view of money receiving and money spending states were discussed and realized, from the Calvo doctrine - where contracts between the host state and foreign investors included an agreement in which the latter agreed to confine himself to the available local remedies without relying on diplomatic interference of his own state - to the principle of diplomatic protection - where a state espouses the claim of its nationals as a claim on its own behalf. With the Second International Peace Conference of The Hague in 1907, states agreed to a framework for the conclusion of bilateral arbitration treaties which were the basis for independent arbitration tribunals in case of a dispute between two states arising out of particular interests of its national investors. The right of diplomatic protection as mentioned above was still inadequate to promote foreign investments: the Latin American countries relied upon the Calvo Doctrine, which denied the possibility of interference under diplomatic protection principle. Also, the breach of investment treaties by states was still not sanctioned by public international law. Only expropriation was recognised quite early as a possibility for diplomatic protection claims. Furthermore diplomatic protection was only accessible for nationals of the claiming state. Questions arose what happens if transnational corporations claim protection? The obstacle for investors to convince their government to claim diplomatic protection for its nationals was very high and unpredictable to foresee. Also a claim against the home state to exercise diplomatic protection does not exist. Today, in our small world, where businesses are moved from the United States to India, industrial production is transferred from Europe to China, or new infrastructure projects are started in Central Africa, one cannot imagine international business without FDI. Foreign direct investments need security, investors need security. Security is necessary to promote foreign investment which is recognized as one of the driving forces in supporting development in developing and least developed countries. Investors want to know their rights regarding their investments and they want to enforce their rights directly in a fast and cost-effective way. The need for protection is the reason for various measures introduced by governments to secure investments. In the following the system of foreign dispute settlement under the International Centre for the Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) in combination with Bilateral Investment Treaties (BITs) shall be highlighted. The ICSID is the result of the investor insecurity mentioned above. ICSID shall also support FDI in the developing countries. The focus shall be on the increased interest for BITs and the therefore increased interest in ICSID arbitrations. Why do states use BITs? Did the establishment of a neutral venue for investment dispute settlement reach its goal to depoliticise disputes? Is it used by investors, and what is protected? Do BITs play an important role in the system of dispute settlement and why? And how do they work together with the ISCID system?
With headlines dominated by the scares of the Ebola virus and ISIS victories in Iraq, the mid-term elections came and went without much fanfare, until the stunning results were known.Republicans gained control of the Senate by winning at least eight seats (Louisiana will have a runoff in December) and expanded their majority in the House by near-historic levels. They also won governorships in several blue states (Massachusetts, Maryland and Illinois). The magnitude of their sweeping victory surprised many, most interestingly among them, the pollsters themselves. They failed to predict for example, the GOP victory in the Maryland race for governor, as well as the narrow re-election of Democrat Mark Warner in Virginia, who was projected to win by a 9.7 point-margin, but narrowly missed a recount against former Virginia Republican Party Chairman Ed Gillespie.Two circumstances may explain the huge margin of Democratic losses: turnout was low, as is usually the case in mid-term elections, and the GOP ran its campaigns on one issue only: the low approval of the President's performance, nationally at 40% but as low as 15% in some red states. There was also a quite substantive amount of open seats as several senior Senators retired.Democratic candidates based their campaigns on local issues, trying to distance themselves as much as possible from Obama, the extreme case being Senate candidate Alison Lundergan Grimes, running against Mitch McConnell in Kentucky, who refused to answer when asked by a reporter if she had voted for Obama in the presidential election. It is not unusual however, for the White House party to lose mid-term legislative elections especially in the sixth year of a president with low approval rates, and under a political map that favored the GOP due to the latest round of gerrymandered re-districting.The pollsters' miscalculation is directly related to the low turnout: minorities and students didn't show up to cast their votes. In Maryland, turnout was especially low in urban Baltimore and the Washington suburbs. Pollsters base their model on self-reported likelihood to vote, which is not a reliable measure in mid-term elections, mainly because it is merely a vague intention but not a priority for most voters.With the GOP firmly in control of the two Houses of Congress, what is the next step for Obama as he enters the last two years of his Presidency? Will he defend the mandate the voters entrusted him in two elections? Or will he passively accept his "lame-duck" status and allow the new majority party to have its way? Will the author of "The Audacity of Hope" believe in his own creed about reclaiming the American Dream and "get something meaningful done" in his last 24 months at the helm?Six-year legislative losses for the President's party are nothing new. Even with divided government, presidents like Eisenhower, F. D Roosevelt and Ronald Reagan outmaneuvered opponents, and managed to shape the political agenda and leave a long shadow in the history of American politics. The question now is not if, but how Obama will do the same, whether by the power of his office, exercising his veto or issuing executive orders or by the real "stuff of politics", political compromise, bargaining and consensus building.Republicans also must choose their course as they transition from minority to majority status in the Senate: will they show they can govern and start passing legislation with some bi-partisan support or will they listen to the base and continue the combative brinkmanship that led to a government shutdown last year?The former appears more likely: Mitch McConnell, now leader of the majority in the Senate, struck a non-confrontational tone when he outlined an agenda starting with issues that have bipartisan consensus, such as completion of free trade agreements and moderate tax reform. Texas Senator Ted Cruz, notorious ego-maniac, famous for leading the battle to defund and dismantle "Obamacare" may find he is alone if he unreasonably tries to rekindle that debate. He is expected to be a presidential candidate in 2016 and may insist on a more "conservative" agenda. However, McConnell, a cunning senate veteran from Kentucky, calling Ted Cruz "an army of one", has candidly acknowledged they don't have the votes to overturn a Presidential veto, so they won't be able to repeal the health law.Still, from the extreme side of the aisle, the GOP leader is being pressured to use the leverage of another government shutdown to obtain concessions on the health law and to stop the President from using his executive authority to reform immigration. Indeed, since June the White House has been preparing to extend legal status to more undocumented immigrants and to stop some cases of deportation. This is now expected to be one of the first executive orders Obama will sign in this period, in spite of threats by Speaker Boehner that he would thereby kill any chances for comprehensive immigration reform to pass in the House before 2016. On his part, Mitch McConnell has refused the GOP base's proposals as "self-destructive".Instead, Mc Connell proposes to work on issues for which he can count on some bipartisan support such as the Keystone XL oil Pipeline, which the president may not veto (unless he succumbs to the pressure of the left wing of his party), repealing the medical device tax (a small provision of the Affordable Care Act that some say is crucial to be able to fund the health care law), and finalize some free trade agreements. To appease the base, Mc Connell is likely to bring up a bill that would ban abortions after 20 weeks of pregnancy which he is expected to do next year. Although Republicans say they have learned the lesson that denying women's reproductive rights will lose them the female vote over and over again, this is a relatively modest and reasonable measure for which they may get the support of centrist Democrats.In sum, there are plenty of openings for both parties to cooperate and for Obama to still find ways to shape his legacy. He can stand firm on certain principles such as immigration reform and climate change, and use his veto pen when he feels it is absolutely necessary. But he can also encourage Democrats in Congress to cooperate on other issues such as trade and defense policies, and not to surrender to the demands of the most radical wing.History shows that presidents can and do survive sixth-year mid-term upsets. They can still leave a strong imprint on the evolution of the political process and on the country itself. They can even pave the way for their own party to win the next election.The 2016 contest is already under way and with their eyes on the Presidency both parties know they must prove to the American public that they can do one thing: govern. Maria L. Fornella es docente de Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia.
Negli atenei italiani le biblioteche sono chiamate a governare processi organizzativi e di servizio di maggiore complessità rispetto al passato anche recente. Questi processi reclamano nuovi livelli di professionalità e di autonomia, dunque una ridefinizione delle competenze e delle funzioni dei bibliotecari universitari. L'ultimo Contratto collettivo nazionale di lavoro (CCNL) del personale tecnico amministrativo può avere (in parte sta già avendo) un impatto notevolissimo sulla crescita e sul destino delle professioni (segnatamente di quella bibliotecaria) all'interno degli atenei. Con questo contratto siamo entrati nel territorio delle competenze gestionali e di comunicazione: si è consapevoli che il sapere tecnico non basta da solo ad assicurare la crescita professionale degli individui e quella delle organizzazioni e che l'ambito applicativo di questi processi non coinvolge soltanto le figure apicali, ma anche tutte le altre. Inoltre, la valorizzazione dei contenuti professionali di più alto profilo non si basa più sul comando gerarchico e sul controllo, ma sulla formazione permanente, sulla partecipazione a progetti di ricerca, sulla responsabilizzazione.L'attuale cornice contrattuale sembra adatta a ospitare le destinazioni professionali verso cui i bibliotecari universitari italiani si stanno avviando e che rimandano a un fenomeno emergente di più larga portata: la tendenziale trasformazione dei lavoratori della conoscenza da knowledge provider a knowledge integrator, vale a dire da specialisti che conoscono un procedimento e forniscono una risposta a persone capaci di integrare le loro conoscenze con quelle altrui per ottenere risultati originali (Butera). Questo profilo può rappresentare anche le funzioni che i bibliotecari - nelle università in modo marcato - svolgono o aspirano a svolgere, indipendentemente dai livelli di responsabilità e all'interno di diversi processi.Organizzare servizi bibliotecari nelle università sta assumendo anche nel nostro Paese il significato di attivare ambienti in cui si realizzano facilitazioni per l'accesso alle informazioni, ma in cui contemporaneamente si sviluppano esperienze di elaborazione, condivisione e conversione di conoscenza. Tutto ciò implica la capacità di arricchire e trasformare costantemente il proprio bagaglio professionale con nuovi innesti: è necessario possedere competenze trasversali, competenze che un macrosistema flessibile di politiche del personale può aiutare a valorizzare. La formazione continua deve diventare la colonna portante del sistema professionale negli atenei. Essa è disciplinata dall'art. 45 del CCNL, che stabilisce un esplicito nesso tra crescita del personale e crescita qualitativa dei servizi, ma che lascia in sospeso aspetti rilevanti della programmazione degli interventi formativi. Sono aspetti su cui i coordinamenti bibliotecari di ateneo possono svolgere un ruolo di primo piano e formalmente riconosciuto, reclamando il diritto-dovere di concorrere alla messa a punto delle attività di programmazione e al sostegno di tutte le fasi attuative dei piani di formazione che coinvolgano il personale bibliotecario. Ciò, per giocare d'anticipo sulle carenze di programmazione che spesso si manifestano: genericità dei programmi, sovrapposizione di diversi livelli di intervento (di base, di aggiornamento, avanzati), assenza di contenuti formativi che insistano sulla cultura di progetto e di risultato, sui processi e sui comportamenti organizzativi, sulle capacità di relazione, ecc. Il contratto introduce, al pari di ciò che accade in altri paesi europei, un sistema di quantificazione e di verifica formale dell'apprendimento e di certificazione di qualità dei percorsi formativi (i crediti). Anche qui non mancano questioni meritevoli di immediata attenzione da parte dei bibliotecari: si possono avviare iniziative di coordinamento interateneo, avvalendosi del contributo che può venire dalla stessa commissione università-ricerca dell'AIB e da AIB-Seminari. In particolare, occorerebbe tenere in grande evidenza l'opportunità offerta dal comma 5 dell'art. 45, laddove si parla di corsi organizzati da consorzi interuniversitari, e occorrerebbe approntare un sistema di valutazione qualitativa dell'offerta di formazione per i bibliotecari universitari esistente sul mercato. Premesse del genere comportano la necessità di compiere un lavoro preliminare, quello di classificare in qualche modo le competenze dei bibliotecari. Si tratterebbe di accertare quali competenze individuali occorrono prioritariamente, per poterne fare oggetto di formazione mirata e poterle proficuamente valorizzare dentro le più vaste competenze organizzative dei sistemi bibliotecari di ateneo. Anche queste ultime andrebbero classificate, per stabilire le priorità e investire di più e meglio su ciò che oggi può rendere le biblioteche accademiche un valore, una risorsa strategica. Un tentativo di classificazione delle competenze organizzative dei sistemi bibliotecari di ateneo potrebbe assumere come modello iniziale di riferimento quello, piuttosto noto, di Kochanski e Ruse, necessariamente adattandolo. ; My intervention takes its cue from a contribution by Serafina Spinelli on university cooperation. It is a very clear and detailed analysis in which the origins and short historical path of university library systems are reconstructed and their current configuration is summed up. Some possible lines of development of the matter are also presented and some challenges to be faced are indicated. These challenges include the organizational redesigning of the library systems, the necessity to increase the rate of effectiveness of the cooperation, the problems regarding digital libraries, projection towards the exterior of the library profession in universities and even of the library systems: something that originates from the new requirements of organization of knowledge and scientific communication in universities. A large number of these processes can be interpreted together as a sort of mission for inter-university coordination. They are complex processes, which demand new levels of professionalism and autonomy, therefore a clear and strong redefinition of the skills (understood as collections of knowledge, abilities and indentities) and of the functions of university librarians. And they are processes to be positioned within the macro-scenarios of the totality, of the new competitive and instable contexts, in which universities also operate. After all, and more generally speaking, it is precisely around the central position of the skills (individual and organizational), the capacity to integrate diversified skills (internal and external to the organizations), the development of the professions within the organizations, in short it is around the use of knowledge as a primary organizational resource, that a service society can be born and be consolidated. There is moreover a negative pendant, which involves the high level professionalisms and more advanced sectors: that which is called skill shortage, lack of necessary skills, deficit of skills on the market. This is a phenomenon of considerable dimensions, which forces reflections on the theme of high-level formation, which makes prospects of permanent formation essential and, finally, forces a reclassification of existing professions, closely connected with the start of wide-ranging and long ranging formation processes. How do Italian universities respond? With a series of reform processes in the sign of autonomy, those which we all know and daily experience and which at this time bring didactic autonomy to the fore; they also repond with the start of an overall revision of their organizational set-up. The latest National Collective Contract of Work (CCNL) of the technical administrative personnel is an important stage along this path.
Published interview of Brooks Hays in Nation's Cities (American Municipal Association) ; refers to three "levels" of government—federal, state, and local. Should there be a fourth—metropolitan? Well, the intergovernmental aspect of metropolitan area government is one good example of what Senator Muskie of Maine calls "the fourth dimension" of government. Cities like Philadelphia and New York have an impact on a large area—parts of three states, in their cases—and on all levels of government. Do you see this as bringing about another level of government to handle problems of urban areas which are on rivers which form state boundaries, such as Kansas City or Memphis? It could be an exciting new experiment in government. What account should we take of a city that straddles a state line? The lives of many people are properly affected by that, even when their area isn't large enough to be defined as metropolitan. However, it seems to me that the most pressing problems brought about by urban growth would continue to be in the great metropolitan areas. In the Chicago area, Wisconsin and Indiana are affected. St. Louis laps over into Illinois, and Chattanooga actually extends into two other states besides Tennessee. You can point to Los Angeles and say that only one state is involved but even there the water supply comes from the Colorado River and this becomes an interstate matter in part. Federal agencies seem to be taking into account the metropolitan scope of their progress, aren't they? To some extent. I mentioned the President's instructions about notifying states of federal actions in advance. That's one approach. But other federal efforts can do only so much. I remember the problems of carrying out federal policy with the Office of Price Administration. The administrator had to realize that it could not be controlled without unified approval from the states. And we never got unified approval. We're not getting it today in regard to many of these programs which are directed at our localities. Does this mean that federal agencies which reflect some concern about metropolitan problems are doing it because the states have left a vacuum on the subject? I think there is a certain absence of concern in the state governments, but I don't think it is a vacuum. And what the federal administrator does is in terms of "reciprocity," he can't afford to be high-handed. We do it with the spirit of cooperation between levels of government. James Madison said, "This Federal system will work as long as there is reciprocal forbearance." That is a choice quotation. The kind of government we have launched is unique—we don't expect it to be a perfect mechanism. Human systems have to be resilient. Perhaps for this reason, allocations to states don't adhere rigidly to formulas. Do governors have need for staff positions such as yours and people such as the Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations? For neat and effective functioning, we've got to avoid proliferation of offices. Governors—a good many of them, at least—are aware of the magnitude of developing problems. Each has to become something of a specialist himself; it's almost necessary because there is so much interest in this area now. Having expert advice in his office might well serve a useful purpose, however. This is a matter for each state to decide. Do you care to comment on proposals that the President create a White House staff unit to coordinate federal urban programs which are administered by many different agencies? The present view at the White House is that we have established sufficient procedures between the President and individual agencies. We would much prefer the establishment of a Department of Urban Affairs so that the administration of each federal program could be better related to the others. As a general assessment, how do you feel the Administration's programs will fare at the hands of the new Congress? In broad terms, we do think that the Administration's programs will be treated more sympathetically. Looking ahead to 1964's elections, a lot of Congressmen will want to be able to point to their support of the President. Since the Republicans picked up additional seats in the South and showed surprising strength in close races, what meaning do you think this has for the future of a two-party South? Well, you must remember that there were a lot of changes and not just in the South. When voters in New England elect as many Democrats to state and national office as in recent elections, you have a different two-party picture there, too. In both places, however, the real meaning is very hard to define in actual terms. It does prove the independence of the American voter, regardless of where he lives. And, as I said before, maybe the remarkable mobility of our people will mean a better competition between parties in all regions, states, and districts. I hope so because I believe in the two-party system. When I was running for office, I was on record as favoring it. You know, I want every good thing in life for the Republicans except public office. At the same time, if the Southern Republicans are going to run on the idea that "we're more against integration than you Democrats," they are not building up a foundation for a real party organization. I suppose that the national Republican party will have to decide whether to push for such a foundation, or whether to accept whatever kind of candidates happen to come down the pike in the South. With your responsibilities combined with the staff work of the Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations and the legislative role of the House and Senate Subcommitees dealing with the subject, where do you think the biggest impact on this "jungle" will be felt? One of the greatest contributions will be to promote the new professionalism and broader outlook which must go into the workings of all levels of government in our time. There may be a long delay in getting through the steps of fact-finding, suggested remedies, debate on them, and decision-making eventually, but all of our effort is aimed at improving each of these vital parts of the democratic process. I think our governmental leaders at all levels will ultimately recognize that their government's decision will always influence the other fellow's, and that expert advice is needed to determine just what that impact will be and what to do about it, in the interest of good government. 14 NATION'S CITIES • WINTER 1962
