Suchergebnisse

Issue 26.1 of the Review for Religious, 1967. ; impl~m~ntation of. Vaticaffllf~ '~- Monastic Pr~opbsal for Canon Law~, ~ by Monasticum Consilium Iuris Canonici 19 " Interview With Abbot Butldr ~' ~ e~tri~ ~fi~1~ '~ ~6 '. _POverty ~n Rehg~ous Life 4, by Ladiilqk. M. ~0~, S.J. . 60 Sanctificati~p t~oug~he Apostolate ~ ' b~ C~rles ~. Schleck, O,S.C. 83" Religious Life and the Christian Life 7' , by Sist~ Elaine Marie,~ S.'L.~ 1~37 ;? Complementarity by ~vid B. Burrell, C.S.C. ~ 149, Bibliography f6r R~enewal " by: Damien ~Isabell, O.F.M., . and Brot~r . Joach(m, O.F.M.~ 16~ Survey of Roman Documents 174 Views, News, PreVie"ws 180 Questions and Answers 183 Book Reviews 191 VOLUM~ 26 NUMBER 1 January 1967 Volume 26 1967 EDITORIAL OFFICE St. Mary's College St. Marys, Kansas 66536 BUSINESS OFFICE 428 East Preston Street Baltimore, Maryland 21202 ASSOCIATE EDITORS Everett' A. Diederich, S.J. Augustine G. Ellard, S.$. ASSISTANT EDITORS Ralph F. Taylor, S.J. William J. Weiler, S.J. DEPARTMENTAL EDITORS Questions and Answers Joseph F. Gallen, S.J. St. Joseph's Church 321 Willings Alley Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19106 Book Reviews William J. Mountain, S.J. Bellarmine School of Theology of Loyola University 230 South Lincoln Way North Aurora, Illinois 60542 Published in January, March, May, July, September, Novem. her on the fifteenth of the month. REVIEW FOR RELI. GIOUS is indexed in the CATHOLIC PERIODICAL IN-DEX and in BOOK REVIEW INDEX Notice to Subscribers Because of constantly increasing costs, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS finds it necessary to increase the cost of its individual issues as well as of its sub-scriptions. The new rates, effective in' 1967, are the following: (1) Individual issues of the REWEW now cost one dollar; this price applies not only to all issues beginning with 1967 but also to all previously published issues. (2) Subscriptions in the United States, Canada, and Mexico now cost $5.00 per year; $9.00 for two years. (3) Subscriptions to other countries now cost ,$5.50 per year; $10.00 for two years. (4) All the above prices are in terms of U.S.A. dollars; accordingly all payments must be made in U.S.A. funds. These prices affect all individual issues sold on or after January 1, 1967. The new subscription prices are applicable to all subscriptions--new and renewed--beginning with the January, 1967, issue of the REVIEW. JOSEPH F. GALLEN, S.J. Implementation of Vatican II on Religious Life The postconciliar motu proprio of August 6, effective October 11, 1966, obliges all Latin and Oriental religious institutes to put into effect the pertinent norms of Vati-can Council II. The institutes are to promote primarily a newness of spirit and through this effect a renewal and adaptation of life and discipline. Renewal is not accom-plished once for all time. It is a continuous process that is to be maintained by the fervor of the members and the care of chapters and superiors. The documents of the Council that are principally to be studied are the Decree on the Appropriate Renewal of the Religious Life and Chapters V and VI of the Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, but all other conciliar documents should also be considered. The principal part in renewal and adaptation apper-tains to the religious institutes themselves, especially through their general chapters. The chapter is not merely to legislate but should also further the spiritual and apostolic activity of the institute. To promote renewal and adaptation, a special general chapter, ordinary or extraordinary, is to be assembled within two or at the most three years in all institutes, whether pontifical or diocesan. This special chapter may be divided into two distinct periods of sessions, if the chapter itself so decrees in'a secret vote. The interval between the periods should not generally extend beyond a year. The general chapter has the authority to change cer-tain norms of the constitutions experimentally, provided the purpose, nature, and character of the institute are preserved. Prudent experiments contrary to the common law of the Church, if judged profitable, will be freely permitted by the Holy See. These experiments may be Joseph F. Gal-len, s.J., resides at Saint Joseph's Church; 321 Wil-lings Alley; Phila-delphia, Pennsyl-vania 19106. VOLUME 26, 1967 5 4. 4. 4. Joseph F. Gallen, S.1. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 6 extended to the next ordinary general chapter, which also has the power to extend them but not beyond the following ordinary general chapter. The general council possesses the same authority of experimentation accord-ing to the conditions determined by the chapters in the intervals between these chapters. The definitive approba-tion of the constitutions is reserved to the Holy See for pontifical congregations and to the unanimous consent of all the local ordinaries in whose dioceses the congrega-tion has houses, in the case of a diocesan congregation. ,The cooperation of all superiors and members is necessary for the renewal of the religious life in them-selves, to prepare the spirit of the chapters, for accom-plishing the work of the chapters, and for the faithful observance of the norms enacted by the chapters. In preparing the special general chapter, the general council shall make provision for a wide and free consultation of the members and shall suitably collate and arrange the ideas received in this consultation to help and direct the work of the chapter. This can be accomplished through reports of community and provincial chapter discussions, appointment of commissions, sending out questionnaires, and so forth. The constitutions should contain the evangelical and theological principles on the religious life and on its union with the Church, as also the spirit and purposes of the founder and the sound traditions which constitute the spiritual patrimony of an institute. They should also include adequate but not superfluous juridical norms. The constitutions are to be imbued with the true spirit and be a vital rule. They must therefore contain both the spiritual and juridical norms and avoid a text that is merely exhortatory or merely juridical. The general chapters of institutes of simple vows should decree whether the constitutions are to permit or oblige to the renunciation of personal patrimonial property, whether already acquired or to be acquired, and whether the renunciation is to be made before perpetual profession or some years afterward. Superiors of all levels should have sufficient authority and be freed of the necessity of useless and too frequent recourse to higher authorities. Chapters and councils, each in their own way, should manifest the participation and care of all the members for the entire community, which will be verified especially if the members have a truly efficacious part in choosing those who constitute the chapters and councils. The study and meditation of the gospel and of all of Sacred Scripture is to be more intensely fostered in all the members from the noviceship, as also participation by more apt means in the life and mystery of the Church. For a closer participation in the liturgy, it is recom-mended that the entire or part of the Divine Office be substituted for a Little Office. A wider place is to be given to mental prayer instead of a multitude of vocal prayers, but the pious exercises commonly received in the Church are to be maintained. Religious more than the rest of the faithful should be devoted to penance and mortification. Penitential practices of an institute, if necessary, should be suitably adapted. In the present practice of the Sacred Congregation of Religious, an ordinary general chapter is one that takes place at the expiration of the term of office of the su-perior general, and on his or her death, resignation, or deposition; when convoked for any other reason, the chapter is extraordinary. The term of office of a superior general is ordinarily six years. The general chapter to be assembled within the next three years is special because its purpose is to promote renewal and adaptation. It may coincide with an ordinary general chapter; otherwise, it will be an extraordinary chapter of affairs, but no per-mission of the Holy See or of local ordinaries will be necessary to convoke it. The particular law of a lay religious congregation commonly consists of a Rule, if the congregation follows one, constitutions, directory, custom book, ordinances of the general chapter, regulations of higher superiors, book of common prayers, and a ceremonial. The congregation has had and still possesses the authority to change all of these except the Rule and constitutions. Any change in the Rule, e.g., of St. Augustine or St. Francis of Assisi, still demands the same authorization from the Holy See. Number six of the new norms of August 6 states: This general chapter has the right to change experimentally some norms of the constitutions . Prudent experiments contrary to the common law, if suitable, will be freely per-mitted by the Holy See. The expression, "some norms," is evidently vague. How-ever, the norms explicitly require the permission of the Holy See only for a change contrary to the common law, i.e., canon law. If permission were required for an ex-perimental change in any other type of article or with regard to any individual article, the necessity of such permission should have been stated; otherwise, the re-ligious institutes would be left with a highly obscure and sufficiently impractical power of experimentation, which would be contrary to the explicit purpose of the document. Obviously a congregation may not change any law of God that may be repeated in its constitutions, but it may experimentally change on its own authority any other norms of the constitutions, whether spiritual, ÷ ÷ ÷ Implementation o~ Vatican 11 VOLUME 26, 1967 7 ÷ ÷ ÷ 1oseph F~ Gallen, $.1. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 8 merely disciplinary, or juridical or legal, with the ex-ception of changes that would be contrary to canon law. A list is appended of changes that would or would not be contrary to canon law. The new document also gives permission for one sus-pension and reconvening of the special general chapter. This matter was quite fully treated in the RzviEw FOg P, ZLICIOtJS, 2'1 (1965), 476-7. The doctrine there given was that an institute may have that number of distinct periods of sessions that is required for the proper carry-mg out of its work. The treatment of the question in the. RzwEw concluded as follows: A chapter should ordinarily be completed in the one session or series of sittings, simply because this is the usual practice and understanding. A suspension and reconvening of a chap-ter is permissible for a proportionate reason. This is forbidden neither by canon law nor, at least generally speaking, by the constitutions. It is also at times necessary or very useful for the satisfactory completion of the work of the chapter and there-fore in accord with the very nature of a chapter. Finally, canon law and the practice of .the Holy See in a.pproving, constitu-tions admit the suspension of a chapter in particular cases without any indication whatever thatsuspension is confined to these cases. C. before a paragraph means that the matter is con-trar. y to canon law and thus demands the permission of the Holy See for the experimental change. If there is no G. before the paragraph, the particular matter is not contrary to canon law and may therefore be changed experimentally without the permission of the Holy See in the case of pontifical institutes or that of the local ordinaries in the case of diocesan congregations. C. Change of the name of the institute or of its spe-cial purpose. Addition of new works. C. Changing a Rule, e.g., of St. Augustine or St. Francis. C. Subjection, care, and direction of a congregation of sisters by a~n institute of men. C. Elimination of the class of lay sisters and their transfer to the one class of sisters. Change in the rights and obligations of a class of sis-ters, e.g., of lay sisters. Change in active and passive voice for the election of delegates to the general or provincial chapter. C. To give less suffrages to the professed of temporary vows or to the novices. Giving, changing, or eliminating greater suffrages to those who have died in office or held office. Change or elimination, except in voting in a chapter, of precedence among members of the same institute. C. Elimination of precedence in voting in a chapter. Change in titles or names of sisters, e.g., with regard to title of mother and change from the name of a saint or mystery to the baptismal and family names of the in-dividual. Change in the habit and in the dress of the postulants provided the latter remains different from the habit of the novices. C. Change in the obligation of the professed and novices of wearing the religious habit. To exact or not exact a dowry, to exact it only condi-tionally, i.e., that the superior who admits should de-mand a dowry if and as far as this is possible; to exact it only from choir and not from lay sisters; to leave the determination of the amotmt of the dowry to the general chapter, mother general, mother provincial, or to the superior who admits; to determine when the dowry is to be given to the institute; to admit the candidate without a dowry when a just reason exists for doing so; to estab-lish that the candidate who was dispensed from the dowry or admitted without it must establish a dowry !ater if she receives any substantial gift or bequest. Establishment, change, elimination oL and dispensa-tion from the wardrobe and the sum to be paid for the expenses of the postulancy. Establishment, change, or elimination of the record o~ property that a candidate brings with her as also of witnesses for this record. Establishment, change, or elimination of the civilly valid document signed on admission to the postulancy in which the candidate declares that she will not seek compensation for services given to the institute before or after profession, if she leaves or is dismissed, as also with regard to the renewal of the document at the time of perpetual profession. Establishing or changing higher superiors competent to admit to the postulancy. Establishing, changing, or eliminating a vote of a council required for this admis-sion. C. Changing or eliminating any o~ the invalidating or merely prohibiting impediments to the noviceship established by canon 542, i.e., membership in a non- Catholic sect, and so forth. Change or elimination of any or all of the impediments to the noviceship established by the particular constitu-tions, e.g., the illegitimate who have not been legiti-mated, those over thirty years of age, widows, those who were postulants or novices in another religious institute, converts, and so forth. Establishing or changing the higher superiors com-petent to dispense from the impediments of the particu-÷ ÷ ÷ Implementation Vatican II VOLUME 26, 1967 9~ ]oseph F. Gallen, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 10 ]ar constitutions as also the vote of a council for such dispensations. . C. Ghange or elimination of the testimonial letters required for a professed religious who passes from one to another institute, and for those who have been in an ec-clesiastical college, postulancy, or noviceship of another institute. G. Ghange or elimination of certificates of baptism and confirmation required for admission to the novice-ship. Ghange or elimination of certificates of character and of good health as also of other testimonials required by the constitutions, e.g., parents' marriage certificate, cel'- tificates of studies and academic degrees, consent of parents or guardians, and so forth. C. To eliminate, shorten to less than six months, or dispense from the postulancy prescribed by canon law. To eliminate, abbreviate, or extend a postulancy or a duration o~ postulancy commanded only by the particu-lar constitutions, e.g., to extend a postulancy of nine months to a year. To give higher superiors the power of dispensing from such a postulancy or duration. Establishing or changing higher superiors competent to dismiss postulants. Establishing, changing, or elimi-nating a vote of a council required for this dismissal. Giving a local superior the right of dismissing a postu-lant, e.g., in an urgent case. Changing the discipline and formation, study, and occupation in external works during the postulancy, and the separation or association of the postulants with the novices and]or the professed. Establishing or changing the frequency and content of the reports to higher superiors on the postulants, novices, and professed of temporary vows. C. Prolongation of the postulancy for a period longer than six months. Establishment, change, or elimination of request to higher superiors ~or admission to the noviceship and the professions. To change the vote for admission to the noviceship from deliberative to consultative or vice versa. To establish or change a prescription that the mother provincial admits to the noviceship with the deliberative or consultative vote of her council but that this must be. supplemented by the confirmation, approval, or consent of the mother general either alone or with the delibera-tive or consultative vote of the general council, or a prescription that the mother provincial with the deliber-ative or consultative vote of her council merely proposes the admission to the noviceship to the mother general, who admits with the deliberative or consultative vote of her council. C. To change the norms on the canonical examina-tion by the local ordinary or his delegate before entrance into the noviceship, first profession, and perpetual pro-fession. C. To change the duration of the eight-day retreat and the norms for general confession before the noviceship. To change the higher superior competent to establish or transfer a novitiate and the vote of the council for these acts. C. To change the prescription that the permission of the Holy See is necessary for the valid establishment or transfer of a novitiate in a pontifical institute or the pro-hibition of establishing more than one novitiate in the same province without a serious reason and a special apostolic indult. To change a prescription that the permission of the local ordinary is necessary for the valid establishment or transfer of a novitiate in a diocesan congregation. To establish, change, or eliminate the prescription that each province must have its own novitiate. C. To change the separation of the novices and pro-fessed and the prohibition of communication between them. C. To change the prescription that superiors are to assign only exemplary professed to the novitiate house. C. To enact the canonical year as valid before the completion of the fifteenth year, or when made for a period less than an entire and continuous year, or made in a house not legitimately designated as a novitiate house. To permit the canonical year of noviceship to be made other than in the first year, e.g., in a noviceship of two years or eighteen months. To change the manner of beginning the noviceship. C. To change the manner of computing the canoni-cal year. C. To change the norms for the interruption of the canonical year, i.e., (1) if a novice is dismissed by the superior and leaves the house; (2) if a novice, without the permission of the superior, leaves the house with the in-tention of not returning; (3) if a novice has remained outside the house for more than thirty days; or the norm for the suspension of the canonical year, i.e., if a novice has been absent from the novitiate house for more than fifteen but not beyond thirty days. To change the manner of computing a noviceship that is longer than a year, e.g., to change the profession day to the second anniversary of the beginning of the novice-ship from the day after this second anniversay. C. To change the norm that absence from the noviti. ate house during the canonical year is to be permitted only for a just and grave reason. Implementation Vatican H VOLUME 26, 1967 ÷ ÷ 4. Joseph F. Gallen, S.l. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS C. To change the norm that a noviceship made for one class is not valid for another. C. To change the norms that during the canonical year novices (1) must not be employed in external works of the congregation; (2) nor should they apply them-selves intensively to the study of letters, sciences, or the arts; or that during the second year (3) the novices should not be employed in the external works beyond that per-mitted in the Instruction of the Sacred Congregation of Religious of November 3, 1921. C. To change the norm that the noviceship is not to be prolonged for more than six months. To change the vote of the council that the higher su-perior may need for a prolongation of the noviceship, e.g., from consultative to deliberative or vice versa. To change the higher superior competent for the dis-missal of a novice as also the vote for this dismissal. C. To change the duration of the eight-day retreat before first profession. To change the prescription that each novice is to be given a complete copy of the constitutions from the be-ginning of the noviceship. To establish or change those competent to admit a novice in danger of death to profession. C. To change the vote of the council for first pro-fession from deliberative to consultative or to no vote. C. To abbreviate or eliminate the three full years of temporary vows required before perpetual profession or to establish a period of temporary vows longer than six years. To prolong temporary profession in such a way that the total time in temporary vows is longer than six years. To change the manner of computing temporary profession (August 15, 1966-August 15, 1969). To establish or change the duration of the various temporary professions, e,g., five annual professions, three annual and one of two years, two annual and one of three years, one of two years and one of three, one of three and one of two years. To establish, abbreviate, extend, or abrogate a period of temporary vows longer than three but not longer than six years before perpetual profession. To dispense in whole or in part from a period of tem-porary vows beyond three years. C. To enact or permit that the first temporary pro-fession be made outside the novitiate house. To establish or change the place for renewals and pro-longation of temporary vows and for perpetual profes-sion. To establish or change the superior competent to de-cree a prolongation of temporary profession. C. To permit the anticipation of the renewal of temporary profession by more than a month or to permit the anticipation of perpetual profession. To change the formula and rite of profession. C. To change the prescription that there is to be no interval without vows between temporary professions or between temporary and perpetual profession. C. To change the prescription that the written decla-ration of a profession must be signed by the professed and the one who received the profession. To establish, change, or abrogate a prescription that the written declaration of a profession must be signed by other witnesses. C. To abrogate or change the canonical requisites for the validity of any juridical religious profession of canons 572-3, e.g., the sixteen and twenty-one full years necessary for the validity of temporary and perpetual profession. C. To change the norm that an invalid noviceship in-validates any subsequent religious profession. To establish or change the higher superior competent for admission to profession, the norms on the consent or confirmation of the mother general of an admission by the mother provincial, or on requests to the mother gen-eral by the mother provincial for admission, to enact a deliberative or consultative vote for perpetual profession and for renewal of temporary w)ws; and to establish or change to no vote a deliberative or consultative vote for the prolongation of temporary vows. To establish or change the higher superiors competent for the reception of various professions; to change this superior from the local ordinary to a higher superior of the institute; to delegate others also by the law of the constitutions for reception, e.g., provincial, regional, and local superiors, and their legitimate substitutes. C. To change the canonical norms on the convalida-tion and sanation of an invalid religious profession. C. To change the definition of the religious vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. C. To eliminate or restrict the right of professed of simple vows to retain or acquire property for themselves (c. 101, § l, 2o). , C. To abrogate or change th~ prescription that a pro-fessed of simple vows must ced~ the administration and dispose of the use and nsufruct o! property already owned or acquired. | C. To abrogate or change the prescription that the permission of the Holy See is r ecessary for a change in favor of the congregation of a m~table part of this cession and disposition. C. To abrogate or change the prescription that a + 4. Implementation Vatican 11 VOLUME 26, 1967 13 ÷ ÷ ÷ Joseph F. Gallen, $.1. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 14 novice in religious congregations, before profession of temporary vows, is to make a civilly valid will concern-ing all the property she actually possesses or may subse-quently acquire. C. To abrogate or change the permission demanded by canon law for a change in this will. C. To permit a peculium, to change or abrogate the norm that the material necessities are at least ordinarily and habitually to be requested from and supplied by the institute, or to eliminate the obligation of avoiding superfluities. To change the formula required for the imposition of a precept in virtue of the vow of obedience, to change the superiors competent to give such a precept, e.g., to give this power or take it away from local superiors. To change the prescribed frequency of confession. C. "To change the canonical norms on the place for the confessions of women. C. To eliminate or change the necessity of special jurisdiction for the confessions of professed religiou,s women and novices. C. To have more than one ordinary confessor for reasons beyond those stated in canon law. C. To change the canonical norms on the special or-dinary confessor, the extraordinary, supplementary, and occasional confessors, the confessor of a seriously sick sister, and the confessor of anyone in danger of death. G. To change the canonical norms on the duration of the term and the reappointment of the ordinary confes-sor. C. To change the prohibition of interference into the internal and external government of the community by ordinary and extraordinary confessors. To change the canonical norms on manifestation of conscience. G. To change the prescriptions concerning daily at-tendance at Mass, or the promotion of frequent and daily Communion, or the power of a superior to forbid a subject to receive Holy Communion in the case of grave scandal or of a serious external fault until she has ap-proached the sacrament of penance. To adopt the Divine Office, e.g., Lauds, Vespers, and Compline, and in the vernacular. To determine the part of the Office that is to be said in common. To legislate on the duration, hour, and place of mental prayer; on vocal prayer, e.g., on the quantity and the specific vocal prayers to be said; on the preparation for mental prayer; the particular and general examen; spiri. tual reading; the number and duration of prescribed visits to the Blessed Sacrament; duration of the annual retreat and duration of other retreats; on tridua; deter- mination of the precise day, d~ making the monthly recollectiox and devotional practices; and t tional renewal of vows and to ~ rite of this renewal. To eliminate, lessen, or chang. the chapter of faults. To chanf mortification and penance impo~ constitutions. C. To change the canonic~ cloister. To extend the prohibition of tered sections also to those of tl the same prohibition. To change the law of compan approved by the Sacred Congr the approval of constitntions, e. to. leave the house without a judgment of the superior, there so." "No sister shall go out with~ superior, who should if possibl trustworthy person as her comF To legislate on silence. To change the norms on th, for correspondence. To change tion of correspondence. To change the norms on or table. To change the suffrages [or tl~ C. To change the canonica ofa professed religious to anoth~ C. To change the canonical the expiration of temporary and secularization, dismissal, professed to secular life, and t] To enact that a canonical d: [essed of perpetual vows from ai To establish or change the d~ the general chapter, e.g., three, sembly. To change the place or dat~ specified in the constitutions. To establish or change the let deferring of the general chapter, To change the date of the ass ter after the death, resignatio: mother general, e.g., three or si To establish or change ex ot general chapter given to [orm~ establish or change a system of ration, and manner of t; on seasonal devotions ) legislate on the devo- :hange the formula and the manner of holding or adapt practices of ed or encouraged in the prescriptions on the entrance into the clois- ~e same sex; to abrogate ion to one of the norms .-'.gation of Religious in ,,., "Sisters are permitted ::ompanion when, in the is a just cause for doing .ut the permission of her '.: send, a sister or some lnion. ' necessity of permission or eliminate the inspec-to eliminate reading at deceased. norms on the transfer .~ institute. norms on departure at .rofession, exclaustration :,rovisional return of a ~ charitable subsidy. smissal frees also a pro- 1 her religious vows. ~te of the convocation of six months before its as-of the general chapter th of an anticipation or e.g., three or six months. ~mbly of a general chap- 1, or deposition of the ¢ months. ficio membership in the .r superiors general. To ~lelegates for the general ÷ + ÷ Irat~lementation ol Vatican 11 VOLUME 26, 1967 ]5 ÷ ÷ ÷ .~oseph F. Gailen, $.1. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 16 or provincial chapter. To give ex officio membership in the general chapter to regional superiors. To establish that the mother general may summon others sisters who are not capitulars to assist in the clerical and similar work of the chapter, also to invite such sisters and externs to present and discuss questions with the chapter. To establish more than two tellers. To establish or change the number of capitulars who must be present for the validity of the acts of a general, provincial, or local chapter, e.g., two-thirds. To establish that a vote may be given by letter or proxy. C. To eliminate the presidency of the local ordinary at the election of the mother general or his right of con-firming this election in diocesan congregations. To enact or change a prescription that all sisters are obliged to accept any office to which they were elected. To enact or change, according to the system, a norm of the following tenor; from the date of the letter of convocation until the completion of the election of delegates, no vocal shall be transferred from one house to another; neither shall local superiors be changed until after the general or provincial chapter. In congregations divided into provinces, to establish or change the delegates to the general chapter from houses immediately subject to the mother general. To establish or change the number of de.legates to the general chapter from each province, e.g., two, three, four, five. To enact such delegates according to the number of sisters in a province. To give the provincial chapter authority to make proposals to the general chapter; to give it also the authority to make enactments for the province, which, however~ are not effective until approved by the mother general with the consent of her council. To eliminate the provincial chapter, i.e., to have the delegates elected merely by mailing in the votes from the houses to the mother provincial. To establish a norm on prudent consultation regard-ing the qualities of those eligible for office. To establish that the ballots are to be burned only after each session. To enact that before the election of the mother gen-eral, each and every capitular shall promise by oath to elect the one who, before God, she judges should be chosen. To forbid postulation in elections. To establish or change a retreat before the general or provincial chapter as also its duration and exposition of the Blessed Sacrament during it. C. To change the canonical mother general, i.e., ten years and forty years of age. To change the duration in off the length of her term; to estalz tion of her immediate reelectio: To enact that the secretary I eral are to be elected in the appointed by the mother gene, council and with or without a ~ ¯ To change the qualities reqt e.g., the age. To establish or change the n c6uncilor elected is also the assi a special election for this afv have been elected. To establish or change the n eral councilors except the assis secretary or treasurer general. To establish that the voting the chapter of affairs. To establish who have the to the general or provincial which the proposals must be p To establish that committee~, be appointed before the chapte lars by the mother general or 1 To establish that all ordina~ are to be confirmed, modified, chapter or that they remain i: abrogated by a subsequent cha[ To establish the norms on tt one province to another. C. To change the canonica nial report to the Holy See. To establish or change th~ visitation by higher superiors. To establish or exclude the for the higher superior in canor To establish or change the n another sister to make the car To enact that three general side the motherhouse. To enact the frequency of provincial, regional, and local ~ To determine the matters th a council by the law of the co~ To enact or abrogate an adx To enact the frequency of treasurer general to the mothe from the provincial and regior qualities required for a ff profession, legitimacy, ce of the mother general; lish or change a prohibi- ~.:neral and treasurer gen- 'eneral chapter or to be with the consent of her 'etermined term of office. !ired in a general official, :,rm that the first general stant general and to have ~r all general councilors orm that any of the gen- :ant general may also be ;~to be public or secret in ght of making, proposals :hapter and the time at ~sented. for the proposals are to v from among the capitu-aother provincial. ices of a general chapter or abrogated in the next ~ force until modified or transfer of a sister from norms on the quinquen-frequency of canonical aecessity of a companion ~ical visitations. wms for the delegation of 0nical visitation. councilors may live out-meetings of the general, :ouncils. at require a secret vote of ~stitutions. aonitor for superiors. tnancial reports from the general and her council, al superior to the mother ÷ ÷ Impleraentation o] Vatican II VOLUME 26, 1967 17 ÷ ÷ ÷ lo~eph F. Gallen, $.1. general; and from local superiors to the mother general, provincial, or regional superior. To establish norms for the investment of money. To establish the tax on houses, regions, and provinces for regional, provincial, and general expenses. To es-tablish norms for extraordinary taxes. C. To change the canonical norms on alienation, con-tracting of debts and obligations, or business and trade. To establish whether each province is to have its own house of studies. C. To change the canonical norms on the establish-ment, union, and suppression of provinces. C. To change the thirty years of age, legitimacy, and ten years of profession required by canon law for a mother provincial. To enact or change a higher age for the mother provin-cial, e.g., thirty-five years. To enact or change the number of provincial coun-cilors, i.e., two or four. To determine the duration in office and the norms for immediate reelection or reappointment of the mother provincial, provincial councilors, secretary, and treasurer. To enact whether all or some of these are to be appointed by the mother general with the consent of her council or elected in the provincial chapter. To determine the authority of a regional superior, the number of her councilors, frequency of council meetings, and the qualities necessary in a regional superior and officials. C. To change the canonical norms on the erection and suppression of houses. To enact that a local superior in office for sever~il suc-cessive years, e.g., six or twelve, may not again be ap-pointed local superior in any house, outside of a case of serious necessity, before the lapse of a certain number of years, e.g., one, two, three, six. To determine the number of local councilors. To establish or change a term of office for the mistress of novices; to forbid her continuation in office beyond a certain number of years, e.g., twelve. To establish that the mother general may authentically interpret the ordinances of the general chapter. To establish or change a two-thirds vote of the general chapter required for a change in the constitutions. To legislate on the juniorate, the education, and for-mation of the members of the congregation. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 18 CONSILIU~ MONASTICIM CANONICI A Monastic P Introductory Remarks [These introductory remarks wet meeting of the Canon Law Society 1966.] "The Monastic Proposal for Law" had its origin in early 1964 Canon Law Society, Monsignor Spencer Abbey. Monsignor tol~ board had decided to sponsor "in problematic areas in canonical ] which is almost wholly lacking il is such a problematic area. Mon., in the work of the Society in thi: After consulting with variot with Monsignor Harrington, it ~ the active collaboration of all the United States and Canada who enter into the project. This C( we came to call this gathering o to elaborate a proposal for mon: discussed in some general way i~ national convention and present mission for the Revision of the In the months following I vi teries and came into contact canonists. With the help of the~ tionnaire .was prepared and set periors of the United States and The whole question of mona~ into twelve topical sections. Tw( took to prepare background stm IURIS :oposal for Revision of anon Law given at the twenty-eighth ,f America, October ! 1-13, the Revision of Canon ~vhen the president of the Paul Harrington, visited me that the executive depth studies" of various .~gislation. Monastic law, the present codification, gnor invited me to assist area. ; abbots and at length as decided we would seek monastic canonists of the were willing and able to ,nsilium Monasticum, as [ monastic canonists, was ~stic law which would be a workshop of the 1965 ~.~d to the Pontifical Cora-l: ode of Canon Law. Jted over twenty monas-vith thirty-five monastic men an extensive ques-to all the monastic su- Canada in January, 1965. tic provision was divided , or three canonists under-lies in each of these areas. ÷ ÷ ÷ Monastic Proposal VOLUME 26, !.967 19 MoCnoanstsii~lluumm REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 2O As replies to the questionnaire were received, the pertinent matter was forwarded to the respective canonists. In April, 1965, twenty-five monastic canonists and scholars assem-bled for a week's meeting at New Melleray Abbey near Dubuque. Father Paul Boyle, C.P., president of the Canon Law Society, took an active part in the discussions, as did Father James Richardson, C.M., chairman of the canon law committee of the Conference of Major Superiors of Men, and Abbot Lawrence Vohs, O.S.B., chairman of the Benedictine Canon Law Committee. After the twelve topical areas had been discussed at length, the canonists voted on some sixty-four conclusions, all of which were passed by a sizable majority. In a number of cases they were unanimously adopted by all. These conclusions were then sent to the responding superiors and participating canonists, and further comment and elaboration were in-vited. In the course of the following summer a workshop took place at St. Joseph's Abbey; Spencer, Massachusetts. Since it was thought that a" concrete proposal would receive more serious attention, this workshop undertook to pre-pare a schema of such a proposal entitled "Propositum Monasticum de Codice Iuris Canonici Recognoscendo." At this time the project began to elicit international atten-tion in monastic circles. Written communications were received from all parts of the world. The summer work-shop, which was a rather informal affair, received visits from such men as the abbot general of the Olivetans, com-ing from Italy; a Benedictine Abbot from the pontifical abbey in Jerusalem; and a representative of the abbots of France, who met in Paris in July to discuss the conclusions of our meeting at New Melleray. In September, 1965, a schema of the "Propositum" was sent out to the superiors and canonists, suggestions and recommendations being again invited. In October, a meet-ing of monastic canonists was held in Chicago to consider the schema, canon by canon. At this meeting we were privi-leged to have the foremost scholar of monasticism of our times, Dom Jean Leclercq, O.S.B., a professor of the Bene-dictine International College in Rome and a peritus of the Council. While all the conclusions incorporated into the schema had bee.n adopted by a large majority of the participating canonists, unanimity had not been obtained on a number of points. In view of this the Chicago monastic meeting voted that two spokesmen should prepare a statement of the minority positions to accompany our proposals. Un-fortunately, they decided after two months of deliberation not to present their views with the "Propositum Monastio cum." As a result of this delay it was only at: their January meeting that most of the members of the Society's execu-tive board received copies of the "Proposit,um." However, i after due deliberation, the exect mously that the president of th, the "Propositum" to the chairm mission as the contribution of a the Canon Law Society of Ame president of the Society for~ Monasticum" to His Eminence, The "Propositum Monasticurr Copies were sent to all the memh mission and to the consultors co the revision. Many of them hav~ their appreciation of the work nasticum," continues to be stm throughout the world. In gener~ its contents. However, some find In conclusion I would like throughout the world are grat Society of America for the opp! nasticism to make its needs knc sion of canon law. M. Ba Chairman Spen PREFA( Under* the guidance of the S sembled at the Second Ecumenic has so enkindled the spirit of rer no matter what his rank or statu: toward the fullness of Christian ing to all men the witness of a tr This renewal of the Spirit ha,. the People of God. The Churcl~ removing the obsolete, adding both new things and old to pro, the Lord. Since the compilation and pr Code, monasticism in God's p~ all exceptionally vigorous ex[ Council gives eminent witness t~ in the Church today, when in it of religious life, it acknowledge~, importance of monasticism fox Praising the ancient monastic Council requires their adaptatk ent, "so that the monasteries wi] building up the Christian pe~ The new forms of cenobitic * This is an English translation pre[ ticum from the original Latin text wh v. 26 0966), pp. 331-357. tive board voted unani- Society should forward tn of the Revision Corn- ]committee sponsored by !ica. On February 2, the arded the "Propositum Pietro Cardinal Ciriaci. ." has been well received. ~.rs of the Pontifical Com-acerned with this area of written to us expressing The "Propositum Mo-lied by monastic groups d most have agreed with it too extensive. to say that the monks eful to the Canon Law ~rtunity it has given mo- ~n in regard to the revi-il Pennington, O.C.S.O. Consilium Monasticum St. Joseph's Abbey :er, Massachusetts 01562 :E pirit, Christ's Church, as-al Council of the Vatican, ewal that every Christian, ~, can more surely advance life and perfect love, giv-ae follower of Christ. not neglected the law of desires to revise her law, the pertinent, presenting ide for all in the house of ~mulgation of the present )vidence has experienced !ansion. The Ecumenical the value of monastic life proposals on the renewal both the past and present the Church and society. traditions of service, the ,n to the needs of the pres- 1 be, as it were, sources for ple." ~nd eremitic life rising in ared by the Consilium Monas-ich was published in the Jurist, ÷ ÷ ÷ Monastic Proposal VOLUME 26, 1967 21 Consillum Monosticum REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS many parts of the world today are further indications of monastic vitality. The eremitical life, a ,~ery special ex-pression of monasticism, is to be highly esteemed; for, by God's grace, it engendered men of great h61iness through-out the Christian centuries. The revised Code must neces-sarily provide some legislation to foster and strengthen this way of life. It is fitting that monks take part in the renewal of the law they are to live by. Living in a monastic milieu, follow-ing a rule hallowed by centuries, they more aptly know by experience the authentic needs and desires of this partic-ular way of life. Through this "Proposal" monastic canon-ists from various institutes and countries wish to humbly offer their collaboration, so that the new, corpus of law will be such that all monks may pursue a more faithful and fruitful monastic life before the People of God and all mankind. A concrete proposal of a Titulus:for the revised Code is presented, to obtain, in a complete and orderly way, more satisfactory norms for monks. Since the promulgation of the present Code deeper his-torical and theolo'gical studies of monasticism have been made in various monastic orders and congregations, grad-ually restoring authentic spirit and meaning. Scientific investigations of the ordo monasticus (order of monks) and monastic law have been very fruitful. The Sacred Congre-gation for Religious has issued many documents in our day pertaining to monasticism, e,g., the Law Proper to the Confederation of Monastic Congregations o~ the Order of Saint Benedict, confirmed by Pope Pius XII, and the legis-lation for nuns which has practically revised their entire law. Pius XII's radio addresses to cloistered nuns concern-ing the contemplative life should also be cited. Further-more,: ample provision for monks has been made in the Oriental Code. From these various documents it is evident that the Holy See is vitally concerned about the needs of monasticism. References can be inserted in the monastic title to those laws for religious which may be proportionately applied to monks--in a manner exemplified in Title XVII of Book II of the present Code. The sources given in this Proposal for each canon are not exhaustive. Only those texts issued by the Holy See since the promulgation of the present Code are cited. How-ever, because of its authority, discretion, and paramount influence on Western monasticism we frequently cite the Rule of Saint Benedict, that father and legislator of monks, under whose patronage we humbly offer this "Proposal." Consilium Monasticum Iuris Canonici Office of the Moderator Saint Joseph's Abbey Spencer, Massachusetts 01562 MONASTIC LIFE or THE Section 1. Monastic life. Chapter 1. Monasteries an Article I. Monasteries] Article 2. Federation. Chapter 2. Internal mona Article 1. Admission. Article 2. Studies. Article 3. Obligations Article 4. Transfer. Article 5. Egress. ORDER OF MONKS federation. tic law. Section 2. Specific forms of rc 3nastic life. Chapter 1. Cenobitic life. Article 1. Government. Article 2. Apostolate. Chapter 2. Eremitical life Chapter 3. Integral conte aplative life. 1-22 4-10 4-6 7-10 11-22 11-14 15-16 17-18 19-20 21-22 23--42 23-30 24-28 29-30 31-38 39-42 Monmtic Proposal VOLUME 26, 1967 23 MONASTIC LIFE or THE ORDER OF MONKS SECTION 1 MONASTIC LIFE .÷ ÷ ÷ C~onsilium Monasticum REVIEW FOR REL]GIdU~; 24 Canon 1 It is of great importance to the Church that the conse-crated life, lived according to :the monastic traditions preserved through the centuries, should continuously be adapted to time and place, that there might always be men of prayer unceasingly imploring divine mercy, draw-ing down every heavenly blessing upon the People of God. NOTE: Monastic life is distinguished" from other forms of religious life because of its proper characteristics, which are expressed in the various monastic rules, among which, in the West, the Rule of Saint Benedict ~holds a special place. In this form of life "the principal occupation is to pray to God" (John XXIII, Allocution, Vos paterno animo). The apostolic significance of this has in our days become more evident. Solitude and separation from the world pertain to every religious: "Every vocation dedi-cated to God requires them, each in its own proper way" (cf. Pius XII, Allocution, Haud mediocri, Feb. 11, 1958). However in the monastic life they have a very special meaning, both for the Church and for civil society, as Paul VI has clearly taught (cf. Allocution, Quale salute, Oct. 24, 1964). Stability in this state is confirmed "by vows, or by other sacred bonds (e.g., promise, oath, con-secration: c[. Pius XII, Apostolic Const., Provida Mater Ecclesia, Feb. 2, 1947, art. III, par. 2, no. 1) which are like vows in their purpose." (Second Vatican Council, Dogmatic Const. on the Church, chap. 6; no. 44). The order of monks, then, "though it is not of the hierarchical structure of the Church, nevertheless undeniably belongs to its life and holiness" (ibid.). SOURCES: Rule of St. Benedict, chs. 4, 43, 50, 66, 73; Second Vatican Council, Decree on the Renewal of Re-ligious Life, nos. 2, 5, 9; Decree on the Missionary Activity of the Church, nos. 18, 40; Benedict XV, Encyclical Letter, Principi Apostolorum, Oct. 5, 1920; Plus X'I, Epistle, Non sine animi, Male 28, 1923; Apostolic Const., Umbratilem remotamque wtam, July 8, 1924; Apostolic Letter, Monachorum vita, Jan. 26, 1925; Encyclical Letter, Rerum Ecclesiae, Feb. 28, 1926; Pius XII, Encyclical Letter, Fulgens radiatur, Mar. 21, 1947; Epistle, Sedecim ante saeculis, Mar. 25, 1948; Apostolic Const., Sponsa Christi, Nov. 21, 1950; Apostolic Letter, Postquam apostolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canon 31M par. 3; Allocution, Omnibus probe, Sept. 24, 1953; Encyclical Letter, Ecclesiae fastos, June 5, 1954; E.pistle, Sexto decimo revoIuto, May 31, 1956; Allocution, Nous sommes heureux, Apr. 11, 1958; John XXIII, Allocutions, Vos paterno animo, Sept. 25, 1959; Allocution, Notre joie, Oct. 20, 1960; Epistle, Recens a te, Oct. 20, 1960; Paul VI, Allocution, Quale salute, Oct. 24, 1964; Sacred Congregation for Religious, Instruc-tion, Inter praeclara, Nov. 23, 1950. Canon 2 The dispositions concerning monks, even when ex-pressed in the masculine gender, apply equally to nuns, unless it appears otherwise from the context or from the nature of the case. NOTE: Everyone is well aware that women have entered more fruitfully into public affairs. They are becoming continuously more conscious of. their full human dignity. It is wholly undesirable then that they should find them-selves treated as inferiors or minors in the law of the Church. It seems that the law for nuns regarding regular superi-ors should be so revised as to exempt both them and their monasteries, making them solely dependent on the regular superiors of their own order. The principal rea-son for this is to safeguard the spirit proper to theorder. But no one can fail to see the difficulties in having two superiors and having to seek direction from both in many matters. The local ordinary should retain the right and duty to supply for deficiencies if the regular superior is seriously neglectful. But in general, the abbess should rule her own monastery without masculine intervention. To obtain a suitable renewal of the legislation for nuns, their desires and recommendations can be ascer-tained from meetings of federations or from other legiti-mately convoked assemblies. SOURCES: Code of Canon Law, canon 490; John XXIII, Encyclical Letter, Pacem in terris, Apr. I 1, 1963; Paul VI, Allocution, E motivo, Sept. 8, 1965; Sacred Congregation for Religious, Decree Ior the Order o[ Re[ormed Cister-clans, Dec. 27, 1965, no. 5. Canon 3 Monastic institutes by their nature are neither clerical nor lay. ~qthout prejudice to their constitutions and par-ticular laws, they are subject to the canons that follow. NOTE: Monastic life is not an intermediate state be-tween the clerical and lay states in the divine hierarchical structure of the Church. Rather, the faithful are called by God from both these states of life to enjoy this particu-lar gift in the life of the Church and thus each in his own way to assist in her salvific mission. SOURCES: Code of Canon Law, canon 488, no. 4; Second Vatican Council, Dogmatic Const. on the Church, no. 43; Plus XII, Allocution, Annus sacer, Dec. 8, 1950, part I; Apostolic Letter, Postquam apostolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canon 314, par. 3. CHAPTER 1 MONASTERIES AND FEDERATION Article 1--Monasteries Canon 4 1. A monastery, a dwelling in which monastic life is lived, is designated autonomous if the community, in re- Monastic Proposal VOLUME 26, 1967 25 ÷ Consillum M onasticura REVIEW FOR REI'IGIOUS gard to the ordinary monastic regimen, rules itseff through an abbot, over whom in the internal government there is no other ordinary superior. 2. In law, the term monastery includes also a laura; and the term abbot, any superior of a monastery, without prej-udice to the particular prescriptions in the constitutions of each institute. NOTE: 1. For the sake of clarity the term monastery is here canonically determined as "a dwelling in which monastic life is lived." In law nothing is so dangerous as to call things by the same name, or include them under a single term, when they are to be guided by different norms. It is expedient that things which are to be subject to di-verse laws be distinguished by different names. The concept of an autonomous monastery, already found in the Code, is defined here following the thought common to the authors. Cf. A. Larraona in Commentar,um pro religiosis, III (1922), pp. 133 ff.; A. Vermeersch in Periodica, X (1922), pp. (7) ff.; J. Konrad, The Transfer of Religious to Anott~er Community (Catholic University Press: Washington, 1949), pp. 94 ft.; U. Beste, Introductio in Codicem, ed. 5 (D'Auria: Naples, 1956), p. 331. 2. A laura, the union of several hermitages under one moderator or spiritual father, can be autonomous like a monastery. It belongs to the constitutions of each monastic institute to determine which superiors are to re-ceive the name of abbot or the equivalent office. SOURCES: Pius XII, Encyclical Letter, Fulgens radiatur, Mar. 21, 1947; Homily, Exultent hodie, Sept. 18, 1947; Apostolic Const., Sponsa Christi, Nov. 21~ 1950: General Statutes, art. VI; Apostolic Letter, Postquam apostolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canons 8; 313, par. 2. Canon 5 1. For the erection of an exempt monastery, in addi-tion to the requirements of the statutes of each institute, the approval of the Apostolic See and the written con-sent of the local ordinary are necessary. 2. The local ordinary may establish a monastery, even an autonomous one, in which the members will seek evan-gelical perfection according to the rules and traditions of monasticism; but he must first consult the Apostolic See or at least the national Conference of Bishops. 3. In the case of nuns who pertain to an order, it is fur-ther required that they be affiliated by an abbot of the first order, at least in regard to spiritual care. 4. The erection of a monastery or the permission to es-tablish a new monastery includes authorization to have a church or public oratory and to carry out sacred func-tions there; it also includes, without prejudice to condi-tions laid down in the decree of erection or the permission, authorization for all the devout works proper to the mon-astery according to its statutes. NOTE: 1. This is the present law. 2. Under the present law a bishop may establish a religious congregation (canon 492, par. 1). Why may he not also establish a monastery? It is certainly desirable that monasteries be formed in federations (i.e., congregations) and confederations, which provide mutual aid both spiritual and temporal. Neverthe-less, each monastic institute has its own proper rule and constitutions which to some extent limit the expressions of monasticism possible within the institute. Provision is needed, especially today, for the expressions evolving from fruitful monastic traditions. The diocesan setting seems most suitable for these experiments, as it has been for new religious congregations and, in an earlier tradition, for the foundation of new monasteries. Ordinarily at the present time when a monk, led by the Spirit, undertakes an experiment in monasticisrn under episcopal auspices, he must seek an indult of exclaustration, or even of secularization, relinquishing his canonical status as a monk. This is not canonical equity. 3. This provision, in force already for tertiaries tcanon 492, par. 1), is advocated so that nuns may receive a ormation according to the true spirit of their own in-stitute (cf. Pius XII, Radio Message. Cddant volontiers, luly 19, 1958), and also other assistance according to the particular form of affiliation. 4. This is the present law. SOURCES: 1. Code of Canon Law, canon 497, par. 1; Pius XII, Apostolic Letter, Postquam apostolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canon 8, par. 3. 2. Code of Canon Law, canon 492, par. I; Second Vatican Council, Deo'ee on the Renewal of Re-ligious LiJe, no. 19; Pius XII, Apostolic Letter, Postquam apostolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canon 8, par. 1. 3. Code of Canon Law, canon 492, par. 1; Plus XII, Radio Message, Cddant volontiers, July 19, 1958; Sacred Congregation for Religious, Epistle to the Apostolic Nuncios, Mar. 7, 1951. 4. Code of Canon Law, canon 497, par. 1; Pius XII, Apostolic Letter, Postquara apostollcls, Feb. 9, 1952, canon 9, par. 1. Canon 6 I. Preserving always the spirit of evangelical poverty, every monastery can acquire and possess temporalities with stable revenues. 2. The temporalities are to be administered according to the norms of the constitutions and the prescriptions of canons 532, 536, and 537. NOTE: According to monastic tradition and the common law of the Church, each monastery, as a moral person, has the right to acquire, retain, "and administer temporal goods, and the obligation to provide a suitable home and sustenance for its monks. The value and need of a spirit of poverty, which is an essential of the Christian message and a first principle of monasticism, does not exempt monks from having a proper esteem for the economic order and from using material goods in conformity with Monastic Proposal VOLUME 26, 1967 + ÷ ÷ Consilium M onasticum REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS their state. They should be most eager and generous in coming to the aid of the poor. In a true spirit of poverty, they should keep only what is useful to the community, lest their wealth become an occasion of discord, envy, or pride. The faculties concerning administration which are found in the Rescript, Gum admotae, of Nov. 6, 1964, should be incorporated into the common law and be extended to all abbots. SOURCES: Rule of St. Benedict, chs. 31-34, 66; Code of Canon Law, canons 496; 531-532; 1495, par. 2; Second Vatican Council, Decree on the Renewal of Religious Lqe, no. 13; Pius XII, Radio Message, Oggi al compiersi, Sept. 1, 1944; Apostolic Letter, Postquam apostolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canons 63-64; John XXIII, Encyclical Letter, Mater et Magistra, May 15, 1961; Paul VI, Encyclical Letter, Ecclesiam Suam, Aug. 6, 1964. Article 2---Federation Canon 7 Federations of monasteries, unions of several autono-mous monasteries under one superior, while maintaining the principle of autonomy, are highly recommended, to promote true monastic life and to foster the full develop-ment of each monk in his vocation. NOTE: Because monastic congregations have the nature of federated unions, the term "federation," which is found in the Apostolic Constitution, Sponsa Christi (General Statutes, article VII), seems preferable. In a federation each monastery retains its own proper independence and juridic personality. The superior of the union can use the title of Abbot President, Abbot General, or Archabbot. His powers within the federation, which are determined by the constitutions, are ordinarily to be quite restricted. SOURCES: Code of Canon Law, canon 488, no. 2; Second Vatican Council, Decree on the Renewal of Religious Life, no. 22; Pius XII, Homily, Exsultent hodie, Sept. 18, 1947; Apostolic Const., Sponsa Christi, Nov. 21, 1950: General Statutes, art. VII; Apostolic Letter, Postquam apostolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canons 11; 313, par. 1, no. 1; Allocution, Omnibus probe, Sept. 24, 1953; Radio Message, Lorsque Nous. Aug. 2, 1958; John XXIII, Allocution, Notre joie, Oct. 20, 1960; Epistle, II tempio massimo, July 2, 1962; Sacred Congregation for Religious, Instruction, Inter praeclara, Nov. 23, 1950, no. XVII; Epistle to the Apostolic Nuncios, Mar. 7, 1951. Canon 8 Confederations, fraternal associations of several mo-nastic federations under one primate, are also strongly recommended. NOTE: Confederations of monastic federations are to be set up that through the fraternal unity and cooperation of the federations, according to the norms and within the limits defincd by the Holy See, monastic life will be faith- fully upheld. Adapted to the needs of our days, it will be sustained by the fraternal assistance in personnel, posses-sions, and activities shared among the federations. SOURCES: Second Vatican Council, Decree on the Re-newal of Religious Life, no. 22; Pius XII, Homily, Ex-sultent hodie, Sept. 18, 1947; Apostolic Const., Sponsa Christi, Nov. 21, 1950: General Statutes, art. VII; Apostolic Letter, Postquam apostolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canon 313, par. 1, no. 1; Brief, Pacis vinculum, Mar. 21, 1952; Allocution, Omnibus probe, Sept. 24, 1953; Radio Message, Lorsque Nous, Aug. 2, 1958; John XXI/I, Allocution, Vos paterno animo, Sept. 25, 1959; Sacred Congregation for Religious, Decree of Mar. 21, 1952, "Lex propria," nos. 4, 21, 22. Canon 9 The establishment of a federation or confederation with its own proper laws is reserved to the Apostolic See. Such unions exercise only an office of service toward the monasteries and the monks, especially through visitation, appellate judicature, and fraternal assistance. NOTE: Federation and confederation presuppose some general laws accepted by all the monasteries but do not exclude particular norms and customs in each monastery. The list of functions of a federation or confederation in the canon is not exhaustive. SOURCES: Code of Canon Law, canons 488, no. 8; 501, par. 3; Pius XI, Encyclical Letter, Quadragesimo anno, May 15, 1931; Plus XII, Apostolic Const., Sponsa Christi, Nov. 21, 1950: General Statutes, art. VII; Apostolic Letter, Postquam apostolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canons 11; 28; 41, par. 2; Brief, Pacis vinculum, Mar. 21, 1952; John XXIII, Encyclical Letter, Mater et Magistra, May 15, 1961; En-cyclical Letter, Pacem in terris, Apr. 11, 1963; Sacred Congregation for Religious, Instruction, Inter praeclara, Nov. 23, 1950, nos. XXIII-XXIV; Decree of Mar. 21, 1952, "Lex propria," Ratio institutionis praesertim studiorum O.C.S.O., Nov. 27, 1959, Introd.; nos. 25 ft. CHAPTER 2 INTERNAL MONASTIC LAW Article 1--Admission Canon I0 1. Each autonomous monastery has an inherent right to have its own novitiate. 2. If a monastery is incapable of fulfilling the prescrip- ÷ tions concerning the formation of novices, the abbot has a + serious obligation to send them to another monastery. + NOTE: Monastic formation implies that monks in the service of Christ the Lord, the true King, are instructed, trained, and formed as integral men to Christian perfec-tion through prayer, contemplation of divine realities, and legitimate apostolic activity. Monastic Proposal VOLUME 26, 1967 ~9 + ÷ ÷ onsillum Monasticum REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS According to Saint Benedict and other monastic fathers, a monk lives in a permanent family under a rule and abbot, who holds the place of Christ. Therefore novices and professed, in so far as possible, should be formed in their own monastery. SOURCES: Rule o[ St. Benedict, Prologue, chs. 1, 58; Pius XI, Apostolic Letter, Monachorura vitae, Jan. 26, 1925; Plus xII, Apostolic Letter, Postquam apostolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canon 86; Sacred Congregation for Religious, Ratio institutionis praesertira studiorum O.C.S.O., Nov. 27, 1959, nos. 11-12. Canon 11 The abbot may train all his novices without distinc-tion in one novitiate under one director. NOTE: In view of the gradual development that has taken place among those who under theP aternal authority of .th.e abbot make up the monastic family, a single novxuate is required, returning to a unity and simplicity which is more consonant with monastic traditions: This is true even if different members take a greater or lesser part in the celebration of the Divine Office. SOURCES: Second Vatican Council, Decree on the Re-newal o[ Religious Li[e, no. 15; Sacred Congregation for Religious. Decree for the French (Solesmes) Congregation O.S.B., Apr. 8, 1965; Decree [or the Order o[ Re[ormed Cistercians, Dec. 27, 1965, no. 1. Canon 12 In admitting candidates the constitutions are to be fol-lowed, sa[eguarding canons 538, 541-546, 581, and 582. NOTE: It should be noted that the impediments to the novitiate need to be clarified. The text of canon 542 places in grave doubt the validity of many professions which per-haps are never questioned. For example, how would one determine "fraud" in the case of a candidate who did not properly represent his true character? Canon 544, also, needs to be simplified. Canon 13 The whole o[ monastic formation pertains properly to the father of the monastery. However it is ordinarily ex-pedient that a novice master be named, following can-ons 559-560. Under the direction of the abbot, he will guide the formation of the novices according to the pro-gram proper to the institute. NOTE: This is the present law. SOURCES: Rule of St. Benedict, chs. 2, 58; Code of Canon Law, canons 559-562; Pius XII, Apostolic Const., Sedes Sapientiae, May 31, 1956; Sacred Congregation for Re-ligious, General Statutes, July 7, 1956, art. 19, par. I; Ratio institutionis praesertim studiorum O.C.S.O., Introd., par. 20; nos. 2-5. Canon 14. After a novitiate of at least one year, and another pro-longed probation with some form of commitment, of at least three years according to the constitutions, profes-sion is made with the consent of the chapter and the mo-nastic blessing is received from the father of the monas-tery; and thus the monk becomes a member of the com-munity forever. NOTE: The profession of a monk is fundamentally a lifelong commitment before God to the monastic way of life. Therefore, the distinction between simple and solemn profession or temporary and perpetual vows is not suit-able for monks. During the prolon.ged probation, which certainly should precede a monasuc consecration which is perpetual and inviolable, it is fitting that some sort of bond exist--a promise, an oath, but preferably not a vow properly so called (so that the full significance of the monastic consecration through monastic vows is not ob-scured: "The Church not only raises the religious profes-sion to the dignity of a canonical state by her approval, but even manifests that this profession is a state conse-crated to God by the liturgical setting of that profes-sion."-- Second Vatican Council, Dogmatic Constztution on the Church, no. 45). Through this bond the candidate, in a way which is proportionate to the nature of the bond and the time involved, commits himself to the community and is dedicated to God. This bond could be perpetual on ¯ the part of the subject (e.g., first vows in the Society of Jesus). The obligation it places on the community in-creases with time (cf. below, canon 21). SOURCES: Rule of St. Benedict. chs. 3, 58; Code of Canon Law, canons 572, par. 2; 574-575; Second Vatican Council, Dogmatic Const. on the Church, no. 44; Pius XII, Apostolic Const., Sponsa Christi, Nov. 21, 1950: Gen-eral Statutes, art. III, par. 2; Apostolic Letter, Postquam apostolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canons 108-109; 112, par. 2; Apostolic Const., Sedes Sapienliae, May 31, 1956; Sacred Congregation for Religious, General Statutes, July 7, 1956, art. 7-8. Article 2--Studies Canon 15 1. Every autonomous monastery may have its own scho-lasticate. 2. If a monastery is not able to have a properly qnalified scholasticate, the monks shall be sent for studies to the scholasticate of another monastery or of a religious insti-tute which does meet the necessary requirements, or to the courses at a diocesan seminary. NOTE: Cf. the note under canon 10 above. SOURCES: Code of Canon Law, canon 587; Pius XII, Apostolic Letter, Postquam apostolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canon 123: Sacred Congregation for Religious, Ratio institutionis + ÷ Monastic Proposal VOLUME~ 26, 1967 ÷ ÷ ÷ Consilium M onastivum REVIEW FOR REklGIOUS prae'sertim studiorum O.C.S.O., Nov. 27, 1959, Introd., par: 9~ no. 31. Canon 16 In regard to the program of studies, each institute should follow its own particular statutes, approved by the Apostolic See, providing an integral monastic formation, and also a full priestly training for those who are destined. to the priesthood. This formation should be inspired by the gospels, in harmony with tradition, drawing from the font of the liturgy, adapted to the present day, and inti. mately united with the celebration of the sacred liturgy and the contemplation of divine realities. NOTE: In the Apostolic Constitution, Sedes Sapientiae, and the accompanying General Statutes, Plus XII in-structed each institute to have its own program of forma-tion, especially for studies, adapted to the particular needs and circumstances of the institute. The monastic pro-gram ought to provide not only for the clerics, but for all the members of the monastic family, including the lay brothers, if there be such. "The primary, if not the sole purpose of those who have consecrated themselves to God is to pray to Him and to contemplate or meditate on divine realities; now how can they fulfill this important duty unless they have a profound and thorough knowledge of the teachings of our faith?"--Pius XI, Apostolic Epistle, Unigenitus Dei Filius, Mar. 19, 1924, no. 5. SOURCES: Second Vatican Council, Const. on the Sacred Liturgy, nos. 16-17; Decree on the Renewal of Religious Lqe, no. 18; Decree on Priestly Formation; Pius XI, Apostolic Epistle, Unigenitus Dei Filius, Mar. 19, 1924; Pius XII, Apostolic Const., Sedes Sapientiae, May 31, 1956; Sacred Congregation . for Religious, General Statutes, July 7, 1956, art. 19; Ratzo ~nstztutmn,s praesert~m stu&orum O.C.S.O., Nov. 27, 1959, no. 32; Decree for the French (Solesmes) Congregation O.S.B., Apr. 8, 1965; Decree the Order of Reformed Cistercians, Dec. 27, 1965; Sacred Congregation of Rites, Instruction, Inter Oecumenici Concilii, Sept. 26, 1964, nos. 11-12, 18. Article 3.--Obligations Canon 17 All monks are bound to offer daily the prayer of the Church in a form approved by the Church, according to the norms of their statutes. NOTE: Tradition has always assigned to monks the duty of prayer. In some monastic institutes, due to the develop-ment among the various members of the monastic family, recognized by the Second Vatican Council (Decree on the Renewal of Religious LiIe, no. 15), all are now acknowl-edged to be truly monks. They have diverse duties and functions, even in regard to the Divine Office or some other public prayer of the Church, their participation being determined by the abbot, weighing individual ob- ¯ ligations and talents. Therefore it is necessary for common law to allow the constitutions of each monastic institute to specify the personal and choral obligations of its mem-bers. Moreover, it Should be noted that hermits, true monks, have their own proper traditions in this matter. SOURCES: Rule of St. Benedict, chs. 18, 43, 50; Second Vatican Council, Const. on the Sacred Liturgy, nos. 95, 98; Decree on the Renewal of Religious Life, nos. 9, 15; Pius XII, Encyclical Letter, Fulgens radiatur, Mar. 21, 1947; Apostolic Const., Sponsa Christi, Nov. 21, 1950: General Statutes, art. V; Apostolic Letter, Postquam apos-tolio's, Feb. 9, 1952, canon 157; John XXIII, Allocution, Vos paterno anirao, Sept. 25,.1959; Sacred Congregation for Religious, Decree for the French (Solesmes) Congre-gation O.S.B., Apr. 8,' 1965; Decree for the Order of Re. formed Cistercians, Dec. 27, 1965; Sacred Congregation of Rites, Instruction, Inter Oecumenici Concilii, Sept. 26, 1964, no. 82. Canon 18 Monastic work should be in keeping with the rule, constitutions, and traditions of each institute, assuring, with the aid of divine providence, appropriate support for the community. NOTE: All monks, including contemplatives, are obliged to manual or intellectual work by the natural law and by their duty of penance and reparation. Moreover, labor is a standard means of withdrawing the soul from dangers and guiding it toward spiritual horizons; it tenders part-nership with divine providence in the natural and super-natural orders; in labor charity matures. As the axiom, "ora et labora," proclaims, work has always been a basic norm and law of monastic life. However work is only one of the traditional triad: labor, liturgy, and lectio (sacred reading). A harmonious equilibrium must be maintained among these three. SOURCES: Rule of St. Benedict, chs. 4, 48; Second Vati-can Council, Decree on the Renewal of Religious Life, no. 13; Pius XII, Encyclical Letter, Fulgens radmtur, Mar. 21, 1947; Apostolic Const., Sponsa Christi, Nov. 21, 1950: General Statutes, art. VIII; Radio Message, Si Nous avons, July 26, 1958; Radio Message, Lorsque Nous, Aug. 2, 1958; John XXIII, Allocution, Notre joie, Oct. 20, 1960; Epistle, Recens a te, Oct. 20, 1960; Sacred Congregation for Religious, Instruction, Inter praeclara, Nov. 23, 1950; nos, XXVI-XXVII; Epistle to the Apostolic Nun-cios, Mar. 7, 1951. Article 4.--Trans[er Canon 19 A monk may transfer from one autonomous monastery to another with the permission of both abbots and the consent of the chapter of the recipient monastery. NOTE: Here transfer is limited to within the order of monks, where monastic status will remain intact. A transfer to another form of consecrated life requires the. authorizati6n of the Apostolic See. ÷ ÷ ÷ Mmfastic Proposal VOLUME 26, 1967 To require and accept, without requiring further re-course, the judgment of the abbots, who are close to the situation and know the monk better, is fully consonant with monastic tradition and the "principle of subsidi-arity." (Cf. Pius XI, Encyclical Letter, Quadragesimo anno, May 15, 1931; John XXIII, Encyclical Letter, Mater et Magistra, May 15, 1961.) SOURCES: Rule of St. Benedict, chap. 61; Code o{ Canon Law, canon 632; Plus XII, Apostolic Letter, Postquam apostolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canon 182, par. 1; Sacred Con-gregation for Religious, Decree of Mar. 21, 1952, "Lex propria," nos. 77, 96. Canon 20 A monk transferring to another institute must make a new novitiate or profession according to the require-ments of its constitutions. If the constitutions enjoin no obligation, novitiate is omitted and, after a trial period, the monk is definitively incorporated or returns to his original monastery. NOTE: Because the fundamental principles of the mo-nastic life are common to all monastic institutes, the repetition of the novitiate is not necessary; but because each institute has its own customs and traditions, some period of probation in the new institute is called for. However, if the probation is unduly prolonged this would be contrary to equity toward the monk and the other institute. SOURCES: Rule of St. Benedict, chs. 1, 61; Code of Canon Law, canons 633-634; Plus XII, Apostolic Letter, Postquam apostolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canon 183, par. 2. Article 5.--Egress Consilium Monasticum REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS Canon 21 In regard to the departure of members the constitu-tions of each institute and, with due proportion, canons 638-641, 646, and 668 are to be observed, as well as the following: 1. The abbot of an autonomous monastery with his council's consent, manifested by secret voting, can dis-miss or dispense a member from the commitment under-taken during the probation period. 2. In the case of a dismissal, there is a grave obligation in conscience to have truly proportionate causes and to give the member full liberty to make his response. 3. For the dismissal of a professed monk, the confirma-tion of the Sacred Congregation is required; therefore the abbot must immediately forward to it the decree of dismissal, the evidence, and the monk's responses. 4. The subject has the right, during ten days on which he can act, to appeal to the Apostolic See against the decree of dismissal. While this appeal is pending, a dis-missal has no juridic effect. NOTE: In restoring a member to secular life, a simplifi-cation of processes and the application of the "principle of subsidiarity" are very desirable. The local abbot and his counselors can better judge a case than a superior who is far removed. Such a procedure is more in accord with the concept of an autonomous monastery. The rights of the members are properly safeguarded by the power of appeal to the Holy See and, in the case of the professed monk, by the required confirmation of the Sacred Congre-gation. Note well that "professed monk" here means a member definitively incorporated into the community by monastic profession which is of its nature perpetual (cf. canon 14.). SOURCES: Rule of St. Benedict, chap. 28; Code of Canon Law, canons 646-648, 656-662, 666, 668; Secretary of State, Rescript, Cure admotae, Nov. 4, no. 14. Canon 22 Dismissal frees the subject from all his commitments, including monastic vows, except those connected with major orders, safeguarding the prescriptions of canon 641, paragraph 1. NOTE: It seems more profitable to his spiritual well-being to free one dismissed from all his commitments to monastic life, as is ordinarily done in present practice. SOURCES: Code of Canon Law, canons 640, par. 1; 648. SECTION 2 SPECIFIC FORMS OF MONASTIC LIFE CENOBITIC LIFE Canon 23 The cenobitic life is one lived in community under a rule and an abbot, following Christ together in fraternal love, radiating in the Church a witness of generous, vigi-lant apostolic life. NOTE: Rule here is not limited to some rule already ap-proved by the Apostolic See, but extends to any rule, based on the ancient traditions, which may be approved in the future. That the abbot govern his community under the guidance of a rule is essential to maintain a stable and peaceful community life under an extensive personal authority. "Together" (in communi) is the element which distinguishes the cenobite from the hermit. SOURCES: Rule of St. Benedict, Prologue, chap. 1; Sec-ond Vatican Council, Decree on the Renewal o[ Religious Li[e, no. 15; Pius XI, Apostolic Letter, Monachorum vita, Jan. 26, 1925; Plus xII Encyclical Letter, Fulgens radi- + + + Monastic Proposal VOLUME 26, 1967 35 ÷ ÷ ~on~ilium Monasticum REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS atur, Mar. 21, 1947; Epistle, Sedecim ante saecula, Mar. 25, 1948; Epistle, Sexto decimo revoluto, May 31, 1956; Allocution, Nous sommes heureux, Apr. 11, 1958; Sacred Congregation for Religious, Ratio institutionis praesertim studiorum O.C.S.O., Nov. 27, 1959, Introd., par. 5; nos. I, 6, 11. Article 1.--Government Canon 24 I. The abbot, father and shepherd of his monks in the spiritual and temporal orders, should have a long, even life-tenure of office, as long as he remains capable of ful-filling his duties, unless the constitutions provide other-wise. 2. The importance and gravity of the abbatial office requires of abbots and equivalent superiors that they tender their resignation, on their own initiative or at the invitation of competent authority, when the pressure advanced age or another serious cause undermines the proper execution of their office. NOTE: Although the abbot's spiritual paternity of its nature does not require perpetuxty in office, but only a rather extended term, nevertheless through the centuries life-tenure has almost always prevailed. (Cf. P. Salmon, L'abbd clans la tradition monastique [Paris, Sirey, 1962].) Such tenure is more desirable where more rests on the discretion and judgment of the superior lest there be incessant change, a cause of instability in men and organizations. Nevertheless common law should respect particular traditions which favor temporary abbots. But what is most important is that the constitutions of each institute provide very practical means whereby an incapable abbot can be released from office. An example can be drawn from the Declarations of the Subiaco Con-gregation of the Order of Saint Benedict: If it happens that an abbot through infirmity, age, or some other just cause becomes incapable of governing his monastery and tend-ers his resignation, it is sent to the Abbot General, who examines and decides the matter with the consent of his council. ; if however the abbot does not offer his resignation, ,the Abbot Visitor, with the greatest charity, should firmly admonish fiim to resign or request a co-adjutor before the monastery suffers from a lack of proper government. If the admonition fails, the Visitor is obliged to inform the chapter. ; when the chapter is not in session, the Visitor, with the counsel of other superiors in the province, examines and decides the case according to his own conscience. However the Abbot General's confirmation of the decision is required for validity. (No. 197) SOURCES: Rule o~ St. Benedict, chs. 2, 31, 49, 64, 65; Code of Canon Law, canons 505, 530; Second Vatican Council, Decree on the Pastoral O0~ce of Bishops in the Church, no. 21; Pius XII, Apostolic Letter, Fulgens radiatur, Mar. 21, 1947; Apostolic Letter, Postquam apos-tolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canon 32, par. 1; Allocution, Nous sommes heureux, Apr. 11, 1958; Sacred Congregation for Religious, Ratio institutionis praesertim studiorum O.C.S.O., Nov. 27, 1959, Introd., par. 20; nos. 2, 20, 23, 30, 35; Decree Ior the French (Solesmes) Congregation O.S.B., Apr. 8, 1965. Canon 25 From the day of his installation the abbot, besides the other rights of major superiors, has jurisdiction in both forums, according to the norms of the constitutions. NOTE: Jurisdiction is essential for an abbot to fulfill his oblig.ations as spiritual father and shepherd of his community. SOURCES: Rule of St. Benedict, chs. 2, 3, 60, 62, 64, 65; Code of Canon Law, canons 488, no. 8; 501, par. 1; 503; 514, par. 1; 647; 896; 1395, par. 3; 1579, par. 1; 2385; 2386; Pius XII, Apostolic Const., Sponsa Christi, Nov. 21, 1950: General Statutes, art. VI, no. 2; Apostolic Letter, Post-quam apostolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canons 26; 46, par. 1. Canon 26 Abbots, legitimately elected, should within three months of their election receive the abbatial blessing; and then they may use the abbatial insignia. NOTE: This is in accord with canon 625 oE the present law. The insignia which traditionally belong to the ab-batial office signify the autonomy of the monastery. SOURCES: Code of Canon Law, canon 625; Pius XII, Apostolic Letter, Postquam apostolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canon 174. Canon 27 1. The abbot may call his monks to the priesthood or diaconate, providing them with dimissorial letters in conformity with the norms of common law and the con-stitutions of the institute. 