Issue 17.1 of the Review for Religious, 1958. ; A. M. D. G. Review for Religious JANUARY 15, 1958 Retreats in Retrospect Thomas Dubay Spiritual Cancer . Francis ~1. Macl:ntee Roman Documents . R. I:. Smith Book Reviews Questions and Answers For You~ Information VOLUME 17 NUMBER 1 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS VOLUME 17 JANUARY, 1958 NUMBER 1 CONTENTS RETREATS IN RETROSPECT--Thomas Dubay, S.M .3 FOR YOUR INFORMATION .34 SPIRITUAL CANCER--Francis J. MacEntee, s.j .3.7 SURVEY OF ROMAN DOCUMENTS--R. F. Smith, S.J .4.2 OUR CONTRIBUTORS . 50 BOOK REVIEWS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS: Editor: Bernard A. Hausmann, S.J. West Baden College West Baden Springs, Indiana . 51 SOME BOOKS RECEIVED . 59 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS: 1. Preferred Mass on a Ferial Day of Lent . 60 2. When Does an Anticipated Renewal of Vows Begin to Run?. 60 3. Personal Gifts and Poverty . 61 4. Saving Money for Desired PuFposes . 62 5. Permission Required for Minor Necessities . 64 6. Elimination of Precedence in the Refectory . 64 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, January, 1958. Vol. 17, No. 1. Published bi-monthly by The Queen's Work, 3115 South Grand Blvd., St. Louis 18, Mo. Edited by the Jesuit Fathers bf St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas, with ecclesiastical approval. Second class mail privilege authorized at St. Louis, Mo. Editorial Board: Augustine G. Ellard, S.J.; Gerald Kelly, S.J., Henry Willmering, S.J. Literary Editor: Robert F. Weiss, S.J. Copyright, 1958, by The Queen's Work. Subscription price in U.S.A. and Canada: 3 dollars a year; 50 cents a copy. Printed in U.S.A. Please send all renewals and new subscriptions to: Review for Religious, :3115 South Grand Boulevard. St. Louis 18, Missouri. Review t:or Religious Volume 17 January--Deceml~er, 1958 Ecllt:ed by THE JESUIT FATHERS St. Mary's College St. Marys, Kansas Published by. THE QUEEN'S WORK SI=. Louis, Missouri REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS is indexed in the CATHOLIC PERIODICAL INDEX Retreats in Retrospect Thomas Dubay, S.M. IN SIX RECENT issues of this REVIEW~ seven hundred sisters told with considerable detail what they think about the prob-lem of more fruitful retreats for religious. This temperately told tale was no trite tally, for the sisters expounded their posi-tions with logic and insight. Yet all the same, we still lack an adequate analysis and evaluation of their views, without which, of course, the study remains truncated. But even more im-portant, we also lack solutions to many ot~ the problems they raised. This present article aims at contributing a mite toward the filling of both needs.2 I shall not, however, attempt to discuss every problem unearthed by the study, but those only whose solution is most signific~tnt and pressing. These latter we will review in the order in which they occurred in the original articles. Source of Retreat Masters Where ought religious communites to get their retreat mas-ters? From religious communities, manifestly. But which? Ought retreats to be given by priests from the same order each year or by priests from different orders? Most of the sisters queried favored the latter choice. As I went through the sisters' stated preferences regarding the sources of retreat masters, the overall impression I received was one of dissatisfaction with a current tendency to rigid uniformity. This dissatisfaction, while not universal, was especially noticeable in those congregations which are not attached to any order of men but nonetheless re-ceive retreat masters t?rom one order alone. Only 11.3% of the sisters belonging to these communities positively liked their custom, 73% positively disliked it, and 15.7% were indifferent. 1R£VIEW gOR RELIGIOI./$~ January through November, 1956. 2The reader will note that much of our discussion is pertinent to the retreats of all religious, men and women alike. THOMAS DUBAY Review for Religious Even among sisters attached to a religious order of men, 18.75% desired retreat masters from other orders at least occasionally, while another 18.75% were indifferent to the source of priests. The remainder preferred all priests to come from their own order. We may conclude that among religious women unat-tached to any order of men the vast majority prefer their retreat masters to come from different congregations each year. Among sisters affiliated with an order of men a notable minority like an "outsider" at least occasionally. With these opinions I must register a hearty agreement. But before delving into the realm of reasons I would like to clarify the position .here taken. I do not hold that a change of ordereach year is necessarily desira.ble, even for religious attached to no order of men. So frequent a change may be helpful, or it may not be. If one order consistently furnishes more skilled or more holy priests, there is no reason in the wide world why that order should no~ be tapped more often than others. Secondly, for sisters attached to a religious order of men I think that the usual retreat master should be a priest from their own order: a Dominican for Dominicans, a Trinitarian for Trinitarians, and so on. A majorityof sisters in these groups desire this arrangement, and their desire should be respected insofar as it is compatible with the preferences, of the minority. The formers' reasoning is i, alid: they feel that their, own priests bettei understand their spirit and way of life and hence can direct them more effectively. Since this is ordinarily true, the usual retreat for such. religious ought to be given by a priest belonging to their own order. However, since a sizeable number of these same religious women desire atlease an occasional change, I think that an outside priest should be invited every few years. Reason-able wishes e~cen of minorities should be respected, and this wish is reasonable. Now why is it desireable for retreat masters to be chosen from a number of different orders of men? First of all, the 4 January, 1958 I~ETREATS IN RETROSPECT supply of really top-flight retreat masters in any religious con-gregation is limited. This observation bespeaks defect in no order, since it simply reflects the fact that human abilities are distributed according to a normal curve. TO my knowledge no order is bursting at the seams with men highly gifted with the specialized talents needed for successful retreat work. If a community chooses its. retreat masters exclusively from one order of men, and especially from one province of that order, it may in time exhaust the supply of the best. A partial solution to this difficulty is the return of the good retreat master. When such can be arranged, and when the priest' has another set of meditations and conferences available, there seems to be no rea-son why he should not be invited for a second or third retreat. After all, a priest of proven ability is a far more secure risk than an unknown quantity. A second reason beckoning variety--and to my mind, a much more potent one than the first--is the danger of insularity. If we religious, men and women alike, are perfectly frank with ourselves, we will have to admit that we too often tend to horizon our outlook to our house, our province, our congregation. We may not intend it, but we do incline that way. We tend to insularity in our works, our "devotions," our interests, our spirit. In something of this context Thomas Merton refers to "the tyranny of restricted human systems and 'schools of spirituality' that might tend to narrow us down to a particular esoteric out-look and leave us something less than Catholic.''3 No one order .of men or women has a monopoly on helpful approaches to the love of God. We have a special love for our own society. Fine, we should. But we should also be interested in the works, the interests, the devotions, and the spirits of o~her orders and be more than ready to grant that in all likelihood they are just as worthy "as our own. The Catholic Church is catholic, and we aBread in the Wilderness (New York: New Direction, "1953), p. 41. THOMAS DUBAY Review for Religious religious are first Catholic and then religious. Would it not, therefore, be healthy for all of us to listen to a retreat master t~rom another order once in a while? Would we not stand to profit from another viewpoint? Not another truth, mind you, but another viewpoint on the same truth. Could not an "out-sider's" look at our own spiri( perhaps cast valuable light on our own appreciation of it? I, for one, think so. So also does a sister who observed to me that "we had one Dominican retreat master who was as Franciscan as any Franciscan we've had." Said another: "Personally, I am not a Franciscan, but St. Fran-cis's detachment, joy, and poverty have helped me tremendously, which led me to do much reading in Franciscan spirituality." Our final reason supporting a variety of retreat masters is the danger of monotony stemming from a sameness of approach. This objection is real for it was mentioned over and o~,er again in the sisters' comments. Some orders of men have a set retreat methodology, and ~sually it is an effective one. And yet i~or all that, a year-in, year-out repetition, of the same routine of subject and technique can be tiresome. We must agree that it is neither pleasant nor overly profitable to hear the same medita-tion subjects discussed year after year, and all the more so when they are treated in much the same manner and according to a prefashioned approach. On this score we might remember that God Himself in writing His Book chose to use a large number of different men with widely diverse backgrounds, techniques, and literary styles. He knows that men need variety . . . and He gave it to them. Among religio.us some like a sameness of approach~ but most do not. Those who do not seem entitled to an occasional change: But we must not be too rabid in our desire for variety. There are difficulties attached to it. Obtaining capable priests year after year from different r~ligious communities is without doubt a somewhat uncertain and perhaps unpleasant preoccupa-tion for the higher superior. It is much easier to have a stand-ing agreement with some one order of men for the simple reason Januavy, 1958 RETREATS IN RETROSPECT that uncertainty and negotiation are done away with. Then, too, it seems safe to suppose that most sister superiors have relatively few contacts with the higher superiors of orders of men. They may not, as a consequence, know exactly where to turn for com-petent retreat masters. What can be done? Two possible solutions occur at the moment, and there are doubtlessly others. The first bespeaks a widespread effort. Some national organization of religious women (or men, as the case may.be) could act through a spe-cially appointed committee as ~a~coordinating agency for the ex-change of retreat information. Superiors could forward to the committee the names of priests whom they have found through dxperience especially competent in retreat work. They could receive in return names of others whom they (the superiors) could contact for future engagements. The second possibility envisions the same type of coopera-tion on a limited, inter- or intra-community basis. Several com-munities could appoint individual religibus to exchange and relay pertinent information among themselves. Or within one com-munity (and especially one of the larger variety) sisters could be asked to forward to the provincia!, superior names of priests whom they "have found skilled in the giving of conferences or retreats to religious. Both of these suggested solutions would really be talent hunts. Their success would depend largely on the willingness of the superiors of religious men to appoint retreat" masters accord-ing to the expressed desire of other communities and also on the willingness of certain priests to be "worked over and over" in a rather taxing occupation. Experience seems to indicate that in many if not in most cases these religious men show that willing-ness and would be happy to cooperate insofar as possible in some such plan. If a program of this kind could be worked out, the bother and uncertainty so 'often bound up with obtaining priests from different orders would quite probably be lessened if 7 THOMAS DUBAY Review ]or Religious not entirely eliminated. There can be no doubt whatsoever that we in the United States possess within our land hundreds of earnest and skilled retreat masters, actual and potential It is up to us to exercise ingenuity and initiative in finding and using ¯them. Familiarity with Constitutions Unmistakable is the word to describe the preponderant number o~ sisters that desire their retreat masters to be well ac-quainted with the constitutions under which they live. Of 701 religious, 616 (89%) expressed- themselves positively, on this question, while only five (.7%) registered a negative opinion. The others were °indifferent. The majority view is to my mind soundly based, and that fo~ the ~.oIlowing reasons. i. From a negative point of view an acquaintance with a community's constitutions forestalls blundering statements in con-ferences and meditations. Such are, for example, advising the sisters how to spend time "in their, rooms" when they have no rooms; or speaking of vacations home when they have no vaca-tions, home; or, finally, making suggestions on how to say the Office when they do not say it. 2. Even more troublesome is advi~e that contradicts or seems to contradict provisions contained in the constitutions. Young religious may beupset or confused, while the older are probably annoyed. Neither reaction contributes to a suc-cessful retreat. 3. On th~ positive side we can find pertinent to our prob-lem the venerable scholastic adage that "whatever is received is received according to the condition of the receiver." What-ever the retreat master has to say to his "receivers" will surely be modified and conditioned by the mental set of those receivers. Part of that set is formed bytheir rule of life; and so, if he wants to know how they are going to understand his observations on the religious life, he should try to acquire some of their condition-ing by a reading of their rule. 8 ¯ January, 1958 RETREATS IN RETROSPECT 4. A priest will be much more practical (and interesting) in his meditation expos~ and conferences if he can occasionally choose for the illustration of his principles items selected from a community's own blueprint for life. As I pound the typewriter before me, the thought passes through my mind of the times my own-ignorance of a congregation's constitutions has wasted valuable conference time and rendered application less effectual. More than once has ~he awkward, expression passed my lips: "I do"not know whether you . . . , but if you do, you may find it helpful to . " Hardly a smooth attempt to be practical. 5. .Reading the constitutions enables the retreat master to grasp this congregation's spirit--not that of his order, nor that of a third or a fourth. 6. The work of the confessional can be done more effec-tively, more surely. Questions are understood and more cor-rectly answered. A sister is scarcely helped in her query about a possible infraction of poverty if her confessor knows nothing about her congregation's interpretation and practice of that vow. 7. An easy familiarity with a community's own ,way of life as expressed in its constitution~ is .bound to generate a receptive notein the retreatants. Their confidence in the master.i~ height-ened-- understandably. Sister~ typically love t~eir rule of life and are appreciative of the priest who will trouble himself, to read it for his own benefit. So much for reasons. A. few cautions seem in order. .The retreat master must exercise a bit of circumspection in his use of another community's constitutions. His references m~ist.be r~spectfui. Obviously out of place is any criticisfi~ of rule or custom, whether that ciiticism is patent or merely implied. This has been done and it isheartily re~ented. And.rightly. Con- ¯ stitutions have .been ' approved by ecclesiastical authority far greater .than any an individual priest can rustle .up. His criti-cism~ therefore, carries little weight.It further lal~ors under theburden of bad "taste. 9 THOMAS DUBAY Review for Religious The retreat master, secondly, should be reasonably sure of the interpretation he attaches to a principle or regulation. To obtain this reasonable degree of certitude one aid is the applica-tion. of the ordinary norms of hermeneutics. Such would be the consideration of the entire context: paragraph, chapter, whole work; the explanation of the obscure by the clear; the directive help of custom. Perhaps the safest guarantee of correct inter-pretation, however, is the help of a superior of the retreatants. She might favor the priest, with some hints on points she thinks need stressing. She might also offer interpretations that alter the prima facie meaning of regulations contained in the constitu-tions. Since custom is the best interpreter of the law and the retreat master may not know of modifying customs, both he and the sisters will be decidedly aided by observations of this type. Our third caution is a mere reminder that constitutions ought not to be worked td death by overdoing references to them. No Usable directive covering all cases can be given. Good taste and common sense must be the guiding norms. The protocol of getting a copy of the constitutions into the hands of a retreat master ought not to be difficult. It would seem best for the provincial superior of the retreatants to offer a copy to the priest about six months in advance. I stress the word, offer, for the reason that a priest does not especially care to ask for a copy of the constitutions. He fears that the superior might be unwilling or that she may think him curious (I doubt that he is). In any event her taking the ~initiative makes the whole matter more simple. Conference and Meditation Approaches What kind of approach do sisters like best? Intellectual? Emotional? Mixed? Difficult questions, these . . . questions that admit of no facile answer. And further, do the likes of the sisters necessarily coincide with .what is objectively best? It is possible that a religious keenly enjoy an emoti0nally toned meditation expos~ and actually derive little lasting benefit from 10 January, 1958 RETREATS IN RETR~ it. But as far as preferences go, we may recall that among the surveyed sisters-- 1. Almost none (.6%) want emphasis placed on the emotions alone. 2. Slightly more than half (50.5%) desire some stress on the use of emotions by the retreat master. 3. Slightly.less than half (49.5%) want no stress on the emotional approach. 4. A vast majority (93.1%) seek emphasis placed on solid intellectual content, whatever other techniques be mixed in.4 5. A lesser majority (78.4%) want Sacred Scripture to have a prominent place, o '6. In order of preference the intellectual approach out-distances the others; the frequent use of Sacred Scripture ranks second, and a stress on the emotions third. The retreat master is evidently ir~ the position of a cook seasoning soup destined for a hundred palates. But the cook enjoys an advantage in that he can season moderately and depend on the saltcellars to supplement his efforts. The retreat master, however, can lean on no stylecellar to alter the fare he presents. And yet spiritual palates vary .as widely as do material. The situation, nonetheless, is not hopeless. I am strongly inclined to think that while the sisters' differences in preference are real, they are not as deep as they first appear. For one thing, you will note that the whole problem is one of emphasis . . and emphasis is a relative thing, a thing that has many meanings and many degrees. Then, too, desire for stress on one approach does not thereby exclude other approaches. It indicates merely a wish that this one be given a prominent place. Emphases are not mutually exclusive. All things c.onsidered, I submit that the interests of most retreatants will best be served 4 In our original article we erred slightly (by 1.8%) on this point. This error was due to faulty grouping. For the present conclusion we should have com-bined groups 2, 4, 6, and 7 of the questionnaire items instead of 2, 4, 5, and 7. See REWEW FOR RELIGIOUS, March, 1956, p. 91. 11 V Review for Religious rences of the majority propet~ly honored by~ari ~ ¯ 'ing the. following characterigtics, negative and ~ ~[0~ry language, sentimental and.exaggerated orator2 ical devices (e.g.,. whispering, unusual exclamations--alas! oh!) are anathema. Earlier.ages may have felt differentlyi but realis-tic, twentieth-century American religious give evidence ot: little patience with the stage-pulpit mixture. We. typically resent any obvious, artificial attempt of a retreat mfister to play upon our emotions. Quite another matter, of course, is the sincerely felt but restrained emotion of a priest'who is deeply penetrated with his message. I do not think that the sisters who exi0ressed them-selves so emphatically against en~otionalism wish a re.treat master ¯ to be stoical. They, after all, are human and so is he. Rather I think they merely wished to exclude an emphasis on the emo-tional approach and any semblance of artificiality. The priest who knows himself to be inclined to manifest his feelings too freely--even s!ncerely experienced t~eelings--will do well to exer-cise a moderat.ing restraint over them.' . 