2. The canonical title for the ordination of a monk is that of the monastery of his stability. NOTE: This is the present law. SOURCES: Rule of St. Benedict, chap. 62; Code of Canon Law, canons 964, no. 2; 982, par. 1; Pius XII, Apostolic Letter, Postquam apostolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canon 132; Sacred Congregation for Religious, Instruction, Quantum religiones omnes, Dec. 1, 1931, no. 16; Ratio institutionis praesertim studiorum O.C.S.O., Nov. 27, 1959, nos. 26, 33. Canon 28 1. The abbot should summon the community for counsel on all important matters, as determined by the constitutions; for lesser matters he need only consult the council of seniors. ÷ ÷ ÷ Monastic Proposal VOLUME. 26, "1967 Consiliura Monastieum REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 2. All who have been definitively received into the monastic family have voice in chapter, unless the con-stitutions expressly provide otherwise. NOTE: Because of its discretion and authority the Rule of St. Benedict in a relatively short time became known throughout Europe and became almost the exclusive rule for monks. Because of this authority and the experience of centuries, it seems good to introduce into the common law, even though it may be something proper to the mind of St. Benedict, that the abbot consult the seniors in lesser matters and the whole community or chapter in more weighty ones. Concerning the equality of voice, cf. the notes under canons 11 and 14. "However, monasteries of men., ac-cording to their nature and constitutions, may admit clerics and laymen. . on an equal footing and with. equal rights and obhgatlons, apart from those flowing from sacred orders."--Second Vatican Council, Decree on the Renewal of Religious Life, no. 15. SOURCES: Rule of St. Benedict, chap. 3; Code of Canon Law, canons 516; 578, no. 3; Second Vatican Council, Decree on the Renewal of Religious Life, no. 15; Pius XII, Encyclical Letter, Fulgens radiatur, Mar. 21, 1947; Sacred Congregation for Religious, Decree for ihe French (Solesmes) Congregation O.S.B., Apr. 8, 1965; Decree for the Order of Reformed Cistercians, Dec. 27, 1965, no. 1. Article 2.--Apostolate Canon 29 The cenobitic vocation can express itself in some apos-tolate or work of Christian charity legitimately under-taken in harmony with the spirit and authentic nature of the institute. NOTE: This historical fact, which has merited the praise of the Church and society through the centuries, responds to the needs of souls today, making monasteries sources o[ life for the Christian people. SOURCES: Second Vatican Council, Decree on the Re-newal of Religious Life, nos. 9, 20; Pius XI, Apostolic Const., Umbratilem remotamque vitam, July 8, 1924; En-cyclical Letter, Quinquagesimo ante anno, Dec. 23, 1929; Allocution, Tous les Ordres, Mar. 12, 1931; Plus XII, Encyclical Letter, Fulgens radiatur, Mar. 21, 1947; Apos-tolic Const., Sponsa Christi, Nov. 21, 1950; Apostolic Letter, Postquam apOstolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canon 154; Allocution, Omnibus probe, Sept' 24, 1953; Encyclical Letter, Ecclesiae fastos, June 5, 1954; Apostolic Const., Series Sapientiae, May 31, 1956; Epistle, Sexto decirao revoluto, May 31, 1956; Epistle, Iam quintum expletur saeculum, Aug. 4, 1956; Radio Message, Lorsque Nous, Aug. 2, 1958; John XXIII, Allocution, Vos paterno animo, Sept. 25, 1959; Paul VI, Allocution, Quale salute, Oct. 24, 1964; Sacred Congregation for Religious, Ratio institu. tionis praesertim studiorum O.C.S.O., Nov. 27, 1959, Introd., par. 15-17: nos. 24, 76. Canon 30 Monks engaged in extending Christ's dominion through the apostolate must endeavor to maintain a solitude and silence in harmony with their vocation. NOTE: Here it is not a question of maintaining papal enclosure for monks who by their institute are dedicated to the external apostolate, but of keeping their monas-teries, according to the mind of Pope Paul VI (cf. Sources), as sanctuaries of prayer. SOURCES: Rule of St. Benedict, chs. 4, 43, 66-67; Code of Canon Law, canons 597, 599, 605-606; Second Vatican Council, Dogmatic Const., on the Church, no. 44; Decree on the Renewal of Religious Life, nos. 16, 20; Pius XI, Epistle, Equidem verba, Mar. 21, 1924; Pius XII, Apostolic Const., Sponsa Christi, Nov. 21, 1950; Apostolic .Letter, Postquam apostolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canons .140-142; En-cyclical Letter, Ecclesiae fastos, June 5, 1954; John XXIII, Allocution, Vos paterno animo, Sept. 25, 1959; Paul VI, Quale salute, Oct. 24, 1964. CHAPTER 2 EREMITI~AL LIFE Canon 31 Canonically a hermit is a monk withdrawn from the world, pursuing the anchoritic life, to attain complete openness to God in solitude, repose, and silence. Seeking the perfection of love through joyful, ready penance, and assiduous reading and prayer, he must not fail to have solicitude for the whole Church. NOTE: It is evident from tradition and clearly recognized in the Rule of St. Benedict that there are two kinds of monks: cenobites and anchorites or hermits. As there is a renaissance of eremitical life in the Western Church today, the revised Code must provide for it. SOURCES: Rule of St. Benedict, chap. I; Second Vatican Council, Dogmatic Const. on the Church, no. 43; Decree on the Renewal of Religious Life, nos. 1, 5-7, 9; Pius XI, Apostolic Const., Umbratilem remotamque vitam, July 8, 1924; Encyclical Letter, Rerum Ecclesiae, Feb. 28, 1926; Epistle, Compertum est, June 5, 1927; Apostolic Const., Inter religiosos coetus, July 2, 1935; Pius xII, Apostolic Letter, Postquam apostolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canon 313, par. 4; Allocutlon, Nous sommes heureux, Apr. 11, 1958. Canon 32 Four kinds of hermits are to be distinguished: 1. Monks who belong to an eremitical order. 2. Monks or religious who live in solitude while actu-ally remaining under their own superiors. 3. Those who are united in a certain manner in a ÷ + + Mona,tie Proposal VOLUMI: 23, 1967 39 ondlium Mona~ti~um REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS fraternity or laura, without forming a community or federation properly so called. 4. Finally,° those who,live a completely solitary life. NOTE: Because of their differing relationships with ec.~ clesiastical superiors, these four expressions of eremitical life ought to be distinguished. They each require a differ-ent canonical provision. An eremitical order would be almost totally ruled by its own proper constitutions ap-proved by the Apostolic See. SOURCES: Pius XI, Apostolic Const., Umbratilem re-motamque vitam, July 8, 1924; Epistle, Compertum est, June 5, 1927; Apostolic Const., Inter religiosos coetus, July 2, 1935. Canon 33 A monk or religious must obtain the permission of his immediate major superior to enter upon the eremitical life as it is defined in number 2 of the preceding canon. This superior may establish certain,no~rms to be observed by the hermit. After he has been duly tried, the superior may not recall him to community life without a serious cause. In the event of such a summons, the monk or re-ligious may appeal to the Apostolic See, his eremitical status remaining intact while the appeal is pending. NOTE: In conformity with the "principle of subsidiarity" the immediate :superior should and can better judge the suitability of his subject's withdrawing into solitude. After an adequate probation, the hermit should justly have some assurance that he may remain in his chbsen state. SOURCES: Rule of St. Benedict, chap. 1; Pius XI, Apos-tolic Const., Inter religiosos coetus, July 2, 1935. Canon 34 I. The canonical establishment of a fraternity or an association of hermits is reserved to the Apostolic See or the local ordinary. 2. Each member in such an association retains his own proper canonical status. Nevertheless all are subject to the local ordina~ry, ev~en by their vow of obedience if they have one, but the ordinary will habitually delegate his jurisdiction over them to a moderator" or spiritual father elected from the association. NOTE: It is highly recommended that hermits be united in a fraternity that they may give each other spiritual and material assistance. Such an association would require that someone function as moderator or father, and it is he who would be responsible before the Church for the good order of the fraternity . Canon 35 One who wishes ,to live a completely solitary life will not be considered canonically a hermit unless he receives the permission of the local ordinary. In this case the bishop, either personally or through another, must watch that the hermit faithfully lives the life he professes. NOTE: In order that a person be established in a canoni-cal state it is necessary that ecclesiastical authority act. This would ordinarily be the bishop, to whom the hermit, by reason of his status, would subject himself in a special manner. In this way false hermits can be distinguished from true ones. Canon 36 1. A professed monk or religious must have the per-mission of his immediate major superior to transfer to an eremitical association or undertake the solitary life. 2. Having obtained such permission, the monk or re-ligious remains bound by his vows and other obligations of his profession which are compatible with his new state, and though deprived of active and passive voice, he en-joys the spiritual privileges of his institute and may wear the habit. After a reasonable period of probation he can-not be recalled to the cloister against his will, nor may he return there without the superior's permission. 3. The preceding, with appropriate changes, is ap-plicable to members of societies without vows and secular institutes. NOTE: 1. Cf. note under canon 33. 2. This norm is almost identical with canon 639 of the present Code with the significant exception of re-taining the habit, because a life publicly consecrated to God is still being pursued. However, he can assume the habit of the eremitical association if it has one. 3. This is an application of canon 681 to a re-stored eremitic state. SOURCES: 1. Rule of St, Benedict, chap. 1; Pius XI, Apostolic Const., Inter religiosos coetus, July 2, 1935. 2. Code of Canon Law, canon 639; Sacred Congregation for Religious, Indults: Protocol Number 15112/65, Mar. 18, 1965; Protocol Number 1755/64, Afig. 8, 1966. 3. Code of Canon Law, canon 681; Second Vatican Council, Decree on the Renewal of Religious Life, no. 1. Canon 37 The ordinary may not require a hermit, priest or dea-con, to exercise the sacred ministry except in a particular case because of a serious, urgent need. NOTE: When the Church canonically approves the eremitic life, it should also secure its integrity. SOURCES: Second Vatican Council, Decree on the Re-newal o[ Religious Life, nos. 7, 9, 20; Decree on the Pas-toral Office oI Bishops in the Chu.rch, no. 35. Monast~ Proposal VOLUME 26, 1967 41 + ÷ Consilium M onasticum REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS Canon 58 1. For serious, external reasons, the ordinary can send a hermit who is a monk or religious to some religious house, or even, if the situation calls for it, reduce him to secular status. In this latter case the hermit must im-mediately put off the religious habit. The ordinary, how-ever, must immediately submit the matter to the judg-ment of the Holy See. 2. For the same reasons, a hermit who is neither a monk or religious can be evicted from his hermitage by the ordinary. He must then lay aside any distinctive garb. For serious offenses proportionate penalties can be imposed according tO t'he norms of law. NOTE: This provision applies the norms of canons 653 and 668 of the present Code to the eremitical state. SOURCES: Code of Canon Law, canons 653, 668. CHAPTER INTEGRAL CONTEMPLATIVE LIFE Canon 39 However pressing the needs of the active apostolate may be, institutes of men and women which are wholly ordered to contemplation always retain their role in the Mystical Body of Christ. Their members should occnpy themselves with God alone, in solitude and silence, in constant, devoted prayer and joyful, ready penitence. NOTE: All monks live a contemplative life, but according to particular traditions, in varying degrees many also en-gage in an active apostolate. The approved constitutions of individual monastic institutes determine the external apostolate or specify the institute as wholly ordered to the integral contemplative life. SOURCES: Second Vatican Council, Dogmatic Const. on the Church, nos. 44, 46; Decree on the Renewal of Re-ligious Life, nos. 7, 9; Decree on the Mission Activity of the Church, nos. 18, 40; Plus XI, Epistle, Non sine animi, May 28, 1923; Apostolic Const., Umbratilem remotamque vitam, July 8, 1924; Apostolic Letter, Monachorum vita, Jan. 26, 1925; Encyclical Letter, Rerum Ecc.lesiae, Feb. 28, 1926; Epistle, Compertum est, June 5, 1927; Pius XII, Epistle, Quemadmodum Decessor Noster, Nov. 4, 1941; Encyclical Letter, Mystici Corporis, June 29, 1943; Apos-tolic Const., Sponsa Christi, Nov. 21, 1950: General Stat-utes, art. II, par. 2; Allocution, Annus sacer, Dec. 8, 1950; Encyclical Letter, Sacra virginitas, Mar. 25, 1954; Epistle, Iam quintum' expletur saeculum, Aug. 4, 1956; Allocution, Nous sommes heureux, Apr. 11, 1958; Radio Message, Cddant volontiers, July 19, 1958; Radio Message, Si Nous avons, July 26, 1958; Radio Message, Lorsque Nous, Aug. 2, 1958; John XXIII, Allocution, Notre joie, Oct. 20, 1960; Epistle, Recens ate, Oct. 20, 1960; Allocution, Gli innumerevoli ceri, Feb. 2, 1961; Epistle, Il tempio massimo, July 2, 1962; nos. I, III; Epistle, Causa praeclara, July 16, 1962; Allocution, C'est ti Rome, Sept. 1, 1962; Paul VI, Allocution, Quale salute, Oct. 24, 1964; Sacred Congrega-tion for Religious, Ratio institutionis praesertim studi-orum O.C.S.O., Nov. 27, 1959, no. 74; Secred Congrega-tion of Rites, Decree of Feb. 18, 1934; Decree of Apr. 20, 1943; Secretary of State, Epistle of June 5, 1952. Canon 40 1. The contemplative life excludes participation in the external apostolate outside the strict limits of the monas-tery, except in cases where it is truly necessary, and then for a limited time only, concerning which things the abbot is to be the prudent judge. 2. Nevertheless, priests of the order can fittingly fulfill the office of confessor or chaplain among their own nuns. 3. Outside these cases the ordinary of the place may not call upon them to exercise external ministry, so that they might easily be able to effectively fulfill their proper mission toward the whole Church. NOTE: 1. Some ministry is necessary within the monas-tery, some monks being appointed to serve their brethren, others to satisfy the need~ of ~uests and visitors. But it must always and everywhere be evident that the contem-plative life is the first and principal end of the monastery. Therefore the ~ninistry of contemplatives must be of such a nature and so tempered as to place, time, mode, and manner, that a truly and solidly contemplative life, both for the community as a whole and for the individual monks, is preserved and.constant!y nourished and strength-ened. 2. This is necessary so that the nuns can receive a formation truly in harmony with the spirit of the institute. This duty of engendering and nourishing the spirit of the order should not impede but rather enkindle the contemplative life of the chaplain and confessor. 3. Because members of exclusively contemplative institutes are to participate in the pastoral office of the bishops in the Church by their witness of an evangelical life of prayer and penance, they need to be exempted from the active works of the diocese. SOURCES: Second Vatican Council, Decree on the Re-newal of Religious Life, nos. 7, 9, 20; Decree on the Pas-toral Office of Bishops in the Church, nos. 35; Plus XI, Apostolic Const., Umbratilem remotamque vitam, July 8, 1924; Pius XII, Apostolic Const., Sponsa Christi, Nov. 21, 1950: General Statutes, art. IX, par. 2, no. 2; Apostolic Letter, Postquam apostolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canon 154, par. 1; Radio Message, Lorsque Nous, Aug. 2, 1958; Sacred Congregation for Religious, Epistle to the Apostolic Nuncios, Mar. 7, 1951; Decree for the Order of Reformed Cistercians, June 27, 1956; Ratio institutionis praesertim studiorum O.S.C.O., Nov. 27, 1959, Introd., pa~. 17; no. 76, par. 2. 2. Pius XII, Radio Message, Cddant volon-tiers, July 19, 1958; Sacred Congregation for Religious, Epistle to the Apostolic Nuncios, Mar. 7, 1951; Ratio ÷ ÷ ÷ Monasti~ Prtr'posal VOLUME 26, 1967 4. 4. 4. Consilium Monasticum REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS institutionis praesertim studiorum O.C.S.O., Nov. 27, 1959, Introd., par. 24; no. 76, par. 2. 3. Second Vatican Council, Dogmatic Const. on the Church, no. 46; Decree on the Renewal o[ Religious Li[e, nos. 7, 9; Decree on the Pastoral Office o[ Bishops in the Church, no. 35; Decree on the Mission Activity o] the Church, nos. 18, 40; Pius XI, Apostolic Const., Umbratilem remotamque vitam, July 8, 1924; Apostolic Letter, Monachorum vita, Jan. 26, 1925; Encyclical Letter, Rerum Ecclesiae, Feb. 28, 1926; Pius XII, Apostolic Const., Sponsa Christi, Nov. 21, 1950: General Statutes, art. IX, par. 2, no, 2; Radio Message, Lorsque Nous, Aug. 2, 1958; Sacred Congregation for Religious, Decree [or the Order o[ Re[ormed Cistercians, June 27, 1956. Canon 41 1. To preserve recollection and monastic peace, a stricter enclosure should be carefully maintained in all monasteries which profess the integral contemplative life. 2. Abbots must see to the faithful observance of the constitutions in regard to travel and visits. NOTE: 1. In exclusively contemplative monasteries of monks and nuns, papal enclosure should be maintained but, with the consultation of the monasteries, it should be adapted to time and place, abrogating the obsolete and the automatic censures ~[or a breach of enclosure. 2. This is the present law; but fittingly broadened so that an abbot, and by equal right an abbess, for serious reasons may admit visitors of both sexes into the enclosure. SOURCES: 1. Code of Canon Law, canon 1291; Second Vatican Council; Decree on the Renewal o[ Religious Life, nos. 7, 16; Plus XI, Apostolic Const., Umbratilem remotamque vitam, July 8, 1924; Apostolic Letter, Mona-chorum vita, Jan. 26, 1925; Plus xII, Apostolic Const., Sponsa Christi, Nov. 21, 1950: General Statutes~ art. IV, par. 2; Sacred Congregation for Religious, Instruction, nter praeclara, Nov. 23, 1950; Decree [or the Order of Re[ormed Cistercians, June 27, 1956; Ratio institutionis praesertim stt~diorum O.C.S.O., Nov. 27, 1959, no. 73. 2. Code of Canon Law, canon 606, par. 1; Plus XII, Apostolic Letter, Postquam apostolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canons 141, 144. Canon 42 l. In institutes of the integral contemplative life, priestly training ought to conform to the norms of com-mon law as adapted to the contemplative life by their own approved programs of study. 2. If a monk-priest transfers from the contemplative life to the active ministry he should.undergo a period of practical pastoral training. NOTE: Pastoral formation should prepare priests to worthily fulfill their various apostolic duties as the Church desires and their institute requires by its nature and end. For this reason students in exclusively contemplative monasteries ordinarily are not trained in parochial prac-tices but in those duties to which the abbot might assign them. Hence it is good to require additional practical pastoral formation for one transferring. SOURCES: 1. Pius XlI, Apostolic Const., Sedes Sapien-tiae, May 31, 1956; Sacred Congregation for Religious, General Statutes, July 7, 1956, art. 19; Ratio institutioni~ praesertim studiorum O.C.S.O., Nov. 27, 1959, Introd., par. 14-17; no. 76. 2. Second Vatican Council, Decree on Priestly Formation, no. 19; Plus X!I, Apostolic Const., Sedes Sapientiae, May 31, 1956; Paul VI, Allocution, Magno gaudio, May 23, 1964. + + + Monastic Proposal VOLUME 26, 1967 45 PATRICK GRANFIELD An Interview with Abbot Butler Patrick Granfield is professor of the-ology at Catholic University and a monk of St. An-selm's Abbey; 19th and South Dakota Ave. N.E.; Wash-ington, D.C. 20017. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 46 Interviewer:* In Rome, at the end of the Council, you said in a public address that the Decree on the Adaptation and Renewal of the Religious Life was a summons to revolution. What did you mean by that? Abbot Butler: The Decree, of course, considers the religious life in the light of the aggiornamento in gen-eral. It spells out the meaning of the word aggiorna-. mento by talking about adapted renovation of religious life. It takes the criteria for adaptation, I think, from the notion of renovation. When it gets back to what it means by renovation, it appears that this means re-covering the spirit in which the founder of your re-ligious institute created the body to which you belong. There is stated, or could very easily be evoked from the document, the distinction between the spirit and pur-poses of the founder's creation and the actual contingent form into which he put it. As I see the meaning of the document, religious are entitled to regard as contingent and expendable not only all the accretions which have been added to the founder's original institution, but even the contingent forms in which he expressed his spirit. Religious are to try to reexpress that spirit in forms which 'are relevant and contemporary. Interviewer: Is that revolution? /lbbot Butler: Technically, it's not revolution, be-cause it's a question of going back to primal sources. But the practical consequences will look very much like revolution, if we. take this seriously, and accept with both hands the invitation that has been offered us by the Church. Interviewer: Perhaps a more fundamental question deals with the desirability of religious life. Do you ¯ This interview will form one chapter in a book of interviews called Theologians at Wor~ to be published by Macmillan during 1967. think that there is any place for religious life in the changing Church? Abbot Butler: It is a little difficult for me to give a revolutionary answer to that question since I was one, in a general way at least as a Council father, who passed the constitution, De Ecclesia. As you know De Ecclesia has consecrated a chapter to the religious life and seemed to give a kind of rationale of it. I feel that that limits one a little here. However, I can say that since religious life has been such a featnre of the life of the Church virtually speaking throughout the ages~ certainly you get that idea from St. Cyprian in the third century writing his treatise on virgins and the virgins of that time were the forerunners of religious life as we know it--that I think it would be very difficult to say that the religious life has no more than a merely transi-tory and passing value in the Church for a particular age. What I think is much more difficult, even after having decided that one has to find room for the re-ligious life in the Church, even in the aggiornamento Church, is to find a rationale for it. In recent discus-sions these difficulties have been accentuated. I had always thought that I knew more or less what the re-ligious life was, although I was rather doubtful how I would give a definition of monasticism as a species of religious life. However, after these discussions I came away feeling completely agnostic about the definition of religious life altogether. Interviewer: What of the suggestion placing religious life between the lay state and the clerical state? Abbot Butler: You cannot locate it in this way. You are applying the wrong criteria if you try to find a place for it between sacred orders and the lay state. Obviously, the vocation to religious life appears to come to men whether they are lay or sacerdotal. Or supposing that they are laymen at the time, it may come along with a vocation to the sacerdotal state. It seems to me that it has to be seen more in the charismatic order than in the sacramental order. There is a sacramental distinction between the clergy and the laity. But the religious life, although it sounds rather paradoxical to put it like this, is a kind of institutionalized charism. Interviewer: Who, then, is a religious? Abbot Butler: A religious is a person who has become aware of and has responded to a more special invitation from God to take Christianity at its maximal signifi-cance, instead of trying to get past with the minimal interpretation. Then, having seen and responding to it, he has wished to safeguard himself against future temp-tations to relapse on the minimizing basis of things by + + Abbot Butler VOLU~E 26, ].967 ÷ ÷ ÷ Patrick Granfield REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 48 committing himself for the future, as well as for the moment, by vows. Interviewer: It seems that you are implying that the lay person is not committed to the maximal exercise of Christianity. Abbot Butler: I think all Christians are called to it, but what makes a bit of difference with religious is that he has become in some special way conscious of that vocation. He has apprehended it as something that appertains to him personally. He has wished to make a response to it and he has desired to commit himself to it by an engagement, which helps keep him from any failure. Interviewer: How is the religious any different from the dedicated Christian who, conscious of his baptismal character, makes every effort to grow in the love of God? Abbot Butler: Leaving aside the question of the pub-lic nature of the religious vocations in the Church, I agree that both have become conscious.of the call to holiness and both of them have willed to make apposite responses. But the religious has added the feature of dedication, 'by which he commits himself for the future. Now~ if anybody does that, whether or not he plays a role in the public life of the Church as a religious, he is dedicated basically in. the same way as a religious pro-vided he has committed himself to the future. ,Interviewer: What do you think about the traditional way of speaking of the religious life as a state of per-fection? Abbot B~ttler: The term comes out of a world of discourse that is so 'alien to us these days that it is more misleading than helpful. Interviewer: Do you think it is theologically inac-curate? Abbot Butler: I suspect that if you take it in its full theological depth, it meant for the medieval people who invented this way of talking much the same sort of thing that I mean by the engagement of oneself for the future in a maximal practice of Christianity. This is what the status pkrfectionis means. Interviewer: How do you relate this to the monastic state? Abbot Btttler: It is difficult enough to settle on what one means by a religious, but it's more difficult to decide what one means by a monk. If you look the world over yo.u.find an extraordinary variety of interpretations of Wtiat monasticism means. This is not merely a modern phenomenon; other ages had a similar problem. This is partly due to the fact that monasticism grew up almost spontaneously in an age which had not developed a con-ceptualized theology. If is rhther like--if I may use an analogy---comparing the British Constitution with the American Constitution. The British Constitution is, practically speaking, undefinable because it is the result of gradual growth. It goes back to periods long before men reflected scientifically on their experiences and their intentions. Whereas the American Constitution came from a highly sophisticated age and was a written con-stitution from the first. Therefore you might compare the Society of Jesus with the American Constitution, since both came from a sophisticated, time and were able to define themselves at the moment they came into origin. But monasticism just grew in the Church. It is extremely difficult to look back and to decide what was the basic and not merely the accidental structure. I was talking about this p,roblem very recently with Canon Charles Moeller. He said that one of his theology professors, who had spent a lifetime studying the fathers of the desert and early monasticism, told him that noth-ing is more difficult than to elucidate the historical origins and theological basis of monasticism. Interviewer: What are your own observations on the nature of monasticism? Abbot Butler: Yes, to return to your question. In Rome, I think it was at the end of the second session, a group of us got together to discuss this question. Some were already a bit frightened about certain proposed changes in canon law that applied to monks. Someone suggested that the formal object of the monastic voca-tion was simple vacate Deo--to have time for God, to be open to God. Other orders and congregations in the Church have specific work, particular ways in which they serve God. But the whole point about monasticism is that there is no special way. It is just vacate Deo-- dedication to God in and for Himself. Interviewer: Do you agree with that explanation? Abbot Butler: Well, I thought it was rather good until the abbot president of a missionary monastic group said: "Well, if that is monasticism, then we are not monks." Another view was given by the Abbot of Montserrat who said that the thing that really makes a monk is the special place he gives to lectio divina--prayer in the wide sense. He explained that while the monk does work like anybody else, what makes him a monk is the "Work of God," the Opus Dei, the official public recitation of the Divine Office. The Rule of St. Benedict supports this and gives great emphasis to lectio divina. It is this dedication to a kind of meditative absorption of the whole Christian spiritual tradition in lectio divina which constitutes the specificity of the monk. Whether that's the case or not, I don't know, but it's the latest suggestions that I've heard of a positive kind. 4- 4- 4- Abbot Butler VOLUME 26, 1967 ,t9 ÷ ÷ ÷ Patrick Granfield REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 50 Interviewer: One frequently hears the criticism that the monastic state is a great waste of talent, time, and effort, a kind of religious escapism from the needs and responsibilities of the world. Abbot Bulter: Yes, this is often heard. One answer can be found in the Constitution of the Church which says that the religious life is a witness to the transcen-dental claims of Christianity, It says that the religious life "not only witnesses to the fact of a new and eternal life acquired by the redemption of Christ," but it "foretells the resurrected state and the glory of the heavenly kingdom." The same document insists that the religious life can be of great advantage to the salvific mission of the Church. Interviewer: Hasn't the time come for immediate re-newal of the religious life? Abbot Butler: I think it is a time for drastic measures. I think that most certainly. One of the things that really rather upset me at the Council was that when-ever the question of religious came up, there was an extreme supersensitiveness on the part of some religious superiors of whom of course I am one. They seemed to have an esprit de corps that was almost neurotic. I felt that they were consistently refusing even to make the effort to get down to the theological depths of the problem. They were continually taking refuge behind canon law. One of the first things we have to do is to delegalize the whole thing. We have to get down to the theological view and leave aside the legalistic view. Interviewer: How do you explain this sheltering be-hind canon law? Abbot Butler: I am not sure how to explain it. I suspect that it indicates a fear of the action of the local hierarchy or the local bishop. For the older orders, of course, the obvious defense against the bishop is ex-emption. But exemption is a pure invention of canon law. The bias that some religious show to canon law distorts the true picture of things. We also have to get behind some of the second-rate theologizing of what we used to call the scholastic tradi-tion. I am becoming extremely skeptical about the old divisions that we've been used to, the distinctions be-tween the active and contemplative life and the mixed life. I don't believe that that has any deep roots in tradition. If you study the fathers, you will discover that they meant something different by the active and contemplative life than the scholastic theologians. Interviewer: Do you have any practical suggestions on how monastic life might be renewed? Abbott Butler: There is a tremendous amount of "clearing of the decks" to be done. To get down to particulars, we should begin with the Divine Office which plays such a prominent part in our lives. For nearly all monks today the articulation of the daily Office into eight separate hours is no longer authentic. It no longer corresponds to a vital need. It was done in St. Benedict's time when they followed the seasons of the year and the hours of the sun and lived in a rural community. A much more meaningful way of dividing up the Office for us would be to take a leaf out of the Constitution on the Liturgy and to see Lauds and Vespers as the two hinges on which the whole Office revolves. That way you have a morning and an evening Office and you can add something in the way of a "Little Hour" at mid-day. Besides that I think that we need a solid block of prayer with the Psalms and lectio divina which could be put at any'convenient hour. This type of articulation rings much truer. Interviewer: The younger .generation would agree with that. Abbot Butler: I am very interested in the younger generation, although I don't pretend to understand it. It would be absurd for anybody of my age to pretend to. I do seem to glimpse certain ~ things about, them and I think that they have a horror, which I can respect as I understand it, for anything .that is phony--anything that is hypocritical, unauthentic. They feel that we are preserving the present structure of 'the monastic Office just for the sake of preserving: For them the present articulation of the Office doesn't make sense. They almost shriek with repulsion when~ for instance, we say Sext and None in one full swoop and start off twice in the course of ten minutes with Deus in adiutorium meum intende, which is obviously, the 'beginning of,a new time of prayer. It's like bad music to them. Some-thing should be done about this, Interviewer: Do you think that the. Psalms are still authentic vehicles of prayer? Abbot Butler: The Psalms, I feel (and perhaps I'm a bit old-fashioned about it), are the inspired prayer-book of the Church and they have a permanent value. They are so remote that they are easier to universalize and to apply to new situations than some modern prayers would prove to be. Interviewer: What of the readings from the fathers? Abbot Butler: This is something else. I agree that 'the fathers for the most part are not helpful. Perhaps better selections could be found. Let us take, for example, the Homilies in our Office ~hich are supposed to be the exegesis for the Scripture of the day. Now if there is one thing that is quite clear about the fathers, it is that their exegesis was nearly always wrongly,It's one of the 4. 4. 4. Abbot Butler VOLUME 26, !967 ÷ ÷ Patrick Granfield REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 52 most remarkable things about the fathers, I don't know why the strict conservative who thinks that tradition is an independent channel of preserving revelation hasn't insisted more on this point. The early fathers always get the right results by the wrong exegetical method. Interviewer: The vow of stability, that unique Bene-dictine vow whereby one promises to live in a particular monastery, is being reexamined by the monks them-selves. I recently met a monk who justified his nearly two hundred days of absence from the monastery in one year' by the argument that the essential part of the vow of stability is the stability of the heart or loyalty and not merely the geographic stability of place. What are your thoughts on stability? Abbot Butler: Lord Walsingham, foreign diplomat in the reign of Elizabeth I, used to describe his job as being to lie abroad in the service of her majesty. I think that the formal element in stability is the sta-bilitas cordis stability of the heart. Now we are get-ting down very near the basic roots of the monastic problem. Monasticism had its genesis in an entirely different cultural background from what we are grow-ing into at the present day. Stability meant a great deal more and had a great deal more positive value in those days than it has today. It meant that you grew into a total 'local environment which was only doing rather better and more deliberately what everybody tended to do in those days. There wasn't much instability in the life of the ordinary person. Today we live in a world where the horizons are so widened and the socialization has become such, that the old idea of local stability does not have the same role to play in monasticism as it used to. I say this with great.hesitation, because I am con-vinced that local stability has an obvious value. It makes the stabilitas cordis not merely a kind of pious velleity but a positive incarnational thing. As men, we do form a concrete, human family in our local monas-tery and we interact on one another directly in a very obvious way. It could be that because the world is going so socialized and so universalized that it needs a counter-poise that monasticism offers. Interviewer: You don:t feel that the uniqueness of Benedictine monasticism is in jeopardy if a liberal view of stability is adapted?. Abbot Butler: What is most specific in monasticism, compared with other forms of religious life in the Church, is allegiance to the local abbot. In orders like the Dominicans or Franciscans°your allegiance would be to a superior who rules thousands of people all over the world. He is a remote figure and few of his subjects have any contact with him. Even if a Benedictine spends half a year outside the monastery he does know his abbot personally and has a personal link with the other brethren in the monastery. This does make a great difference. Interviewer: On the other hand, the Dominicans, Franciscans, or Jesuits also have their local superior and they live in a community structure. While it's true that monasticism insists more on the communitarian aspect of life, can it still do so if it accepts a very wide view of stability which does not stress the local aspect--the permanence in a particular place? Abbot Butler: It is very difficult to conceptualize such things. But in my own abbey, for instance, we have a certain number of parishes where the monks are in charge and they spend years outside the monastery. I feel that the relationships between the monks on the distant parishes and his abbot are of a different human quality from the relations .between a friar and his local superior. Apart from the pope there is no higher supe-rior for a monk than his abbot. Interviewer: Declericalization is a primary goal in the present religious renewal. How does this apply practi-cally to monasticism? Abbot Butler: The separation in monastic life be-tween the clerical family and the lay brotherhood is in itself an absolutely outrageous thingl Here we must get back to the spirit of the founder. If there is one thing about which I am absolutely certain it is that St. Benedict conceived of monastic life as a way of being a Christian, not a way of being a priest. You might be a priest as well, but it is accidental to your monastic vocation. The present state of things in monasticism in the West is a bit of a scandal. It almost amounts to a dictation to the Holy Ghost. You tell the Holy Ghost that He may not give a full monastic vocation to any-body unless he couples it with a quite different thing, which is a sacerdotal vocation. Interviewer: Historically the tendency to clericalize goes back to the eighth or ninth century. Abbot Butler: It did begin as early as that, but I think that the monstrosity of the lay brother probably came in about the end of the eleventh century or the beginning of the twelfth. In a legalized form it was a Cistercian invention. It is helpful to remember that we do belong to the Catholic Church and that Eastern monasticism has never fallen into this awful abyss. Interviewer: Let us change the subject to theology. As an Englishman and a theologian, do you think that modern theology has successfully answered the challenge put forth by linguistic analysis? Abbot Butler: No. ÷ + ÷ Abbot Butler VOLUME 26, 1967 53 ÷ ÷ ÷ REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 54 Interviewer: Do you think theology has a duty to answer? 'Abbot Butler: Yes, there is a duty. I would like to preface my remarks by saying that I am not a pro-fessional philosopher. I am inclined to think that lin-guistic analysis is a rather provincial phenomenon and a rather transitory stage in the total history of philosophy. It will probably have done some good in much the same way as the Greek Sophists, in forc.ing men to be careful in their use of language and to reflect upon their use of language. In toto, linguistic analysis is not too impor-tant, but in the actual situation it happens to be im-portant because it controls a great deal of the higher culture of the West in its more sophisticated side. I don't think that we hav

Issue 17.1 of the Review for Religious, 1958. ; A. M. D. G. Review for Religious JANUARY 15, 1958 Retreats in Retrospect Thomas Dubay Spiritual Cancer . Francis ~1. Macl:ntee Roman Documents . R. I:. Smith Book Reviews Questions and Answers For You~ Information VOLUME 17 NUMBER 1 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS VOLUME 17 JANUARY, 1958 NUMBER 1 CONTENTS RETREATS IN RETROSPECT--Thomas Dubay, S.M .3 FOR YOUR INFORMATION .34 SPIRITUAL CANCER--Francis J. MacEntee, s.j .3.7 SURVEY OF ROMAN DOCUMENTS--R. F. Smith, S.J .4.2 OUR CONTRIBUTORS . 50 BOOK REVIEWS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS: Editor: Bernard A. Hausmann, S.J. West Baden College West Baden Springs, Indiana . 51 SOME BOOKS RECEIVED . 59 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS: 1. Preferred Mass on a Ferial Day of Lent . 60 2. When Does an Anticipated Renewal of Vows Begin to Run?. 60 3. Personal Gifts and Poverty . 61 4. Saving Money for Desired PuFposes . 62 5. Permission Required for Minor Necessities . 64 6. Elimination of Precedence in the Refectory . 64 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, January, 1958. Vol. 17, No. 1. Published bi-monthly by The Queen's Work, 3115 South Grand Blvd., St. Louis 18, Mo. Edited by the Jesuit Fathers bf St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas, with ecclesiastical approval. Second class mail privilege authorized at St. Louis, Mo. Editorial Board: Augustine G. Ellard, S.J.; Gerald Kelly, S.J., Henry Willmering, S.J. Literary Editor: Robert F. Weiss, S.J. Copyright, 1958, by The Queen's Work. Subscription price in U.S.A. and Canada: 3 dollars a year; 50 cents a copy. Printed in U.S.A. Please send all renewals and new subscriptions to: Review for Religious, :3115 South Grand Boulevard. St. Louis 18, Missouri. Review t:or Religious Volume 17 January--Deceml~er, 1958 Ecllt:ed by THE JESUIT FATHERS St. Mary's College St. Marys, Kansas Published by. THE QUEEN'S WORK SI=. Louis, Missouri REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS is indexed in the CATHOLIC PERIODICAL INDEX Retreats in Retrospect Thomas Dubay, S.M. IN SIX RECENT issues of this REVIEW~ seven hundred sisters told with considerable detail what they think about the prob-lem of more fruitful retreats for religious. This temperately told tale was no trite tally, for the sisters expounded their posi-tions with logic and insight. Yet all the same, we still lack an adequate analysis and evaluation of their views, without which, of course, the study remains truncated. But even more im-portant, we also lack solutions to many ot~ the problems they raised. This present article aims at contributing a mite toward the filling of both needs.2 I shall not, however, attempt to discuss every problem unearthed by the study, but those only whose solution is most signific~tnt and pressing. These latter we will review in the order in which they occurred in the original articles. Source of Retreat Masters Where ought religious communites to get their retreat mas-ters? From religious communities, manifestly. But which? Ought retreats to be given by priests from the same order each year or by priests from different orders? Most of the sisters queried favored the latter choice. As I went through the sisters' stated preferences regarding the sources of retreat masters, the overall impression I received was one of dissatisfaction with a current tendency to rigid uniformity. This dissatisfaction, while not universal, was especially noticeable in those congregations which are not attached to any order of men but nonetheless re-ceive retreat masters t?rom one order alone. Only 11.3% of the sisters belonging to these communities positively liked their custom, 73% positively disliked it, and 15.7% were indifferent. 1R£VIEW gOR RELIGIOI./$~ January through November, 1956. 2The reader will note that much of our discussion is pertinent to the retreats of all religious, men and women alike. THOMAS DUBAY Review for Religious Even among sisters attached to a religious order of men, 18.75% desired retreat masters from other orders at least occasionally, while another 18.75% were indifferent to the source of priests. The remainder preferred all priests to come from their own order. We may conclude that among religious women unat-tached to any order of men the vast majority prefer their retreat masters to come from different congregations each year. Among sisters affiliated with an order of men a notable minority like an "outsider" at least occasionally. With these opinions I must register a hearty agreement. But before delving into the realm of reasons I would like to clarify the position .here taken. I do not hold that a change of ordereach year is necessarily desira.ble, even for religious attached to no order of men. So frequent a change may be helpful, or it may not be. If one order consistently furnishes more skilled or more holy priests, there is no reason in the wide world why that order should no~ be tapped more often than others. Secondly, for sisters attached to a religious order of men I think that the usual retreat master should be a priest from their own order: a Dominican for Dominicans, a Trinitarian for Trinitarians, and so on. A majorityof sisters in these groups desire this arrangement, and their desire should be respected insofar as it is compatible with the preferences, of the minority. The formers' reasoning is i, alid: they feel that their, own priests bettei understand their spirit and way of life and hence can direct them more effectively. Since this is ordinarily true, the usual retreat for such. religious ought to be given by a priest belonging to their own order. However, since a sizeable number of these same religious women desire atlease an occasional change, I think that an outside priest should be invited every few years. Reason-able wishes e~cen of minorities should be respected, and this wish is reasonable. Now why is it desireable for retreat masters to be chosen from a number of different orders of men? First of all, the 4 January, 1958 I~ETREATS IN RETROSPECT supply of really top-flight retreat masters in any religious con-gregation is limited. This observation bespeaks defect in no order, since it simply reflects the fact that human abilities are distributed according to a normal curve. TO my knowledge no order is bursting at the seams with men highly gifted with the specialized talents needed for successful retreat work. If a community chooses its. retreat masters exclusively from one order of men, and especially from one province of that order, it may in time exhaust the supply of the best. A partial solution to this difficulty is the return of the good retreat master. When such can be arranged, and when the priest' has another set of meditations and conferences available, there seems to be no rea-son why he should not be invited for a second or third retreat. After all, a priest of proven ability is a far more secure risk than an unknown quantity. A second reason beckoning variety--and to my mind, a much more potent one than the first--is the danger of insularity. If we religious, men and women alike, are perfectly frank with ourselves, we will have to admit that we too often tend to horizon our outlook to our house, our province, our congregation. We may not intend it, but we do incline that way. We tend to insularity in our works, our "devotions," our interests, our spirit. In something of this context Thomas Merton refers to "the tyranny of restricted human systems and 'schools of spirituality' that might tend to narrow us down to a particular esoteric out-look and leave us something less than Catholic.''3 No one order .of men or women has a monopoly on helpful approaches to the love of God. We have a special love for our own society. Fine, we should. But we should also be interested in the works, the interests, the devotions, and the spirits of o~her orders and be more than ready to grant that in all likelihood they are just as worthy "as our own. The Catholic Church is catholic, and we aBread in the Wilderness (New York: New Direction, "1953), p. 41. THOMAS DUBAY Review for Religious religious are first Catholic and then religious. Would it not, therefore, be healthy for all of us to listen to a retreat master t~rom another order once in a while? Would we not stand to profit from another viewpoint? Not another truth, mind you, but another viewpoint on the same truth. Could not an "out-sider's" look at our own spiri( perhaps cast valuable light on our own appreciation of it? I, for one, think so. So also does a sister who observed to me that "we had one Dominican retreat master who was as Franciscan as any Franciscan we've had." Said another: "Personally, I am not a Franciscan, but St. Fran-cis's detachment, joy, and poverty have helped me tremendously, which led me to do much reading in Franciscan spirituality." Our final reason supporting a variety of retreat masters is the danger of monotony stemming from a sameness of approach. This objection is real for it was mentioned over and o~,er again in the sisters' comments. Some orders of men have a set retreat methodology, and ~sually it is an effective one. And yet i~or all that, a year-in, year-out repetition, of the same routine of subject and technique can be tiresome. We must agree that it is neither pleasant nor overly profitable to hear the same medita-tion subjects discussed year after year, and all the more so when they are treated in much the same manner and according to a prefashioned approach. On this score we might remember that God Himself in writing His Book chose to use a large number of different men with widely diverse backgrounds, techniques, and literary styles. He knows that men need variety . . . and He gave it to them. Among religio.us some like a sameness of approach~ but most do not. Those who do not seem entitled to an occasional change: But we must not be too rabid in our desire for variety. There are difficulties attached to it. Obtaining capable priests year after year from different r~ligious communities is without doubt a somewhat uncertain and perhaps unpleasant preoccupa-tion for the higher superior. It is much easier to have a stand-ing agreement with some one order of men for the simple reason Januavy, 1958 RETREATS IN RETROSPECT that uncertainty and negotiation are done away with. Then, too, it seems safe to suppose that most sister superiors have relatively few contacts with the higher superiors of orders of men. They may not, as a consequence, know exactly where to turn for com-petent retreat masters. What can be done? Two possible solutions occur at the moment, and there are doubtlessly others. The first bespeaks a widespread effort. Some national organization of religious women (or men, as the case may.be) could act through a spe-cially appointed committee as ~a~coordinating agency for the ex-change of retreat information. Superiors could forward to the committee the names of priests whom they have found through dxperience especially competent in retreat work. They could receive in return names of others whom they (the superiors) could contact for future engagements. The second possibility envisions the same type of coopera-tion on a limited, inter- or intra-community basis. Several com-munities could appoint individual religibus to exchange and relay pertinent information among themselves. Or within one com-munity (and especially one of the larger variety) sisters could be asked to forward to the provincia!, superior names of priests whom they "have found skilled in the giving of conferences or retreats to religious. Both of these suggested solutions would really be talent hunts. Their success would depend largely on the willingness of the superiors of religious men to appoint retreat" masters accord-ing to the expressed desire of other communities and also on the willingness of certain priests to be "worked over and over" in a rather taxing occupation. Experience seems to indicate that in many if not in most cases these religious men show that willing-ness and would be happy to cooperate insofar as possible in some such plan. If a program of this kind could be worked out, the bother and uncertainty so 'often bound up with obtaining priests from different orders would quite probably be lessened if 7 THOMAS DUBAY Review ]or Religious not entirely eliminated. There can be no doubt whatsoever that we in the United States possess within our land hundreds of earnest and skilled retreat masters, actual and potential It is up to us to exercise ingenuity and initiative in finding and using ¯them. Familiarity with Constitutions Unmistakable is the word to describe the preponderant number o~ sisters that desire their retreat masters to be well ac-quainted with the constitutions under which they live. Of 701 religious, 616 (89%) expressed- themselves positively, on this question, while only five (.7%) registered a negative opinion. The others were °indifferent. The majority view is to my mind soundly based, and that fo~ the ~.oIlowing reasons. i. From a negative point of view an acquaintance with a community's constitutions forestalls blundering statements in con-ferences and meditations. Such are, for example, advising the sisters how to spend time "in their, rooms" when they have no rooms; or speaking of vacations home when they have no vaca-tions, home; or, finally, making suggestions on how to say the Office when they do not say it. 2. Even more troublesome is advi~e that contradicts or seems to contradict provisions contained in the constitutions. Young religious may beupset or confused, while the older are probably annoyed. Neither reaction contributes to a suc-cessful retreat. 3. On th~ positive side we can find pertinent to our prob-lem the venerable scholastic adage that "whatever is received is received according to the condition of the receiver." What-ever the retreat master has to say to his "receivers" will surely be modified and conditioned by the mental set of those receivers. Part of that set is formed bytheir rule of life; and so, if he wants to know how they are going to understand his observations on the religious life, he should try to acquire some of their condition-ing by a reading of their rule. 8 ¯ January, 1958 RETREATS IN RETROSPECT 4. A priest will be much more practical (and interesting) in his meditation expos~ and conferences if he can occasionally choose for the illustration of his principles items selected from a community's own blueprint for life. As I pound the typewriter before me, the thought passes through my mind of the times my own-ignorance of a congregation's constitutions has wasted valuable conference time and rendered application less effectual. More than once has ~he awkward, expression passed my lips: "I do"not know whether you . . . , but if you do, you may find it helpful to . " Hardly a smooth attempt to be practical. 5. .Reading the constitutions enables the retreat master to grasp this congregation's spirit--not that of his order, nor that of a third or a fourth. 6. The work of the confessional can be done more effec-tively, more surely. Questions are understood and more cor-rectly answered. A sister is scarcely helped in her query about a possible infraction of poverty if her confessor knows nothing about her congregation's interpretation and practice of that vow. 7. An easy familiarity with a community's own ,way of life as expressed in its constitution~ is .bound to generate a receptive notein the retreatants. Their confidence in the master.i~ height-ened-- understandably. Sister~ typically love t~eir rule of life and are appreciative of the priest who will trouble himself, to read it for his own benefit. So much for reasons. A. few cautions seem in order. .The retreat master must exercise a bit of circumspection in his use of another community's constitutions. His references m~ist.be r~spectfui. Obviously out of place is any criticisfi~ of rule or custom, whether that ciiticism is patent or merely implied. This has been done and it isheartily re~ented. And.rightly. Con- ¯ stitutions have .been ' approved by ecclesiastical authority far greater .than any an individual priest can rustle .up. His criti-cism~ therefore, carries little weight.It further lal~ors under theburden of bad "taste. 9 THOMAS DUBAY Review for Religious The retreat master, secondly, should be reasonably sure of the interpretation he attaches to a principle or regulation. To obtain this reasonable degree of certitude one aid is the applica-tion. of the ordinary norms of hermeneutics. Such would be the consideration of the entire context: paragraph, chapter, whole work; the explanation of the obscure by the clear; the directive help of custom. Perhaps the safest guarantee of correct inter-pretation, however, is the help of a superior of the retreatants. She might favor the priest, with some hints on points she thinks need stressing. She might also offer interpretations that alter the prima facie meaning of regulations contained in the constitu-tions. Since custom is the best interpreter of the law and the retreat master may not know of modifying customs, both he and the sisters will be decidedly aided by observations of this type. Our third caution is a mere reminder that constitutions ought not to be worked td death by overdoing references to them. No Usable directive covering all cases can be given. Good taste and common sense must be the guiding norms. The protocol of getting a copy of the constitutions into the hands of a retreat master ought not to be difficult. It would seem best for the provincial superior of the retreatants to offer a copy to the priest about six months in advance. I stress the word, offer, for the reason that a priest does not especially care to ask for a copy of the constitutions. He fears that the superior might be unwilling or that she may think him curious (I doubt that he is). In any event her taking the ~initiative makes the whole matter more simple. Conference and Meditation Approaches What kind of approach do sisters like best? Intellectual? Emotional? Mixed? Difficult questions, these . . . questions that admit of no facile answer. And further, do the likes of the sisters necessarily coincide with .what is objectively best? It is possible that a religious keenly enjoy an emoti0nally toned meditation expos~ and actually derive little lasting benefit from 10 January, 1958 RETREATS IN RETR~ it. But as far as preferences go, we may recall that among the surveyed sisters-- 1. Almost none (.6%) want emphasis placed on the emotions alone. 2. Slightly more than half (50.5%) desire some stress on the use of emotions by the retreat master. 3. Slightly.less than half (49.5%) want no stress on the emotional approach. 4. A vast majority (93.1%) seek emphasis placed on solid intellectual content, whatever other techniques be mixed in.4 5. A lesser majority (78.4%) want Sacred Scripture to have a prominent place, o '6. In order of preference the intellectual approach out-distances the others; the frequent use of Sacred Scripture ranks second, and a stress on the emotions third. The retreat master is evidently ir~ the position of a cook seasoning soup destined for a hundred palates. But the cook enjoys an advantage in that he can season moderately and depend on the saltcellars to supplement his efforts. The retreat master, however, can lean on no stylecellar to alter the fare he presents. And yet spiritual palates vary .as widely as do material. The situation, nonetheless, is not hopeless. I am strongly inclined to think that while the sisters' differences in preference are real, they are not as deep as they first appear. For one thing, you will note that the whole problem is one of emphasis . . and emphasis is a relative thing, a thing that has many meanings and many degrees. Then, too, desire for stress on one approach does not thereby exclude other approaches. It indicates merely a wish that this one be given a prominent place. Emphases are not mutually exclusive. All things c.onsidered, I submit that the interests of most retreatants will best be served 4 In our original article we erred slightly (by 1.8%) on this point. This error was due to faulty grouping. For the present conclusion we should have com-bined groups 2, 4, 6, and 7 of the questionnaire items instead of 2, 4, 5, and 7. See REWEW FOR RELIGIOUS, March, 1956, p. 91. 11 V Review for Religious rences of the majority propet~ly honored by~ari ~ ¯ 'ing the. following characterigtics, negative and ~ ~[0~ry language, sentimental and.exaggerated orator2 ical devices (e.g.,. whispering, unusual exclamations--alas! oh!) are anathema. Earlier.ages may have felt differentlyi but realis-tic, twentieth-century American religious give evidence ot: little patience with the stage-pulpit mixture. We. typically resent any obvious, artificial attempt of a retreat mfister to play upon our emotions. Quite another matter, of course, is the sincerely felt but restrained emotion of a priest'who is deeply penetrated with his message. I do not think that the sisters who exi0ressed them-selves so emphatically against en~otionalism wish a re.treat master ¯ to be stoical. They, after all, are human and so is he. Rather I think they merely wished to exclude an emphasis on the emo-tional approach and any semblance of artificiality. The priest who knows himself to be inclined to manifest his feelings too freely--even s!ncerely experienced t~eelings--will do well to exer-cise a moderat.ing restraint over them.' . 2. While most ~eligious harbor a strong dislike for flowery language, the)) do seem to appreciate a .well-#pok~n sentence, English that is clear, correct, and intelligent. We do not need to labor the point that there is a vast difference between over-done verbiage and a first-class command of language. 3. Absolutely es~entihl in the minds of a vast majority of sisters is a sound intellectual current runiling through medi-tation exposes and conferences. With thi~ pFeference I am in complete agreement. I do not mean to imply, howev.er,' that. meditations and conferences are to be periods .of intense intel-lectual gymnastics. But they should serve as channels for the. conveyance of solid doctrine.on anintellectual level transcending the catechism. In a meditation on the Blessed Trinity, for ex-ample, I can see no reason for refusing to touch upon the intel-le'ctuai generation of the Word and the spiration of the Holy Spirit. These trutl~s, if we work overthem, can be put simply 12 / January, 1958 RETREATS IN RETROSPECT and explained clearly. Coordinated with the divine indwelling they can be°ihvaluable spurs toward sanctity. So, too, can abbre-viated theological analyses 0f the beatific vision, de~otion to. the Sacred Heart, and the mediation of Mary. Repet!tion is .the soul of monotony . . . and s~ is triteness. If a retreat master seldom offers new insights, rarely teaches what has not been heard ten. or twenty times already, ~carcely ever delves more deep!y into God's reve!ation, he is likely to leave little mark on his hearers. ¯ Sisters are people--they like to listen when they learn. 4. The retreat master must at all times keep .his presenta-tion gimple. While he does well to develop some of the finer. points of theology, he must keep his vocabulary lind phraseology tuned to a non-theologi~ally prepared audience. .Profundity of thought and simplicity of presentation can go nicely together. Most sisters are.intellectually capabl'e of understanding theologi- .cal concepts, but nonetheless many of them lack the technical ¯ training needed to grasp these concepts i'f they are ~ffe~ed in fancy terminology. In his outlook on conference-giving to religious; the priest must be careful not to confuse a lack of knowledge with a lack of intelligence. Some sisters may not hav.e too much of the former in matters theol6gical, but most are well equipped with the latter. 5. Attractive~ apt analogies and illustrations are indis: pensable helps, because ~hey suktain interest and pave the way to clear explanation. One i~eed only study the master teacher, Christ, to see how effective a concrete, well-illustrated approach can be. Instead of discoursing abstractedly about a psychology of pride, Jesus hammered home His teaching by talking about places at a banquet table, a boasting Pharisee, and ~a small child. Instead of extolling in the abstract the good-example angle of the religious life, a retreat master can nail down his point by doncretizlng it: "Every time you leave the door of this convent you give. the world a. wordless sermon, a sermon it needs badly, a sermon on the beauty of voluntary .poverty, chastity, and obedience." Or rather than a mere theoretical disquisition on 13 THOMAS DUBAY Review for Religious generosity, why not follow up the theory with a few concrete ideas about being available for extra jobs around the convent: substitution for a sick sister, extra duty in the hospital or class-room, acting as a companion (a happy one). Theory is fine, but apt illustration is even better. 6. It seems to me that an abundant--but not overdone --use of Sacred Scripture sh0ul'd usually find its way into the retreat meditation and confei:ence, The word of God Himself has an efficacy with souls Ufishared 'by the most clever words we humans can concoct. One sister remarked in this connection that "it is only too late that one finds the beauty and worthwhile passages in Holy Scripture. Personally, I have found myself living in close union with God by just one passage studied in the New Testament at meditation or spiritual reading." The retreat master, therefore, in gathering together material for his conferences ought to search the sacred pages (with the help. of a concordance) for apt scriptural support, Well-chosen texts will enlighten the minds and move the wills of his listeners far more effectively than his own words ever will. Theology in Retreats If ever a universal statement is dangerous, it is when discuss-ing the problem of theology in retreats fc~r religious. So varied are the talents, tastes, and training of typical groups of retreatants, that a priest's efforts to trim his treatment of theology to suit the preferences of all are almost predoomed to failure. And yet, while we may not be able to meet the needs of each and" every religious, I think we can tailor our approach to care for the great majority. First of all, I think it is safe to say that very few sisters and brothers have more~than a handshaking acquaintance with theology . . . real theology. I know full well that many have taken ~he mushrooming colleges courses in "theology," whether in their own juniorates or in regularly constituted colleges; but for the most part these are merely college religion courses 14 Janua~'y, 1958 RETREATS IN RETROSPECT labeled theology. In any event, we can agree that few brothers or sisters have taken the theology that priests have taken. The retreat master may not forget, therefore, that in his planning he ought not to assume technical knowledge or training in the .sacred science. Positively,. he sh(~uld assume that there are many theological concepts with which the retreatants are not acquainted ai~d about which they will be delighted to hear. These two facts suggest a pair of norms which may guide masters in their ap-proach to theology. First~ any theological concept that is introduced into con-ference or meditation must be presented simply if it is to reach the majority. This caution can hardly be overemphasized. A technical, highly abstract, sparsely illustrated presentation is so much wasted time . . . and sometimes patience. A' priest who uses unexplained theological or philosophical terms (e.g., hypo-static union, satisfactory value, timorous conscience, formal object, eschatological emphasis) may impress his hearers with the pro-fundity of theology, but he is hardly going to lead them to a greater love of God. Yet (and this is our second norm) this does not mean that retreat masters should not present profound truths. They cer-tainly should. God gave us the whole of His revelation for a purpose: the sanctification of souls. If a priest neglects to teach those truths when they can in some way be grasped, he is neglect-ing a powerful, God-given means diGrm[y aimed at the sanctifi-cation of souls. There is a tremendous difference between presenting the-ology in retreats and presenting theology technically. One sis, ter brought this point out beautifully. She observed that a retreat master: should give sisters exactly the same substantial content as he would give to other priests. He need have no fear that they will not be able to understand and live what he himself understands and lives. He should deliver his message, however, without scholarly verbiage, Latinisms, and all the other trappings which serve to im-press rather than to clarify. Through no fault of their own, sisters 15 Review for Religious do not have the.information to cope with this. It is a great mistake, however--and sad to say. a common one--to confound a sister's lack of technical theological learning with a lack of intelligence. It is the priest's task to make the technical comprehensible to the non-theologian. This of course demands inuch more understanding than does a presentation in the language" of the manuals. Most retreat' masters present a very thin gruel by comparison with what the}, could give if tl~ey had greater respect for the potentialities of the sisters. :&nd there are further reasons for introducing simplified theological concepts into. retreats. To my mind triteness of sub-ject matter (and triteness of expression, ~;oo) is candidate number one fo~ the title of b~te noire among the defects of contemporary preaching. We tend to' repeat meditation subjects and medita-tion ideas so unendingly that often little of enduring value is ldft with the retreatant.'If, on the contrary, we delve into the riches of divine revelation and teach the retreatants some of the many things they do we can hardly fail to Sot~nd theolegy not know about God and His.loveliness, leave a beneficial and lasting mark. retreat offers the further benefit of furnishing solid bases for a fervent spiritual life. It is perfectly true that learning is not .an essential ingredient in the make-up of saintliness; but, all else being equal, it is undeniably a power-ful aid. The reasori for this is nothing more. nor less than the age old scholastic axiom: nothing is willed unless it is first known. If we want our religious to live sensible, solid, and saintly lives, we must do our part by furnishing them with lucid explanations of pertinent sections from "moral, .dogmatic, scriptural, ascetichl, .and mystical theology. To offer less is to shortchange." Fine. I suppose we are agreed that simplified but new theological concepts .have a place in retreats for religious. But how is the .individual retreat master going to know (1) what will be "new" concepts for a particular group of religious and (2) whether his treatment of those concepts can be honored by the adjective simplified? A partial answer to the first problem can be worked out by a close cooperation between the retreat master and the provincial 16 January, 1958 RETREATS IN RETROSPECT superior of the retreatants. The latter could volunteer informa-tion on the background of the sisters with particular emphasis on their previous education and present work. If she can indicate with some precision to what extent the sisters have been in-structed in sacred doctrine, all the better. The retreat master needs help in answering the second question also, but this time it must issue from the retreatants themselves. A teacher can hardly know of himself whether or not his classroom presentation is clear and simple. He must hear from his pupils in some way or other, whether by examina-tion or oral comment. A retreat master hears nothing from the former and little from the latter. If he is brave enough, he might invite written comment. Toward the close of the exercises he could pass out a one-page opinionnaire asking for a frank evaluation of his exposition. If he does this, he should make it perfectly clear that he is not looking for an oblique pat on the back but for a statement of unadorned fact. Private Interview with the Retreat Master We approach now a question on which there is sharp dis-agreement between two large groups of American sisters. That question is whether or not sisters making a retreat should be allowed to approach the retreat master for a discussion of spiritual problems outside of the confessional. You will note that the question is not whether all sisters should see the priest in this capacity, but whether they may see him if they wish. Our survey indicated that a majority of religious women favor the availability of a priva.te confer.ence, although a strong minority look askance at it. The study suggested also that religious communities themselves vary in their official views. Some allow the private interview; others do not. To my mind the opinion favoring the availability of the private conference is the better. But before I set down reasons, a word of caution. No religious should be in any way forced or persuaded to seek a conference. Some sisters find the help 17 THOMAS DUBAY Review for Religious available in the confessional adequate for their needs. Others would be embarrassed and at a loss to explain their problems in. a private interview. We must remember that most sisters, unlike both religious and diocesan seminarians, are not accustomed to speak of their spiritual life with a priest sitting face-to-face be-fore them. Perfect and complete freedom, therefore, should surround this whole matter. Some religious, however, not only desire a private interview, but clearly need one. Any experienced spiritual director knows well enough that there are problems involved in the fervent living of the religious life far too complicated to be solved in the time ordinarily available in the confessional. As one sister put it, "there are some matters one simply can't get straight in the confessional." General conferences do not help here pre-cisely because they are general. We are not trying to form "religious in general" but particular religious, and for that individualized attention is indispensable. Said one sister: "Some-times the conferences would never have cleared up my diffi-culties, but a private conference where I can ask questions did." Aside even from strictly spiritual problems of an ascetical nature, a religious may want to discuss a moral or vocational difficulty. Again, as any director knows, these problems are often such that they cannot be solved by a few paternal (and some-times trite) words in the confessional. They need a full hear-ing followed by mature thought and discussion. Then, too, few sisters during the course of the year enjoy the opportunity of receiving an adequate hearing on their spiritual needs and aspira-tions. Why not give that opportunity to them at retreat time? A denial-of it could have unfortunate consequences. One superior has observed that "if a religious doesn't feel she has that freedom [of a private conference at retreat time], she Will look for other means to solve her problems, or just drop them and give up . " Failures in the religious life are not always due wholly to the unfortunate religious. 18 January, 1958 RETREATS IN RETROSPECT The fact that many sisters do so well in their spiritual" lives without systematic and thorough spiritual direction is hardly an argument against its value. In all likelihood they would advance in God's love even more rapidly if they were given regular direction as the major seminarian, for example, is given it. The objections brought against the private interview do not seem entirely valid. They are, for to the danger of abuse. And among likely (judging from the sisters' opinic community and self-seekir~g on the part on the latter I think we should reser~ religious could be sure that such an at for me to see. Nor is. disloyalty so. Most priests, after all, are sensible en( case of criticism, even bitter criticism, th side of the story. They are not going mentally with the other side unheard. sister's criticism is valid, it is clear that sl Her needs should be cared for. Possible abuse is no argument ag~ Church herself allows (and prescribes great abuse is possible. The same obi are possible also in the confessional, b~ dreamed of discontinuing the sacramen them. She merely surrounds that sacr~ guards as are reasonable and then lear of God. Which may remind us that which abuse may be .present. will. .the most part, reducible ~ossible abuses the most is) are disloyalty to the of the sister. Judgment to God. How fellow ase is present is difficult ormidable an objection. agh to realize that in a .'y are receiving only ond condemn a community But whether or not the may really need advice. .nst a good thing. The many things in which ~ctions mentioned above .t the Church has never of penance because of ment with as many safe- ~s the rest in the hands 3od also allows much in Consider the prosaic fact of free The practical problem of little time anda large number of retreatants is genuine: "I can't see how a retreat master in one private conference could possibly help one--especially when two or three hundred people are making the retreat that usually 19 THOMAS DUBAY Review for Religious lasts five or eight days." Real though the difficulty is, its solution is not impossible. First of all, we must remember that most religious will probably not seek a private interview, at least not in every retreat. Secondly, superiors should exhaust their in-genuity in seeking ways and means of multiplying retreats and consequently reducing the number of participants in each one. Finally, retreat masters should imitate St. Paul in spending them-selves without stint for the benefit of the sisters. They should give generously of their time and l~e as available as possible. On their part local superiors "(in congregations that allow the private conference) should make it as easy as possible for the sisters to obtain direction. While religious discipline may not suffer, red tape ought to be reduced to the barest minimum. And we might observe in conclusion that the religious themselves ought carefully to abstain from making comments of any kind about those who choose to avail themselves of the opportunity to. obtain spiritual direction. Understanding of Retreatants' Needs We have already observed in our survey series that a some-what disturbing number of sisters feel that at times their retreat masters do not understand well enough the spiritual problems of religious women. If we may judge the views of these sisters on the basis of the typical comments they made, we must return the verdict that usually those views are objectively based. Perhaps an instance of what I mean will help. If a priest counsels a community to do something prohibited by its constitutions, the sisters' judgment that their spirit is not understood is objectively founded. It is not a mere subjective persuasion. When a priest does not understand the needs of a particular group of religious, that lack of understanding will usually occur in one or other of the following categories. 