2. While most ~eligious harbor a strong dislike for flowery language, the)) do seem to appreciate a .well-#pok~n sentence, English that is clear, correct, and intelligent. We do not need to labor the point that there is a vast difference between over-done verbiage and a first-class command of language. 3. Absolutely es~entihl in the minds of a vast majority of sisters is a sound intellectual current runiling through medi-tation exposes and conferences. With thi~ pFeference I am in complete agreement. I do not mean to imply, howev.er,' that. meditations and conferences are to be periods .of intense intel-lectual gymnastics. But they should serve as channels for the. conveyance of solid doctrine.on anintellectual level transcending the catechism. In a meditation on the Blessed Trinity, for ex-ample, I can see no reason for refusing to touch upon the intel-le'ctuai generation of the Word and the spiration of the Holy Spirit. These trutl~s, if we work overthem, can be put simply 12 / January, 1958 RETREATS IN RETROSPECT and explained clearly. Coordinated with the divine indwelling they can be°ihvaluable spurs toward sanctity. So, too, can abbre-viated theological analyses 0f the beatific vision, de~otion to. the Sacred Heart, and the mediation of Mary. Repet!tion is .the soul of monotony . . . and s~ is triteness. If a retreat master seldom offers new insights, rarely teaches what has not been heard ten. or twenty times already, ~carcely ever delves more deep!y into God's reve!ation, he is likely to leave little mark on his hearers. ¯ Sisters are people--they like to listen when they learn. 4. The retreat master must at all times keep .his presenta-tion gimple. While he does well to develop some of the finer. points of theology, he must keep his vocabulary lind phraseology tuned to a non-theologi~ally prepared audience. .Profundity of thought and simplicity of presentation can go nicely together. Most sisters are.intellectually capabl'e of understanding theologi- .cal concepts, but nonetheless many of them lack the technical ¯ training needed to grasp these concepts i'f they are ~ffe~ed in fancy terminology. In his outlook on conference-giving to religious; the priest must be careful not to confuse a lack of knowledge with a lack of intelligence. Some sisters may not hav.e too much of the former in matters theol6gical, but most are well equipped with the latter. 5. Attractive~ apt analogies and illustrations are indis: pensable helps, because ~hey suktain interest and pave the way to clear explanation. One i~eed only study the master teacher, Christ, to see how effective a concrete, well-illustrated approach can be. Instead of discoursing abstractedly about a psychology of pride, Jesus hammered home His teaching by talking about places at a banquet table, a boasting Pharisee, and ~a small child. Instead of extolling in the abstract the good-example angle of the religious life, a retreat master can nail down his point by doncretizlng it: "Every time you leave the door of this convent you give. the world a. wordless sermon, a sermon it needs badly, a sermon on the beauty of voluntary .poverty, chastity, and obedience." Or rather than a mere theoretical disquisition on 13 THOMAS DUBAY Review for Religious generosity, why not follow up the theory with a few concrete ideas about being available for extra jobs around the convent: substitution for a sick sister, extra duty in the hospital or class-room, acting as a companion (a happy one). Theory is fine, but apt illustration is even better. 6. It seems to me that an abundant--but not overdone --use of Sacred Scripture sh0ul'd usually find its way into the retreat meditation and confei:ence, The word of God Himself has an efficacy with souls Ufishared 'by the most clever words we humans can concoct. One sister remarked in this connection that "it is only too late that one finds the beauty and worthwhile passages in Holy Scripture. Personally, I have found myself living in close union with God by just one passage studied in the New Testament at meditation or spiritual reading." The retreat master, therefore, in gathering together material for his conferences ought to search the sacred pages (with the help. of a concordance) for apt scriptural support, Well-chosen texts will enlighten the minds and move the wills of his listeners far more effectively than his own words ever will. Theology in Retreats If ever a universal statement is dangerous, it is when discuss-ing the problem of theology in retreats fc~r religious. So varied are the talents, tastes, and training of typical groups of retreatants, that a priest's efforts to trim his treatment of theology to suit the preferences of all are almost predoomed to failure. And yet, while we may not be able to meet the needs of each and" every religious, I think we can tailor our approach to care for the great majority. First of all, I think it is safe to say that very few sisters and brothers have more~than a handshaking acquaintance with theology . . . real theology. I know full well that many have taken ~he mushrooming colleges courses in "theology," whether in their own juniorates or in regularly constituted colleges; but for the most part these are merely college religion courses 14 Janua~'y, 1958 RETREATS IN RETROSPECT labeled theology. In any event, we can agree that few brothers or sisters have taken the theology that priests have taken. The retreat master may not forget, therefore, that in his planning he ought not to assume technical knowledge or training in the .sacred science. Positively,. he sh(~uld assume that there are many theological concepts with which the retreatants are not acquainted ai~d about which they will be delighted to hear. These two facts suggest a pair of norms which may guide masters in their ap-proach to theology. First~ any theological concept that is introduced into con-ference or meditation must be presented simply if it is to reach the majority. This caution can hardly be overemphasized. A technical, highly abstract, sparsely illustrated presentation is so much wasted time . . . and sometimes patience. A' priest who uses unexplained theological or philosophical terms (e.g., hypo-static union, satisfactory value, timorous conscience, formal object, eschatological emphasis) may impress his hearers with the pro-fundity of theology, but he is hardly going to lead them to a greater love of God. Yet (and this is our second norm) this does not mean that retreat masters should not present profound truths. They cer-tainly should. God gave us the whole of His revelation for a purpose: the sanctification of souls. If a priest neglects to teach those truths when they can in some way be grasped, he is neglect-ing a powerful, God-given means diGrm[y aimed at the sanctifi-cation of souls. There is a tremendous difference between presenting the-ology in retreats and presenting theology technically. One sis, ter brought this point out beautifully. She observed that a retreat master: should give sisters exactly the same substantial content as he would give to other priests. He need have no fear that they will not be able to understand and live what he himself understands and lives. He should deliver his message, however, without scholarly verbiage, Latinisms, and all the other trappings which serve to im-press rather than to clarify. Through no fault of their own, sisters 15 Review for Religious do not have the.information to cope with this. It is a great mistake, however--and sad to say. a common one--to confound a sister's lack of technical theological learning with a lack of intelligence. It is the priest's task to make the technical comprehensible to the non-theologian. This of course demands inuch more understanding than does a presentation in the language" of the manuals. Most retreat' masters present a very thin gruel by comparison with what the}, could give if tl~ey had greater respect for the potentialities of the sisters. :&nd there are further reasons for introducing simplified theological concepts into. retreats. To my mind triteness of sub-ject matter (and triteness of expression, ~;oo) is candidate number one fo~ the title of b~te noire among the defects of contemporary preaching. We tend to' repeat meditation subjects and medita-tion ideas so unendingly that often little of enduring value is ldft with the retreatant.'If, on the contrary, we delve into the riches of divine revelation and teach the retreatants some of the many things they do we can hardly fail to Sot~nd theolegy not know about God and His.loveliness, leave a beneficial and lasting mark. retreat offers the further benefit of furnishing solid bases for a fervent spiritual life. It is perfectly true that learning is not .an essential ingredient in the make-up of saintliness; but, all else being equal, it is undeniably a power-ful aid. The reasori for this is nothing more. nor less than the age old scholastic axiom: nothing is willed unless it is first known. If we want our religious to live sensible, solid, and saintly lives, we must do our part by furnishing them with lucid explanations of pertinent sections from "moral, .dogmatic, scriptural, ascetichl, .and mystical theology. To offer less is to shortchange." Fine. I suppose we are agreed that simplified but new theological concepts .have a place in retreats for religious. But how is the .individual retreat master going to know (1) what will be "new" concepts for a particular group of religious and (2) whether his treatment of those concepts can be honored by the adjective simplified? A partial answer to the first problem can be worked out by a close cooperation between the retreat master and the provincial 16 January, 1958 RETREATS IN RETROSPECT superior of the retreatants. The latter could volunteer informa-tion on the background of the sisters with particular emphasis on their previous education and present work. If she can indicate with some precision to what extent the sisters have been in-structed in sacred doctrine, all the better. The retreat master needs help in answering the second question also, but this time it must issue from the retreatants themselves. A teacher can hardly know of himself whether or not his classroom presentation is clear and simple. He must hear from his pupils in some way or other, whether by examina-tion or oral comment. A retreat master hears nothing from the former and little from the latter. If he is brave enough, he might invite written comment. Toward the close of the exercises he could pass out a one-page opinionnaire asking for a frank evaluation of his exposition. If he does this, he should make it perfectly clear that he is not looking for an oblique pat on the back but for a statement of unadorned fact. Private Interview with the Retreat Master We approach now a question on which there is sharp dis-agreement between two large groups of American sisters. That question is whether or not sisters making a retreat should be allowed to approach the retreat master for a discussion of spiritual problems outside of the confessional. You will note that the question is not whether all sisters should see the priest in this capacity, but whether they may see him if they wish. Our survey indicated that a majority of religious women favor the availability of a priva.te confer.ence, although a strong minority look askance at it. The study suggested also that religious communities themselves vary in their official views. Some allow the private interview; others do not. To my mind the opinion favoring the availability of the private conference is the better. But before I set down reasons, a word of caution. No religious should be in any way forced or persuaded to seek a conference. Some sisters find the help 17 THOMAS DUBAY Review for Religious available in the confessional adequate for their needs. Others would be embarrassed and at a loss to explain their problems in. a private interview. We must remember that most sisters, unlike both religious and diocesan seminarians, are not accustomed to speak of their spiritual life with a priest sitting face-to-face be-fore them. Perfect and complete freedom, therefore, should surround this whole matter. Some religious, however, not only desire a private interview, but clearly need one. Any experienced spiritual director knows well enough that there are problems involved in the fervent living of the religious life far too complicated to be solved in the time ordinarily available in the confessional. As one sister put it, "there are some matters one simply can't get straight in the confessional." General conferences do not help here pre-cisely because they are general. We are not trying to form "religious in general" but particular religious, and for that individualized attention is indispensable. Said one sister: "Some-times the conferences would never have cleared up my diffi-culties, but a private conference where I can ask questions did." Aside even from strictly spiritual problems of an ascetical nature, a religious may want to discuss a moral or vocational difficulty. Again, as any director knows, these problems are often such that they cannot be solved by a few paternal (and some-times trite) words in the confessional. They need a full hear-ing followed by mature thought and discussion. Then, too, few sisters during the course of the year enjoy the opportunity of receiving an adequate hearing on their spiritual needs and aspira-tions. Why not give that opportunity to them at retreat time? A denial-of it could have unfortunate consequences. One superior has observed that "if a religious doesn't feel she has that freedom [of a private conference at retreat time], she Will look for other means to solve her problems, or just drop them and give up . " Failures in the religious life are not always due wholly to the unfortunate religious. 18 January, 1958 RETREATS IN RETROSPECT The fact that many sisters do so well in their spiritual" lives without systematic and thorough spiritual direction is hardly an argument against its value. In all likelihood they would advance in God's love even more rapidly if they were given regular direction as the major seminarian, for example, is given it. The objections brought against the private interview do not seem entirely valid. They are, for to the danger of abuse. And among likely (judging from the sisters' opinic community and self-seekir~g on the part on the latter I think we should reser~ religious could be sure that such an at for me to see. Nor is. disloyalty so. Most priests, after all, are sensible en( case of criticism, even bitter criticism, th side of the story. They are not going mentally with the other side unheard. sister's criticism is valid, it is clear that sl Her needs should be cared for. Possible abuse is no argument ag~ Church herself allows (and prescribes great abuse is possible. The same obi are possible also in the confessional, b~ dreamed of discontinuing the sacramen them. She merely surrounds that sacr~ guards as are reasonable and then lear of God. Which may remind us that which abuse may be .present. will. .the most part, reducible ~ossible abuses the most is) are disloyalty to the of the sister. Judgment to God. How fellow ase is present is difficult ormidable an objection. agh to realize that in a .'y are receiving only ond condemn a community But whether or not the may really need advice. .nst a good thing. The many things in which ~ctions mentioned above .t the Church has never of penance because of ment with as many safe- ~s the rest in the hands 3od also allows much in Consider the prosaic fact of free The practical problem of little time anda large number of retreatants is genuine: "I can't see how a retreat master in one private conference could possibly help one--especially when two or three hundred people are making the retreat that usually 19 THOMAS DUBAY Review for Religious lasts five or eight days." Real though the difficulty is, its solution is not impossible. First of all, we must remember that most religious will probably not seek a private interview, at least not in every retreat. Secondly, superiors should exhaust their in-genuity in seeking ways and means of multiplying retreats and consequently reducing the number of participants in each one. Finally, retreat masters should imitate St. Paul in spending them-selves without stint for the benefit of the sisters. They should give generously of their time and l~e as available as possible. On their part local superiors "(in congregations that allow the private conference) should make it as easy as possible for the sisters to obtain direction. While religious discipline may not suffer, red tape ought to be reduced to the barest minimum. And we might observe in conclusion that the religious themselves ought carefully to abstain from making comments of any kind about those who choose to avail themselves of the opportunity to. obtain spiritual direction. Understanding of Retreatants' Needs We have already observed in our survey series that a some-what disturbing number of sisters feel that at times their retreat masters do not understand well enough the spiritual problems of religious women. If we may judge the views of these sisters on the basis of the typical comments they made, we must return the verdict that usually those views are objectively based. Perhaps an instance of what I mean will help. If a priest counsels a community to do something prohibited by its constitutions, the sisters' judgment that their spirit is not understood is objectively founded. It is not a mere subjective persuasion. When a priest does not understand the needs of a particular group of religious, that lack of understanding will usually occur in one or other of the following categories. 1. Failure to grasp the diverse needs of the different re-ligious communities. This particular type of misunderstanding comes in a number of varieties. One sister observes that the 20 January, 1958 RETREATS IN RETROSPECT retreat master does not seem to appreciate the needs of the teach-ing religious. Another remarks that the problems of the nursing sister are for the most part missed. A third objects that the priest does not understand the spirit of her order or that he confuses it with the spirit of some other congregation. This type of misunderstanding is itself readily understand-able. Many retreat masters are not teachers; none are nurses; and none belong to the identical community as that of the re-treatants. It isi therefore, encouraging that the sisters themselves show a sympathetic appreciation of the di~culties lying before the retreat master. Yet for all that, the obstacles can be at least partially removed. If a priest habitually gives retreats to teaching or nursing religious, it seems imperative that he keep abreast of current problems facing the sisters by reading publications in which those problems are discussed. Such would be, for example, the Catholic Educational Review, the Catholid School Journal, Hospital Progress, Review for Religious, Sponsa Regis, and Sister Formation Bulletin. A first-class biology teacher keeps himself au courant on the newest developments in his field. So does the first-class retieat master. An invaluable means of learning about the problems peculiar to sisters in diverse works (and we are thinking also of contem-plation, social service, missi(~ns, and others) is to give the sisters a chance to say something during retreat time. A daily discussion period wi~h the master serves a number of excellent purposes and . this is one of them. A discussion period can easily replace or be integrated with the daily conference (as distinguished" from the meditations). 'Misunderstandings bearing on the community's works and spirit can be eliminated to a large extent by a careful reading of sisters' constitutions together with exchanges with their su-periors. We have discussed both of these matters in the early part of this present article. 2. Lack of understanding of the psychology of women and of the religious life as lived by women. On this point I would 21 THOMAS DUBAY Review for Religfous almost prefer to say nothing at all, for there is little that I can offer with certainty. Of this, however, we can be sure: we do have a prob.lem here that is worth noticing. In our survey the sisters mentioned it more than once and that in diverse con-nections. Now, of course, men and women are not so psychologically different that the one group can never hope to know very much about the other. Yet there does seem to be a chasm in mutual understanding wide enough to create difficulty in obtaining optimum retreat results. This difficulty is sharp-ened when we reflect on the patent fact that retreats for religious women given by religious men are here for keeps. We want, therefore, to make them as successful as possible. What can be done to further a more complege understanding? Experience, obviously, will help any priest. And so will his study of feminine psychology (if he can find something reliable on the subject). But I think that the real solution, if there is one, lies with the sisters themselves. To a consid-erable extent the heart of a nun is unknown terrain. Her confessor surely has some access to it, but a decidedly incom-plete access. The depths of her heart, its love, its aspirations and yearnings, its happiness and its pain are for the most part a closed book. How precisely she views the trials and joys of her-consecrated life are her secret hardly to be shared fully by another. Her entire reactions to her friends and i~amily and sister religious and superiors are unknown quantities. In all this, of course, she is no different from the rest of us. The difference lies in the fact that a priest can more easily understand all these things as they occur in laymen and in priests because he has been both. And many priests engaged in seminary work have spent long hours in the spiritual direc-tion of seminarians. They know the masculine mind in its religious implications because they have experienced it both in themselves and in others. 22 January, 1958 RETREAT~ IN RETROSPEC~ ' Now if there is such a thing as a psychology of religious women--and many sisters insist there is--it is the religious women themselves who must give an account of it. Perhaps our sisters have been too reluctant to explore this particular aspect of their vocation or too taciturn about making known what they have found. In any event the initiative must stem from them. 3. Lack of understanding of the real problems in the religious, life of sisters. This problem, where it actually does occur, is probably connected with the preceding. In our opinionnaire an item on community ~ problems was included and to it many interesting answers were given. I have not as yet written up this particular question, but hope to do so in the reasonably near future. It may cast some light on this third source of misunderstanding. 4. Failure to realize th~it most sisters are not interested in mere mediocre holiness. While this particular type of mis-understanding is by no means universal, mention of it did occur frequently enough to warrant more than a passing notice. Since, however, it shall come up for consideration in our next section, we will pass it by for'the present. 5. Lack of patience with sisters' poblems. To run out of patience is like running out of gas. Neither necessarily sug-gests a lack of understanding of people or of gas tanks. Either may bespeak nothing more striking than some deficiency or other in human nature. But on the other hand, misunder-standing may be the culprit. And this takes us back to our psycholog)~ of the sexes. It is easy to visualize a priest brush-ing off a sister's problems as petty and of no consequence. He may be right (and he may not), but in either case charity indicates that he give her a kind hearing and a patient-answer. Attitudes Toward Sanctity In proposing to analyze so intricate and delicate a question as the present one, we are perhaps treading where angels fear; 23 THOMAS DUBAY Review fo~" Religious but the very moment of the matter beckons at least a try. If it is true, as the Salmanticences say it is, that to raise a good person to saintliness is a greater work than to convert a sinner to grace, the efforts of retreat masters to lead religious to the heights of holiness loom up as of no little account. There are two elements involved in the retreat master's approach to sanctity for his auditors. On the one hand there is the question as to whether he urges them sufficiently to the heights, and on the other whether he explains adequately just how those heights are to be scaled. The survey indicated that a majority of sisters (63.1%) felt that retreat masters usually do urge them sufficiently to supreme sanctity, while a notable minority (36.9%) were of a negative opinion. Regarding the second element the breakdown was closer: 53:8% thought that retreat masters usually explain adequately how complete holiness is to be achieved and "46.2% embraced an opposite view. These contradictory opinions on both questions are easily understood. They are probably due to three factors: (a) the sisters polled have differing standards as to what the heights of holiness really are; (b) they also differ in their judg-ments as to what a retreat master ought to say about complete sanctity in a heterogeneous group of religious; and (c) they are speaking of different retreat masters. Understandable though these differences of opinion are, they are nonetheless represented by percentages large enough to indicate that a considerable number of retreat masters are not satisfying a considerable number of religious in their ap-proach to the question of sanctity. If this conclusion be correct, we might dwell with profit on possible means of improving inadequacies where they do occur. 1. The confessional is a situation tailor-made for the pru-dent direction of a soul to holiness. A confessor can often spot the fully generous so.ul, the soul that is ripe for a greater love of God. The penitent's confession itself both in its content 24 Janua~'y, 1958 RETREATS IN RETROSPECT and in its mode will often suggest the, practical means to be used at each pa_rticular stage in the spiritual life. 2. In his conferences and meditations the master should present saintliness itself as the goal of the religious life. He ought not to suggest by word or attitude that some sort of mediocre goodness is sufficient, but rather that the very end of the state of perfection is perfection, a thorough doing. The word itself, perfection, indicates a completeness, an entireness that can be predicated of nothing less than the sanctity of the saints. And yet while he presents holiness in all its totality, the retreat master will be careful not to discourage the weak. Some religious do not feel that they are ready to scale the heights and that they must first get themselves established at the moun-tain's base. The priest will, therefore, counsel patience and p~udence in adapting means to an individual spiritual condition and state in life. While pointing out the sublime goal, he makes it clear that we do not reach it in a month or a year, but that with the cooperation of our unstinting generosity God brings us to it in His own good time. .Presented in this way the doctrine of saintliness for the religious fits the needs of all and hurts none. 3. The retreat master should next show that the heights of holiness are possible of achievement. One sister'ha~ ob-served that the manner of reaching sanctity "is often presented as being very difficult rather than as something to be. faced with joy and confidence." Working for real holiness is difficult-- there can be no doubt about that. But it is not a sombre and forbidding difficulty and certainly not an insuperable one. Christ could not have commanded the impossible, and yet He made it crystal clear on at least two occasions that all men are to strive for perfect sanctity. "You therefore are to be perfect, even as your heavenly Father is perfect" (Matt. 5:48). "Thou shall love the Lord thy God with thy whole heart, and with thy whole soul, and with thy Whole mind" (Matt. 22:37). The 25 THOMAS DUBAY Review ]or Religious comment of Pius XI on the first of these texts was emphatic: "Let no one think that these words apply only to a very few select souls and that all the others are permitted to remain in some inferior degree of virtue. It is evident that absolutely everybody without exception is bound by this law" (third cen-tenary of St. Francis de Sales). If saintliness is possible for all men, it is doubly possible for the religious who has chosen the most effective means to attain it, the state of perfection. 4. A step further. Saintliness for religious should b~ presented as eminently desirable, a thing at once splendid, satisfying, and sublime. There is nothing in the world so utterly charming as a saintly soul--and also nothing so pleasing to God. The beauty of a consecrated life lived to the hilt should be like a golden thread that the priest weaves through-out the retreat by his attitudes, words, and actions. 5. A practical explanation of the means to achieve sanctity is indispensable. We have already noted that a con-siderably greater number of the sisters participating in our study found fault with retreat masters on this score than on the score of theory. Such is not surprising for we humans naturally tend in our teaching to stress the general and avoid the specific. And in our spiritual conferences we tend to generalize all the more because we are subconsciously afraid that we will step on somebody's toes if we get too specific about what we mean. Yet if a retreat master is going to be clear he has got to be specific. Else he is likely doing' nothing but preaching pious platitudes: I suppose I might right now practice what I am' preaching and be specific. Instead of resting content with a glowing but merely general eulogy of detachment from created things, the retreat master ought to get down to brass tacks and spell out what this thing is really all about. He might tell his audience clearly what an attachment is: the clinging of the will to a created thing for its own sake; the loving of a creature for its own sake and not for the sake of God. Then January, 1958 RETREATS IN RETROSPECT he could specify as does St: John of the Cross what some of these creatures might be: a book, a piece of clothing, news and rumors, a love of ta/king. (See Ascent of Mount Carmel, Book I, Chapter 11.) He might be even more specific and explain the psychology of attachment and then use some of these examples to illustrate his point. When a speaker has spent twenty or thirty minutes in this fashion, he has said something . something that ~vi[l move to action because it is clear, practical, down to earth. 6. In our efforts to move souls to seek saintliness itself as their goal we might well draw more freely from the lives of the saints as a source t:or apt illustrations. If in a lecture on biology you want to explain the nature of plants, you draw your illustrations from plants. Why not the same in explain-ing saintliness? The unqualified idea that saints are to be admired but not imitated is, of course, the merest nonsense. Any good theology manual p.oints out that an essential reason for the pope's infallibility in a decree of canonization is pre-cisely that he is presenting to the faithful an example to be imitated and that, consequently, he cannot lead them astray. The retreat master, to be sure, ought not to dwell on the unusual doings of the saints for the twofold reason that these unusual activities are both comparatively rare and also not the chief basis for the saints' canonization. If the Church intends us to present the saints to the simple faithful as concretizations of perfect sanctity, all the more ought they to be presented to priests, brothers, and sisters both in retreat and out of it. 7. In order to further the work of all-outness in matters spiritual, the master could suggest to the retreatant community choice books eminently suited to the purpose. Our contem-porary spiritual reading market is not totally void of second-rate works, wo~'ks that sometimes clip the corners off perfection as it has been explained by the saints. If you wonder, perhaps, at exactly what I mean, I would suggest that you read side by side 27 THOMAS DUBA¥ Review ]or Religious St. Frzn¢is de Sales, St. John of the Cross, and St. Teresa of Avila on the one hand and some of our less noteworthy moderns on the other. 8. Our final suggestion: a self-analysis on the part of each retreat master. Some priests are undoubtedly doing a superb job in this whole matter; others seemingly are not. A self-examination may help to indicate who is where. I think that some such examination would be based on three funda-mental questions: (a) do I really~know the doctrine of the saints; (b) am I prudent in applying it; (c) am I practical in explaining it? Other questions would be mere derivatives of these three. Characteristics of the Retreat Master We will preface our comments on the traits of retreat mas-ters by refreshing our collective mind on the preferences and dislikes of the ret~eatants. It is the mark made on them, after all, that determines the success or failure of the retreat. As regards positive qualities our survey indicated that sis-ters, at least, overwhelmingly nominate genuine sanctity as thi~ trait most desirable in a retreat master. Practicality, a distant second-placer, was followed by experience, theological learning, kindness, and a sense of humor in that order. On the negative side the number of different defects noted by the sisters was decidedly large. Among the most frequently mentioned wero reading of meditations, lack of interest, conceit, verbosity, sar-casm, joking manner, impracticality, severity, harshness and speed in the confessional, bad delivery, superficiality, dramatic manner, lack of preparation, excessive intellectuality, critical spirit (and especially toward sisters), worldliness, condescension toward sisters, negative approach, scandalous stories, crude lan-guage, idiosyncrasies, and insincerity.~ For a complete treatment of these and other qualities and defects, see REY'IEW RELIGIOUS, September, 1956, pp. 253-62. 28 Janua~'y, 1958 RETREATS IN RETROSPECT Perhaps the brightest and most encouraging element in this whole matter is that every quality above mentioned, with the possible exception of a sense of humor (which came last in importance), can be acquired by a serious priest, while almost every defect can with due attention be eradicated. Any priest can, if he really wants to, set out after genuine sanctity; he can acquire practicality, experience, a competent knowledge of theology; and he can be kind merely by making up his mind to it. On the other hand he can tone down a clamorous delivery or clarify a muttering one; he can eradicate harshness, conceit, verbosity, and sarcasm; he can prepare his retreat well and refrain from reading conferences and meditations; it is within his power to avoid disinterestedness, criticism, condescension, and worldliness. Most priests (who, after all, have had enough talent to receive ordination) can with hard work develop them-selves into acceptable retreat masters. But--and this is a worthwhile but--we do not always know our defects and, for that- matter, sometimes our strong points. I would not be entirely unwilling to support the thesis that most of the failings we have noted are unrealized by the retreat masters possessing them . unrealized at least as defects. A man can easily be unaware that his manner is conceited, his delivery raucous, and his matter superficial. He may sincerely think that his emotionalism is desirable, his severity needed, or his critical spirit justified. He may not know that his read meditations grate on the nerves of many or that his manner in the confessional is at all hasty or severe. All of which suggests the need for a large package of charity in the mental and verbalized judgments of retreatants, but it also suggests that perhaps the priests among us ought not to take too much for granted. We may not be so free of deficiencies as we might imagine. How to find out? One way is honest self-examination. Some defects so stand out that they can be seen with half an eye. Sarcasm, 29 THOMAS DUBAY Review /or Religious insincerity, criticism of sisters, and lack of interest seem to fall into this class of obvious deficiencies, obvious at least on a mo-ment's reflection. I think that sisters' retreats would in many instances be greatly improved if each retreat-giving priest would examine himself periodically on the list of qualities and defects the sisters furnished us in the above referred.to study. Knowing a deficiency is half the battle; the other half is won by good will and God's grace. But there are other defects that even a serious examination will not reveal. To know these we must be told by another. Is it beyond the realm of feasibility to suggest that the retreat master distribute once or twice in his career a simple question-naire to the retreatants in order to obtain a frank expression of opinion? There is the danger, of course, that he may appear to be seeking a naive pat on the back; but that danger can be annihilated by a few sincere, well-chosen words. Most retreat-ants would be frank, and their comments couid prove invaluable for the future improvement of that priest's retreat work. Despite his best and most sincere efforts, however, it may happen, that a priest is just not fitted by nature to do retreat work. Well and good. He may be a fine man and capable of doing outstandingly well in some other field. And it would seem wise for his superiors to assign him to another field. But at minimum we submit as imperative that superiors send into retreat work only those priests who are interested in it and generously willing to do it. The sisters' complaints dealing with lack of interest on the part of retreat masters are, as we ha.ve noted, heavy. And in all probability it is often the root cause of other defects. Experience in the classroom indicates clearly that the best teacher is the enthusiastic, interested teacher. The very same may be said of retreat master~ for they too are teachers. It would be generally agreed, I believe, that the work of giving retreats to religious is highly specialized and quite unlike 30 Janua~'y, 1958 RETREATS IN RETROSFECT the Usual activities of most priests. Neither the ordinary course of seminary theology nor the typical Sunday sermon approach is equal to the sublime task of forming consecrated souls to a configuration with Christ. Ideally, therefore, men who do re-treat work should have specialized preparation for it. We prepare men and women for other les~ important specialized jobs. Why not for that of retreat master? .We need not necessarily think here of formal and especially tailored courses; they may be feasible--I do not know. But as a minimumwe must think of a private, orderly study on the part of priests who give retreats, a study bearing on ascetical and mystical theology, the New Testament, and the lives of the saints. The nature of the work demands, of course, that th~ retreat master be competent in dogmatic and moral theology--else his ascetical and mystical theology may be in a tottering condition. Real competence and facility in these fields take time. Years. A man cannot have a real grasp on ascetical and mystical theology by reading two or three books, no matter how good they be. Nor can he know the mind of the saints by reading two or three lives, even the best of them. An ideal retreat master can be that man only who is wholeheartedly interested in the glorious work of raising chosen souls to a lofty degree of holiness and who is willing to submit to the rigors involved in acquiring and maintaining a fitness for it. A final note for the retreatants themselves . . . and that note is one Word: forebearance. Despite the very best and sincerest efforts of all concerned with retreats, masters are not going to be perfect. Our first and last perfect retrea~ will be conducted in heaven. In the meantime we must be patient and do the best we can with what we have. Meditation Subjects I do not think there is need here to 'ana1~ze the question of subject matter for retreat meditations, since the major impli-cations of our retreat study on this point have already been 31 THOMAS DUBAY Review fo~" Religious discussed.° One observation only seems worthy of mention, and that is the avoidance of triteness. It is neither psycho-logically nor pedagogically wise to insist on the same set of meditation subjects year after yea~. Topic repetition is psy-chologically unwise because attention is blunted by sameness and impressions fade: assueta vi/e~cunt. Subject reiteration is pedagogically unwise for the obvious reason that you. are not teaching very much, if anything at all. By hitting the same truths in the same way, few new insights are given and, conse-quently, few new motives for action. If, on the contrary, the same subjects are tackled from .new points of view and if they furnish new insights, all our objections fall to the ground. In a true sense, you really have new subject~. You are no longer trite. Rest Before Retreat A noteworthynumber of sisters mentioned in our opinion-naire that plain weariness hindered them from getting full spiritual benefits from their retreats. And one need not tax his imagination to believe them. Ushered by ol~edience directly from the hospital floor or the classroom into conference hall and chapel, these religious simply do not have the energy to give themselves completely to the searching work of a vigorous self-renewal. But we must remember at the same time that scarcity of personnel may prevent a provincial superior from doing a whole lot about the situation. Yet when it is possible, a full day's rest would seem in order for all sisters about to go on retreat. Even bettek would be a week or two of vacation, a vacation during which only spiritual exercises and trifling daily duties are mandatory. Religious (as we well know but some-times tend to forget) do not acquire nerves of copper merely by donning a habit. Daily Retreat Schedule Closely linked to the immediately preceding problem is the tightly packed retreat horarium. A daily schedule that is closely °See gEvIsw FOg gELm~OUS, November, 1956, pp. 301-5. 32 January, 1958 RETREATS IN RETROSPECT crowded with a multitude of spiritual exercises is psychologically and spiritually unsound. It does not take cognizance of the fact that God works best in peace and quiet, that the sisters need serenity of mind and heart if they are going to love Him tremendously. It would seem wise, therefore, to reduce the number of exercises in a squeezed-together horarium, to sched-ule vocal prayers in moderation, and to allow an adequate amount of free time. Most sisters are in dead earnest about the business of sanctity; and it should be assumed, until the contrary is proved, that they will use free time to their greatest advantage. Physical Accommodations During the Retreat One of the sisters good-naturedly referred to the problem of spacial overcrowding during retreat time as "one of those August mob scenes." We may easily sympathize with her viewpoint and yet at the same time grant that the problems of the assigning superior are knotty. Especially in large communi-ties this latter has often to provide the benefits of an annual retreat to hundreds of religious and that within the narrow confines of a few weeks and drastically limited facilities. For some communities, perhaps, the "mob scenes" cannot be avoided, at least in the near future. For others, however, careful plan-ning and personnel adjustment together with fresh thinking could conceivably issue in an amelioration of the situation. The solution in most cases would probably be a greater number of distinct retreats, however they can be provided. Possibly the week after Christmas would for some communities lend itself to an additional retreat time; for others the Easter vacation might be used for the same purpose. In still other cases the solution might lie in a greater dispersion of retreat locations. Rather than have all retreats in a motherhouse or community college, smaller houses might with some adjustment be adaptgd to serve as supplementary retreat centers. Aside from the greater ad-vantage of more physical space, such dispers)on would enable the sisters to seek and receive more individualized attention from 33 ¯ FOR YOUR INFORMATION Review for Religioz~s the master whether in the confessional or in the private conference. Conclusion Before capping this disquisition with its amen, I would like to reject in anticipation a possible illusion, for if. it came to be, it would probably be my fault. That illusion is that this study contains the answers to almost all retreat prol~lems. The truth is, of course, that it may contain some answers to some problems. The truth is also that we need a lot more thinking, fresh think-ing, about these questions. Investigation, too. It seems to me that we ought to learn from our secular friends how to use the tools of research to further love for God. We ought to study ourselves and our doings more objectively--scientifically, if you want to call it that. In all likelihood both we and our doings would be much more effective. For Your Informal:ion In Future Numbers NOT INFREQUENTLY we receive articles that have to be returned because the subjects are treated in articles that we have already accepted, but not yet published. It has occurred to us that this problem might be avoided if we publish a list of articles that will appear in subsequent numbers of the REVIEW, with a brief indication of the content of each article. Besides being helpful to prospective contributors, this list should be of interest to all readers. We give here a list only of articles that have been accepted at the time we are preparing this material for the printer. That means, roughly speaking, articles accepted before November 1, 1957. 