1. Failure to grasp the diverse needs of the different re-ligious communities. This particular type of misunderstanding comes in a number of varieties. One sister observes that the 20 January, 1958 RETREATS IN RETROSPECT retreat master does not seem to appreciate the needs of the teach-ing religious. Another remarks that the problems of the nursing sister are for the most part missed. A third objects that the priest does not understand the spirit of her order or that he confuses it with the spirit of some other congregation. This type of misunderstanding is itself readily understand-able. Many retreat masters are not teachers; none are nurses; and none belong to the identical community as that of the re-treatants. It isi therefore, encouraging that the sisters themselves show a sympathetic appreciation of the di~culties lying before the retreat master. Yet for all that, the obstacles can be at least partially removed. If a priest habitually gives retreats to teaching or nursing religious, it seems imperative that he keep abreast of current problems facing the sisters by reading publications in which those problems are discussed. Such would be, for example, the Catholic Educational Review, the Catholid School Journal, Hospital Progress, Review for Religious, Sponsa Regis, and Sister Formation Bulletin. A first-class biology teacher keeps himself au courant on the newest developments in his field. So does the first-class retieat master. An invaluable means of learning about the problems peculiar to sisters in diverse works (and we are thinking also of contem-plation, social service, missi(~ns, and others) is to give the sisters a chance to say something during retreat time. A daily discussion period wi~h the master serves a number of excellent purposes and . this is one of them. A discussion period can easily replace or be integrated with the daily conference (as distinguished" from the meditations). 'Misunderstandings bearing on the community's works and spirit can be eliminated to a large extent by a careful reading of sisters' constitutions together with exchanges with their su-periors. We have discussed both of these matters in the early part of this present article. 2. Lack of understanding of the psychology of women and of the religious life as lived by women. On this point I would 21 THOMAS DUBAY Review for Religfous almost prefer to say nothing at all, for there is little that I can offer with certainty. Of this, however, we can be sure: we do have a prob.lem here that is worth noticing. In our survey the sisters mentioned it more than once and that in diverse con-nections. Now, of course, men and women are not so psychologically different that the one group can never hope to know very much about the other. Yet there does seem to be a chasm in mutual understanding wide enough to create difficulty in obtaining optimum retreat results. This difficulty is sharp-ened when we reflect on the patent fact that retreats for religious women given by religious men are here for keeps. We want, therefore, to make them as successful as possible. What can be done to further a more complege understanding? Experience, obviously, will help any priest. And so will his study of feminine psychology (if he can find something reliable on the subject). But I think that the real solution, if there is one, lies with the sisters themselves. To a consid-erable extent the heart of a nun is unknown terrain. Her confessor surely has some access to it, but a decidedly incom-plete access. The depths of her heart, its love, its aspirations and yearnings, its happiness and its pain are for the most part a closed book. How precisely she views the trials and joys of her-consecrated life are her secret hardly to be shared fully by another. Her entire reactions to her friends and i~amily and sister religious and superiors are unknown quantities. In all this, of course, she is no different from the rest of us. The difference lies in the fact that a priest can more easily understand all these things as they occur in laymen and in priests because he has been both. And many priests engaged in seminary work have spent long hours in the spiritual direc-tion of seminarians. They know the masculine mind in its religious implications because they have experienced it both in themselves and in others. 22 January, 1958 RETREAT~ IN RETROSPEC~ ' Now if there is such a thing as a psychology of religious women--and many sisters insist there is--it is the religious women themselves who must give an account of it. Perhaps our sisters have been too reluctant to explore this particular aspect of their vocation or too taciturn about making known what they have found. In any event the initiative must stem from them. 3. Lack of understanding of the real problems in the religious, life of sisters. This problem, where it actually does occur, is probably connected with the preceding. In our opinionnaire an item on community ~ problems was included and to it many interesting answers were given. I have not as yet written up this particular question, but hope to do so in the reasonably near future. It may cast some light on this third source of misunderstanding. 4. Failure to realize th~it most sisters are not interested in mere mediocre holiness. While this particular type of mis-understanding is by no means universal, mention of it did occur frequently enough to warrant more than a passing notice. Since, however, it shall come up for consideration in our next section, we will pass it by for'the present. 5. Lack of patience with sisters' poblems. To run out of patience is like running out of gas. Neither necessarily sug-gests a lack of understanding of people or of gas tanks. Either may bespeak nothing more striking than some deficiency or other in human nature. But on the other hand, misunder-standing may be the culprit. And this takes us back to our psycholog)~ of the sexes. It is easy to visualize a priest brush-ing off a sister's problems as petty and of no consequence. He may be right (and he may not), but in either case charity indicates that he give her a kind hearing and a patient-answer. Attitudes Toward Sanctity In proposing to analyze so intricate and delicate a question as the present one, we are perhaps treading where angels fear; 23 THOMAS DUBAY Review fo~" Religious but the very moment of the matter beckons at least a try. If it is true, as the Salmanticences say it is, that to raise a good person to saintliness is a greater work than to convert a sinner to grace, the efforts of retreat masters to lead religious to the heights of holiness loom up as of no little account. There are two elements involved in the retreat master's approach to sanctity for his auditors. On the one hand there is the question as to whether he urges them sufficiently to the heights, and on the other whether he explains adequately just how those heights are to be scaled. The survey indicated that a majority of sisters (63.1%) felt that retreat masters usually do urge them sufficiently to supreme sanctity, while a notable minority (36.9%) were of a negative opinion. Regarding the second element the breakdown was closer: 53:8% thought that retreat masters usually explain adequately how complete holiness is to be achieved and "46.2% embraced an opposite view. These contradictory opinions on both questions are easily understood. They are probably due to three factors: (a) the sisters polled have differing standards as to what the heights of holiness really are; (b) they also differ in their judg-ments as to what a retreat master ought to say about complete sanctity in a heterogeneous group of religious; and (c) they are speaking of different retreat masters. Understandable though these differences of opinion are, they are nonetheless represented by percentages large enough to indicate that a considerable number of retreat masters are not satisfying a considerable number of religious in their ap-proach to the question of sanctity. If this conclusion be correct, we might dwell with profit on possible means of improving inadequacies where they do occur. 1. The confessional is a situation tailor-made for the pru-dent direction of a soul to holiness. A confessor can often spot the fully generous so.ul, the soul that is ripe for a greater love of God. The penitent's confession itself both in its content 24 Janua~'y, 1958 RETREATS IN RETROSPECT and in its mode will often suggest the, practical means to be used at each pa_rticular stage in the spiritual life. 2. In his conferences and meditations the master should present saintliness itself as the goal of the religious life. He ought not to suggest by word or attitude that some sort of mediocre goodness is sufficient, but rather that the very end of the state of perfection is perfection, a thorough doing. The word itself, perfection, indicates a completeness, an entireness that can be predicated of nothing less than the sanctity of the saints. And yet while he presents holiness in all its totality, the retreat master will be careful not to discourage the weak. Some religious do not feel that they are ready to scale the heights and that they must first get themselves established at the moun-tain's base. The priest will, therefore, counsel patience and p~udence in adapting means to an individual spiritual condition and state in life. While pointing out the sublime goal, he makes it clear that we do not reach it in a month or a year, but that with the cooperation of our unstinting generosity God brings us to it in His own good time. .Presented in this way the doctrine of saintliness for the religious fits the needs of all and hurts none. 3. The retreat master should next show that the heights of holiness are possible of achievement. One sister'ha~ ob-served that the manner of reaching sanctity "is often presented as being very difficult rather than as something to be. faced with joy and confidence." Working for real holiness is difficult-- there can be no doubt about that. But it is not a sombre and forbidding difficulty and certainly not an insuperable one. Christ could not have commanded the impossible, and yet He made it crystal clear on at least two occasions that all men are to strive for perfect sanctity. "You therefore are to be perfect, even as your heavenly Father is perfect" (Matt. 5:48). "Thou shall love the Lord thy God with thy whole heart, and with thy whole soul, and with thy Whole mind" (Matt. 22:37). The 25 THOMAS DUBAY Review ]or Religious comment of Pius XI on the first of these texts was emphatic: "Let no one think that these words apply only to a very few select souls and that all the others are permitted to remain in some inferior degree of virtue. It is evident that absolutely everybody without exception is bound by this law" (third cen-tenary of St. Francis de Sales). If saintliness is possible for all men, it is doubly possible for the religious who has chosen the most effective means to attain it, the state of perfection. 4. A step further. Saintliness for religious should b~ presented as eminently desirable, a thing at once splendid, satisfying, and sublime. There is nothing in the world so utterly charming as a saintly soul--and also nothing so pleasing to God. The beauty of a consecrated life lived to the hilt should be like a golden thread that the priest weaves through-out the retreat by his attitudes, words, and actions. 5. A practical explanation of the means to achieve sanctity is indispensable. We have already noted that a con-siderably greater number of the sisters participating in our study found fault with retreat masters on this score than on the score of theory. Such is not surprising for we humans naturally tend in our teaching to stress the general and avoid the specific. And in our spiritual conferences we tend to generalize all the more because we are subconsciously afraid that we will step on somebody's toes if we get too specific about what we mean. Yet if a retreat master is going to be clear he has got to be specific. Else he is likely doing' nothing but preaching pious platitudes: I suppose I might right now practice what I am' preaching and be specific. Instead of resting content with a glowing but merely general eulogy of detachment from created things, the retreat master ought to get down to brass tacks and spell out what this thing is really all about. He might tell his audience clearly what an attachment is: the clinging of the will to a created thing for its own sake; the loving of a creature for its own sake and not for the sake of God. Then January, 1958 RETREATS IN RETROSPECT he could specify as does St: John of the Cross what some of these creatures might be: a book, a piece of clothing, news and rumors, a love of ta/king. (See Ascent of Mount Carmel, Book I, Chapter 11.) He might be even more specific and explain the psychology of attachment and then use some of these examples to illustrate his point. When a speaker has spent twenty or thirty minutes in this fashion, he has said something . something that ~vi[l move to action because it is clear, practical, down to earth. 6. In our efforts to move souls to seek saintliness itself as their goal we might well draw more freely from the lives of the saints as a source t:or apt illustrations. If in a lecture on biology you want to explain the nature of plants, you draw your illustrations from plants. Why not the same in explain-ing saintliness? The unqualified idea that saints are to be admired but not imitated is, of course, the merest nonsense. Any good theology manual p.oints out that an essential reason for the pope's infallibility in a decree of canonization is pre-cisely that he is presenting to the faithful an example to be imitated and that, consequently, he cannot lead them astray. The retreat master, to be sure, ought not to dwell on the unusual doings of the saints for the twofold reason that these unusual activities are both comparatively rare and also not the chief basis for the saints' canonization. If the Church intends us to present the saints to the simple faithful as concretizations of perfect sanctity, all the more ought they to be presented to priests, brothers, and sisters both in retreat and out of it. 7. In order to further the work of all-outness in matters spiritual, the master could suggest to the retreatant community choice books eminently suited to the purpose. Our contem-porary spiritual reading market is not totally void of second-rate works, wo~'ks that sometimes clip the corners off perfection as it has been explained by the saints. If you wonder, perhaps, at exactly what I mean, I would suggest that you read side by side 27 THOMAS DUBA¥ Review ]or Religious St. Frzn¢is de Sales, St. John of the Cross, and St. Teresa of Avila on the one hand and some of our less noteworthy moderns on the other. 8. Our final suggestion: a self-analysis on the part of each retreat master. Some priests are undoubtedly doing a superb job in this whole matter; others seemingly are not. A self-examination may help to indicate who is where. I think that some such examination would be based on three funda-mental questions: (a) do I really~know the doctrine of the saints; (b) am I prudent in applying it; (c) am I practical in explaining it? Other questions would be mere derivatives of these three. Characteristics of the Retreat Master We will preface our comments on the traits of retreat mas-ters by refreshing our collective mind on the preferences and dislikes of the ret~eatants. It is the mark made on them, after all, that determines the success or failure of the retreat. As regards positive qualities our survey indicated that sis-ters, at least, overwhelmingly nominate genuine sanctity as thi~ trait most desirable in a retreat master. Practicality, a distant second-placer, was followed by experience, theological learning, kindness, and a sense of humor in that order. On the negative side the number of different defects noted by the sisters was decidedly large. Among the most frequently mentioned wero reading of meditations, lack of interest, conceit, verbosity, sar-casm, joking manner, impracticality, severity, harshness and speed in the confessional, bad delivery, superficiality, dramatic manner, lack of preparation, excessive intellectuality, critical spirit (and especially toward sisters), worldliness, condescension toward sisters, negative approach, scandalous stories, crude lan-guage, idiosyncrasies, and insincerity.~ For a complete treatment of these and other qualities and defects, see REY'IEW RELIGIOUS, September, 1956, pp. 253-62. 28 Janua~'y, 1958 RETREATS IN RETROSPECT Perhaps the brightest and most encouraging element in this whole matter is that every quality above mentioned, with the possible exception of a sense of humor (which came last in importance), can be acquired by a serious priest, while almost every defect can with due attention be eradicated. Any priest can, if he really wants to, set out after genuine sanctity; he can acquire practicality, experience, a competent knowledge of theology; and he can be kind merely by making up his mind to it. On the other hand he can tone down a clamorous delivery or clarify a muttering one; he can eradicate harshness, conceit, verbosity, and sarcasm; he can prepare his retreat well and refrain from reading conferences and meditations; it is within his power to avoid disinterestedness, criticism, condescension, and worldliness. Most priests (who, after all, have had enough talent to receive ordination) can with hard work develop them-selves into acceptable retreat masters. But--and this is a worthwhile but--we do not always know our defects and, for that- matter, sometimes our strong points. I would not be entirely unwilling to support the thesis that most of the failings we have noted are unrealized by the retreat masters possessing them . unrealized at least as defects. A man can easily be unaware that his manner is conceited, his delivery raucous, and his matter superficial. He may sincerely think that his emotionalism is desirable, his severity needed, or his critical spirit justified. He may not know that his read meditations grate on the nerves of many or that his manner in the confessional is at all hasty or severe. All of which suggests the need for a large package of charity in the mental and verbalized judgments of retreatants, but it also suggests that perhaps the priests among us ought not to take too much for granted. We may not be so free of deficiencies as we might imagine. How to find out? One way is honest self-examination. Some defects so stand out that they can be seen with half an eye. Sarcasm, 29 THOMAS DUBAY Review /or Religious insincerity, criticism of sisters, and lack of interest seem to fall into this class of obvious deficiencies, obvious at least on a mo-ment's reflection. I think that sisters' retreats would in many instances be greatly improved if each retreat-giving priest would examine himself periodically on the list of qualities and defects the sisters furnished us in the above referred.to study. Knowing a deficiency is half the battle; the other half is won by good will and God's grace. But there are other defects that even a serious examination will not reveal. To know these we must be told by another. Is it beyond the realm of feasibility to suggest that the retreat master distribute once or twice in his career a simple question-naire to the retreatants in order to obtain a frank expression of opinion? There is the danger, of course, that he may appear to be seeking a naive pat on the back; but that danger can be annihilated by a few sincere, well-chosen words. Most retreat-ants would be frank, and their comments couid prove invaluable for the future improvement of that priest's retreat work. Despite his best and most sincere efforts, however, it may happen, that a priest is just not fitted by nature to do retreat work. Well and good. He may be a fine man and capable of doing outstandingly well in some other field. And it would seem wise for his superiors to assign him to another field. But at minimum we submit as imperative that superiors send into retreat work only those priests who are interested in it and generously willing to do it. The sisters' complaints dealing with lack of interest on the part of retreat masters are, as we ha.ve noted, heavy. And in all probability it is often the root cause of other defects. Experience in the classroom indicates clearly that the best teacher is the enthusiastic, interested teacher. The very same may be said of retreat master~ for they too are teachers. It would be generally agreed, I believe, that the work of giving retreats to religious is highly specialized and quite unlike 30 Janua~'y, 1958 RETREATS IN RETROSFECT the Usual activities of most priests. Neither the ordinary course of seminary theology nor the typical Sunday sermon approach is equal to the sublime task of forming consecrated souls to a configuration with Christ. Ideally, therefore, men who do re-treat work should have specialized preparation for it. We prepare men and women for other les~ important specialized jobs. Why not for that of retreat master? .We need not necessarily think here of formal and especially tailored courses; they may be feasible--I do not know. But as a minimumwe must think of a private, orderly study on the part of priests who give retreats, a study bearing on ascetical and mystical theology, the New Testament, and the lives of the saints. The nature of the work demands, of course, that th~ retreat master be competent in dogmatic and moral theology--else his ascetical and mystical theology may be in a tottering condition. Real competence and facility in these fields take time. Years. A man cannot have a real grasp on ascetical and mystical theology by reading two or three books, no matter how good they be. Nor can he know the mind of the saints by reading two or three lives, even the best of them. An ideal retreat master can be that man only who is wholeheartedly interested in the glorious work of raising chosen souls to a lofty degree of holiness and who is willing to submit to the rigors involved in acquiring and maintaining a fitness for it. A final note for the retreatants themselves . . . and that note is one Word: forebearance. Despite the very best and sincerest efforts of all concerned with retreats, masters are not going to be perfect. Our first and last perfect retrea~ will be conducted in heaven. In the meantime we must be patient and do the best we can with what we have. Meditation Subjects I do not think there is need here to 'ana1~ze the question of subject matter for retreat meditations, since the major impli-cations of our retreat study on this point have already been 31 THOMAS DUBAY Review fo~" Religious discussed.° One observation only seems worthy of mention, and that is the avoidance of triteness. It is neither psycho-logically nor pedagogically wise to insist on the same set of meditation subjects year after yea~. Topic repetition is psy-chologically unwise because attention is blunted by sameness and impressions fade: assueta vi/e~cunt. Subject reiteration is pedagogically unwise for the obvious reason that you. are not teaching very much, if anything at all. By hitting the same truths in the same way, few new insights are given and, conse-quently, few new motives for action. If, on the contrary, the same subjects are tackled from .new points of view and if they furnish new insights, all our objections fall to the ground. In a true sense, you really have new subject~. You are no longer trite. Rest Before Retreat A noteworthynumber of sisters mentioned in our opinion-naire that plain weariness hindered them from getting full spiritual benefits from their retreats. And one need not tax his imagination to believe them. Ushered by ol~edience directly from the hospital floor or the classroom into conference hall and chapel, these religious simply do not have the energy to give themselves completely to the searching work of a vigorous self-renewal. But we must remember at the same time that scarcity of personnel may prevent a provincial superior from doing a whole lot about the situation. Yet when it is possible, a full day's rest would seem in order for all sisters about to go on retreat. Even bettek would be a week or two of vacation, a vacation during which only spiritual exercises and trifling daily duties are mandatory. Religious (as we well know but some-times tend to forget) do not acquire nerves of copper merely by donning a habit. Daily Retreat Schedule Closely linked to the immediately preceding problem is the tightly packed retreat horarium. A daily schedule that is closely °See gEvIsw FOg gELm~OUS, November, 1956, pp. 301-5. 32 January, 1958 RETREATS IN RETROSPECT crowded with a multitude of spiritual exercises is psychologically and spiritually unsound. It does not take cognizance of the fact that God works best in peace and quiet, that the sisters need serenity of mind and heart if they are going to love Him tremendously. It would seem wise, therefore, to reduce the number of exercises in a squeezed-together horarium, to sched-ule vocal prayers in moderation, and to allow an adequate amount of free time. Most sisters are in dead earnest about the business of sanctity; and it should be assumed, until the contrary is proved, that they will use free time to their greatest advantage. Physical Accommodations During the Retreat One of the sisters good-naturedly referred to the problem of spacial overcrowding during retreat time as "one of those August mob scenes." We may easily sympathize with her viewpoint and yet at the same time grant that the problems of the assigning superior are knotty. Especially in large communi-ties this latter has often to provide the benefits of an annual retreat to hundreds of religious and that within the narrow confines of a few weeks and drastically limited facilities. For some communities, perhaps, the "mob scenes" cannot be avoided, at least in the near future. For others, however, careful plan-ning and personnel adjustment together with fresh thinking could conceivably issue in an amelioration of the situation. The solution in most cases would probably be a greater number of distinct retreats, however they can be provided. Possibly the week after Christmas would for some communities lend itself to an additional retreat time; for others the Easter vacation might be used for the same purpose. In still other cases the solution might lie in a greater dispersion of retreat locations. Rather than have all retreats in a motherhouse or community college, smaller houses might with some adjustment be adaptgd to serve as supplementary retreat centers. Aside from the greater ad-vantage of more physical space, such dispers)on would enable the sisters to seek and receive more individualized attention from 33 ¯ FOR YOUR INFORMATION Review for Religioz~s the master whether in the confessional or in the private conference. Conclusion Before capping this disquisition with its amen, I would like to reject in anticipation a possible illusion, for if. it came to be, it would probably be my fault. That illusion is that this study contains the answers to almost all retreat prol~lems. The truth is, of course, that it may contain some answers to some problems. The truth is also that we need a lot more thinking, fresh think-ing, about these questions. Investigation, too. It seems to me that we ought to learn from our secular friends how to use the tools of research to further love for God. We ought to study ourselves and our doings more objectively--scientifically, if you want to call it that. In all likelihood both we and our doings would be much more effective. For Your Informal:ion In Future Numbers NOT INFREQUENTLY we receive articles that have to be returned because the subjects are treated in articles that we have already accepted, but not yet published. It has occurred to us that this problem might be avoided if we publish a list of articles that will appear in subsequent numbers of the REVIEW, with a brief indication of the content of each article. Besides being helpful to prospective contributors, this list should be of interest to all readers. We give here a list only of articles that have been accepted at the time we are preparing this material for the printer. That means, roughly speaking, articles accepted before November 1, 1957. 34 January, 1958 FOR YOUR INFORMATION "The Holy See and Teaching Brothers." Under date of March 31, 1954, Pope Pius XII addressed-to Cardinal Valeri a letter on the special vocation and apostolate of religious institutes of teaching brothers. ,Several magazines have published English translations of this letter. The Commentarium pro religiosis published not o~nly the original Latin text of the Pope's letter, but also some background material and a commentary on the papal letter by Father A. Guti~rrez, C.M.F. We intend to pub-lish an English version of the papal letter, together with the background material and some o~ the more important observa-tions made by Father Guti~rrez. -"The Gifts of the Holy Spirit." This article gives a clear, simple, and attractive explanation of the more common theolo-gical teaching on the gifts and on their function in the ascetical life. "Religious and Psychotherapy." What are psychiatric treat-ments? What is their purpose? Should religious who suffer from a mental illness go to a pxsychiatrist and cooperate in psy-chotherapy? The article answers questions such as these. "A Sense of Balance." This is a study in contrasts: opti-mism and pessimism; with insistence that the true Christian view of life is an optimistic view that sees God as love, man as re-deemed, other creatures as means of sanctification, and the com-mandments as laws of love and life. "Saint Th~rhse of the H61y Face." The Little Flower's full name in religion is Sister Th~r~se of the Child Jesus and of the Holy Face. This article brings out, by means of numerous quo-tations, how profound was her devotion to the Holy Face. "To extend the Reign of Jesus Christ." This is an account of the founding of the first non-cloistered institute of teaching sisters. "Unceasing Prayer." We all wonder at times how we can fulfill the words of St. Paul, "Pray without ceasing." One ex-planation, called virtual prayer, has been recommended by cer- 35 FOR YOUR INFORMATION tain prominent French Jesuit writers. Their explanation is presented briefly in this article. "Proficients Who Do Not Progress.'? One division of the stages of spiritual progress is: beginner, proficient, and perfect. This article pays particular attention to the difficulties of the second stage and to the ways of surmounting these difficulties. "Preliminary to Adaptation." The theme of the article is that, in order properly to carry out the recommendations of the Church concerning adaptation and renovation, there must be a careful study of the spirit of the institute. "Countering Serious Sin." Religious are not immune from the possibility of committing mortal sin, and they need to take precautions. Such precautions are outlined in this article, which, in the author's words, is "a blueprint . . . for constructing (or re-constructing) an interior citadel against the lethal foe, serious sin." "Keeping the Rules." In religious institutes there are two kinds of rules: disciplinary regulations that mainly concern exter-nal observance and community order, and spiritual directives that pertain to the interior spirit and the apostolate. The article shows that fidelity to the rules means one thing as regards the first kind of rules, and another as regards the second kind. "The Neurotic Religious." This is a sequel to the article on religious and psychotherapy. Most religious who might need and profit by psychotherapy suffer from an emotional illness known as neurosis. This article is an attempt to paint a verbal picture of the neurotic religious and his problems. Non-Jesuit Contributors We are often asked (apparently by those who have not been regular readers of the RE'Ci, EW) whether we accept articles by non-Jesuits. One answer to this question might be a simple reference to the articles published during the last three years, (continued on page 41) 36 Spiri!:ual Cancer I:r~ncis J. M~cEnt:ee, S.J. wE ARE HEARING a great deal these days about cancer. Millions of dollars are set aside every year to study it, to learn everj~thing possible about this mysterious killer. People are made constantly conscious of it because they see and hear about it on all sideg: campaigns for research funds and hospitalization; drives against this and that as possible causes; salves and various ray-treatments as possible cures. The obituary page in every newspaper is also a persistent reminder of its omni-presence. Yet, even though cancer is prominent in the public eye, the very mention of it still strikes terror into those confronted with it. Any unexpected need for hospital care or sudden surgery generally wrings the same agonized question from the anguished patient: "It. isn't cancer, is it, doctor?" as if anything else would be almost welcome as an alternative. There is good reason for this terror, because the most terrifying thing about cancer is its insidiousness. Cancer is really an abuse. It might even be called too much of a good thing. Many people have a vague notion that.cancer is something like leprosy in that it is a disease that eats away until the poor victim just distintegrates. Actually it is just the opposite. Cancer is a lively exuberant~ growth of body cells, which in itself is a good thing because it is the normal function of body cells to increase and grow. Only in this case the growth gets out of hand and keeps right on growing long after it should have stopped. The cells continue to divide madly without any apparent cause or method of being stopped. That is why cancer is an abuse; why it is too much of a good thing; why it is insidious, for it starts with something that is normal and natural and perverts it. Finally, since these wildly pro-lifer~ ting cells are living things, they must be nourished; con-sequently, they spread out like the crab from which the disease takes its name and pirate their nourishment from the surrounding 37 FP~-NCIS J. MAcENTEE Review for Religious healthy tissue which in time, as is quite obvious, will be starved dead by the greedy voracious intruders. I am sure the .medical profession would find much to criticize in this over-simplification of one of the most serious and complicated diseases of our time, but my purpose is a medical one only to the limited extent of setting up a parallel with what might be called spiritual cancer. Our growth in the spiritual life is measured by our close union with Christ, an ever-deepening awareness of His presence and a constant striving to have an unalloyed intention in all our endeavors in His service. One good sign of a sound spiritual growth is the balance and harmony with which it proceeds. Our performance of the many activities which make up our dedicated lives mirrors, to some degree, the progress of our spiritual growth. We of course realize that all our duties and obligations, even those which may seem to be of lesser moment, or even (to our practical minds) somewhat impractical, are nonetheless very important from God's viewpoint. Therefore we must be on the alert that we don't allow our more favored activities, like those that bring more immediate and concrete results, to divert the activity that should be going into all our activities. For any such activity in our lives which starts to grow out of all due proportion, siphoning off time and energy from some other duty, is an abuse; it is too much of a good thing; it is a spiritual cancer. We must bd constantly on our guard against the manifesta-tions of this disease because, like its physical counterpart, it will have begun long before we become aware of it. The insidious-ness here lies in the fact that we have within ourselves the germs of the disease because, for most of us, activity of some sort is our way of life, our prime means of doing .God's will. And it is so easy for one phase or other of this activity to get out of hand, to start growing out of all due proportion, thriving perhaps, but only to the detriment of our whole spiritual or- 38 Janua~'y, 1958 SPIRITUAL CAN(~ER ganism. Since activity, then, is the way by which we serve God, it is so easy ~or us to play the doctor in our own case and give a false diagnosis to our symptoms, admitting perhaps the begin-nings of an excited growth but misinterpreting the symptoms as a case of increased fervor in doing God's work. If God is pleased with this much activity, we say, then He will be twice as pleased with twice as much. Like the man who reads the prescription on the medicine bottle then doubles it, convinced that he will get well twice as fast. Such a dangerous spiritual bedside manner in dealing with our own ailments can lead to only one conclusion: an ever-spreading cancer which will soon sap our entire spiritual nourishment leaving us spiritually ema-ciated and all under the guise of giving God a service which He most assuredly does not want. The activities in our dedicated lives by which we serve God are numberless. As long as their growth is normal and in har-mony with the growth of our whole spiritual structure, our spiritual li~e will be sound and healthy. But let's look at a ~ew pertinent instances of activities that could, if we are not watchful, begin to grow malignantly. For those o~ us who teach school on any level whatsoever, there is little question of what to do with our superfluous time since that precious commodity is practically non-existent in-this glorious activity. But because there is no proportion at all be-tween the time spent in preparation for and actually spent in the classroom and the time formally spent in meditation, examen, and spiritual reading, we might come to the sad conclusion that the one which takes the more time is the more important. If that becomes the case, then it won't be long before there is a big-business merger and even the little time which was once spent in spiritual duties will be absorbed by the larger enterprise. Prognosis? Incipient malignant cancer. However, we might justify this course oi: action by saying that we have thereby be-come a better teacher. After all, we argue, if it's God's will that I teach others that I may bring more and more souls to 39 FRANCIS J. MACENTEE Review for Religious love Him an°d to save their souls, then anything I can do to make myself a better instrument will be furthering God's glory. The fallacy there is that we are judging only by externals. We forget that God can raise up. better instruments from the stones in the street. What if the time plundered from spiritual activi-ties did give us the appearance of a better teacher, how would we then differ from the good lay teacher on our faculty? Another phase of teaching that might blight this great activity with an unhealthy growth is the element of competition involved. We want our classes to do well, for their own sakes, of course, but also to some extent for our sakes too. For if they don't do as well as other similar classes, the reflection will be on us; and we will be in a bad light not only in the eyes of our fellow teachers but perhaps also in the eyes of superiors. Therefore, we start giving undue time to class preparation and class work in general in order to fill up what we label a defilzit; but in the process we lay the groundwork for a deficiency of a much higher magnitude. We are deluded into thinking that success depends entirely on ourselves so that, if we're not an apparent success, there is a fault involved and the fault c.'-n be only our own. We ignore the palpable fact that God can make greater use of the not-so-successful teacher who depends totally on Him than on the obviously successful one who is just as obviously self-pleased with the whole thing. When we begin to realize that God doesn't look solely at results (which unfortun-ately are almost our sole criterion of judgment), that He looks first at the motive and effort involved, then we will see that our opinion about any teacher or anything else, for that matter, might be quite different from God's. The same thing would apply to the student. When the nourishment for our spiritual life begins to feed the abnormal appetite which studying can easily become, then it is high time for a spiritual check-up to see that the instrument which is being honed for Christ's service does not slice us too thin. Studying 4O Janua~'y, 1958 SPIRITUAL CANCER is just another activity which we undertake for Christ's greater glory. Success is welcome, but it is certainly not the be-all and end-all of the undertaking. God demands first our pure inten-tion, great effort, and continual complete dedication. From there on in, it's His affair. If He wants others to reap the academic fruits, what is that to us? Again, the fallacy of judging success only by the results produced. Despite all "the changes in our way of life, despite loud mass production and speedy efficiency, growth in the spiritual~ life is a delicate thing that needs a sustained climate of quiet, inward ¯ peace, and recollection. Nervous effusions to exterior things and a one-sided dedication to activity which results in making ar~ end. out of what should be only a means are so many strangling weeds that make spiritual growth impossible. The only growth they foster is an abnormal one, a growth that drains off spiritual vitality, a growth that is cancerous. For Your In[ormal~ion (continued from page 36) 1955-1957. During these years we published 67 articles. This does not include translations of papal addresses, compilations of papal statements, and the surveys of Roman documents made by Father Smith. Of these 67 articles, 35 were by Jesuits, 32 by non-Jesuits. We might add that anyone who contributes an article should confer our "Notes for Contributors," which were published in the REVIEW, March, 1955, pp. 104-112, and July, 1955, pp. 194-196. 41 Survey oJ: Roman Document:s R. F. Smil:h, S.J. IN THE PRESENT survey there will be given a summary, of the documents which appeared in Acta Apostolicae Sedis (AAS) from August 24, 1957, to September 25, 1957, in-clusive. Page references throughout the article will be to the 1957 AAS (v. 49). Our Lady On July 2, 1957 (AAS, pp. 605-19), the Holy Father published a new encyclical, Le P~lerinage de Lourdes (The Pilgrima~/e o/ Lourdes). The document was directly ad-dressed to the Church in France on the occasion of the coming centenary of our Lady's appearances at Lourdes, but granted the international extent of devotion to our Lady of Lourdes the encyclical is of great interest to the entire Church. The en-cyclical is divided into two parts, the first of which begins by sketching what may be termed the Marian history of France. So notable has been France's devotion to our Lady, remarks. the Pontiff, that today the entire country lies under the protec-tive shadows of Marian sanctuaries--humble chapels or splendid basilicas as the case may be. There is good reason to say that this Marian history of France culminated in the nineteenth cen-tury. It was then, for instance, that our Lady gave the miracu-lous medal to a humble daughter of St. Vincent de Paul; and a few years later in 1858 she appeared to St. Bernadette at Lourdes which from then on became a pilgrimage center for the sick, the afflicted, and the truth-seekers of the entire world. The Pope then notes that the hundred years that have passed since Our Lady's appearances at Lourdes have seen an ever stronger relationship between the See of Peter and the grotto of the appearances. Indeed, the relationship was present 42 ROMAN DOCUMENTS from the beginning, for it would seem that what the Holy Father had infallibly defined a few years previously the Blessed Virgin wished to confirm by her own words, since she appeared to Bernadette with the message: "I am the Immaculate Conception." Since then each of the Romari Pontiffs has eagerly shown his favor toward the sanctuary of Lourdes. Pius IX showered bene-fits on the shrine erected there and ordered the coronation of its statue of our Lady; Leo XIII granted a proper office and Mass for the feast 6f the Appearance of Our Lady Immaculate. St. Plus X introduced the cause of Bernadette; and above all the sainted Pontiff emphasized the remarkable manner in which Marian piety at Lourdes led to an equally remarkable worship of Christ in the Blessed Sacrament. Benedict XV permitted the bishop of Tarbes and Lourdes to wear the pallium at the place of the appearances, while Pius XI beatified Bernadette and chose to close the jubilee year of the Redemption at the shrine of Lourdes. Plus XII then concludes this first part of the encyclical by recalling his own endeavor to continue the relationship between the Roman See and Lourdes, an endeavor which was manifested most recently by the closing at Lourdes of the centenary year of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception. The second part of the encyclical is devoted to a considera-tion of the spiritual lessons of Lourdes; these lessons, notes the Vicar o~Christ, are but echoes of the gospel message, for, like John theB, aptist and like Christ .Himself at the beginning of His public life, our Lady called at Lourdes for l~enance and con-version. At the same time she brought a message of pardon and hope for those who do repent; indeed just as the miraculous cures of Christ were but signs of the power and readiness of Christ to forgive sins, so also the physical cures at Lourdes are invitations to hope for pardon. The centenary jubilee at Lourdes, continues the Holy Father, will possess grandeur only in so far as men respond to these messages of our Lady. Each pilgrim to Lourdes and each Catholic throughout the world who is united in spirit to the 43 Review for Religious centenary celebrations at the shrine should realize in himself a true spiritual conversion. The conversion of the individual, however, is not enough; rather the faithful must be aroused to a collective effort directed towards the Christian re;aewal of society. This will be shown by a reaction to that materialism which manifests itself not only in the philosophy that presides over the political and economic affairs of a large segment of humanity but also externalizes itself in a greed for money, a cult of the body, a flight from all austerity, and an unrestrained pursuit of pleasure. The Holy Father then urges priests to preach to their people the narrow path that leads to life, reminding them that they, like Mary, must live only to give Christ to the world. So too religious must seek the same end by their weapons of prayer, penance, and charity. Families, too, should do their part by considering the irreplaceable mission they have in society; they should consecrate themselves to the Immaculate Heart of Mary, asking her to remove from their lives all false judgments and egoistic actions. In a moving conclusion to the encyclical the Holy Father addresses the poor and those in bodily or spiritual afflic.tion, urging them to journey to Lourdes where they.will be received with special predilection by our Lady who knows the value of their sufferings when these are united with those of Christ. There can be no doubt, declares the Pope, that the prayers and sufferings of such will play a great part in the Christian renewal of the human race. As his final message the Holy Father makes his own the words of St. Bernard: "In.dangers, in diffichlties, in doubts, think of Mary, call on Mary." Social Matters On June 7, 1957 (AAS, pp. 621-29), the Holy Father addressed a group of Italian workers on the problems attendant on automation. While, as the Pontiff points out, the existence of automation should arouse in the Christian a grateful admira- 44 Janua~'y, 1958 ROMAN DOCUMENTS tion for the Creator and His works, still one should not think that automation of and by itself can radically change the life of man and society--such an admission belongs to Marxism with its false emphasis on the technical side of human life. For social reality and its stable ordering cannot be based only on statistics and mathematics; social life demands besides and prin-cipally other knowledges: theology, philosophy, and the sciences of the spiritual life of man and of his history. Moreover, the Vicar of Christ continues, it should be re-membered that automation, even when considered merely as a new method of production, will give rise to delicate problems. The first is that technical productivity may be confused with economic productivity. Automation offers a continuous, unin-terrupted process of production and hence a fantastic increase of productive capacity. But this does not necessarily constitute a true increase in the productivity of the national economy. This is why even the European countries who possess the best eco-nomic qualifications for automation approach automation with caution and content themselves with only a partial form of it. In any case a country that is not rich and is faced with urgent problems of communication systems, of land reforms, and of adequate housing must not live above its conditions--as it would if it were dominated solely by the fascination of technical progress. Moreover, adds the Pope, the introduction of automation may cause serious unemployment. Even if this problem can eventually be o,~ercome, it still must be remembered that even a temporary increase of unemployment can be a serious matter for certain countries. Added to this is the consideration that under automation the entire question of salaries wiil have to be com-pletely reconsidered. Prior to automation human labor is part of the very process of production and the value of labor can be determined by what it contributes to the production; under automation, however, the worker will be above and outside the 45 Review for Religious actual process of production; hence there will be need for new criteria of estimating the value of labor. So great and so many are the problems connected with a~tomation, the Holy Father warns, that some think that these problems cannot be resolved except by some form of socialism, involving a greater or lesser abolition of private property. It is true, he says, that in an era of automation a greater degree of planning will be needed, but this should not lead to a more or less absolute control, for the independence of the family and the liberty of the citizen are naturally bound up with the sane existence of private property as a social institution. Automation will also give rise to problems connected with the training of the worker; under automation technical training of the highest type will be required; moreover, the worker will not be able to be highly .specialized but "will require a training sufficiently versatile to embrace the functioning and coordinating of greatly differing machines. Such training, however, cannot be given rapidly, but will necessarily entail a long apprenticeship both in the place of production as well as in specialized schools. Moreover, the education given to the worker must also provide for his general culture; only in this way will the worker be able to solve the problem of leisure time which automation will bring to him. In this connection, the Holy Father adds, it must be noted that automation can easily produce a grave danger to personal morality and hence to the sane structure of production and consumption in the national economy. It is for this reason that under automation professional formation must include the general education of the worker. On July .23, 1957 (AAS, pp. 730-37), the Holy Father addressed a group of bishops and priests from all the dioceses of Italy who constituted the first meeting of the Italian Catholic Congress for Emigration. The Pontiff urged his audience to apply to themselves and their work the parable of the Good Shepherd and told them that the basis of their work for emi- 46 Janua~'y, 1958 ROMAN DOCUMENTS grants must'be a supernatural charity that is at once intensive, universal, and disinterested. It is this and not a mere humani-tarian sympathy that will make of them good shepherds of the people they work with. This charity, he continues, must be reduced to effective action by which they become all things to all men. Hence the Vicar of Christ urges them to devote themselves to the careful preparation of the emigrants for the new country to which they are going. They should give the emigrants instructions in the language and customs of the country to which they are going and above all impress on the emigrants by their zealot's work a remembrance of the maternal solicitude of the Church. Finally, the Holy Father takes up the case of the priest who himself emigrates with a group to another country. Such a priest will have special need .of a right intention which wi!l remove from him the danger of a merely nationalistic motive and which will prevent his group from seeing in him, not a missionary, but a mercenary. As a pastor of the group of emi-grants the priest must be alert to the needs of his flock, take care that they gradually adapt themselves to their new country, and at all times treat them with the highest degree of patience. On June 13, 1957 ('AAS, pp. 629-32), the Pontiff addressed the Congress of Europe, a group dedicated to the unification of Europe. The Holy Father recalled his own interest in the idea of European unity, noted the progress made towards this goal since the conclusion of World War II, and encouraged his listeners to ~ontinue their efforts for a political unification of the countries of Europe. He also urged them to advocate a large and comprehensive aid on the part of Europe to Africa, so that it can be clearly seen that the desire for a European community is not merely a selfish reflex of defense against a common encroaching enemy but proceeds rather from constructive and disinterested motives. Finally, the Pope recalled to them the nature of Christianity which offers 47 R. F. SMITH Review for Religious to all men an unshakable assurance of a fatherland which is not of this world and where alone perfect union will be known, because it proceeds from the power and light of God Himself. On June 27, 1957 (AAS, pp. 632-33), Pius XII addressed the third convention of the Atlantic Treaty Association, encour-aging them in their work to enlist the cooperation of schools in the task of spreading knowledge of the union that exists between all men. Miscellaneous Matters By a declaration of August 20, 1957 (AAS, p. 762), the Sacred Congregation of Rites took up the question of the use of vestments made according to .their ancient form. The use of such vestments is now left to the discretion of the local ordinary. The Sacred Congregation of the Council issued a decree dated July 25, 1957 (AAS, p. 638), transferring the obligation of fast and abstinence from the vigil of the feast of the Assumption to the vigil of the feast of the Immaculate Conception. Two documents published during August-September, 1957, deal with causes of beatification and canonization. In the first, which is. dated March 3, 1957 (AAS, pp. 756-59), the Sacred Congregation of Rites approved the introduction of the cause of the young layman, Zephyrinus Numuncur~ (1886-1905). In the second, dated April 9, 1957 (AAS, pp. 759-62), the same congregation approved the introduction of the cause of the Servant of God Frances de Sales Aviat (1844-1914), found-ress of the Congregation of the Oblate Sisters of St. Francis de Sales. Four documents of the same period pertain to priests and religious. On July 16, 1957 (AAS, p. 637), the Sacred Congre-gation of the Council forbade priests, whether secular or religi-ous, to engage actively in Hungarian politics. They are forbidden to seek or accept any position in the Hungarian Parliament; and if they presently hold such a position, they must resign it within a 48 Janua~'y, 1958 ROMAN .DOCUMENTS month; they are moreover forbidden to attend s~ssions of the parliament and to give help to any activities connected With the position they have resigned. A priest disobeying an); of the above prescription~ incurs by that very fact an excommunication specially served to the Holy See. ¯ " On July 12, 1957 (AAS, p. 640), the Sacred Congrega-tion of Seminaries and Universities issued a decree bidding bishops not to admit to their seminaries students who have left any diocesan seminary or who have been dismissed from any such .seminary. If in a given case such a person should be thought worthy of admission, th'e bishop, besides fulfilling the requirements of Canon 13.63, §3, should' apply to the Sacred. Congregation of Seminaries and Universities for further direc-tions. On July 1, 1957 (AAS, p. 751)., the Sacred Congrega-tion of Religious inaugurated the Pontifical Institute "Iesus Magis~er" " ("Jesus the Teacher"). The new institute is in-tended f0~ members of n0n-clerical congregations of religious men and other similar groups; the institute will provide training to einable ~uch religious to be. better fitted to promote the sanc-tification of themselve~ and of others and to imbue their students with Christian truth and virtue. The same congregation in a decree of March 15, i957o (AAS, pp. 749-50), promulgated, the canonical erdctionof a school to be called "Mater Divinae Gr.atiae" ("Mother of Divine Grace") des~tlned foi the training of mistresses of postulants, of novices, and Of younger religious women. The school offers a three-year course which¯ is open to members of a.ny state of per-fection for women. The school is tinder the jurisdiction of the Sacred Congregation of Religious and has its own statutes ap-proved by th~ same qongregation. Under date of July 1, 19.57(AAS, pp. 737-39), the 'Holy Father sent a written message tothe Catholic BoyScouts attending the .international jamboree, held in England on the 49 R. F. SMITH occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of the. founding of the movement. The Pope expressed his satisfaction at the vitality and expansion of the scout movement among Catholic youth and urged them to prepare themselves for their future place in the world by developiag the compreher~sive friendship that translates itself into, the disinterested service characteristic of the scout movement. He also encouraged them to be proud of their purity, their courage, and their nobility; he concluded by suggesting to them that. at Mass they raise their ideal of Catholic scouthood to the heights of the divine Master who came among us to serve and to give Himself. Two documents of the Sacred Congregation of Sem-inaries and Universities deal with general educational matters. In the first of these, dated April 25, 1957 (AAS, pp. 638-40), the congregation canonically established the Catholic Uni-versity of Leopoldville in the Belgian Congo. The new uni-. versity will include a faculty of sacred theology. In the second document, dated May 4, 1957 (AAS, pp. 753:55), the Catholic University of St. Thomas of Villanova in Havana was officially established. Finally/ it should be noted that AAS on pp. 663-89 lists the 261 matrimonial cases which were decided by the Rota during the year 1956. OUR CONTRIBUTORS THOMAS DUBAY teaches philosophy and ascetical theology at Notre Dame Seminary, 2901 S. Carrollton Avenue, New Orleans 18, Louisiana. R. F. SMITH is a member of .the faculty of St. Mary's College, St. Marys, K~nsas. FRANCIS J. MacENTEE is studying for his doctorate in bacteriology at Catholic Uaiversity, Carroll House, 1225 Otis Street .Northeast, Washington 17, D. C. 50 Book Reviews [Material for this department should be sent to Book Review' Editor, REVIEW FOR.RELIGIOUS, West Baden College, West Baden Springs, Indiana.] SON OF THE CHURCH. By Louis Lochet. Translated from the French by Albert J. LaMothe, Jr. Pp. 255. Fides Pub-lishers Association, Chicago 19. 1956. $4.50. Son of the Church is a penetrating analysis of ~he spirituality of the. apostolate, 'written as a series of personal insights and not as a formal treatise. Its purpose is to give the reader the benefit of years of reflection on the character of apostolic action by a former professor of theology who is now parish priest in the diocese of Reims. His thesis is that work in the apostolate, for cleric, religious, and layman, must be done with and through the Church in order to be truly effective. "Lacking that, it founders in absurdity and despair." In tracing this theme, the author shows a solid grasp of human psychology which he integrates with the basic principles of ecclesi-ology, especially of the Mystical Body. Among the temptations that face the apostle, the greatest is "the latent rationalization of all our difficulties [which sees] only what we are doing and not what God is doing. What we do hides from us what God does. It is a short and narrow view of our activity and that of the Church, on the level of what we know of it through history and experience alone." True to the mission of her Founder, the Church is described as a manifestation of divine love, and not only of love but of mercy. Accordingly, the apostle is not to be surprised at running into obstacles of sin, as Christ did. "The love he bears the world is a redeeming love. This is what he has to understand if he does not wish to be disconcerted by the difficulty of the mission. It is not by some strange accident that he meets with coldness, disdain or hatred. It is as the law of his development." Perhaps the outstanding chapter in the book deals with the proper dispositions of anyone engaged in the apostolic life. First must be the conviction that the heart of the apostolate consists in subordinating oneself to the hierarchical authority of the Church. Correlative to this dependence is the realization that the principal object of apostolic labor is to bring the world into the Church's sacramental order--b~ receiving the sacraments in greater numbers, with greater frequency, 51 BOOK REVIEWS Review for Religious increased fervor, find consequently greater efficacy. As an expression of this zeal, the. apostle desires to bring all men into the Mystical Body of Christ, at least to the extent that the Church is every.where implanted with her life-giving channels of grace. However the per-spective must be. kept very clear. A person "who would want to reduce his activity to promoting a better social orgariization or to spreading a temporal beneficence without referring it all to the restoration of the Church by faith in Christ and the sacramental life would no'longer be doing apostolic work." Since the task of bringing souls to God is supernatural, it does not finally rest on the resources of human power~ to succeed--not even those of the apostle. If he .employs all his native ingenuity, "it is not so much in the mahner of a wealth which God needs as of a poverty which God is willing to use for a tran-scendent goal." Corollary to this reliance on grace is the value to be set on self-renunciation. "One will not avoid the mystery of the Cross . Far from fleeing it, we will welcome it as the means par .excellence of realizing the greatest ambitions." In many ways, LocKet has written an excellent book. If on occasion the diction is a bit verbose, this is more than compensated for by the wealth of ideas covering the whole range of apostolic asceticism. It differs considerably from P~i:e Chautard'.s classic on tl~e same subject. Lochet is more cor~cerned with theological integra-tion than with direct motivation. There is also less coherent logic hmong the various parts; something in the style of the Imitation of Christ. For that reason almost any page can be quoted out of con-text withodt losing its inherent meaning. Son of the Church is highly recommended to priests and religious as a doctrinal synthesis of Catholic evangelism.--JoHN A. HARDO,XT, THE CROSS OF JESUS. Voi. I. By Louis Chardon, O.P. Trans-lated from the French by Richard T. Murphy, O.P~ Pp. 304. B. Herder Book ComPany, St. Louis 2. 1957. $4.25. The Dominican Father~ have presented us with another spiritual masterpiece in the "Cross and Crown Series of Spirituality." Written by Father Louis Chardon, O.P., Tl~e Cross of Jesus was published in France in 1647. Thanks to the fine work of the translator, the first volume is now available in English. The Cross of Jesus is not the type of book one rushes through. if given the attention any good spiritual I~ook requires, it will cer-tainly prove profitable. The content is solid; the theme.is simple: 52 January, 1958 BOOK REVIEWS Growth in holiness is achieved through the cross. Although the ideals are lofty ones, they are not set forth merely for mystics. Heeding Jesus' command to take up the cross daily, all holy souls will find guidance and consolation in this book. Father Charddn makes no compromises. He leaves nb doubt as to the necessity of p~arification through the.cross before a s0ul can be united with Jesus. This austere message, however, seems less sdvere when we read the chapters on thesuffe.rings of Jesus and His Mother. It strikes us as quite logical after we read of our place in the Mystical Body of Christ. Most important of all, we are assured that purification is effected by our cooperating with grace and the indwelling Trinity--a doctrine that is beautifully treated by the authoL In all, there are forty-eight chapters. The.relative brevity of most of them seems to be a marked advantage. In each chapter a distinct message is conveyed and understood withbut the necessity of reading dozens of pages. ¯ This book could also be used for meditation material. As indi-cated above, a number of doctrines of the. spiritual life are discussed --/~11 with reference to the cross.' Father Chardon cites Scripture for added effectiveness. Moreover, his exclamations ~nd invocations give The Cross of Jesus a warmth and unction that is often either lacking or overdone in spiritual, writings.' Finally, this re~ciewer wants to congratulate Father. Ri~:hard T. Murphy, O.P., for his very readable translation. Seventeenth-century French does present difficulties which often show up in. English' trans-lations. This cannot be said of the English edition of The Cross of Jesus.--DoNALD O. NASTOLD~ .S.J. CHINA AND THE CROSS; A SURVEY OF MISSIONARY HIS-TORY. By Dom Columba Cary-Elwes, O.S.B. Pp. 323. P.J. Kenedy and Sons, New York 8. 1957. $3.95. Shakespearean Sonnet 116 con~(eys, poetically the spirit of Dom Cary-Elwes's latest work. With an insight which is the fruit of twenty-five years of resea.rch, this artist dep~ct.s vividly the scenes of Cath-olic victories as Christ's mind marries China's amid "tempests, and is never shaken." This is the first Catholic work of this type since Abbe Huc's Christianityin China, Tartary, and Thibet in 1858. As thd author asserts, the eastward expansibr~ iof the Ch~arch is an inspira-tional story, not something freakish and unique. His labor, which is based on the latest evidence, proves his statement. 53 BOOK REVIEWS Review for Religious The book is divided into five chapters: "The Legend of St. Thomas the Apostle," "The Nestorians," "The Franciscans in Cathay," "The Jesuit Age," and "Modern Times." Some summary of the contents of these chaptegs will amply support this reviewer's opinion that Dom Cary-Elwes has penned an exposition which covers the essential points of the history of Chinese Christianity and which contains facts and colorful incidents which appeal to the scholarly, as well as the casual, reader. Latest evidence indicates that St. Thomas the Apostle never set foot on China. Earliest Christians were the Nestorians who landed at Cathay in the seventh century. Tamberlaine was the death-knell of the Nestorian Church. New hope for conversion comes with the Franciscans. Friar John o~ Pian di Carpina, intrepid explorer, arrives at the command of Innocent IV. William of Rubruck, "John of Montecorvino, and others follow with tenacity of purpose. Clement V at Avignon orders that seven Franciscans be raised to the episcopate, and they in turn would consecrate Friar John archbishop ~nd patriarch oi: the whole East. When the Ming dynasty won its way: to the imperial throne, the immense labors of the Franciscans terminated in the wake of violent persecution. Then came the Jesuits. Saint Francis Xavier, "for whom nothing was impossible with God," died off the coast of China in 1552, In that very year was born his greatest successor, Father Matteo Ricci, S.J., whose discreet guidance of missionary activity in China wins the highest praise from the author. F~llowing the Pauline "Go in their door . . ," Ricci builds a r~/¢rocl~elnent between himself and the tradition of China. The Jesuit showed the similarity between the moral teaching of Confucius and that of Christianity. In general, Dom Cary-Elwes judges that the Jesuits met with success as long as they followed the Riccian teaching of not exciting the Chinese by imprudent acts of proselytism. The author's explanation of the famous Rites Controversy is clear, accurate, and prudent. The possibility .that the Jesuits are condoning certain pagan rituals in observance of the memory of Confucius prompts the Holy See to pronounce in 1704 against the Jesuit position. The fact that this decision was reversed in 1939 leads the writer to state: "It is not for us to sit 'in judgment on that decision [1704]. There were cogent reasons in favor of that judgment then. Today those reasons no longer hold, and the Holy See has thought fit to 54 January, 1958 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS reverse that decision in the year 1939" (p. 160). The Jesuits fade from the picture with Clement XIV's Dominus et Redemptor. They will return, Dom Cary-Elwes predicts, "if love is stronger than death." The remainder of the book cites modern conditions: the rapid rise of Communist control, uncanny persecution of the faithful, the work of the Maryknolls, the .Catholic school system in China, the elevation of Cardinal Tien, and the fundamental reason why merely philanthropic Christians become Communists. For the informed reader of Chinese history, Dom Cary-Elwes synthesizes centuries of Christian activity in a scholarly, carefully annotated volume. For the uninformed, he presents a colorful and factual account of the history of the Church in China. For both, he instills with his information the desire to see one yet unwritten chapter: "The Conversion of China to Catholicism." --JAMES J. CREIGHTON, S.J. SARDAR PANNIKAR AND CHRISTIAN MISSIONS. By Jerome D'Souza, S.J. pp. 146. St. Joseph's Industrial School Press, Trichinopoly, India. 1957. One rupee. A grand old pagan of the Roman Empire confronts his Augustine in this book--with differences. St. Augustine heard the accusation that Christianity was destroying Roman civilization, and he wrote the great De Civitate Dei. The Catholic Church, which has been growing up in India gince the days of St. Thomas the Apostle, hears the accusation that Christianity is destroying the civilizations of India and Asia. Here is an answer worthy of a smaller brother of the great Augustine himself. The.author, a member of the India dele-gation to the General Assembly of the United Nations, finds the latest and greatest exponent of this accusation, the former India am-bassador to Red China, "biassed" in his approach to the missions and possessed of "insufficient" knowledge and of "harsh" judgment. Any-one interested in the missions and missio[ogy wil| profit by this frank and friendly and fearless volume.--PauL DE,X,T, S.J. BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS THE BRUCE PUBLISHING COMPANY, .400 N. Broadway, Mil-waukee 1, Wisconsin. Common Sense. By Joseph McSorley, C.S.P. We read essays on spiritual or religious topics to acquire new knowledge or new or 55 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS Review for Religious renewed motivation. We do not expect to find, and all too often do not find, gems of the essayist's craft. In .Common Sense each of the thirty-one essays might well be .taken ~s a model of what essays on the spiritual life can and should be. Reading the book is almost as inspiring and refreshing as a personal visit with. the author would be. Pp. 136. $2.75. CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PRESS, 620 Michigan Avenue, N.E., Washington, D. C. The Supreme Moderator of. Clerical Exempt Religious Institutes. A Historical Conspectus and Canonical Commentary. By Maurice J'. Grajew~ki, O.F.M. This is a dissertation submitted to the faculty of the Catholic University ofAmerica in partial fulfillment of the requirement~ for the degree of Doctor of. Canon Law. Pp. 180. Paper $2.00. FIDES PUBLISHERS ASSOCIATION, .744 E. 79th Street,Chi-cago 19, Illinois. Marriage Is Holy~ Edited by H. Caffarel. Translatdd by Ber-nard G. Murchli~nd, C.S.C. A group 0f Christian families meeting with their chaplains to discuss their common problems are responsible for .the various essays whicl~ are the chapters of this book. .There is a tKirty-six page appe~di~ which contains synopses and discussion questions. It is one of the volumes of the "Fidds Family Readers." Pp. 219. $3.75. GRAIL PUBLICATIONS; St. Meinrad, Indiana. .Queen of the Universe. An Anthology on the Assumption and Queenship of Ma~y. Edited by Brother Stanley G. Mathews, S.M. This i~ thd secohd volume of the "Marian .Library Series of An-thologies." The first was The Promised Woman (Grail, 1954). In the present volume .you will find all the. most recent pronouncements'of the Holy See as well as the most recent theological researcl~ .on two ~rerogativ.es of our Lady, her Assumpti6n and her Queenship. Here .is a volume well c~lculated to increase our love for her who is both" the Mother of God and our Mother." Pp. 258. $4.00. P. J. KENEDY & SONSI .12 Barclay Street, New York 8, New The Hermit of Cat Island. The Life of Fra Jerom~ Hawes. By Peter F. Anson. Monsignor ~'ohr~ C. Hawks, the future hermit.of Cat. Island, led a ver~ full and c6lorful lifd. He was born ~n September 7, 1876, of Anglican parents, became an architect who sp~cial!zi:d in 56 J~nua~'y, 1958 ~BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS ecclesiastical 'architecture, then became an Anglican Clergyman and went as a missionary to the Bahamas in 1908. He designed and built Anglican churches while acting as pastor on Long Island. He became a Catholic in 1911, was ordainedin Rome in 1915, and then took up missionary life, until 1939, in Australia where he designed and built many churches, monasteries, and convents. He was made a domestic prelate in 1937. He led the life of a hermit for seventeen yearg on Cat Island, one ofthe Bahamas. He died on June 26, 1956, and is buried near his hermitage as he requested. The author has given us an interesting and profitable, book. Pp. 286. $4.75. THE NEWMAN PRESS, Westminster, Maryland. Communal Life. Edited by Albert PIE, O.P. Translated by a Religious of the Sacred Heart. This is Volume VIII in the justly '. popular "Religious Life Series." It deals with that essential element of the religious life, common life, from many points of view, historic-ally, canonically, ascetically; it does not neglect the contributions of modern psychology; and it points out adaptations that must be made in view of the background that modern youth bring to religious life. Pp. 320. $4.50. The Insight of the Cur~ D'Ars. Selected Stories by Msgr. Francis Trochu. Translated by V. F. Martel. The fifty stories of this volume, all illustrative of the mystical insight of the Cur~ D'Ars into the secrets of souls, make very interesting reading and furnish "much material for reflection. Pp. 103. $1.75. THE PRIORY PRESS, Asbury Road, Dubuque, Iowa. Toward Marriage in Christ. By Thomas C. Donlon, Francis L. B~ Cunningham, and Augustine Rock, all of the Order of St. Dominic. The book is the first of a new series entitled "College Texts in The-ology." Unlike most books on marriage, this one was written to be ¯ used as a textbook; hence with the requirements of college students and college class procedures in mind. It contains a nine-page bib-liography. Pp. 199. Paper $1.50. SHEED & WARD, 840 Broadway, New York 3, New York. Theology for "Beginners. By F. J. Sheed. Perhaps the greatest single need of the average Catholic layman today is a better knowledge of the faith that is the norm he lives by; a knowledge that will enable him to give a satisfactory answer to the non-Catholic who may agk him the reasons for his faith and conduct; a knowledge too that will BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS Review for Religious lead him to a more intelligent practice of hig faith. An excellent introduction to that knowledge is Theology for Beginners, writte~ by a layman who has received the degree of Doctor of Sacred Theology l~onoris causa. The book could also serve as an excellent text for study clubs. Pp. 241. $3.00. M~re Marie of the Ursulines. By Agnes Repplier. This gripping biography of M~re Marie who founded the first convent school in North America in 1639 was first published in 1931. If you have not al-ready read the book, now is the time to read it. Pp. 314. $3.15. The Beginning of the English Reformation. By Hugh Ross Wil-liamson. The author, a former Anglican clergyman and a recent convert (1955) to Catholicism, gives us an excellent analysis of the complexities of the English Reformation, a period of English history widely misunderstood even today. The book is very well written as. one would expect from the author of eleven plays and a former editor of The Bookman and The Strand. Pp. 113. $2.50. In We Sing While There's Voice Left by Dom Hubert van Zeller, O.S.B., we have another interesting book on the spiritual life for the layman. It measures up fully to the high level of excellence which the author has established in his other books. Like them it is matter-of-fact, down-to-earth, and faces reality squarely. Pp. 198. $2.50. The Restless Christian. By Kilian McDonnell, O.S.B. The number of spiritual books written explicitly for the layman is gratifying. It testifies to the growing realization that the lay Catholic is called to holiness, and it supplies the necessary information and inspiration. You may recommend The Restless Christian to lay Catholics with the certain knowledge that you are giving them an effective means of progress. You may also, though you are a religious, read the book yourself with profit for your own soul. An unusual feature of the book is an eight-page list of suggested readings on the spiritual life. Pp. 183. $3.00. SISTERS OF MERCY, 8200 West Outer Drive,' Detroit 19, Michigan. Into Thy Hands. By Sister Mary E. O'Connor, R.S.M. This book of reflections intended for refectory reading for the Sundays of Recollection first appeared in mimeographed form. So many requests for copies were received that it is now available in printed form. Pp. 105. Cloth $1.75. 58 January, 1958 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS SYRIAN CARMELITE CONGREGATION, Monastery Road, Erna-kulam 1, South India. Souvenir of the First All-Kerala Religious Week, Dec. 27-30, 1955. The closing days of 1955 witnessed what was probably a unique and certainly a most profitable centenary celebration at Sacred Heart College, Thevara, in the state of Kerala in Southwest India, to mark the completion of the first century of activity of the Syrian Car-melite Congregation since its canonical erection in 1855. All the numerous orders and congregations of Kerala were invited to send delegates to a convention, not to recall the history of the congregation or to extend their felicitations, but to discuss their common religious problems and those of the South of India. Souvenir prints in full the addresses made before the convention together with a resum~ of the discussions that followed. We congratulate the Syrian Carmelite Congregation not only on the occasion of their centenary but also on the wise and profitable way that it was commemorated. It was a good preparation for the persecution the large and ancient and fervent Kerala Catholic community suffers in its schools from the Communists recently elected in the predominantly non-Christian state of Kerala. SOME BOOKS RECEIVED [Only books sent directly to the Book Review Editor, West Baden College, Wes~ Baden Springs, Indiana, are included in our Reviews and Announcements. The following books were sent to St. Mass.] Love and Marriage. By James Kelly. Clonmore and Reynolds Limited, 29 Kildare Street, Dublin. 3/-(paper cover). God's Infinite Love and Ours. By Robert Mageen, C.SS.R. Clonmore and Reynolds Limited, 29 Kildare Street, Dublin. 12,/6. Come, O Holy Ghost! By Adrian Lyons, O.F.M. Clonmore and Reynolds Limited, 29 Kildare Street, Dublin. 12/6. A Dangerous Little Friar. The Life of Father Titus Brandsma, O.Carm. By Josse Alzin. Clonmore and Reynolds Limited, 29 Kildare Street, Dublin. 9/6. 59 ( ues ons and Answers ['The following answers are given by Father Joseph F. Gallen, S.J., professor of canon law at Woodstock College, Woodstock, Maryland.] DuringLent should a priest celebrate the Mass of the ferial day or of an occurring feast? On a dm. or d. feast that falls between Ash Wednesday and the Saturday before Palm Sunday, an ember day except tl~ose of Pente-cost, Rogation Monday (Monday before Ascension), or a common vigil, the Mass may be either of the feast in the festal, not votive, manner or of the ferial day or vigil. However, since liturgically the Temporale is preferred to the Sanctorale and the full celebration of a vigil is desirable, the preferred Mass liturgically is that of the ferial day or vigil. If the feast, is ~ d. 1 or 2 cl., it must be celebrated. If the feast is only of s. rite or a mere commemoration, the Mass of the ferial day or .vigil must be said. On din. and d. feasts during the same period of Lent and Passion-tide only, the private recitation oi: the office may be of the feast or of the ferial day. Cf. J. O'Connell, Tl~e Celebration o[ Mass, 54; Mueller- Ellis, l-Iandbook of Ceremonies, 42; Wuest-Mullaney-Barry, )l~fatters Liturgical, n. 280. Our constitutions permit a renewal of temporary vows to be an-ticipated by a month. When does such an anticipated renewal or new profession begin to run? Your constitutions are. merely stating the law of the code. The following three important ~oints are to be kept in mind in an antici-pated renewal. (a) .Length of anticipation. Canon 577, § 2, permits an anticipated renewal of tempo.rary vows but not by more than a month. Therefore, if the profession is to expire on August 15, 1957, the anticipated renewal may not be made before July 15, 1957. Berutti, De Religiosis, 2i0; Jone, Commentarium in Codicem luris Canonici, I, 506; Cervia, De Pro/essione Religiosa, 114. 60 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (b) Competent superior. In the law of the code, the anticipation as such may be permitted by any superior, whether higher or minor local (c. 577, § 2). However, the right here is only to permit an anticipation. Since the renewal is a juridical profession, all the requisites of suoh a profession must be observed; and therefore ~he admission to this anticipated profession must be made by the competent higher superior with the vote of the council or chapter according to the constitutions (cc. 543; "575, § 2). In constitutions an anticipa-tion is usually reserved to higher superiors or to a partictilar higher superior. (c) .When does the anticipated renewal begin to run? In the example given above of a profession that expires on August 15, 1957, and is anticipated on July 15, 1957, does the new l~rofession begin to run from August 15 or July 15? This depends on the intention of the one making the profession, which is presumed to be according to the way the matter is understood in the particular institute. Ordi-narily the understanding is that the anticipated renewal begins to run from the time when the former profession is completed, i. e., August 15. If such an understanding does not exist in the institute, the presumption is that the intention was for the new profession to begin to run from July 15. Explicit instruction should be given to the ren-ovants on this matter, since it is possible that the subject would be without vows for a month of the triennium; and consequently the perpetual profession would be invalid. The better method is to intend that the new profession begin to run from August 15. Cf. Goyeneche, Quaestiones C.anonicae, I, 442143; De Carlo, Jus Religiosorum, n. 300; Creusen, Revue des Cotnntunautes Religieuse's, 18-1946-184-85; Choupin, Nature et Obligations de l'Etat Religieux; 301-2; Jombart, Trait[ de Droit Canonique, I, 626. m3-- My family~ or close relatives give me five or ten dollars or more because I am their relative. The money therefore constitutes, a personal gift. When the money is turned in, is it contrary to poverty to ask to use it for a definite purpose? The norm for asking and giving permission in the matter of poverty is the need of the religious according to the limit in quantity and quality of material things prescribed by the law or legitimate traditions of the particular institute (c. 594, § 3). Therefore, the fa~t that yoia received a gift 'is completely indifferent in relation to 61 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Review for Religious this norm. If you had not received a gift, you would have the same right of asking for your necessities. The fact that you did receive a gift is no motive for asking and no motive for the superior to give the permission. Religious profess poverty according to their constitutions, i. e., according to the norm described above; they do not profess poverty according to their income: The gift is in some sense a positive-reason for not giving the permission, simply because it leads to the practice of poverty according to one's income. This practice eventually causes a distinction of classes in the institute, the well to do and the poor, and is contrary to canon 594, § I, which t prescribes a moral un