34 January, 1958 FOR YOUR INFORMATION "The Holy See and Teaching Brothers." Under date of March 31, 1954, Pope Pius XII addressed-to Cardinal Valeri a letter on the special vocation and apostolate of religious institutes of teaching brothers. ,Several magazines have published English translations of this letter. The Commentarium pro religiosis published not o~nly the original Latin text of the Pope's letter, but also some background material and a commentary on the papal letter by Father A. Guti~rrez, C.M.F. We intend to pub-lish an English version of the papal letter, together with the background material and some o~ the more important observa-tions made by Father Guti~rrez. -"The Gifts of the Holy Spirit." This article gives a clear, simple, and attractive explanation of the more common theolo-gical teaching on the gifts and on their function in the ascetical life. "Religious and Psychotherapy." What are psychiatric treat-ments? What is their purpose? Should religious who suffer from a mental illness go to a pxsychiatrist and cooperate in psy-chotherapy? The article answers questions such as these. "A Sense of Balance." This is a study in contrasts: opti-mism and pessimism; with insistence that the true Christian view of life is an optimistic view that sees God as love, man as re-deemed, other creatures as means of sanctification, and the com-mandments as laws of love and life. "Saint Th~rhse of the H61y Face." The Little Flower's full name in religion is Sister Th~r~se of the Child Jesus and of the Holy Face. This article brings out, by means of numerous quo-tations, how profound was her devotion to the Holy Face. "To extend the Reign of Jesus Christ." This is an account of the founding of the first non-cloistered institute of teaching sisters. "Unceasing Prayer." We all wonder at times how we can fulfill the words of St. Paul, "Pray without ceasing." One ex-planation, called virtual prayer, has been recommended by cer- 35 FOR YOUR INFORMATION tain prominent French Jesuit writers. Their explanation is presented briefly in this article. "Proficients Who Do Not Progress.'? One division of the stages of spiritual progress is: beginner, proficient, and perfect. This article pays particular attention to the difficulties of the second stage and to the ways of surmounting these difficulties. "Preliminary to Adaptation." The theme of the article is that, in order properly to carry out the recommendations of the Church concerning adaptation and renovation, there must be a careful study of the spirit of the institute. "Countering Serious Sin." Religious are not immune from the possibility of committing mortal sin, and they need to take precautions. Such precautions are outlined in this article, which, in the author's words, is "a blueprint . . . for constructing (or re-constructing) an interior citadel against the lethal foe, serious sin." "Keeping the Rules." In religious institutes there are two kinds of rules: disciplinary regulations that mainly concern exter-nal observance and community order, and spiritual directives that pertain to the interior spirit and the apostolate. The article shows that fidelity to the rules means one thing as regards the first kind of rules, and another as regards the second kind. "The Neurotic Religious." This is a sequel to the article on religious and psychotherapy. Most religious who might need and profit by psychotherapy suffer from an emotional illness known as neurosis. This article is an attempt to paint a verbal picture of the neurotic religious and his problems. Non-Jesuit Contributors We are often asked (apparently by those who have not been regular readers of the RE'Ci, EW) whether we accept articles by non-Jesuits. One answer to this question might be a simple reference to the articles published during the last three years, (continued on page 41) 36 Spiri!:ual Cancer I:r~ncis J. M~cEnt:ee, S.J. wE ARE HEARING a great deal these days about cancer. Millions of dollars are set aside every year to study it, to learn everj~thing possible about this mysterious killer. People are made constantly conscious of it because they see and hear about it on all sideg: campaigns for research funds and hospitalization; drives against this and that as possible causes; salves and various ray-treatments as possible cures. The obituary page in every newspaper is also a persistent reminder of its omni-presence. Yet, even though cancer is prominent in the public eye, the very mention of it still strikes terror into those confronted with it. Any unexpected need for hospital care or sudden surgery generally wrings the same agonized question from the anguished patient: "It. isn't cancer, is it, doctor?" as if anything else would be almost welcome as an alternative. There is good reason for this terror, because the most terrifying thing about cancer is its insidiousness. Cancer is really an abuse. It might even be called too much of a good thing. Many people have a vague notion that.cancer is something like leprosy in that it is a disease that eats away until the poor victim just distintegrates. Actually it is just the opposite. Cancer is a lively exuberant~ growth of body cells, which in itself is a good thing because it is the normal function of body cells to increase and grow. Only in this case the growth gets out of hand and keeps right on growing long after it should have stopped. The cells continue to divide madly without any apparent cause or method of being stopped. That is why cancer is an abuse; why it is too much of a good thing; why it is insidious, for it starts with something that is normal and natural and perverts it. Finally, since these wildly pro-lifer~ ting cells are living things, they must be nourished; con-sequently, they spread out like the crab from which the disease takes its name and pirate their nourishment from the surrounding 37 FP~-NCIS J. MAcENTEE Review for Religious healthy tissue which in time, as is quite obvious, will be starved dead by the greedy voracious intruders. I am sure the .medical profession would find much to criticize in this over-simplification of one of the most serious and complicated diseases of our time, but my purpose is a medical one only to the limited extent of setting up a parallel with what might be called spiritual cancer. Our growth in the spiritual life is measured by our close union with Christ, an ever-deepening awareness of His presence and a constant striving to have an unalloyed intention in all our endeavors in His service. One good sign of a sound spiritual growth is the balance and harmony with which it proceeds. Our performance of the many activities which make up our dedicated lives mirrors, to some degree, the progress of our spiritual growth. We of course realize that all our duties and obligations, even those which may seem to be of lesser moment, or even (to our practical minds) somewhat impractical, are nonetheless very important from God's viewpoint. Therefore we must be on the alert that we don't allow our more favored activities, like those that bring more immediate and concrete results, to divert the activity that should be going into all our activities. For any such activity in our lives which starts to grow out of all due proportion, siphoning off time and energy from some other duty, is an abuse; it is too much of a good thing; it is a spiritual cancer. We must bd constantly on our guard against the manifesta-tions of this disease because, like its physical counterpart, it will have begun long before we become aware of it. The insidious-ness here lies in the fact that we have within ourselves the germs of the disease because, for most of us, activity of some sort is our way of life, our prime means of doing .God's will. And it is so easy for one phase or other of this activity to get out of hand, to start growing out of all due proportion, thriving perhaps, but only to the detriment of our whole spiritual or- 38 Janua~'y, 1958 SPIRITUAL CAN(~ER ganism. Since activity, then, is the way by which we serve God, it is so easy ~or us to play the doctor in our own case and give a false diagnosis to our symptoms, admitting perhaps the begin-nings of an excited growth but misinterpreting the symptoms as a case of increased fervor in doing God's work. If God is pleased with this much activity, we say, then He will be twice as pleased with twice as much. Like the man who reads the prescription on the medicine bottle then doubles it, convinced that he will get well twice as fast. Such a dangerous spiritual bedside manner in dealing with our own ailments can lead to only one conclusion: an ever-spreading cancer which will soon sap our entire spiritual nourishment leaving us spiritually ema-ciated and all under the guise of giving God a service which He most assuredly does not want. The activities in our dedicated lives by which we serve God are numberless. As long as their growth is normal and in har-mony with the growth of our whole spiritual structure, our spiritual li~e will be sound and healthy. But let's look at a ~ew pertinent instances of activities that could, if we are not watchful, begin to grow malignantly. For those o~ us who teach school on any level whatsoever, there is little question of what to do with our superfluous time since that precious commodity is practically non-existent in-this glorious activity. But because there is no proportion at all be-tween the time spent in preparation for and actually spent in the classroom and the time formally spent in meditation, examen, and spiritual reading, we might come to the sad conclusion that the one which takes the more time is the more important. If that becomes the case, then it won't be long before there is a big-business merger and even the little time which was once spent in spiritual duties will be absorbed by the larger enterprise. Prognosis? Incipient malignant cancer. However, we might justify this course oi: action by saying that we have thereby be-come a better teacher. After all, we argue, if it's God's will that I teach others that I may bring more and more souls to 39 FRANCIS J. MACENTEE Review for Religious love Him an°d to save their souls, then anything I can do to make myself a better instrument will be furthering God's glory. The fallacy there is that we are judging only by externals. We forget that God can raise up. better instruments from the stones in the street. What if the time plundered from spiritual activi-ties did give us the appearance of a better teacher, how would we then differ from the good lay teacher on our faculty? Another phase of teaching that might blight this great activity with an unhealthy growth is the element of competition involved. We want our classes to do well, for their own sakes, of course, but also to some extent for our sakes too. For if they don't do as well as other similar classes, the reflection will be on us; and we will be in a bad light not only in the eyes of our fellow teachers but perhaps also in the eyes of superiors. Therefore, we start giving undue time to class preparation and class work in general in order to fill up what we label a defilzit; but in the process we lay the groundwork for a deficiency of a much higher magnitude. We are deluded into thinking that success depends entirely on ourselves so that, if we're not an apparent success, there is a fault involved and the fault c.'-n be only our own. We ignore the palpable fact that God can make greater use of the not-so-successful teacher who depends totally on Him than on the obviously successful one who is just as obviously self-pleased with the whole thing. When we begin to realize that God doesn't look solely at results (which unfortun-ately are almost our sole criterion of judgment), that He looks first at the motive and effort involved, then we will see that our opinion about any teacher or anything else, for that matter, might be quite different from God's. The same thing would apply to the student. When the nourishment for our spiritual life begins to feed the abnormal appetite which studying can easily become, then it is high time for a spiritual check-up to see that the instrument which is being honed for Christ's service does not slice us too thin. Studying 4O Janua~'y, 1958 SPIRITUAL CANCER is just another activity which we undertake for Christ's greater glory. Success is welcome, but it is certainly not the be-all and end-all of the undertaking. God demands first our pure inten-tion, great effort, and continual complete dedication. From there on in, it's His affair. If He wants others to reap the academic fruits, what is that to us? Again, the fallacy of judging success only by the results produced. Despite all "the changes in our way of life, despite loud mass production and speedy efficiency, growth in the spiritual~ life is a delicate thing that needs a sustained climate of quiet, inward ¯ peace, and recollection. Nervous effusions to exterior things and a one-sided dedication to activity which results in making ar~ end. out of what should be only a means are so many strangling weeds that make spiritual growth impossible. The only growth they foster is an abnormal one, a growth that drains off spiritual vitality, a growth that is cancerous. For Your In[ormal~ion (continued from page 36) 1955-1957. During these years we published 67 articles. This does not include translations of papal addresses, compilations of papal statements, and the surveys of Roman documents made by Father Smith. Of these 67 articles, 35 were by Jesuits, 32 by non-Jesuits. We might add that anyone who contributes an article should confer our "Notes for Contributors," which were published in the REVIEW, March, 1955, pp. 104-112, and July, 1955, pp. 194-196. 41 Survey oJ: Roman Document:s R. F. Smil:h, S.J. IN THE PRESENT survey there will be given a summary, of the documents which appeared in Acta Apostolicae Sedis (AAS) from August 24, 1957, to September 25, 1957, in-clusive. Page references throughout the article will be to the 1957 AAS (v. 49). Our Lady On July 2, 1957 (AAS, pp. 605-19), the Holy Father published a new encyclical, Le P~lerinage de Lourdes (The Pilgrima~/e o/ Lourdes). The document was directly ad-dressed to the Church in France on the occasion of the coming centenary of our Lady's appearances at Lourdes, but granted the international extent of devotion to our Lady of Lourdes the encyclical is of great interest to the entire Church. The en-cyclical is divided into two parts, the first of which begins by sketching what may be termed the Marian history of France. So notable has been France's devotion to our Lady, remarks. the Pontiff, that today the entire country lies under the protec-tive shadows of Marian sanctuaries--humble chapels or splendid basilicas as the case may be. There is good reason to say that this Marian history of France culminated in the nineteenth cen-tury. It was then, for instance, that our Lady gave the miracu-lous medal to a humble daughter of St. Vincent de Paul; and a few years later in 1858 she appeared to St. Bernadette at Lourdes which from then on became a pilgrimage center for the sick, the afflicted, and the truth-seekers of the entire world. The Pope then notes that the hundred years that have passed since Our Lady's appearances at Lourdes have seen an ever stronger relationship between the See of Peter and the grotto of the appearances. Indeed, the relationship was present 42 ROMAN DOCUMENTS from the beginning, for it would seem that what the Holy Father had infallibly defined a few years previously the Blessed Virgin wished to confirm by her own words, since she appeared to Bernadette with the message: "I am the Immaculate Conception." Since then each of the Romari Pontiffs has eagerly shown his favor toward the sanctuary of Lourdes. Pius IX showered bene-fits on the shrine erected there and ordered the coronation of its statue of our Lady; Leo XIII granted a proper office and Mass for the feast 6f the Appearance of Our Lady Immaculate. St. Plus X introduced the cause of Bernadette; and above all the sainted Pontiff emphasized the remarkable manner in which Marian piety at Lourdes led to an equally remarkable worship of Christ in the Blessed Sacrament. Benedict XV permitted the bishop of Tarbes and Lourdes to wear the pallium at the place of the appearances, while Pius XI beatified Bernadette and chose to close the jubilee year of the Redemption at the shrine of Lourdes. Plus XII then concludes this first part of the encyclical by recalling his own endeavor to continue the relationship between the Roman See and Lourdes, an endeavor which was manifested most recently by the closing at Lourdes of the centenary year of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception. The second part of the encyclical is devoted to a considera-tion of the spiritual lessons of Lourdes; these lessons, notes the Vicar o~Christ, are but echoes of the gospel message, for, like John theB, aptist and like Christ .Himself at the beginning of His public life, our Lady called at Lourdes for l~enance and con-version. At the same time she brought a message of pardon and hope for those who do repent; indeed just as the miraculous cures of Christ were but signs of the power and readiness of Christ to forgive sins, so also the physical cures at Lourdes are invitations to hope for pardon. The centenary jubilee at Lourdes, continues the Holy Father, will possess grandeur only in so far as men respond to these messages of our Lady. Each pilgrim to Lourdes and each Catholic throughout the world who is united in spirit to the 43 Review for Religious centenary celebrations at the shrine should realize in himself a true spiritual conversion. The conversion of the individual, however, is not enough; rather the faithful must be aroused to a collective effort directed towards the Christian re;aewal of society. This will be shown by a reaction to that materialism which manifests itself not only in the philosophy that presides over the political and economic affairs of a large segment of humanity but also externalizes itself in a greed for money, a cult of the body, a flight from all austerity, and an unrestrained pursuit of pleasure. The Holy Father then urges priests to preach to their people the narrow path that leads to life, reminding them that they, like Mary, must live only to give Christ to the world. So too religious must seek the same end by their weapons of prayer, penance, and charity. Families, too, should do their part by considering the irreplaceable mission they have in society; they should consecrate themselves to the Immaculate Heart of Mary, asking her to remove from their lives all false judgments and egoistic actions. In a moving conclusion to the encyclical the Holy Father addresses the poor and those in bodily or spiritual afflic.tion, urging them to journey to Lourdes where they.will be received with special predilection by our Lady who knows the value of their sufferings when these are united with those of Christ. There can be no doubt, declares the Pope, that the prayers and sufferings of such will play a great part in the Christian renewal of the human race. As his final message the Holy Father makes his own the words of St. Bernard: "In.dangers, in diffichlties, in doubts, think of Mary, call on Mary." Social Matters On June 7, 1957 (AAS, pp. 621-29), the Holy Father addressed a group of Italian workers on the problems attendant on automation. While, as the Pontiff points out, the existence of automation should arouse in the Christian a grateful admira- 44 Janua~'y, 1958 ROMAN DOCUMENTS tion for the Creator and His works, still one should not think that automation of and by itself can radically change the life of man and society--such an admission belongs to Marxism with its false emphasis on the technical side of human life. For social reality and its stable ordering cannot be based only on statistics and mathematics; social life demands besides and prin-cipally other knowledges: theology, philosophy, and the sciences of the spiritual life of man and of his history. Moreover, the Vicar of Christ continues, it should be re-membered that automation, even when considered merely as a new method of production, will give rise to delicate problems. The first is that technical productivity may be confused with economic productivity. Automation offers a continuous, unin-terrupted process of production and hence a fantastic increase of productive capacity. But this does not necessarily constitute a true increase in the productivity of the national economy. This is why even the European countries who possess the best eco-nomic qualifications for automation approach automation with caution and content themselves with only a partial form of it. In any case a country that is not rich and is faced with urgent problems of communication systems, of land reforms, and of adequate housing must not live above its conditions--as it would if it were dominated solely by the fascination of technical progress. Moreover, adds the Pope, the introduction of automation may cause serious unemployment. Even if this problem can eventually be o,~ercome, it still must be remembered that even a temporary increase of unemployment can be a serious matter for certain countries. Added to this is the consideration that under automation the entire question of salaries wiil have to be com-pletely reconsidered. Prior to automation human labor is part of the very process of production and the value of labor can be determined by what it contributes to the production; under automation, however, the worker will be above and outside the 45 Review for Religious actual process of production; hence there will be need for new criteria of estimating the value of labor. So great and so many are the problems connected with a~tomation, the Holy Father warns, that some think that these problems cannot be resolved except by some form of socialism, involving a greater or lesser abolition of private property. It is true, he says, that in an era of automation a greater degree of planning will be needed, but this should not lead to a more or less absolute control, for the independence of the family and the liberty of the citizen are naturally bound up with the sane existence of private property as a social institution. Automation will also give rise to problems connected with the training of the worker; under automation technical training of the highest type will be required; moreover, the worker will not be able to be highly .specialized but "will require a training sufficiently versatile to embrace the functioning and coordinating of greatly differing machines. Such training, however, cannot be given rapidly, but will necessarily entail a long apprenticeship both in the place of production as well as in specialized schools. Moreover, the education given to the worker must also provide for his general culture; only in this way will the worker be able to solve the problem of leisure time which automation will bring to him. In this connection, the Holy Father adds, it must be noted that automation can easily produce a grave danger to personal morality and hence to the sane structure of production and consumption in the national economy. It is for this reason that under automation professional formation must include the general education of the worker. On July .23, 1957 (AAS, pp. 730-37), the Holy Father addressed a group of bishops and priests from all the dioceses of Italy who constituted the first meeting of the Italian Catholic Congress for Emigration. The Pontiff urged his audience to apply to themselves and their work the parable of the Good Shepherd and told them that the basis of their work for emi- 46 Janua~'y, 1958 ROMAN DOCUMENTS grants must'be a supernatural charity that is at once intensive, universal, and disinterested. It is this and not a mere humani-tarian sympathy that will make of them good shepherds of the people they work with. This charity, he continues, must be reduced to effective action by which they become all things to all men. Hence the Vicar of Christ urges them to devote themselves to the careful preparation of the emigrants for the new country to which they are going. They should give the emigrants instructions in the language and customs of the country to which they are going and above all impress on the emigrants by their zealot's work a remembrance of the maternal solicitude of the Church. Finally, the Holy Father takes up the case of the priest who himself emigrates with a group to another country. Such a priest will have special need .of a right intention which wi!l remove from him the danger of a merely nationalistic motive and which will prevent his group from seeing in him, not a missionary, but a mercenary. As a pastor of the group of emi-grants the priest must be alert to the needs of his flock, take care that they gradually adapt themselves to their new country, and at all times treat them with the highest degree of patience. On June 13, 1957 ('AAS, pp. 629-32), the Pontiff addressed the Congress of Europe, a group dedicated to the unification of Europe. The Holy Father recalled his own interest in the idea of European unity, noted the progress made towards this goal since the conclusion of World War II, and encouraged his listeners to ~ontinue their efforts for a political unification of the countries of Europe. He also urged them to advocate a large and comprehensive aid on the part of Europe to Africa, so that it can be clearly seen that the desire for a European community is not merely a selfish reflex of defense against a common encroaching enemy but proceeds rather from constructive and disinterested motives. Finally, the Pope recalled to them the nature of Christianity which offers 47 R. F. SMITH Review for Religious to all men an unshakable assurance of a fatherland which is not of this world and where alone perfect union will be known, because it proceeds from the power and light of God Himself. On June 27, 1957 (AAS, pp. 632-33), Pius XII addressed the third convention of the Atlantic Treaty Association, encour-aging them in their work to enlist the cooperation of schools in the task of spreading knowledge of the union that exists between all men. Miscellaneous Matters By a declaration of August 20, 1957 (AAS, p. 762), the Sacred Congregation of Rites took up the question of the use of vestments made according to .their ancient form. The use of such vestments is now left to the discretion of the local ordinary. The Sacred Congregation of the Council issued a decree dated July 25, 1957 (AAS, p. 638), transferring the obligation of fast and abstinence from the vigil of the feast of the Assumption to the vigil of the feast of the Immaculate Conception. Two documents published during August-September, 1957, deal with causes of beatification and canonization. In the first, which is. dated March 3, 1957 (AAS, pp. 756-59), the Sacred Congregation of Rites approved the introduction of the cause of the young layman, Zephyrinus Numuncur~ (1886-1905). In the second, dated April 9, 1957 (AAS, pp. 759-62), the same congregation approved the introduction of the cause of the Servant of God Frances de Sales Aviat (1844-1914), found-ress of the Congregation of the Oblate Sisters of St. Francis de Sales. Four documents of the same period pertain to priests and religious. On July 16, 1957 (AAS, p. 637), the Sacred Congre-gation of the Council forbade priests, whether secular or religi-ous, to engage actively in Hungarian politics. They are forbidden to seek or accept any position in the Hungarian Parliament; and if they presently hold such a position, they must resign it within a 48 Janua~'y, 1958 ROMAN .DOCUMENTS month; they are moreover forbidden to attend s~ssions of the parliament and to give help to any activities connected With the position they have resigned. A priest disobeying an); of the above prescription~ incurs by that very fact an excommunication specially served to the Holy See. ¯ " On July 12, 1957 (AAS, p. 640), the Sacred Congrega-tion of Seminaries and Universities issued a decree bidding bishops not to admit to their seminaries students who have left any diocesan seminary or who have been dismissed from any such .seminary. If in a given case such a person should be thought worthy of admission, th'e bishop, besides fulfilling the requirements of Canon 13.63, §3, should' apply to the Sacred. Congregation of Seminaries and Universities for further direc-tions. On July 1, 1957 (AAS, p. 751)., the Sacred Congrega-tion of Religious inaugurated the Pontifical Institute "Iesus Magis~er" " ("Jesus the Teacher"). The new institute is in-tended f0~ members of n0n-clerical congregations of religious men and other similar groups; the institute will provide training to einable ~uch religious to be. better fitted to promote the sanc-tification of themselve~ and of others and to imbue their students with Christian truth and virtue. The same congregation in a decree of March 15, i957o (AAS, pp. 749-50), promulgated, the canonical erdctionof a school to be called "Mater Divinae Gr.atiae" ("Mother of Divine Grace") des~tlned foi the training of mistresses of postulants, of novices, and Of younger religious women. The school offers a three-year course which¯ is open to members of a.ny state of per-fection for women. The school is tinder the jurisdiction of the Sacred Congregation of Religious and has its own statutes ap-proved by th~ same qongregation. Under date of July 1, 19.57(AAS, pp. 737-39), the 'Holy Father sent a written message tothe Catholic BoyScouts attending the .international jamboree, held in England on the 49 R. F. SMITH occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of the. founding of the movement. The Pope expressed his satisfaction at the vitality and expansion of the scout movement among Catholic youth and urged them to prepare themselves for their future place in the world by developiag the compreher~sive friendship that translates itself into, the disinterested service characteristic of the scout movement. He also encouraged them to be proud of their purity, their courage, and their nobility; he concluded by suggesting to them that. at Mass they raise their ideal of Catholic scouthood to the heights of the divine Master who came among us to serve and to give Himself. Two documents of the Sacred Congregation of Sem-inaries and Universities deal with general educational matters. In the first of these, dated April 25, 1957 (AAS, pp. 638-40), the congregation canonically established the Catholic Uni-versity of Leopoldville in the Belgian Congo. The new uni-. versity will include a faculty of sacred theology. In the second document, dated May 4, 1957 (AAS, pp. 753:55), the Catholic University of St. Thomas of Villanova in Havana was officially established. Finally/ it should be noted that AAS on pp. 663-89 lists the 261 matrimonial cases which were decided by the Rota during the year 1956. OUR CONTRIBUTORS THOMAS DUBAY teaches philosophy and ascetical theology at Notre Dame Seminary, 2901 S. Carrollton Avenue, New Orleans 18, Louisiana. R. F. SMITH is a member of .the faculty of St. Mary's College, St. Marys, K~nsas. FRANCIS J. MacENTEE is studying for his doctorate in bacteriology at Catholic Uaiversity, Carroll House, 1225 Otis Street .Northeast, Washington 17, D. C. 50 Book Reviews [Material for this department should be sent to Book Review' Editor, REVIEW FOR.RELIGIOUS, West Baden College, West Baden Springs, Indiana.] SON OF THE CHURCH. By Louis Lochet. Translated from the French by Albert J. LaMothe, Jr. Pp. 255. Fides Pub-lishers Association, Chicago 19. 1956. $4.50. Son of the Church is a penetrating analysis of ~he spirituality of the. apostolate, 'written as a series of personal insights and not as a formal treatise. Its purpose is to give the reader the benefit of years of reflection on the character of apostolic action by a former professor of theology who is now parish priest in the diocese of Reims. His thesis is that work in the apostolate, for cleric, religious, and layman, must be done with and through the Church in order to be truly effective. "Lacking that, it founders in absurdity and despair." In tracing this theme, the author shows a solid grasp of human psychology which he integrates with the basic principles of ecclesi-ology, especially of the Mystical Body. Among the temptations that face the apostle, the greatest is "the latent rationalization of all our difficulties [which sees] only what we are doing and not what God is doing. What we do hides from us what God does. It is a short and narrow view of our activity and that of the Church, on the level of what we know of it through history and experience alone." True to the mission of her Founder, the Church is described as a manifestation of divine love, and not only of love but of mercy. Accordingly, the apostle is not to be surprised at running into obstacles of sin, as Christ did. "The love he bears the world is a redeeming love. This is what he has to understand if he does not wish to be disconcerted by the difficulty of the mission. It is not by some strange accident that he meets with coldness, disdain or hatred. It is as the law of his development." Perhaps the outstanding chapter in the book deals with the proper dispositions of anyone engaged in the apostolic life. First must be the conviction that the heart of the apostolate consists in subordinating oneself to the hierarchical authority of the Church. Correlative to this dependence is the realization that the principal object of apostolic labor is to bring the world into the Church's sacramental order--b~ receiving the sacraments in greater numbers, with greater frequency, 51 BOOK REVIEWS Review for Religious increased fervor, find consequently greater efficacy. As an expression of this zeal, the. apostle desires to bring all men into the Mystical Body of Christ, at least to the extent that the Church is every.where implanted with her life-giving channels of grace. However the per-spective must be. kept very clear. A person "who would want to reduce his activity to promoting a better social orgariization or to spreading a temporal beneficence without referring it all to the restoration of the Church by faith in Christ and the sacramental life would no'longer be doing apostolic work." Since the task of bringing souls to God is supernatural, it does not finally rest on the resources of human power~ to succeed--not even those of the apostle. If he .employs all his native ingenuity, "it is not so much in the mahner of a wealth which God needs as of a poverty which God is willing to use for a tran-scendent goal." Corollary to this reliance on grace is the value to be set on self-renunciation. "One will not avoid the mystery of the Cross . Far from fleeing it, we will welcome it as the means par .excellence of realizing the greatest ambitions." In many ways, LocKet has written an excellent book. If on occasion the diction is a bit verbose, this is more than compensated for by the wealth of ideas covering the whole range of apostolic asceticism. It differs considerably from P~i:e Chautard'.s classic on tl~e same subject. Lochet is more cor~cerned with theological integra-tion than with direct motivation. There is also less coherent logic hmong the various parts; something in the style of the Imitation of Christ. For that reason almost any page can be quoted out of con-text withodt losing its inherent meaning. Son of the Church is highly recommended to priests and religious as a doctrinal synthesis of Catholic evangelism.--JoHN A. HARDO,XT, THE CROSS OF JESUS. Voi. I. By Louis Chardon, O.P. Trans-lated from the French by Richard T. Murphy, O.P~ Pp. 304. B. Herder Book ComPany, St. Louis 2. 1957. $4.25. The Dominican Father~ have presented us with another spiritual masterpiece in the "Cross and Crown Series of Spirituality." Written by Father Louis Chardon, O.P., Tl~e Cross of Jesus was published in France in 1647. Thanks to the fine work of the translator, the first volume is now available in English. The Cross of Jesus is not the type of book one rushes through. if given the attention any good spiritual I~ook requires, it will cer-tainly prove profitable. The content is solid; the theme.is simple: 52 January, 1958 BOOK REVIEWS Growth in holiness is achieved through the cross. Although the ideals are lofty ones, they are not set forth merely for mystics. Heeding Jesus' command to take up the cross daily, all holy souls will find guidance and consolation in this book. Father Charddn makes no compromises. He leaves nb doubt as to the necessity of p~arification through the.cross before a s0ul can be united with Jesus. This austere message, however, seems less sdvere when we read the chapters on thesuffe.rings of Jesus and His Mother. It strikes us as quite logical after we read of our place in the Mystical Body of Christ. Most important of all, we are assured that purification is effected by our cooperating with grace and the indwelling Trinity--a doctrine that is beautifully treated by the authoL In all, there are forty-eight chapters. The.relative brevity of most of them seems to be a marked advantage. In each chapter a distinct message is conveyed and understood withbut the necessity of reading dozens of pages. ¯ This book could also be used for meditation material. As indi-cated above, a number of doctrines of the. spiritual life are discussed --/~11 with reference to the cross.' Father Chardon cites Scripture for added effectiveness. Moreover, his exclamations ~nd invocations give The Cross of Jesus a warmth and unction that is often either lacking or overdone in spiritual, writings.' Finally, this re~ciewer wants to congratulate Father. Ri~:hard T. Murphy, O.P., for his very readable translation. Seventeenth-century French does present difficulties which often show up in. English' trans-lations. This cannot be said of the English edition of The Cross of Jesus.--DoNALD O. NASTOLD~ .S.J. CHINA AND THE CROSS; A SURVEY OF MISSIONARY HIS-TORY. By Dom Columba Cary-Elwes, O.S.B. Pp. 323. P.J. Kenedy and Sons, New York 8. 1957. $3.95. Shakespearean Sonnet 116 con~(eys, poetically the spirit of Dom Cary-Elwes's latest work. With an insight which is the fruit of twenty-five years of resea.rch, this artist dep~ct.s vividly the scenes of Cath-olic victories as Christ's mind marries China's amid "tempests, and is never shaken." This is the first Catholic work of this type since Abbe Huc's Christianityin China, Tartary, and Thibet in 1858. As thd author asserts, the eastward expansibr~ iof the Ch~arch is an inspira-tional story, not something freakish and unique. His labor, which is based on the latest evidence, proves his statement. 53 BOOK REVIEWS Review for Religious The book is divided into five chapters: "The Legend of St. Thomas the Apostle," "The Nestorians," "The Franciscans in Cathay," "The Jesuit Age," and "Modern Times." Some summary of the contents of these chaptegs will amply support this reviewer's opinion that Dom Cary-Elwes has penned an exposition which covers the essential points of the history of Chinese Christianity and which contains facts and colorful incidents which appeal to the scholarly, as well as the casual, reader. Latest evidence indicates that St. Thomas the Apostle never set foot on China. Earliest Christians were the Nestorians who landed at Cathay in the seventh century. Tamberlaine was the death-knell of the Nestorian Church. New hope for conversion comes with the Franciscans. Friar John o~ Pian di Carpina, intrepid explorer, arrives at the command of Innocent IV. William of Rubruck, "John of Montecorvino, and others follow with tenacity of purpose. Clement V at Avignon orders that seven Franciscans be raised to the episcopate, and they in turn would consecrate Friar John archbishop ~nd patriarch oi: the whole East. When the Ming dynasty won its way: to the imperial throne, the immense labors of the Franciscans terminated in the wake of violent persecution. Then came the Jesuits. Saint Francis Xavier, "for whom nothing was impossible with God," died off the coast of China in 1552, In that very year was born his greatest successor, Father Matteo Ricci, S.J., whose discreet guidance of missionary activity in China wins the highest praise from the author. F~llowing the Pauline "Go in their door . . ," Ricci builds a r~/¢rocl~elnent between himself and the tradition of China. The Jesuit showed the similarity between the moral teaching of Confucius and that of Christianity. In general, Dom Cary-Elwes judges that the Jesuits met with success as long as they followed the Riccian teaching of not exciting the Chinese by imprudent acts of proselytism. The author's explanation of the famous Rites Controversy is clear, accurate, and prudent. The possibility .that the Jesuits are condoning certain pagan rituals in observance of the memory of Confucius prompts the Holy See to pronounce in 1704 against the Jesuit position. The fact that this decision was reversed in 1939 leads the writer to state: "It is not for us to sit 'in judgment on that decision [1704]. There were cogent reasons in favor of that judgment then. Today those reasons no longer hold, and the Holy See has thought fit to 54 January, 1958 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS reverse that decision in the year 1939" (p. 160). The Jesuits fade from the picture with Clement XIV's Dominus et Redemptor. They will return, Dom Cary-Elwes predicts, "if love is stronger than death." The remainder of the book cites modern conditions: the rapid rise of Communist control, uncanny persecution of the faithful, the work of the Maryknolls, the .Catholic school system in China, the elevation of Cardinal Tien, and the fundamental reason why merely philanthropic Christians become Communists. For the informed reader of Chinese history, Dom Cary-Elwes synthesizes centuries of Christian activity in a scholarly, carefully annotated volume. For the uninformed, he presents a colorful and factual account of the history of the Church in China. For both, he instills with his information the desire to see one yet unwritten chapter: "The Conversion of China to Catholicism." --JAMES J. CREIGHTON, S.J. SARDAR PANNIKAR AND CHRISTIAN MISSIONS. By Jerome D'Souza, S.J. pp. 146. St. Joseph's Industrial School Press, Trichinopoly, India. 1957. One rupee. A grand old pagan of the Roman Empire confronts his Augustine in this book--with differences. St. Augustine heard the accusation that Christianity was destroying Roman civilization, and he wrote the great De Civitate Dei. The Catholic Church, which has been growing up in India gince the days of St. Thomas the Apostle, hears the accusation that Christianity is destroying the civilizations of India and Asia. Here is an answer worthy of a smaller brother of the great Augustine himself. The.author, a member of the India dele-gation to the General Assembly of the United Nations, finds the latest and greatest exponent of this accusation, the former India am-bassador to Red China, "biassed" in his approach to the missions and possessed of "insufficient" knowledge and of "harsh" judgment. Any-one interested in the missions and missio[ogy wil| profit by this frank and friendly and fearless volume.