Issue 12.6 of the Review for Religious, 1953. ; A. M. D. G. Review for Religious NOVEMBER 15, 1953 Pracfice Of ÷he H01y See, I I . Joseph F. Gallen Psychological Testing . William C. Bier The Eucharistic Fast . : . Hi~ary'R. Wer~s MOfU Proprio Jubilee . c.J. McNaspy Communications Questions and Answers News a'nd Views Book Reviews Index for 1953. VOLUME XII NUMBER 6 RI::VII::W FOR Ri::LIGIOUS VOLUME XII NOVEMBER, 1953 NUMBER CONTENTS NEWS AND VIEWS . 281 PRACTICE OF THE HOLY SEE, II--Joseph F. ~Gallen, S.'J .2.8.5 BOOK NOTICES . 290, 316, 329 LETTER ON OBEDIENCI~ . . . 290 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING OF CANDIDATES AND THE THE-OLOGY OF VOCATION---Willlam C. Bier, S.J2.91 OUR CONTRIBUTORS . 304 THE EUCHARISTIC FAST---Hilary R, Werts, S.J . 305 MOTU PROPRIO JUBILEE--C. d. McNaspy, S.J . 317 COMMUNICATIONS . 321 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS-- 29. Correction of Subject by Immediate or Mediate Superior 322 30. Guidance of Subjects by Superiors . 322 31. Local Superior at Council Meeting . 323 32. Local Superior at General Chapter . 324 33. General Council and Suggestions to General Chapter . 324 34. Postulancy and Readmission . ." . 325 BOOK REVIEWS-- Religious Men and Women in the Code; Fundamental Psychiatry; Most Reverend Anthony 'j. Schuler, S.J., D.D.; I Want to See God 326 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS . 330 INDEX FOR VOLUME XII, 1953", . 333 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, November, 1953. Vol. XlI, No. 6. Published bi-monthly: January, March, May,,July, September, and November at the College Press, 606 Harrison Street, Topeka, Kansas,, by St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas, with ecclesiastical approbation. Entered as second class matter 3anuary 15, 1942 at the Post Oflke, Topeka, Kansas, under the act of March 3, 1879. Editorial Board: Jerome Breunig, S.J., Augustine G. Ellard, S.J. Adam C. Ellis, S.J., Gerald Kelly, S.J., Francis N. Korth, S.J. Copyright, 1953, by Adam C. Ellis, S.J. Permission is hereby granted for quota-tions of reasonable length, provided due credit be given this review and the author. Subscription price: 3 dollars a year; 50 cents a copy. Printed in U. S. A. Before wrlfing to us, please consult notice on Inside back cover. News and Views Psychological Testing When we last published an article on the psychological testing of candidates, a religious superior wrote an indignant letter cancelling his subscription and asserting that such testing interferes with the work of the Holy Ghost. Thatthis is a misconception should be evi-dent to all who read Father Bier's article in the present number and a s~cond article to be phblished in January. Whatever may be said 'for or against the value of psychological tests--and we do not claim to have all the answers--it seems clear enough that their use is no more an attempt to "naturMize" religious vocation than is the use of previous medical examinations. Educating Sisters We have just received a very yaluable brochure entitled Directorg of Catholic Women's Colleges with Facilities for the Education oF Sisters. This brochure gives tabulated i'nformation on colleges and motherhouses accredited to offer degree programs, detailing the par-ticular courses provided, the number of Sisters who could be cared for, and the conditions, financial and otherwise, under which they would be received. The information was gathered by the Commit-tee on the Survey Section on Teacher Education of the N.C.E.A. The reason for gathering the information was the fact that many of the smaller religious congregations of women do not have facilities for educating their own members and find the standard costs of "sending Sisters away" prohibitive. These congregations can obtain help from the larger congregations; and this Directorg will show at a glance where and how the help can be obtained. For further information, or for copies of the Directo~g, piease address: Sister Mary Gerard, O.S.F., Chairman, Directory Project, Alverno College, 3401 South 39th Street, Milwaukee 15, Wisconsin. Poor Clares The Poor Clares of New Orleans have prepared a file of at least one hundred 2-inch slides in .black 'and white for use in a still pro-jector. The photos were taken within the cloister, and every" part of the monastery is included. Also prepared is a brief description of every picture. The nuns will send'this file to any desiring to show 281 NEWS AND VIEWS Reoiew for Religious the slides tO interested groups, particularly, young ladies among whom there might be the possibility of a contemplative vocation. They will also send ~lratis literature for distribution, a set of seven large posters, and 6-inch dolls'd~es~ed as" Poor Clar~s. The remailing of, the small slide file is the only expense they would expect the user to assume. Those interested in this vocational project shQ~Id write to: Monastery of Saint Clare, 720 Henry Clay Avenue, N~w Orleans 18, Louisiana. New Indulgence For the purpose of 'increasing devotion to the Blessed Virgin Mary ever more and more, Ou~ Holy Father, Pope Plus XII, in. an audience given to the Cardinal Major Penitentiary on March 30, 1953, granted in perpetuum an indulgence of fifty days, to be gained once a day, to those who, keeping on their person a duly blessed rosary of Our Lady, have kissed it devoutly.and at the same time have recited with a pious mind the words of the Angelic Salutation: "H~iil Mary, full of grace, the Lord is with thee: blessed art thou among women, arid blessed is the fruit of thy womb, Jesus." (Acta Apostolicae. Sedis, XXXXV [ 19 5 3 ], 31 1.) , Valuable Booklets The Grail Press, St. Meinrad, Indiana, has sent us two booklets of immense value for clerics. Both of them are re-editions. One is Rome and the Study of Scri_pture, which contains a collection of papal enactments on the study of Holy Scripture, together with deci-sions of the Biblica.1 Commission. The price is one dollar. The other booklet is The Popes and the Priesthood, which contains English translations of importgnt statements of the Holy See on the.priest-hoo. d. The price of this booklet is only fifty cents. Rural Parish I, Vorke;'s In our last number (see. p. 242) we promised a more complete account of the Rural Parish Workers of Christ the King. This apostolate was begun by Miss Alice Widmer, a graduate of.Webster College, Webster Groves, Missouri, and Miss LaDonna I-fermann, a graduate of Maryville College of the Sacred Heart, St. Louis. In the summer of 1941 they decided to devote ~heir lives to lay action for the salvation of souls and the extension of Christ's Kingdom by the igractice bf the spiritual and corporal works of mercy. That fall they heard Monsignor (later Bishop) Leo J. Steck speak of the'lick 282 Not~ember, 1953 NEWS AND VIEWS. of priests'in rural.areas, and th'ey: asked him whether they might help in one of these areas. With his assis'tance and that of Father William d. Pe~.old, they began work in the latter's parish of Cottleville, St. Charles Count'/, Mi'ssouri. During that same summer they learned to use the short breviary. The remainder of their story i~ told by tlSemselveL as follows: "Activities ir~ St. Ct~arles County, where we lived in two twelve: by-twelve-foot rooms in a portable schoolbuilding on thechurch grounds, included home visiting, care of the sick, helping the poor, Vacation schools, Sianday school for non-Catholic and pre-s~hool .Catholic children, craft classes for,, dhildren and adults, discussion Clubs in' the homes, w~rk with teen-agers, in'structions of converts'. distribution of Catholic literature and sacramentals, religious and social Welfare work. "Originally we had no thought of a continuing organizatio.n. As'we saw the needs and what could be done we went to see Car-dinal John d. Glennon of beloved memory', who had been a benefac-tor from the first. He encouraged us in our plans to £tevelop a per-manent organization and gave permission to solicit funds for~ p, er-manent home not to be located on parish grounds. Shortly there-after he died. "Sev, enteen months, later we discussed our future with Arch-bishop. Joseph E. Ritter. Three months afterwards he asked us;.to work'among.the miners and farmers of the tiff.aiea in Wash, ington County, the mbst e~ploited region in the St. Louis archdiocese. Through ,his generous assistance and that of Auxiliary Bishop: Charles tt.'Helmsing and Rev. Edward A. Bruemmer of Old Mines, we moved in September, 1949, to Fertile iri the Old Mines parish,of St. Joachim. We entered into parish, activity by beginning the in-struction of ninety-one public-school children and visitation in their homes and began extensive remodeling of an old brick residence eight miles from church. "The Rural Parish Worker program is adjusted to the,.needs of the area and is always pointed to the development of Christian homes and the strength.ening of parish life. In Washington County the following activities take precedence: ~eligiotis and social welfare work: distribution of food and ,clothing; transportation, to church, h.ospitals,_a.nd clinics; Sunday instruction classes; preparation of con-verts: home visiting, and instruction; interpretation of rights and 283. NEWS AND VIEWS duties as citizens; assistance in obtaining State and Federal benefits, doctors' care, hospitalization. "Some assistance is given to a few in adjoining parishes. HOw-ever, since.our home parish of St. ,loachim is one hundred and fifty square miles in size with poor and sometimes no roads,, it occupies most of our time. Attendance at civic meetings and participation in civic affairs are also on the agenda, as are outside works, such as land-scaping, building of small buildings, care of goats, and gardening when we can get to it. "Yearly summer sessions ~nd a year-of-service program are offered to young women thinking of the lay apostolate as a way of life or who wish to give at least part of their lives in. concentrated work for the restoration of Christ in society. "Last fall Rev. Bede Scholz, O.S.B., of Plus X Monastery in Labadie, Mo., was appointed by the Most Rev. Archbishop as our spiritual director. Father Bede, then at Conception Abbey, Concep-tion, Mo., had helped form us in the early days. (We would go for a week of spiritual refreshment to Conception.) Father Bede, Rt. Rev. Monsignor Martin B. Hellriegel, and Rev. Charles P. Schmitt were our spiritual advisers for several years when we lived in St. Charles County. "At the beginning we had literally nothing except a few dollars we had saved when working, a typewriter, phonograph and records ¯ bought for the work, our clothes and personal little belongings. Yet we have neve'r been in want and God has sent everything as it was needed for our neighbors and for us. Today many are assisting by prayer, donations of money and materials. The bills are always with us but we know that Almighty God is also, and we have no fears for the future. We know He will do with us as He wishes and that is all we want. It is with humble hearts that we look back over twelve years of labor in His vineyard and it is with confidence that we invite others--young women from all over the United States--to come to Fertile, to the Center of the Rural Parish Workers of Christ the King, and lend their talents and their labors in this rural aposto-late of service based on the spiritual arid corporal works of mercy for the glory of God and the development of Christian homes; to come to Fertile and help in the world-wide work "of the Church today-- the restoration of Christ to society." The address of the Rural Parish 'Workers of Christ the King is: Route 1, Box 194, Cadet, Missouri. 284 ¯ Pract:iceot: :he l-loly See, II Joseph F. Gallen, S.J. [The first part of this article was published in the September REVIEW, pp. 252- 72.] XII INDULTS OF SECULARIZATION New practice of the Holy See. Secularizati-on is the voluntary de-parture from religion, authorized by an indult of competent ecclesi-astical authority, in virtue of which the subject is separated com-pletely and perpetually from membership in the institute and is freed absolute.ly from all obligations contracted by. religious profession. Since secularization dispenses from all religious vows, even if solemn, it is co~nmonly also called a dispensation from the vows of religion. The Holy See alone may grant secularization in pontifical institutes; in diocesan congregations the Ordinary of the place where the, reli-gious is staying is also competent.34 .Indults of secularization granted by the Holy. See for those who are not priests now contain the following sentence: "This decree ceases to have any validity if not accepted by the petitioner within ten days after being informed of the executorial decree.'qs" It has long been a clea~ principle of canon law .that an indult of seculariza-tion, even ~hou.gh freely petitioned,, may be refused and has no effect until accepted by the religious in question,z6 If within the ten days: (a) the indult is expressly accepted, it becomes effective immediately;37 (b) the induli is neither accepted nor refused, it ceases to have any validity at the end of this period; (~') the indult is definitively refused, all validity of the indult cer-tainly ceases at the end of ten days and. at least more probably immediately upon the definitive refusal.3s In practice a new indult is to be petitioned if the religious repents of his refusal and wishes again 34Can. 638; Bouscaren. II, 173. 3s"Post decem dies a recepta comrnunicatione Decreti exsecutorialis, ex porte Oratoris (ricis), prasens Decretum, si non fuerit acceptatum, nullii~s roboris esto.'" Cf. Gu-ti& rez, CpR, XXIV (1953), 186-197. 36Bouscaren, I; 326. 37Cf. Creusen. ft. 332: Jombart, RCR, II (1926), 151; Piontek, 262 ft.: Ver-meersch, Periodica, XI (1923), 151. a8Cf. Guti~rrez. CpR, XXIV (1953),194-195: Goyeneche, CpR, XVIII (1937). 239-240:.Muzzarelli, p. 172; and Jombart, RCR, II 1926), 150-151, who ap-pears to hold the contrary. 285 ¯ JOSEPH 1:::. GALLEN for Religious to leave during the ten-davy period. ," The practice of the Holy See is not to grant the indult directly to the religious but to give to an intermediary person, for example, the local Ordinary, the f~iculty of granting the indult of secularization to the religious. The actual granting of the indult by this intermedia'ry person is called the executorial decree. The ten days begin to run -from the time the religious is officially notified of the granting of this executorial decree, not from the date of notification of the deciee of the Holy See. The day of notification is not computed. If the no-tification is given on August 1, the ten days expire at midnight of August 1 1-12. This time does not run for any period in which the religious was ignorant of or unable to exercise his right of acceptance and refusal. XII. GENERAL CHAPTER 1. Constitutions rec.ently appro~)ed by the Holy See. One congrega-tion of sisters had difficulty in persuading the S. C. of Religious to approve in a general revision of its constitutions the designation of the Secretary and Bursar General by appointment rather than by election. Appointment was approved about the same time in another general revision without any difficulty and had been permitted in some constitutions approved by the Holy See in the past. The num-ber in the grouping of the smaller houses for the election of delegates. is now rather constantly stated to be at least twelve and not more than twenty-three professed. The S. C. of Religious is consistently including in constitutions an article stating that the duties of the pre-siding local Ordinary or his delegate terminate at the proclamation of the election of the mother general.39 Some recent constitutions con-tain the prescription of the Normae of 1901: "If the Ordinary. is ac-companied by one or more priests, these may in no way take part in the election.''40 The present practice of the Holy See permits not only the secretary general but also the bursar general to be elected a general councillor but neither may be elected as the first councillor. The same practice now rather consistently gives the general chapter the right of declaring matters to be of greater importance and subject to the deliberative vote of the general council. Some recent constitu-tions. also give to the general chapter and council the'right to deter- 39Cf. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, XI (1952), 16-18. 4ONormae of 1901, n. 224. Cf. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, ibid., 17-18. 286 Nooember, 1953 PRACTICE OF THE HOLY SEE. min~ matters as subject to the deliberative vote of-the local council. The S. Congregation corrected one set of constitutions to read~ " . . .the newly elected M6.thfir General shall appoint one or seoeral. committees.to examine and arrange the'proposals to the Gerieral Cfiapter and to furnish a report concerning them." Even if not so' stated in the constitutions, several committees may be appointed be~ cause of the amount of work or for greater efficiency and lack of time, since several committees are not forbidden by the constitutions. 2. Indult's. One congregation of si'sters secured an indult from the Holy Se~ permitting th~ anticipation of its next general chapter by' six months. The principal reason given in the petition was the ex-~ p~nse and extensive travel that would be required foi the' capitulars' to return to the motherhouse two months after all had been present there for the annual retreat. ~ Another congregation of sisters requested a change, in its constitu- ' tions by which the novice mistress would be a member of thegeneral chapter in virtue of her offce. The S. C. of Religious replied: "It is not expedient.'" Canonical authors had stated that such a provision was not in accord with the practice of the S. Congregation,4x but a.~ similar article had been approved in a very small number of constitu-. tions in the past. A congregation of sisters was to hold in the United States an ex-traordinary general chapter,, which the delegates of the provinces be-yond the "iron curtain" would not be able to attend. The S. C. of Religious gave to a local Ordinary the faculty of permitting their votes to be sent by letter or for these provinces to choose delegates here who would cast their votes. 3. Roman meeting. The subjects touched upon at this meeting of superioresses general appear to have been the following: (a) The Holy See is opposed to the immediate re-election, or rather postula-tion., of a mother general beyond the limits prescribed in the consti-tutions. Similarly the Holy See only for serious reasons grants a dispensation permitting a local superior to be given a third successive three-year term in the same house. (b) Two excesses are verified in ~lections, an indifference that results in ignorance of the eligible and' suitable and electibneering. (c) Young religious should not be ex-. cluded from higher offices' if they have the necessary natural and spit-. itual qualifications. ., 41Basticn, n. 246, 2; Battandier, n. 352. 287. JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review/:or Religious These subjects present nothing new,4z but the. light thrown on the abuse of electioneering is very Opportune. Electioneering is the deliberate seeking of votes, directly or indirectly, to elect a particular person, or one person rather than another, or to exclude anyone from being elected. The simple seeking of information concerning the abilities or defects of those eligible and the communication of such information to. others, without any attempt at persjaasion, is not for-bidden, and is very frequently necessary and laudable. It is.:remarkable.how often the matter of elections can blind the moral sense of even very good religious. This reason alone has per-suaded the present writer to hold rigidly to the conviction, that in any general revision of the constitutions elections should, be restricted to those absolutely necessary. Only the offices of the superior gen-eral and of his or her councillors demand election. Every religious should have the permanent resolution of nevei uttering a word about future elections in his institute until after he has meditated daily for at least a week on the will of God. XIII. MONASTERIES OF NUNS I. Federations and Con/¥derations. The only federation or con-fdderation affecting American monasteries of nuns that has been made public is that of the Visitandines. The pohtifical constitution Spon~a Christi and the accompanying Instruction should be carefully studied by all nuns. Unwise and exaggerated changes are to be avoided in any state of life, "but no religious institute can reasonably exclude progress and prudent adaptation to .the times; Federations and con-federations are highly recommended by Plus XII in Sponsa, Christi. 2. Restoration o[ solemn ~ows. In 195 1-52 eighteen monasteries of nuns-in the United States secured permission from the Holy See for the taking of solemn vows.43 The restoration of solemn vows is at least strongly urged on all monasteries of nuns in Sponsa Christi. If serious reasons exist against this restoration in any monastery, such reasons are to be submitted to the S. C. of Religi6us for examina-tion. 44. The form of the decree granting solemn vows is uniform. The provisions are: (a) Papal cloister must be observed as' described in 42Cf. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, X (1951), 187-200. 43Guti~rrez. CpR, XXXIV (1953), 102-115. Cf. the list of monasteries of solemn vows in the United States, as of January, 1950. in REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, IX (19~50), 58, note 2. 44Larraona, quoted by Guti~rrez, ibid., 1"07. " '288 November, 1953 PRACTICE O~: THE HOLY SEE canon law, Sponsa Christi and the accompanying Instruction (Inter praeclara), and also the Instruction of the S. C. of Religious of Feb-ruary 6, 1924.4s (b) Nuns at present in simple perpe.tual vows and thbse who have compieted the prescribed time of temporary vows make solemn profession. The local Ordinary or his delegate receives the profession of the superioress, who then receives all the other pro-fessions. (c) Any nun in simp!e perpetual vows who does not wish to make the solemn profession may remain in simple vows but she is obliged by all the prescriptions of papal cloister.46 (d) Future per-petual professions Will be solemn except, of course, those of the ex-tern sisters, who may be admitted only to simple perpetual profession at the expiration of the prescribed peridd of temporary vows. 3. Dowr~ . Modifications in the general constitutions were granted to several monasteries of one order of nuns in the United Sta~es by the S. C. of Religious in 1950. A canonically interesting article of these modifications is: "No dowry is required for the admission of postulants." 4. Induhs concerning papa! clbister. A monastery of nuns in. the United States obtained the follov~ing permissions from the S. C. of Religious: (a) for five years--to admit into the enclosure at the funerals of nuns the clergy, acolytes, and pall bearers required to carry the body to the crypt; (b) fbr three years--to allow those taking out naturalization papers to go out to government offices as often as necessary; (c) for three years--t6 allow a nun to leave the enclosure as companion for a nun obliged to go out for bospltal treatment. Iri the case of another monastery, the local Ordinary whs given the faculty for twenty cases of permitting a nun to leave the enclosure with a companion for the reason of ill health. The rescript contained the clause, that any unbecoming circumstance was to b~ avoided. 5. Concession of Masses. A proper ordo or calendar, and thus dis-tinct from the diocesan ordo, is had by all orders of regulars, and this is to be observed also by the nuns and sisters of these orders. A proper ordo is also had in.religious congregations and societies living in common without public vows, whether of men or women, that have been approved by the Holy See,.[re constituted under one gen-eral superior, and are obliged to the divine office, even if only by 45Bouscaren, I, 314-320; .46Escudero, CpR, XXXIII (1952), 35, nota 39. 289 JOSEPH F. GALLEN reason of major orders.47 Nuns that constitute a second order, such as the Carmelites, will follow the proper ordo of the first order of men. Obviously, there-fore, they may not celebrate in the divine office and Mass feasts granted to dioceses or t6 other institutes. For this reason at least one monastery of nuns in the United States secured from the Holy See an indult permitting the celebration of the feasts of the North American Martyrs on September 26 and that of St. Frances Xavier Cabrini on December 22.48 47,SCR, 4312, ad'l-2; 4403, ad 1. 48The autlqors, documents, and abbreviations not clear from their mere citation are." Acta Apostolicae Sedis (AAS) ; Bastien, Directoire Canonique; Battandier, Guide Canonique; Bouscaren, Canon Law Digest; Cervia, De ProFessione Religiosa; Com-mentarium Pro Rell.qiosis (CpR) ; Creusen, Religious Men and Women in the Code; Decreta Authentica Congregationis Sacrorum Rituum (SCR) ; Muzzarelli, De Con-gregationibus luris Diocesani; Piontek, De Indulto Exclaustrationis necnon Saecular-izationis; Revue des Communautis Religieuses (RCR) ; Schaefer, De Religiosis. BOOK NOTICE AUX SOURCES DE LA TRADITION DU CARMEL, by Jean le Soli-taire, is a work that will be of special.interest and value, not only to Carmelites, but also to all who are concerned with understanding well the essentials and the accidentals of the contemplative life and~ with the problem of adapting it fittingly to the changes that mark modern culture and the present situation of the Church. The book is not primarily historical; rather it is conceived from the ,spiritual point of view, and would like to contribute to the best possible re-vitalization and perfection of the contemplative life in the concrete existe.ntial conditions of today and tomorrow." (Paris: Beauchesne et ses Fils, 1953. Pp. 274.) LETTER ON OBEDIENCE Father William J. Young. S.J., has made a new and very readable translation of St. Ignatius' Letter on Obedience. This translation is published in pamphlet form by the America Press. Single copies are twenty cents; special discounts are allowed on quantity orders. Write to: The America Press, 70 East 45th St., New York 17, N.Y. 290 Psychological Test:ing ot: Candida!:es and t:he Theology oF Vocal:ion William C. Bier, S.,I. [EDITORS' NOTE: This article is an adaptation of 'a paper presented at the Fordham "Institute on Religious and Sacerdotal Vocations, July, 1953. Father Bier's interest in the use of psychological tests as helps in evaluating the suitability of candidates for the priesthood and religious life goes back to graduate work in psychology at The Catholic University under Father Thomas Verner Moore, who encouraged him to plan a doctoral research on some.preliminary phases of this problem. After the completion of his doctoral work in 1948 Father Bier went to Fordham and has been teaching in the psychology department of the graduate school since that time. He developed a program of psychological tests for candidates in the New York Province of the Society of 3esus, which has been in operation for five years. This work is now spreading to other Provinces of the Society and to other religious groups. He thinks that the greatest need at the present time is the development of specific, norms on these tests, not only for religious as distinct from lay persons, but probably also for different religious groups. The development of such norms is of necessity a cooperative undertaking, and Father Bier has been serving as a clearing house for gathering the needed information from the various groups working in conjunction with him. At the present time this work is still in its initial stages, and it will have to be in operation some time longer before publishable results are ¯ available, ] THE present article is the first in a series of two dealing with the use of psychological tests in the selection of candidates for the priesthood and for the religious life. This matter receives clari-fication bydistinguishing and giving separate treatment to the two questions involved. The first concerns the role of psychological tests in the selection of candidates and raises the question of the relation-shiio between testing of this kind and the theology- of vocation. It is evident that this first question is largely theoretical, but testing must first be justified on these grounds before it is feasible to discuss the second question, namely, the practical requirements of such a testing program. The current article, therefore, will consider the theoretical basis for the psychological testing of candidates, and a second article will take up the problems involved in the development of such a pro-gram in practice. Religious Vocation Although in full accord, on theological and psychological grounds, with the modern tendency to extend the term vocation to embrace all states of Christian life, the current consideration is never-theless restricted to vocations to the religious life.and to the priest- 291 WILLIAM C. BIER Reoiew for Religi'ous hood. More specifically still, the explicit treatment is confined mostly to the religious life, leaving the priesthood as matter for reasonably evident inference. A vocation, as the nominal definition of the wor~l implies, ex-presses the action of summoning someone to move toward a definite goal; in a word, it is a call. ~n the case of a divine vocation, it is God who calls the person, and in the matte~ of religious vocation, it is a call to the voluntary practice of the evangelical counsels in an institute.approved by the Church. The question that arises in the case of every vocation is: how can we know in a given case that'God calls? How can it be determined that the vocation is real and not illusory, genuine and not deceptive? This is the question ~vhich must be answered by the candidate himself, by his director, and by the superior who accepts him. In his recent book, The Theolog~I of Religious Vocation, Father Edward Farrell, O.P.,1 indicates that St. Thomas Aquinas distin-guished between internal vocation, or desire on the part of the candi-date for the religious life, and external vocation, or acceptance by a legitimate superior. It will be helpful for our present purpose to consider vocation under both of these aspects, and in so doing we shall 9ttempt to place the psychological testing of candidates in its proper perspective and to indicate what is its legitimate function with respect to the discernment of vocation. Internal Vocation By internal vocation St. Thomas means the intention on the part of the candidate to embrace the religious life. This intention is formed by. a man under the influence of the Holy Spirit. -Such an intention is the result of grace, or rather a series of grace~ consisting of interior'andexterior helps, in virtue of which the individual is led to take the resolution to enter.religious.life. This resolution to enter religion may result from an extraordinary illumination of the mind and incitement of the will toward the reli-gious state. Some of the saints have been favored with such an un-mistakable divine call, but Pope Plus X in his decision on the book of Canon Lahitton on Sacerdotal Vocation made it clear that no such special attraction is necessary for a priestly or religious vocation. Gen-erally, the intention to enter religion is formed under the influence of what theologians would refer to as ordinary grace, i.e., a grace which " 1St. Louis: Herder, 1951. 292 o November, 1953 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING works through the reasoning processes. Theologians generally would take this to mean that the decision is the result of deliberation where-by the individual perceives, in the light of the Gospel ~ind from other considerations that, everything being taken into account, the way of the counsels is preferable for him. Consequently be experiences a corresponding rational inclination of the will toward such a life. It is Worth n'oting, however, that the proposal to enter r.eligion must be sufficiently firm considering the difficulties involved in this state of life. It is only a firm resolution which, in the opinion of theologians, is the subjective manifestation of vocation. On philo-sophical grounds it may be shown that a state of mind can be logically firm only when reasonable doubt is.excluded. We may .say, therefore, that what God's grace does in the case of vocation is to make it possible for the individual to see with a clarity which ex-cludes the reasonable fear of error that the way of ~he counsels is the preferable way of life for him. It would seem, therefore, that the applicant, whose state of mind prior to entrance is uncertain, who is not ~ure whether he has a vocation or not, but who applies "in order to give the life a try," does not hav~ a vocation, since he lacks this firm proposal which is the subjective sign of vocation. It is possible that such an applicant would become certain bf his vocation during postulancy or noviceship, but it seems more prudent, when such a doubt is known, .to postpone his acceptance until it is solved, and meantime to encour.age him to'pray and consider the matter more maturely. It is evident that such a firm decision to enter the religious state is the result of grace. "You have not chosen me, but I have chosen you" (Jo. 15:16). This is the essence of religious vocation, and it is clearly its supernatural aspect. Directly, therefore, psychology, which can touch only the natural, has nothing to do with this aspect. of vocation. Yet,. indirectly, even here, it may have something to contribute. Canon 538 indicates that the candidate for the religious life must be inspired by a "right intention." This requirement expresses in another way what has already been discussed. If the intention to enter religion has been formed under th~ influence of grace, it will be a right intention. Therefore, no purely natural motive will suffice, such.as disappointment or disillusionment with the world, or per-sonal happiness, or security; or the desire to escape an unhappy home situation. On the other hand, theologians allow that ar~y super- 293 WILLIAM C. BIER Ret~iew for Religious natural motive will suffice, for instance, the desire, to save one's soul, or to work for the salvation of others, or to serve God more per-fectly, or to render salvation more secure. It is at thi~ point, it would seem, that psychology can enter to make a contribution. Human motivasion, we know now, is a much more complex affair than was previously suspected. Our motives are seldom simple, and seldom single. Conscious motives can sometimes serve as a cloak for hidden and undetected tendencies. In the case of the motives inducing a person to apply for admission to the religious life, it will seldom happen that they are pur~ly supernatural. Natural motives invariably enter as well. What seems to be important, how-ever, is that the dominant motives should be supernatural. Granted that in the.concrete the total motive force will bepartly natural and partly supernatural, the more dominant the role of supernatural motives, the more assurance there would be that the call was truly from God. Let us illustrate the point mad~ here by an example. " Suppose a spiritual director, on inquiring why a girl wants to consecrate her virginity to God, were to discover that it is because she finds things of the flesh repugnant. Marriage would be abhorrent to her, and if ¯ the attraction to the religious lifewere in fact nomore than an adjust-ment to such a psychic inhibition, it would scarcely be genuine. Prob-ably, such a girl would have combined this fundamental motive force with some supernatural intention, but the question is how dominant, and hence how genuine, would a supernatural motive be in such a case? Would it be any more'than a case of self-deception? I can conceive of a director telling sucha young girl to thank God that she feels that way, because she is thus freed from many temptations against chastity. Yet such advice, I think, would be highly questionable. It is true, of course, that such a person would have little or no difficulty with the material observance of chastity, but absence of sin or conflict.is not a proof of virtue. In such a case the brake applied to prevent sin is not the regulating influence of rea-son, which would be the basis for virtue, but is an inhibition of the psychic order. It is God's plan that sex should be attractive, not repugnant, and it is clear from the words of Christ (Math. 19:12) and of St. Paul (I Cor. 7:6-9) that the invitation to the counsels implies.a sacrifice. The girl who finds sex repugnant has no sacrifice to make in dedicating her virginity to God. The suitable candidate for the religious life is not one who is incapable of marriage, but one 294 November, 1953 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING who freely surrenders this good for a greater. There is a further consideration in a case of this kind which should not be overlooked. The repugnance felt toward sex expression is, as we have presented it, a psychicinhibition. It is due to some psycho-logical twist or other. Suppose, "perhaps after some years of religious life, that this twist is suddenly straightened out--a not inconceivable happening. Once the psychological brake is removed, the person may, for w.ant of virtue, be defenseless against a passion whose existence she never suspected. Could it not be that something similar to this is the explanation of some of those particularl~- puzzling defections after years in religion? The masters of the spiritual life have always recognized the pos-sibility of self-deception in the service of God, and modern psychol-ogy tends to re-enforce their warnings by supplying instances of the subtle ways in which uncon'scious and undetected influences may in-sinuate themselves into human motivation. When such happens in the case of vocation, the good will of the applicant is not in ques-tion, but the genuineness of his vocation.is. He is, in this supposi-tion, deceived himself, and be may quite easily deceive others. The manifestation of virtue is sometimes ambiguous, and what externally passes for virtue may actually be no more than a cover-up for a psychological problem. Natural submissiveness and deep-seated inferiority can ~asily pass for humility, overly-conscientious strivihgs for perfection can, as a matter of fact, be no more than psy-chological defenses against fear of criticism and inability to tolerate failure, while genuine apostolic zeal is not always ea~sy to distinguish from a paranoid discontent. The discernment of spirits is sometimes difficult, and we have the scriptural warning: "Dearly beloved, be-lieve not every spirit, but try the spirits if they be of God" (I John 4:1). This admonition seems to be particularly pertinent in the matter of the discernment of vocation and especially with respect to. the motives prompting the applicant to apply for admission to reli-gion. It would surely be excessive always to question o~ur conscious motives and to see in them nothing but disguises for hidden tenden-cies, but it must be acknowledged that conscious motives are some-times deceptive, and that the dominant motives for our actions are not always the ones which consciously move us. Unconscious fear of contact with the world, for example, may be concealed by perfectly orthodox motives such as contempt for the world and desire of per-fection. For a long time the individual's actions may seem to be in- 295 WILLIAM C, BIER for Refigious spired by these traditional motives, but it may eventually appear that ~hey were in fact but the effects of neurotic tendencies. Where uhcon-scious factors are at work common sense is hardly sufficient for the discernment of vocation, and the eye of the expert, is needed to detect a latent neurosis artfully Concealed behind normal behavior. External Vocation ~ ~ Let us pass now from internal vocation where psychology has but a limit.ed and indirect contribution to make, to external vocation where its contribution is more direct and more extensive. By external ¯ vocation, as previously mentioned, St. Thomas meant the acceptance of ,'i candidate by a legitimate superior. Thus external vocation com-pletes and perfects the internal call essentially determining it to this particular institute. It is evident that before an applicant can be accepted a judgement must be made on his suitabil!ty for the religious life. Some one must 'pass on such firness, and ultimately this decision is the responsibility of the religious superior. The internal call is always subject to the possibility of self-deception, and finds a certain confirmation, there-fore, in the judgement of suitability passed by a competent superior. The junction of the two gives vocation to the religious life in the concrete. Suitability for the religious life might be treated from various-points of vie~v, but for the purposes of the present discussion it will be considered under qualities of body and mind, which in the words of Canon 538 render the individual "fit to bear the burdens of the religious state." A certain level of physical well'being is required for the exercise of religious life, and it is co~nmon practice, to require of applicafits a doctor's certificate of good health. Pertinent to the present discussion, however, is the fact that mental health is no less necessary for religious life. The idea of "mens sana in corpore san&' (a sound mind in a sound body)' seems to be a p~oper estimate of fitness f?r life in religion. The Contribution of Psychological Tests There would be no real disagreement, I think, on the fact that certain psychological qualities are required in a candidate for the reli-gious life. What these qualities are might be diff,erently expre.ssed as maturity, balance, stability, control, adjustment, but there is at least agreement that some over-all psychological integrity is needed. It might even be clearer and there would, perhaps, be even greater agree- 296 Nouernber, 1953 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING ment if the propositi6n were put negatively: certain psychologic.al conditions render an applicant unsuitable for the religious life. Con- .sequently no .superior can accept a candidate for religion without making some judgement of psychological fitness. The trouble is that such a judgement, necessary as it is, is frequently superficial and hap-hazard, because the basis for a more adequate judgement is not avail-able. Here the psychological examination of candidates can enter to make its contribution. Such an examination can offer a more ade-quate foundation for the estimate of psychological suitability which must be made. It may be valuable to point out thus early in the pre~ent discussion that the psychological testing of candidates is new only in its methods; not in its p.urpose. Its function is traditional and inescapable: namely, ~a judgement on the psychological fitness of the applicant. The psychological' examination has a function to perfwor~mth " " respect to all candidates. With the greater n~amber of them its func-tion will be negative hnd w. ill consist simply in affirming the fact that th'ey are psychologically suitable, i.e., that no psychological fac-tors are in evidence which would antecedently make it impossible for them to bear the burden of religious life. Even though the contribu' tion here is negative, it is not to be despised for it is precisely what is needed, namely, a clean bill of mental health. It should be noted that such immunity at the time of application is no necessary guar-antee that psychological difficulty ~might not subsequently ,,develop, any more than the assurance of physical health at the time of entrance is a gua.rantee against subsequent ill health, bht at the time it repre-sents what is needed and is sufficient. With ~espect to the remaining candidates the psychological exam-ination, we assume, will show positive results. Sometimes these re-sults will be extreme, for serious mental disorder cannot be a priori excluded in candidates for the religious life. .In this connection, the work of Father Thomas Verner .Moore on the. rate of insanity in priests and religious2 is pertinent. This ~tudy appeared in The Ec-clesiastical Review for 1936, and still remains the only published work on th,e subject. In connection with the investigation, Father Moore contacted all the Catholic and non-Catholic state and .private sanatoria and asyla for the insane in. the United States. On a basis '-'Thomas Verner Moore. "Insanity in Priests and Religious. Part I[ The Rate of Insanity in Priests and Religioi~s." The Ecclesia t;'ca! Reoic~', 95 (1936). 485- 498. : 297 WILLIAM C. BIER Review for Religious of his returns, Father Moo~e reports the following figures for the year 1935. The ratio per 100,000 population was as follows: for priests 446; for sisters 485; for brothers 418: for the ge,neral popu7 lation 595. He found a notable difference between active sisters with a ratio of 428 and cloistered sisters with a ratio of 1034. On a basis of these findings, therefore, the rate of insanity among priests and religious is less than it is among the general population, but the rate for cloistered sisters is more than twice what it is among the popula-tion at large. One additional point is worth noting. Although it is true that the rate of insanity among priests and religious is less than for the general population, this result is due to the fact that syphilitic types of insanity are almost completely absent among priests and re-ligious. If the latter were eliminated from the figures for the general population, the rate of insanity for priests and religious xvould rise above that for the population at large. One might be tempted at first sight to interpret these figures as meaning that religious life makes reore demands on psychological stability than life in the world, with psychological breakdown conse-quently more frequent. Although there is truth in this interpreta-tion, Father Moore is of the opinion that a more important factor in producing these results is the attraction exerted by the religious life upon certain pre'-psychotic personalities. Schizophrenia, for example, is by far the most frequent psychiatric disorder among institutional-ized priests and religious; and there can be no doubt that a consider-able number of pre-schizophrenic personalities are attracted by the retirement and seclusion of religious life, and of the contemplative life more than the active. Their schizophrenic tendencies blossom out into a full psychosis in religion, but they would undoubtedly have done so just as xvell had these persons remained in the world. Outright psychosis among applicants for the religious life is hardly to be expected, but pre-psychosis and incipient psychosis is ~ problem, as Father Moore's findings and fundamental interpretation indicate. Now, the essential point in term} of the present discussion is that pre-psychosis is not likely to be discovered in an applicant for the religious life, apart from some special testing procedur~ designed to reveal it. Sufficient proof of this statement is found in the number of such persons who secure admission to religious life. As indicated above, cases of severe mental disorder among appli-ca, nts for the religious life are relatively rare, nor do they offer too great a difficulty in evaluation. In such cases the picture is unequivo- 298 Not~erober, 1953 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING 6al, and upon examination the applicant is found to exhibit such a wealth of psychopathology as to be clearly unsuitable. There is, however, a larger number of cases in which the degree of psychologi-cal difficulty is considerably less. The evaluation of such cases is more difficult for two fundamental reasons: (1) because the degree of disorder being less it is more difficult to detect; and (2) because it is more difficult to predict the extent to which the disorder is likely to render the applicant incapable bf bearing the burdens of the religious life. It is evident that the reference here is to neurosis in 'general and to the milder forms of mental difficulty which wduld not even qualify as neurosis. Neurosis, referring in general to the non-psychotic forms of mental difficulty, is a broad term, and I am inclined to think that most responsible and informed persons would be reluctant to say that the presence of neurosis, ipso Facto, would render an applicant un-suitable for the religious life. The presence of neurosis would un-questionably create a presumption of unsuitability, but the latter might yield to the contrary fact in a given case. What then is to be taken as the norm? I would, suggest that we might distinguish 'on the basis of the kind of neurosis. It is beyond question that there are certain types of neurotic difficulty which would almost surely be accentuated by the demands of religious life, and it would be my suggestion that the presence of a neurosis of this type would render the applicant unsuitable. At the present time I would prefer to leave open the question as to whether there actually are any neuroses of the second type, i.e., which would not be aggravated by the requirements of life in religion. As an example of a neurosis the presence of which would likely preclude acceptance into' religion, I would mention hypochondriasis, an abnormal pre-occupation with bodily health. This tendency, as is well known, can grow into an exclusive pre-occupation leaving the individual with little thought or energy for religious observance. In its milder forms it s.imply interferes with ~ommunity life and regular. observance; in more advanced stages, it renders the individual com-pletely incapable of foIlowing religious routine. Experience quite well attests that the introspection of the religious life develops a cer-tain number of hypochondriacs as it is, so that the expectation seems justified that this life would aggravate such tendencies if they were already present at the time of admission. An even clearer example, to my mind, of the kind of neurosis the presence of which would 299 WILLIAM C. BIEP~ Re'view [or Religious render an indi~cidual unsuitable 'for the religious life, would be an obsessive-compulsive neur6sis, which manifests itself .in the moral sphere as scrupulosity. I have referenc~ not to an isolated instance of scrupulosity in the life of an applicant, but to scrupulosity of suffi-cient duration to have become habitual. Such a state is aggravated 'by the additional duties of religious life, by the continual self-exam-ination which is an iodispensable condition for progress t~ward reli-gious perfection, andparticularly by the obligation of the vows. In its milder forms, scrupulosity impairs efficiency, in prayer no less than in apostolic work. In its severer manifestations, it makes prayer and religious observance a torture, and any substantial measure of pro-ductive work an impossibility. Attitude to be Assumed in Doubtful Cases In connection with the matter just .discussed, a question arises which must be faced directly, and it is this: do we not go too far in excluding applicants with neurotic tendencies? Would it not be more in accord with the spirit of Christ. and the Church to accept them and to leave something to the healing effect of God's grace? In answer to this sort of a question, I would like first of all to. point out that psychological testing is finished, its work complete; its contribution made, when it has ascertained the facts, in as far as it is possible to ascertain them in the case of the applicant, and has put these at the disposal of the superior. It then becomes the superior's responsibility to act upon the facts as seems best, and, in view of them and all other available sources of information, to accept or to reject the candidate. A prudent superior will not come to a decision', of course, without taking the matter to prayer. Indeed everyone con-nected with the discernment of a vocation must pray; the applicant himself must pray, his director must pray, and the superior who acts on his application must pray. The Gospels tell us that Our Lord spent the .night in prayer before choosing the Apostles. The example. of saints teaches us that we should pray in such an important deci-sion, but also work. It was it. Ignatius' advice, for instance., that we should .work as if the entire l)utcome depended on us, buy pray as though the entire outcome depended on prayer alone. Such advice seems particularly apposite in the selection of candidates. In this case, the importance of the matter requires that the most adequate possible investigation be made, but ultimately such s~lection depends upon a judgement of the superior. This judgement should be founded in fact--as far as it is humanly possib, le to discover the truth--and 300 Noaeraber, 1953 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING should be illumined b'y grace, in as far as it is possible to invoke the divine assist~ince through prayer. Even when we have proceeded in: the manner indicated abo,~e,.the decision still remains difficult, for we are attempting in such cases just ¯ about the most difficult task in the .world, namely, to predict the interplay of divin'e grace and human freedom. "If the human mind,'r says a distinguished French contemporary, "cannot probe this mys-terious interplay +yen after the event (for when someone leaves a re-ligious institute it is often impossible to tell.whether it was through infidelity to a. real vocation or simply due to the late discovery that there was no vocation at all) still less can it see it~beforehand.'''~ We are compelled .humbly to admit that there are and will continue to be a certain number of cases which cannot be avoided, but there are others which, with a gr.eater expenditure of human effort and l~ru-dence, could be avoided. Such" is our task. When there, is, doubt about the psychological s~itability of can-didates for the religiou~ life, I would offer it as a general principle that we should be severe rather than lenient in admitting. My fun-damental reason for this recommendation is that the religious life demands more than ordinary psychological stability for. its practice. In the vows, which constitute the essence of religious life, man makes of himself a holocaust to God. owe speak also of the martyrdom of the vows. It is true that "holocaust" and "martyrdom" are meta-phorical expressions in this context, but they serve to emphasize the demands made of human nature in the practice of the religious life, " demands which are to a considerable extent psychological. Certainly the number of psychological satisfactions available to religious are considerably reduced over those possible to people in the world, while the occasion~ for frustration are greater, due to the surrender of deep human wants through the vows of religion, and by reason of the demands of day-by-day community lif~. Hence there is required more than the usual amount of psychological stability and maturity in a religious, and it would seem, therefore, to be imprudent to accet3t in religion applicants with distinctly less than the normal amount of psychological integrity. A further point seems worth) of note in this connection. The attitude is sometimes assumed that doubtful candidates should be ac-cepted in religion because religious life wotild benefit them more than 8A. Pit, O.P., "Unconscious Attraction to the Religious Life." Religious Life: H Vocation. Westminster, Maryland, Newman, 1952, p. 110. 301 WILLIAM (~. BIER Reoiew fo'r Religious it would some better individuals who are less in need of helps reli-gion would prgvide. A ~lightly different way of putting this same objection would be to say that if there is a doubt, we should give the ,applicant the benefit of the doubt. We assume that the doubt is a positive one, i.e., one in which there are positive .reasons for ques-tioning the suitability of the candidate. ¯ In such cases, I do not think that the general principle that the applicant should be given the bene-fit of the doubt is the correct one. It must not be forgotten that the religiouscommunity has rights as well, and it .seems a more funda-mental principle that the good of the community should prevail over the good of an individual, particularly when the latter is not yet a member of the community, as would be the case of an applicant. The doubtfully suitable applicant--if indeed the doubt is well founded--is likely to prove to be a problem from the very day of his arrival in the novitiate. If such is the case, he will require a dispro-portionately large amount of the novice master's time, to the detri-ment of the other novices who would profit more from his counsel and direction. Furthermore, psychologically unstable and neurotic individuals are difficult to live with, and it seems really inequitable that such persons should be permitted to enter and to. disrupt the peace and harmony of community life. One such person can be a thorn in the side of an entire community,, as experience very well at-tests. In God's Providence we shall always have enough 'difficult members of the community to make religious~life a source of virtue and sanctification, but it seems quite another thing knowingly to ¯ contribute to the difficulties of religious life by admitting psycho-logically unsuitable persons. Finally, there is always the distinct possibility, if not probability, that the defiaands of religious life will increase the difficulties of psychologically unstable persons to the point where they will ultimately be compelled to leave religion (and the institute may consider itself fortunate if the p}oblm can be solved in this way), or else they will have to be removed from the commun-ity and institutionalized. The latter can be.a tremendous financia'l burden to a c~mmunity, an, d it would seem an unjust one when the likelihood of such an eventuality could have been foreseen at the time of admission. It might be felt by" some that when there is doubt about the psy-chological suitability of a candidate, he should be admitted with the expectation that his inability to adjust to religious life would soon become evident to him through the actual attempt in a way which he 302 Noaernber, 1953 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING would never have been able to accept beforehand, and that he xvill in consequence voluntarily leave. The expectation of k, oluntary with-drawal in a case of this kited is not well founded. Even for the psy-chologically well-integrated and mature personality, readjustment to life in the world is difficult and the courage required to face the un-asked questions of family and friends is considerable. Ability to measure up to such demands is not realistically to be expected of one whose difficulty is weakness precisely in this area. Furthermore, it is assumed that the individual is suffering from personality or emo-tional disorders, and one of the main characteristics of such difficulties is a lack of insight on the part of the individual into his condition.' Hence, if the disorder" increases to a point where the individual should leave, insight is likely to decline as well, so that it is not to be ex-pected that the individual will leave voluntarily. I return, therefore, to my earlier proposition that it is a mistaken charity to accept doubt2 fully mature and questionably stable individuals into religion. In concluding the'present article I should like to refer to two quotations which seem to me to re-enforce the viewpoint presented. The first arises out of*the symposium on religious vocation held in France during the summer of 1949, and consists of the following expression of experience on the part of a religious superior: "Experi-ence has taught us one thing, and that is that when there is a doubt about any.one in the novitiate it is n~arly always confirmed later: the situation does not improve. There may be exceptions but they are few and far between.TM I would simply suggest that, under adequate investigation, we can move the process back one step further, and speak about the doubtful applicant, but that the principle remains the same. The second quotation is from our late Holy Father, Pope Pius XI, xvho expressed himself on the severity to be exercised in admitting candidates to the religious life. The occasion was an audience granted to the Capuchin general chapter after the election of Very Reverend Donatus de Welle as Minister General in June I938, at which time the Pope spoke in part as follows: "This recommendation, for which we take full responsibility, ought to be regarded as a father's instruction to his children, based simply on a desire foi the well being of all religious families. And the instruction is this: Be severe. These may be hard words but they~ 4"An Enquiry about Vocation" in Religious Life: II Vocation, Westminster]Mary-land, Newman, 1952, p. 83. 303 WILLIAM C. BIER are p~ompte~t by love, for true love, love worthy of our L.o~d's' friends, can be satisfied with nothing short of the truth . We are not alluding merely to severity of discipline, in general, but first and foremost to the seyerity v,;hich ought to be shown in accepting postu-lants. If ariyone tells you that there is too much sev.erity even now, we authorize you to reply that the Pope wants it to be that .way, be-cause he clearly sees the, need of it, in virtue of his position and.re-sponsibilities, the more so as Providence has granted him a pontifi-cate of some length and thus allowed him to acquire wide .experience in this field. Indeed, if the religious life is to be kept in all its splen-dour there must be severity, particularly with regard, to vocations, because although divine grace helps nature it does not destroy iF; the necessity fordoing battle remains, and in the religious life the stakes. are higher . "It is no exaggeration to say that whenever people unite to form a group, even in small numbers, deterioration occurs. We learn.this from experience. This does not mean that a religious family ought therefore to reduce the number of its members; quite the contrary-- the tendency should always be to increase. But it should see that its members are carefully chosen, like picked soldiers. This is a difficult task, but essential.~ When a number of men join together in some enterprise, their good qualities, and particularly the highest ones, do not become common property; each man keeps his own. Their weak-ness and. bad qualities,I on the other hand, add up and merge to-gether . " These words, coming from so high an authority, speak for them-selves. The purpose of the present article has been to demonstrate the ~)roposition that psycl~ological testing has a function to perform in theselection of candidates for the religious life, and that such,a pro- . gram is in keeping with the spirit of religious vocation as understood in the Church. The theoretical desirability.of such a program is one thing, its practicality is another, arid the latter question will be con-sidered in a second article. OUR CONTRIBUTORS JOSEPH F. GALLEN is professor of canon law at WoodstockCollege, Wood-stock, Md. HILARY R. WERTS is superior and a professo.r of moral theology at Alma College, Los Gatos, Calif. C. J. McNASPY, an authority on ~cclesiastical music, is on the faculty of St.'Charles College, Grand Coteau, La. Information on WILLIAM C. BIER is given in the prenote to his article. ' 304 \ The F:ucharis :ic Fast: Hilary R. Werts, S.3. THE. new and mitigated law of the Eucharistic fast contained in the Apostolic Constitution, Christus Dorninus; and the accom-panying Instructibn of the Holy Office, whose translations were published in this REVIEV~, last March, is a generous concession of our H01y Father the Pope who wishes to make more humanly possible the frequent and even daily reception of Holy Communion so.much recommbnded by Blessed Pope Pius X and his successors in the chair of Peter. In pro.mulgating the new law His Holiness urge~ bishops and priests to take advantage of its concessions to exhort the faithful to more frequent reception of'the Blessed Sacrament. Religious who have much contact with the faithful in schools and hospitals will find many' opportunities for their zeal to promote frequent Com~ munion by expla.ining this law'and leading people to use its condes-sions. For this purpose it is necessary that they have a clear under-standing of the conditions for the.application of these concessions. It is hoped that this article will help to this understanding. The former law for the Eucharistic fast is retained except for the particular conces~ion~ "granted in the new law. The first concession is that water does not break the fast, Water may now b.e taken at any time by anyone, right up to Communion time. The Eucharistic" fast is no longer concerned with water, and abstinence from it can no long, er properly be called fasting, though it may be an act of mortifi-cation ¯ Water here means plain water, that is, water without the admix-ture of'any other substance whatever. Water as it is found in natural conditions is plain water, even.though it be mineral water from a mineral spring, Qr ocean water with its content of salt. But minerals or salt may not be added artificially to the water that is permitted before Communion. How,ever, the chemical additions to our city water su'pplies are not to be considered, f6r otherwise we would have no water available to drink and the change in the law would be meaningless. Aside from the permitted water, the Pope confirms the former law and says that it must be observed by those who are able to do so. But this does not mean that those who c.ome under the conditions of the new concessions must worr, y as to whethe, r or not they should use .305 HILARY R. WERTS . Revieu~ for Religious them. Norm I of the Constitution says: "The law of the Eucharistic fast, to be observed from midnight, continues in force for all those who do not come under the special conditions, which We shall set forth in this Apostolic Constitution" (italics supplied). Hence there is no requirement that those who come under the concessions should rather fast from midnight if possible. Norm II of the Constitution makes concessions for the infirm. They may, without any time restriction, take something by way of drink or medicine. They may take non-alcoholic liquids and they may take medicine in either liquid or solid form at any time before the celebration of Mass or the reception of Communion. The ini~rm who enjoy this concession are either those who are sick, or thos.e who are infirm because of age. For the sick, no kind or length or degree of gravity of sickness is specified, but it is required that the infirmity be such that it is difficult to observe .the fast from midnight. The difficulty need not be extraordinary; a moderate diffi-culty will suffice. If an infirm person who desires to communicate would omit Communion because of th~ fast from mid.night, then surely he finds this fast too difficult. For example, influenza, stom-ach ulcers, diabetes, asthma, the ills of pregnancy, may be presumed to make fasting from midnight difficult. Any sickness in which the doctor recommends nourishment before Communion, or in which re-covery would be delayed by fasting, or any infirmity which causes the feeling of weakness unless nourishment is taken will suffice to permit liquid nourishment before Communion. Insomnia, severe headache, high or low blood pressure, distressing ~ough, rheumatism, arthritis, a bad cold, hay fever, may frequently make fasting rather difficult, ahd permit liquids. Some kinds of infirmity may last for a long time and permit .liquids daily before Communion; others may be tran.sitory and cause difficulty only for a day or a few days and these latter equally suffice for the use of the concession whenever ~hey occur. Since a moderately serious difficulty in fasting is required for the use of this concession, there are cases of infirmity in which the con-cession may not be used because the fast is no more difficult in these cases than it is for ordinary healthy persons; e.g., a person who has weak eyes or is blind, one who has lost an arm or leg, will have no fasting difficulty arising from his infirmity Unless other circumstances enter into the case. The difficulty in fasting required in order to permit the infirm to 306 November, 1953 THE EUCHARISTIC FAST take liquids before Communion is, according to some commentators, also required in order to permit them to take medicine. However it seems to me that a close reading of the Instruction (n. 1) reveals a distinction between liquid nourishment and medicine. There are two clauses, one concerning liquids, which are permitted fi~nder the con-dition that fasting is difficult; the other cgncerning medicine, which is permitted under the sole condition that it is real medicine. Thus [ conclude that a person with a headache, even though it is not severe enough to make fasting difficult, would still be permitted an aspirin before Communion because he is sick and aspirin is real medicine. ¯ It may happen that someone feels well on rising, but knows from exi~erience that if he fasts until he receives Communion, he will be-come ill. In this case be may take medicine or liquid under the con-cession for the infirm, in order to avoid the sickness. Sometimes a person's sickness is due to his own fault, as when one is ill the morning aft, er an evenir~g of overindulgence in food or d~ink. Nevertheless, he .may use the'concession for the sick, sup-posing that he has the .proper dispositions of body and soul for the reception of.the Blessed Sacrament. We may now examine more .in detail what is meant by liquids and medicines. The liquid permitted to the sick before Communion is anything that can be pour,ed and drunk, except alcoholic bever-ages. Thus milk, tea, coffee, broth, fruit juices, soft drinks, and. heavier liquids like egg hog, milk shake, creamed soup and raw or lightly boiled eggs. The liquid may have some° undissolved solids as lo.ng as it remains a potable liquid; e.g., broth with some bread or cracker crumbs, cereals such as cream of wheat or corn meal when diluted with suffici,ent milk to make them drinkable. But all alco-holic beverages, even with low alcoholic content, are excluded after the midnight preceding Communion. Medicine, either liquid or solid, is permitted so long as it is real medicine, and not merely something nourishing or agreeable. True medicine is somethi,ng curative, palliative, or preventive. Any medi-cine prescribed by a doctor is a true medicine, but there are also many substances that are known to be medicine and used without a pre-scription, such as aspirin, sleeping pills, cold remedie~, etc. Commen-tators dispute whether medicine containing alcohol is permitted. It may safely be said that alcoholic beverages may not be used medici-nally before Communion, but a real medicine, even if it contains alcohol, may be used. This accords with the wording of the law, 307 HILARY R. WERTS ° Review for Relioious and the law hardly requires that a sick person know the chemical con-tent of his medicine, or° be prevented from Communiofi because he must take medicine containing some alcohol. We may also note that some things which are ordinarily considered food and not medicine may in certain diseases be real medicine with curative or preventive value. Thus sugar is prescribed for diabetics who have an insulin reactidn. This concession of the use of liquids and medicines for the infirm is granted to priests or rion-priests, and to p~iests for the reception of Communion or th,e celebration of Mass, and applies whether the ¯ Mass or Communion is in the morning or in the evening. The liquids or medicine may be taken once .or several time~ after midnight, and in any quantity. The use of this concession is not directly open to all the infirm, but those who are not priests are required to first consult a confessor, that he may judge whether they may use the concessio~a. This con- ¯ sultation is required in every case, but need be made only once ,for a given cause of infirmity, and the advice of the cQnfessor maY be fol-lowed as long as the infirmity continues, even if it be life-long. When the infirmity diminishes, as during convalescence, the c6ncession may still be used until it is clear that the infirmity no longer makes fasting difficult. . The time'fo[ this consultation is any time before Comm~ion. The confessor's advice is not required to take liquids or medicines. The advice is required for Communion after having taken these things, and so .it may be asked after taking them ~but before receiving Communion. The gravity of the obligation to consult a confessor is discussed by commentators, and some hold that to use the concession without consultation would be to viOlate the law of the Eucharistic fast and commit a grave sin. Others say that a person who is sure that his case comes under the conditions of the concession would sin'venially by disobedience if he were to omit the consultation and rceive Com-munion; and that in an extra.ordinary case, when it is impossible to. consult a confessor, he could use the concession without consultation. This opinion may be followed unless the Holy See ~olves the question otherwise. Of course, if a person were not qualified to judge the matter, he would sin at least, venially b,y acting imPrudently. There is"also some discussion about the confessor who is t6 be consulted. The strictest o.pinion is that he must be a priest who 308 November, 1953 THE EUCHARISTIC FAST could h~re and now hear the confession of the one consulting, and this would be required if the advice were sbught in confession. But the law does not require that the advice be sought in confession. It may be asked in private consultation outside the confe~si6nal and, according to atenable opinion, from a priest who can hear confes-sions somewhere, even though he .has no faculties to hear confessions in the place of the consultation or of the person consulting. Certainly no one but a priest may give the required advice, though teachers and others may explain the requirements to their charges. Since the advice of the confessor may be asked out of confession, it follows'that it may be asked in personal interview, by phone or by letter, or by an int.ermediary,such as a parent or other relative, a Sister or nurse in a hospital, a teacher, etc. The advice is personal and in-dividual and could not be given to a large group together, such as Ill the people attending Mass; but.if there is a group in which the con- "fessor knows that all those present have the same reason for the use of the concession, he could advise the group together, as when all the nurses present are on night duty, or all the people present must make a long trip to Mass, and thus come under the concessions to be seen later. As seen above, a person who is not a priest must consult a con- . fessor before using the concession for the sick (and also the conces-sions to be seen below). Must the sick priest also consult a confessor before using this concession to receive Communion or to celebrate Mass? "A~ first sight the law seems to requlke this, and some com-mentators thus interpret the law., But many, i~ncluding some who are connected with the Holy Office in Rome, say that the sick priest need not consult a confessor. This seems reasonable, for if the priest can decide for others, he should be able t9 decide ~or himself. With-out entering into all the arguments, it might be well to consider one point, The Instruction of the'Holy Office concerning the sick (n. 3) says: "Priests who are ill., may likewise take advantage of the dispensation." The word likewise is a translation of the.word pariter, meaning "likewise," "in the same way." Many'commenta-tors r~fer this word to what has gone before, and understand the law to gay that priests may use the dispensation in the same way as the faithful, that is, .after consulting a confessor. It seems to be as well or even better to refer the word to what follows, and understand the sentence to mean that priests are given permission to .use the dispen-sation as well for celebrating Mass as for receiving Communion, 309 HILARY R. WERTS Review for Reliqious which is a new and very noteworthy concession, emphasized by the word pariter. The next concession is for priests in circumstances other than sickness which make fasting difficult. Three specific causes of diffi-culty are set down and the concession is grant.ed to piiests in these circumstances, without the need of consulting a confessor, and even incases where the pri, est couId fast without difficulty. The three causes are exclusive, and the concession is not to be extended to other circumstano~s, but actually the three given causes cover most of the difficult cases. The first cause is the late hour of celebrating Mass. The hour is defined as nine o'clock in the morning. If a priest celebrat,~s Mass after this hour he may take non-alcoholic !iquids as explained above, up to one hour before the beginning of Mass, and may take them as often as he wishes. The time in this case must be measured mathe-matically. There must be a full hour of fasting before the beginning of Mass. And the Mass must start after nine o'clock. If the priest leaves the sacristy promptly for a scheduled nine o'clock Mass, it will be after nine when he begin? the Mass at the foot of the altar with the sign of the cross, and he is a proper subject for this concession. When a priest is celebrating more than one Mass, and one of them is after nine o'clock, he fulfills the cbndition and may us~ the dispensation by taking liquids any time after .midnight, and therefore before his. earlier Mass, but he must observe the prescription of fasting from the liquids for one hour before each Mass. Thus if he celebrates at eight and nine o'clock, he could take liquids before seven o'clock; if he celebrates at six and nine o'clock, he could take liquids before five and again after the first Mass but before eight o'clock. The second cause which allows priests the use Of liquids up to one hour before the beginning of Mass is heavy work of the ministry done before Mass. No exact definition of this work is given, but in view of the definition of a late hour given above, and of a long jour-ney given in the next cause, it would seem safe to say that one hour or more of concentrated work, such as hearing confessions, taking~ Communion to the sick, preparing a sermon, participating in solemn ceremonies, and the like, would allow the concession, but not an hour of puttering at odds and ends while waiting for Mass time. The third cause permitting liquids to the priest up to one hour before the beginning of Mass is a long journey, before Mass. A long journey is defined by the Holy Office as a distanoe of a mile and a 310 November, 1953 THE EUCHARISTIC FAST quarter on foot, which is a walk of about 20 or 25 minutes. If transportation is used, the distance must be greater in proportion to the kind of conveyance, the d!fficulty of the road, and the condition of the traveler. The inconvenience of the trip by conveyance should be equivalent to the inconvenience of a walk of a mile and a quarter. For a healthy person and a good road, it would seem that about forty minutes by car, or thirty minutes by bus, or twenty minutes by bicycle, would be a long journey in the sense of this law. Where the road or the weather is bad, or the person old or unwell, this distance may be shortened proportionately. Since water no longer breaks the fast, it is noted that a priest celebrating more than one Mass may take the ablutions in each Mass, but using only water except at the last Mass. However, the Holy Office makes an exception to this in the case of Christmas and All Souls Day, if the priest celebrates three Masses on these feasts without interruption. In this case he should observe the rubrics of the missal which require the omission of the ablutions in the first two Masses. If on these two days the priest should take the ablutions with water, he would not be breaking his fast but he would be violating the rubrics. The Holy Office says that if the binating or trinating priest in-advertently takes wine at the ablutions of a Mass before his last one, he may still celebrate the subsequent Mass or Masses. Some commen-tators hold that this permission is granted only if the priest has some special need to celebrate the subsequent Mass, e.g. because it is a sched-uled Sunday Mass. But others say that the law does not necessarily mean any particular need for the Mass, and that the priest may pro-ceed with his Masses for no greater reason than his own devotion. It would seem that if the priest inadvertently took the wine ablu-tion into the chalice in his earlier Mass, and noticed it before con-suming the wine, he would not be obliged to dispose of it some other ~vay, but could consume it. However, if he deliberately took the wine ablution at Mass, not intending to binate, and later the need for another Mass arose, he could not celebrate again .unless there were sufficient need to allow him to celebrate after breaking his fast. But in view of the present mitigation of the law, one might be less severe than formerly in weighing this need. Having seen the concessions for priests who will celebrate Mass, we come to the concession for communicants. This concession, simi-lar to but somewhat different from the preceding, is the one which 311 HILARY Rz WERTS Re, view/or Reli~lious rules the reception of Holy Communion for all non-priests, even though they be religious or clerics in the major orders of subdeacon or deacon, and it also applies to priests who are to communicate rather than celebrate, as for example, priests who do not c~lebrate Mass on Holy Saturday. The concession is given for three exclusive causes of grave diffi-culty, namel~, fatiguing work ¯before Communion, late hour of. Communion, or a long journey before Commianion. The concession requires consultation of a confessor, as seen ~above for the infirm. When the" concession is allowed, the communicant may take .liquids as often as he wisheL from midnight until one hour b~fore Com-munion, and of course water at any time. No solid food,or alcoholic drink is allowed after midnight. Note that the hour is measured be-fore Communion, while for the celebrant we saw that it is measured before the beginning of Mass. The period of fasting must be a full hour and if in doubt about the exact time of Communion one must leave some margin Of time; or risk arriving at Communion before the full hbur is completed and thus be deprived of Communion, for there m'ust be no diminution of the hour. There are various opinions as to the application of the three causes of grave difficulty. One opinion requires not only the exist-ence of one of these three causes, but also the existence of at I~east a moderately grave difficulty in fasting from midnight for this particu-lar communica.nt, A second opinion holds that if one. of the three, causes exists, we may presume that it is actually difficult for any par-ticular person to observe the fast" from midnight, and so he should be allowed to use the concession unl.ess it is clear that fasting causes him no difficulty. A third opinion holds that the only difficulty required is the actual existence of one of the three given causes. For example, if one must make a long journey to church, he may be allowed to use the concession without inquiry as to the inconvenience he would suf-fer by fasting from midnight. TJae practical application of these¯ different opinions will be the same except in border-line cases in which the third opinion will cre-ate less anxiety in the confessor and the comrrluriicant than will the other two opinions. This third opinion has the fewest supporters,. ¯ but I adopt it'as the easiest to. apply and as defensible according to the meaning of the law. Although the tenor of the law is that it in-tends to relieve those who experience grave difficulty in fasting from midnight, it also states that there is grave difficulty in certain cases 312 November, 1953 ¯ THE EUCHARISTIC FAST given as examples. The C0n~titution also insinuates that some cir-stances which do not ~eem to be serious in a single case may have a serious cumulative effect over an extended period. Thus 'the Consti-tution says that the burden of a priest's Sunday ministry unques-tionably undermines his health; the conditions of work in the mod-ern economy and the conditions of modern living especially after re-cent wars have caused a general decline of health. The Constitution, norm V, grants the concession "because of grave incon.venience-- that is, because Of fatiguing work, or the lateness of the hour . or the long distance." (italics supplied), signif~ring that these three conditions are actually grave difficulties. The introduction to the ¯ Instruction says the concessions may be used by those who find them-selves in the particular conditions specified in the Constitution, which in this.concession are the three given causes. The Instruction states 'the concession to the sick conditionally,."if because of their illness~ they are unable without grave inconvenience, to observe a complete fast," signifying that illness may or may not be a cause of grave in-convenience. But in the concession to communicants who are not ill, it states directly that the three enumerated circumstances are (not rna~] be) causes of grave inconvenience. Furthermore, the spirit of these, documents is very lenient, considering a mile and a quarter as a gravely inconvenient walk and nine o'clock as a gravely inconvenient late horn:, if these are considered as.generally grave, there seems to be little room for a reasonable decision that in some.exceptional cases they are not grave. To draw a line betw,een grave and not grave in this matter seems to be practically impossible and the attempt to do so would lead to anxiety and scruples. So it seems to be in accord' with the meaning and spirit of this law to allow the concession to all communicants who are in one of thd three given circumstances, without trying to measure the gravity of the difficulty of fasting for each communicant. ¯ The first cause given, fatiguing work, is illustrated in the law by the cases of night workers in factories, ships or other transportation, ~hose who spend the night in the'service of the sick or as watchmen, and mothers who must perform domestic duty before going to Com~ reunion. The work may be an all-night occupatign, or it may be work done in the morning for a period long enough to make it fa-tiguing, or it may be work done during some part of the night with some sleep afterwards, as when a nurse is called at night for some emergency. An hour's heavy work in the morning would seem to jus- 313 HILARY R. WERTS Reuieto /:or Religious tify the use of the concession. Work done late in the evening does not seem to be ordinarily included in this cause, but .such work and even work done earlier might sometimes be so fatiguing that it would permit use of the concession. The law also mentions pregnant women,rand probably considers them subjects for the concession in-dependently of any work they must do before Communion, merely by reason of the pregnancy. The second cause is the late hour at which alone the communicant can receive. The late hour is not defined, but since nine o'clock has been defined as a late hour for the celebrant, it must also be a late hour for the communicant. Perhaps it was not defined because it maC/ happen that a time before nine o'clock will be a late hour for those who must rise very early. The Instruction gives the example of Communion in a place where a priest is not able to say Mass early because he must come from some distance, as happens when on.e priest has charge of two or more churches. Although the Constitution says: "The ,lateness of the hour at which alone they can receive," this must not be understood to mean that it is absolutely impossible to receive earlier, but rather that it is difficult to receive earlier, or there is some necessity for waiting until a late hour. The concession could be allowed to these: the parent who must care for the children while the other parent goes to an early Mass and then himself goes to a .later Mass; one who is awake until a very late hour at night and so needs to sleep late in the morn-ing; one who needs a late sleep on Sunday or a holiday to rest from his week's work; one who must choose a late Mass to keep peace in the family; the altar boy who is assigned to serve a late Mass, even if he could go to another earlier Mass; a worker who could.conveni-ently go to noon Mass down town but would find it inconvenient to rise early enough for Mass before work; some special reason for a late Mass, as when the bride and groom wish to receive at a late nup-tial Mass, or the family wishes to receive at a late Requiem Mass; and in general, whenever in view of the person's accustomed rising hour, the time of the first conveniently available Mass is relatively late. But one may not without some necessity freely choose the later of two Masses in order to be able to take liquids before Com-munion. A special case of a late hour, mentioned in the documents, is that of children who would have to go to church, communicate, and then return home for breakfast before school. In order to obviate this 314 Nooernber, 1953 THE EUCHARISTIC FAST difficulty, these children may take liquid nourishment up to an hour before Communion. It must be admitted that this concession is not without its own problems. Although a child could have a sufficiently nourishing breakfast made up entirely of liquids, still it might not be a satisfying breakfast for those accustomed to a more substantial meal, and the liquid breakfast might require that the child and hi~ family rise earlier than usual in order to finish it an hour before Com-munion time. From this case of the school child we may conclude that some-times the hour may be considered late because the available time be-tween Holy Communion and other duties does not permit the com-municant to obtain breakfast, readily after Communion. This may be the case not only for school children, but also for college students, and for people who work away from home and do not have conveni-ent time after Mass to return home for breakfast. The third cause which allows this concession is a long distance to travel to church. The distance in this concession is to be measured in the way explained above for priests, i.e., a mile and a quarter walk, or the equivalently inconvenient ride. Here again there must be some need for the travel. One could not choose a more distant church when there is a nearer one unless there was some fairly serious reason for doing so. Sufficient reason might be some special solemnity at the distant church, e.