--PauL DE,X,T, S.J. BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS THE BRUCE PUBLISHING COMPANY, .400 N. Broadway, Mil-waukee 1, Wisconsin. Common Sense. By Joseph McSorley, C.S.P. We read essays on spiritual or religious topics to acquire new knowledge or new or 55 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS Review for Religious renewed motivation. We do not expect to find, and all too often do not find, gems of the essayist's craft. In .Common Sense each of the thirty-one essays might well be .taken ~s a model of what essays on the spiritual life can and should be. Reading the book is almost as inspiring and refreshing as a personal visit with. the author would be. Pp. 136. $2.75. CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PRESS, 620 Michigan Avenue, N.E., Washington, D. C. The Supreme Moderator of. Clerical Exempt Religious Institutes. A Historical Conspectus and Canonical Commentary. By Maurice J'. Grajew~ki, O.F.M. This is a dissertation submitted to the faculty of the Catholic University ofAmerica in partial fulfillment of the requirement~ for the degree of Doctor of. Canon Law. Pp. 180. Paper $2.00. FIDES PUBLISHERS ASSOCIATION, .744 E. 79th Street,Chi-cago 19, Illinois. Marriage Is Holy~ Edited by H. Caffarel. Translatdd by Ber-nard G. Murchli~nd, C.S.C. A group 0f Christian families meeting with their chaplains to discuss their common problems are responsible for .the various essays whicl~ are the chapters of this book. .There is a tKirty-six page appe~di~ which contains synopses and discussion questions. It is one of the volumes of the "Fidds Family Readers." Pp. 219. $3.75. GRAIL PUBLICATIONS; St. Meinrad, Indiana. .Queen of the Universe. An Anthology on the Assumption and Queenship of Ma~y. Edited by Brother Stanley G. Mathews, S.M. This i~ thd secohd volume of the "Marian .Library Series of An-thologies." The first was The Promised Woman (Grail, 1954). In the present volume .you will find all the. most recent pronouncements'of the Holy See as well as the most recent theological researcl~ .on two ~rerogativ.es of our Lady, her Assumpti6n and her Queenship. Here .is a volume well c~lculated to increase our love for her who is both" the Mother of God and our Mother." Pp. 258. $4.00. P. J. KENEDY & SONSI .12 Barclay Street, New York 8, New The Hermit of Cat Island. The Life of Fra Jerom~ Hawes. By Peter F. Anson. Monsignor ~'ohr~ C. Hawks, the future hermit.of Cat. Island, led a ver~ full and c6lorful lifd. He was born ~n September 7, 1876, of Anglican parents, became an architect who sp~cial!zi:d in 56 J~nua~'y, 1958 ~BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS ecclesiastical 'architecture, then became an Anglican Clergyman and went as a missionary to the Bahamas in 1908. He designed and built Anglican churches while acting as pastor on Long Island. He became a Catholic in 1911, was ordainedin Rome in 1915, and then took up missionary life, until 1939, in Australia where he designed and built many churches, monasteries, and convents. He was made a domestic prelate in 1937. He led the life of a hermit for seventeen yearg on Cat Island, one ofthe Bahamas. He died on June 26, 1956, and is buried near his hermitage as he requested. The author has given us an interesting and profitable, book. Pp. 286. $4.75. THE NEWMAN PRESS, Westminster, Maryland. Communal Life. Edited by Albert PIE, O.P. Translated by a Religious of the Sacred Heart. This is Volume VIII in the justly '. popular "Religious Life Series." It deals with that essential element of the religious life, common life, from many points of view, historic-ally, canonically, ascetically; it does not neglect the contributions of modern psychology; and it points out adaptations that must be made in view of the background that modern youth bring to religious life. Pp. 320. $4.50. The Insight of the Cur~ D'Ars. Selected Stories by Msgr. Francis Trochu. Translated by V. F. Martel. The fifty stories of this volume, all illustrative of the mystical insight of the Cur~ D'Ars into the secrets of souls, make very interesting reading and furnish "much material for reflection. Pp. 103. $1.75. THE PRIORY PRESS, Asbury Road, Dubuque, Iowa. Toward Marriage in Christ. By Thomas C. Donlon, Francis L. B~ Cunningham, and Augustine Rock, all of the Order of St. Dominic. The book is the first of a new series entitled "College Texts in The-ology." Unlike most books on marriage, this one was written to be ¯ used as a textbook; hence with the requirements of college students and college class procedures in mind. It contains a nine-page bib-liography. Pp. 199. Paper $1.50. SHEED & WARD, 840 Broadway, New York 3, New York. Theology for "Beginners. By F. J. Sheed. Perhaps the greatest single need of the average Catholic layman today is a better knowledge of the faith that is the norm he lives by; a knowledge that will enable him to give a satisfactory answer to the non-Catholic who may agk him the reasons for his faith and conduct; a knowledge too that will BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS Review for Religious lead him to a more intelligent practice of hig faith. An excellent introduction to that knowledge is Theology for Beginners, writte~ by a layman who has received the degree of Doctor of Sacred Theology l~onoris causa. The book could also serve as an excellent text for study clubs. Pp. 241. $3.00. M~re Marie of the Ursulines. By Agnes Repplier. This gripping biography of M~re Marie who founded the first convent school in North America in 1639 was first published in 1931. If you have not al-ready read the book, now is the time to read it. Pp. 314. $3.15. The Beginning of the English Reformation. By Hugh Ross Wil-liamson. The author, a former Anglican clergyman and a recent convert (1955) to Catholicism, gives us an excellent analysis of the complexities of the English Reformation, a period of English history widely misunderstood even today. The book is very well written as. one would expect from the author of eleven plays and a former editor of The Bookman and The Strand. Pp. 113. $2.50. In We Sing While There's Voice Left by Dom Hubert van Zeller, O.S.B., we have another interesting book on the spiritual life for the layman. It measures up fully to the high level of excellence which the author has established in his other books. Like them it is matter-of-fact, down-to-earth, and faces reality squarely. Pp. 198. $2.50. The Restless Christian. By Kilian McDonnell, O.S.B. The number of spiritual books written explicitly for the layman is gratifying. It testifies to the growing realization that the lay Catholic is called to holiness, and it supplies the necessary information and inspiration. You may recommend The Restless Christian to lay Catholics with the certain knowledge that you are giving them an effective means of progress. You may also, though you are a religious, read the book yourself with profit for your own soul. An unusual feature of the book is an eight-page list of suggested readings on the spiritual life. Pp. 183. $3.00. SISTERS OF MERCY, 8200 West Outer Drive,' Detroit 19, Michigan. Into Thy Hands. By Sister Mary E. O'Connor, R.S.M. This book of reflections intended for refectory reading for the Sundays of Recollection first appeared in mimeographed form. So many requests for copies were received that it is now available in printed form. Pp. 105. Cloth $1.75. 58 January, 1958 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS SYRIAN CARMELITE CONGREGATION, Monastery Road, Erna-kulam 1, South India. Souvenir of the First All-Kerala Religious Week, Dec. 27-30, 1955. The closing days of 1955 witnessed what was probably a unique and certainly a most profitable centenary celebration at Sacred Heart College, Thevara, in the state of Kerala in Southwest India, to mark the completion of the first century of activity of the Syrian Car-melite Congregation since its canonical erection in 1855. All the numerous orders and congregations of Kerala were invited to send delegates to a convention, not to recall the history of the congregation or to extend their felicitations, but to discuss their common religious problems and those of the South of India. Souvenir prints in full the addresses made before the convention together with a resum~ of the discussions that followed. We congratulate the Syrian Carmelite Congregation not only on the occasion of their centenary but also on the wise and profitable way that it was commemorated. It was a good preparation for the persecution the large and ancient and fervent Kerala Catholic community suffers in its schools from the Communists recently elected in the predominantly non-Christian state of Kerala. SOME BOOKS RECEIVED [Only books sent directly to the Book Review Editor, West Baden College, Wes~ Baden Springs, Indiana, are included in our Reviews and Announcements. The following books were sent to St. Mass.] Love and Marriage. By James Kelly. Clonmore and Reynolds Limited, 29 Kildare Street, Dublin. 3/-(paper cover). God's Infinite Love and Ours. By Robert Mageen, C.SS.R. Clonmore and Reynolds Limited, 29 Kildare Street, Dublin. 12,/6. Come, O Holy Ghost! By Adrian Lyons, O.F.M. Clonmore and Reynolds Limited, 29 Kildare Street, Dublin. 12/6. A Dangerous Little Friar. The Life of Father Titus Brandsma, O.Carm. By Josse Alzin. Clonmore and Reynolds Limited, 29 Kildare Street, Dublin. 9/6. 59 ( ues ons and Answers ['The following answers are given by Father Joseph F. Gallen, S.J., professor of canon law at Woodstock College, Woodstock, Maryland.] DuringLent should a priest celebrate the Mass of the ferial day or of an occurring feast? On a dm. or d. feast that falls between Ash Wednesday and the Saturday before Palm Sunday, an ember day except tl~ose of Pente-cost, Rogation Monday (Monday before Ascension), or a common vigil, the Mass may be either of the feast in the festal, not votive, manner or of the ferial day or vigil. However, since liturgically the Temporale is preferred to the Sanctorale and the full celebration of a vigil is desirable, the preferred Mass liturgically is that of the ferial day or vigil. If the feast, is ~ d. 1 or 2 cl., it must be celebrated. If the feast is only of s. rite or a mere commemoration, the Mass of the ferial day or .vigil must be said. On din. and d. feasts during the same period of Lent and Passion-tide only, the private recitation oi: the office may be of the feast or of the ferial day. Cf. J. O'Connell, Tl~e Celebration o[ Mass, 54; Mueller- Ellis, l-Iandbook of Ceremonies, 42; Wuest-Mullaney-Barry, )l~fatters Liturgical, n. 280. Our constitutions permit a renewal of temporary vows to be an-ticipated by a month. When does such an anticipated renewal or new profession begin to run? Your constitutions are. merely stating the law of the code. The following three important ~oints are to be kept in mind in an antici-pated renewal. (a) .Length of anticipation. Canon 577, § 2, permits an anticipated renewal of tempo.rary vows but not by more than a month. Therefore, if the profession is to expire on August 15, 1957, the anticipated renewal may not be made before July 15, 1957. Berutti, De Religiosis, 2i0; Jone, Commentarium in Codicem luris Canonici, I, 506; Cervia, De Pro/essione Religiosa, 114. 60 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (b) Competent superior. In the law of the code, the anticipation as such may be permitted by any superior, whether higher or minor local (c. 577, § 2). However, the right here is only to permit an anticipation. Since the renewal is a juridical profession, all the requisites of suoh a profession must be observed; and therefore ~he admission to this anticipated profession must be made by the competent higher superior with the vote of the council or chapter according to the constitutions (cc. 543; "575, § 2). In constitutions an anticipa-tion is usually reserved to higher superiors or to a partictilar higher superior. (c) .When does the anticipated renewal begin to run? In the example given above of a profession that expires on August 15, 1957, and is anticipated on July 15, 1957, does the new l~rofession begin to run from August 15 or July 15? This depends on the intention of the one making the profession, which is presumed to be according to the way the matter is understood in the particular institute. Ordi-narily the understanding is that the anticipated renewal begins to run from the time when the former profession is completed, i. e., August 15. If such an understanding does not exist in the institute, the presumption is that the intention was for the new profession to begin to run from July 15. Explicit instruction should be given to the ren-ovants on this matter, since it is possible that the subject would be without vows for a month of the triennium; and consequently the perpetual profession would be invalid. The better method is to intend that the new profession begin to run from August 15. Cf. Goyeneche, Quaestiones C.anonicae, I, 442143; De Carlo, Jus Religiosorum, n. 300; Creusen, Revue des Cotnntunautes Religieuse's, 18-1946-184-85; Choupin, Nature et Obligations de l'Etat Religieux; 301-2; Jombart, Trait[ de Droit Canonique, I, 626. m3-- My family~ or close relatives give me five or ten dollars or more because I am their relative. The money therefore constitutes, a personal gift. When the money is turned in, is it contrary to poverty to ask to use it for a definite purpose? The norm for asking and giving permission in the matter of poverty is the need of the religious according to the limit in quantity and quality of material things prescribed by the law or legitimate traditions of the particular institute (c. 594, § 3). Therefore, the fa~t that yoia received a gift 'is completely indifferent in relation to 61 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Review for Religious this norm. If you had not received a gift, you would have the same right of asking for your necessities. The fact that you did receive a gift is no motive for asking and no motive for the superior to give the permission. Religious profess poverty according to their constitutions, i. e., according to the norm described above; they do not profess poverty according to their income: The gift is in some sense a positive-reason for not giving the permission, simply because it leads to the practice of poverty according to one's income. This practice eventually causes a distinction of classes in the institute, the well to do and the poor, and is contrary to canon 594, § I, which t prescribes a moral un
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I woke up in the middle of the night because I am old and I ate and drank too much. I couldn't resist schnitzel and strudel as I am in Vienna for a talk and for some other shenanigans (more on that in another post). And then I saw Phil Lagassé's post on the Conservatives and if they might spend on defence if elected. On that general topic, I am a skeptic as I think the CPC cares more about deficits than about defence, and the place to cut the budget is, alas, defence. That is where the money is. This was true under Harper. I don't know what Pierre Poilevre believes in, other than opportunism and pandering to the far right, but I don't think he will commit lots of money to get Canada to 2% of GDP (on the other hand, he could tank the economy, and that is the other way to get there). Oh, and to be clear, I think we need to spend significantly more on the military--I am just not going to threat inflate to get us there.Anyway, Phil said in his piece that we need to spend more to deal with the threat in the Arctic, and I had to scoff. Which led to a fun exchange in bluesky, reminiscent of the old days on twitter where we would argue and people thought we hated each other. Hint: I don't co-author with people I don't like. Ir don't co-author with the same person several times unless we get along very well. But it is both fun and educational to push back against one of the very sharpest defence minds in Canada.Specifically, Phil said: "Canadians know their Arctic is vulnerable." And my ensuing commentary focused on that: what exactly is the threat to Canada from on high? And should we consider this the most significant/dangerous threat? My point is that it is way back in line. Phil says we need to have better situational awareness up north. My rejoinder is: no invasion coming, just some spy ships on the water and below it. Others chimed in: more ships going through the northwest passage means more environmental stuff could go awry. And, I agree. But where does that line up in the threat picture? Here's my cranky, awakened with acid in my throat, ranking of the threats facing Canada. Climate change: Canadians are paying a high price for the changing climate even if we could joke about being a beneficiary as our winters get mostly shorter. Milder? Variance is more certain than anything else. Anyhow, people are dying in floods and fires, much property is being destroyed. When I speak of threat, I think of real harms to Canadians, to the economy, to governance. Climate change is first and it is not close. I was mocked by someone via email when I said this on TV, but I have never been a super lefty, green environmentalist type in my work. It is just the reality that in dollar amounts and in lives, the warming planet is harming Canadians in a big way and it is only going to get worse. A recurring theme is that many of the threats either cannot or will not have the military as the lead agency. This actually comes the closest given that the provinces underinvest in emergency management, knowing that the military will act if asked and won't present a bill.Pandemics: how many people were killed by covid in Canada? Nearly 60,000, which is more than Canadians killed in all foreign wars combined if one leaves out WWI. Plus many people now have long covid. It did a heap of damage to the economy, and, if you care about deficits (I don't really), guess what blew a big hole in the budget? I am very glad the Liberal government poured a ton of money into the economy as we didn't have runs on food banks during the height of the pandemic. I just wish Conservative-led provinces actually spent the money allotted to health care on.... health care. Will covid be the last pandemic? No. Indeed, given what it has done to attitudes about vaccinations, quarantines, and masking, I doubt we will respond as well next time. Scary, eh? The military was called out because other agencies lacked capacity, but this was really a medical/scientific thing, so let's not allocate a ton of money to the military for pandemic preparedness.Cyber attacks. Wars are distant, but cyber attacks are hitting Canadians every day, disrupting people's lives, hurting various businesses and public agencies, and pose a significant threat where some country could bring down our power or harm dams and more. Is this the military's job? Partially but not really. We don't need people who are trained to fire weapons and ready to deploy abroad and all that stuff to fight a cyber war. We need smart folks at well equipped desks. We definitely need to have more money spent on the military to survive and thrive in a cyberwar environment, but the CAF is not really our answer to thwarting cyber attacks against the Canadian public.Far right violence. We live in a time of increasing attacks by xenophobes, misogynists, homophobes, racists, anti-semities, Islamophobes, and white supremacists (these hates tend to travel together). Yes, left wing extremists can have many of these attributes, but it is clear that the violence is almost entirely coming from the far right. These haters are doing real harm to Canadians right now, and the trend is in the wrong direction. Can the military do anything about this? I think the general rule of not having the military police the public is a very good idea. Instead, the military's role is mostly to make sure it is not training the next generation of far right terrorists. Disinformation. This is, of course, related to the prior one, but it also involves foreign actors who are trying to tilt election outcomes. We are increasingly living in a time where people can't trust what they see and hear, or they are trusting the wrong actors. This leads to develop dangerous beliefs--like vaccines are poisonous, that the government in power is engaging in great, deliberate harm against its ideological opponents, and so forth, While the Liberals have screwed up many things, they need some trust in government to operate on our behalf, just as the Conservatives or NDP would need people to trust in institutions. The military should not be the primary actor at home on this either even as they engage in info ops abroad.People might I was joking about the increases in truck/SUV size being a threat, but more than 2000 people died in car accidents in 2023, and the trend is going up, even if one cuts the peak covid years from the dataset.North Korean missiles. While China and Russia have nuclear missiles, I have a bit more faith in the workings of deterrence and a bit less worried about accidental/deliberate first use. North Korea would not have any reason to attack Canada, but I could imagine that their aim might be that good. Of course, what is the CAF's role in this? Providing warning that Vancouver is doomed and then helping to respond to the aftermath. We have no defences against ballistic missiles nor will Canada have any such systems anytime in the future. I am a skeptic about American strategic defense (although tactical anti-missile systems seem to range from pretty good to amazing), but I do think Canada should join the US system as the ABM treaty is very dead. This is a military job and would justify the massive investment in NORAD modernization. Otherwise, it really is a system to warn us to give us a few minutes to kiss our loved ones goodbye. Oh, and manage relations with the US.US relations! The Canadian economy and its security crucially depend on the US, and, oh my, Canada will be so very, very fucked if Trump were to win. Democracies have lived beside authoritarian regimes before (hey, Finland!), but so much of Canada's position in the world relies on this huge market and this peaceful border and cooperation with the US. When was the last time Canada fought abroad without the US beside its side? UN missions? Guess again as the UN relies heavily on American support to do its ops. One could argue this would mean less wars for Canada--no more Afghanistans (which was purely to help its ally). But Canada would be even at greater risk of being bullied by the China's and Saudi Arabia's of the world. And, of course, by Trump himself. But again, this is not the CAF's job to prevent or mitigate this. If Trump is elected, most of the problems above get worse and this item zooms to the top.Maybe here goes: incomplete understanding of what is happening in the Arctic. Yes, that stuff up north is still Canada, but the threat to Canadians up there is not really that posed by Russia or China but by the lack of infrastructure and by the aforementioned climate change, pandemics, etc.So, if the military is not needed for this stuff, or only needed for domestic emergency ops, why spend tens of billions on it? Why increase spending? It comes down to this: the military is an instrument of policy. This means that it can and is used to further Canadian government objectives even if most of those objectives are not about thwarting threats to Canada. Canada has consistent interests in the world for which the CAF is a key tool, such as helping to foster stability in Europe and Asia. Canada, like the US, has learned that when those continents catch fire, it damages Canadian interests and hurts Canadians. A war in the South China Sea with or without the Canadian navy would be catastrophic to the Canadian economy. War west of Ukraine would also be quite damaging. NATO itself is an important interest that requires the Canadian military to invest in itself and in NATO missions. Ultimately, Canadians want to do good in the world and want to support the international order, whether we call it liberal or rules-based or American hegemony or whatever. Because we understand that Canadians have more influence within institutions than outside of them, that the rules have favored the Canadian economy, and helped the Canadian people to enjoy the fruits of international cooperation.Ultimately, one wants a well armed, well trained, well staffed military to prepare for the worst. In my ranking of threats, I focused on both likelihood of the threat being realized and the amount of harm that is likely if the threat happens. Climate change is at the top because it is happening and is not going away and is going to do heaps of damage. The threat in the Arctic is lower down because it is unlike that any foreign actor will attack that way and the damage they can do is not that great, again compared to everything else.Oh, and what is also a threat? Having an under-funded, unprepared, ill-equipped military sent off to war--that way lies tragedy. So, yes, spend more, but let's not exaggerate where the threats are coming from and what the role of the military is.