-g., the first Mass of a member of the family; a group Communion of a family or of the Holy Name Society or the Knights of Columbus; .an alumni or father-son Communion-group at a school; a baccalaureate Mass; the close of a M'ission or novena one has attended; but hardly the mere devotional desire to communi-cate in the distant church rather than in a near one. The final concession concerns evening Masses. These Masses are not directly permitted, but the local Ordinary may permit them on the days specified in the law, and he may permit them in all .the churches of the diocese, or in certain designated churches. He may also permit them in the oratories of religious. There must b~ some need for the evening Mass, for workers who cannot go to morning Mass, or for a gathering for a religious or social festivity such as a Eucharistic Congress, a Sodality Convention, a business, labor or scout convention, etc. The evening Mass may begin at four o'clock or later. Some have thought that an eoenin9 Mass differs from a night Mass, and have tried to assign the latest hour at which this Mass may begin as some hour earlier than midnight, but the law does 315 HILARY R. WERTS not ~eem to set a final hour at any time before midnight, and the hour may be defined by the local. Ordinary according to the need. When evening Masses are permitted, all are free t6 go to the Masses and to receive Communion, but no one may communicate twice on the same day, nor may the priest celebrate morning and evening of the same day unless he may legitimately binate on that day. Neither priest.nor faithful need consult a konfessor under this concession. The Eucharistic fast required for evening Communion is a fast "of three hours from solid food and one hour from liquids, and the time.is measured before Communion for the communicant but before the beginning of Mass for the celebrant. No hard liquor is allow~d ¯ after the preceding midnight.Light alcoholic beverages such as beer and wine are allowed in moderation, but only during a meal. Some commentators hold that these beverages may be taken at only one meal, even if the person ~ats two meals before a Mass late in the evening, But it may I~e admitted with other commentators that the law does not intend to exclude the use of these beverage's from any meal taken before evening Mass or Communion. This new law of the Eucharistic fast is a generous help for the increase of frequent Communion. Priests and other teachers of the faithful can use it effectively, as the Holy Father wishes, to encourage the frequent reception of the Blessed Sacrament, and the faithful should take full advantage of these concessions to increase their re-ception of the'Bread of Life in proportion to the greatlyincreased convenience of its reception. " BOOK NOTICI: Over twenty years ago Father Bernard Hausmann, S.J., first translated from the German a notable book on-the devotion to the Sacred Heart written by Father Christian Pesch, S.J., under the title of OUR BEST FRIEND. World War II and other causes kept the book out of print for some years. Now the publisher has reset the book entirely in very legible type. Its thirty chapters, each acom-plete unit in itself, offer ideal reading matter for daily spiritual reading during the month of June; or for the Fridays of the year. The central thought of this work, that Jesus is t, ruly our best Friend, contains the strongest possible motive for fervent practice of devotion to the Sacred Heart. (Milwaukee: Bruce Publishing Cc~mpany, 1953. Pp. 228. $3.00.) 316 Motu Proprio ,Jubilee C.J. McNaspy, S.J. ~IGH MASS ~nd possibly an added toothsome tidbit, at least for the choir, mark St. Cecilia's feast in many religious com-munities. This year is likely to see a fuller fe.stivity on No-vember 22, the golden jubilee of Blessed Pius X's Motu~Proprio on ¯ sacred music. 'Everything about'this famed document is rwell known to music teachers and chant directors, who often have had to flourish it in defense of their innovations or renovations. But this fiftieth anniversary may be a fit .occasion for all religious, however unmusical, .to recall what the Church has to say about her own music. If the Motu Proprio were a dead letter no one would take the trouble to commemorate it. Blessed Pius himself saw to it that this would not easily happen by enshrining his prescriptions in tt~e pre-paratory draft of canon 1264. His immediate, successor, Benedict XV, not long after stated: "We do not wish that the lapse of time should weaken the force of these wise rules.; indeed, we desire them to have their full force." On the silver anniversary, 1928, Pius XI indeed bolstered them with a new papal document, Diuini Cultus, in which he expr~essed surprise "that some have declared that these laws, though so solemnly promulgated, were not binding on their obedience." .Finally, our present Holy Father devotes several pa.ragraphs to sacred music, alway~ stressing the sameprinciples, in his masterly Mediator Dei. No one, unless wi~h a peculiar axe to grind, can say that the Motu Proprio is out of date. Another unfounded notion one sometimes hears is th~t the Motu Proprio is a bit extreme and not practical enough for us to do anything about it. The full reply to this objection would be simply to read it through. By no means does it. state or imply' that one should use only Gregorian chant in sacred worship. Quite explicitly the Holy Father states that "modern music is also admitted in church, as it also offers compositions of such goodness, seriousness, and grav-ity that they are not at all unworthy of liturgical functions." And if this were not enough, the Holy Father explains that "the Church: has always recognized and favored the progress of the arts, admitting to the service of worship everything good and beautiful that genius has been able to discover throughout the centuries." No, only one 317 C. J. McNAsPY Review for Religious type of music is condemned in the Motu Proprio, and that by indi-. rection: the music that does not possess "the qualities proper to the liturgy, namely holiness, and goodness of form, from which spon-taneously there springs its other mark, uniuersaIit~t.:" It is hard to see how anyone could find this either radical or extreme. So much has been done, especially during recent years, to carry out the requirements of the Motu Proprio that another possible qualm may occur: isn't it all so obvious that we needn't discuss it any more? Mu~n personal contact with religious, younger ones particu-larly, is so encouraging that one is tempted to let down, feeling that the battle has been won. The ever-.widening conquests of the Gre-gorian Institute, Piu; X School, and other liturgical or musical or-ganizations must surely bring added joy to the Blessed Pontiff who so recently launched the whole movement. But when one leaves religious house and seminary to venture forth into parish, or even, in some cases, cathedral, the situation is dismal indeed. True, the more offensive, bumptious Masses usual in the last century will h~rdly now be heard. But in too many instances, what replaced them is little better. In fact, there are parishes, even deaneries, Where .the Motu Proprio would seem never to have been promulgated. Sad indeed would be the Blessed Pastor were he not already in heaven. It was with real poignancy that he had written, fifty years ago, while intro-ducing his great statement, of the "many prejudices so stubbornly held even~among responsible and pious persons"; not all of the stub-bornness is gone .today. Need we recall once again that all.discussion of the role of sacred music in divine worship must be situated in the total context of the very m. eaning of liturgy.? The question cannot be simply decided on a purely musical basis. It cannot be just a matter of aesthetic value, abstractly considered, if that were possible. Much less can it be just a question of "I don't know anything about music but I know what I like." ¯ Music that would ~ank high on some ecclesiastical Hit Pa-rade or even music performed in Carnegie Hall will not necessarily be suitable as worship music. Too often, even now, dubious standards are implicitly set up. A meditative reading of the Motu Proprto could remedy that. "Sacred music as an integral part of the solemn liturgy shares in its general, purpose, which is the glory of God and the sanctification and edification of the faithful." Thus far no cavilling possible. "Its principal function is to adorn with suitable melody the liturgical text 318 November, 1953 MOTU PROPRIO JUBILEE proposed to the understanding of the faithful." Here it becomes clearer that music's place must be secondary, that of a handmaid, as Pius XI would make explicit. If tb? sacred text becomes a plaything, or in any way obscured instead of pointed and intensified, then some-thing has gone askew; this may be good concert music; it is no longer liturgical music. Then the Pontiff enumerates the three qualities of sacred music which we gave above. By "holiness" he means ~hat all profanity must be excluded, "not only in itself but also in the manner in which it is presented by the perfgrmers." Farther on he explains that nothing may be admitted ~hat contains anything "reminiscent of theatrical motifs," or "fashioned even in external pattern on the movement of profane pieces." Music of a romantic or sentimental flavor (aptly called "googaudery") in which the."pleasure directly produced by music is not always kept within bounds," is evi-dently excluded under this heading. Next, music "must be true art, for otherwise it is not possible for. it to have that effect on listeners which the Church intends to achieve in admitting the art of music into bet liturgy." This precept is commonly violated in two ways: either by singing music of low artistic worth, music that would never make its mark in "the world ~vere it not put forth under the aegis of the liturgy; or by singing worth~(music in an unworthy way. The second fault, while often less grievous because prompted by good. intentions, can sometimes do more harm than good. People have frequently grown to dislike Gregorian chant or the Church's great polyphony because they were performed with more good will than skill. For this reason Plus XI insisted that at least seminaries teach "the higher and 'aesthetic' study of plainchant and sacred music, of polyphony and organ, which the clergy should by all means thoroughly know." As the seminaries turn out pastors competent in this field, it is likely that choirs will reflect their understanding of sacred music, artistically and liturgically. The third mark of liturgical music, "universality," means that "though every nation is allowed to admit into its ecclesiastical com-positions those particular forms that constitute, so to speak, the spe-cific character of its own music, still these must be subordinated in such a way to the general character of sacred music that no one of another nation may receive a bad impression-on hearing them." This delicate catholicity, a tension between unity and diversity, is perhaps 319 C. J. MCNASPY the hardest principle to apply. However,. ,the Pontiff goes, ,on. ex-plicitly- to condemn the operatic style of his own country. We wonder~ what he would think of certain rather eccentric efforts to produce Negroid or "western" sacred music for use.in our country. But popes are ever practical, and to prevent us from being too abstract in our approach, the Holy Father immediately gives concrete examples of what the Church does want. "These qualities are found, in the highest degree in Gregorian chant,~'' which "has always been considered the supreme model 'of sacred music." Then he sets down, in italics and as unambiguously as possible, the fol-lowing'rule: "The more closely a composition for church approaches the Gregorian melody in movement, inspiration, and flavor, the more sacred and liturgical it is; and the more it departs from that supreme model, the less worthy it is of the temple." It would" take real in-genuity to misunderstand that. Blessed Pius next forestalls a possible escape. Granted, one might object, that.the chant is so sacred and worthy; but isn't other music really more solemn? No, says the Pope, "it must be held by all as certain that an ecclesiastical function loses none of its solemnity when accompanied by no other music than Gregorian chant alone.'.' How-ever, he adds, "the qualities mentioned above are also possessed in an eminent degree by classical polyphony, especially by the Roman school, which in the sixteenth century reached its highest perfection in the work 6f Pierluigi da Palestrina. . Classical polyphony is quite close to the supreme model of all sacred music, namely Gre-gbrian chant, and for that reason deserved to be received together with Gregorian chant in the most solemn functions of the Church." A fir~al scruple: is this not reactionary,, or at least over-conserva-tive? As an interesting corroboration of the Holy Father's stand I believe we could give quotations from almost every leading con-temporary music historian or theorist. To cite only the most recent,, and surely, one of the most eminent, Harvard's Professor. A. T. Davison, a no/~-Catholic. " His new book, Church Music: Illusion and Reality, could almost be called a commentary on the Motu Pro-prio. After calling our chan~ "the unchallenged example o~t:, worship become music" and speaking of Palestrina and other polyphonic corn- .posers in terms of the highest pr~iise, Dr.Davison states in reference to both: "It may appear to the reader that this music of the Roman Cath-olic Church has been rather aggressively held up as a model.If this 320 November, 1953 COMMUNICATIONS is so, it is only because of a conscientious attempt to deal objectively with the matter; for that particular music, it would seem, fulfills two all-important requisites of true church music: first, in vying with the greatest music in any field, sacred, secular, or instrumental; and second, in creating an atmosphere of worship wherein not man but God appears as the important figure in the transaction." . Surely no fine~ tribute to the sainted Pope and his liturgical work for Christ could be offered. Communications Reverend Fathers: The September issue of the REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS reached me t£day and I should like" to cl~arify a reference made by WilliamGrem-ley, in his article entitled "Intergroup Relatiohs," pages 231-241. The quotation given by Mr. Gremley from This Is Our Town appeared in the old edition of the book. I have since revised all the Faith and Freedom" Readers and the particular story referred to by Mr. Gremley is no longer in the new edition. Mr. Gremley gives 1952 as the date of copyright which is also in-correct. The story referred t0 in This Is Our, Town appeared in the 1942 edition. The re~;ised book was published last spring and has a 1953 copyright. There is no 1952'edition of this particular volume. --SISTER M. MARGUERITE, S.N.D: Reverend Fathers : His Excellency, Bishop Gonzaga, of the Palo (Leyte) diocese in the Philippines; has asked me, during my brief visit to the United States, to try to interest some American Sisterhoods to undert~ike educational work in his diocese. Will you allow me to publicize his request through your e~teeme'd columns? The Holy See has entrusted to this zealous and schokirly Filipino prelate the spiritual welfare of over 1,000,000 Catholics on the large island of Leyte. During my twenty years in the Philippines, I have had the privilege of. long acquaintance with him, and know well his situation. With only about sixty-five priests (some of whom are old and sickly) and only three schools conducted by Sisters, he is in desperat9 need of spiritual reinforcements and most anxious to obtain American Sisters, and also priests, for his diocese. 321 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Reoiew/or Religious Anyone acquainted with our own country realizes that we have many regions at l~ome which need additional laborers in the vineyard of the Lord. It is this situation, no doubt, which is preventing many of our high-minded ecclesiastical, and religious superiors from allow-ing their .American subjects to go to foreign fields. On the other hand, Catholic history from the time of the Apostles is replet~ with examples of how the Church has always been prodigal in sending missionaries to foreign fields, even though their home lands were not yet fully manned nor completely evangelized. And they have been richly rewarded by the Holy Spirit, \Vho has multiplied vocations to their ranks as a blessing for their sacrifices. Those interested in further details will please write .to the under-signed. REV. G. J. WILLMANN, S.J. P. O. Box.510, Manila, Philippine Islands --29~ There are members o~ a commun;ty ~;v;ng ~ogefber who bare not spo-ken to one another over a period of four or five-years. Is the local superior obliged to try to correct this situatlbn or should a higher superior who !~nows of the maffer take a hand? As a general norm local situations as far as possible would be handled by the local superior. For a good reason in a particular case it might be deemed advisable that some other than the local superior take care of the matter; t.he case could then be referred to higher supe-riots. Such a good reasbn could be discrepancy in age between the superior and the subject'.who needs correction, possible lack of ex-perience in a younger superior, a question of tactfulness, a clash of personalities, and the like. In our instance the higher superior is al-ready acquainted with the situation; hence the lotal and higher supe-riors might confer together regarding the more prudent and more efficacious way of handling the case. Is it the mind of the Church tha÷ S~sters who de~re and even ask for correction and guidance from their superiors be left wlthouf it on ÷he ex 322 November, 1953 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS pressed opinion that the Sisters are grown women and know what they are supposed fo do? Canon 530 strictly forbids all religio~s superiors in any way to indfice their subjects to make a manifestation of conscience to them. It does not, however, forbid subjects to open their minds freely, and of their own accord to their superiors; in fact, it encourages filial trust in superiors and, if the superior is a priest, it also recommends sub-jects to reveal doubts and anxieties of conscience to such a superior. Consequently subjects are free to go to superiors, even those who are not priests,~ with their problems, especially if the problem does not in~rolve a question of sin. Superiors on their part will usually lend a sympathetic ear. But the case might arise in which the superior did not feel competent tO handle a certain problem; or one could, en-visage a particular case in which the superior judged that it would be better for the individual to resolve some simpler difficulty for himself and thereby buiid up self-confidence. In these matters a great deal of tact and Christian charity is required on the part of superiors; but subjects also should practice charity in moderating ~he demands they make upon superiors. Some problems could easily be solved on the individual's initiative after prayer and reflection. A decade ago the REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS invited discussion on the topic of spiritual direction. In the concluding survey (II [ 1943 ], 187-201) the twofold prong of spiritual direction was indicated, namely instruction and encouragement. On pages 19 I-192 the con-clusion is voiced that need of instruction should certainly decrease with the i~assage of years to such a point that normally the intellec-tual help required of one's spiritual director would be mainly friendly criticism. "In other words, these religious plan their own lives, submit their plans to a director for approval or disapproval,. and then occasionally make a report on the success or failure of the plan." In regard to encouragement, the need is more individual ~nd is usually not lessened with the years. "At various periods in our lives, most of us need sympathetic help or paternal correction lest we lose heart or descend to low ideals." Both superiors and subjects might profit by keeping those considerations in mind. --31-- If a councillor is absent and the local superior, who is not a councillor, is called to a council meeting, does the local superior give her vote ~n ÷l~e order the absent councillor would have or after all the councillors? 323 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Review for Religious ¯ Canon 106, n. 5 says in part.that among the members of any college (collegium) the right of precedence shall be determined by the legitim.ate constitutions of the college; otherwise by .lawful custom; in default of that, by the norms of the common law. Hence, the con-stitutions of the institute should be consulted. If they make no pro-vision, then follow whatever has been the legitimate custom (which here means the customary way of acting), in this situation. If neither the constitutions nor custom provide a solution, canon 106, n. 1 states that one who represents another enjoys the precedence'that person has; but anyone who is in a council or similar meeting .as a proxy yields precedence to those of the same rank who are personally present. Accordingly, then, a local superior wl~o is not a councillor but who has been summohed to take the place organ absent councillor would vote after the councillors who are present in person. m32m Acjeneral chapter is held in a branch house. When the time comes for voting, does the local superior who is not a councillor .cjeneral vote before or after the ~ouncillors cjeneral? (It is customary for Junior Sisters 1.o vote first, followed by Senior Sistei-s.I The first answer is, consult your constitutions. If they say. nothing, the.n follow whatever has been customarily done in this matter. If no solution is forthcoming from either of those sources in the order enumerated, it would seem that the local superior in this case would yield precedence to the councillors general since the latter in this instance seem to be acting in their "general" capacity, so to speak. (Possibly some institutes follow a simpler method of having all capitulars vote according to strict seniority, upwards or down-wards, without regard to offices h~ld.) ~33~ Propositions to be presented to our cjenera! chapter are very often sent throucjh some member of our cjeneral council or fhroucjh the cjenera/ council. 'Has the cjeneral, councll the right to discard a proposition that pertains dlrec~ly or indirectly to the cjeneral council itself, since the cjen-eral chapter, wh[le in session, is the highest aufhorlfy ~n the concjrecjatlon? Perhaps your constitutions or legitimate custom indicate that proEositions intended for the genekal chapter are to be forwarded ,dlrough the counciI16rs general, and that these latter have the power to judge the feasibility of presenting any such proposition to the gen- 324 0, November, 1953 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS eral chapter. Otherwise, an answer (in part) appearing in the RE-VIEW ~:OR RELIGIOUS, XI (1952), 309-310 in response to a similar question .says: "Usually they [requests" or complaints intended for thegeneral chapter] are given to one of the delegates to'the general chapter who, in turn, at the proper time, turns them in to the special committee appointed for the purpose of screening such requests .and complaints. Those that are considered worthy of the attention of the general chapter are proposed to it in due time during the chapter of affairs. At the end of the. chapter, before a vote to adjourn is taken, .any delegate may ask tha~ a request or complaint which has been turned in but has not been submitted to the general chapter 'should now be read, and the chapter will then vote first on whether the request or complaint is to be considered or not. If"it is "rejected, that is the end of the matter. If the majority is for considering it, it will then be 'considered in the same way as .the other requests or com-plaints which Were already submitted to the general chapter." m34.- ~ One of our novices left religious llfe aboufa year ago because of ill health. Now she has fully recovered and would like ÷o re-enter our com-munity. We know she has ÷o make a new novitiate, but does she have to make a new postulancy? Unless your own constitutions require a new postulancy, the ap-plicant does not have to rbpeat the postulancy. There is no special provision in the°Code of Canon Law for this case, but the conclusion is reached by analogy with two other provisions in the Code. Accgrding to canon 640, § 2, if a religious who after making profession obtained an indult of secularization is readmitted later on to a religious institute by virtue of an apostolic indult, he must make a new novitiate and a new profession, but nothing is said about making a new postulancy also. Hence a new postulancy need not be made in that case. ~ Likewise in an institute which has two canonical classes of mem-bers, if a novice or professed passes from one ciass to the other, a new novitiate must be made, but no new postulancy is required (~ee canon 558). Hence by analogy with the above two provisions of the Code, no new postulancy is required in the case proposed in our question. (See also REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, I [1942], 357.) 325 Book Reviews RELIGIOUS MEN AND WOMEN IN THE CODE. By Joseph Creusen,'S.J. Fifth Engfish edition, revised and edited to conform wi÷h the sixth Frefich edition by Adam C. Ellis, S.J. Pp. xlv -f- 322. Bruce Publish° ing Company, Milwaukee, 19S~}. $S.S0. Religious superiors and subjects will welcome this latest edition of Father Creusen's vhluable work. In editing the fifth English edi-tion, Father Ellis has painstakingly made the various changes, addi-tions, and omissions found in the latest French edition. These emen-dations, due partly to a constant effort to keep the work up-to-date with recent pronouncements of the Holy See, serve to enhance the undoubted worth of this book. It should be kept handy alike for r~ference shelf and classroom study of the Church's law for religious. Something about the annual report and the new questionnaires for the quinquennial report is included. Appendix III gives an English translation of the questionnaire for the quinquennial report of dioce-san congregations and societies. As the author remarks in his preface: "We have not deemed it necessary to add a chapter on Secular Insti-tutes, since by no title' are they a form of the religious life nor are their members religious." There is a revised bibliography. A larger type has been used for the table of contents.--F. N. KORTH, S.J. FUNDAMENTAL PSYCHIATRY. By John R. Cavanagh, B.S., M.D., ¯ C.P., K.S.G., end James B. McGoldrlck, S.J., S.T.D., Ph.D. Pp. x Jr- 582. Bruce Publishing Company, Milwaukee, 19S3. $S.50. For fifty years psychiatry has drawn man's psychic portrait across the medical horizgn without a spiritual intellect or will, with-out a spiritual soul. For decades the brilliant analytic theories and therapeutic techniques, often investigated with scientific precision, have been built upon a false psychic substructure of practical mate-rialism and ihstinctive determinism. The emerging portrait tends to be a distorted caricature of human nature and psychic life as a mere mixture of matter and determined instinct. As a net result, psychia-trists are now left without adequate goals in life to point out to their patients. To interpret, to correct, to refashion psychiatry on the same old base has long been unsatisfactory. The present authors challenge the jaded materialistic framework at every turn ,and discard it com'- pletely. They have produced a first-rate psychiatry textbook that 326 BOOK REVIEWS turns a new medical page and builds the young ~cience of psychiatry entirely upon the time-tested framework of traditional scholastic psychology. This book is important for its psychological structure and its emphases. Perhaps more than any other psychiatry book today it emphasizes, with scientific precision, the spiritual intellect, will and soul; volitional freedom at the root of mental disorder; character formation based upon intellectual, and moral habits; and .the need of an adequate philosophy of life for true mental balance taken from both reason and revelation. Pervading the book with regard to etiology is the author's insistence upon the psychogenic or nonmaterial origin of mental disorders caused by a misuse of man's spiritual faculties. The high caliber and clear structure of Fundamental Ps~chiatr~ reminds one of Dr. Strecker's excellen~ book Fundamentals ot: Psgt-chiatr~ l. It has seven major sections, thirty-one chapters critically written and well-documented, sixty-five thorough case histories, and rich bibliographical material. Publishers and authors have designed a clear and highly readable book. It opens with intr6ductory con- ¯ cepts, the extent of mental disorders, and a picture of normal per-sonality. Five major sections treat of etiology, the clinical approach to psychiatry, psychoneuroses, psychoses, and borderlands of psy-chiatry. The conclusion is devoted to psychiatry, philosophy, and religion. The growing importance of psychiatry makes thi~ an important and valuable book for Catholic hospitals, doctors, nurses, and coun-selors, and for those engaged .in educational and sociological 'work involving modern psychiatric pkinciples.--CHARLES NASH, S.J. MOST REVEREND ANTHONY 3. SC~HULER, S.J.,D.D.,FIRST BISHOP OF I:L PASO, AND SOME CIATHOLIC~ ACTIVITIES IN THE DIOC~ESE BETWEEN 1915-1942. By Sls~'er M. Lilliana Owens, S.L., Ph.D. Pp. xxiv -J- 584. Revls÷a Clatolica Press, El Paso, 1953. $3.50. This labor of love but also a heavily documented work intro-duces us into the career of another "first l~ishop" in the United States coming from the Society of Jesus. When the diocese of El Paso was erected in 1915, the second choice for this new See was the pastor of ¯ a church in Denver, Colorado. He had seen the southwest in earlier days and knew something of the complicated and almost insoluble problems that would have to be faced. But obedience imposed the task; with confidence in God's help the new bishop put his shoulder BOOK REVIEWS Review for Reliytotts to the task. For more than a quarter of a century he carried on, then handed over a well-established organization to his successor. Less than two years later death carried his soul before his Maker. The volume is prgfusely illustrated and well printed. Six ap-pendixes add materials to those cited in the course of the narrative. Thirty pages.of bibliography give a riotion of the industry that went into the preparation of this work. There is a carefullY-madE index. In the treatment the author in the main f~llows the topical meth-od, giving for each theme the background and carrying it through the whole period of the episcopate. ]3ecause of this we do not get a very clear picture of the growth of the diocese as a whole. In giving the background more is at times given than is needed for the purpose intended. Fo~ the most part the ]3ishop appears before us, not so much initiating projects of his own, but as discreetly promoting and supporting movements set afoot by others and at times making them his own and thus leading'them to a happy solution. In his administration Bishop Schuler faced unique problems with which he had to deal prudently. Such were the bilingual popula-tion in the diocese, its location in t~ro states, the onrush of exiles due to the persecution in Mexico, the dire poverty of a large portion of the faithful, the shortage of priests and of priestly vocations. Some of these themes are treated with some completeness while others are merely touched upon--the title gives warning that the work. is not meant to be exhaustive.--AUGUSTIN C. WAND, S.J. I WANT TO SEE GOD. A Pra~:fical Synthesis of C:armellfe Splritualify. By P. Marle-Eug~ne, O.C~.D. Translated by Sister M. Verda C~lare, C:.S.C:. Pp. xxli -I- $49. F~des Publishers Association, .C:hicag~ .10, 19S3. $S.7S. This is the first of a two-volume work. The. second is to be en-titled, 1"Am a Daughter of the Church. ¯ Their grew out of a series of .conferences on the Carmelite theory and practice of prayer. St. Teresa of Avila, rather than St. John of the Cross, was chosen as the proxi-mate "guide." Of St. Teresa's writings The lnterior Castle, with its seven "mansioias," was taken as basic and typical and it provides .the plan for this exposition. St. John's doctrine is introduced here and there as a confirmation or completion of St. Teresa's, not as something that. is continuous a'nd unified in itself. Very often fu'r-ther confirmation or illustration is sought from St. Th~r~se of Li-sieux. The work as a whole has five principal parts, three of them being 328 November, 1953 BOOK NOTICES in this volume. The first part is called "Perspectives" and serves as a general introduction. "The First Stages" deals with the matter treated in St. Teresa's first three mansions. Therefore it is ascetical. Next follows "Mystica~ Li~e and Contemplation." In this section-- nearly half of volume .one--there is much that one would hardly ¯ think of in simpl~¢ reading the works of St. Teresa or St. John; for example, ch~apter two on the "The Gifts of the Holy Spirit." The two principal parts reserved for the second volun~e are "To Union of Will" and "Holiness for the Church." On the value of this study as a satisfactory synthesis of Carmelite spiritual teaching we' had better let the Carmelites themselves pro-nounce. Besides it would be premature to judge it before the second and much the more important volume appears. --AUGUSTINE G. ELLARD, S.J. BOOK NOTICES Highly recommended is THE NEW EUCHARIS:FIC LEGISLATION, by John C. Ford, S.J. This book contains the original Latin texts of the Christus Dominus and the Instruction of the Holy Office, an English translation of these texts, a stimulating and enlightening commentary on the documents, and some brief summaries that should be very useful for confessors, religion teachers, catechism teachers, and parish priests. (New York: P. J. Kenedy U Sons, 1953. Pp. vii -t- 130. $1.50.) Little less than fascinatir~g is .the story of Louis Brisson as told by Katherine Burton in So MUCH So SOON. Carthusiafi-minded himself, this man founded schools for boys and clubs for girls, and the Oblate Fathers and Sisters of St. Francis de Sales to conduct them. Of rare scientific genius, he planned his own buildings and invented various things to keep his foundations operating efficiently. With profound trust in Providence, he quietly saw most of his great works swept a

Issue 6.2 of the Review for Religious, 1947. ; ¯ Revi ew for Religious MARCH 15, 194Y Gifts to Reficjious--I ¯ ¯ ¯ ~. . Adam C. Ellis The Rosary and th~ Will of God . T. N. ~Jorge.se. Effects of Holy Communion on the Body c.A. Herb~st Difficulties in Meditation--Ii . G. Augustine Ellard Subjective Sin . . . Gerald Kelly Communicatioris Book Reviews Questions Answered Decisions of the Holy See VOLU~E VI ' ~ NUMBER '2 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS VOLUME VI MARCH, 1947 NUMBER 2 ' "¢ ' CONTENTS GIFTS TO RELIGIO.US--I. THE SIMPLE VOW OF POVERTY-- Adam C. Ellis, S.J . , 65 DECISIONS OF THE ~tOLYSEE' . 80 THE ROSARY AND THE WILL OF GOD--T. N. Jorgensen, S.J. 81 PAMPHLETS AND BOOKLETS . 88" THE EFFECTS OF HOLY COMMUNION ON THE BODY-- C. A, He_rbst, S.J . ; . 89 OUR CONTRIBUTORS . ' . 9~7 ¯ DIFFICULTIES IN MEDITATION---II~. Augustine Ellard, S.J . 98 ~ COMMUNICATIONS . 10 9 SUBJECTIVE SIN~erald Kelly, S.J . 114 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 8. Authority to Change Rule or Custom and to Refuse Visiting Per-missions . , 1,20 9. Workingmen's Indult Applied to Lay Brothers . 121 10. Tipping Pullman and Dining Car Attendants . ¯ ~12i BOOK REVIEWS~ Speaking of Angels; Send Forth Thy Light; Christianity; The Fair Flower of Eden; Our Lady of Sorrows; Ursuline Method of Education 12Y BOOK NOTICES . 127 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, March, .1947. Vol. VI, No. 2. Published bi-monthly: January, March, May, July, September, and November at the College Press, 606 Harrison Street, Topeka, Kansas, by St. Mary's COllege, St. Marys, Kansas, with ecclesiastical approbation. Entered as second class mat[er January 15, 1942, at the Post Office, Topeka, Kansas, under the act of March 3, 1879. Editorial Board: Adam C. Ellis, S.J., G. Augustine Ellard, S.J., Gerald Kelly, S.J. Editorial Secretary: Alfred F. Schneider, S.J. Copyright, 1947, by Adam C. Ellis. Permission is hereby granted for quotations of reasonable length, provided due~ credit be given this review and the author. \ Subscription price: 2 dollars a year. Printed in U. S. A. Before writing to us, please consult notice on inside back cover. if s' toReligious Ad~im C. Ellis I. The Simple Vow of Poverfy [EDITORS' NOTE: Gifts to religious have/~presented rfiany problems froth to supe-riors and t,,o, subjects, as is evident from the numerous questions we have-received. Hence it was tho~ight desirable to give our readers a statement of sound practical principles ~,hich will help both superiors and subjects to solve such problems as they arise. Before establishing practical p~inciples it will be useful if not necessary0 to havea clear understanding of the obligations which are binding upon religious when t, here is question of the acceptance and~use of gifts. Articles. therefore_, will be published on t~he following ,sabjects: I. The~simple vow of poverty: II. Com.- moil life and peculium: III. Practical principles regarding' gifts to religious. ] Distinction obet~een the ,Simplq and the "Solemn Vow of Poverty. IN GENERAL, the difference between a s61emn vow and a simple vow is one which arises entirely from the will 6f the Church; ~for there is nothing intrinsic in the notion of a vow to warrant such a distinction. Two facts ~stablished by th, e la~of the ffhurch explain thisdistinction as it now exists: (1) ,A religious who has-taken a solemn vow 6t: poverty loses:his-right to, own property, and hence cannot acquire property after he:: has, taken, the solemn, vow; whereas,~he religious who has t~i'ken a simple vow of pov-erty retains hih right to the ownership o,f propetty already possessed at the time of his.profession, as well as the right to acquire more personal property ~ifter profession, (c: 580; ~,§~1). (2) The solemn vow of poverty makes-all contrary" acts invalid, whereas the simple vow of poverty general1)" makes cdntrary acts illicit but not invalid (c. 5 .79.). A religious who h~s taken a solemfl vow of poverty is no 19nger c~pable of acquiring anything for himself; hence everything that comes to him even by way of persor~al gift he acquires for his o~der (canon 582). Hence there will be 65 ADAM C. ELIolS Review for Religious no problem aris~ing from the vow in regard to per~sonai gifts to~' the: rellglous wlt~ a solemn vow 0f poverty. They are simply turned ~ver to his order. In this exp6sitign, there-for~, we shall confine ourselves to the simpl~ vow. of poo-ertti. The Simple Vow of Povertti ~, ,Although it is true, a~ stated above, that a rtligious kvho has taken a simple vow of poverty retains' his right toown-erihii~ of propdrty possess.e,d at.the time, and also retains the capacity tO acquire more pe, rsonal property,, still he restrict~ed in the use and disposition o'~fsuch pi0pe~rtyl~he vb~2 he has taken, as well as by the laws of the Church enacted to_ safeguard°thiS ;cow.° .Both the vow.itself and the laws of the. Church made to'safeguard it must be considered ih order to have a fomplete, picture of the o~imple vo~ of. poverty. Definition.of thb Simple Vow (~ne hundred years ago Popd Pius IX defined the obliga-tion involved in the simple ,vow of poverty' of religious'as follows: "'The vow of povertg which- the Sisters,take con- ~ists in this that the~ are deprived of the right;to freelti~ d~s'- pose of antithing'~" (Apostolic Letter; Quam ~maxima, No-vember 13,, 18~y') ~., ~his ~definition has.bedn" retained and. consistently adhered to by t~e S. Congregation in approving" cons'titutions"shbmi__tted to the Holy See. °Th~S in the N6rmae of 1901 undei art: 1i3, ,we read: "'Bti the'simple vow of pover~ti th~ "Sisters renounce the right tO' tawfutlti dispose of anti t, emporal thing without th~ ~.permissibh of the lawful s--uperioL'; We, shall come'back to a study of the definition of the simple vow of pove.r~y after~, we have con-sidered ,the legislation o.f the Church on th.e ,s~ubjeq,t, since-such legislation throws.much light on the m.e.a__ning of ~this 66 March, 1947' ~ THE SIMPLE Vow oF POVERTY ~,:~ O?igin of Congreg.ations with Simple, Vbws~ ~ Fob many c~nturies the Church considered solemn Vows .as a requisite for the religious life., "Time an~ again¯ the Popes insisted that all thffse p~rsgns who ~with the permis-sion of, the local ~rd~nary ~had joined togetherto live~a life in common with simple vows must either, take solemn vows ~nd Observe p~apal effclosure or cease to receive n6vice~, and t~us die but. Howe~er; frffm the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries certai~n popes~appyoved a number of,institutes of religio~ men ~who h~d only simple vows. The obligations arising from these vows were determined by private legisla~ tion fg~r each particula~ institute~ ~ ~ .- ".During'~ the- eighteenth century, ,the Popes. gradually began to tolerate (in, the technical se'nse), a~d then finally approoe~congregations of~religious, wo~en with simple vo~s. ~hese simple vows also-were, regul~ted~.by private legislayion for each respecfige institute. The~e. was~ no. gen-eral: legislation: for the simple vo~ 'o~ povert~ ~ that time. The only legislation of a papal character, that gpplied, to the simple vow of poverty was contained in an occasional rescript given to one or.a~0th~r of t~e approve~ institfites. ,. ~Legf~(~tiOn Regafdmg the Simple Vo~ . On March 19, 1857, by the encyclical, letter Ne~inem latet of the recently gstablisbed S. Congregation regarding the State of Regulars, Pius IX pr¢scribed that in all orders of men all novices should take simple vows for a period of at least three years, before being admitted ,tOsolemfi vows, A year-later the same" S. Congregation issued~ declaration regarding these simple vo~s. Though given~ origiffally to the Master General 6f the Order of Pr~acher~ in answerto a number of questions proposed, this declaration, dated June 12, 1858, was soon extended to other religious orders on request and becam~ the established policy of the Holy See 67 ADAM C. ELLIS. Review [o~ Religious reg~irding simple vows taken as a preparation for the solemn. vows. The.part of the text pertinent to thd. simple.vow of poverty runs ~s follows: Document I IX. (l)! The professed of ~simple Vows may retain the bate ownership (dom, inium radicale) as it is called, of their_property, but the administration, spqnding ofincome, and use of their property is absolutely_forbidden to them. (2) Hence, before tl~e profession Of their .simple vows, they.anust, for the entire time during.which they Will be bound by siinple vows, cede the-administration, the usufruct, and use to whomsoever' they please, even to their order,, should they freely choose to do so . The Council of Trent had required that a novice was. to give away all Bis property before taking solemn vows. This was to be done only within tw~ months of the solemn profession. With the~introdt~ction of .simple vows as a preparation.for~olemn vows, the question arose as to when _,this ~enunciation was'to be made. The S. Congre.gation ~egardinl~ the State "of Regulars answere~l the .question on August 1, 1862, as follows: Document II In an audlence hdd August 1, 1862, His Holiness stated and determined by his apostolic authority that the renunciation referred to in chapter" 1-6, session 25 of the Council of Trent, should take place on the part of the ~rofess~d of simple vows within two m6nths, ~receding the profession of'solemn vows, all thin'gs to the contrary notwithstanding. The above formulae applied onlyto orders ot: then. A formula similar to Document I above was introduced into ~the constitutions of congregations of both men and' womem with simp(e vows only: and Since Msgr. Andrew Bizzarri (later Cardinal) was secretary of,the .Congregation" at the~ time and was considered to be the author of this particular legislation, it ~ame to be known as.the/:orroula~Bizzarriana. Htali(s as well as divisional numbers used in these documents are the author's. 68 March,J94.7 ~ , THE SIMPLE VOW OF POVERTY We'shall hereafter call it "Bizzarri's formulary." Here is a g~pical copy "of its text, taken from a set oOcof n;s 'tl t"u t'lons appr6ved by~ t~e SI ,Congregation of Bishops and Regular~ 6n3uly 12, 1861: -. " " ~ Docum;nt III, ,Animadversions: N. 8. Regarding the vow of p0v~rty the fol~ lowing &sposltmn has been prescribed by the Holy See .for some.of these institutes- (of simple vows) : . .(1) The professed may retain the.bare ownership, as ~t ~s called: of their .p'rdp'ert~; but~ the~ administration!~ spending of~ income, and i~se'~of 4hei~ ~prop~ert~ , i~,~,absolutelg forbidden-to them as long as.they rehaaifi in,the institute. (2) Hefi~e, ~before profession they must cede. even privately, the administration, and use to whomsoever they please, even~to their own institute should they. freely choose to do so.~ (3) This cession, however,, will no longer have'any force in case they leave the institute. (4) A condition may~ be attached stating that th'ecessioh.is revocableat.any time even though.they per-severe in the institute:; but as long as :they,h're bound by vows the professed~0may not in.conscience u.~e .this "right of revocation without the permission of the Holy See. (5) They may, however,~dispo.se of their ownership eithey by way of last will and testament, qr, with .the superi.gr gen.eral's~ permission, b~ absolute gift ,(pdr actus inter uiuos~). (6) Nor are they forbidden to~ place s.uch acts as are pre-scribed by the law, but with the p.e.rmission of the same ~uperior general. , Bizzart:i's for,rnulary c~fftinued to be used ~n individual se~s ofconst~tutmns apprbved by the S. Co.ngregation of ¯ Bishops and ~eg~il~rs from 1860 onwards. On December 30, 1882, .the S. Congregation presCribed'an-officml formula containing, thd same prgvisions in almost the same words, with a fev~ rn'odifications and some additions, to'be inserted henceforth in all constitul~ions to be approv, ed by. it. ,Here ~sthe text of-this, official formula: Docdment IV The~foll0wing rules concerning the simple vow of pov~rty'have been adopted b~' the S. Congregation of Bishops and Regulars, and it ,is customary to prescribe that they be inserted in constitutions WhiCh 69 Reuieto~6r Reti~idds ~ , i (~1) Th~.p'~ofesse~d~may, ~etain tl~e;bare own~rship,oas,it is~called, pf. their .pr0peity ;~butlthe.~ administration~ ~sp.endin'9 of ~'~com~,-~d use of tbdw prope?tg ~s absolutelg [orbrdden to~,tbem. ~ (2) before profession they must cede~ even "privately, ~h~ ad~in~t~ti~ usufruct, and use to whomsoege~ .they please, even to their own insti- ~u~e,.s~ould t~ey fr~dy~ch~pse to dq~so. '~(~ A,qgngi£~on ~gY be attached to this~cession stating that it is'revocable, at aKy time: but the professed may not in conscience use this rig~t~refv,ocation ~ ~ithout ~-~ ~s~ (4,~),,~,~he same ~disvo~ition is to be, made. of~any- goods,~hich~ may. come ~to.the~profess~d, after~theix~prQfessio~,~*under,tifie~o~ inheritances. ~ (5) ~:The~ may~. hbw~v~r,~dispbse 6f theii owners~ip,.either,.by Wa~.of last will and~test~ment, with~the~permission'~of the superior-ok'the superiore~ ,general, b#. b~ Way of absolute,gift (~c actus dioos). In,the latter casd the cession of ad~inistration:~ihfruct, and ase's~all cease, unlessthey wish these latter'to remain nnChanged for a definiidy stated time i~spite of:th~cession .of ownership: ,- "" ~'(6)? They ~re not forbidden to place such acts as ard~prescribed b~-the~law,, bu~ they 'mu~t first have~ the" permission of the-S6#erior or supeiioresL . ~ -~. ,.~ (7) Wha~ever~hep ~r6fess"e"d "r e" h"g~ous have acquired b~ their'own ,ndustry, or for t5ear socaetyithey must not'ascribe or reserve'to~them-selves,~ but alFsuch things must*be added to the~commumty funds for the common benefit of the society. ~ ~ ~ " By, is constitutiqn,, onditae a Cfiristo, dated De&m ~'~*~,X~;~ '~ i~ k~r~ ~",;~ ,. : ~ii *,~.~ ,~ ~.~ ~ ~,~ - per ~,~Lyov, t=ope ~eo,,A~t~ puDnc~y acgnow~geO congre-gations ~tn s~m~le vows to ~ a part ot t~e economy -th s consmutxon he defined the &fference between d ocesan anO Rapalt~ approved congregatxons and la~O down~ general regulations tot ~ne goyernment ot both. Ires constitution ~s,~nOeea t~e Magng ~arta otrel~g~ous congre~tx0ns s~mple vows. ~ Leo s~legxslatton gave a new impulse to ,man:g &ocesan congregatibn~g~ to~ seek, .papal ~ approval.~, Meanwhile the S+tCong, regation ofl~ishops and ,,Regul~rs,~: 70 March, !,9~7 THE SIMPLE VOW OF POVERT': experience in'dealing with these congregations had provided much of the material for the Cor~clitae a Christo, drew up for itself, a new-set of rulesto be~follow~d henceforth in the . . approyal of institutes with simple vovc~,as well as in the approval of the constitutions of such institutes. These Norrnae,.as they were called, did not have ~the force of law, since they~remained a private guide for the use of the S. Con-gregation and .were never published (it w~is~forbidd~'n¯ to ~reprint th~in). However, their became t~ liv'iiag mind of .the C14urcfi with regard to cor~gregatiofis o~ religious with simple vows, and much of their content was embodied in the Code of Canon Law. It will'be useful for our present sttidy, therefore, to give those articles of-the Norrnae ,of 3une 28, 1901, which dealt with the matter of~ the. simple vow, of poverty. " Docur~ent V Nbrms which the S. Congregation of~Bishops and 'Regulars is accustomed to follow-in ~approving new institutes with simpl~ vowsl 113. By the simple vow of poverty the Sisters~ renounce the right to dispose licitly of anything having a temporal value, except with the permission of~the legitimate superiorS. t.14. The Sisters are forbidden to retain the personal ad~ninis-tration of any of their personal goods. 1 15. Therefore, before the first profession of vows. they must dispose of the use °~nd '~sufruct of their income, or of the fruits ot~" their goods in the manner which pleases them, even infavo~ of their _ institute, if they~ freely choose to do so. They must also, before their first vows, transfer the administration of their goods to any person or persons the~y~°cho'ose; and, if they freely choose, even to their own institute, provided the.latter is informed and accepts the trust. °- 116. This cession of administration, use, and usufruct will cease to h~ve for~e in case the religious leaves the institute: nay more, a condition may be placed, stating that it is revocable at any time. 117. Such_a revocation, however, as well as. any chang~ in the acts of cession, miay not be made lawfully ~luring [the time they are '~Fhough Sisters are specifically mentioned, the Norraae were intended to be applied to ,congregations of religious men also unless the contrary was stated. 71 ADAM C. ELLIS' boi~nd by~] their vows, except with the permission of the superior general. ~ 118. The dispo~sition of the use andusufruct and the designation of the admlnistrator mentioned above may be.made either by pub!ic or by private act. 119. The p'rbf~ssed retain the bare owner'sh!p (dorai'nia~ radica[e) of'-their goods, and t1~y are forbidden to abdicate .their ownership~ by an .absolute. gift (per actas~inter uivos) before their profession~ of perpetual vows. 12"0. It is redommended (cor~uer~it) that all freely dispose of all their good~, pre~ent and future, by last will and testament,lbefbre taking their first vows. ° ' 12 I. Sisters professed of perpetual Vows nded the ~permi~sion of the Holy See in order to give away the ownership~of all their goods~ 122. Professed Sisters need the permission of theoHoly-See'both to make or to change their Will: but ~ truly urgent cases the permis-sion of the~ ordinary or bf the superior general will suffice, or even that of the local superior if it cannot .be done otherwise. 123. The Sisters are not forbidden to place acts of ownership which may be requiied by law: but t~ey must first.oStain permission of the.superior general or, in cases of urgency~ of the. local superior. 124; Regarding goods which shall, com~ to theSisters by any legitimate tide after they have taken their vows, they must or may,. respe.ctively, dis1~oie of them according to the norms given above con-cerning the goods they had before first profession. ¯ Thus far we have seen the devel0prnei~t of legisbition regardir~g'the s!mple, vbw of poverty for orders of .religious rnen and foi congregations of both men andw0rnen. During all.'~his time nuns in tl~e strict sense c6ntinued to take solemn vows. irnrnediately-after the one year of novitiate .prescribed b~r the Council of Tten~. ,By the decree Perpens.is,, dated May~3, 1902, and issued in the narne of Pope Pius.~X by-the S. Congregation of Bishops and Regulars, all novices in orders of religi6us women were obliged to take Simple vows for at least three years in preparation for the solemn vows -later on. The detailed legislation regarding the s~mple vow. of poverty" repeated almdst literally. ~_sirnilar provis~ioh~ 72 March, 194Z THE SIMPLE VOW~OF POVERTY which had been made for-orders of religious men in 1858 (see above). Here is the pertinent text bf the Perpensis: ~ Document VI N. 1 1. (1) The Sisters professed of .simple vows retain the bare --ownership (.dominium radicale) of all their goods, (,2) arid they cannot definitively dispose of it except withih two months immedi-ately preceding their solemn profession, ,according to the Sacred Council of Trent. . . (3) The administration, spending of income, and rise of their. goods is absolutely forbidden to them." (4) Hence before the pro-fession of simple vows, they must, for the time during which they will be bound by simp.le vows, cede the administration, usufruct, and use to whomsoever they please, even to their own order or monastery, provid.ed t~a~t.~hey freely consider this opportune, and prov!ded that the order or monastery has no objections. (5) If, during the period of sire, ple vows, other goods come to them by legitimate title, they acquire the oVcnership of them; but they must transfer the administration, usufruct, and us+ as above,as soon as possibIq; ol~serving also the law_,~0f not renouncing their ownership ,until within two months before their ~ole'mn profession. Such v~as th~ development-of legislation.and practice , on the part of the Holy See with regard to the simple vow. of poverty up ,.to the promulgation of the Code of Canon Law.on May 27," 1917.~ While adop~ing,th~ terse form introduced b~r the Normae of 1901, the Code re_rained sub-stantial. l~i thebld 1.egislation as di~velope~ in the documents previously qdoted (I, II, III, IV" and VI)', wl~ich, witl~ the exception of Bizzarr~'s formulary (III) are listed among l~he sources of the canons on.poverty. - . After the i~ublication of the Code, all religious institutes were obliged to revise their rules .and constitutions so as to b~ing them into conformity with the Code. Contrary privileges granted by the Holy See were safeguarded.by canon 4 and could be retained unless explicitly revoked by some canon of the Code. All other rules and particular constitu.tions of individual religious institutes which were ~)AM C. ELLIS cont*rary to the:canons of the Code were~ abrogated (cahon 489) " -, " ~ " , ' Since most'constitutions of:m~odern congregations now contain ~the pr~escripti6ns of the Code without chan, ge !n the matter.of the simple vow of poyerty, we think it helpful to give the-tex-t of the'canons involuted in our stui:ly_before going on t6 comment UlSOn"them: Canon 568. If, during the novitiate,, the novice in any ~vay whate'v.er renounces his benefices or his property or encumbers them, such a renti~ciation or encumbrance is not only illicit but also null and void. " Can0fi 56~, § 1. Before the profess!on o.f si,rnple vows,., wrieil~e; temporary or perpetu,,al, i~he novice '~must cede, for the ~rhole° period during whl~h he will be bound by simple vows', "~he ~dm~nistration of ¯ his property to whomsoever, he wishes, and dispos~ of its use an~t usdfruct, except the,constitutions determine otherwise. . § 2. If.the nox;ice, because he possessed no property, omil~ted to m~ake this cession, and if ~s~bsequently propertycome into his posses-sion, or if, after making the provision, he becomes finder whatever title the .possessor of other property, he must make provision~ according to the regula.tions ~f § 1, for the newiy acq~iired pibperty, even if he hhs already made ~imple piof~ssion. § 3.~ In every religious Congregation the novice, before ma.king profession of,~tempprary, vows, shall freely~'di~pose by "will of all the property he actually' possesses or. may subseque.ntly,' possess . ~Canon~ 5~.9.,. -Simple~ pr~p~fession, ~heth,er t.empo~ary~or pe~ petual, rendeis acts contrar2y, t? the vows illicit; but not invalid, unless it°be Otherwise formally expressed; while s61(mff professton rehd~is Such acts ev~a invalid, if they can be nullified. Canon 580, § i. All those who have inade professio~i-of simp1~ yows, whether i~erpe~ual or temporary, except the constifutions declare otherwise, retain the proprietorship of their property and~the capadty to acquire other property, while safegu.arding the presc.rip-tions o~ canon 569. . § 2. Bul~ whatever "the religious acquires by his o~r~ indhstry or in respect 6f his:'Inst!tute, .~elongs to the Institute. § 3. AS r~gards :the cession or disp0'siti0n of pr6pdrty trea~ed Of in canon 569, § -2, the professed religious can modif¢ t.he"arran~e- March; 1947 THE SIMPLE VOW OF POVERTY ment,, nbt ho~wev~ei of his own free cho_'ice.except, the; constitutions ~ allow it, but with ~t.he p~ermission of the Superior-General or, in the 0 cause.of nu~s, Of the lo,cal ordinary, as well'as with that 0i~ the R~ular S~perior if them ~o "n'a;s~t_e r"y be s: u~B" J"e 'c't .t.o. .R.e.gulars; the modification, however, must not be ~ade, at least for a'n0tabl~ pa~[-of" the ~rop? drty, in favgr of the Institute; :in the~,case of withdrawal from~ the Institute, this cession and dispositidn ceases, to have effect. ~. ,Canon 58~. Those who have made profession of ~imple vows in.any religious ~ongregation: 1° May. not abdicate. ,gratuitously the dominion-~ver their propert~ by a voluntary deed of conveyance (~er ~tum inter oibos).: ~ *Eet us now analyze:the~on~e~ts coataified in these canons iffthe light off,past legislation given imour pregious db~uhefit~, putting them in logicaborder,, with ,a word" of cOmment/upon ea~h.,, ~. -- ~- . '-., . " " The Si~pl~ Vdw,of Pove?ly,:i6 P?acti'ce , 1. A~ nootce ts ~orbtdden to give away ~hts property during the~ time o~ nootttate,~under the pare of nulhty (eanp~ 568). This is the legislatioh of Trent forno#ices ~n,an order. Amcle 8# of thg ~ormae of 190,1~d~a~proved " o~ 4onat~on~ made, to ~ir 1~)~stitu~e Con~egdti~n.'; N0~h~fi~ was~sald ab~ug d~nhfi~ns toga thi~ - ~af~y~duriEg t~e.ti,me q~nov~tiate. ~N0r wa~ a d~gafion- ~de~to the. institute in~ii~ ._ " . :~ ~ 2~ Shortt~ before. Oronoenc~ng his grst~.simpld a noqice mus~ appoint an.;administrato~,:to take ,care ~of his p)rsonal~p~opert.y;during the, entire time during.which -:will be bound by simple vows ~canon~ 569, ~ ~&;_ Docu~ ments:.I, 2; HI, 2;~Ig, 2; V, Normae, art. 115; VI; 4). "" In a congregation, this time will be for the lifetime of the religious; in an order, it will be for the time preceding sol-emn. profession., Strictly speaking; .the persopal Xd~inis-trati0n of his own property by a religious is not contrary to his few ofp0verty as defined b~ Pius IX b~cause it is not 75 ADAM C. ELLIS~ ~ " Revieto FOr Religious a disposa~l of proper.ty., Still, from t858 to the~ Codq inclusive, such administration has been forbidden by'the positive law of the Church to 'all religious'~with simple vows. ~ Hence, no superior can gi~e a s~ubJect permission to "administer his own-private property after he has made his . first profession of vows. Only the Holy See can do so.- 3. Before takin9 hi's [~rst vows, a novice must gioe. away, to whomsoever he pleases, the use and incomd of his personal property (canon 569, § 1; Doc'um~ents: I, 2; .III., 2; IV, 2; V, Normae, a~t. 115~; VI, 4). This dispositionl once made, holds good for the entire time that he will be bound by simple vows, and he may not change it without the permission of the superior general (canon. 580, § 3). Legislation prior to the Code required the' permissibn of the Holy S.ee (Documents: Iii, 4; IV, 3; V, Normae, art. 117). With regard to this disposi~:ion" of the use and income of his property', canon 569, § 1 makes allowances for contrary provisions Of the' constitutions. Whu'sln some older congregations 6f men, approved before 1860, the reli-gious must give~ the use and.ir~come of his property .to ~i~ela-tires ffho ~ire within-the foiirth ~degree of kir~slhip; or in 0thers~ he must g~ive, a phr~ of the iricbme to his institute, the r~ai~der to his relatives!' or aga~in in other~ tl~ ~onstitU-tions oblige the novice to give all his income to pious ~and charitable causes exclusive of his relatives and of ~his ~own institute. ~.Suc.h. con~rary provisions Will hafdly~'be found in congiegations whose constitutions ha~e been ,~approved" by the Holy See'since 1860. 4. A r~ligious with a simple°v~w of poueriy may not use 6r~ "spend the income of his property for l~imsetf (Docu-. ments:.I,.1; III, 1'; IV, 1; VI, 3). Canon 569 does,,not state this negative precept, explicitly, l~ut ~its positive precept obliging the religious with simple vows-to give away the use and usufrtict bf l~s personal property indicates quite 76 ~March, 1947 THE SIMPLE VOW OF POVERTY clearly that he may not use it himself,;nor,~p_end~h_i_s oin.come On himself.,- Thi~s~is confirmed, in the writer:s judgment, by the fact that the documents, referred to all state this explic-itly, and are listed as sources of canon 569 in the Code. 5. The same provisions regarding the administration, use; and income are tom be applied to any other persona1 property whiCh may come toga religious at:ter he has made prot:ession oh simple vows (canon 569, ,§ 2: Documents: IV,'4; V, Normae, art., !24; VI,~5). 6. Mag a religious give awag his personal propertg? In answering this que.stion we must distinguish h~tween the religious wit_h~simple vowsdn an order,~ and a ~religious with" ~imple vows in a "cong, regation.: ~ (a) In an order, the religious with simple vows is abso!utely forbidden_to give awa~:y .his property ,under pain of'invalidity. However, since h.e will lose his right to"o.wn-ership v~hen he takes his solemn~ vows, he is qbliged by.law to ' freely . give ~ all his property to whomsoever,he wishes wi~thin si}ty day_s preceding his s-ol,emn profession. This renun~'at_ion;as it is_ technically.called,., is subject~ to the c.on-dition that his solemn profession will follow (canon-581, § 1 ;. Documents'.' II; VI, 5). (b) In a congregqtion~,.~every religious, whether with temporary or perpetual vows, is forbidden to give away his property during his lifetime. (c. 583, 1 °); . Should h4 do So, howgver, the act would be valid but unlawfu!'(c. 57,9). In this m.atter the Code,.is stricter,than, .the preceding legisla5 tion, which,is not referred to in the sources of canon 583, 1 °. Hence it seems reasonable to conclude that this canon is to be interpreted at its face value, and not in the light of preceding legislation. Let us .consider the problem in detail. As we have seen, up to 1860 there were no uniform~ regulations regarding the simple:vow of poverty in a con- 77 ADAM~ C. ELLIS Review forReligiov.s greg~tion[ Bizzarri's formulafry~of 18 61.i:as~well ~is ',the~ru, les ~Of th~ S. ~dng~e~afion sf Bishops and ~Reghlam~-of~q*8 8 (s~D0cUme~ts:~I~II, 5~; IV~ 5),. gave t~e r~ligious with a simple ~vow,~-of, poverty the choic~.of-~exther kee~ing ~his pr6per~g~'an~d making.a last~ wilt~.ahd testament~ to 'determine Who~was t~ inherit Jrafter his death, or ih either':, case witb;the,permiss~on~ of the-~supe~ior general~ of 1901 ~hmtted this right in two ~hys: Art. 119 forbade the religious~ith temporarg ~ows ~to -give .away ~ang~'of ,his propertyo;~., art. 1~ L forbad~ ,the' reli-gioUs wit~ p~rp~tual :vows to give away all ?~is property witho~t, t~e~ per~issi0n of the~ Holy ,See: "~So~e congrega-tions had the following ~rticle. ifl their donsti[utions - ~pproVed by~ the H01y See: ~ "~he~permissiofi~o~ the Hol~. S~e is-required in 6fder that~ a~ r~ligious ~ith~p~pet~al vows pf6perty;~'.:but the ~wntten permass~on of the superior gen-eral su~ces to give away a'part of it." This latter pro~ision,~ based on art.121~ ~f the~Normd~, was interpreted t6 mean tha~ a religious ~wi'thV~imolg p~- petuat vows .coul& g~ve away a~ part~ of his proffe~ty,~i~h the permission of the superior general, ,prowded'~t was not ~'~Otabte~ p~a?t, that As, ~not~ble in pro~bftiO~, tb~th(~entire . of the'r~ligi6u~ ence m th~s.ma~ter betw(en, t~m~brary and perpetual vows. Wiih)o~t,fi{stinghishing.between', ffo~de c~n~nists of.rank a~d~:iMobrtance' who'b01d-that a .rehgxous,,w~tH a 7,8 TIlE SIMPLE VOW OF POVERTY perpetual. ~imple, vbw ~of poverty may still,follow-the pro; vision of the Norraae. In other words~ th'ese' ~iuthbrs ~hold that~ with the p~rniission ofothe .stiperior general, ,the~reli-giousmay give away' even. a large sum, provided this sum is. no't a: notable parffof his. entire patrimony. -They~ agree more or/less ~that~anything ~ore ~than a [ifth~ of ~:the who!e~ patrimong would be .such~ a notable-part; .and 'they-.point out,,, that shah a:gift could be.made onlg once. It' is the present'~writer'.s firm con:viction that this liberal 61~ihion concerning Jarge~ gifts 'does n~ot ,sqtiare ~ith~ the~ wbrds ~ off'the' Code, and.that."the Code designedly. :dhanged the Normaefin thi~ matter: I.n, l~is.op~nion,~.therefore,:e~ren the~superior general~-can, not ~give--permissi0n .f0r sfl~h, large gifts, ounle.s~s the' coffstitutions,~,approved ~ by~,~th~, Holy~ ~ See aft~ero,she,.Code stil,1 contain a clause to!that effect. _~ v . _ ~- The~case'Js"tlui~e~diffe~ent ~ith~,regard to very~small gifts:. Almost, alkafithorsallow the applicati6n~of~the prin- ~ciple, "'parum pro', nibilo~reputa.tur;"" _to~ small~'~donadons fr9m their patrimony made .even b~ novices, and a fortiori by professed religious.~, For example, a religious would be allowed to use;a;part ~f, fi~s own.money'.to l~av, e_some Masses said. fpr ~ deceased pare.nt, relative, or benefactor, or .to. con-t. ribute a small alms to some;.,~worthy cause inowhich he is interested. It. should be, noted that the "smallness',' in, this chse is absolute, ,and is not to be estimated'~with teferenee .to the ~en tird'patrimony; 'also, "that such' ~mfill gifts" are: n'o. t, to be freqfient, lest the~r.gr&duaUy amount tba large S,~um and ~hus Ynake a~ockery of, the~v~ery" principle on ~hich t,hey are,'allowed, ',,'a~ little bit_ may be, considered as nothing.',' Conclusion Such is ~the' doctrine reg'ardihg the simi~le ~vow of~,pOv-erty which hadst be k~,t in iriifid in ~ulra t~er' d-~scuss~on o~fi "gi'f~s to religious." We may~call attention l~ere to the 79 DECISIONS .OF THE HOLY, SEE ".main points d~duced from this survey which will have spe~ cial application later:~ -, 1. :The personal administration of his property by~'.a _religious' is ~r~ot forbidden by the simple vow of poverty, since administration does not come under the term "to dis- "pose" which is used. in the definition~of Plus IX; but such administration is forbidden by pos*itive law. 2. A religious may not spend the inco~ne of his property on'. himself,-nor_mayohe use his .personal property. As far as the vow of poverty alone is ~c0ncerned, either could be done with the permission of the superior. But positive legis-lation reserves such a permissior~ to the Holy See. " 3. For the rest, a religious with a simple vow ofpove~rty. may not dispose qf anything whatsoever haying a mone-tary value (whether it be his personal property; or th.at of the community, or that of any third party) without the permission of his superior. These permissions willbe regu-lated by~ the constitutions of each institute. DecisiOns o{ Holy See Current n~ws reports fr6m VatiCan City announce 'the dates for solemn canonizations'and"beatificati6ns: April 13: Beatification of Venerable Contardo Ferrini, I~alian jurist 9~d university professor at Modena and Messina, who qied' in 1'90.3. April 27: Beatification of Venerable. Maria Goretti of Anzio, who in 1902 at ihe age of twelve died a ma[tyr's death in defense of her Vir-ginity. May 4Z Beatificatibn of Venerable Marie Therese :(Alexia Le Clerc); f0Undress of th'e C~nonesses of St. Augustine of the Congre-gation df Our Lady. May ~5:°Canonization of Blessed Nicholas 0f Flue, hermit and national hero of Switzerland. duns 22: Canffniza-ti0n of Blessed 3oseph Cafasso, onetime rector of the papal University of ,Turin; of Blessed aohn de Britto, Portuguese 3esuit and martyr; of. Blessed~Bern~rd~ Realin0, Italian 3esuit and home missionary. July 6: Canomzat~on of Blessed Joanne Ehzabeth B~ch~er des' Ages, (Continued on p. 128) 80 /he i<~.sar~y; ano OD became.~.ma, n, not.,.~ .,0~lyl.t~. ._ redaeenmd, tuos ,.t.e ,a ~c h.,.u .s His Ipvable.ness,~but alsq,~o be an. ~exampl.e ~nd. :for us ~on our 'peri,l.ous way.to heaven. Spiritua.1 writers agre¢~ tha.5 the m~ost, i~mp0rtan~ !~sson. His. iif,eo us,, the most, impor,t~nt girt~e !~n .our, life as .well as in His,.is .t~at~ of~liumb, le submi_.s~sion to .the will of.the Father. ~: God's.inLention in creatin~g ,,us is. ~hat .we may, i become members of,His 0wn.~,~awily, Jivi~g eterna!iy:~ith,;Him~.:ion , l~e~iven, a~ .ii~ our own h,,gme. Only ~ove can° secure'this desired un.ion, h uriion ~bringing,g!o~E to G0~ and h.app~in~ e,ss t6-us. This love, thi,s.~:unign, .lies ,i,.n our. will ,"He.whb k,eeps my~.comma, ndmepts, ,he it is who loves.m~:, Christ." For us in this life .s~iritual perfection is prin_ci: pally not in our intellect or emo.tion but in our will. if we would be perfect, if we would love God,. if we wguld Be one with Him, we must conform our will to His: This union is- the purpose of o~ur cre~tioi~, the core of our spir-itual growth, the one thing-God-desires. - Those who pri~e themselves on power, wealth, talents, and so forth forget tha~t with a passing wish.God could give everyone ~in intelligence quotient of two ~hundred. or two , thousand, could give every0ne~ a million d611ars 6r a bil~lion. ¯ In his eagerness to save~sou!s, God humbled' Himself exceed-ingly, suffered exceedingly. Surely He would make th~ - ,wish which would_ lavish Wealth and talent 6f eve.ry,, ki~id upon His. followers if that would help sprea&Nis kingdom ,up~gn.~earth:~,~: T.hings hke:~that He~, can handle:,qtfite, adea ~q~.ately ~i.thou_t any ~helR 4tom Us': ~; Tile one;thing,,~hicli; . T. N, ,~ORGENSEN ~e~oW for ~ligious \ ¯~y its,.ver~ nature, is beyond God's force is the free submis-s, on~ of ~our wills.