Inhaltsangabe: Einleitung: Vor der Verwüstung durch Hurrikan Katrina am 29. August 2005 galt New Orleans als einer der problematischsten Metropolräume der USA. Nicht nur die Stadt, sondern die gesamte Metropolregion hat unter enormen sozialen Problemen gelitten. Ein großes Problem war die Armut und da diese vorwiegend unter der schwarzen Bevölkerung anzutreffen war, welche überwiegend im zentralen und östlichen Stadtgebiet lebte, waren deutliche Segregationsmuster in New Orleans erkennbar. Zudem litt die Stadt zu dieser Zeit unter einer schlechten wirtschaftlichen Lage, hervorgerufen u.a. durch Suburbanisierungsprozesse und einer damit einhergegangenen wirtschaftlichen Dezentralisierung. Obwohl New Orleans nach dem 2. Weltkrieg im Vergleich zu anderen U.S. amerikanischen Metropolen als eine aufstrebende Region mit einem hohen Bevölkerungsanstieg, einer florierenden Wirtschaft und gesunden Nachbarschaften galt, haben sich die sozialen Probleme seit den 70er Jahren des 20. Jahrhunderts so verstärkt, dass New Orleans als 'hypersegregiert' bezeichnet wurde. Ein Phänomen, das man zur damaligen Zeit eigentlich nur mit Städten wie New York oder Detroit in Zusammenhang brachte. Wie in der Regel üblich, wurden diese Probleme von den Politikern der Stadt unter den Tisch gekehrt. Weltweit wurde mit New Orleans eine einzigartige Kulturlandschaft der USA, Jazz und pure Lebensfreude verbunden. Wie es hinter den Vorhängen dieser als lebensfroh geltenden Stadt aussah, blieb der Öffentlichkeit verborgen. Erst als die Stadt aufgrund von Hurrikan Katrina Ende August 2005 verstärkt in das Interesse der Medien gerückt ist, hat sich der Vorhang gehoben und die soziale Tragödie der Stadt wurde sichtbar. Die Medien zeigten Menschen, die sich nicht rechtzeitig vor Hurrikan Katrina in Sicherheit bringen konnten und so tagelang ohne Hilfe von außen, inmitten von Chaos, Überschwemmung und Verwüstung ausharren mussten. Auffällig war, dass es sich bei diesen Menschen überwiegend um Schwarze handelte. Darunter viele Frauen mit Kindern und alte Personen. Da Hurrikan Katrina die Stadt am Ende des Monats traf, waren die finanziellen Ressourcen aufgebraucht. Zudem hatten viele Menschen aufgrund ihrer Armut kein eigenes Auto und konnten, als zur Evakuierung aufgerufen wurde, die Stadt nicht von alleine verlassen. Transportmöglichkeiten, wie Busse oder Züge, wurden vonseiten der Stadt nicht zur Verfügung gestellt. Als die Evakuierungswelle in New Orleans nach ein paar Tagen angelaufen war, wurden zunächst, wie ebenfalls in den Medien zu sehen war, Touristen und Einwohner weißer Hautfarbe in Sicherheit gebracht. Dieses Handeln kann auf eine Diskriminierung der schwarzen Bevölkerungsgruppe hindeuten. Die vorliegende Arbeit wird die sozialen Probleme, die in New Orleans zur Zeit vor dem Sturm geherrscht haben, aufgreifen und genauer darlegen. Darüber hinaus wird sie sich auch damit auseinandersetzen, wie die Lage knapp neun Monate nach Hurrikan Katrina aussieht und wie der Wiederaufbau und somit die Zukunft der Stadt aussehen soll. Das erste Kapitel nähert sich diesen Problemen und Fragestellungen an. Zu Beginn wird der Untersuchungsgegenstand dargestellt, bevor anschließend die Ziele und der Aufbau dieser Arbeit formuliert werden. Problemstellung: Aufgrund der enormen Zerstörung durch Hurrikan Katrina sieht sich New Orleans mit einem langwierigen Wiederaufbauprozess konfrontiert. Ende September 2005, also rund einen Monat nach Katrina, hat der Bürgermeister von New Orleans, RAY NAGIN, eine Wiederaufbaukommission für die Stadt, die BRING NEW ORLEANS BACK COMMISSION (BNOBC), gegründet. Diese Kommission hat bis Januar 2006, neben einem Masterplan zum Wiederaufbau, sechs ergänzende Pläne entworfen, die New Orleans wieder auf die Beine bringen sollen. Der Masterplan mit dem Titel "Action Plan for New Orleans: The New American City" zeigt eine Vision für New Orleans auf. Zudem beinhaltet dieser Plan eine Rahmenplanung sowie einen Handlungsplan, mit Hilfe derer die Umsetzung der Vision ermöglicht werden könnte. Während Theorien über den Wiederaufbau nach Naturkatastrophen zunächst empfehlen, den 'Status quo ante' wiederherzustellen und erst dann über darüber hinausgehende Verbesserungen nachzudenken, stellt der Masterplan eine Vision dar, die alles bisher in der Stadt dagewesene übertreffen soll. Obwohl die sozialen Probleme der Stadt der BNOBC bekannt gewesen sein müssten, werden diese im Masterplan nicht thematisiert. Das BROOKINGS INSTITUTION METROPOLITAN POLICY PROGRAM hingegen hat eine Wiederaufbauagenda mit Handlungsempfehlungen für New Orleans entwickelt, die eine Linderung der sozialen Probleme in den Vordergrund stellt. Diese Studie spricht in erster Linie die Bundesregierung der USA in Washington, D.C. an, da laut der Meinung des Institutes nur mit ihrer Hilfe ein Wiederaufbau von New Orleans erfolgreich verlaufen kann. Die Handlungsempfehlungen, die gegeben werden, sollen dabei helfen, aus New Orleans einen Raum ohne soziale Probleme und besonders ohne Segregation zu schaffen. Natürlich ist auch dies eine Vision. Allerdings ist diese im Gegensatz zu den Plänen der BNOBC, aufgrund zahlreicher Finanzierungskonzepte durchaus nachvollziehbar und begründet. Gang der Untersuchung: Ziel dieser Arbeit ist es aufzuzeigen, wie sich einerseits die sozialen Probleme vor Hurrikan Katrina in New Orleans geäußert haben und andererseits wie die Zukunft der Stadt aussehen wird. Der Titel der Arbeit "Das neue New Orleans – Stadt ohne soziale Probleme?", der gleichzeitig die Hauptfragestellung der Untersuchung ist, formuliert die Frage nach der Zukunft von New Orleans sehr provokant. Folgende vier Ziele sollen dabei helfen herauszufinden, wie die Zukunft von New Orleans aussehen wird: 1. Darstellung des Untersuchungsraumes New Orleans anhand ausgewählter geographischer und sozialer Indikatoren. 2. Erklärung für die Zerstörung durch Hurrikan Katrina. 3. Darlegung geplanter und möglicher Wiederaufbaumaßnahmen. 4. Darstellung der zukünftigen Entwicklung von New Orleans. Diese Ziele spiegeln sich im Aufbau der Arbeit wieder, die sich in einen theoretischen und einen empirischen Teil gliedert. Der Theorieteil geht zum einen auf die sozialen Probleme in New Orleans zur Zeit vor Hurrikan Katrina ein. Zum anderen gibt er, nach einem kurzen theoretischen Blick auf Hurrikan Katrina und auf allgemeine Wiederaufbaustrategien nach Naturkatastrophen, einen Einblick in den Masterplan zum Wiederaufbau der Stadt New Orleans. Zudem werden in diesem Teil der Arbeit auch die Handlungsempfehlungen für einen 'sozialverträglicheren' Aufbau vonseiten des BROOKINGS INSTITUTION METROPOLITAN POLICY PROGRAMS vorgestellt. Zu Beginn des zweiten Kapitels wird New Orleans geographisch eingeordnet und das Untersuchungsgebiet vorgestellt. Im Anschluss werden die sozialen Probleme der Stadt thematisiert. Um in diese Thematik einzuführen, werden zunächst allgemeine soziale Probleme U.S. amerikanischer Städte angesprochen. Da diese in den USA oftmals in Segregation münden und dieses Phänomen in New Orleans zur Zeit vor Hurrikan Katrina stark ausgeprägt war, wird diese Problematik gesondert behandelt. Das Kapitel schließt mit einem Einblick in die sozialen Probleme von New Orleans, mit denen die Stadt vor dem Sturm zu kämpfen hatte. Das dritte Kapitel beschäftigt sich mit Hurrikan Katrina und seinen zerstörerischen Auswirkungen auf New Orleans. Dazu werden zunächst allgemeine Informationen zu dem Hurrikan gegeben, bevor abschließend die, in den Medien oft als sozial-ungerecht bezeichnete, Auswirkung Katrinas auf ausgewählte Stadtviertel dargestellt wird. Das Kapitel vier setzt sich zum einen mit der Theorie von Wiederaufbaustrategien nach Naturkatastrophen auseinander und bezieht diese auf New Orleans, und gibt zum anderen einen Einblick in den Masterplan zum Wiederaufbau von New Orleans, der von der BNOBC erarbeitet wurde. Des Weiteren werden in diesem Kapitel auch Handlungsempfehlungen des BROOKINGS INSTITUTION METROPOLITAN POLICY PROGRAMS vorgestellt, mit denen New Orleans sozialgerechter wiederaufgebaut werden könnte. Der empirische Teil dieser Arbeit untergliedert sich in die Kapitel fünf bis acht und beschäftigt sich mit der Situation in New Orleans knapp neun Monate nach Hurrikan Katrina. In Kapitel fünf wird die Vorgehensweise der empirischen Untersuchung aufgezeigt. Zu Beginn werden Hypothesen formuliert, bevor im Anschluss die Methodenauswahl begründet wird. Danach wird die Methode des 'problemzentrierten Interviews' vorgestellt und die Auswahl der Interviewpartner begründet dargelegt. Im Anschluss wird die Durchführung der Interviews thematisiert und die Auswertungsmethodik vorgestellt. Abschließend werden der Einsatz der Methodik rückwirkend reflektiert und die empirischen Schritte zusammengefasst. Das Kapitel sechs wird die Ergebnisse der geführten Interviews in Bezug auf die Teilfragestellung "Das neue New Orleans – The New American City?" darstellen. Um Antworten auf diese Frage zu bekommen, ist das Kapitel in drei Unterkapitel unterteilt. Das Kapitel 6.1 befasst sich zunächst mit der Situation knapp neun Monate nach Katrina. Neben einem Einblick in das Chaos und die Zerstörung werden in diesem Kapitel auch Erklärungen dafür geliefert, wie es zu einer solchen (sozialen) Katastrophe kommen konnte. Dabei spielt die Politik der Stadt eine große Rolle. In Kapitel 6.2 werden der Masterplan, die BNOBC und die Studie des BROOKINGS INSTITUTION METROPOLITAN POLICY PROGRAMS im Hinblick auf offen gebliebene Fragen und neue Erkenntnisse durch die Interviews thematisiert, bevor in Kapitel 6.3 das Schicksal der Bewohner, der New Orleanians, im Hinblick auf die Zukunft dargestellt wird. Das siebte Kapitel versucht Antworten auf die Teilfragestellung "Stadt ohne soziale Probleme?" zu finden. Dazu werden zunächst aktuelle und mögliche zukünftige soziale Probleme der Stadt dargelegt, bevor im Anschluss die in Kapitel 5.1 aufgestellten Hypothesen auf ihre Gültigkeit hin überprüft werden. Das achte Kapitel wird die Situation in New Orleans bewertend zusammenfassen und abschließend einen Ausblick auf die Zukunft der Stadt geben. Inhaltsverzeichnis: ErklärungII InhaltsverzeichnisIII Verzeichnis der Abbildungen, Bilder, Karten und TabellenVI AbkürzungenVII 1.Problemstellung und Untersuchungsgegenstand1 1.1Einführung in den Untersuchungsgegenstand2 1.2Zielsetzung und Aufbau der Arbeit3 2.Die Stadt New Orleans und ihre sozialen Probleme vor Hurrikan Katrina5 2.1New Orleans5 2.1.1Physisch-geographische Einordnung von New Orleans6 2.1.2Ökologische Probleme von New Orleans und Louisiana8 2.1.3Das Klima in New Orleans9 2.1.4Der Wirtschaftsstandort New Orleans9 2.1.5Die Verwaltungsstruktur der New Orleans Metropolitan Area10 2.1.6Bevölkerungsindikatoren der New Orleans Metropolitan Area13 2.1.7Ableitung des Untersuchungsgebietes14 2.2Soziale Probleme in U.S. amerikanischen Metropolräumen15 2.2.1Suburbanisierungsprozesse U.S. amerikanischer Städte15 2.2.2Der Verfall innerstädtischer Stadtviertel als Erklärung für die Armut in U.S. amerikanischen Kernstädten16 2.3Die sozialen Probleme in New Orleans zur Zeit vor Hurrikan Katrina unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Segregation19 2.3.1Segregation in U.S. amerikanischen Städten19 2.3.2Die sozialen Probleme in New Orleans21 3.Hurrikan Katrina und seine Auswirkungen auf New Orleans26 3.1Allgemeine Informationen über Hurrikan Katrina26 3.2Katrinas zerstörerische Kraft in New Orleans26 4.Wiederaufbaustrategien nach Naturkatastrophen und Ideen für New Orleans29 4.1Bewältigung von Problemen nach Naturkatastrophen29 4.1.1Wiederaufbaustrategien nach Naturkatastrophen30 4.1.2Modell des Wiederaufbaus31 4.1.3Anwendung auf New Orleans32 4.2Die BRING NEW ORLEANS BACK COMMISSION und der Masterplan zum Wiederaufbau von New Orleans33 4.2.1Der Masterplan: "Action Plan for New Orleans: The New American City"34 4.2.2Zwischenfazit45 4.3Eine Wiederaufbau-Agenda für New Orleans - Handlungsempfehlungen des BROOKINGS INSTITUTION METROPOLITAN POLICY PROGRAMS zum Wiederaufbau von New Orleans46 4.3.1Gründe für den Wiederaufbau und Ziele der Agenden46 4.3.2Grundsatz 1: Macht die Region zu einem Vorbild hochqualitativer, nachhaltiger Entwicklung47 4.3.3Grundsatz 2: Verwandelt die Neighborhoods der Armut in Neighborhoods der Wahl und des Anschlusses48 4.3.4Grundsatz 3: Kurbelt die Wirtschaft an51 4.3.5Zwischenfazit54 5.Das methodische Vorgehen55 5.1Hypothesen55 5.2Methodenauswahl57 5.3Das problemzentrierte Interview57 5.4Auswahl der Interviewpartner58 5.5Durchführung der Interviews59 5.6Auswertung der Interviews mit Hilfe der Qualitativen Inhaltsanalyse nach MAYRING60 5.7Methodenreflexion61 5.8Zusammenfassung61 6.Das neue New Orleans - 'The New American City?'62 6.1New Orleans neun Monate nach Hurrikan Katrina62 6.1.1Zerstörung und Chaos62 6.1.2Politik und Missgunst65 6.1.3Zwischenfazit68 6.2Der Masterplan vs. BROOKINGS INSTITUTION - Chance für einen Wiederaufbau?69 6.2.1Der Masterplan zum Wiederaufbau - nur eine Vision?70 6.2.2Offen gebliebene Fragen bzgl. des Masterplans71 6.2.3Die BRING NEW ORLEANS BACK COMMISSION und die Kommunikation der Pläne72 6.2.4Die Rolle der Bundesregierung und der Einsatz von Bundesfördermitteln für den Aufbau von New Orleans73 6.2.5Die Arbeit des BROOKINGS INSTITUTION METROPOLITAN POLICY PROGRAMS - eine Hilfe für New Orleans?74 6.2.6Zwischenfazit75 6.3Das Schicksal der New Orleanians77 6.3.1FEMA und die Rückkehr der Bewohner77 6.3.2Migration77 6.3.3Hindernisse an der Rückkehr der armen Bevölkerung nach New Orleans79 6.3.4Die Sozialstruktur von New Orleans vor dem Sturm - eine Stadt ohne Segregation?!82 6.3.5Zwischenfazit84 6.4Zusammenfassung84 7.Die Zukunft von New Orleans - Stadt ohne soziale Probleme?86 7.1Die räumliche Verlagerung der sozialen Probleme86 7.2Diskriminierung und Klassengesellschaft - die sozialen Probleme der Zukunft?87 7.3Bewertung der Ergebnisse87 7.4Zusammenfassung90 8.Fazit und Ausblick92 Literatur94 Anhang109Inhaltsverzeichnis:Inhaltsverzeichnis: ErklärungII InhaltsverzeichnisIII Verzeichnis der Abbildungen, Bilder, Karten und TabellenVI AbkürzungenVII 1.Problemstellung und Untersuchungsgegenstand1 1.1Einführung in den Untersuchungsgegenstand2 1.2Zielsetzung und Aufbau der Arbeit3 2.Die Stadt New Orleans und ihre sozialen Probleme vor Hurrikan Katrina5 2.1New Orleans5 2.1.1Physisch-geographische Einordnung von New Orleans6 2.1.2Ökologische Probleme von New Orleans und Louisiana8 2.1.3Das Klima in New Orleans9 2.1.4Der Wirtschaftsstandort New Orleans9 2.1.5Die Verwaltungsstruktur der New Orleans Metropolitan Area10 2.1.6Bevölkerungsindikatoren der New Orleans Metropolitan Area13 2.1.7Ableitung des Untersuchungsgebietes14 2.2Soziale Probleme in U.S. amerikanischen Metropolräumen15 2.2.1Suburbanisierungsprozesse U.S. amerikanischer Städte15 2.2.2Der Verfall innerstädtischer Stadtviertel als Erklärung für die Armut in U.S. amerikanischen Kernstädten16 2.3Die sozialen Probleme in New Orleans zur Zeit vor Hurrikan Katrina unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Segregation19 2.3.1Segregation in U.S. amerikanischen Städten19 2.3.2Die sozialen Probleme in New Orleans21 3.Hurrikan Katrina und seine Auswirkungen auf New Orleans26 3.1Allgemeine Informationen über Hurrikan Katrina26 3.2Katrinas zerstörerische Kraft in New Orleans26 4.Wiederaufbaustrategien nach Naturkatastrophen und Ideen für New Orleans29 4.1Bewältigung von Problemen nach Naturkatastrophen29 4.1.1Wiederaufbaustrategien nach Naturkatastrophen30 4.1.2Modell des Wiederaufbaus31 4.1.3Anwendung auf New Orleans32 4.2Die BRING NEW ORLEANS BACK COMMISSION und der Masterplan zum Wiederaufbau von New Orleans33 4.2.1Der Masterplan: "Action Plan for New Orleans: The New American City"34 4.2.2Zwischenfazit45 4.3Eine Wiederaufbau-Agenda für New Orleans - Handlungsempfehlungen des BROOKINGS INSTITUTION METROPOLITAN POLICY PROGRAMS zum Wiederaufbau von New Orleans46 4.3.1Gründe für den Wiederaufbau und Ziele der Agenden46 4.3.2Grundsatz 1: Macht die Region zu einem Vorbild hochqualitativer, nachhaltiger Entwicklung47 4.3.3Grundsatz 2: Verwandelt die Neighborhoods der Armut in Neighborhoods der Wahl und des Anschlusses48 4.3.4Grundsatz 3: Kurbelt die Wirtschaft an51 4.3.5Zwischenfazit54 5.Das methodische Vorgehen55 5.1Hypothesen55 5.2Methodenauswahl57 5.3Das problemzentrierte Interview57 5.4Auswahl der Interviewpartner58 5.5Durchführung der Interviews59 5.6Auswertung der Interviews mit Hilfe der Qualitativen Inhaltsanalyse nach MAYRING60 5.7Methodenreflexion61 5.8Zusammenfassung61 6.Das neue New Orleans - 'The New American City?'62 6.1New Orleans neun Monate nach Hurrikan Katrina62 6.1.1Zerstörung und Chaos62 6.1.2Politik und Missgunst65 6.1.3Zwischenfazit68 6.2Der Masterplan vs. BROOKINGS INSTITUTION - Chance für einen Wiederaufbau?69 6.2.1Der Masterplan zum Wiederaufbau - nur eine Vision?70 6.2.2Offen gebliebene Fragen bzgl. des Masterplans71 6.2.3Die BRING NEW ORLEANS BACK COMMISSION und die Kommunikation der Pläne72 6.2.4Die Rolle der Bundesregierung und der Einsatz von Bundesfördermitteln für den Aufbau von New Orleans73 6.2.5Die Arbeit des BROOKINGS INSTITUTION METROPOLITAN POLICY PROGRAMS - eine Hilfe für New Orleans?74 6.2.6Zwischenfazit75 6.3Das Schicksal der New Orleanians77 6.3.1FEMA und die Rückkehr der Bewohner77 6.3.2Migration77 6.3.3Hindernisse an der Rückkehr der armen Bevölkerung nach New Orleans79 6.3.4Die Sozialstruktur von New Orleans vor dem Sturm - eine Stadt ohne Segregation?!82 6.3.5Zwischenfazit84 6.4Zusammenfassung84 7.Die Zukunft von New Orleans - Stadt ohne soziale Probleme?86 7.1Die räumliche Verlagerung der sozialen Probleme86 7.2Diskriminierung und Klassengesellschaft - die sozialen Probleme der Zukunft?87 7.3Bewertung der Ergebnisse87 7.4Zusammenfassung90 8.Fazit und Ausblick92 Literatur94 Anhang109Textprobe:Textprobe: Kapitel 6.1.2, Politik und Missgunst: Mit knapper Mehrheit (52,3 % gegenüber 47,7 % der Stimmen) hat RAY NAGIN am 20. Mai 2006 die Bürgermeisterwahl in New Orleans erneut für sich entschieden und ist somit für weitere vier Jahre im Amt. Obwohl sich nur wenige schwarze Bewohner der Stadt zum Zeitpunkt der Wahl in New Orleans aufgehalten haben und NAGIN nicht als Favorit in die Wahl gegangen ist, bekam er die meisten Stimmen. Dies lag vermutlich nicht zuletzt daran, dass er seine Wähler mit Bussen aus dem fünf Stunden entfernten Houston, TX einfahren ließ. Zudem wurden so genannte 'Satellitenwahlen' an Orten durchgeführt, dort wo sich die Menschen, die nicht mehr in New Orleans leben, aufhalten. Auf die Frage, wer ihrer Ansicht nach die Bürgermeisterwahl für sich entscheiden würde, waren sich die Interviewpartner ziemlich einig, dass NAGIN die Wahl nicht für sich entscheiden, sondern dass Herausforderer MITCH LANDRIEU nach 28 Jahren wieder der erste weiße Bürgermeister in New Orleans sein würde. RICHARD CAMPANELLA sagte zu diesem Thema: "Oh I am not sure, he's [Nagin; d.V.] gonna win this election. No, the number is, I mean, you just look at the numbers from the primary and what it's like, 62 % of the people voted against him. He might get a tiny portion of the votes that FOREMAN got, he'll get non of the votes that KULICK and PEGGY WILSON got, look at all of WATSON'S votes, but those were only what 1,200, so he might, but I don't see it happening." Neben der Begründung, dass ein Großteil der Wählergruppe NAGINS nicht mehr in New Orleans lebt und auch die Kritik, die an seiner Person während Hurrikan Katrina und insbesondere bzgl. seines Benehmens in den Medien laut geworden ist, hatten seine Chancen für eine Wiederwahl in den Augen vieler schrumpfen lassen. Die Person NAGIN hat schon während seiner ersten Amtsperiode von 2002 bis 2006 viel Kritik einstecken müssen, und insbesondere während der Evakuierung aufgrund von Hurrikan Katrina. Interviewpartner MATT FELLOWES gibt zu diesem Punkt folgendes Statement: "He's famous for sticking his foot into his mouth. So I'm not surprised. But he's also you know a little insane. […]" Auch CAMPANELLA lässt Kritik an NAGIN im Interview erahnen: "[…] Then, you know, DOUGLAS BRINKLEY, the historian […]. He's tearing NAGIN to pieces." Ein großes Problem, mit dem NAGIN und generell die Politik in New Orleans oft in Kritik gerät, ist die Diskriminierung zwischen Schwarzen und Weißen sowie Armen und Reichen. Während des Wahlkampfes ist diese Form von Diskriminierung in die Öffentlichkeit gerückt und wurde besonders in Washington, D.C. scharf kritisiert, wie FELLOWES anmerkt: "I mean it's been from the perspective of as here in D.C. just looking down at New Orleans, I figure it literally it's just disgusting looking at how racialized this mayor race is becoming. It's just, it's pathetic." Dass diese Form von Rassismus und Diskriminierung nicht erst kürzlich mit diesem Wahlkampf aufgetreten ist, sondern in der Historie von New Orleans bzw. Louisianas begründet liegt, soll nun erläutert werden. Gerne wird, wenn über die Politik von New Orleans oder generell von Louisiana gesprochen wird, der Begriff der Korruption aufgegriffen. Auch während des einen oder anderen Interviews ist diese Bezeichnung für das politische Handeln in der Region gefallen. MATT FELLOWES beschrieb das Problem von New Orleans folgendermaßen: "And that has not an incident of amount to do with the fact, that New Orleans traditionally has been a hot (belf?) of corruption. And they were and so is Louisiana." Da sich aber hinter dem Begriff Korruption eine stark negative Wertung verbirgt, soll der Begriff in dieser Arbeit nicht für die Charakterisierung der Politik von New Orleans benutzt werden. Stattdessen lässt sich das politische Geschehen, besonders auch das der Vergangenheit, mit dem Begriff 'Missgunst' treffender beschreiben. Was in den Interviews deutlich wurde, ist die Tatsache, dass diese Form von politischem Handeln einerseits den Wiederaufbau von New Orleans stark verzögern kann und vermutlicht auch schon hat, und zudem eng mit der wirtschaftlichen Situation von New Orleans zusammenhängt.