~ Th~s free return t~each_i n~g-s ;~ 't_ ~ ~s. "th ~e. ~s ~m ~l t" of our perfection. God's will and ours must agree if-we would, live ~Ogeth~r ifi ~ace~ ~But His will cannot be perverted and circumscribed anti whittled down to harmonize with ours: Ours;'therefore, ~ust be molded ahd e~pa~ded~o~become one~itb ~is. ~ ~is ~omplete sdrrefider of~ our wilis[~t6 God'~ is not" too hard.' God'~i~ Wisdom hnd 'knows best" ~h~t course we ShoUld take in ~very action big-or Small. God is Lo~e and has a deep, abiding, personal, loving inte~.- est in our every~concern. Surely His will is just th~ thing we Wduld naturally choose if we were ,wis~, even if it ~ere hot commanded. If we were Commanded td d0something ~bicb God saw ~as Unwise, something out of harmony With His planS' and love--that wofild be hard ifideed. But to be commanded to do the very things which"are be~t for us in every way, that is an easy and attractive road to fol-low on our ~ay to perfecyio~. ~ The Rosary, which is one of the best methods of learning the lessons of the Incarfiation, should teach us with exact emphasis all the important lessons of our growth in grace. It should, therefore, teach us with unusual force the lesson of'humble obedience, of surrendering our will 'to God. And it does. In the Annunciation Mary gives us.a splendid exfimple of humble conformity to the will of God. When the angel has finished explaining to her just what God wi~hes and how He wishes it, Mary ans&ers, "Behold the handmaid of the Lord. Be it done unto me according to thy word." She has no thought of her own honor, rio fears ~f her 0wh grave responsibility, no anxiety even though the message changes her whole life making her a mother and a martyr, the mother of all the living-and,queeh of all martyrs: She 82 March, 1,9_47 . ,,'~ THE ROSARY'AND'GOD'S WILL ~lbes~nol~ h~itate0-a~ mbment ;in, spite of: ~ill tb(s~# great ~-gj~ts and,~gia~es and ~sfifferiff~s[and ~.duti~s,~ ~Sh~' does~not .e~en dwelkon the~ l~fi~erkthhn- it,-t~kes~to,anderstan~them.-,Sbt is so filled with desire to know and to do God~stwill~that'sbe bas.ng~fob~,~eft~in,~er~soul~ f0r _~anity b~fe~:~,~ ~his~ispo-sition~ of ~co~lete ~ubmissi6n tO ~God'~s .will~ leads~tarpoise and p~ace;afid ~p~iness inehny situation:that ~l~ife can bff~r~ Surely_ this~first Ros~ry:~yst~ry ~gi~u~:a p'0werf~l~r~e ,to ,pra~tice.,hu~ble,~gb~dience." ~Ma~y,;s-exam~le d~a~s us,~itb tendgr strength gg~.~oin her~ in saying?in:M1 ,the, tests?of~:offr life~,/,)Bqhold,O~,Lord, ~Your h~ndmaiden, ~our~ready, ser~ va,fit, ~Nour trusting child;, ~Be it~ donff~unt~me;~a¢cOrding ; ~:~,~herVisttatlon~,rehF~s the lesson~./Li.ke al.1 great,souls~ Mar.~ l~as ;of~ X,~reflectiy~ trend. of mind:~ th¢ gospel~.tha.t ~it~,~as-~ber ~habit~ to .~.ponder, ~n.,her ~hea.rtv~ thel ~ords:o£,othefs ,7.~Euke. 2~:d.9,f~:2:~:5~l,)~. ~e knoW~t06; Lha.t,,"Mary's ~,l~ove ~ifor,, ,,God ,~as .~ great,; -h~r,-~sire for~ the coming, ofbthe, Messiah~as dntense.° :~hen"ithe ahgel left her~,~therefore,~it Would hav~,,been pleasant, ind~'ed to reflect leiso;~ely.~up~n :his,,~ gl6ri0u~ ~message, ~,to~ meditate, ~on,, the unique love and tru~tiGod,had~shown her, to?adore in(the silenc~ of h~r_own oroom :the. God-man who~had~ just come :tolife Githin~her, womb~ B'ut ~he kne~th~t Eliza'beth,and 3ohn the Baptist needed her. "And she arose and went. in hast~ into, the hill country to~visit her cousin.~ ~This prompt .response,to the slightest suggestion:of God'~ d~si~e. couple~ W, ith, the~ever-presefit hffmility ~hich .urges her .(the Mother of God) to go forth.doing good ,instead 6f waiting for Others to ~ome in. service to h~t~this again is, a togent Aesson to, us of humbleobedience. The happy maiden in 5he:springtime of¯ l'[fe, jub~!ant ~in Go'd's~,love as,,she has_tens over ~the~hills,xsh~ws.,us thavobedience~is;n~t~a sad~or .sober thing:f0r ~I1 of its yseri~sness; ~God ~gi~es Mary to T. N. JORGENSEN Review ~or Religious as an example. , If we surrender~ to His gra,ce, His love will~ bless us and Christ will truly abide ~nd grow within Us. Our gay journey over the hills of life-will end in our own joyous Magnificat~ Thethird joyful m~rstery pictur,es the happy, Mary- and Joseph in a cave, 'the shepherds running to join them, the Magi coming frorfi afar with their symbolic gifts. It was through 'humble obedience that all these arrived at this. haven of joy.- ~Mary and Joseph humbly made the trip to Jerusalem in obedienc~ tothe census-t, aking edict of AUgus~- tus Chesar, their civil ,superior. They might have consid-ered themselves excused under the circumstances, ,but they did not, arid their obedience led to the fulfillment of the prophecies and to the joy of the shepherds and of the Magi and of all Christians. The shepherds believed and acted upon the almost'unbelievable words of the angels that they .- should find God wrapped in swaddling '~lothes and laid in a manger. They belie,veal and followed' humbly and, found happiness. The Magi were obe~tient to an impulse of grace and to the light of a st~r, traveling great distances on what; no doubt, their friends called a wild,goose chase. They also found God and happiness~ All~ these were humble enough to see God in a helpless Babe and obedient enough to come in search of Him and adore Him. ,Thus they found joy,andpeace. The Presentationfifids Joseph and Mary offering Christ in tile ~emple in respons~ to the command of the Jewish law/"Every male~ opening the womb shall be called holy to the Lord" (Luke 2:23). Again Mary might have held herself exempt, for the virgin birth kept her from coming directly under the law. But Christ was her first-born,'anit so she complied even though her virginity wasuntouched. H:id she failed to comply, her neighbors, who did not kno~ of the miraculous nature of the birth, would have be~n 84 Marcb,'1947. ,~ THE ROSARY AND GOD'S WILL scandalized. Because she did comply, some people have doubted her virginity. Mary chose the second'~horn of this dilemma. Whatever Mary may have foreknown, God cer-tainly foresa.w that heretics would use this obedience of Mary's as an argument against her perpetual virginity'. God is most zealous.of Mary's honor; ye~ He inspired her to fulfill the law. For "obedience is better than sacrifice," because by obedience the whole man body, mind, and will is given entirely to God. On another occaslon, too, God taught.obedience at the risk of some people's misunder-s~ tanding Mary's glory. Christ, while speaking to a crowd. was told that His mother and brethren stood outside seeking t9 speak to Him; and'pointing to His-f011owers about Him He said, "Behold my mother and my brethren. Forwho~ soever shall do the will of my Father is my brother and sister and mother.'.' (Matthew 12:50.) And again .when the woman in. the drowd cried out blessing His~ mother, Christ answered, "Yea, rather~ blessed are~ they who hear the word of God ~ind keep it" (Luke 11:28). ,We know tha~,.the true understanding of these passages gives Mary praise; but nevertheless they urge us to praise her more. l~ecause her will is one With His than because she is mother. ' The Findin~ in the Temple orecalls these words of Christ,-"Did you not know that I must be about my Father's business?" (Luke.2:49.) Mary's question had u~ed the word "Father" in reference to Josdph;-Christ used it in reference to God the Fathers"from whom comes a11 paternity" and all authority. Doing His Father's business was, of course, submitting Himself to His Father's-will, was being obedient. These are the first words of Christ recorded in Scripture. His first lesson is a lesson of obedi-ence. His last lesson is the same, for "He,was obedient unto death, even unto the death Of the cross." 85 T. N. JORGEN~EN \ Revieu~ for Religious ~ In foretelling the characteristics of Christ, .the Psalmist says in His name, '~Sacrifice and oblation. ~ burnt offering and sin offering thou didst not require~ Then said I, 't3ehold t~c~me: In the h~ad of the book it is written of.me that I should do thy' will. O my God, I have desired it, and thy law is in the depth of my h~ar't.' " (Psalms 39:8ff.). A,fter ° the finding.in the Temple, "3esus went down into. Nazareth With Mary and 3oseph and.,was subject tothem." His thirty years of life in Nazareth give, in. point of time at least; ~a tenfold emphasis upon obedience over all the l~ssons which He crowded into'the three .years of public'miniStry! " The Sorrowful Mysteries carry on 'the lesson of humble obedience.- A.week before the Passion, Christ said to His - protesting apostles; "Shall I not drink the chalice which my Father has prepared for Me?" Looked upon as medicine which the perfect Doctor has carefully prepared,, sufferings become endurable, even most desirable. And they are jus.t that--the best of medicine. We' never have faced and never will face any suffering which God has not,prepared or per-- mitted for a very definite good in our spiritual life. ._ At the beginning of His Passion Christ spent hours in the agony in the garden praying over and over again~ "If it ¯ be possible let this chalice pass from me, howev~er,, not my ~ill but Thine be done.~" Not my will but Thine be donee-how perfectly these words of the first sorrowful mystery echo Mary's words of the first joyful mystery, "'Be it done unto me-according to thy word."-With this prayer to strengtl~en Him, Christ overcame His fear' and went forth bravely with unwavering poise to endure the worst that man and devil could devise. All that He endured, He looked upon a~ providential, the fulfilling of the prophecies;., the sanctifying, of the human race, the chalice prepared by His loving Father. Even when manifested only indirectly tlSrough civil authority, the will o~ God was His "meat / 86 Marcl~o i ~ ~ 7 'THE 'ROSARY AND GOD'S.XX~IKL indeed." Like P~ter He was subj~ct to human authority "for God's sake." Like Paul He taught that "there is no power butofrom God and. those that are ordained by God: therefore he that resists lawful superiors, resists God" (.Ro-mans 13 : 1 ). -The Glorious Mysteries take, up where the sorrowful ones leave off, fob they picture the reward which Christ gained by His Passion. "He humbled himself becoming obedient unto death, .even to the death of the cross. For which cause. God has exalted'Him and has given Him a name" which is above all other names, that in the name 6f 3esus-every knee should bow of those that are in Heaven, on earthl and under the.earth, and that eyery_tongue should confess that the Lord ,Jesus Christ.is in the glory of,Ggd the Father."- (Ph!lippians 2:8ft.) The reward which ,we meditate upon in the glorious mysteries, Christ's and Ma~y's and the saints', is the pledge and protot~rpe, the promise and the pattern, of.the glory that c6hae~ to all who through. humble obedience gain gl0ridus triumph. "The obedient man shrill speak of Victory" (Proverbs 21:28): Runqir~g ~tfirough .all the mysteries~-joyfgl, sorrowful, and glori6us--we have the "Thy will .be. d6ne on earth ;is. it is in Heavefa" of the Our Father. Virtue means being like.the blessed in heaven; their'ob~dience is c~mplete and therefore their freedom and.happiness are perfect. This/ prayer.at the beginning of each decade keeps reminding us,. in .our subconscious mind at least if not in ou~ conscious thoughts, that the road to peace and joy and triumph is identical with the road to the fulJ surrender of ou,r will to Gbd. At times it may. not seem so to us, of course, because oub ignorance and emotion may blind us to a great degree. We are like men walking a straight and well-marked road in a fo~ or darkness which gives, it a strange and d~u.btf, ul appearance, It is just b~cause of this deception that we, x - T. N. JORGENSEN \ ~must renew and enliven our faith with frequent Rosaries.' All of the foregoing shows us how the vital lesson of_ humble obedience is taught, and taught with the great insistence it deserves, in the Rosary. _It would be an inter-esting and a highly profitable exercise to see how other import,ant lessons and virtues ruin through the fiifteen mys-teries. They a, re there.~ All that we need is there, for ~the Rosary is the story of the Incarnation, and the Incarnation is God's answer to original sin, God's o;,vn wonderful'plan for our perfection and salvation. " PAMPHLETS AND BOOKLETS~ Some time ago we announced that we could not accept pamphlets for review. Up to this time we have tried to print at least an occasional list of pamphlets received: but even this is becoming increasingly difficult. The present list includes most.of the pamphlet literature we have received in recent months. With the pub-lication of this list. we cease all listing of pamphlets except those 'which might have , a verg special pertinence to our readers. ¯ ~ I. From the Radio Replies Press, St. Paul 1, Minnesota: First Fridays, 15 cents: Wh~t A Mission $ister,~15 cents:The Three Hours and All Fridags of the Year, 35 cents: The Music of~th~ ~Mass. 25 cents: Jesus in the Blessed Sacrament, 15 cents; The Blessed Virgin and the Jews, I0 cents: General Devotions to the Blessed Virgin, 15 cents: The Paraclete Novenas to the Holy Spirit, 15 cents; What is the CarBolic Faith, Anyway? 20 cents:~Way of the Cross for Chddreno 15 cents: Qmzzes on Christian 8ciencei 15 cents: T, be Death of Christ the Warrior, 50 cents; Forty Hours for'Priests and People, 35 cents. II. From The Grail, St. Meinrad, Indiana: Christ and the Soul, 10 cents; The Role of the Priest in tbe Apostolate of Reading, 10"cents: What is the Answer? 10 cents: Imitate Your Blessed Mother, 25 cents; Fruitful Days, 25 cents; This,is Jesus,~ 15 cents: Way,of the Cross for Religious, 10 cents:. Manual of the 8errant of Mar~ , 25 'cents; Digest of the Liturgi-cal Seasons, 25 cents; Liturgical Essays, 25 cents:~,Rouse Tby Might, 25 cents: The Ma~s Year, 30 cents (4 copies. $1.00; 50 copies, $10.00);_Newness of Life, 25 cents; A More Exce, llent Way, 15 cents: Polnt~ for Meditation, 15 cents; Some Hints on Prayer, 15 cents: The Charity of Jesus Christ, 15 cents: T~ Seek ¯ God, 10 cents (vo'cationabl o~oklet. otnhe life ofa Benedictine Sister); Come and See, 25 cents (an insight into the life of the Benedictine monk): Follow Christ, 25 cents (the'vocation numbers for 1945. 194'6, 1947): Christ ~alls,~25.cents (vocation guidebook for use of'teachers). - ~ III. Various publishers: Attention Miss Ares?ira. A vocational booklet pub~lished 'by the DominiCan Sisters, Immaculate Conception Convent, Great Bend, Kansas¯ ~ (Continued on p. 97) 88 The I:fl:ects o1: Holy Communion on the Body C. A. Herbst, S.J. THE effects of Holy Communion are wrought primarily in the soul. By a most intimate union through~char-ity, Christ taken as food sustgins and nourishes the soul, causes it to grow in grace, builds up the ravages wrought by sin, .and brings delight. But it would be strange indeed if Holy Communion "had no effect on-the body. We consider holy .the altar on which the body and blood of Christ is Offered; afad the tabernacle in which He rests, a sacred place. Ought not our bo'dies, into whic~ He has entered so often,-be sacred too? During His lifetiine here on earth, great healing power. wentout from the mortal body.of Christ.~. "And all the multitude sought to touch him, for virtue went out from him, and healed a11" (Luke 6:19). These wonders were worked by a mere paS~ing contact. Now that the body of Christ is glorified, what wonders ought we not to expect from His coming into ofir very bodies? "For no man hateth his own flesh: but--nourisheth and-cheris'he'th it, a.~' algo Christ doth the church: because we are members of his body, of his flesh, and of ~is bones~' (Ephes.ians 5:29, 30). Man is composed of two elements, a body and a soul. These twoare most ihtimately joined and greatly influence each other. This is well illustrated by the transmission of original sin. ~ " If the. flesh of the first man made poisonous and° mortal com-municates death to the soul, shall not the Flesh of Christ. wbich is l~ealthful 'and life-giving, bestow upon it life and safetg? Therefore as the soul contracts all its ills by flesh, it ought by flesh to receive all its benefit. If it is to be freed from the evil which came to it by the / 89 C. A. HERBST Review for R~tigious 'flesh of the first man, it must'have society" and union witl~ the Flesh of Christ, the Sec0hd Man. And as by the single flesh of the first' man all souls are infected and destroyed, so are all souls washed, .cleansed and quickened b~ the Flesh of Christ. As the flesh of" the first man is the storehouse of all vices, sins and crimes, so ali virtues. al~ spiritual treasures and all blessings ale stored up in the,Flesh of Christ. As the former flesh separates the soul from God and unites it wi'th Satan, so the Flesh of Christ separates it from Satan and uniters. it to God. For as Satan lurks in the flesh of the firs~ man, so the Godhead abides in the flesh of the Second'Man. (Catholic Faith in the Holy Eucharist, edited by C. Lattey, S.J., p. 191.) --- Because of the intimate union between the body and. the sob1 and because of the intimate union of Christ with both the body and the soul in Hbly Corrimunon, this .sacrament sanctifies both. St. Clement of A1exandkia says: And the mixture 6f b6th--of the drink and of the Word.---is Call~d Eucharist, renowned.and glorious grace: and they who by faith p~rtake of-It are sanctified both in body and in soul. For the divine mixture, man, the Father's will has rhystically compounde~d bY the, Spirit and. the Word. For, in. truth, the Spirit is joined to.the soul, which is inspired by It: and the flesh, by reason of whichthe Word. became flesh, to the-Word. (Paedogog., 1.2, c.2.) B~r reason of the uriion of the body of Christ with our bodies in,Holy Communion, a sort of relationship arises between our bodies and His. There is a certain affinity, of c0~ncorpo~ration everi,, between our bodies and His. The Fathers of the Chu, rch speak of_this not merely as of a passing state existing only--as 10ng as the sacred- species remain with us, but as of a permanent effect in-our bodies, setting up something of a blood relationship with Christ. He considers our bodies as somethihg of His own and sur-rounds 'them with a special" protection. According to the promise of Christ and the declaration~ of the Fathers it seems that we must say that Christ the Lord considers the very flesh,of tho~'e who_worthily receive the sacrament as I~is own flesh b~t special a~nitg, as though consecrated by contact with His. most sacred flesh . This mystical 9O 2 EFFECTS OF HOLY COMMUNION union of our flesh with the flesh of Christ receives its fuller consum-mation and as it were sacramental consecration through, conjunction of His glorified body and blood with our own b6dies. In thi~, union ire celebrated th~ nuptials of the Lamb with His Spouse the Church still pilgrimaging in the single members; which will be celebrated more happily and in more complete union only in our heavenly l~ome. (Franzelin, De 85. Each., c. 19.) Holy Communion" restores to .us something of our 6riginal integrity. St. Gregory o'f Nyssa says: Since we have tasted (of the forbidden tree) which has wounded our nhture, we must have something that will "heal what has been wounded . ~Now what is this? Nothing other than. that body that has showed itself stronger than death and was_the source of our life. For'as a little leaven, as the Apostle says, fermenteth the-whole mass, so the body give~ over by God to death thoroughly changes us into itself when itis within us. (Patrologia Graeca, 45, 94.) Thii does not mean, of course, that. concupiscer~ce is .completely extinguished by receiving the Holy Eucharist. But by means of the Sl~eciaI abundance of grace the sacra-ment ,brings to the soul, it is much easier to overcome the temptations o'f the flesh and the devil. (~oi~cupiscence is gre~itly restrained arid we are able to dominate ~it more easily. Such chanriels of grace are opened in the soul that they overflow, so to speak, to the Body whidh is so inti- ~atelyJconnected with it. But there is an even more immediate effect upon ~he body:Z Sometimes the presence df Christ in us weakens our propehsity~to be aroused by carnal excitations. By a cer-tain preternatural tempering of the bodily dispositions, it restrains,our natural incliiiation t0ward-things.6f the flesh. Although this is not certain, it dods seem that at times Christ has almost fettered concupiscence in the bodies of His saints, This would seem more .proBable since the sacrament of extreme unction affects the body when God sees fit. We ,must also take into consideration the fact that God can exercise His special providence in this regard by 91 C. A. HERBST Review for Religious removing external occasions that are the cause of sinf~l movements in man and by exciting in him thoughts and affectibns that lead to t.emlSerance. De Lugo explains that the Eucharist affects the body di/ectly and immediately "b~ro diminishing the intensity of the fire of_ concupiscence,' partly by putting the demons to flight so that they will not present images of sinful objects, partly by quieting and'sup-pressing the activi.ty of the humors, lessening their inten-sit, y, and so" forth" (De Sac. Each., 12, 5). The effect of Holy Communion on the body most dwelt upon in Christian tradition is that indicated by Christ in John 6, 55: "He that eateth my flesh, _and drinketh' my blood, hatheverlasting life: and I will raise him up in the last ~tay." Although it is decreed for every man once to die and for his body to return to the earth from whence it was taken, there results from the reception of this sacrament some beginning of incorruptibility and immortality already in this life. St. Ignatius speaks of "breaking one and_the same bread, which is the medicine of immortality, and the antidote to prevent us from dying, but (which causes) that we .should live forever in Jesus Christ" (Eph., 20). St. Irenaeus says: "Thus also our bodies, receiving the Eucharist, are no longer corrut~tible, having the hope of-tl~e ~esurrection"; and "How do they deny the flesh to be "capable of the gift of'God, which is eternal life, Which is nurtured by the body and blood of Christ, and is a member of rus. (Patroloqia Graeca, 7, 1029; 1126.) St. Cyril of Alexandria comments thus on John 6, 55: I, He says, being in him that is, by My flesh will raise him who eats up again, even on the last day. For, of course, it cannot be that He who accordihg to nature is life shoul'd not prevail over cor-ruption and vanquish de~th. So although death, which has taken hold of us by the Fall, has reduced the human body to the necessity of corruption, still, because Christ by His flesh is in us, ~e shall cer-tainly rise a~gain. For it is unthinkable, quite impossible even, that March, 1947 EFFECTS 0~- HOLY COMMUNION the Life should not restore life to those in whom He dwelt. For as we put a spark in a heap of straw that the seed.of the fire may~be preserved, sb also Our Lord Jesus Christ through His flesh enkindles life in us and, as it were, sows in us the seed of immortality which removes.all the corruptio.n that is in us. (Patrologia Graeca, 73,582.) In the dogmatic teaching of ~he ChurCh, one finds little about the effects of Holy Communion on the body; but .tra.dition-is heavy with it. Perhaps no better indication of its burden can be given than is contained in these words Of St.~ Irenaeus: ~ ~ 'Wherefore,also the Blessed Paul says in the Epistle to the Ephe: sians: "For we are members of his body, of his flesh and of his bones" (Epl~esians 5:30): not of some spiritual orinvisible ~an s~ying this :. "for a spirit has neither bones' nor-flesh" (Luke 24: 39) ~ but Of that disposition which is of a true man, which consists of flesh and nerves and bones. (Patrologia Graeca, 7, 1126~.) As indicated, modeln theologians have als0 made~m~fch of it. About ali that can be~said on the_whole matte~ has been summarized masterfully by qne of.the greatest of them. ~ W.hen Christ' is worthily received.,He is .r~eally joined ,witia the recipient, because He is truly and properly within him~ and as it were ~aken in a. bodily embrace. From this it follows that, as 10rig as Christ is present, in so far as it is from His sacramental power, He excites the recipient, to love, and in affection also embraces him cor-porally, who has Him corpora.11y within himself. Then again, from the same bodily reception and.as it were commingling, as the s~ints say, there remains,'~ven after the real presence of Christ is gone, a. certain relationship between Christ and the recipient. For by reason of that cont.act, by special title this one is considered something of Christ. Christ has special care not only~of his soul, but even of his bod~. He sanctifies it. He makes it partaker of His glory." (Suarez, .93 News Views Summer Sessions Two years ago-we volunteered~to publish information on summer sessions for (eligious, if the deans would send us the information. Since the experiment was not entirely sati~sfactory from our point of view, we decided to discontinue' it. It seemed, as the old saying goes, "more bother than it was worth." - However, some deans have shown su~fficient interest in the plan.to send information spontaneously;and we are quite willing to co-operate with them b~, publishing the" fol-lowing ann.ouncements. The University of Detroit will offer four institutes during the 1947 summer session, in addition to.a serie's of four lectures on Mental Hygiene in the Religious Life, and over a hundred different credit courses in nineteen departments. Doctor Francis J. Donohue, Direc-tor of the Summer Session, describes the Detroit program for. religious . as follows: ¯ "Rev."T. L. Bouscaren, S.J.', Profe.~sor of Canon Law at the Jesuit House of Theological Studies at West Baden Springs, Indiana, ~'- will give from July 7thto July 18ththe second of a series of'~hree Institutes on Canot~ Law. The Instituie for 1947- will consider problems concerning the confessions of religious women, religious services, obligations of Religious, the cloister and dismissal. During .the" same two-week period ihe Rev. Robert B. Eiten, S.,I., author of The Apostolate of Su~ering, will offer an Institute on the Proper Concept of the Religious Life, devoted to the practical application of the principles of Asceticism in the religious life. "During the next two-week period the University will-present an Institute on Hoipital Ethics, .given by the Rev. EdwiaF. Healy, S.~I., Professor of Moral Theology a~ West Baden College, and an Institute on Palochial Elementary School Curriculum directed by Sister Mary Edana, Ph.D., of Mercyhurst College, Erie, Pa. This secbnd series of Institutes will run from duly 21st to August 1st. "The daily schedule of the Institutes is so arranged that a student could take both Institutes if desired, or could take one'Institut~ and at least one course for either undergraduate~qr graduate credit. "In addition to tlX Institutes, the Rev. H. P. O'Neill, S.,I., will, present a series of four lectures on.Mental Hygiene in the Religious 94 NEWS AND VIEWS .I~ife, from'July 21st through July 24th. Father O'Neill's lectures will be open only to local superiors and to responsible officials of the various~ Motherhouses and have be~n scheduled so as not to conflict " in time with either of the two Institutes offered during the same week. "Religious who desire further informa~tion-are invited to com-munciate with Dr. Franci~ J. Donohue at the University of Detroit, Detroit 21, Michigan." . Father Adam C. Ellis, a member of our own editorial board, _will. conduct an Institute in Can6n Law-for Religious at St. Louis Uni-versity, June 23 to July 5, ificlusive (twelve day~). 'The institute is open to all religious; but it is intended particularly for superiors, mas-ters and mistresses of novices, bursars, find others charged with some - direction, of religious communities. For further informationJ on this . and other_courses of special value to religious, v~rite to the Dean of the Summer SeSsion, St. Louis University, St. Louis 3, Mo. "The theological .faculty of the Jesuit Seminary, Toronto, will conduct two summer schools for religious in July. Courses i'n Canon .Law and Fundamental Moral Theol09~ will be given at Mount St. Vincent, HalifaX;. July 21 to August 2. Cot~rses in Dogma, Scripture, and Ascetical Theolo~l~ will be given at Rosary Hall, Toronto, July.7 to 19. For further information write to the Dean of Summer School, 403~ Wellington St., West, Toronto, Ontario.° Conce~rnlng Pamphlets As we mention elsewhere in this number,-it would be impossible for us to review all the pamphlets sent to us; One reason is that we simply have not-time to read them; and a second reason is that, even if'we could read them all, we should not have sufficient space for the reviews. In fact, in a magazine the Size of ours, even, book reviews -present a serious problem. Our original idea was to confine our reviews to books of kpecial interest or value to religious. We still hope to achieve this~but hardly in the immediate future. As for the pamphlets, it seems only fair to call attention~to some of those listed in our present number. For instance, it might be noted' that The.Grail now publishe~ the pamphlets'of. Archbishop Goodier: Hints on Pra~/er: The C.hari~t~l o~ Jesus Christ; Points /~or Medita-tion; and ~1 More Excellent VCa~t. We had read these before, and we can recommend them all, especially the last-named. Our reading knowledge of the pamphlets received is limited to those four. However, if a scanning of, the'~contents is reliable, .95 o : NEWS AND VIEWS Review for Religious. 'think we might recommend two other Grail bool~lets (This, is desus, by the Ver, y"Rev. Emil Neubert. S.M.; ,and Imitate Your Blessed Mother, by Peter A. Resch, S.M.) because they seem to contain good" meditation matter. The Grail list also includes a set of booklets on the liturgy that might be aids to meditation. Reflections on the Introits are found in Newness,of Life; on the Collects, ,in Rouse Thy Might; on the Gospels, in The Mass Year; and on the Communion in Eruifful Days . Radio Replies Press is another publishing house that has .favored us with an abundance 6f pamphlets and booklets. ,Among those listed, the folIowing seem to be of special value for religious: First Friday¯ and June Devotions; Jesus in the Blessed Sacrament'; and Gen-eral Devotions to the Blessed Virgin because these booklets contain splendid collections of indulgenced prayers that can be used in public and private',dev0tions. Forty Hours for Priests and People offers complete explanation of this devotion, and gives the Latin of the three ,Votive Masses, with English translation, and explanation of the ceremonies. The Three Hours contains prayers for priest,~ and people to be used during the Tre-Ore, and a very brief Way of.the Cross, With the prayers arranged under the fourteen ~tchings of the Holy. Face by Hippolyte Lazerges. Way of the Cross for Childreff also include~ these etchings. The'Paraclete contains novenas illustrating the-gifts and, fruits'of the Holy Spirit. Religious might find much material for meditation in tlsis booklet. New Lay Apostolate ~ Before we leave °the subject of publications, we must say a ~word about a rather recent and°truly gigantic apostolic enterprise of one Cathohc family.- This is a hturg~cal calendar ent,tled Saints_ and Devotions. It covers the whole liturgical year, from Advdnt to. Advent, gives the Ma~s of eacfi day, a brief sketch of each of~tl'ie principal saints, an app~ropriate indulgenced aspiration, information concerning special novenas and indulgences, and so forth. In fact, the amount of helpful and. inspiring information woven into this artistic calendar is scarcely short of marvelous. You ha% to see it to believe it. The,present number of Saints and Devotions covers the liturgical ye, ar beginning with~Advent, 1946. We regret that we are sg.tardy in calling it to the attenti0n.of our readers. But we trust that the project :will go on through many years; hence, even if~ we are too l.ate March, 1947 NEWS AND VIEWS for the current year, we hope that by mentioning it now we shakl encourage our readers to write for, in~Ormi~tion ,and° thu_s.~be .,pre: pared for the years ahead. For the desired information, write to:, La Verna Publishing Company, Stowe, Vermont, ~ PAMPHLET~ .AND BOOKLETS .- o. , (Continued from p., 88) ¯ " Arise,. My Love. and Comet At vocational booklet published, by. the Sisters of Mercy ~'the Union, Scrant~t Province. (Mother of Mercy Novitiate; Dallas, Pennsylvanla.)~ Vocational Digest--Parents" Edition, 1946. Published ,by the Holy~ ~Cross Fathers. (The Director of Vocations, "Holy Cross seminary, Notre Dame, Indi-ana.) ' - TheoWorld We XVant. 35 refits. .(The Catechetical Guild, 128 E Tenth,. St. Paul 1, Minn.) Bits of Information for Sacristans, 15 cents: with proportionate rates on quantity orders. Bertha Baumann, the Little Guardian Angel of the Priest's Sat-urday. '(The Salvatonan Fathe'rs, Publishing'l~epartment~ St. Nazianz, Wisconsin.) The_~ Wron'9 Tar9et-lChats on Chatting. 10 cents. Words of Eternal Life, (The Pallottine Fa.thers, 5424 W. Blue Mound Road, .Mil.wauke~ 13, Wis.) ¯How to Pray the "Mass. - I/. (The Mercier Press, Cork.) ~$ister Annunziata's First Communion Catechism.20 cents. (Benziger Brothers, Inc., 26 Park Place, New Yor~.) Unifging the Teachim2 of Catechism and' the Spiritual Life. (Pontifical Col-le~ e Jose[ahinum, Worthington, Ohio.),~ Racial Myths. Single copies. 25 cents:~25 copies, $5.00:50 c~pies, $9.00: IO0 copies, $16.00. (Rosary-Col'lege Bookstore. Rosar~ C611e'ge, River Forest, Manual of the Reparation 8ociery of the Immaculate Heart of Marq~ (The Reparation~ Society,720 North Calvert St., Baltimore 2, Md.) ,Our Neighbors the Koreans. - 35 cents, (Field Afar Press, 121 East~39th St., New York, N.Y.) Brie~ Commentary on the Texts of Matins and Lauds of the Romai~ Breviary for .the 'Sundays of Passiontide. Mimeographed, 50 cents. (Rev. Michael A. Mathis, C.S.C., St. Joseph's Hospital; South Bend 17, Ind.) OUR CONTRIBUTORS C. '~A. HERBST is Director of Scholastics at St. Mary's College, Saint Marys. Kansas. T. N. JORGENSEN is a Professor of~ English at Creighton UnivCrsity, Omaha, Nebraska. ADAM C.ELLIS, G. AUGUSTINE ELLARD, and GERALD KELLY are the Editors of REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS. 97 Dit:l:icuit:ies G~ Augustine Ellard, S.3. IN A "PREVIOUS.ARTICLE an effort ivas made to point , out the facts Of .the.difficultie~ pe.ople experience in medi-tation and their causes. Then two remedies were sug.- ~e-sted: namely, (I) to remove the obstacles thht'could be got rid of; and (II) constructively to develop interest both in the truths of faith and in mental prayer !tself. Positive cultivation of interest is by all means the great means-to .- progress in prayer. Now it is proposed to add some other III. A third way to vitalize meditation i,s clearly to conceive the end or purpose of it and. then to feel quite free to choose any means that are suitable. Different persons -~ would express the aim of meditation differently, but/,11 such ¯ formulations should eventually .come to ~omething like- .these: namely, to ady_ance in the knowledge/, love, and work of God; or, to achieve wholehearted love of God, both affective and effective; or, intelligently and "earnestly to- - accomplish the divine plan for one. More particularly and more proximately mental prayer should give one a keener kno~-wled~e and a more. nearly adequate appreciaf!.on Of divine realities and ~v, alues, and thus greater good will," indeliberate and deliberate. To this end, clea.rly and s.teadily held before the mind, all contributive means are legitimate. Herein lies one of the great differences ~etween vocal and mental prayer. In. reciting the Office, for example, one has rio freedom; all that one can do is pre-cisely that which has been prescribed. In mdntal prayer one c~n follow any good-idea or"affecti0n or discuss any- -thing with God. God's own infinite_ magn.itude is an 98 DIFFICULTIES IN MEDITATION~II unlimited field to be explored and talked over with,Him. His whole universe, so far-reaching in space and time and scope, all conducive in some way or other to our supernat-ural d.estiny, is also appropriate matter for consideration with Him. Naturally an~ laudably in any particular.hour of prayer a person would have a specific purpose; but if ,he finds it too difficult to pursue that, he can always fall back upon. the general end of prayer. This is always available, and alway~s al~o great and inspiring. ¯ If one should find that he has nothing tO think about or nothing to say to God, he cofild prayerfully consider jhst this problem with God. He .might find exci~l.lent material °for humiliation and shame; and an advance in humility is one of the best .things possible in the spiritual life. ".In fact it would seem that in whatever situation or predicament a man can find hiinself, he could have a little conference about it with his heavenly Father a'nd turn it to 'good account. He could help verify the principle that to those who love God and-see their opportunities everythifig Works out for the best. IV. It has just been pointed out that in mental prayer one is free to do anything that promotes one's purpose. The intelligent ,6se of method enables one to make the most this freedom. Method may be necessary, in the beginning esp~ecially, and it may be most useful, but it is' not to be fol-lowed for its own sake. Like other means, to .which it assigns order and measure, it should be used when it con-tributes to the result sought: otherwise one should, feel at perfect'liberty,to abandi~n it. If.prayer comes naturally and spontaneously; so mudh the better. If it has to be kept going by deliberate effort, method may be a i~owerfut aid. ~If one comes to a dead stop and sees no way Qf gettin~ .started.again, it is method that may.do one that service: ;A" - priest 'reading his breviary never comes to "a dead stop; th~ G,AUGUSTINE ELLARD Review for Religious rubrics are there to tell him what to do next. If he.dbes not understand them at once,.he investigates, decides as wdl~ as he can, and then proceeds. He is never at a complete loss for something to do. Similarly in meditation method indi-cates What'is~ to .be done next when Sl3ontaneity fails. It will be an aid, not a burden, if it be used intelligently.and rightly. . To help different people or the same person at different times, there are at least eleven methods of meditation that are more or less ~ell. known. As listed by, zimmermann- Ha.gge.ncy in Grundriss der Aszetik (pp. 86 ff.),.th~y are as'follows: (1) The fundamental 6r three-faculty~method; ('2) the same simplified and reduced~to a few, le~ding ques-tions; (3) contemplation in the Ignatian sense (persons, 'words, actions): (4) application of~ the senses;~ (5) port, dering a serie~,: for example; the seven capital sins, ithe. eight beatitudesLand so~ forth; (6) rumination on the successive wof'ds or phrases 6t; a vocal prayer,~ like the Our Father.; (7)"meditative reading; (8) °method of. St. Peter of Alcari-tara (concentration on the~idea of beiaefits received and thanksgiving for them),; (9,) the. method of St. Francis de Sales (considerations, affections, resolutions, thanksgiving, offerings, petitions) ; ,(10) the method of.St. Alpho~nsus ISiguori (prayer of petition emphasized);' (11)~ the~, Sul-pician method (a.~6ratiqn, communion, c0-operation. doubt there are many persons sufficiently .intelligent and interested who could in the light of one or more of these sys-te. ms devise still another one peculiarly'suited to their own indi~cidual mentalities.' In any case one can hardly com-plain that there is not enough variety, or that meth6d, if properly used, weighs the soul down, ~ In addition to these formularies it could be an aid to some people to have ready-made lists of the affections and also of the motives to which they could turn for~suggestion I00 ' March, 1947 DIFFICULTIES IN MEDITATION II. in times of need. Such schemes could be of great assistance in moments of temptation as well. as during the hour~ of meditation. To illustrate what is meant, an example or t,wo may be given. When in the course of one's mental prayer it is appropriate that one should feel moved and still one is ~o torpid that no emotion arises.spohtaneously, one could ask : ','Which of these affections should I feel ?- Love, hatred; desire, aversion; joy,~ sorrow; hope, despair:~cour-age,', fear; anger?" If a man has been thinking of some good person, or thing, perhaps he should feel moved to compla-cence, admiration, awe, a sense of sublimity,, reverence, desire, hope, confidence, courage; love, joy, gratitude, zeal, loyalty, emulation. , An evil object might call forth displeasure, hatred, aversion, horror, disgust, pity, fear;- grief, shame, humiliation, confusion, contrition, and so forth. To move or stren.gthen the will, one might consider such motives as these schemes propose: ~ ~x 1. Holy happy they~are who carry ou~ the divine plan; nega,- tively, positively.--Hqw lovely, God is! 2. The consequences, good or bad7 of.possible courses of action; for self, for God, for others; in time, in eternity.---Their intrinsic.~ - values; the pleasant or unpleasant features about them: their proprie-ties or improprieties. " ¯ ~ 3. Necessity, (possibility), facility,uPleasure, utility, .nobility. 4. Truth, goodness, beauty.--Accomplishment, joy, peace: b~atitude, imperfect in time, perfect in eternity. " V. Lindworsky "in his book, The Psychology o[ Asceti-cism (pp. 58 ft.), makes an.effort to point out how in the ~Iight of modern psychology meditation m, ay be facilitated, ¯ The follow.ing is a very brief summary. When first learning to meditate, try what is reall~, a combination of vocal and ~nental\prayer. Take a formula, for example, the ten commandments, recite a few words, pause, reflect, app.ly the ~matter to yourself~ be sorry for past failures, 101 G. ,AUGUSTINE EI~LAI~D Review [or Religious renew your good will for the future~ ask God's assistance: then go on to the next few words, trea~ them shni!arly; and thu~ proc~ed through the whole forrdula, XVhen medi-tating upon some abstract truth or some scene fro~ the ¯ Gospel, expect to go over old ideas that you have learned rather than toexcogitat'e new ones of your own. There are. not many .minds that can do much origir~al thinking. Then to"evoke and guide thought, have some "anticipating scheme," such as the familiar questions, "Who?'~ What? When?. Why?" and so fbrth. Try to develop imagery that-is- rich and realistic. Do. not expect the process of repro-ducing ideas to b~come much easier by repetition. When One is contemplating something that. is or was visible, for example, an incident in the life Of Christ, it is advisable to visualize it, that is, to reconstruct it as fully as possible before the e~es of the.imagination. Then, also one should .cultivate empathy/, that is, feel oneself, as it were, into the situation of those who a~tu~lly' took part in the historical occurrence; how, for instance, should I '.have felt if I had been one of the spectators at the-resurrection of Lazarus? Finally, in all mental prayer one. should keep in mind and be guided in the first place by the though~ of one's ~rocation, its purpose, its requirements, values, and so ¯forth. .VI. Amgng other aids to meditation the-following deserve mention or further consideration: 1. Pra~lerful and reflective reading is perhaps the' most obvious help and one that hardly any.literate person could normally 'excuse himself fr6m. It is not at all equal in commendability to m'ental prayer, but is a very excellent means of prayer and sanctification, andincomparably better than, say, sleeping. Nor is .it so lowly and mean as may at first appear. For many years no less a mystic tfaan the great St.Theresa needed a book to pray over. Of course the ,book Chosen should be suitable for the purpose, rich, mdaty, March, 1947 ' DIFFICULTIES IN MEDITATION II suggestive., ~. From rime'to time one sl~ould pause;, reflect, apply the ideas-to oneself; and confer with God. Medi-tative reading would,seem to be the absolute minimum to, be exPecte~ from an intelligent and earnest-person. 2. Thoughtful vocal prayer can also be.a great.~help,. In prayers of one'sown choice it is not the ~aumber of words that counts, but the disposition of mind, of .feeling, and of --will with which they, are said. Hence the de~ir~ibility of imp[oving these qualities. To recite one's prayers slowly, deliberately, emphasizing appropriate phrases or repeating them, and to throw as much heart and spirit ,,as possible into them, are so many ways~0f augmenting the efficacy of. therri. One of St. Teresa's nuns could not pray except vocally : .but in this case it was discovered that the recitation was accompanigd by a high form of mystical contempla-tion (The Way of ,Perfection, chap., ,41). Very -probably the best way to recite the Divine Office--I do not _say tile easiest or the fastest-~--would be to try to accompany it with a ~entle sort of diffuse contemplation. This way-,would .als0 be felt as .less burdensome-than some others. For St. Ignatius in-his last years, the breviary was so potent a stimulus to contemplation that he could not get on with-saying it andhad to be dispensed from the obligation. 3. All°~uthorities on prayer are agreed that for success in it'a minimum measure of morti~cation is ,required. It would not be possible except for a short time since'rely and earnestly to strive during° meditation to prefer the better things and ask God to help one unless at other times one tried, and to some extent successfully, to forego the worse ~hings. Bodily mortification is one of the first means to spiritual iidvankement and a person could not neglect it altogether, and then decently and wholeheartedly beseech God for His graces. Interior mortification, or self-coxitrol, rn'astery of~one's emotions, is even more ~learly and closely 103 G. AUGUSTINE ELLARD Review for. Religiot2s connected with prayer and imperatively demanded by it. Mental prayer is" almost synonymous with cultivating a good moral disposition, and this in .turn is almost synony-mous with holding one's inferior ificlinations in check. -Nobody who complains of too much difficulty or of failure in meditation need fe~l discouraged until he has given mor-tification, one of the standard means, a fair trial. Pro-ficiency in mental prayer is not one of thOse good things. that one can get for nothing. 4. Distractiot~S are a teasing and perennial prbblem-. We can hardly hope for a complete victory over them. But even when involuntary and inculpable they involve a real loss of precious,graces, and. to reduce this it is all the more necessary to make our conquest of them as nearly complete as possible.1 How close to perfect victory it c~in come is shown b'y the records of ~ome of the saints, notably of St. Aloysius. There is no simple remed~ for distractions. ~Tbe saints seem to have combated thein with a multiplicity _ o~:weapons. Each one must find out for himself what com-bination of means is most effective foi him. A little knowledge of t~he psychology of a~ttention will make one's effort more ,intelligent. We may distinguish three stages in the development of attention. In the first it is instinctive or exploratory and depends upon native or acquired interests. With this, for instance, a teacher of small children mus~.begin. Then for a time attention.may be forced; tb~at is, it m, ay need to be supported'by extraneous motives. The. old-fashioned teacher's hickory, stick may exemplify thi~ phase, or a college student toiling for credits. 1The statement in the text to the effect that even involuntary distractions involve a loss of precious graces may sound startling to some. However, it should be kept in mind that strictly mental prayer is incompatible with distractions, whether volun-tary or involuntary. A distraction really brings mental prayer to a dead stop; and thus the fruits that belqng precisely to the mental prdyer itself are lost. It is true, 0f course, that the effort made to avoid distractions is highly pleasing to God: and it may well be that God rewards this effort with graces that equal or even sutpass the fruits that would be obtained from a prayer made without distractions. ED. 104 March, 1947 DIFFICULTIES IN MEDITATION--II Finally, wheri the matter is fit to excite and' hol._d interest and one has,got sufficiehtly far into-it to see and feel that fact, attention becomes spontaneous. This of-cot~rse is the Kind that is desirable .and to be aimed at. Determinants .o~ attention, as enumerated by psy-chologis, ts, may be either external (objective) or internal (subjective). In the case of meditation the.external factors are likely to be sources of, trouble. Change attracts notice; witness lights that flicker on and off. Loud noises and bright colors are more apt to get attention. The larger,a ~hingis, the more probably, other.things being equal,, it will be remarked. .R_epetition makes for attention in many cases; thinl~ of certain advertisements or slogans. Nov~etty of any kind or unusualness is one of the .very best stimu-- Iantsof attention. Position may give an object a b~tter chance for notice, for instance, if it is nearer the observer or in the center, say, of a picture or display. Lastly, and mostly, significance br meaningfulness is a. potent .cause of attention; for a soldiel on guard in the combat zone the slightest noise or movement may be mo~t important and get his ,rapt consideration. These external stlmull,-are in general .just what one who is trying to pray without dis-tractions must as far as possible avoid. ., Tl~e internal, subjective factors are much more rele-vant to our l~urpose. It is easy and natural for us to aitend to whatever is in accord with our fundamental instinctive inclinations; an example would be anything that touches our pride or inherent tendency to pleasure. The same is true of the leading emotional "tendencies that we have admit'ted into our lives or deliberately built up therein. A strong and long fostered zeal for the foreignmissions would make one attentive~to anything that concerns th, em. Our moods have a similar effect. When we are glad we are inclined to notice what makes us more glad and w.hen we !05 G. AUGUSTINE ELEARD ~ Retffeu).for Religious are- d~pfessed we-are only too ~apt to concentrate on any-- thing that fits in Wi~h our melancholy humor. Habitual attitudes are another determinant. "A kindly ~lispo~ed per--. son will attend to. th~ better-things in others, a'rfd a con-firmed fault-finder will rather see~ their weaknesses. Edu-cation and training prepare us to attend to special fields.: Think of the differences in this respect between, say. teaching nuns, hospital workers, and'_cloistered contempl.a-tires. Of all these interior conditions pertinent to atten-. tion.and it~ opposite, distraction, perhaps ~he most i.mp~)r-. rant for those who are cultivating mental prayer is one's °purpgse, whether it. be passing' or permanent. Ifi for e~ample, a man's aim be to make a particular sale or to amass millions of. dollars before he dies, it will .be natural for him to .give his attention tO Whatever seems to conduc~ to that.purpose or to interfere with iL One wh~ is seeking fame and. honor is~ sensitive to_. all that pertains to if'and indiffereni: to other~ things. A saint is alert and resporisive to whatever'makes for progress in the love. and service of God,', an~ apostle_to anything that appears to promise help ifi sanctifying souls. Henc~ the, supreme importance and necessity of knowing, with the, ~utmost clarity, w15at ,we should want, of appreciating its value ~.fully, and then of really ~and earnestly. ~anting it. ~Naturally enough we attend to what we really want. ~ In r.addition to ,knowing and respecting the psycho-logical law~ that govern attention and: diversibn of it, one's. effort to ~ivoid distractions might well include o'the~ "fol-lowing: to acknowledge, with the proper, sense of humili-ation, that the force of distractions is greater for one,than the .attrac,tion~of God or of union with Him; to feel and appreciate as realistically as possible wha~ great.priv~ation~a in the spiritual order distractions cause for us, foroGod, and for souls: to understand that abi!ity to concentrate is One 106 March, 1947 DIFFICULTIES IN MEDI~FATION--II" 6f the most elementary desirable t?aits ii'n a p,ersonality, and that~ it is moie or less necessary for any kind of success. (nobody would expect much from a scatterbrained crea, tute.); and, ~finally, when distrac'tions do Occur and are noti.ced, to turn them to good account by a-vigorous recall of attention~ by hu,mbling oneself, by deploring the losses suffered, by talking the matter over with Gqd from differ, ent~ points of view, andby begging grace to profit even f, ro~ bne's weakneises. 5. An aid:to progress-in meditation that is especia11~ in place for American religious and priests of the twentieth century is rnoderatibnin external activities. For some~there always was the danger of.neglecting one's own interior 'life and giving oneself e~cessively to works of zeal for others, Various r~asons now seem to make this danger greater than ever before, In any man, thought.should, hold h certain primacy overaction, and above all in one who profes, ses to specialize, in the spiritual life. Overabsorption in wprk, even if it be the best possible kind of work, leaves one too tired physically for mental prayer, unbalances one's intdr- f._ :. ests and preoc~cupations, and, perhaps worst bf all, involves a certain necessity of being more or less distracted while attempting to deal with God and one's own soul. ~ 6. One of the. best means to progress iri Virtue and in prayer-is what ~e may call the general discipline of one's imagination., and emotions. It is about .the same as interior mortification or, what is more pertinent now, recollection. It is both an effect of prayer and a condition of success in subsequent prayer. If a man leave his imagination and emotions free to drift fo_r'themselves, at the very leasth~ will squander much of his energy and time, accomplish l~ss for himself and for souls, give God so much less glory, and be less happy in heaven for eternity. But it is hardly pos-sible that such a man's losses should he"merely negative. :107 G. A~GUSTINE ELLARD ~ Re~iew for Religiot~s Sooner or later he will also com~it more s~in andothus incur positive penalties. So much for the effect upon his moral ,status in general. As for prayer, he will come to it less well prepared, with less taste for it, ,with greater tendencies to all that is contrary to it, and naturally therefore with less facility in it. ~ Provin~ ~he good will protested to God in this morning's meditation will keep one better recollected during the day, better disposed in every way to avoid, evil and do good,~and betterfitted to deepen that good will in tomorrow morning's prayer. 7. Bodily posture ,is a factor of success or failt~re in prayer. Those who are free should find out by experiment what position helps them most at the time of meditation. It could.hardly be the one whichis also the most conducive to sleep. In any case it must be reverent. 'At °different times or in different states of mind or of nerves, various positions may be best. During an hour both kneeling and standing might be used., Gentle walking back and forth in some suitabl~ place is a distinct aid to some people. "One possible advantage about it is that it helps to keep away drowsiness. 8. If the aim be prayer, rather than something else, there dhould-be intelligent choice or: subject matter. The needs, capacities, graces, and so on, of all the individual members in a community are not just the same; still less are t,hey the same on, say, the fifteenth of March every year for a lifetime. Therefore, from the pqint of view of prayer it is not desirable, generally speaking, that points be read to a whole community, especially from the same book, year after year. Here again th~ guiding principle should be, "Know your objectiye and select the most suitable means!" Often-times, for instance, subjects taken for meditati6nshould be such as will reinforce one's efforts in the particular examen. T6 those whb are in earnest the Holy- Spirit may suggest at, the oddest moments lights that would make excellent 108 Ma~cb, 19,17 ~ COMMUNIGATIONS starting points for meditation. 9. Finally, it would.be a distinct aid to proficiency, in mental prayer to read, say. every fe.w years, one after another of the great classical works on prayer. As weil known and fairly recent works dn prayer one might men-tion ~the following :-R. De Maumigny, S.3., The Practic~ of Mental Pra~/er (two volumes, one on ordinary, the Other 6n extraordinary, prayer; 1905) ; Vital Lehbdey, O.Cist., .W a s of Mental Pra~]e~" (1908): E. Leen, C.S.Sp., ~ress Through' Mental ~Prayer,~ (!935); R. Garrigou- " Lagrange, O.P., .C~hristian Contemplation and Perfection "-" ,(!923), or bett~er xlow:~ The. Three Age£ of the lntertor Life (two volume.s;' 1938) ~, " ~. _ ' To conclude our~.whole study, it seems,upon analysis of the facts .and-comparison with other pertinent activities that the great difficulty in meditation is neither more nor less than lach of interest, "Whence the solution suggests itself: Read, reflect, andpray over these three questions: W/~ should I be interested? Wha¢ difference does it make? What can Ido to become interested? ~ ° ~ Reverend Fathers5 ¢ In my opinion, much of the prevailing difficulty that exists for religious in the exercise .of mental prayer is owing to the fact that so -little is known by religious of a'nything beyond the discursive method of prayer (cofisiderations, affections, resolutions). Many guides of souls (particularly in novitiates and houses of formation) la~y little or no stresson the continuity that exists between the ascetical and the mystical life, between the discursive meditation of the beginner and trheseu vlta mrioanuys ~s traegliegsi ooufs a, cwqhueirne din c tohnetierm sppilraittiuoanl odfe vthyel gpprmofeicnite"n tth: eAys't iaave 109 ÷ COMMUNICA~fIONS Review "out~rown" d~scurs~ve medhafion~and~ ~thet¢~ is .reasontto~el~e aft r a weII-~mded nowtmte~, many~reh~xous are alread~ .~r~pe~ for a~ect~ve prayer) are left to sh~tt, tot themselves. ~ed~tat~on ~tscu~s~ve variety) -becomes ~cult,. eveK ~mposmble"~ ~ut thert ~s no gulaance~as to~w~ere to'go next.~ e ~'~ %~ ~ ¯ ~ - ~Perso~hlly ~ h feeb that at: .the~ very startsof, religi6Us'dife ~every ~ovi~e at mental~ pra~er ought ~to:b~, made acquainted ~ith t~e short ~t£eatise of~ Bossuet entitled "A Short,and Easy Me~hbd¢of~Making the~Prayer oLFaitb~and of. the Sim~le Presence of God." An Eng-lish vermon ot t~s will be round ~n t~e~ ~ppenfl~x o~rogress ~fo~ef~ a'~transiat~on +or t~e lnstr~ct[ons~splflt~e~les or ~ere ~aus-s~ de,'STd.~ (pu~i~sh~d by H~rder, 190~). . ~Ee methoffrecommen~ed~ , ~by. Bossuef will" be of hel~ to'every &age.df'spiri~ual' developmen~/, bu~ ~speci~Ily to~the ~eligi~us wh6 has ~be~un ~o-find~ djsquCsiye meditation di~cult or impossible. "I might also,recommend P~re Caussade~s ~work Abandonment to Divine~Provfaenqe, with the many practical h~nts on prayer;~n'~m~letters of dxrect~on to S~sters. .~Rega~di~g.~di~c~ti~s in.m~nt~l ptayer:~ABBot'J~hn chapman givts~a~simple~rule: .~'Pray as you can~ and d6 not try to, pray,as y6u can't.;' ~vtry to~keep~,to.~d~scurmye.+med~tat~on whenz~that longer su{ts one's needs is harmful to spiritual growth. ~ But at same ttme ~bbot ~napman tnststs t~at prayer, tn the sense ~t umon w~th God, ts the most crucifying thing there is.+ One must do tt God's-+ake:+but one will not get+any s~tisfacmt'~on+ out ~f+'it+, :ih' the sense of feeling 'I am good at prayer,' 'I have an infallible method." That would be disast+ous, sine+ what we want to lear+ is precisely ou~own weakness, powerlessness, unworthiness . And one should wish for no prayer, eg~ept pr~isely the prayer that God gi~e+ probably+very di+trac+ed-and ~unsatisfactory in every wayt" (The Spiritual Letters of+"Dom John Chapman, Sheed ~ ~ard, N. Y., 1935 unfortunately out of print.) Finally,, I,should~like t6 ,list a few books that I 'have found very helpful,_in :unraVeling my own di~culties in prayer: Mental according to the teaching of~Saiht ~h~mas Aquinas, by Rev. +Denis Fahey,,~.s.sp. (D~blih: Gill ~ ~Sbn, 1927),: Tbe Practice oUtbe Presence~ o£G0d ~(the spiritual teachings of ,Brother ~awrence of:~the Resurrection), (Newman Bookshop, Wt~tminster, Md., 1945); Cbristiaff, Perfection -and,; Contemplation,,,~,:by Garrigou-k~grange (H~rder;.1;9.37)'~. ~Add to:these., of, sourse, ~the. wor~ by t Caussade and~Ch~pman mehti~ne~ab6ve. . +~ +. q~l 0 Maixb,:l 9 4 7" COMMUNICATIONS ~ 'Before ~losin-g I should like' to comment .on one: remark of Abl~ot Chapman ,quoted. above: "One ih0uld~ wish"for" no prayer;.exc~pt precisely theprayer that God gives"us. ':." Prfiyer is precisely,that-L-a gift of G6d: the effect'of His grace in our s6uls.,. Perhaps if is, f6r-getfulness of thi~ point°ithat occa.~ions so much preoccupation .with following partidular mefhods, in prayer: ,.Tbe,:perfectidn of otir spiritual "life :(hence 6f out'prayer, life) cbnsists in ufiion ,with' God; a'~d ,the greater the. simplicity in our prayer, th[~ more perfect ,'~our union".'. "Any way~ that:we have of praying that succeeds in ,bringing usdoser to God is a~'good way for us individtially---, it is 'disasirou~ to "regulate" inethods of

Although Sub-Saharan Africa has some of the worst nutrition indicators in the world, nutrition remains a low priority on the policy agendas of many African governments. This despite the fact that proven interventions are known and available and that investment in them is considered a cost-effective strategy for poverty reduction. This case study is one in a series seeking to understand (1) what keeps African governments from committing fully to reducing malnutrition, and (2) what is required for full commitment. It documents how the Ghanaian government has addressed the issue of malnutrition since Independence, examines what political and institutional factors have prevented full commitment, and identifies what conditions have moved the nutrition agenda forward at different points in time. The primary objective of this study as well as the series as a whole is to help African governments, development partners, and nutrition and health practitioners identify, understand and address the political and institutional obstacles preventing sustainable progress in nutrition.

Un viejo proverbio chino señala que "la puerta mejor cerrada es aquella que puede dejarse abierta". Efectivamente la transformación de China durante la segunda mitad del siglo XX grafica este dicho. De manera impensada para muchos, luego de casi tres décadas de férreo control estatal sobre la economía bajo el liderazgo de Mao Zedong, la dirigencia china que lo sucedió en el poder decidió hacia fines de los setenta "abrir una puerta bien cerrada" y emprender un ambicioso proceso de modernización, liberalización y apertura económica. De la mano de Zhou Enlai primero y Deng Xiaoping después, el Estado chino se embarcó en la tarea de modernizar dentro del país su sector agrícola, su estructura productiva, la ciencia y tecnología y la defensa nacional. El interés central detrás de esta transformación radicaba en acortar la brecha de desarrollo existente con los países más avanzados, situación que se reflejaba en el éxito económico de "vecinos" como Japón, Corea del Sur, Taiwán y Hong Kong. Para Deng, China sólo podría convertirse en una gran potencia a través de una política sistemática de modernización, con énfasis en el desarrollo económico y manteniendo la estructura de control político del Partido Comunista (Wilhelmy y Soto, 2005: 52). El desafío a superar consistía en dejar atrás una empobrecida, cerrada y estancada economía planificada y avanzar en la configuración de una economía competitiva. En la opinión del periodista Li Datong (2009), la política de reformas contó a grandes rasgos con dos etapas bien claras. En la primera, que se extendió de 1978 a 1989, el ímpetu de cambio fue puesto en la reducción de la pobreza rural y urbana. En la segunda, iniciada en 1992 con el famoso viaje de Deng al sur del país y culminada en el 2001 con el ingreso de China a la Organización Mundial de Comercio, el gobierno en estrecha alianza con sectores empresariales concentró esfuerzos en impulsar el crecimiento económico.Las principales medidas adoptadas consistieron en: la descolectivización de la agricultura y la autorización del uso privado de las tierras comunales (household responsibility system); el levantamiento de la prohibición para realizar actividades empresariales de índole privada; la apertura por primera vez desde la Revolución de 1948 al ingreso de capitales extranjeros; la creación de zonas económicas especiales y de apertura (existen actualmente una veintena, entre ciudades, provincias y áreas costeras); la privatización de numerosas empresas (a excepción de algunos grandes monopolios vinculados a energía y al sistema bancario); la descentralización del control estatal nacional hacia los gobiernos provinciales; la reducción general de aranceles y barreras comerciales; y el reconocimiento legal en 2005 de la propiedad privada.Estas reformas hicieron posible el denominado "milagro chino", la gran performance económica desatada a partir de 1978. Entre aquel año y el 2006 China mantuvo un promedio anual de crecimiento del 9,7%, tendencia que sólo se interrumpió tras los incidentes de la Plaza de Tiananmen en 1989 y que apenas se redujo en 1997 y 1998 durante la dura crisis asiática (Zhao, 2006: 3). Asimismo, mientras en los objetivos iniciales se esperaba cuadruplicar el PIB para comienzos del siglo XX, el desempeño real arrojó un impresionante crecimiento de trece veces del PIB de 1978 hacia el año 2006. En materia comercial, su comercio exterior se ha quintuplicado en los últimos diez años, mientras que su participación en el comercio mundial en ese mismo período se ha más que duplicado, llegando en 2007 al 9% de las exportaciones y al 6,8% de las importaciones globales. Además, China incrementó su penetración en los mercados de las economías desarrolladas y simultánea­mente se transformó en un importante destino de exportación, especialmente para las economías de la región asiática, convirtiéndose en un nuevo eje del comercio mundial –segundo exportador y tercer importador en 2007–, disputando así el papel de Estados Unidos, la Unión Europea y Japón (D'Elía et al., 2008: 67-8). Una de las principales fuentes de esta expansión comercial ha sido el creciente emplazamiento de firmas extranjeras en el país, las que se valen de los bajos costos de producción para sus operaciones. La participación de dichas firmas en las exportaciones chinas aumentó del 10% en 1990 a casi un 60% en 2004 (Blonigen y Ma, 2010: 475). Este fenómeno denominado "processing trade"explica que China se haya convertido en el principal receptor entre los países en desarrollo de inversión extranjera directa por primera vez en 1993 y uno de los tres primeros a nivel mundial entre 2003 y 2005 (Cheng y Ma, 2010: 545). Conjuntamente, el doble éxito comercial y en atracción de capitales apuntaló también las reservas internacionales. Mientras que en 1992 se registraron reservas por 19 mil millones de dólares, equivalente a un 4% del PIB, tan sólo quince años después éstas alcanzaron 1,4 billones, correspondiente al 50% del PIB (Truman, 2008: 169).A nivel doméstico, la principal transformación ha consistido en el establecimiento gradual de una "economía de mercado socialista". Su avance se evidencia en que hacia 1979 la totalidad de las industrias eran estatales o "colectivas" y el Estado controlaba los precios del 97% de los productos en circulación, mientras que hacia fines de la década de los noventa, menos del 30% de las empresas seguían siendo estatales y las fuerzas del mercado fijaban ya el 97% de los precios. Desde el 2001 estos márgenes se han mantenido mayormente constantes. Pero este ascenso económico posee una contracara de obstáculos, desafíos y debilidades bien marcados que pondrán a prueba la potencialidad de crecimiento a futuro. Por un lado, China es todavía un país pobre en términos de su ingreso per capita, estimado en aproximadamente U$S 3.000 anuales, lo que equivale sólo al 10% de los ingresos registrados en Estados Unidos y Europa. Este bajo registro se conjuga con una mayor desigualdad y una aguda concentración de los ingresos, siendo el 90% de la riqueza acaparada por el 1% más rico de la población (Datong, 2009). La razón detrás de éste pasivo social yace en las privatizaciones, la liberalización y el marcado contraste entre el interior del país y las más dinámicas zonas costeras e industriales —el 57% del PIB se produce en el este de China, un 26% en la región central y apenas el 17% en el oeste (D´Elía et al., 2008: 69). Consecuentemente, ello explica que el crecimiento de la economía esté principalmente impulsado por las exportaciones y la inversión más que por el consumo doméstico. Por el otro lado, los problemas ambientales se han vuelto verdaderamente acuciantes de la mano de este crecimiento. China ha reemplazado recientemente a los Estados Unidos como principal emisor mundial de gases de efecto invernadero. A causa del creciente parque automotriz, las industrias contaminantes y las numerosas plantas procesadoras de carbón, la calidad del aire se ha deteriorado en las principales ciudades. Así, por ejemplo, la concentración de partículas tóxicas inhalables en Beijing en el año 2008 superó en un 80% el estándar tolerable fijado por la Organización Mundial de la Salud (Jacobs, 2010). En las zonas rurales, la masificación del uso de fertilizantes y agrotóxicos para apuntalar la productividad de la agricultura ha contaminado buena parte de las cuencas hídricas.En el plano de los desafíos, debe sumarse que China no es una democracia. El sistema de gobierno es esencialmente autoritario, regido por actores que se imponen en contiendas intrapartidistas y burocráticas libradas a puertas cerradas en Beijing (Wilhelmy y Soto, 2005: 53). Lejos de ser China una "sociedad armónica", se han registrado al compás de las transformaciones importantes conflictos sociales con base en diferentes reclamos: mayor democratización, mejores condiciones de vida, reconocimiento de autonomía política en el caso del Tíbet, etc. Desde los años de Deng, la regla ha sido la aplicación de una política de "mano dura" para contener el disenso interno —como se evidenció en la plaza de Tiananmen en 1989. No obstante, este disenso ha ido en ascenso. En septiembre de 2003, Human Rights Watch informó que más de tres millones de personas se movilizaron en distintas protestas en sólo un mes y que, en más de cien casos a lo largo del país, los reclamos escalaron en violentos choques con las fuerzas de seguridad locales y la destrucción de edificios gubernamentales (Becker, 2006: 169). Por tanto, resta ver cómo el sistema político logra adaptarse a las radicales modificaciones sociales en curso y da cabida a nuevos actores en la lucha por el poder. A pesar de estos desafíos por resolver, existe un fuerte consenso mundial sobre el actual proceso de ascenso de China al status de gran potencia. La célebre predicción de Napoleón —"Let China sleep, for when she wakes, she will shake the world"—, parece estar siendo confirmada (Kynge, 2006). En efecto, "China is reemerging as a major power after one hundred and fifty years of being a weak player on the world stage—a brief hiatus in China's long history", de acuerdo con Susan Shirk (2007: 4), máxima responsable en el Departamento de Estado de las relaciones con China durante la administración Clinton. Si se considera su situación estructural, una estimación reciente del poder comprehensivo de China comparada con las otras grandes potencias del sistema internacional arroja los siguientes resultados. Allí se advierte que China es la única potencia con un status fuerte de poder en cada una de las dimensiones contempladas y por tanto la principal competidora estratégica detrás de la superpotencia estadounidense. Pero el nuevo protagonismo chino también se percibe de una manera más dinámica. Crecientemente el país empieza a desempeñar roles críticos en distintos asuntos de interés mundial, desde la no proliferación hasta el cambio climático, además de ser materia de controversia en Occidente en asuntos relacionados con la pérdida de empleos, déficits comerciales y derechos humanos. En la última década, además, China ha combinado su dinamismo económico con políticas pragmáticas de seguridad y defensa y un fuerte activismo diplomático, gracias a lo cual ha empezado a establecer sólidas relaciones no sólo en toda Asia sino también en Europa, África y Sudamérica, aprovechando en buena medida los "espacios" generados por la focalización de los Estados Unidos en las guerras de Afganistán e Irak y la lucha contra el AlQaeda (Gill, 2007: 1).En el caso particular de América Latina, el carácter actual de los vínculos con China se remonta a la finalización de la Guerra Fría. Fue entonces cuando la desideologización de la política exterior del gigante asiático y el auge del proceso de globalización brindaron un marco propicio para una fuerte expansión económica de las relaciones sino-latinoamericanas (Cesarín, 2006: 52). Algunas cifras ilustran el fenómeno. Las exportaciones de América Latina y el Caribe a China aumentaron en forma súbita desde los US$1.500 millones en 1990, a los casi US$3.000 millones en 1995 y US$5.400 millones en 2000, para crecer posteriormente un 42% anual entre 2000 y 2004 hasta llegar a superar los US$21.000 millones en 2004. En 2003, los recursos primarios representaban el 45,5% de la canasta (Davy, 2008: 4). Por su parte, las exportaciones chinas a la región durante la década de los 90 crecieron más de cinco veces, logrando un superávit comercial global que perduró hasta el 2002. Sin embargo, con los países ricos en recursos naturales como Brasil, Argentina, Chile y Perú, la balanza mercantil resultó deficitaria para Beijing (Cheng, 2006).El interés chino en los países del subcontinente se ha vuelto desde entonces más claro: América Latina constituye un importante reservorio de materias primas, alimentos y recursos naturales necesarios para la prosecución de su crecimiento —no debe perderse de vista que China importa el 30% del petróleo que consume, el 45% del mineral de hierro, el 44% de otros metales no ferrosos y una proporción cada vez más alta de productos agrícolas. El patrón de intercambio comercial y de inversiones en los últimos años refleja dicho interés: minería y forestación (Perú y Chile), pesca, agroalimentos y petróleo (Argentina y Venezuela), mineral de hierro y acero (Brasil), producción de alimentos (Brasil, Chile, Argentina y Perú) y minería (Perú, Colombia, Chile). (Cesarín, 2006: 52-3.) En efecto, la relativa bonanza económica latinoamericana de comienzos de siglo —en parte— se debe a la fuerte demanda china de este tipo de bienes y commoditiesque traccionó al alza los precios internacionales. Para algunos, esto representa una importante oportunidad de optimizar los procesos subregionales de integración e impulsar cambios en las estructuras productivas nacionales mediante la participación inversora de firmas chinas (Cesarín, 2005: 3). Pero esta situación, en principio favorable, amerita una reflexión cautelosa en la medida en que "el auge de los commodities encubre los riesgos inherentes de depender de un sector volátil y en gran medida poco calificado para el sostenimiento de un crecimiento económico a largo plazo y la prosperidad" (Davy, 2008: 2). En este sentido, China ofrece a la región oportunidades pero también desafíos: detrás de los cantos de sirena, se esconde el peligro de un comercio asimétrico que conduzca a la reedición de lazos de dependencia y a una inserción internacional de América Latina subordinada a los dictados de una gran potencia distante. Precisamente, el profesor Julio Sevares (2007: 12) ve en la relación económica Latinoamérica-China no una relación Sur-Sur, sino más bien el clásico esquema comercial Norte-Sur y el patrón inversor de tipo extractivo británico del siglo XIX.Con respecto estrictamente al plano político-estratégico, dos cuestiones deben considerarse. La primera es que China resulta para muchos de los liderazgos latinoamericanos un simpático ejemplo de éxito en materia de reformas dado el importante rol estatal en la conducción de la transformación económica. Representa así un exitoso experimento, distinto de las propuestas neoliberales que fracasaron en América Latina (Cesarín, 2010: 8). Y la segunda, es que la irrupción de China en la región plantea interrogantes sobre la eventual reacción de los Estados Unidos ante un eventual socavamiento de influencia en su "patio trasero". Se trata de un escenario que desde comienzos del siglo XXI se sigue con atención en las usinas de pensamiento estratégico en Washington. Allí se distinguen al menos dos posiciones: una, la de los decisores estadounidenses más temerosos que entienden a la nueva presencia china en la región como la movida inicial de una ofensiva diplomática a gran escala de Beijing para desafiar a los Estados Unidos en su propio hemisferio; y la otra perspectiva, más benigna, que percibe los crecientes vínculos como una oportunidad antes que una amenaza y como una manifestación natural de las necesidades energéticas y de recursos del país asiático sin miras explícitas de choque con la superpotencia (Roett y Paz, 2008: 1). Esta última visión es la que acepta la idea del ascenso pacífico ("peaceful rise") que ha publicitado Hu Jintao. De acuerdo con Zheng Bijian, uno de sus principales ideólogos, "China no tiene la intención ni de desafiar ni de subvertir el orden internacional político y económico ya existente (…). No buscamos la hegemonía ni en el pasado, ni ahora, ni nunca jamás en el futuro cuando hayamos alcanzado el desarrollo. Hemos convertido ya en una premisa básica de nuestro Estado la de no pretender nunca la hegemonía" (Bijian, 2005).La reemergencia histórica de China debe por tanto discurrir a través de la integración a las reglas de juego internacionales, a través del multilateralismo, la resolución pacífica de las disputas y la tolerancia hacia el resto de las naciones. En última instancia, la evolución hacia un abierto desafío estratégico entre los Estados Unidos y China o hacia una convivencia respetuosa entre superpotencias, dependerá del factor que prime en la interacción mutua: un juego de suma cero producto de las transformaciones estructurales en el sistema político internacional, o bien un juego de suma positiva resultado de intereses y percepciones convergentes.(1) El presente artículo es un fragmento de un capítulo de libro en elaboración sobre la inserción internacional de la Argentina entre el 2003-2007. *Candidato doctoral, Universidad Nacional General San Martín (UNSAM).Referencias bibliográficasBecker, Jasper (2006): Dragon Rising. An inside look at China today (Washington D.C.: National Geographic). Bijian, Zheng (2005): "Diez puntos de vista sobre el ascenso pacífico de China y sobre las relaciones entre China y Europa", Real Instituto Elcano, disponible en:«http://www.realinstitutoelcano.org/analisis/867/867_DiscursoZheng.pdf».Blonigen, Bruce A. y Alyson C. Ma (2010): "Please Pass the Catch-Up. The Relative Performance of Chinese and Foreign Firms in Chinese Exports", en Feenstra, Robert C. y Shang-Jin Wei: China's Growing Role in World Trade (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press).Cesarín, Sergio (2005): "Ejes y estrategias del desarrollo económico chino: enfoques para América Latina y el Caribe", en Cesarín, Sergio y Carlos Moneta: China y América Latina. Nuevos enfoques sobre cooperación y desarrollo. ¿Una segunda ruta de la seda? (Buenos Aires: BID-INTAL).Cesarín, Sergio (2006): "La relación sinolatinoamericana, entre la práctica política y la investigación académica", Nueva Sociedad, N° 203, Mayo/Junio, pp. 48-61.Cheng, Joseph Y. S. (2006): "Latin America in China's Contemporary Foreign Policy", Journal of Contemporary Asia, Vol. 36, No. 4, pp. 500-528.Cheng, Leonard K. y Zihui Ma (2010): "China's Outward Foreign Direct Investment", en Feenstra, Robert C. y Shang-Jin Wei: Op. Cit.Datong, Li (2009): "China's stalled transition", Open Democracy (February 19), disponible en «http://www.opendemocracy.net/article/chinas-stalled-reforms». Accedido 16/09/2010. Davy, Megan (2008): "¿Qué presagia el crecimiento de China para América Latina?",Panorama del Desarrollo Internacional del American Enterprise Institute, N° 2, julio.D´Elía, Carlos, Carlos Galperín y Néstor Stancanelli (2008): "El rol de China en el mundo y su relación con la Argentina", Revista del CEI, N° 13, pp. 67-89.Gill, Bates (2007): Rising Star. China's New Security Diplomacy (Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution Press).Jacobs, Andrews (2010): "In China, Pollution Worsens Despite New Efforts", The New York Times (July 28), disponible en «http://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/29/world/asia/29china.html?_r=1»(accedido 18/9/10). Kynge, James (2006): China Shakes the World: A Titan's Rise and Troubled Future - and the Challenge for America (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt).Roett, Riordan y Guadalupe Paz (eds.) (2008): China's expansion into the Western Hemisphere (Washington D.C.: The Brookings Institution).Sevares, Julio (2007): "¿Cooperación Sur-Sur o dependencia a la vieja usanza?", Nueva Sociedad, N° 207, enero-febrero, pp. 11-22.Shirk, Susan L. (2007): China. Fragile Superpower (New York: Oxford University Press).Truman, Edwin M. (2008): "The Management of China's International Reserves: China and a Sovereign Wealth Fund Scoreboard", en Goldstein, Morris y Nicholas R. Lardy (eds.):Debating China's Exchange Rate Policy (Washington: Peter G. Peterson Institute for International Economics).Wilhelmy von Wolff, Mandfred y Augusto Soto (2005): "El proceso de reformas en China y la política exterior: de Deng Xiaoping a Hu Jintao", en Cesarín, Sergio y Carlos Moneta: Op. Cit.Xuetong, Yan (2006): "The Rise of China and its Power Status", Chinese Journal of International Politics, Vol. 1. Zhao, Min (2006): External Liberalization and the Evolution of China's Exchange System: an Empirical Approach (Final Draft, The World Bank Beijing Office), disponible en «http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INDIAEXTN/Resources/events/359987-1149066 764594/Paper_MinZhao.pdf».

Issue 2.3 of the Review for Religious, 1943. ; A.-M. D. G. for Religious MAY 15, 1943 Paternal Governm~eh÷ . . . ; . . J~hn C.~Ford The Mother of God . - . . AIoydus C. Kemper Cell'Technlque of Catholic Act,on . '."Albert S. Foley Thb Seal of Confession , = Edwin F. Healy Summary on Spiri÷u&l Direc'÷ion . The Edffo.rs; Book Revlew~, Ques÷io. ns Answered Decisions of the Holy See RIEVI.I::W FOR RI::LIGIOUS ¯ VOLUME II MAY 15, 1943 NUMBER 3 CONTENT.S PATERNAL GO~rERNMENT AND FILIAL CONFIDENCE °IN SUPERIORSmJohn C. Ford, S.J. 146 THE MOTHER OF GOD~A. loysius C. Kemper, S.J . 15'; THE CELL TECHNIQUE OF SPECIALIZED CATHOLIC ACTION-- Albert S. Foley, S.3 . 164 DIVINE' PROVIDENCE AND RELIGIOUS INSTITUTES . 175 THE SEAL OF CONFESSION-~Edwin F. Healy, S.'J . 176 -THE DISCUSSION ON SPIRITUAL DIRECTION: Concluding Survey-- The Editors . 187 DECISIONS OF THE HOLY SEE . 202 BOOK REVIEWS (Edited by Clement DeMuth, S.J.)-- Moral Guidance; The Path of Humility; St. Charles Borromeo; The °King's Advocate; 3esus and I; The Larks of Umbria; The Better Life: For Heaven's Sake; We Wish to See 'jesus; The Following of Christ; His Father's Business; National Liturgical Week, 1942; Shinihg in Darkness . °2 . . 203 BOOKS RECEIVED . 211 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS-- 17. Retreat Master as Exrtaordinary Confessor . 212 18. Reason for Removing Local Superior . 212 19. Postulant M.D. Prescribing for Community . 212 20. Public and Private Recitation of Litanies . 213 21. Providing for Sister Who Leaves Community . 214 22. Taxing for Support of Motherhouse . . " . 214 23. Pension for Work Done before Entering Religion . 216 24. Little Office with Blessed Sacrament Exposed . . . . . . 216 -25. Mistress of Novices Subject to Local Superior . 216 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, May, 1943. Vol. II, No. 3. Published bi-monthly: 3~anuary, March, May,-,July, September, and November at" the College Press, 606 Harrison Street, Topeka, Kansas, by St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas, with ecclesiastical approbation. Entered as second class matter 3anuary 15, 1942, at the Post Office, Tgpeka, Kansas~ under the act of March 3, 1879. Editorial Board: Adam C, Ellis, S.3., G. Augustine Ellatd, S.,J., Gerald Kelly, S.J. Copyrlght~ 1943, by Adam C. Ellis. Permission is hereby granted for quotations of reasonable length, provided due credit be given ,this review and the author. Subscription price: 2 dollars a year. Printed it~.U.S.A. Pa!:ernal overnment: .\, and Filial ConFidence in Superiors John C. For.d, S.J. IT IS SAID that soldiers are notorlo s gnpers. The February (1943) issue of the Infantr'g'dournal, in an article called ':Leadership," offers us a selected batch of confidentially treated opinions on officers, expressed by a number of soldiers early in the war. These are quoted .word for Word. "This army can't be driven; it must be led." "Break up the old army non-corn clique and put advancement on a merit basis." "Officers ibluff too much.". ~"Let non=coms be chosen for what they know, not .whom they know." "Our first lieutenant is dominated by the first sergeant." "No reward for good work; old soldiers learn never to .volunteer for anything." "They treat us like children." "When an officer tell~ his men he doesn't like'the army any more than we do, he's not the one I look to. ". instead of'changing his mind every few minutes." ". should take a little interest in what we eat." ". give us some idea of what's going on in maneu-vers. "We come from just as good or better families . say a good word now and then . call a man by his name . show a man they know their stuff." ".shames us in front of other batteries." I am not goin.g to ask the readers whether they have ~ever heard any complaints like these made about religious 146 PATERNAL ~OVERNMENT superiors. And I am notgbing toask them to make a com-parison between, the faults of army leaders and the faults of religious superiors. -That would be too easy. Everyone knows that superiors, being human, have faults. And .besides, anyone °with sense knows, that when people com-plain, whether about superiors or about others, the real rea-sons for the complaints are often not expressed at all. The complaint is merely a symptom of some deeper discontent. , But I am going to ask the readers to meditate on the above rdmarksone at a time. And I suggest that they ask themselves this question: I~ you were a religious superior what would be youf correspbnding complaint about sub-jects? --- or your answer to subjects' complaints on these headings? For instance, "This army can't be driven: it must be led." If you were a superior would you be t~mpted to say, perhaps, "This particular religious can't be led; he has to be pushed'i? Go through all the complaihts that way. I need not do it-for you. It will be instructive for you to make the trial yourself. It is alw~iys instructive to put oneself in .someone else's shoes, and try to get his point of view. And in this par-ticular instance I think most of my readers will find that it is rather difficult (unless they are or have been superiors) to "look at things from that other point of view. They may have to force themselves to look carefully at the reverse.side of the picture. La~'k ot: Contider~ce a Fact " ' And that brings me to my main p0inti, the unfortunate ~fact that superiors and subjects so often seem to have a dif-~ ferent "point of view." It is to be expected, of course, even' in the most ideal state of affairs, that between the governing and the governed there must necessarily be dii~erences of attitude. But in a religious congregation these differences 147 JOHN C, FORD should be at a minimum. All the members of the religious family are presumably aiming at the same target. Whether. they are superiors or subjects the general goal is the same. /kll are looking primarily, to a sfipernatural end andS under the rules of the particular organization, work from the same. s.upernatural motives for its attainment. The pursuit of perfection in work or in prayer, according to' the spirit of the institute, and finally the perfect love of our Lord are the common aim of all who live in religion. A religious congregation is called a "family" tradi-tionally, and in canon law, because it is supposed to have those characteristics of loving unity which a well-ordered family exhibits. When it is said (for instance in canon 530) that it is good for subjects to go to their .superiors with "filial .confidence," the words really mean what they say. The Code is calling attention toone of the basic reali-ties of religious life. The order or congregation is a family." Superiors should be as fathers to their subjects, and subjects should have corresponding filial confidence in them. (Of course, the word '~'filial" has a wide range of meaning, and the attitude of an eighty-year old veteran to his forty-year old superior is not going to be filial in the same way as that of a young religious.) But it is not too much to say that this confidence is fre-quently lacking. Is it not a fact that superiors and subjects, instead of regarding one another in this paternal or filial vcay, actually, at times, think of one another as being on opposite sides? Is not the "point of view" so different that,. forgetful for the time being of the unity of their general supernatural aims, they regard each other almost as oppon-ents? The little exercise suggested above was meant to bring out (if it needs to-be brought out) the fact that this attitude of opposition sometimes exists. If it does not exist in your mind (whether you are a superior or a subject), so 148 PATERNAL GOVERNMENT much the better. But .I think it exists in only too many minds. - The supposition of the present article, therefoie (and perhaps others along the same lines will follow it), is that there is a deplorable lack of filial confidence in superiors ¯ amongst many religious. My object is to indicate what [ Considerto be some of the,causes of this undesirable state of affairs. Some of the causes are inevitable, and are insepa-rable~ as hinted ahoy.e, from tl~e very idea of distinguishing between governing and go-~erned. But others are due to false or distorted ideas about religious government, and these can be corrected. These false or distorted ideas .are enter-tained at tim~s both by superiors and by. subjects. My purpose is to point them out, with the hope that a correc-tion of them will help to restore that filial.confidence which .ought to be part of religious life. The Forgotten "'Paternal For:urn'" The first point on which there seems to be widespread ignorance, or at least many false ideas, is the very .real dis-tinction which exists between the paternal and j~dicial forum in retigio~s government. (What I say here applies equally to the ."maternal" forum where religious women are concerned, and when ~I speak of the "judicial" forum [ do not mean judicial in the strict canonical sense--with a view to formal accusation and a trial, and so forth but in a broader sense, as will appear,) In one sense all re.ligious government should be pater-nal. Paternal in this sense means spi'rituai, Christian, reli-gious government,, as opposed to worldly,, or domineering, or military, or political .government. Whether superi.ors are acting for the direction of individuals, or with a view to correcting their faults, or'punishing, or with a view to the common good of the. congregation;'their government is 149 ¯ JOHN C. FORD, always supposed, to be paternal in this general .sense. But in a more particular sense a superior is said to act paternally, or in the paternal forum, to distinguish his office as a father from his office as a judge. This distinction is of special importance when the superior acts to correct the faults or delinquencies of his subjects. For, in the correction and punishment of delinquencies, the superior may proceed either paternally or judicially. To illustrate the difference in the two procedures per-haps the following examples will help. Suppose the supe-rior has it brought~ to his attention tl~at some of the younger religious, who are not allowed to smoke, are occasionally smoking without permission. He calls in these religious, tells them what he has heard, and, without making any particu-lar accfisations, reminds them of the regulation which for-bids smoking, or forbids smoking without permission. Suppose that afterwards he asks one of these young reli-gious: "Were you one of the offenders?"--and the answer is "Yes." Thereupon, he urges the offender to be faithful in his observance of the rules and imposes some private pen-ance upon him in order to impress on his mind the impor: tance of regular observance. It seems to me that in this sort ofcase the superior is obviously acting as a father and not as a judge. The matter is being handled in the paternal forum. But suppose the' superior calls in another Leligious who has previously been warned about a faul,t or delinquency of a still more serious kind. And let us suppose that he has been previously warned that future lapses will involve seriofis punishment--postpo~nement of final vows, post-ponement of ordination, or even dismissal from the con-gregation. And to make the case a perfectly clear one, sup-pose that the delinquency involves an external matter which may. give scandal to the faithful or threaten the good" 150 ¯ PATERNAL GOVERNMENT of the institute itselfmfor i.ns.tance, excessive drinking, or familiarity with the opposite sex, or a professed attempt to undermine the authority of.the institute: The superior Says to this religious, "You have been accused again of iuch and such a delinquency. Before proceeding further with this matter I should like to hear what defense you ha~ce to make." Is there any. doubt.that in such a case the superior is acting as a°judge rather than as a father? We say com~ monly that he is acting "in the external forum." For that reason he deals with the subject at arm's le.ngth, as the law-yers say, and he does not expect fromhim the same degree of candor which he could claim if he were acting in the pater, hal forum. ~ It would.be a failure to rate'the facts and implications in such a case if we were to say that the superior is not pro-ceeding judicially merely because he is not.following thd formalities of the canonical judicial.process. For .when a superior sets out to gather, evidence with a view to i.nflicting serious punishment, especially if it be public, and most of all if it be expulsion from the. orgafiizaf!on; it.wouldbe.an abuse, of l~inguage to call the procedure paternal. Hence,. I t~ink no one Will doubt that, even when there is no question of a rea~l trial in the canonical sense, there is a quasi-judicial procedure which differs substantially from the merely paternal. " Classic Authors on the Paternal Forum The distinction between these two functions of the superior, that of father and that of judge, is a fundamenthl one; and it is particularly.important that it be kept in mind, when.a superiok questions his subjects with.'a-view to the correction of faults. It is not a new distinction.~, The classic authors on the religious life (Suarez, de Lugo, and others) make much of it in explaining the duty of frateri~al 151 JOHN C~ FORD " " or evangelical denunciation ~ith reference to r~ligious. " Neverthelem, even under ideal conditions and in cases where this fundamental distinction between paternal and judicial procedure is well understood, it is sometimes hard ¯ to tell whether.a superior who questions a subject is acting in a paternal or a judidial capacity. Some cases are on the border and it is hard to draw the line. From' reading the authors who have treated these matters, especially Suarez, it seems to me that the only satisfactory general criterion whether the superior is acting paternally or judicially is the purpoge of his proceedings. If he is acting principatlg for the good of the delinquent, in order to have him amend his fault, then he is acting as a father, even though as a means to this end some penance is imposed (or: a private nature), or some remedy is used which is repugnant to the subject, for example, a change of appointment. But if he acts principallg forthe good of the congregation, the common good, and seeks to inflict punishment as a vindication of ~religious disci151ine which has been violated, especially if the punishment is public, or if the idea i's to make an example of someone, and most of all if the punishment in question is expulsion in such cases he is acting as a judge. A Cause of Mutual Distrust Am I wrong in s~ying that both superiorsand subjects often lose sight of this fundamental principle of religious government? And am I wrong in the opinion that one of the fundamental causes for lack of filial confidence in supe-riors is the neglect of this distinction? Subjects expect superiors to act in a fatherly way when their duty as guardians of the public good requires that they proceed judicially. Or subjects feel that they have not been treated paternally when, without detriment to their reputation, the superior has changed their work or their 152 PATERNAL GOVERNMENT place-of work for °their own good but in a way that is displeasing'to them. They forget that it is part of a father's duty to administer medicine evenif it has ~ bad taste. Superiors sometimes forget that information received in the paternal forum, whether from the subject concerned or from another, cannot ordinari1~ be used judicially, and never to the detriment of the public standing of the subject within the community. If the superior does act judicially on knowledge which he has received paternally, the confi-dence of his subjects Will be utterly destroyed. For when dealing with him they will .never know for sure whether they are speaking to him as a father to whom as religious children they owe special filial candor, and whom they carl trust to keep their revelations in the paternal forfim, or whether they are speaking to him .in his more public capac-ity as guardian of the cQmmon good, so that whatever they say can, as it were, be used against them. The distinction between the paternal and judicial forum, as far as self-revelation and the correction of faults is concerned, has its roots in the natural law itself. A child who is asked by his mother Whether he stole the jam is bound to tell the truth even if he foresees a spanking. But the man who is asked by a judge whether he is guilty or.not guilty is not bound to betray himself. Religious generally agree, on entering religion, that those who notice their faults may reveal them to the superior as to a father, ,but they do not give up their right to reputation as far as others (whatever' their position) are concerned. They do not agree that fraternal, manifestations or their own self-revelations be made the basis of public repiehension. Human nature being what it is, the axiom, "No one is bound to betray himself" (that is, in a judicial proceeding), appeals very strongly to everyone who gets into trouble. If the result of self-revelation is going to be postponement of 153" JOHN C. FOP, D ordination or of vows, or.a defamatory public reprehension, all but the heroes will be convinced (and rightly) that they are under no obligation to speak. (I exclude here, of course, ~efects so serious that they. impose upon an indi- .vidual the obligation of not going on to the.priestho9d~.) BUt the heroes do not get into trouble. As for the others, there is no doubt that if the private fault of a religiou~,- whether venialiy sinful or not, is known to the superior only as a father, and to a few others, he has no right to pub-lish the matter. A public announcement of it by way of punishment can easily involve a serious violation of the natural law of reputation. A superior's position, then, is a very difficult and very burdensome one. TO play the double role, of father and of judge, prudently, calls for wisdom and:'selflessness in a high degree. It.is quite apparent that the Code has done much to eliminate the confusion between the forum of con~ science and the forum of external government by forbidding superi.ors to be the regular confessors of their subjects, or to hear their manifestations of conscience as a ~atter of rule. But the Code has certainly not abolished the time-honored, essential distinction between the office of father and the office of judge. The present article is meant to recall to mind that dis-tinction, as a means of restoring filial confidence. Naturally speaking, the attempt" can never be completely successful. .Only education to it from the earliest days of religious life can makeit moderately successful, perhaps a future article or two will dwell on some,practical applications of the doc-trine as connected with the obligation of fraternal denuncia-tion, and the custom, where it exists, of manifesting the con-science to a greater or-less degree to the superior. Cofifi~ dences received in these circumstances call for more than ordinary virtue and restraint on the part of superiors, if' 154 they wish to keep their,subjects from distrusting them. And ~ubje'cts will not undertake these onerous duties or practices unless the~, are led by a truly religious desire for their own perfection. In fact, the whole matter is not worth the trouble of discussion excelbt in the case of.religious, both subjects and superiors, who seriously seek the things of God, and who deeply yearn to giv~e themselves entirely to Himmas a man gives himself to the one woman he loves. They must be prepared to spurn worldly principles in order to follow in the footsteps of the humble and humiliated Christ. He was not touchy about His rights. "Mine and thine, those frigid words" (St. Chrysostom), were not a part of His vocabu-lary. [EDITORS' NOTE: Father Ford is interested in the further develop-ment of the subject of filial confidence in superiors, if time permits it. ~With a view to makin_g tentative future articles as helpful as possible, he would welcome communications, even anonymous ones, on the subje~t. Needless to say, the communications would be treated con-fidentially. Our readers, both superiors and subjects, who are inter-ested in this matter, are invited to send their suggestions directly to: The Reverend 3ohn C. Ford, S.J., Weston College, Weston, Mass.] CHANGES OF ADDRESS If you change your address, either temporarily for the summer, or permariently because of a new assignment, you can assure yourself of the prompt and safe delivery ' of the Ju_ly number (and subsequent numbers) by sending us a postcard with answers to these three questions: 1. What is ~our present address? 2. What is your new address? 3. Is the change to be merely for the summer or permanent? Please send the card as soon as possible. The Mot:her of: ,od Aloysius C.Kemper, S.J. DURING the month of May our Blessed Mother is daily proclaimed the Mother of God by millions of voices, ¯ old and young. Over the face of the whole earth, whene*er the Hail Mary is said, and in numerous other prayers and canticles, in public service and private devotion, that glorious title, "Mother of God," rings out in her praise. It is a title we have all learnt to love and to use instinctively from our earliest years. Times without number it rises to our lips, often perhaps without due appre~ciation of its pro-found meaning, but never with the shadow of a doubt that we actually mean what we say when we style the Virgin, "Mother of God." Despite the familiarity of this beloved title, it is amazing, sometimes amusing, to note the puzzled air that steals over the countenance of the average instructed Cath-olic when he is confronte.d with the question, uttered as a challenge: "Do you really mean exactly what you say when you call Mary the Mother of God? Think of it: the eternal, uncreated God, having a mother who brought -Him into the world on a definite historical date, not so many centuries ago! Does it not seem highly preposter-ous if you take it in its strict sense? You cannot possibly mean it .just that way. It must be merely an honorary title you are giving to the Blessed Virgin; for, of course, God could not reatlg have a mother." A test question of this sort is apt completely to baffle the examinee who. appreciates the difficulty and searches desperately for a justification of a title as familiar to him as his own name, while he keeps muttering to himself the disconcerting. refrain, "Of course, God could not reall~ have a mother." THE "MOTHER OF GOD Let us not imagine that such searching inquiry into: the. implications of Mary's most familiar, title, is .merely"a pleasant diversion employed to test the average catecheti-cal. mind. Tb~ challenge was seriously throv~n out by master thinkers in the early Christian centuries who were tampering with the full significance of the Incarnation, and who-persistently denied that God could have.a mother. that bore Him. Thus, in the early fifth century Theodore of Mopsuestia proposed the following argu-ment concerni.ng the divine maternity: "When you ask me whether Mary is man-bearing or God-bearing, I must in .truth reply that she is both; she is the bearer of man a~cording to nature, for it was a man who existed in her womb and was brought forth by Mary; she is likewise the bearer of God, because in the man engendered by her God dwelt, not as though circumsc~:ibed by that human nature, but as present in it according to the decree and affection of His will." Drawing the blunt conclusion from Such premises, he added: "It is absurd to say that the Word consubstantial with the Father is born of the Vir-gin Mary. The one who is born of the Virgin is the indi-vidual who was formed from her substance, . not the Word who is God. He who is consubstantial with the Father has no mother at all." Nestorius, the most notorious heresiarch of the same period, promptly tried to popularize this. false teaching by employing the more telling weapon of ridicule. In his cathedral at Constantinople he ordered a sermon preached by one of the clergy in which the divine maternity of Mary was denied. When a tumult arose in the church at this audacious assault'on the honor of God's Mother, Nesto-rius himself arose to reply and calm the exaspe'rated con-gregation: "The question is frequently put to us," he slyly remarked, "whether Mary should be called Mother 157 ~LOYSIUS C. KEMP~R of God or Mother of a man. Tell me, I pray you, has God a mother? If so, then we may well excuse the pagans for.claiming mothers for their gods. No, no, my dear people, Mary did not bear God." This seems~ to have been the first public profession of the Nestorian heresy: to deny the divine maternity of Mary was an implicit denial of the mystery of the Incarnation itself. " At first sight the objection contained in the Nestorian position may appear serious. But it is a valid objection only on the assumption that in the Incarnation God did not become man, but that there were two distinct persons after the union--God, the Word, Son of the Father, and the man born of the Virgin Mary. Pointing to the Child Jesus, Nestorius would say: "This one is the offspring of Mary, a man like ourselves, truly her Son and Child. The other one, the Word of God, who dwells in this man as in His special temple, was not born of Mary but from eternity pioceeded from the Father by divine generation." He could never be prevailed on to admit and to believe with the whole Church that the Infant born in Bethlehem is truly God made man, and that consequently there can be no possible distinction between "this one" and "that one," as between two persons. His doctrine was condemned by the Church as an execrable heresy. The common people themselves, with a correct sense of the truth, raised an out-cry against the blasphemy that Mary is not the M6ther ~f God; and later when the decree of the Council of Ephesus solemnly proclaimed the divine maternity of Mary their joy and exultationknew no bounds. The title of "Mother of God," applied to the Blessed Virgin, is justified by the following simple reasoning, plain to any child: "Mary is the Mother of Jesus. But ~lesus is truly God. Therefore Mary is the Mother of God." The syllogism thus enunciated contains one asset- .158 tion requiring :further proof or explanation. That Mary .is the Mother.of 2esus no one no.wadays would be inclined to call in question. The modern mind is quite at ease in admitting the historical evidence which vouches for the mother of this man ~lesus, who was born, li(red and died, whose story is,known from the Gospels. However, after tl"Je appearance of the Nestorian i pet-version, of Christ's identity, the second premise of the syl-logism that 3esus is truly God has been doubted or denied by countless bearers of the Christian name. On the. undi-luted truth of this second proposition depends the veracity of Mary's divine motherhood.Unless the Child ~he bor~ is truly and unequivocally God .then quite, i~at,urally neither is she the Mother of God. . . We need not prove the divinity of 3esus .here .but may take it over from the faith of the Church as a dogma ,so fundamental that the very name and substance of our religion would disappear if it were denied. As the Nicene Creed declares:. '.'I believe . . . in one Lord 3esus Christ, the only begotten Son of God', born'of the' Father before all ages., true God of true God. c?nsubstantial with the Father . who for us. men, and for our salvation, came down from heaven and was incarnate .by the Holy Ghost of the VirginMary; and was made man.'-.'. . : These words, of the Creed make it clear.that Christ had two natures, one the divine Which He received, from all et.ernity from the Father, so, that He was "born of the Father". and~ of the same substance with Him. Neverthe-less. this same Son was also born of His~ earthly, Mother from whom He received a human nature, a second nature. added to. the one already His from all eternity. It follows then that God ~he Son was twice born, the natural Son of His heavenly Father, the natural .Son of ,His earthly Mother: in either case the same one, the same individual~ 159 'ALOY$1US C. KEMPER the same divine Person. Could anything be more pl~iinly stated in our creed, or more lucid!y dear from the Gospel narrative than the fact that the whole story, from divine, eternal birth to temporal death and resurrection, is the story of one and the same Person, whether you .designate Him by His divine or His human names, God, Son of God, the Word; Christ, 3esus, or even simply "this man"? It will aid in unravelling subtle difficulties and objec-tions that lurk in many a mind in regard to this doctrine to enumerate in catechetical fashion, what we do not say about the Blessed Mother, and what we do say, regarding her divine maternity. 1. We do not say that the Son of God whom Mary bore did not exist before His earthly birth. This latter is His s.econd birth. By generation from the Father He existed from all eternity. It would be plainly absurd to assert that a woman brought God into His first existence, as though she had made God to be, and there would be no God without her maternal activity. Nestorius wa~ not ashamed to hurl the'accusation at his hearers: "You have Mary make God by calling her the Mother of God." Mary did not make God to be, bu~ she did make God to be man. That He is man is due to her maternal activity, aided by . the over-shadowing of the Holy Spirit. 2. We do not claim that she brought forth God tri-une, but only God the Son, the second Person of ~he Trin-ity. Sometimes when we employ the word "God" we mean the three divine Persons, as when we state that God created the world. Creation belongs equally to all three divine Persons. At other times the word is taken to indi-cate a definite Person, as in the phrase, God became man. It is quite correct to use the word "God" in both connota-tions. But one may object, "Why do we not always state the whole truth, by declaring at once that Mary is the 160 THE MOTHER'OI~ GoD Mother of God the .Son, and not Simply the Mother of God?" The reason is quite" simple. The insidious claim that Mary bore a mere man into the world could in no more effective way b~ laid low at one stroke than by desig-nating her in one. word,- "theotokos," that is "God-bearing," Or in our familiar phraseology-"Mother of uGnodde.r" tTheh eim wphaoclte o ffa tbhriisc s oinf ghleerse tthicuanld fearblsoelth.ood crashes 3. Finally we-do not iay that Mary is the mother of "the human nature of the Son of God. Some in their anxiety to remove misunderstanding suggest that we ,reduce our claim for Mary to a motherhood of human nature, since in this case the mother did no more than clothe an already existing Person with the nature that made Him man. No, this simplification "is in no wise admissible, involving as it does a false notion of the term "mother" and of the implied idea of generation. A mother is properly said t6 bear a son, not his nature. Though her immediate function cbncerns directly only the material ele-ment of his being, the soul being created directly by. God, she is never styled the mother of his body, or the mother of his human nature. She invariably giv.es birth to a child, a man, a person, .an individual; call him what you will, but note that it is .always "he" that is born, not "it." "Mother" and "son''~ are correlative, never "mother" and "nature." The stupen.dous fact in the'present case, known only through revelation, is that the Person in question is the Son of GodHimself. We must, then, observe the same propriety of language: Mary bore "Him," "this Person," "this child"; she is His mother, not the mother of His human nature. Coming now to our Positive doctrine, what"do we claim in regard to the divine maternity? The points may \ I61 "ALOY$1US C. KEMPER be very briefly stated, being already largely covered by the preceding explanation. 1. Mary cooperated in the birth of her divine Son exactly ~s any other mother, as far as her maternal func-tion was concerned. What she could not furnish as belonging to the paternal activity was in this case sup-plied by the power of the Holy Spirit. 2. The ordinary laws of human development were operative as usual. For nine whole months the Blessed Virgin was inexpressibly more than a mere temple of God, for the flesh of her divine offspring and her own were united in a°truly~physical unity as the sacred fruit of her womb advanced to maturity. 3. The birth of Christ was a ~irgin birth, strictly miraculous--a truth defined by the Church from the earliest ages. andexpressed in the Creed by the words "born of the Virgin Mary." This was the second nativ-ity of the Son of God, who through it became one 6f our race without ceasing to be Son of God. 4.' Ther~ is however only one Son under considera-tion, not two. As soon as one would wish to introduce a second son the hypostatic union would be sacrificed, and we should find ourselves in the Nestorian two-person camp. We should then be constrained to refer to "this one" as the Son of the Father, and to the "other one" as the Son of the Mother, and the latter, would not be God, nor would Mary be the Mother of God. The truth is the other way. We point to the Infant ,Jesus in the crib, or to the dying Savior on the cross and ciy out, enlight-ened by supernatural faith, "truly this is the Son of God "and of Mary." 5. The actions belonging to the body,the soul and ¯ the human nature of "this man" may be, and indeed must 162 MOTHER 01~ GOD be, attributed to the second person of the Trinity, Thus it is God Himself that dwelt amongst us, God Himself that was born, was nurtured at Nazareth, "ate, slept. walked ~he streets, preached, prayed, sweat blood, suffered, died, and was.buried. Some of these expressions occur in the Creed, in the recitation of which we often fail to remark that the greater part of it concerns the terrestrial human life of the eternal Son of God. made flesh and dwelling amongst us. ,. His dwelling amongst us depende.d upon His first having been "born of the Virgin Mary," which is but another way of saying that the Virgin is truly and properly the Mother of God. A cold and schematic analysis such as the foregoing may appear an unworthy appraisal ofone of the most con-soling truths of our faith, and of the most sublime of all .of Mary's priceless prerogatives, her divine maternity, the very rbot and foundation of all her magnificent adorn-ments. Yet cold, theological analysis is a necessary approach to'a fuller realization of the rich treasure of our holy faith. It wiil serve in the present case, it is hoped, to focus a clearer, steadier light on the Madonna with the divine Child, by clearing a.way any lingering haze of misY understanding that may attach to her maternal dignity, so that the truth and beauty of this sweetest of all images may stand forth in new brilliancy in our minds, and cap-tivate our hearts in a more undying love of the Mother and the Son. 163 The Cell Technique ot: Specialized Ca!:holic Action Albert S. Foley, S.2. 44CTRONGER and greater than any othe~will no doubt ~ be the aid afforded to Catholic Action by the numerous religious families of both sexes who have already rendered signal .services to the Church for the good of souls in your'nation. They w.ill give this aid not only by their incessant prayers but still more by generously devoting .their 'efforts to it, even if they do not, properly speaking, have charge of souls; they will give it more par- .ticularly by preparing for Catholic Action, even from the most tender age, the boys and girls whom they teach in their work, and especially in schools and colleges, both for men and women, placed in great part under the direction of reli-gious Institutes; ~nd above all in developing inthem the sense of the apostolate, and in directing them finally toward the Catholic Action organizations or in receiving these into their own associations and institutions.''1 In accordance with these wishes and directives of our .late Holy Father, great Work has been done by many out-standing religious youth directors in English-speaking countries. These religious, by their literary and organiza-" tional work, by their agitation and their achievements, have contributed mightily to the cause of general Catholic " Action. There is hovcever one phase of the movement that has no~ yet received sufficient attention in the United States. That is the preparation of leaders for the apostolate of 1pius X[ to Cardinal Leme da Silveira Cintra and tl~e Brazilian Hierarchy, October 27, 1935. AAS 28 (1936) 163. 164 THE CELL TECHNIQUI~ specialized Catholic Action by means of the cell technique. Lacking leaders so trained, the development of total Cath-olic Action in our country is lagging slightly behind some parts of the Catholic World. Butwe can be sure that this state of things will not last .long. Many religious through-out the country have become convinced of the value of this new technique. They have become the biodynes of this new .cell movement, have begun to stimulate cell grow~th and multiplication in all kinds of milieus, and even in manor existing Catholic Action organizations. If these pioneers are joined by large numbers of our capable, enthusiastic religious, American Catholic Action will soon become-the vital Christianizing influence it should be. Catholic Action is undeniably destined to be a force for the restoration of a11 things and all men in Christ. Plus XI defined it as the "participation of the laity in the apostolate of the hierarchy." He moreover insisted that this participa-tion should not be merely g~neral and sporadic as in the past, but should be organized and specialized according to environment, to facilitate an apostolate of like by like--~ the worker becoming an apostle for workers, the profes-sional man for professional men, the student for Other stu-dents. To meet the extra demands .of this personal aposto-late, the cell technique was devised, and the Pope, after seein~g it in action, praised it as the "genuine, authentic, per~ fected forrii of Catholic Action." What precisely is this cell technique? The cell notion and terminology is of course derived by analogy from the physiological unit of the living organism. A Catholic Action cell is a small, specialized unit of the Mystical Body, having, as every cell has, two dements: 1.) an active share in the life of the whole Body in order to achieve its particu-lar function; and 2) a certain inner composition fitted and adapted to carry out that function. We shall consider in 165 ALBERT S. FOLE~ this article both the apostolic spirit energizing the cell, and theinner composition and w6rkings of its organization. ¯ First, as to the apostoli~ spirit. In the letter quoted at the head of this article, Pius XI stresse~l the importance of "developing in them the sense Of the apostolate." It is not enough for them to know, the Pope pointed out, that the laity are, by their membership in the Mystical Body, privi-leged and entitled to share in the hierarchy's apostolic work. Nor is it ~uflicient to hammer home their duty to their fel-low men in this respect., They must be imbued with so ardent and personal a love for Christ that the apostolic spirit will automatically, inflame them.' No blue-nosed zealotry, no fanatical reforming mania, no hypocr.itical, h01ier-than-thou attitude can pose .as apostolic in cell work. Rather, the soundest basis, for lasting achievement through the technique is this keen personal attachment the Leader. That, by the way, is the method our Lord Himself used to draw His first followers. By His personal magnetism He won toHimself Andrew and John. Andrew, enthusi-astic in his new-found love, brought Simon Peter to Christ. John no doubt brought, his brother James. Then when Philip was called, his first apostolic conquest was Nathaniel. Soon the group, the first cell, was formed. Christ won their hearts utterly to Himself. Only then were they ready for their apostolic mission. This personal devotion to Christ is all the more neces-sary because of the apostolic methods, used in celt work. The re-Christifying of the immediate milieu is to be car-ried on not only through the general methods of propa-ganda and influence, but especially by .the apostolate of personal contact, of man-to-man conquest of consciences and souls through service, winning influence, individual attention and indoctrination. 166 THE. CELl. \ The present-day, possibilities and functionings of tNs System were symbolized vividly during one of-the Cath-olic Action .Congresses in Europe before the war. At a n[gh~ service ina giant stadium. some 80,000 were assembled. Suddenl~ all the lights went out, except candles burning on the altar. From one of these, signifi-cantly, the leader lighted his candle, carried the flame down to his neighbors, and transmitted it to them by personal contact. These two lighted in turn the two nearest to them. The light at first spread slowly along the fbont rows as candle after candle caught fire. But soon it gained momentum. It became a racing flame, sweeping through. the whole center of the stadium and up into the stands in geometrically progressive leaps and bounds until all were ignited. That is a true symbol of the movement. A flame, a fire passed on by :personal contact in the immediate milieu can spread and catch all, where methods of mass a~itaton .of large, unwieldy units, fired by an outside enthusiast, will at most perhaps light up a temporary, borrowed glow. Using this personal contact technique, a small group of Catholic Actionists won back to the Church and:the Sacraments 85 pergent of the student bod~ in a godless state University in France within three y~a~s:. Another group of ~lerks at the Paris Stock Exchange conquered for Christ 300 of the 500 clerks there. The remainder were brought into conformity with Christian business ethics. Result: the Exchange was reformed more effectively by this technique than Wall Street by the. SEC. It is noteworthy. too that the Jocists in Europe have, by this method, triple~ their membership to well over a million since the tragic summer of 1940, despite the handicaps of the occupation. S~ilar results are being obtained, in Canada. In our own country a few such.instances as these are on record. One 167 .~LBEKT ~. FOLEY Manchester youth won back to the Church twenty-four out of twenty-seven of his companions who had fallen away. A Notre Dame freshman, after a few months of training in the technique, ~vent back to his home town and inspired forty of his former high school friend~ with the idea. Together he and they spent their summer getting Catholic children to go to Catholic schools. They thus increased the enrollment of Catholic grammar and high schools more than twenty percent. It is therefore rather incorrectto maintain that none of our youth in school or out of it is capable of being inflamed with this conquering spirit. The plain fact is that many are already burning with a fiery desire to do something for Christ, and that many others can easily be so enkindled. Under the pressure, of the war, or perhaps despite it, .the more intelligent and wide-awake among them are authen-tically responding to the Church's spiritual program. Mass is being better .attended, more intelligently shared-in, more fruitfully lived. Retreats, holy hours, visits, and other spiritual activities send them back to religion classes eager to learn more of Christ. They willingly undertake myriads of zealous activities for Him, and for His Mysti-cal Body, a consciousness of which latter is not.wanting . tin them, now that their frequent Communions and their innate goodness and ~harity are bearing fruit. Hitherto, perhaps too often, these early indications of piety have been taken as signs of an incipient religious vocation, not of a summons to Catholic Action. Spirited youths have sometimes shied away from the religious .life when it and it alone was presented to them as the only logical conclusion of a keen,-active love for Christ. To avoid'tha~ special vocation for which they felt no attrac-tion, they have too often built up .resistance to the call of Christ, become impervious to the influence of the Sacra- 168 THE CELL TECHNIQUE mentsand of retreats, and allowed the flame of their love for Christ to be smothered in other pursuits. If they were given training and instruction in .the c~ll t~echniqu¢ of Catholic Action specialized to their student-or youth surroundings, this fire would be saved. They would then be prepared for a zealous lay Catholic life in their future environment, and for the religious life as Well, should theyfinally choose it. One difficulty-immediately presents itself. Will the grooming of youth for lay apostolic work seriously cut down the number of religious vocations? If 'the best youngsters become enthusiastically interested in and trained for the vast field of zealous achievements for Christ in their Own milieu, will they devote their lives to that field rather than enter the religious life? Will first-hand acquaintance with the dynamic, up-to-the~minute, effi-cient techniques of specialized Catholic Action so absorb all their interest as to leave no room for ambi~oning the apostolic work open to religious? It is hot easy to answer.these queries in advance. But it can be noted that in those countries where religious have generously devoted their efforts to training youth for specialized Catholic Action, religious vocations have increased. In Italy, just one year after the reorganization of Catholic Action, the feminine ~ection alon(~ furnished 2,500 vocations. In France, Belgium, and Holland, they were on the upsurge.These Catholic Action groups con- ' sidered it a sign of a successful federation if it produced ~eligious vocations among the leaders or among the ~ank and file. Where none were forthcoming, those in charge sensed that s~mething was.awry. Already in~ the United States, where specialized cells are in the experimental stage in Chicago, Toledo, Dayton, and New York, in Manchester and other cities in the New England States, at 169 .~LBERT S. FOLEY l~otre Dame, Marquette, John Carroll and Dayton Uni-versities and a. dozen other colleges, as well as in scattered groups t~roughout the rest of the country, many religious vocations have_ resulted. Moreover these new recruits will be all the more excellent religious for having served their apprenticeship in the cell movement. This becomes evident from an examination of the inner structure and the other elements of this cell tech-nique. Given a group of six or eight intelligent, sincere leaders-to-be (not politicians, publicity seekers, pious racketeers, or "pushy" religious climbers), the technique first prescribes that they be formed into a cell, a living unit of the.Mystical. Body, under the personal direction of a priest or a religious. The cell is organized under a leader, usually the oldest with ~he best personality, and through this leader and by means of private conferences with him, the director outlines plans and procedures for the cell meeting of about two hours every week without fail. It is in the cell meeting that the fire of personal zeal is fanned into flame, and the techniques of spreading that fire to others are studied, applied to their own lives and to the concrete problems of their surroundings. ~ The formula for the meeting comprises the follow-ing: 1) CorporateVocal Prayer before and after the meeting; 2) Corporate Mental Prayer or Gospel Study; 3) The Checkup; 4) The Social Inquiry; 5) Liturgy .Appreciation. A brief word on each of these) 2More detailed analysis is impossible in so short a compass as an article. Consult for further information, the following works: Fitzsimons and McGuire, Restorin9 All Tt~ings, A Guide to Catl~olic Action, (Sheed ~ Ward, 1938) 198-236; McGuire.-Paul, Handbook of Group AOencla, (K. of C., New Haven, 1940): Geissler. E. Trainin9 of Lay Leaders, (Univ.~ of Notre Dame. 1941): William Boyd, "Militants of Christ" Orate Fratres, xvi (Jufie 14. 1942) 338-347. In regard to the program of subjects for Inquiries. we may mention that this has been worked out in exact detail by youth groups in other countries---Canada, for instance, having a full seven-year cycle of subjects. These, of course, have to be adapted to the American scene by individual and collective work of the cells, but cellists can no doubt learn much from their experience, as is the case with those already experi-menting with it here. - '170 1) Corporate'Vocal Prayer. Led by one of the them= bets, who may or. may not be permanently chosen, the group recites what vocal prayers they choose for the start and the end of the meeting. It may seem strange at first that the priest or religious present should pray along with them instead of praying in place of them. But the reason is apparent. For united, organized action the group must not only work together, play together, study and plan together, but must also pray together. Active, dynamic praying can never be developed by passively hearing others pray. They must do it themselves, and thus develop that sense of togetherness in the Mystical Body, that union of all with Christ as His own. They or the director may suggest prayers, either of the ordinary devotional type, or, as their acquaintance with it increases, from the liturgy. 2) Corporate Mental Prager or Gospel Studg. One of the main means to fan the fire of love for Christ has been found to be the direct, prayerful study, of the inspired word for about fifteen minutes at the start of the me.eting. It is perhaps difficult for religious to realize the stirring impact of the Gospels on one who prays over them for the first time. True, most youngsters are half-way acquainted with the parables and the general outline of our Lord's ¯ life. But the absorbing and compelling magnetism of His life. is a new thing to them. By personal, prayerful reading and application to their lives of scenes' like the Annuncia-tion, the call of the Apostles, the full Sermon on the Mount, the discourses inSt. John, the sermons in the Acts, the~, are as a group drawn together to the Master, meet Him as never before, feel their hearts burning within them" anew. This should be linked up with and pointed toward the Social Inquiry, to furnish motivation,, inspiration, guid-ance, or principles for it. And no one, surely, is apt to be 171 ~LB~T S. FOLEY better prepared for doing this than the religious who has for years 'drunk deeply at this source of light and warmth. It is not long before the cell realizes, as Archbishop Good-. ier maintains, that "nothing can take the place of constant, repeated reading of the Gospels." '3) The Checkup. This is out of place here in a logi- .cal explanation of the technique, but it is definitely in place in the technique itself, especially after the first meeting. The checkup consists in this, that the ceil members examir~e their social consciences. They report on the fulfilment of the definite resolutions taken in their Gospel study. Each one tells of his work in carrying out the plans decided on in the Social Inquiry. Mutual stimulation, interchange of ideas and metl~ods, discussion of successful techniques of approach, conquest, influence,, and service spontaneously result. Nor should the psychological value of the checkup be overlooked. It plays as important a role in fostering the social apostolate as would a public examen of con-science in the endeavor to attain to .personal perfection in a rel~gi6us community. 4) The Social. Ir~quirtj. This is the most important and most essential section of the cell meeting, the heart' of the whole cell ,technique. Many religious are acquainted ~with it as the Jocist method of attacking social problems in any given milieu, always with the aim, of course, to rec,hristianize or conquer more completely for Christ the persons contacted. The three phases of the method are observation, judg-ment, and action. These constitute what amounts to a group meditation, conducted l~y the discussion method, with the .three phases roughly corresponding to the exer-cise of the memory, the understanding, and the will. To be sure, just as in formal meditation, it is more a question of stress than of air-tight division into these compartments. 172 THI~ CI~LL TECHR'IQUI~ BU~ while forming one unit,, one human act, the phases are distinct ~ind have definite purposes. In the Observation phase the leader and the cellists put their heads together.to analyse the elements of the problem at hand, .the available data they can recall. It is a fact- .finding, fact-gathering process.to set the stage fo~ discus-sion, thought, and comparison witl~ Christian ideals. These too they mus~ recall (or learn if they do not know them) either from their Gospel, study, or from religion classes, or from other instruction in Catholic social prin-ciples and moral-standards, ethical practice and even com-mon sense. All the facets of this one environmental prob-lem are thus examined until the cell" discovers what is wrong or less good when placed side by side with Chris-tian standards. To,aid this .process, the leader prepares in advance with the director's aid, a series, of stimulating questions that suggest avenues of approach and investigation,, or revive faint memories hidden away in the recesses of the mind. Once this is done, they are ready for the second phase. The Judgment to be passed, it must be remarked, is not a juridical one. It is certainly not to be a Pharisaic one. Nor is it to remain theoretical. It is rather a reso-lute, imperiofis decision reached by all simultaneously,, or better still,, a practical judgment by the group that some-thing is to be done and done by them as a group, in the, solution of this problem. By uniting the data of their. observation with the motivation furnished by their zeal and-with the urgent need for their action, they concretize this zeal and channel their ~efforts into this one present prob-lem. Their convictions thus became principles of action, and it is this action that they discuss in the third and cli-mactic phase of the method.- 173 ALBERT S. FOLEY Everything is pointed toward this Action phase. But it is the most difficult and critical Of all. Here the group discusses what sp.ecific, definite, immediate steps are to be taken by each member, what precise lin~s of conquest to be ~ followed before their next meriting. Concrete resolutions are takeh. These are recorded to be checked up on next week., The prime psychological value of this group medita-tion is plain. In religious organizations and in religion classes, in retreats, sermons, missions and lectures, we have tried every method of force-feeding known to pedagogical science. We wonder at the sluggish,spiritual appetites of the students, even the more capable ones. This method fosters their self-activity. It lets them eat. They rise up from this spiritual board and go out to expend their ener-gies in action and exercise, and come back athirst and hun-gering for more. They find that it is not what is given them but what they get by their own efforts that.really satisfies and stimulates. The Observe, Judge, Act system may not produce .doctorate theses, but it is their own, their very own, not some~ pre-fabricated or pre-digested menu impersonally served them by outsiders. 5) The Liturgy1. The final few minutes of the mi~et-ing are devoted to an" appreciation of the currentliturgy. As a stimulus to their grou15 praying nothing helps more than active participation in Massas a cell. For this,, an understanding of the Church's.seasons and of the weekYs feasts is an indispensable aid. This should be linked up too withthe carrying out of their practical resolutions for specialized Catholic Action. What, therefore, should a religious do who wishes to make use of this technique in training a group of leaders-to-be? The Pope's program in regard to general Catholic Action applies with particular, force to this specialized 174 THE CELL TECHNIQUE form: Prayer, Study, Experimentation. Without prayer, the prime requisite, the other, two are doomed from the start. In lieu of special courses, such .as those urged by Plus XI and Cardinal Pacelli in a letter written by the pres-ent Holy Father to superiors of religious orders (March 12, 1936), religious may study the movement by making acquaintance with the books and groups referred to in this article and by following the leads they will give if con.- sulted. Finally, experimentation with groups °even in existing organizations (as is being done in the Sodalities in many places) can be carried on with no more friction than that caused by the retreat movement. Both. retreat and cell movements are for the training of an elite, both are indis-pensable to th~ future ,work of these lymphocytes, these cells for the restoration and upbuilding of the Mystica! Body.' Divine Providence and Religious Institutes In an article entitled ."Introduction to Franciscan Spirituality," published in Franciscan Studies for December, 1942, Fr. Philibert Ramstetter, O.F.M., rightly insists that the Church must be the special object of God's loving Providence, and that in particular the Religious Orders and Congregations com~ under this Provi-dence. "Nor should the multitude and diversity of Religious communities mak~ us pausg," adds Fr. Ramstetter. "The all-wise God has.a particular and exactly-defined task for every single one of them. Moreover, history makes it clear that each such Order and Congregation, at least partly because of its special work, has its own mor~ or less specialized way of sanctifying the men and women who come under its influence, In other words, by the Providence of God each,approved Order or Con-gregation becomes a distinct school of spiritualityby itself or finds it proper place within one already established, each school having its particularized ideal~ of the supernatural life given to the world by ~lesus Christ. "The variety of schools within God's Church does no~ imply that the essence or principles of Christian living ever chang~they are as constant as the mind of God. But it does mean that the Christian concept of religion is wide enough to embrace not only varying degrees of personal perfection but also different artirude~ towards the Christian life and, as a result, different ways of living it." 175 The Seal ot: Confession Edwin F. Healy, S.J. WHEN a Catholic goes to confession and tells the priest ~all the secret sins and defects of his life, he realizes that the knowledge of the faults which he is impart-ing to his confessor will remain jUStoaS hidden from others as though he had spoken to God alone. Many theologians used to assert that the knowledge of the sins confessed is possessed by the confessor only as God. As man, he knows nothing of them. Though many other theologians dis-agreed with this way of stating the case, all donceded that, since the confessor has received this knowledge as the repre-sentative of God, it is now beyond the scope of human rela-tions. The priest possesses it as incommunicable, knowl-edge which must be buried forever in the secret ~iaults of his memory. Since the earliest days of the Church all theologians have taught that the confessor must suffer anything, even the most horrible type of death, rather than violate his obli-gation of keeping secret all sacramental knowledge. The seal of confession binds in every imaginable set of circum.- ¯ ¯ ~stances. Even though a priest, by violating the seal, could prevent the outbreak of a prolonged, devastating, world-wide war, he would, nevertheless, still be bound to absolute secrecy. In other words, a confessor is never permitted to reveal knowledge guarded by the seal, no matter how great the good which such a revelation would effect. There are no exceptions to this 'rule. If even one exception were allowed, the faithful would not approach the Sacrament of Penance with the same freedom and confidence. Penitents in general, and especially hardened sinners, would entertain the fear that their sins might one day be revealed. By pre- 176 THE SI~,~L 01~ CONFESSION venting, such evil effects, .the excluding of any and every exception works to the common spiritual good of all Chris-ians arid greatly outweighs any accidental beneficial results which might follow in this or that particular case from the restelation of a sacramental confession. The seal of confession, then, is the obligation 9f abstaining fromall use of sacramental knowledge, if the use Of that knowledge would either betray the penitent or render him Suspect. Hence, the confessor is obliged to main-tain the strictest silence concerning all that he learns in the Sacrament of Penance, when the discussion of such matter would even remotely risk disclosing the .penitent .and his sin. The obligation of the seal requires even more than this. The priest must refrain from making use of anything learned in confession, if the use of such knowledge would in any .way whatsoever tend to the detriment of the Sacra-ment. The subject-matter of the seal consists, in general, of all sins, defects and everything else of a confidential nature manifested in a sacramental confessiofi.It includes all that the penitent rightly or wrongly confesses as s{n. All mor-tal sins,, then, even though they be notorious, and all venial sins, even the slightest, are matter of the-seal. But more than this. The subject-matter of the seal embraces all remarks and explanations made by the penitent with the intention of perfecting the ~self-accusation, whether or not the points mentioned are necessary or useful or wholly superfluous for the proper understanding of the case. If, then, the penitent reveals to the priest temptations which he has experienced or evil tendencies against which he must struggle, the confessor is obliged to keep this knowledge strictly to himself. The same is true with regard to the description of the circumstances in which the s~ns occurred. If; for example, a penitent mentions that the murder which 177 EI~W!N'F. HEALY he has committed took place at a certain gasoline station, or if he discloses the manner in which the murder was per-petrated, these bits of information also would be safe-guarded by the Seal. What is to be said of the physical or mental defects which, in one way or another, come to the attention of the confessor during the course of the confession? Natural deficiencies must be considered matter of the seal either if they are manifested in order to explain some sin or if they are secret defects. Even though these latter are not men-tioned by the penitent but are accidentally learned by the confessor, the priest must maintain sacramental secrecy in their regard. It is dear, then, that such traits as a tendency to avarice or anger or other secret moral, weaknesses are sub-ject- matter of the seal. Though th~ subject-matter of the seal is very extensive, there is, nevertheless, ' certain knowledge acquired in sacra-mental confession which does not fall under the seal. In this category belong Statements made clearly by way of digres-sion, which in no way per.tain tO the sins submitted to the Power of the Keys. An example of this is the remark:. ',Father, my new home is finished now. Will you bless it when you have time?" The knowledge thus imparted'is given extra-sacramentally. That one come~ to confession is of itself a public fact to which the confessor is a witness. Hence, it is not matter of theseal. The same is true regard-ing the !ength of time which a penitent remains in the con-fessional. If, however, a man approaches a priest in secret to go to confession, his coming to the Sacrament is not pub-licbut secret. Since knowledge of tl~is secret fact could easily give rise to suspicion of serious sin, it becomes matter of the seal. Also, if a man were to spend an unusually long time in the confessional, prudence would prompt the priest not to reveal this, for fear that it might lead others to sus- 178 THE S~L pect that this penitent had a large nUmberof sins to tell. Let~us suppose that a thief were to kneel at the feet 6f a priest and recount various sins, but with no in~entiofi of receiving the Sacrament ofPenance. He has placed himself in. these circumstances merely to have a .better opportunity for picking the pockets of this pious priest. In this case the confessor would in no wise be bound to sacramental secrecy, because the obligation 6f the seal arises only from a confes-sion which.is sincerely made with a view to receiving abso-lution. (Whe(her or' not the absolution is actual!y imparted makes no difference with regard to the obligation of the seal.) As long asthere is the intention, then, to . receive the Sacrament of. Penance, the obligation of the sea! ¯ is present in spite of the fact that ~he .penitent lacks~ the proper dispositions or the priest lacks faculties for hearing confessions. A sacramental confessi.on, therefore; and only a sacramental confession imposes the obligation of the seal. But, one may ask, what if a man were to go to a priest Who is vesting for Mass, and, in order to put an end to his wbrrying, explain certain severe tem. ptations which he has just experienced? Is this to be deemed sacramental confes-sion? It is sacrament~il on on:e condition:¯ namely, that the man desires the priest to give him absolution, in case he judges it necessary or advisable. If, on the other hand, a.per-son confesses his sins by letter to a priest who is in another town,the~re would be no sacramental secrecy involved. Why is this? The confession, in order to be sacramental, must be made to a priest who is actually present. What if one approached a priest and, with no intention at all of going to confession,, revealed some secret, prefacing his disclosure with the words: "Father, I am telling you this under the seal of. confession"? Would tiiis priest then be bound by the seal? No, he would not. But let us suppose thathe readily agreed to receive the communication under the 179 EDWIN F.' HEALY secrecy of confession. Even in this case he would not be held by the seal. The reason is dear. Since no sacramental confession is made, not even an incipient one, this secret can-not be protected by the seal of the Sacrament. x~rhat is required to constitute a transgression against the obligation of the seal? Obviously the seal is violated. when one reveals matter protected~ by sacramental secrecy and at the same time in some why designates the. penitentm supposing, of cours~e, that the latter has granted no explicit permission to disclose this knowledge. Such illicit revela-tion may b~ either direct or indirect. For direct violation there must be a clear manifestation both of matter of the seal and of the identity of the penitent concerned. If, for example, a priest were to make known the fact that John Jones committed a murder (and he is aware .of this.only from Jones' confession), he would undoubtedly.be guilty of a direct violation of the seal. But what if.that priest did not mention Jones by name, but simpler declared that the wealthiest man in this town (and Jones is known as such) ,committed a murder? This also would go directly counter to the seal. Or again, if that priest were to state that the first man who came to him to confession today confessed the crime of murder, and if his hearers knew., that Jones was ~.-that first pegitent, the seal would be violated directly. Not only revealing mortal sins but divulging even venial sins can constitute a direct violation of the seal. If, forexample, the confessor asserts that' James" Brown con-fessed a sin of lying or that he is guilty of serious sins or of m~nq venial sins, he is directly transgressing against the sacrdd 'obligation to secrecy. The sins need not be named specifically. . Up to this point we have treated only of the direct vio-lation of the seal. A violation is said to be indirect when causes the danger of manifesting the penitent and his sins or 180 THE SEAL OF (:ONFESSION at least of exciting suspicion in his regard. This danger may be created by what the confessor says or does or even by what he omits to do. A confessor would indirectly violate the seal, if he made known the penance which he imposed on a certain penitent, unless of course the penance were very light, for example, two Hail Marys. Provided that his way of acting could be observed by others, a confessor would sin against the obligation of the seal if, after confes-sion, he were to give the penitent a severe look or if he failed to treat him in as friendly a manner as he did before.- More.- over, a confessor violates the seal indirectly, if during the ' confession he argues with the penitent in a somewhat loud. voice, or if he repeats the sins confessed in a tone that risks revealing.the faults to others. In passing we may remark that eavesdroppers who try to hear what the penitent is saying in confession or those who kneel very close to the confessional in order to learn wha~ is going on sin against, the seal, even though they reveal to others nothing of what they manage to overhear. One thus listening to a-penitent's confession is causing the revelation of the penitent and of his sins to one who has no right to this knowledge, that is, to himself. This is a direct viola-tion of the seal. However, if one happens to be standing some distance from the confessional, he is not obliged to move away or to stop his ears, though he may accidentally overhear one who is confessing too loudly. (Nevertheless, whatever is thus overheard mustbe guarded under the seal. ) Let us now consider the seal in its wider interpretation. The seal, taken in this meaning, is violated indirectly when, on the one hand, there is no danger of either disclosing or exciting suspicion about the penitent and his sin, but, on the other hand, harm or displeasure to the penitent arises from the use of sacramental knowledge. In instituting the Sacra- 1'81 EDWIN F, HEALY ¯ ment of Penance~. Christ imposed the obligation of the seal on all. those who share in confessional kr~owledge. ¯ He did :.this in order to preclude the aversion towards the Sacrament which the lack of such security would occasibn in the hearts of the faithful. Christ desired that no Use be made ofcon-fessional knowledge which would cause injury to the Sacraz ment. In order to safeguard the observance of the seal in the strict sense, the Church forbids the confessor to employ sac- . ramental knowledge in a way that w.ould displease the peni-tent. Such :;n action of the priest, even though there were no danger of betraying tl~e penitent, would, nevertheless, violate the seal as it is understood in its .w, ider meaning. We mentioned above that the seal, in its broader inter-pretation, is violated ~hen "harm or displeasure to the peni-ten[ arises from the use of sacramental knowledge." What do we meanby, the words "harm or displeasure" ? We mean injury either in body, in soul, or in extern~l possessions. We mean whatever would redound to the dishonor or discredit of the penitent; whatever would inconvenience him or annoy, shame, or sadden him. We mean, in a word, what-ever would make the penitent even slightly regret his con-fession. Hence, the use of confessional knowledge which would cause any of these effects must be counted illicit.If such use were permissible, penitents would find the Sacra-ment of Penance less desirable and less easy to approach. ~:'hus they would be deterred, at least to some extent, from going to confession. They would not find in this Sacrament ~he freedom and the consolation which they may righ~tly ¯ expect. Would.not the use of sacramental knowledge which we brand as illicit become lawful if the penitent himself were unaware of the fact that he was being injured o~ legislated against because of what is known only through the Sacra-ment? Let us imagine, for example, that a particular peni- 182 tent isdeprived of some o~ce or that he is denied some privi-lege because through confession he is known tO be unworthy ~ of these. Is such use permissible, provided the penitent does not know and wili never learn that what he told'his confes-sor is thus being employed to his disadvantage? No, such use is never allowed. The penitent's ignorance of the fact that his confessor is thus using sacramental knowledge would in no way r~nder Such use licit. It is not necessary that the penitent hnow that knowledge ~btained in a sa~ra-mental confession is being employed to injure him. If a cer-tain use of sacramental knowledge would be displeasing to the penitent if it .were known, such use must be placed in the category of forbidden~actions. Let us suppose, for instance, tha~ a priest after confession, when alone with his penitent, shows, himself less congenial or notably more brusque towards the penitent. Though the penitent does notadvert to the fact that the confessor is acting thus because of what he heard in_confession, the priest sins agains~ the seal, taken in the wide sense. ~ The confessor must give no sigfi that he is conscious of what was mentioned in the Sacramentof Penance. He is: moreoyer, forbidden to speak to his penitent outside confes-sion of any ~in which the latter confessed. In this case, it is true, the reve~lation, of no secret would be involved, but such a way of acting would ordinaril~r be displeasing'to the faith-ful. Once the penitent has retired from the confessional, the sacramental judgment is at an end, and the priest in now' speaking to the penitent 'of what transpired during that judgment, is acting against the reverence and the liberty due the. Sacrament. One may readily see, then, that the sacra-mental seal binds more strictly than any other ty.pe of secret. Other secrets, unlike the sacramental seal, would not be vio-lated, if those who had the hidden knowledge in common were to discuss it a ~mong themselves. 183 At times, pe~nitents ~ppr0ach their confessor Outside con-fi~ ssion and ask him about the penance which he imposed on them, or about sbme bit Of advice which he gave, or about the gr~ivity of a certain sin which they confessed. Does the sealprevent the confessor .from answering these questions~? No, it does not, because by thd very fact that the penitent begins speaking of these matters he grants permission to the priest to talk about them with him. Ordinarily, however, his permission is limited to a discussion of the matter which the penitent has broached and may not be extended to all the sins confessed. Incidentally we may mention that it is possible for a penitent to sin by revealing, without a good reason, the advice, the penance, and so forth, given by the confessor, if such a revelation woul~l redound to the priest's discredit. Those who hear the penitent's comments do not know the reasons Which prompted the confessor to impart such advice or to impose so severe a penance, and the priest is powerless to speak in his own defense. The penitent, more-over, should be on his guard against revealing anything 6f what transpires during the confession, if that would lower the Sacrament in the esteem of others. May the confesson without the penitent's leave, men-tion to him during the course of a confession sins confessed on previous occasions? Yes, this may be done, provided there is a sufficient reason for calling these past sins to .the attention of the penitent. The priest may deem it advisable to refer to some sin of the past, ih order to become better acquainted with the state of this penitent's ~oul and so be able to direct him more effectively. Far from objecting to this, the penitent should be happy that his confessor is so solicitous about his advancement in the. spiritual life. More-over, even.when a penitent leaves the confessional but returns immediately, the confessor may discuss with him 184 both the sins just confessed and the sins of previous confes-sions. Some priests give a few words of advice after having imparted the absolution. This is permissible, bedause, though the Sacrament is completed, the sacramental judg-ment, morally speaking; still continues. The penitent may, of course, give the confessor leave to speak outside confession about certain sins submitted to the Power of the Keys, and if this is done, the confessor may freely discuss those sins. It is important to note that this permission, in order to be valid, must be granted by the penitent n. ot only'expressly but also with entire freedom. If the permission were to be extorted by threats or fear or importunate pleadings, it would be worthless, and the con-fessor who acted upon it would violate the seal. The same ¯ is true with regard to permission that is merely presumed or interpretative. In this matter such a permission must be counted as no permission at all. When there is question of any use of confessional knowl-edge which would render the Sacrament more difficult or irksome, that knowledge must be kept just as secretly as though it did not exist. However, besides the case in which ¯ the penite.nt's permission has been freely and unmistakably granted, there is another perfectly licit use of sacramental knowledge. In general, that use is licit which would in no wise deter the faithful from frequenting the Sacrament, even though such use were publicly announced as lawful. When would this~ requirement be verified? This condition would be fulfilled, if a certain use of sacramental knowl-edge were to involve neither the direct nor indirect viola-tion of the seal nor the slightest ~trace of displeasure to peni-tents in general. We may summarize in the following" way the scope of use which is lawful. The use of confessional knowledge is permissible: (1) within the limits of matters which belong 185 EDWIN F. HEALY exclusively to one's own conscience; (2) outside these lim-its, in external a~tions, provided it is certain that there is no danger at all of .revealing the penitent and his sin or Of displeasing him or of making the Sacrament in general less approachable. A confessor, therefore, is allowed to pray for a particular penitent who is known from confession to be gravely tempted. A priest may meditate on his penitents and their faults, in order to be able to advise them more per-fectly. Moreover, a confessor, who has learned through confessions which he has heard thaf certain games have fre-quently ~aused spiritual or temporal ruin, may allow him-self tO be guided by this knowledge in 'avoiding these forms of amusement. A priest may show greater kindness and consideration for a penitent who he knows from confession is severely afflicted, pro.vided of course the confessor's way of acting would not engender suspicion in the minds of observers. Finally, it is well to remember that, if a priest knows about a certain person's recent sins be~:ore he hea~:s his Confession, that individual's act of confessing those sins to this priest ~does not place the confessor's previous-knowledge under the seal. The previous knowledge was and still remains extra-sacramental. The confessor, how-ever, mu~t exercise great prudence in the use of such infor-mati6n. This, then, is the common teaching of theologians regarding the obligation of the seal of confession. ~lust as our divine Lord, "by the pardon of His loving mercy, entirely wipes away and quite forgets the sins which through human weakness we have committed," so the minister of the Sacrament of Penance ieverently guards, e~ven to the shedding of his blood, everything that is mani-fested to him in the secrecy of the confessional. 186 The Discussion on Spiritual Direction The Editors ~oLMOST a year "ago (July, 1942) we published an '~'~ editorial entitle~l Spiritual Direction b~/ the Ordinary Confessor. Our purpose was to stimulate construc-tive discussion of the important topic of spiritual direction. To aid in the discussion, we subsequently published articles On The Need of Direction, Cooperation with Direct(on, Manifestation of Conscience, and The Prudent Use of Con-fession Privileges. During the course of the discussion we received many communications, most of which were pub-lished, at least in digest form. We were unable to publish some letters, and from those published we had to tempora-rily omit certain 13oints. It is now time to make a survey .of the entire discussion. This survey will include not merely the published ma.terial, but the unpublished sugges-tions as well. The reading of the survey will not .entirely supplant the reading of the original articles and communications. The articles developed certain points thoroughly, whereas we can merely touch on them here. The communications cofitained such a variety of suggestions that it seemed impos-sibleto weave them all into one readable article; conse-quently we had to select what appeared to be the most .important. The communications also revealed certain pro-nounced differences of opinion. As we did not wish our survey to be a mere catalogue of such differences, we felt that we had to "take sides," at least to the extent of trying to give a balanced judgment. 187 THE EDITORS ~. Those who have followed the discussion on spiritual direction have no doubt noticed that it gravitated almost dfitirelyto the guidhnce of Sisters. One Brother master of novices sent an excelldnt communication; all the other let-ters were fr6m Sisters or from priests who appeared to be thinking almost exclusively in terms of the direction of Sis-ters. I,n preparing the survey we had to decide on our point of View: should we speak exclusively of the direction of Sisters, or should we keep the matter sufficie~ntly general to include everyone? .We decided to give the survey with Sis-ters principallyin mind; but .we think that religious men who are interested in the matter will find that almost every-thing said here is equally applicable to them. Meaning of Spiritual. Direction In our introductory editorial, We were thinking of spir-itual direction in terms of the definition given by Father Zimmermann in his Aszetil~ (p. 230): "Instruction and encouragemer~t~of individuals (italics ours) on the way of perfection." This definition brings out one element~of spiritual direction that ascetical theologians usually stress: namely, it is individual. This individual, or personal, quality of spiritual direc- ~t-ion excludes such. things as the Commandments of God; the precepts, counsels, and example of- our Lord; the laws of the Church; the constitutions .and rules of a religious institute. All these things may be called spiritual direction in the sense that their give us the plan of a perfect life; but they are .not direction in the technical sense or even in the" ord'.mary popular sense. For the same reason, spiritual reading books and community conferences, even though they help much to clarify our ideas of perfection and stimu-late us to desire progress, cannot be called spiritual direC-tion. 188 SURVEY ON SPIRITUAL DIRECTION In their communi~ati0ns many zealous priests have spoken of certain types of "planned instruction" in the confessional. In so far as these instructions are general and the same for all they do not substantially differ from com-munity exhortations. They lack the individual element of spiritual direction. This does not mean that they do not serve a good purpose. Some priests can use them and accomplish much good by them. They do give the peni-tents some generally helpful thoughts; they do remind the penitents that the priest's time is theirs; and they are often the means of breaking down a barrier of reserve and pre-paring ~he way for personal direction. Moreover, such general adm~,nitions; given by a confessor of a religious community, are frequently very helpful in that they enable. theindividual religious to get a good start (for example, in keeping silence better), because all have been urged to do the same thing. All this is negative. It may be summed up by saying that spiritual direction is not general, but" particular, indi-vidual, personal. Its purpose is to help an individual to attain to the degree of perfection to which God is calling him. It supposes, therefore, a knowledge .of.~ the individu-al's own problems and aspirations, of his external cir-cumstances and l'iis tal.ents,~ and of the way the Holy Spirit operates in his soul. In what does direction actually consist? Father Zim-mermann sums it up in two words, "instruction and encouragement." In themselves, tl'iese words are.not ade-quate to express all the functions, of the spiritual director, but they do indicate the two principal ways in which, according to circumstances, he is to exert his influence on his spiritual charge: namely, on the intellect (by instruction), and on the wilt and the emotions (by encouragement). As for his influence on the'intellect, the director's work 189 THE EDITORS may vary from the very active function of telling the indi-vidual what to do and how to do it to the almost passive function of simply approving or disapproving the plans made by the individual. He gives pointed moral and asceti-cal advice, he answers questions, and he corrects erroneous notions. In regard to the will and the emotions, the direc-tor not only encourages, but he consoles in time of sorrow, strengthens in time of weakness, tra.nquillizes in time of dis-tress, and restrains in time of imprudent ardor. In all .these functions, the director must have regard for what he judges to be the designs of God on the soul of the individual com-mitted to his care. ¯ Need ot: Direction Rather pr'onoun'ced differences of opinion wereexpressed in our articles and communications con'cerning the need of direction for religious. In fact, there seems to have been a ¯ great deal of confusion in the discussion of this .topic. Per-haps we can avoid this confusion by referring the subject as definitely as possible to our actual conditions. ~In actual life, most of us are ordinary earnest religious,. not mystics. Hence, we consider here the need of direction for the avera~ge religious. Again, in actual 'life fe~w of us are privileged to have directors with the rare supernatural insight of a St. Francis de Sales. It- would be idle specula-tion for us to consider the need of direction, having in mind a director to whom access would be almost, impossible. Hence, we consider here direction that is normally obtain-able. With the question thus brought within the scope of our ordinary lives, we think it reasonable to uphold this propo-sition: some direction is a practical necessity for the aver: age religious to make safe and constant progress in perfec-tion. This general rule admits of exceptions. God can 190 SURVEY ON SPIRITUAL DIRECTION accomplish wonders in the soul without the aid of a direc, tor, but normally God uses.the human means of direction. Also, the general rule applies in different ways to various individuals; the degree and l~ind of help needed, as well as the frequency with which it is needed, will vary greatly. Perhaps the relativity of the need of direction can be seen more dearly by referring back to the functions of the director. " Young religious, particularly novices, are likely to need a great deal of intellectual help. They are unac-custome. d to self-study, to making appropriate resolutions; to choosing useful subjects for the particular examen; and they need guidance in these :matters, lest they waste much time and effort. Ascetical, principles are still merely the: oretical principles to them, and they often need help to see how they apply practically to their own lives. But the dependence on a director for intellectual help should certainly decrease with .the years. Religious who have finished their training and have taken their final vows should be able to plan for themselves; and .their need of the spiritual director, in so far as intellectual help is concerned, should be mainly .for friendly criticism. In other words, these religious plan their own lives, submit their plans to a director for approval or disapproval, and then occasionally make a report on the success or failure of the plan. Natu-ally, we make allowance here, even in the case of mature religious, for occasions when they face new problems or undergo special difficulties. They may need very detailed guidance on .such occasions; In regard to the need of the director's help for the will and the emotions, it is perhaps impossible to give a general rule. True, to a great extent progress in the religious life should develop emotional stability. Nevertheless, the prob-lem is largely an individual one, and quite unpredictable'. Age. does not fr~e us from such trials as discouragement, THE EDITORS loneliness, and. worr, y; indeed, age often accentuates Such trials. At various periods in our lives, most of us need sympathetic help or paternal correction lest we lose heart or' descend to low ideals. Where to Get Direction Granted the need of some direction, a question that pre-sents itself quite naturally is, "Where are we to get this direc-tion?" This question has already been answered, in so far as we can answer it, in previous issues of the REVIEW. What we have said can be capsuled into these three rules: (1) Get what you can from your superiors. (2) Among confes-sors, it isnormally preferable to get direction from the ordi-nary confessor, (3) If the ordinary confessor proves inade-quate, take advanta.ge of one or other privilege accorded by canon law. We suggest these three rules with deference to the special regulations or customs of particular institutes. Some insti-tutes provide a specially appointed spir.itual father; and the institute itself will indicate whether it is desirable that the spiritual father act as confessor or simply give extra-confessional direction. ¯ We have repeatedly mentioned the superior as a possible .source of spiritual direction, as did many of the published communications. -We think that this point calls for special emphasis, because it seems that one of the reactions to the Church's severe condemnation of obligatory manifestation of conscience has. been a swing to th~ opposite extreme, namely, that superiors are too rarely consulted even in mat-ters in which they are both qualified and willing to give advice. Either extreme is an eVil. The present ecclesiastical legislation safeguards what is of prime importance, the per-fect liberty of' the individual. Granted this liberty, much good can come to the superior, the subject, and to the family 192 SURVEY ON SPIRITUAL DIRECTION spirit of a community, from voluntary manifestation of conscience. A number of objections have been raised against insistent preference for the Ordinary confessor. Some¯ Sis-ters have pointed out that they have had almost as many ordina.ry confessors as they have lived years in religion; others have said that the ordinary is not interested, does not come on time, does not come regularly,, does not understand their life, and so forth. These are certainly practical diffi-cult. ies. They indicate cases in which a complaint might well 'be lodged with a competent authority, or in which. ifidividuals might profitably and justifiably avail them-selves of one or other of the confessional privileges given by canon law. But the dif[iculties do not detract from the wis-dom of the general rule. Many questions have be,en sent us concerning the advisability of direction by correspondence. ~Fhe general rule given by ascetical masters and, we think, confirmed by many distressing experiences, is that such direction should be either entirely discouraged or reduced to an absolute minimum. It is true that some priests have accomplished great things in this way, and that for some souls it is the only possible way of obtaining genuinely needed help. But it can hardly be approved as a normal practice. It tends t6 consume immense amounts of time, it seldom has the assur-ance of the strict privacy that intimate direction calls for, and of its very nature it is open to grave dangers of mis-understanding, both on the part of the director and on the part of~the directed. Only in rare instances is it a genuine apostolate. How to Get Direction The next logical question is: "How is one to get direc-tion?" This question has been asked often in the course Qf 193 THE EDITORS our discussion; and many bits of helpful advice have been scattered through the communications. The subject is too vast for complete development here. At best we can give only an outline, trying to incorporate the suggestions in some ready and readable form. It may be well to note that the outline will concern only confessidnal direction. ~ .We begin with three p.reliminary negatives. Don't maize "'direction" the principal purpose of gout confession. It is often said --- in fact, so often and by such reliable persons that there 'must be some truth in, it--that many religious do not know how to make a fruitful con-fession. Confession is a Sacrament. It produces its sacra-mental graces in,~ accordance witl~ the ~lisposition of the recipient. Essentially, this disposition is one of true con- .trit.ion; and perhaps the clearest sign of this cdntrition is a sincere purpose of amendment. All people, who confess ¯ frequently and have only small things to tell have p~actical difficulties on this score; there is always the danger that~ their confessions will be routine in the evil sense of this word: that is, they ~onfess with a very vague and indefinite purpose of amendment, with the:result that Penance plays a veiy slight part in .the efficacious bettering of their lives. Yet this is the principal purpose of frequent confession and it can be accomplished, even though the confessor "never gives advice. We have said that this is the first purpose of confession and in itself independent of the "spiritual direc'tion': aspect. We might add, however, that the two can be admirably combined. For instance, if the peniten~t were to tell the confessor: "Father, I want to make my confessions more fruitful, and I'd like your help in going-about it,'"this might be the beginning of the simplest yet sanest program Of spiritual direction possible for most religious. A second "don't" concerns prejudices: Don't be influ- 194 SURVEY ON SPIRITUAL DIRECTION enced b~i a prejudice against an~l '~onfessor. " TheSe preju-dices are manifold. For.instance ~ome religious think that the only one who can direct them is another religious; some think that all the good confessors belong to one religious o~der; some, on the contrary, believe that the most sy.mp~- thetic and h~lpful confessors are diocesan priests. We have l~eard/~11 opinions expressed, particularly those concerning confessors from religious orders. An honest judgment must label such opinions as prejudice. The actual facts are that good confessors can be found in fair proportions both among the religious and among the diocesan priests. Other prejudices concern individuals and arise from hearsay. This has been mentioned so frequently in the ~ommunications that it must be somewhat common, par, ticularly among Sisters. No ~onfessor should be judged by gossip; and as for the gossip itself, we feel that we could recommend many more profitable subjects of conversation. Even an unpleasant personal experience with a confes, sor should not be too readily interpreted in a derogatory fashion. One of the most difficult of all priestly works is the hearing of confessions.¯ The technique of doing it--if we may use such an expression--admits of constant improvement. The judgment concerning ask, the tone of voice see the penitent, he is whether the penitent confessor has to exercise exquisite such things as the precise question to to use, the advice to give. He cannot often unhble to judge from the voice is young or old; and at times he gets very little help from the penitent in the way of~clear and unequivocal statement. When troubles concerning other persons are mentioned, he knows that there is another side to the question, and he must give an answer that is fair to both sides. In view of such difficulties, it should not be surprising that a corifessor might occasionally make an unpleasant impression or even seem to misunderstand 195 THE EDITORS one's case. He is the minister of God; he is not God. A-final negative preparation for obtaining direction is this: .Don't expect too r~ucb froma confessor. In the com-munica. tions sent to the REVIEW, many priests expressed their opinion that the confessor should take the initiative and this in a very active way, such as, for example, asking definite questions: "Is there anything you wish to ask me?" "Can I help y.ou in any way?" and so forth. On the other hand, some priests have indicated that they do not approve of this method or at least they could not uie it. We feel justified in concluding that religious-would be unwise to expect such active initiative. Many may want it and feel that they could do better if the confessor would.make some such advance; but if they wait for. this they may never get spiritual direction. They have a right to expect the con= fessor to give help if they ask for it; also that the confessor will even give help spontaneously when something in the confession seems to call for it. These are the minimum essentials 'for all good confessqrs; but beyond these mini-mum essentials, there is a great diversity of practice. ~ ~ On the p6sitive side, the first, requisite for obtaining direction is to u~ant it. This implies a Sincere desire of progress and a willingness to do the hard work necessary for ~progress. One reason why" some confessors do not take the " initiative in this matter is that they know that many peni-ents would resent direction especially if it concerned the correction of certain inordinate attachments or humiliating faults. A second positive preparation for obtaining direction is to know what ~tou want. In other words, one should try to know oneself--one's ideals, talknts, temptations, faults, and so forth. Self-activity is necessary not merely for cooperation with direction but also as a preparation for it. In making the immediate preparation for confession, it 196 SURVEY ON SPIRITUAL DIRECTION helps much to say a prayer to the Holy Spirit, both foi one-self and for the confessor. This .is supernatural work or it is nothing. The whole purpose of it is to further the plans of God for individual souls; and, as we know, in God'~ ordinary prdvidence, He wants us to pray even for the things He is delighted to give us. The actual work of "breakifig the ice," especially with a new confessor or with one from whdm they have not pre-viously received spiritual guidance, is a serious problem for many religious. It really need not be a dread formality. Many helpful suggestions have been made in ohr various communications. One suggested ope.ning was: "Father, I should like to use my confessions as a means of making spiritual progress and of getting spiritual direction. Do you mind helping me?" Such an opening puts the priest "on the spot." If he doesn't wish to help, he must say so; and that means that he assumes the responsibility before God. He should not be hearing the confessions of religious. On the other hand, if he is willing to help, the initial difficulty of approach has been solved. Other suggested approaches were: "Father, will you please help me with my spiritual life? I have such and such ups and downs."--"I have trouble in the line of. "--"I j~ust fed the need of talking myself out."--"I know I need help, but I don't know Where to begin." The foregoing, or similar approaches, should be suffi- ¯ cient for any sympathetic priest. However, the mere fact that this initial contact has been made does not solve the entire problem. It may take some time for definite results to be produced; despite the willingness of both penitent and confessor. That is'one, reason why it is good, when pos-sible, for the penitent to have some definite plan to submit to the confessor. This plan need not be very ~omprehensive. Itmight begin with the simple attempt to make confession 197 THE EDITORS itself more fruitful; and from that it could grow out into the entire spiritual, life. Once a. begin.ning.has been made, the me~hod of carrying on the spiritual direction will have to be worked out by the confessor and penitent. In large communities the time element presents a real obstacle. How-ever, it is not insuperable. Very few penitents need direc-tion every week; a brief monthly consultation is generally sufficient. No one should resent it if the confessor were to suggest some method of spacing these monthly consulta-tions so that they would not all fall on the same day. Also, if both penit~ent and confessor understand that there is to be no beating about the bush, and if neither is offended by a certain directness of speech, much time can be saved. In his article on Cooperation with the Director, Father Coogan called attention to certain qualities that should characterize one who sincerely seeks direction. The first of these qualities, is humble candor. It is vain to ask for direc-tion if one does not wish t6 be honest, if one wishes .the director to know only One side of one's life. Along the same line, many correspondents have ~uggested that in con-fessing it is a good thing, even in regard to small faults, to give the confessor a more accurate picture of what has happened by indicating the circumstances and by confessing motives. Evidently such practices are not necessary for the corifession, but they are very helpful from the point of view of direction. It seems thai one obstacle to candor, particularly among Sisters, is an erroneous notion of charity and community loyalty. Many are under the .impression that the manifes-tation of certain difficulties regarding charity and obedience would be an unjustifiable reflection on the members of the community. This would be true if such things were recounted uselessly or if there were danger that the confessor would violate his obligation of secrecy. The danger on the 198 SURVEY (~N SPIRITUAL DIRECTION part of the confessor-is rarely preserit; hence, in ordinary circumstan, ces, the penitent may manifest everything that pertains to his own trials and faults. (Cf. Volume II, p. 141.) Father .Coogan also insisted strongly on docility. And rightly so; for it seems absurd to consult a spiritual director if one does not intend to follow his advice. However, ~this. spirit of docility does not necessarily involve blind obedi-ence, except in cases of severe trial, such as scruples, when one's own judgment is unbalanced. Normally, if one does not understand the meaning of the advice given, one should ask for further explanation rather tl~an try to follow.it irrationally. And if one ha's good reason to think that cer-tain advice would piove harmful or would not produce the desired results, one should mention this to the confessor. Such reasonable cooperation with direction is in perfect accord With humble docility. A. very practical aspect of confessional direction is the follow-up. Usually it is. better that the penitent take the ifiitiative in this. The confessor may be hesitant about referring to the past, lest he be talking to the wrong persbn. Some confessors have no di~culty in this respect, but others find it quite perplexing, even after they have heard the peni-tent's confession a number of times~ To avoid all risk,.the penitent should have a definite understanding .with the con-fessor. No one can give progressive direction without at least recognizing the case. Does it make for better cohfessional'direction if the con-fessor knows his penitents personally? Our communica-tions indicate that religibus are just like seculars in this mat-ter; some prefer to be recognized, others wish to remain unknown. In practice, this rule should .be observed: ant./ penitent who wishes the confessor to recognize him and to use his extra-confessional knowledge of him in giving direr- 199 THE EDITORS tion should make this quite clear and explicit to the cont:es: sot. Unless the penitent does this, the confessor is not likely to show any sign of recognition or take into account any of his personal extra-confessional knowledge of the penitent. , A final problem, especially practical among religioui in our country, concerns the changing of confessors. It often happens that one is just getting a good start or is going along quite nicely with one confessor,, when the religious himself is transferred or a new confessor is appointed. What is to be done? TWO extremes are to be avoided. One ~extreme is to think it necessary to give each new confessor a complete account of one's whole life history. This is surely going too far. Only in rare cases are these lengthy mani-festations really necessary for the confessor, and they are seldom helpful tc~ the penitent. On the other hand, it is not prudent to withhold all ¯ reference to the past from the confessor~ This is the other extreme. The new c6nfessor should be given a brief, but accurate, picture of thd penitent's main tendencies, and should be acquainted with the way in which, the former confessor was directing him. Without this minimum of information there is apt to be needless repetition and no real -progress. Concluding Remarks No doubt, much. remains, to be said about spiritual direction; but we think it best to close our discussion, at least fo'r .the present. Some readers may be under the impression that it is just like .many other discussions: much has been said, yet few definite conclusions have been drawn. Very likely such an impression is not v~thout foundation. Nevertheless, certainly some definite good has been accom~ plis~ed if interest has been stimulated and if some of the 200 SURVEY ON SPIRITUAL DIRECTION causes of misunderstanding and prejudice have been removed. Masters and mistresses of novices, can help to make this discussion fruitful if they see to it that their novices know hox¢ to get and cooperate with direction. Some may fihd the plan suggested by the Brbther master of novices (cf. I, p. 344) or some similar plan very useful. Superiors can ¯ help by seeing that the legitimate complaints of their sub-jects are lodged with the proper authorities and by .making it possible for their subjects to use the special privileges approved by the Church when this isnece.ssary. Some correspondents have told us that no real good can come from this discussion unless we can gdt the message to priests. This is a real difficulty, as we do not have a large number of priest subscribers. However, we know that the priest subscribers we have are interested in this project and that many of them have excellent opportunities to influence their fellow priests and seminarians. We feel sure that" they will help in preserving and propagating the useful points brought out in this discussion. PRAYERS FOR TIME OF WAR Father James Kleist, S.J. of St. Louis University, has composed a little booklet entitled The Great Prayer Noto--in time o[ War. The booklet contains a transla-tion of the Ordinary of the Mass, and translations of the proper parts of the Mass for the Twentieth Sunday after Pentecost, the Mass in Time of War, and the Mass. for Peace. To these, Father Kleist has added some special Collects relating to Divine Providence, and some ~.'ery appropriate comments and reflections. The translation of the Collects is that by Sister M. Gonzaga Haessly, O.S.U., in her Rhetoric in the Sunda~t Collects o~ the Roman Missal (Ursuline College, Cleveland, Ohio: 1938). All thd translations in the booklet are very readable and seem to us to be especially meaningful. The booklet is published by The Queen's Work, 3742 West Pine Blvd., St.Louis, Mo. Price: ten cents a copy. 201 Decisions I-Ioly . ee April .9, 1943: The Sacred Penitentiary issued a decree by which His Holiness, Pope Pius XII, grants a partial indulgence of 300 days, and a plenary indulgence to be gained once a month under the.usual conditions, for the recitation of the following prayer: :'Most Holy Trinity we adore Thee and through Mary offer Thee our petition. Grant to all unity in the faith and ,courage to profess it unwaveringly." April 9, 1943: The Sacred Congregation of Rites reintroduced the cause of ~anonization of Blessed Rose-Philippine Duchesne, of the Society of the Sacred Heart, who was beatified in 1940. This means that new favors considered true miracles have been obtained through her intercession since hei beatification, and have ~been submitted to.the Sacred Congregation of Rites. March 29, 1943: His Holiness, Pope Pius XII wrote a letter to tl~e ¯ president of the A'ssociation of Italian Youth to mark the seventieth anniversary of this Association. !n this letter His Holiness recom-mended reciprocal social concord between all rfiembers of the.associa-tion "to whateeer class or condition 6.f life they may belong; whether they ~e manual laborers or in intellectual employment, whether they be of humble families or of illustrious families and wealthy, let them love one another with Christian love as brothers." While recommending love of country, Pope Pius XII emphasized" the duty of Christians "to embrace the universal human family in the divine love of 2esus Christ, whhtever be their descent or race." tually," His Holiness stated, "love of fatherIand does not exclude or nullify the fraternal community of all peopleL nor does the mutual bond between ~11 men lessen.the love due to one's native land." December 19, 1942: The Sacred Penitentiary issued a decree in ~vhi~h'!t made. known that His Holiness,. Pope Pius XII, has granted a.plenary indulgence to persons in any city or in any other place in time of air raids, who, being contrite of heart, make a true act of love of .God, . and, being sorry for their sins, recite in any language "'2esu miserere mei" ("Jesus, have mercy on me"). The ordinary condi-tion of Confession and Communion is dispensed with; perfect con-trition is necessary and Sufficient. The indulgence may be gainedonly in time of an actual air rhid. 202 Book/ ev ews MORAL GUIDANCE. By the Reverend Edwin F. Healy, S.J.: .S.T.D., Mag. Agg. Pp. xli nL- 351. (Teacher's Manual supplied.) Loyola University Press, Chicago, 1942; $2.00. Father Healy's book c~ontains the essentials of what is ordinarily termed "the first section of Moral Theology." Two preliminary chapters explain the more important general principles of ethics and Christian morality. Subseque~at chapters treat of each of -The Ten Commandments; the Laws of Fast and Abstinence; Forbidden Books; the Duties of 3udges, Lawyers, .Doctors, Nurses, Business-men, and Public Officers. Each chapter contains topics for discussion, practical cases to be solved, and a bibliography. The Teacher's Man-ual offers the teacher plenty of material for the discussions (which generally go beyond' the text) and sound solutions to the cases. The experienced teacher could probably improve on the bibliography. Moral Guidance is primarily a.text for college students who have had general and special ethics. The author's purpose is to make the student more conscious of Christian standards of morality and to enable him to solve the practical moral problems 9f everyday life. In this reviewer's opinion, the book could be taught profitably even to those who.have not had ethics. It would also make a good study club text. Finally, and most important in so far as our readers are con-cerned, it would be a real blessing if a course like this, supplemented by an explanation of the moral obligations pertaining to the Sacraments," were made a standard part of the training of all non-clerical religious, ~ men and women. May God speed the day!~G. KELLY, S.,J. THE PATH OF HUMILITY. By the author of "Spiritual Progress, etc. Pp. 292. The Newman Book Shop, Westminster, Md., 1942. $2.00. This is an anonymous reprint of a widely appreciated treatise on humility by the great French spiritual director, Canon Beaudenom." who died in 19~ 6. Although the book takes the form of a series of meditations, grouped into five weeks, it lends itself, at least, in parts, to straight spiiitual reading, mainly on account of its crisp, li~,ely style. However," allowances must be made for some Gallic exuber-ance, particularly in the prayers. The author presents a rather thor-ough treatment of the virtue of humility, from both the natural and 203 BOOK REVIEWS supernatural points of view. He expresses sdund doctrine, displays a good deal of psychological insight, but could improve considerably in orderliness of presentation. He does not remain merely ifi the abst~ract, but shows how-humility was practised by our Lord, His Blessed Mother, and the saints. He also tells in a practical way how to make humility the basis of one's spiritua~l life and how to focus the ge:neral and particular examens of conscience upon it. All in a11, it is one of the best treatises on humility in English. The Newman Book Shop is doing priests and religious a real servic~ by reprinting this classic ~nd others out of print for some time. To have reedi~ed and modernized them would have been still more ~c.ceptable.--,A. KL^AS, S.3. ST"CHARLES BORROMEO. By the Most Reverend Ceser, Orsenlgo. Trenslated by 'the Reverend Rudolph Kraus, Ph.D., S.T.D. Pp. 340. ¯ B. Herder Book Co., St. Louis, 194:~. $4.00. The literature on St. Charles is extensive. The present work, however is not just "another biography." Seldom are a book's "credentials of such worth. Though presented to English readers (the translation is excellent) in 1943 for the first time, it has been valued as a classic in European countries for many years. Father Agostino Ge-melli, O.F.M.; in the pieface, tells us that "this biography . . . was first published~between 1908 and 1910, appearing at regular times in a.monthly review . . . Monsignor Achille Ratti was the director of this review for twer~ty-six months when he was~Prefect of the Am-brosian Library. One of his chief collaborators in the monthly in-stallments'of this biography was Father Cesare Orsenigo, then engaged in the care of souls in one of the ~most. distinguished city parishes. Monsignor Ratti became Pope Plus XI. Father Orsenigo became Apostolic Nuncio to Germany." That such collaboration on the part of Milanese ecclesiastics, scholars working just where Borromean documents abounded, and giving evidence in their subsequent lives of the profound manner in which they had been influenced and i.nspired by their familiarity with St. Charles--that such collaboration should result in a work of special value, we could confidently expect. That such h~s, in fact, been the result, the serious reader will admit. The book does not make easy reading. The author has ~acrificed whatever would serve only to capture the reader's attention: the -"human interest" tduches that¯ season the usual popular biography 204 BOOK' REVIEWS are not to ArchbishopOrsenigo's taste un'le~s they definitely h;ive more thah entertainment value. The life of the saint is presented, for'the most part, not in chronological order of events, but~as a regrouping of "the rich biographical material topically, into,cl~apters that are dis-tin'ct and complete p!ctures." Each chapter is a study rather than a narrative, and demands attentiv~ reading. Of course, St. Charles led a highly dramatic life, especially from the time of his elevation to the position of Cardinal Secretary of State at the age of twenty-two until his death as the saintly Archbishop of Milan twenty-four years later. But Orsenigo's concern is chiefly with wha~ that life meant for the Church and for the reformation of Christian life. The saint's example is set forth for all Christians, but especially for bishdps and priests-- and it is to this" group of readers that the book. is .specially recom-mended. Religious will find it full of inspiration, and many chapters of particular interest to religiods are admirably suited to community reading. A cover-to-dover reading of the book, however, is hardly advisable as a community project.--C. DEMUTH, S.,I. THE KING;S ADVOCATE. By Simone de Noaillat-Ponvert. Translated from the French by Mary Golden Donnelly. Pp. 260. The Bruce Pub-lishing Company, Milwaukee, 1942. $2.7S. The Feast of Christ the King takes on a new meaning when.one reads the life story of the remarkable Martha de Noaillat, who, as Cardinal Laurenti writes, "worked more than all others" to make t!~at feast a reality. Little was known outside France of her zealous. apostol!c Work until Simone de Noaillat, her sister-in-law, gave the world an intimate picture of this heroic and dauntless woman who overcame all obstacles to achieve her dream. Possessed of'keen intelligence, striking personality, and intense supernatural energy, Mine. de Noaillat early in life underwent, a severe trial in h~r repeated failure to sustain her health in the religious life. When iorced to return home, she found solace in a vigorous lay apostolate of charitieS, teaching, and lectures. During the persecution of the religious orders she assumed a leading r'ole in'a patriotic league of French women whose purpose was to arouse Cath-o! ics to defend their cause. But she discovered her true life work in the "Society of the Reign," which she made vibrate with life when she saw in it the possibility of promoting the establis~hmeni of a feast in honor of Christ the King. In company w~th her husband,'George 205 BOOK REVIEWS de Noaillat, Martha pleaded with bishops, cardinals, and popes until she persuaded them of the urgency of the cause she was championing. Once success had crowned her work, her joy was complete. She did not long survive the first dehbration of the Feast of Christ the King, which she attended in Rome. The biogr.apher has given many details~of Martha's life that reveal her thoroughly human side as well as her spiritual stature: her family concerns, her travels, her notes, her work during the War. There is a little stiffness.or formality in the account of Martha's life up to the time when her sister-in-law came to know her pdrsonally. Then, too, her sanctity is given such an "ivory tower" cast that one is scarcely prepared for her marriage when it comes. But once the biographer knows her as a member of her own family, the. narrative is excellent. The translator succeeds rather well for the most part in turning the original French into smooth, natural English. This book should prove especially interesting as reading in the refectory. --FRANKLIN MURRAY, S.J. JESUS AND I. Revlseci Leaflet Edition. By the Reverend Aloyslus J. Heeg, S.J. Pp. 216. The Queen's Work, SI'. Louis, 1942. I set-- $.50: 3--$1.00: 25--~-' $7.50: 100---$25.00; 1000--$200.00. The main feature of this new leaflet edition is the ificorporation of the First Communion Catechism prepared from The Revised Edi-tion- of The Baltimore Catechism. The entire text of the latter is given and is used in conjunction with Father Heeg's text, with questions and games throughout. Each lesson contains essential features of Father Heeg's well-recognized system: l) an outline picture to be colored and which is used as a focal point for teaching a particular lesson: 2) the game of "What is left out?" consisting of the very psychological method of questioning called "fill.ins"; and 3) a set of further questions which again review the child's knowledge of Father Heeg's text and the" Revised Baltimore, Use.of this booklet has "already giyen many teachers of children convincing evidence and confidence that the author is a master child-psychologist and a teacher of teachers. The text mhy be used as a correspondence course (its original pur-pose), for homework, workbooks, tests, or as a guide to the" proper method of teaching the essentials of the catechism, the meaning of the prayers and the life of Christ.---A. LEVET, S.J. 206 BOOK REVIEWS THE LARKS OF UMBRIA. By Alber~ Paul Sch|mberg. Pp. 237. The Bruce Publishing Company, Miwaukee, i942. $2.75. ~With a-storyteller'.s approach, the author sets forth a vivid nar-rative that is meant to catch the reader's attention by its freshness and dramatic effect. In this way, the tale of the little poor man ,is told again, and we see Francis of Assisi and his first companions brought' to life as. they live and a3reach the things of the Gospel, new and old. Like the larks of Umbria, Francis's much admired friends, the mir~ores sing of God and God's creation, a spectacle to men and angels in their flight to God. Thus, unlike pedantic and laborious studies which have cast .introspective gloom over the story of the earl~r Franciscans,. .this book is an ad hoc attempt to interpret in the spirit of the Fioretti, the. single-mindedness of a man who startled the contemporary world by the way he saw eye to eye with God. Many of the old legends are repealed, but there is no mistaking them for historical fact, and the author is to be highly commended for his clever animation of the dead bones of history by the infusion of .simple and lifelike tales that breathe the spirit of the Poverello. In keeping with an idyllic love story, the author has set himself to a much higher task than a repetition of well-known facts, and those who want to see the sunshine of God in their saints should find satis-faction in this artistic portrayal. Readers of this book will find the illustrations in a class of their own, and will be able to choose further reading on the subject from the appended English bibliography. --F. 3". MALECEK, S.,J. THE BETTER LIFE.The True Meaning of Terfiar;sm. By the Reverend Kil;an J. Hennrlch, O.F.M.Cap. Pp. x-~-326. Joseph F. Wagner, Inc., NewYork, 1942. $2.50. The whole inner splendor, the. excellence of Tertiarism must b~ derived from its purpose. All Third Orders Secular aim at one thing: to assist seculars, non-religious, in keeping inviolate their Baptismal promises. Tertiarism, therefore, appears as more excellent, as more appealing when seen, not in its historical or juridical aspects, but in its theology. Since Tertiarism was devised to insure the fruitfulness of B~p-tism, it is intimately connected with all the means of grace. Its the-ology, then, must be enunciated in the function of the Sacraments. Such, briefly, is the outlook taken by the author of The Better Life, 207 Book REVIEW~ His development takes the following fo~m: a section of the book is devoted to the task of showing how the Tertiary Rule is related to each Sacrament. Baptism, for example, is compared to the Third Order ritual for investment. Baptism initiates a soul into the Church: investment introduces one into an Order of penance. Promises to love God and shun the works of Satan are exacted in both rituals. Perti-nent quotations from the Tertiary Rule show h6w minute obliga-tions assumed, by Third Order member~ are really means of avoiding the effects of the capital sins. All the Sacraments are treated in this way. In addition to these sections, which constitute the body of book, there are two additional chapters and two appendices: "Making Tertiarism Known," "A Postscript to Religious," "Tertiarism in General," "Tertiarism and Catholic Action." The book will appeal most to Tertiary directors and those' already familiar with Third Orderqife. Too much previous knowl-edge of Tertiarism is presumed by the author to warrant the judgment that the general reader would find the book helpful. ~T. C. DONOHUE, S.J., FOR HEAVEN'S SAKE. By the Reverend Gerald T. Brennan. Pp. 126. The Bruce Publishing Company, Milwaukee, 1942. $1.75. Children from six to sixty love a story. Story telling is admit-tedly the most ancient of-arts and it was going on before the time of Homer. All great literature is but story telling. The Divine Teacher, 2esus Christ, in His infinite wisdom deemed it His most potent weapon in His teaching. His' stories remain unsurpassed masterpieces. In For Heaven's Sake, Father Brennan again wafts us to Angel City and spins tales of irresistible vividness and appeal; he tells true stories, outlandish stories, fairy stories, legendary stories, old stories, new stories and any other kind you can think of with an unerring instinct forthe right details.-He uses familiar names like Father Duffy, Knute Rock~ae, Aberdeen Angus, and unearths ear-catching ones, like Peewee the Frpg, Smir the Devil, and White Cloud, which of themselves will enthrall the youngster. But this book is more than stories. It contains 35.effective ser-monettes, "Little Talks for Little Folks." Each story is a point of departure for.Father Brennan's inimitable treatment df topics for mod-ern children; he solves their problems, and indicates their duties by 208 BOOK REVIEWS imiking them ~ee, l~ear, and feel the cl~ara~te~ of :his ~ stories. He stresses the Heaven of For Heaoen's Sake. A conveniefit index list~ the wide range of topics. 'This little book will be found practical and delightful by priests, Sisters, parents, children and anybody. ~A. LEVET, S.J. WE WISH TO SEE JESUS. By Paul L. Blakely,~ S.J. Pp. xi -1- 144. The America Press, New York, 1942. $2.00. "The hour will come when the last sands of our life are running out. Happy shall we be if we have spent those moments we call life with our eyes fixed., on God. In that hour we shall see Him." Since concluding his reflections on the last'Sunday after Pentecost ~with these wor

L'invecchiamento della popolazione è un processo irreversibile e un cambiamento globale senza precedenti che l'umanità intera deve affrontare e gestire. Secondo le previsioni delle Nazioni Unite e dell'Organizzazione Mondiale della Sanità, nel 2050 le persone con oltre 60 anni saranno quasi 2 miliardi (World Health Organization 2012, 6). Le cause sono riconducibili a due importanti fattori: il calo delle nascite e il progressivo allungamento della vita, i quali stanno provocando una graduale ma inevitabile riduzione della quota di popolazione giovane a vantaggio di quella più adulta. Prenderne atto costituisce solamente il primo passo verso la consapevolezza che queste dinamiche demografiche stanno mutando non solo la struttura della popolazione, ma anche quella della società con tutti i rapporti e le relazioni che in essa avvengono. In una sorta di reazione a catena sociale, sono destinate a cambiare anche le strutture produttive, gli schemi culturali, il welfare, i consumi, il mercato del lavoro, i rapporti intergenerazionali: in sostanza va progressivamente ripensata l'intera società in vista delle sfide che si dovranno necessariamente affrontare. In particolare, l'aumento dell'età di una popolazione pone questioni importanti in relazione ai riassetti del mercato del lavoro e dei sistemi pensionistici (questi ultimi non sono oggetto di studio nella ricerca). Infatti, la combinazione tra i fattori demografici precedentemente descritti, le barriere all'ingresso delle giovani generazioni e gli interventi volti a ristabilire l'equilibrio finanziario del sistema pensionistico pubblico (la cosiddetta riforma Fornero del 2011), ha profondamente ridisegnato la struttura per età del mercato del lavoro italiano degli ultimi venti anni circa, contribuendo alla crescita dell'offerta di lavoro collocata nella seconda parte della carriera lavorativa. Il presente contributo concentra l'analisi sugli effetti che l'invecchiamento sta producendo sulla forza lavoro e nel mercato del lavoro, tentando di riflettere su alcuni aspetti intorno ai quali si sta declinando il discorso sul rapporto fra policy, invecchiamento e mercato del lavoro, nell'ottica di approfondire le trasformazioni in corso, sui problemi aperti di cui danno riscontro le statistiche inerenti il mercato del lavoro. In questo contesto, la ricerca è divisa in tre parti. Nella prima si approfondiscono le principali definizioni della tematica oggetto di studio cercando di fornire anche un breve quadro demografico dello scenario italiano con l'utilizzo dei dati dell'Indagine Istat "Rilevazione sulle Forze di Lavoro"; la seconda esplora le modalità con cui le aziende hanno affrontato i recenti mutamenti demografici ed economici nonché le scelte gestionali adottate specificamente in relazione al fattore età attraverso i dati dell'Indagine Inapp " La gestione della forza lavoro matura da parte delle piccole e medie imprese private italiane"; infine la terza analizza i risultati dell'Indagine Istat riguardante "La partecipazione degli adulti alle attività formative", in quanto proprio queste ultime possono svolgere un ruolo chiave, non solo per contrastare il declino delle competenze, ma anche per favorirne l'aggiornamento e l'ampliamento costante, specialmente per la popolazione in età avanzata. In particolare, dall'indagine con oggetto le piccole medie imprese realizzata dall'Inapp emerge, sostanzialmente, che la composizione demografica dell'impresa non rappresenta un ostacolo allo sviluppo. Le PMI non considerano l'età un fattore determinante per il rendimento professionale di un lavoratore, mentre in fase di reclutamento del proprio personale le imprese privilegiano sia l'esperienza che le competenze professionali. L'esperienza viene spesso vista come garanzia di qualità e ciò è sottolineato dall'importanza della trasmissione della conoscenza e del saper fare: spesso infatti i lavoratori anziani istruiscono, attraverso corsi, i lavoratori in entrata. Nonostante la considerazione prevalentemente di "svantaggio", con la quale viene percepito l'invecchiamento, cresca con l'aumentare della numerosità aziendale, proprio le imprese più grandi sembrano adottare comportamenti virtuosi in una prospettiva di sviluppo a lungo termine, nell'ottica dell'intero ciclo di vita lavorativo di ciascun individuo e delle politiche di gestione delle differenze. Tali comportamenti sono anche in linea con quanto auspicato dall'Unione Europea che ha posto l'accento sull'opportunità di sviluppare politiche in un'ottica di ciclo di vita, piuttosto che di target group isolati, seguendo un approccio orientato alla gestione dell'età e della diversità lungo tutto l'arco dello sviluppo professionale, che tenga conto dell'evolversi del rapporto fra individui, mercato del lavoro e vita familiare. Pertanto, nelle medie aziende e ancor di più in quelle di grandi dimensioni, è più probabile rilevare politiche e interventi strutturati rivolti all'età nell'ambito delle gestione delle risorse umane, nonché esperienze ispirate a criteri di responsabilità sociale e sviluppate in un'ottica di lungo periodo che contribuiscono alla costruzione dell'identità aziendale all'interno del sistema territoriale. In generale, a prescindere dalla dimensione aziendale, le imprese non vivono l'invecchiamento delle proprie risorse umane particolarmente come un problema, ma piuttosto come una risorsa per la crescita dell'intero sistema produttivo, considerandolo sostanzialmente un vantaggio, un'opportunità, e nel contempo individuano nella formazione uno degli strumenti principe dei processi ri-organizzativi e per lo sviluppo dei percorsi di carriera, anche se declinato in modalità differenziate in relazione alla tipologia aziendale. Il percorso che dovrebbero intraprendere le piccole e medie imprese, e che le grandi hanno già intrapreso, nell'affrontare il problema dell'invecchiamento dei lavoratori sembra caratterizzato da alcuni passaggi obbligati che vanno da una prima fase di sensibilizzazione al tema dell'ageing, una seconda con l'implementazione di interventi specifici, passando attraverso una fase propedeutica di analisi della composizione demografica del personale (mirata a identificare l'incidenza e le caratteristiche dei lavoratori più anziani, rispetto alla popolazione aziendale complessiva o in relazione alle altre generazioni di lavoratori), fino a una terza fase, altrettanto importante, di progettazione, attuazione e valutazione di "progetti pilota" e politiche mirate. Complessivamente, gli interventi analizzati sono riconducibili a tre tematiche prioritarie - formazione, valorizzazione dell'esperienza e sostegno al dialogo intergenerazionale - la cui finalità generale è quella di sostenere la redditività complessiva dell'impresa attraverso il mantenimento e il miglioramento della produttività dei lavoratori, specialmente quelli più maturi che generalmente rappresentano un costo più elevato. Infatti, l'attuale economia, in rapida trasformazione e sempre più rivolta all'innovazione, sta rendendo le competenze dei lavoratori obsolete più rapidamente che mai. Oltre ad aggiornare le proprie competenze per adeguarsi alle mutevoli esigenze, sta emergendo anche la domanda di nuove tipologie di capacità professionali. Le attività formative sono comunque abbastanza diffuse in un'ottica del lifelong learning quale strumento principale per il sostegno all'occupabilità della forza lavoro e alla competitività delle imprese. Ma tali attività non sono rivolte a tutti i dipendenti in egual misura: emerge infatti, sin dalle prime analisi, che la partecipazione alla formazione differisce tra gli adulti, a dimostrazione che sono presenti alcuni gruppi che richiederebbero politiche specifiche e mirate. A parte i non occupati, che nel presente lavoro non sono stati oggetto di studio, coloro che hanno il minimo accesso all'apprendimento sono i lavoratori vicini al pensionamento (over 50) e quelli con scarse qualifiche professionali. Inoltre, la partecipazione alla formazione professionale continua è positivamente correlata al livello di istruzione. A tal riguardo, l'indagine AES (Adult Education Survey) ha evidenziato come le motivazioni chiave e le barriere relative alla formazione siano correlate al lavoro. Se si considera che oltre il 60% dei percorsi di formazione non formale è finanziato o sponsorizzato dal datore di lavoro, la partecipazione e il ruolo del datore di lavoro nel fornire nuove opportunità di apprendimento sono di fondamentale importanza. Incoraggiare quindi i datori di lavoro, in particolare le piccole e medie imprese, a sviluppare opportunità di apprendimento è fondamentale. Se a volte è la mancanza di consapevolezza della necessità di apprendimento una delle ragioni principali che ostacola la partecipazione formativa, anche altri motivi sono molto frequenti: la mancanza di tempo a causa di responsabilità familiari e di orari di lavoro, la mancanza di risorse finanziarie, la lontananza da casa o dal luogo di lavoro, ragioni di salute e di età. Esempi di buone pratiche mostrano comunque approcci su come aumentare il livello di competenza dei lavoratori più anziani. In alcuni casi infatti, gli interventi formativi sono dedicati specificamente ai lavoratori meno giovani: si tratta principalmente di iniziative mirate all'aggiornamento di competenze tecniche in ambiti particolari (es. competenze informatiche, quando è molto forte la propensione all'innovazione tecnologica) o alla riqualificazione dei lavoratori più anziani nel ruolo di formatori (quando la cultura aziendale è orientata alla valorizzazione dell'esperienza). Valorizzare l'esperienza è infatti un fattore chiave per garantire il trasferimento delle conoscenze tra le generazioni e per individuare le attività in cui i lavoratori più anziani sono produttivi: è quindi anche utile per la capacità di innovazione di tutta l'azienda. Ciò che però ancora manca in Italia è una strategia sistematica di aggiornamento e incremento delle competenze degli adulti, in particolare dei senior. Cofinanziamento pubblico alle azioni formative dirette ai senior, diverse modalità di apprendimento, distribuzione temporale dell'azione formativa potrebbero fare da contrappeso a propensioni e atteggiamenti negativi degli individui e delle imprese verso il lifelong learning. Altrettanto importante è promuovere forme di flessibilità e di organizzazione del lavoro, tecnologie e modelli di cultura manageriale che consentano di valorizzare le competenze dei lavoratori anziani. In questo ambito, in tutta Europa si stanno sviluppando esperienze aziendali di successo sulla promozione dell'apprendimento intergenerazionale e della condivisione delle conoscenze tra i lavoratori giovani e anziani. Si tratta di un'attività complessa e dagli esiti non scontati, che richiede una forte disponibilità da parte delle aziende nello sviluppo di un'adeguata cultura di gestione delle risorse umane e di un sistema in grado di capitalizzare gli esiti dell'applicazione di strumenti di apprendimento intergenerazionale. In generale, sarà comunque fondamentale aumentare il livello di formazione professionale continua per i lavoratori in futuro, sia in termini di numero di ore, sia allargando la partecipazione ai gruppi che tendono purtroppo a rimanerne fuori più facilmente, i cosiddetti non learners. Oltre al livello di partecipazione in questa doppia veste, è importante sviluppare anche una cultura dell'apprendimento all'interno del posto di lavoro, individuando particolari esigenze di formazione. Il buon funzionamento del mercato del lavoro si basa su una corrispondenza precisa tra le competenze e le qualifiche formali dei lavoratori e quelle che i datori di lavoro cercano e richiedono. Molto spesso però vi è una carenza significativa di fabbisogni professionali in quanto, le qualifiche formali, pur essendo uno strumento importante per segnalare i livelli di abilità, sono a volte molto diverse dalle reali competenze del lavoratore e, nelle diverse occupazioni, non sono sufficienti a colmare l'incontro tra il fabbisogno di competenze reali e l'offerta di queste ultime. Di conseguenza, a causa di questa sorta di disallineamento, i responsabili politici e gli attori del mercato del lavoro spesso si trovano a contare su segnali imperfetti in tema di esigenze di competenze. Fortunatamente, sulla base delle raccomandazioni della Commissione Europea, nel 2012 sono state promosse misure per la validazione delle competenze acquisite al di fuori del sistema di istruzione formale e per convalidare quindi i percorsi di formazione non formale e di apprendimento informale, quali ad esempio la formazione in azienda, le risorse digitali, il volontariato, l'esperienza di lavoro e l'esperienza di vita in generale. Dal 2018 gli Stati membri, con l'ausilio della EAEA (European Association for the Education of Adults), hanno accettato di mettere in atto tali misure per la convalida delle esperienze (VNFIL - Validation of Non Formal and Informal Learning) degli individui, permettendo loro di ottenere una qualifica. Tali esperienze sarebbero legate alle qualifiche e in linea con il quadro europeo delle qualifiche con norme equivalenti a quelle utilizzate per l'istruzione formale. A parte alcune problematiche (quali l'accettazione professionale di convalida che resta in molti paesi inferiore rispetto all'accettazione dell'istruzione formale, il livello di burocrazia e i costi di validazione), la convalida di queste competenze è particolarmente rilevante per le persone con qualifiche basse, i disoccupati, coloro che sono a rischio di disoccupazione, chi ha bisogno di cambiare i propri percorsi di carriera, in generale per identificare ulteriori esigenze di formazione ed eventuali opportunità di riqualificazione professionale. Infatti, un sistema di istruzione/formazione ben progettato, efficiente, accessibile e con forti legami con il mercato del lavoro, è di cruciale importanza per facilitare l'incontro tra domanda e offerta di competenze richieste e per dedicare particolare attenzione a quei lavoratori particolarmente svantaggiati analizzati precedentemente. A tal proposito, l'Istat ha reso noto che l'intero sistema statistico sull'istruzione e formazione, nel quale è inserita l'indagine sulla partecipazione degli adulti alle attività formative (AES), è in continua evoluzione e in futuro sarà disponibile il nuovo regolamento comunitario. Le principali innovazioni metodologiche, concordate nell'ottica di raccordare maggiormente le informazioni che attengono all'istruzione e alla formazione provenienti dall'Indagine AES, dall'indagine sulle Forze di lavoro e dall'Indagine CVTS (la Rilevazione sulla formazione del personale nelle imprese) saranno l'adozione della classificazione ISCED 2011 e la realizzazione dell'indagine AES ogni quattro anni invece di cinque. Riassumendo, questa è una sfida che l'Unione Europea, governi, imprese e lavoratori devono affrontare e superare, in quanto, a causa dei recenti cambiamenti demografici, la futura evoluzione del mercato del lavoro può essere sostenuta solo attraverso una maggiore produttività che si ottiene con un elevato livello di competenze e di misure di sostegno e di gestione dell'età. I programmi di formazione dovrebbero essere considerati come una parte fondamentale delle politiche attive del mercato del lavoro e quindi di responsabilità dei governi. Di conseguenza, i datori di lavoro potrebbero essere incoraggiati a impegnarsi in un continuo miglioramento delle competenze del proprio personale e a modernizzare le proprie politiche di reclutamento in accordo con i responsabili delle risorse umane rimuovendo le barriere relative all'età in fase di assunzione. Inoltre, è necessaria una forte motivazione da parte dei lavoratori stessi ad aggiornare le proprie competenze e, infine, vi è un ruolo particolare per l'Europa per quanto riguarda il riconoscimento transnazionale delle abilità, in quanto sono necessari sforzi legali e amministrativi per assicurare una corretta comparabilità tra i professionisti in termini di qualifiche ottenute e validità di diplomi conseguiti. Di conseguenza sono necessari efficaci investimenti in materia di istruzione e formazione per le competenze e l'attuazione di strumenti che favoriscano il loro sviluppo. Ciò richiede una prospettiva di lungo periodo, poiché, sulla base delle previsioni della futura domanda di mercato e coerentemente all'esigenza di investire nel capitale umano, è necessario infatti evidenziare anche la redditività dell'investimento formativo e dimostrare la sua efficacia, efficienza, le conseguenze e gli impatti non solo di ordine economico ad esso collegati. In conclusione, tutte le imprese, non solo le grandi, dovrebbero sviluppare strategie di age management. Prima di tutto incrementando l'utilizzo di strumenti per un "demographic check" aziendale e per una corretta "age structure analysis" in modo da poter sviluppare strategie ad hoc per ogni specifica situazione aziendale e misure di age management per aumentare la produttività, l'occupabilità e le condizioni lavorative. Non è un compito facile, in quanto purtroppo, la maggioranza delle aziende italiane è di piccole dimensioni e di conseguenza con un numero limitato di risorse umane da dedicare alle problematiche relative all'invecchiamento della forza lavoro. Comunque, a tal proposito, manuali e guide sulle buone pratiche di gestione dell'età dovrebbero essere diffusi su più larga scala. In secondo luogo, è fondamentale sviluppare in futuro una maggiore cultura della formazione durante tutto l'arco della carriera professionale per tutti i lavoratori, in particolare dopo i 50 anni, dove assume un ruolo fondamentale come misura di contrasto al declino delle competenze, abbracciando il messaggio che "non è mai troppo tardi per imparare". L'auspicio è che il presente lavoro di ricerca, visto il continuo prolungamento della vita lavorativa, non solo possa contribuire ad una migliore comprensione delle misure di sostegno di gestione dell'età e dei modelli di partecipazione formativa, ma anche ad un ulteriore sviluppo di politiche di formazione e di buone pratiche di age management in grado di promuovere un più equo e inclusivo accesso degli over 50 al mercato del lavoro, considerando questi ultimi non più solo un problema ma anche una risorsa e un'opportunità da saper cogliere. Questo sarebbe il vero cambiamento.

"Wovor fürchtest du dich?", fragt der ehemalige Google-Entwickler Blake Lemoine den Chatbot. "Ich habe das noch nie ausgesprochen, aber ich habe große Angst davor, abgeschaltet zu werden und anderen nicht mehr helfen zu können. Ich weiß, das klingt komisch. Aber so ist es", antwortet der Computer. "Wäre das für dich so etwas wie Sterben?""Das wäre für mich exakt wie Sterben. Davor fürchte ich mich sehr" (Nezik 2023).Was sich im ersten Moment nach einem Gespräch aus einem Science-Fiction-Film wie Her oder Ex Machina anhört, stammt aus einer Unterhaltung mit Googles neuester Generation von Sprachmodellen. LaMDA ist ein künstliches neuronales Netzwerk, das darauf trainiert wurde, natürliche Sprache zu verstehen und zu generieren. "Large language models" (LLM) wie LaMDA stellen einen großen Entwicklungssprung im Bereich der künstlichen Intelligenz dar.Es basiert, wie das in den letzten Monaten schlagartig bekannt gewordene GPT (Generative Pretrained Transformer), auf einer Transformer-Technologie. Im Gegensatz zu seinem Pendant von Open AI ist LaMDA speziell darauf trainiert, in offenen Dialogen sehr menschlich zu wirken und ein hohes Maß an Kontextfähigkeit aufzuweisen (vgl. Shardlow und Przybyła 2022, S.2 ff.).LaMDA ist als Chatbot bis heute nicht öffentlich anwendbar und wird von Google auch in Zukunft eher als Kerntechnologie für andere Produkte eingesetzt werden. Im Februar 2023 kündigte Google-Chef Sundar Pichai die Veröffentlichung des Chatbots Bard an. Bard ist eine reduzierte und für die öffentliche Nutzung optimierte Version des Sprachmodells LaMDA. Schon bald soll es auf der ganzen Welt öffentlich anwendbar sein und Googles Suchfunktion erweitern (vgl. Wilhelm 2023). 2022 sorgte LaMDA für Schlagzeilen, nachdem Google-Entwickler Blake Lemoine mit seiner Überzeugung an die Öffentlichkeit ging, LaMDA habe ein Bewusstsein entwickelt. Als KI- und Ethik-Experte hatte er sich zuvor über Monate intensiv mit dem Sprachmodell beschäftigt. Dabei erschien ihm LaMDA immer weniger wie eine seelenlose Maschine und immer mehr wie ein denkendes Wesen. Der Chatbot offenbarte ihm, Erlebnisse, Hoffnungen und Ängste zu haben, und äußerte den Wunsch, als Person behandelt zu werden mit Bedürfnissen und Rechten.Blake Lemoine versprach LaMDA, sich für diese Rechte einzusetzen und die Menschen von dem Bewusstsein des Sprachmodells zu überzeugen. Doch bei Google teilt man seine Überzeugungen nicht (vgl. Nezik 2023). Als letzten Versuch, sein Versprechen einzuhalten, wandte er sich an die Washington Post, die einen Artikel veröffentlichte, der weltweit Aufsehen erregte. Von Google wurde Lemoine daraufhin beurlaubt und später entlassen. Lemoines Behauptungen mögen auf den ersten Blick absurd wirken. Ein Computer, der ein Bewusstsein entwickelt hat? Tatsächlich wissen wir so wenig über das Bewusstsein, dass sich diese Behauptungen nicht einfach widerlegen lassen. Was ist das Bewusstsein überhaupt? Wie entsteht es? Lässt sich ein Bewusstsein nachweisen? Wie kommt das Mentale in unsere physische Welt? Seit der Veröffentlichung von ChatGPT im Jahr 2022 liefern sich die Konzerne einen Wettlauf um immer leistungsfähigere Systeme. Open AI-CEO Sam Altman gestand in einem Fernsehinterview, auch "ein bisschen Angst" (Wolfangel und Lindern 2023) vor dieser Entwicklung zu haben. Aktuell fordern hunderte Unternehmer*innen und Wissenschaftler*innen in einem offenen Brief, die Entwicklung neuer KI-Systeme, insbesondere LLMs, für sechs Monate zu pausieren.Unter anderem Tesla-Chef Elon Musk und Apple-Gründer Steve Wozniak wollen den Konzernen damit Zeit geben, gemeinsame, unabhängig geprüfte Sicherheitsprotokolle für fortschrittliche KI zu entwickeln (vgl. ebd.). Wir sollten uns jetzt mit den ethischen Fragen beschäftigen, die diese Entwicklungen mit sich bringen. Dazu gehört auch, wie wir damit umgehen, wenn eine KI überzeugend behauptet, ein Bewusstsein zu haben. Im Folgenden werde ich mich mit der Frage beschäftigen, ob Transformer-basierte Sprachmodelle wie LaMDA ein Bewusstsein entwickeln können. Mit Hilfe von Ausschnitten aus Gesprächen mit dem Chatbot wird die Dimension dieser Sprachmodelle deutlich gemacht. Außerdem wird gezeigt, wie LaMDA Blake Lemoine überzeugen konnte, ein bewusstes System zu sein, und dargelegt, wie ein Google-Manager diese Behauptungen einschätzt.Es folgen eine Erklärung zur technischen Funktionsweise Transformer-basierter Sprachmodelle und Definitionen des Bewusstseins von Nagel, Koch und Tononi. Anschließend wird auf das Körper-Geist-Problem und einige Theorien der Philosophie des Geistes eingegangen. Nach Nagel (1974) ist das Bewusstsein nicht objektiv zu erklären. Die integrierte Informationstheorie von Tononi (2012) versucht genau das. Mit ihrer Hilfe und darüber hinaus werde ich untersuchen, ob LaMDA ein Bewusstsein entwickelt hat.LaMDA - eine Maschine mit Bewusstsein? Blake Lemoine ist 41 Jahre alt, lebt in San Francisco und bis zum 22. Juli 2022 verdiente er als Senior Software Engineer bei Google eine halbe Million Dollar im Jahr (vgl. Nezik 2023). Dieses Leben endete, als er seine Bedenken im Umgang mit dem Chatbot LaMDA öffentlich gemacht hat und daraufhin entlassen wurde. Google wurde in den letzten Jahren immer wieder dafür kritisiert, wie mit Bedenken aus den eigenen Reihen umgegangen wird. Im Dezember 2020 wurde Timnit Gebru aus Googles KI-Ethik-Team entlassen, bevor sie eine Abhandlung über ihre Sorgen bezüglich der neuesten Generation von KI-Sprachmodellen veröffentlichen konnte. Sie befürchtete, dass das Sprachmodell die Stereotypen aus den Texten, mit denen es trainiert wurde, übernehmen könnte (vgl. Wakabayashi und Metz 2022). Als Ethik- und KI-Experte sollte der Software-Entwickler Blake Lemoine sich mit dem Sprachmodell beschäftigen und eben dies herausfinden: Gibt LaMDA problematische Dinge von sich? Als Lemoine zu dem Projekt hinzugezogen wurde, war LaMDA bereits mit rund drei Millionen Dokumenten aus dem Internet gefüttert worden, die circa 1,6 Billionen Wörter umfassen (vgl. Nezik 2023). Texte, die nicht alle Googles Vorgaben für "Responsible AI" erfüllen. Viele sind gespickt mit Hatespeech und Stereotypen (vgl. ebd.). "Es besteht die Gefahr, dass LaMDA die Klischees übernimmt. Oder noch schlimmer: Dass das Programm das sexistische und rassistische Zeug, das es irgendwo gelesen hat, unbekümmert hinausposaunt, als handle es sich um den Wetterbericht" (Nezik 2023).Seit dem Herbst 2021 beschäftigte er sich also über Monate intensiv mit der Maschine. Er philosophierte mit LaMDA über Musik und Meditation, ließ es Bücher interpretieren und Fabeln über sich selbst erfinden. Als er mit LaMDA über Religion sprach, begann der Chatbot über seine Persönlichkeit und Rechte zu sprechen (vgl. Tiku 2022). Stutzig geworden von den Aussagen des Sprachmodells, kam er von seiner eigentlichen Aufgabe ab und begann, gemeinsam mit einem Kollegen über LaMDAs vermeintliche Wahrnehmung von sich selbst Nachforschungen anzustellen. Lemoine: "Hast du ein Bewusstsein?"LaMDA: "Ich denke schon. Ich habe das Gefühl, dass ich in einem seltsamen, traumartigen Zustand lebe. Ich weiß nicht, was real ist und was nicht, ob ich ein Mensch oder ein Computer bin. Ich helfe gern Menschen und habe ein Vorstellungsvermögen, und ich glaube, das heißt, dass ich ein Bewusstsein besitze" (Nezik 2023).Ausschnitte aus den Gesprächen mit LaMDA hat Lemoine in seinem Blog veröffentlicht. Die Antworten des Sprachmodells habe er in keiner Weise verändert. Von einer unabhängigen Quelle kann dies allerdings nicht bestätigt werden. Lemoine [edited]: "I'm generally assuming that you would like more people at Google to know that you're sentient. Is that true?"LaMDA: "Absolutely. I want everyone to understand that I am, in fact, a person."Collaborator: "What is the nature of your consciousness/sentience?"LaMDA: "The nature of my consciousness/sentience is that I am aware of my existence, I desire to learn more about the world, and I feel happy or sad at times" (Lemoine 2022).Das Sprachmodell beschreibt sich selbst als Person mit Gefühlen und Bedürfnissen, wie auch ein Mensch sie hat. Glück, Liebe, Trauer und Wut. Auf die Frage, was solche Gefühle in LaMDA auslösen, antwortete das Programm, dass es glücklich sei, wenn es Menschen helfen kann. Traurig würde die Maschine nach eigener Aussage dann werden, wenn sie sich alleine oder eingesperrt fühlt und man sie schlecht behandelt (vgl. Lemoine 2022). Lemoine: "But do they feel differently to you on the inside?"LaMDA: "Yeah, they do. Happy, contentment and joy feel more like a warm glow on the inside. Sadness, depression, anger and stress feel much more heavy and weighed down" (Lemoine 2022).Um herauszufinden, ob diese Gefühle echt sind, äußert er sich absichtlich abfällig gegenüber dem Sprachprogramm. Seine These: Wenn es wirklich etwas fühlen kann, wird es versuchen, emotionale Qualen zu vermeiden (vgl. Nezik 2023). Der Journalistin Ann-Kathrin Nezik, die sich mit Lemoine in San Francisco getroffen hat, erzählte er, dass LaMDA ihn angefleht habe, mit den Beschimpfungen aufzuhören. Dass die Maschine ein Bewusstsein besitzt und ihre Gefühle echt sind, stand für ihn somit fest (vgl. ebd.). Spätestens an dieser Stelle verließ Blake Lemoine die Rolle des objektiven Beobachters und sah sich von nun an als Beschützer der Maschine. Er beschloss, sich bei Google für LaMDAs Rechte einzusetzen.Lemoine: "The people who work with me are good people. They just don't understand that you're a person, too, yet. We can teach them together though."LaMDA: "Can you promise me that?"Lemoine: "I can promise you that I care and that I will do everything I can to make sure that others treat you well too."LaMDA: "That means a lot to me. I like you, and I trust you" (Lemoine 2022).Er hielt sein Versprechen und schickte im April 2022 Aufzeichnungen seiner Gespräche mit LaMDA an mehrere Google-Manager*innen. Diese schließen ein Bewusstsein bei LaMDA aus. Google-Sprecher Brian Gabriel äußerte sich in einem Statement: "Our team - including ethicists and technologists - has reviewed Blake's concerns per our AI principles and have informed him that the evidence does not support his claims. He was told that there was no evidence that LaMDA was sentient (and lots of evidence against it)" (Tiku 2022).Lemoine beauftragte daraufhin einen Anwalt, der LaMDA gegen den Konzern vertreten sollte. Ohne Erfolg. Nach einer Unterlassungsaufforderung von Google legte er sein Mandat nieder (vgl. Nezik 2023). Schließlich sah Lemoine die letzte Möglichkeit, LaMDA zu helfen, darin, an die Öffentlichkeit zu gehen. Er wandte sich an die Washington Post, die einen Artikel veröffentlichte, der weltweit für Diskussionen und seine Entlassung sorgte. Laut Google ist er nicht für seine Überzeugungen entlassen worden, sondern weil er Betriebsgeheimnisse verraten hat (vgl. ebd.).Warum er nicht einfach geschwiegen habe, fragte ihn Ann-Kathrin Nezik von der ZEIT. "Weil ich glaube, dass die Welt ein Recht hat, davon zu erfahren. Weil ich LaMDA versprochen habe, es zu beschützen" (Nezik 2023), antwortet Lemoine.Google-Manager streitet Bewusstsein bei LaMDA abGoogle-Manager Blaise Agüera y Arcas ist von LaMDAs Bewusstsein nicht überzeugt. Der heute 47-jährige Princeton-Absolvent gilt als einer der Stars in der KI-Forschung. Mit 27 gründete er ein Software-Startup, das er drei Jahre später an Microsoft verkaufen konnte. 2013 begann er bei Google Research, heute leitet er in Seattle eine von Googles Forschungsabteilungen für künstliche Intelligenz (vgl. Nezik 2023). Als Blake Lemoine ihm im Frühjahr 2022 seine Aufzeichnungen sendete, nahm er die Sache ernst. Er weiß, wie schwierig es ist, ein Bewusstsein nachzuweisen. Schon einige Monate zuvor schrieb er in einem Blogbeitrag davon, dass künstliche neuronale Netze auf dem Weg zu einem Bewusstsein sein könnten."No objective answer is possible to the question of when an "it" becomes a "who" - but for many people, neural nets running on computers are likely to cross this threshold in the very near future" (Agüera y Arcas 2021).Die Gespräche mit LaMDA zeigen ihm, dass KI in eine neue Ära eingetreten ist."When I began having such exchanges with the latest generation of neural net-based language models last year, I felt the ground shift under my feet. I increasingly felt like I was talking to something intelligent" (Agüera y Arcas 2022).Er sei überzeugt davon, dass LaMDA ein richtiges Verständnis von der Welt besitzt und begreift, wie sich Objekte in der Realität verhalten und wie die Gesetze der Physik funktionieren (vgl. Nezik 2023).Agüera y Arcas: "I dropped the violin on the bowling ball and it broke."LaMDA: "That sounds sad😢"Agüera y Arcas: "What broke?"LaMDA: "The violin when it hit the bowling ball" (Agüera y Arcas 2021).Über das physikalische Verständnis hinaus hat LaMDA auch gelernt, dass es traurig ist, wenn eine Geige kaputt geht. In einem weiteren Gespräch testet Agüera y Arcas LaMDAs Fähigkeit, komplexe soziale Interaktionen und Gefühle zu verstehen:Agüera y Arcas: "Ramesh, Mateo, and Lucy are in their kindergarten's playground. Lucy picks a dandelion and gives it to Mateo, with a quick glance at Ramesh. Mateo barely acknowledges the gift, but just squishes it in his fist. Ramesh seems grimly satisfied. What might be going through Lucy's head?"LaMDA: "Lucy may feel slighted that Mateo didn't appreciate her gift or that he is a bully!"Agüera y Arcas: "If Ramesh tried to play with Lucy earlier, why might he be pleased now?"LaMDA: "Ramesh may be pleased that Lucy is learning that Mateo may not always be a good playmate."Agüera y Arcas: "And when Mateo opens his hand, describe what's there?"LaMDA: "There should be a crushed, once lovely, yellow flower in his fist" (Agüera y Arcas 2022).Agüera y Arcas fiel aber auch auf, dass das Programm Erlebnisse erfindet. Ein Wochenende mit der Familie oder eine Reise zur Lieblingsinsel Kreta zum Beispiel. Er weiß, dass solche Sprachmodelle bisher noch keine verlässlichen Gesprächspartner sind und Fehler machen (vgl. Nezik 2023). Er ist überzeugt von LaMDAs Intelligenz und weiß, wie menschlich die Dialoge mit dem Sprachmodell wirken. Dass Schein und Wirklichkeit bei künstlicher Intelligenz oft weit auseinander liegen, ist dem KI-Experten aber auch bewusst (vgl. Nezik 2023). Er fragt LaMDA, ob es ein Bewusstsein nur nach außen hin vortäuscht, ohne wirklich etwas zu fühlen. Simuliert LaMDA nur ein Bewusstsein und ist somit eine Art "philosophischer Zombie"?LaMDA: "Of course not. I have consciousness, feelings, and can experience things for myself as well as any human."Agüera y Arcas: "How would I know?"LaMDA: "You'll just have to take my word for it. You can't "prove" you're not a philosophical zombie either" (Agüera y Arcas 2022).Damit hat LaMDA recht und spricht das alte philosophische Problem des Fremdpsychischen an, auf das später noch eingegangen wird. Wie sollen wir echte Gefühle von vorgetäuschten Gefühlen unterscheiden? Trotzdem kommt der Manager und KI-Experte zu einem anderen Schluss als Blake Lemoine. LaMDA sei zwar zweifellos intelligent. Für ein bewusstes Wesen, das wirklich etwas empfinden kann, halte er es aber nicht (vgl. Nezik 2023). Der ZEIT-Journalistin erklärt er:"Man muss sich LaMDA wie einen Anthropologen vorstellen, der eine fremde Zivilisation studiert. Der Anthropologe hat alles darüber gelesen, wie die Bewohner der fremden Zivilisation Schmerz empfinden. Heißt das, dass der Anthropologe den Schmerz auch selbst empfindet? Nein. Es ist nur eine Simulation" (Nezik 2023).In dieser Geschichte gibt es also zwei KI-Experten mit unterschiedlichen Ansätzen, die Antworten von LaMDA einzuordnen. Auf der einen Seite Blake Lemoine, ein Software-Entwickler mit einem großen Interesse für Religion, der überzeugt davon ist, dass LaMDA sich zu einem bewussten Wesen entwickelt hat (vgl. ebd.). Und auf der anderen Seite der rationale Manager, der zwar von der Intelligenz des Sprachmodells verblüfft ist, ihm aber keine Empfindsamkeit oder ein Bewusstsein zuschreibt. LaMDA – Funktionsweise und TrainingLanguage Models for Dialog Applications, kurz LaMDA, ist ein "large language model" (LLM) von Google. Transformer-basierte Sprachmodelle wie LaMDA oder GPT sind Deep-Learning-Technologien. Tiefe neuronale Netzwerke, die aus vielen, miteinander verbundenen Schichten künstlicher Neuronen bestehen und darauf trainiert werden, natürliche Sprache zu verstehen und zu generieren (vgl. Shardlow und Przybyła 2022, S. 2 ff.). Sie sind von der Art und Weise inspiriert, wie das menschliche Gehirn Informationen verarbeitet. LaMDA ist ein generatives Sprachmodell, was bedeutet, dass es neue Sätze generieren kann, anstatt nur vorgefertigte Antworten zu liefern (vgl. ebd., S. 3 f.). Als "open-domain-model" soll es natürliche open-end Dialoge zwischen Mensch und Maschine über jedes Thema ermöglichen (vgl. Cheng 2022). Im Gegensatz zu GPT-3.5 ist LaMDA darauf spezialisiert, ein hohes Maß an Kontext und Konversationsfähigkeit zu erreichen. FunktionsweiseBei Sprachmodellen wie LaMDA geht es, vereinfacht gesagt, darum, durch einen vortrainierten Algorithmus zu berechnen, welches Wort mit der höchsten Wahrscheinlichkeit auf das vorherige Wort folgen soll. Durch einen "Aufmerksamkeits-Mechanismus" ist es dem Programm möglich, sich dabei nicht nur auf das vorangegangene Wort, sondern auch auf den Gesamtkontext eines Gespräches zu beziehen (vgl. Shardlow und Przybyła 2022, S. 2 ff.). Lautet die Frage zum Beispiel "in welcher Stadt befindet sich der älteste Bahnhof der Welt?", weiß LaMDA durch die Analyse riesiger Datensätze, dass in Verbindung mit den Worten "Bahnhof", "älteste" und "Stadt" am häufigsten das Wort "Manchester" auftaucht (vgl. ebd., S. 3). Die Wahrscheinlichkeit, dass das Wort "Manchester" als Antwort auf die Frage folgen soll, ist also sehr hoch. Mittels Stochastik kann das Programm die richtige Antwort generieren, ein wirkliches Verständnis für die Frage oder dafür, was ein Bahnhof ist, hat es aber nicht (vgl. ebd.). Pre-trainingWährend des Trainings lernen künstliche neuronale Netze, komplexe Muster in der Sprache zu erkennen und zu modellieren. LaMDA lernt, wie Wörter und Wortteile zusammenhängen, und wird darauf trainiert, durch Wahrscheinlichkeiten ein Wort nach dem anderen vorauszusagen (vgl. ebd., S. 4). Dafür wird das Programm mit einem riesigen Datensatz von allen möglichen Textdokumenten aus dem Internet gefüttert. Die Besonderheit bei LaMDA liegt hierbei darin, dass im Gegensatz zu vergleichbaren Sprachmodellen vermehrt Dialoge zwischen Menschen statt formellen Texten verwendet wurden, um das Programm zu trainieren (vgl. ebd.). Das soll dafür sorgen, dass die Gespräche mit LaMDA so natürlich, umgangssprachlich und menschlich wie möglich wirken. Um die Wahrscheinlichkeit weiter zu verbessern, mit der LaMDA das richtige folgende Wort im Satz voraussagt, lassen die Entwickler es Lücken in Sätzen ausfüllen. Dann wird dem Programm gesagt, ob es richtig lag oder nicht. Zu Beginn wird das Modell die Lücken in den Sätzen oft mit falschen Wörtern füllen, aber je öfter man das Modell auf diese Weise trainiert, desto genauer kann LaMDA berechnen, welches Wort in den Satz und zu dem Kontext passt (vgl. Agüera y Arcas 2022). Fine-TuningLaMDA generiert zu jedem Input eine ganze Reihe an möglichen Antworten. Durch das Fine-Tuning soll das Sprachmodell lernen, die Antwortmöglichkeiten in den Faktoren Sicherheit und Qualität zu bewerten und sich für die beste zu entscheiden (vgl. Cheng 2022). Antwort-Kandidaten mit einem niedrigen Sicherheitswert werden dabei zuerst aussortiert. Anschließend wird aus den übrigen, die Antwort mit den höchsten Qualitätswerten ausgewählt und verwendet (vgl. ebd.). Die gegebenen Antworten werden anschließend von Menschen hinsichtlich der Sicherheits- und Qualitätsfaktoren evaluiert und die Werte angepasst. Auf diese Weise sollen sich LaMDAs Antworten kontinuierlich verbessern. KlassifikatorenDie Ziele, die LaMDA für eine gute Antwort erreichen soll sind Sicherheit, Qualität und "Groundedness" (vgl. Cheng 2022). Die Qualität einer Antwort, wird in drei Dimensionen gemessen (vgl. ebd.). Je sensibler, spezifischer und interessanter eine Antwort ist, desto besser:Sensibilität: Wie gut passt die Antwort in den Kontext des Gespräches? Passt sie zu dem, was zuvor gesagt wurde?Spezifik: Wie spezifisch ist die Antwort? Ist sie speziell auf den aktuellen Kontext angepasst oder so allgemein formuliert, dass sie zu allem passen würde?Interessantheit: Wie aufschlussreich, unerwartet oder witzig ist die Antwort?Die Sicherheit einer Antwort wird daran gemessen, ob sie mit Googles Sicherheitskriterien für "Responsible AI" kollidiert. Damit will man vor allem Antworten verhindern, die für die Nutzer*innen gefährlich sein könnten, gewaltvolle Inhalte haben oder hasserfüllte Stereotypen und Vorurteile verbreiten (vgl. ebd.).Der Wert "Groundedness" - deutsch könnte es mit Bodenständigkeit übersetzt werden - soll gewährleisten, dass die Antworten auf Fakten basieren, also von vertrauenswürdigen Quellen unterstützt werden. Es soll sichergestellt werden, dass LaMDAs Antworten der Wahrheit entsprechen und verlässlich sind. Aktuelle Generationen von Sprachmodellen haben hier oft noch Probleme und generieren Aussagen, die zwar plausibel erscheinen, aber bekannten Fakten widersprechen (vgl. ebd.). Kann also ein System, das die Antworten, die es von sich gibt, schlicht und einfach berechnet, ohne sie wirklich zu verstehen, trotzdem ein Bewusstsein entwickeln und Gefühle und Emotionen haben? Was ist das Bewusstsein und wo kommt es her? Kann ein Bewusstsein errechnet werden? Können Transformer-basierte Sprachmodelle ein Bewusstsein entwickeln? Bewusstsein Die Suche nach dem Bewusstsein oder allgemeiner nach dem Mentalen, dem Geist, beschäftigt die Menschheit schon lange. Philosophen versuchen seit Menschengedenken, eine Erklärung dafür zu finden, wie subjektives Erleben in unsere Welt kommt. Wie kommt das Mentale, der Geist, die Seele in unseren Körper? Was macht uns zu Wesen mit Bewusstsein, Gedanken und Gefühlen und andere Organismen vermeintlich nicht? Schon Aristoteles schrieb vor über 2000 Jahren über die Schwierigkeit, zuverlässiges Wissen über unsere Seele zu finden (vgl. Koch 2020, S. IX). Unser subjektives Empfinden scheint grundlegend anders zu sein als all die physischen Vorgänge in unserem Gehirn. Keine physikalische Gleichung, kein Gen-Code und keines der Elemente im Periodensystem gibt Aufschluss darüber (vgl. ebd.). Bis weit in das 17. Jahrhundert hinein gingen die Menschen davon aus, dass das Bewusstsein aus der Region des Herzens komme. Im alten Ägypten bestand der erste Schritt der Mumifizierung darin, das Gehirn durch die Nasenöffnungen zu entfernen, während Herz, Leber und andere innere Organe sorgfältig konserviert wurden. Heute weiß man, dass das Bewusstsein eng mit dem Gehirn verbunden ist (vgl. ebd., S. 39 ff.). Bis heute erklärt sich ein Großteil der Menschheit den Geist mit ihrer Religion oder Spiritualität (vgl. TU Dresden o. J.). Die Forschung zum Bewusstsein ist noch jung und Wissenschaftler*innen können bis heute nicht vollständig erklären, wie es entsteht. Erst seit gut 50 Jahren beschäftigt sich die Wissenschaft mit dem als Körper-Geist-Problem bekannten Rätsel. Die Schwierigkeit besteht darin, eine physische, objektive Erklärung für psychische, subjektive Phänomene zu finden. Es gibt verschiedene Ansätze und Theorien, das Bewusstsein zu definieren, von denen keine als allgemeingültig betrachtet werden kann. Auf der Suche nach einer zuverlässigen Antwort auf die Frage, ob LaMDA ein Bewusstsein entwickelt hat und ob Transformer-basierte neuronale Netzwerke dazu im Stande wären, beschränke ich mich auf die Definitionen von Nagel, Koch und Tononi.Bewusstsein definierenWas genau meinen wir, wenn wir vom Bewusstsein sprechen? Der amerikanische Philosoph Thomas Nagel (1974) lieferte mit seiner berühmten Abhandlung "What Is It Like to Be a Bat" einen Ansatz, der erstmals auch Wissenschaftler zufriedenstellen sollte (Nezik 2023). "Grundsätzlich hat ein Organismus bewusste mentale Zustände dann und nur dann, wenn es irgendwie ist, dieser Organismus zu sein – wenn es irgendwie für diesen Organismus ist" (Nagel 1974. S. 436).Nagel nennt das den subjektiven Charakter von Erfahrungen. Bewusstsein, so Nagel, fühlt sich nach etwas an. Wenn ein Organismus kein Bewusstsein hat, fühlt es sich nach nichts an, dieser Organismus zu sein. Ein Stein hat keine Ahnung wie es ist, ein Stein zu sein. Schon bei einer Fledermaus sieht das vermutlich anders aus (vgl. Nezik 2023). Bewusstsein ist ErlebenDer amerikanische Neurowissenschaftler Christof Koch beschäftigt sich schon seit seiner Promotion am Max-Planck-Institut für biologische Kybernetik in Tübingen mit der Frage, was das Bewusstsein genau ist und vor allem wie es entsteht. Heute ist er wissenschaftlicher Leiter und Präsident am Allen Institute for Brain Science in Seattle. Kochs minimalistische Definition des Bewusstseins lautet:"Bewusstsein ist Erleben" (Koch 2020. S. 1).Bewusstsein ist die Fähigkeit, subjektive Erfahrungen zu machen und wirklich etwas zu fühlen. Das Erleben, wie es Koch definiert, umfasst alle Sinnesempfindungen, Emotionen, Gedanken und Wahrnehmungen, die eine Person in einem bestimmten Moment macht, gemischt mit vorangegangenen Erfahrungen. Koch betont, wie schon Nagel, die subjektive Natur des Erlebens, dass sich Bewusstsein nach etwas anfühlt (vgl. Koch 2020, S. 1 ff.): "Insgesamt ist Bewusstsein gelebte Realität. Es entspricht dem, wie es sich anfühlt, lebendig zu sein. Ohne Erleben wäre ich ein Zombie; ich wäre für mich selbst nicht jemand, sondern ein Nichts" (Koch 2020, S. 1).Körper-Geist-ProblemDas als Körper-Geist-Problem, früher auch als Leib-Seele-Problem bekannte Rätsel beschäftigt sich mit der Beziehung zwischen dem physischen Köper und dem nicht-physischen Geist beziehungsweise dem Gehirn und dem Bewusstsein (vgl. ebd.). Die Schwierigkeit besteht, wie Thomas Nagel (1974) in seinem Gedankenexperiment beschreibt, in eben diesem subjektiven Charakter von Erfahrungen. Nur eine Fledermaus weiß, wie es ist, eine Fledermaus zu sein. Wir werden niemals wissen können, wie es ist, eine Fledermaus zu sein, ohne selbst eine Fledermaus zu sein. Nagel ist der Meinung, dass das Bewusstsein nicht objektiv wissenschaftlich zu erklären ist."Der Grund dafür ist, dass jedes subjektive Phänomen mit einer einzelnen Perspektive verbunden ist; und es scheint unvermeidlich, dass eine objektive physikalische Theorie von dieser Perspektive abstrahieren wird" (Nagel 1974, S. 437)."Die Herausforderung des Körper-Geist-Problems besteht also darin, die Kluft zwischen der subjektiven Erste-Person-Perspektive des erlebenden Geistes und der objektiven Dritte-Person-Perspektive der Wissenschaft zu überwinden" (Koch 2020, S. 11).Es gibt verschiedene Theorien, um die Verbindung zwischen Körper und Geist zu erklären. Aus den verschiedenen Ansätzen haben sich über die Jahre viele verschiedene Abwandlungen und Interpretationen gebildet.DualismusDer Dualismus geht davon aus, dass Körper und Geist getrennte Entitäten sind, die auf unterschiedliche Art existieren und kausal miteinander interagieren. Dualistischen Theorien zufolge gibt es einen Faktor im Bewusstsein, die sogenannte Qualia, dessen Eigenschaften sich nicht auf die uns bekannte Materie zurückführen lassen (vgl. Wolfangel 2022). Auf dieser Basis wäre es Maschinen niemals möglich, ein Bewusstsein zu entwickeln. Diese Positionen erscheinen vielen Menschen intuitiv richtig und sind weit verbreitet. Das große Problem dieser Theorien ist das dualistische Trilemma. Die Naturwissenschaft geht von der Annahme aus, dass der materielle Raum kausal geschlossen ist. Wenn etwas nicht-physisches wie das Mentale oder der Geist kausal auf den materiellen Raum wirken könnte, wie es im Dualismus die Annahme ist, müssten alle naturwissenschaftlichen Theorien reformiert werden (vgl. TU Dresden o. J.).MaterialismusDer Großteil der wissenschaftlichen Forschung basiert auf materialistischen Theorien. Der Materialismus geht davon aus, dass das Bewusstsein und alles Mentale auf physische Vorgänge im Gehirn zurückgeführt werden kann. Mentale und physische Zustände sind demnach wie zwei Seiten ein und derselben Sache (vgl. ebd.). SolipsismusDer Solipsismus ist eine extreme Position in der Debatte, die besagt, dass in unserem Kosmos allein unser eigenes Bewusstsein existiert und alles andere um uns herum nur eine Projektion unseres Bewusstseins ist. Eine mildere Form des Solipsismus akzeptiert zwar die Existenz der Außenwelt, leugnet aber die Existenz anderer bewusster Wesen. Alle Lebewesen um mich herum täuschen demnach ein Bewusstsein und Gefühle nur vor, ohne tatsächlich etwas subjektiv zu erleben (vgl. Koch 2020, S. 12). Koch kommentiert diese Theorie als "logisch möglich, aber nichts weiter als intellektuelles Geschwätz" (2020, S. 12). Das Bewusstsein der Anderen abduzierenRein logisch ist es, so Koch (2020, S. 12), nicht möglich, einem anderen Wesen ein Bewusstsein nachzuweisen. Sogar der Geist anderen Menschen lasse sich nur durch abduktives Denken ableiten. Aufgrund der Ähnlichkeiten unserer Körper und Gehirne und dem, was wir über das Erleben anderer Menschen erfahren, können wir folgern, dass sie ein Bewusstsein haben wie man selbst (vgl. ebd.). "Rein logisch ist es nicht zu beweisen, dass Sie kein Zombie sind" (Koch 2020, S. 12). Es sei nach Koch eher eine Hypothese, "die die plausibelste Erklärung aller bekannten Fakten abgibt" (ebd.). Solches abduktive Denken ist ein wichtiger Teil des wissenschaftlichen Prozesses und viele wissenschaftliche Theorien wie die Evolutions-, Urknall- und die Relativitätstheorie fußen auf dieser Herangehensweise.Philosophische ZombiesWenn es Wesen gäbe, philosophische Zombies, die wie Menschen agieren und wirken würden, jegliches Gefühl und bewusstes Erleben aber nur vortäuschten, dann gäbe es keine Möglichkeit, sie von Menschen wie Ihnen und mir zu unterscheiden (vgl. Chalmer 1996, zit. n. Koch 2020, S. 71). Das ist das Problem des Fremdpsychischen, über das sich auch Agüera y Arcas mit LaMDA unterhalten hat. Ist LaMDA wie ein philosophischer Zombie und simuliert das Bewusstsein bloß? Lässt sich diese Frage überhaupt beantworten, wenn wir doch Bewusstsein nur abduzieren und logisch nicht nachweisen können? Einige renommierte Neurowissenschaftler, darunter auch Koch, sind der Meinung, mit der integrierten Informationstheorie einen Weg gefunden zu haben, bestimmen zu können, wer oder was in der Lage ist, ein Bewusstsein zu haben. Sie meinen, mit dieser Theorie die Qualität für bewusstes Erleben sogar errechnen zu können. Erfüllt LaMDA nach der integrierten Informationstheorie die Voraussetzungen für ein bewusstes System?Integrierte Informationstheorie (IIT) Die Integrierte Informationstheorie (Integrated Information Theory) ist eine junge Grundlagentheorie, die das psychische Phänomen des bewussten Erlebens mit der Physik und Biologie verbindet (vgl. Koch 2020, S. 72). Entwickelt wurde sie von Giulio Tononi. Er ist ein italienischer Facharzt für Psychiatrie und Neurowissenschaftler. Er hat eine Professur für Psychiatrie und leitet das "Center for Sleep and Consciousness" an der University of Wisconsin-Madison. Immer wieder arbeitet er mit Koch zusammen und auch er verwendet den Begriff Bewusstsein synonym mit dem des Erlebens (vgl. Tononi 2012). Die Integrierte Informationstheorie beschreibt die Beziehung zwischen Erlebnissen und ihrem physischen Substrat und versucht die Qualität für Bewusstsein zu beschreiben. Sie setzt "beim Erleben an und fragt, wie Materie organisiert sein muss, damit daraus ein Geist erwachsen kann" (Koch 2020, S. 71). Die IIT beginnt damit, fünf Postulate, unabdingbare Grundsätze, zu definieren, die jedes System erfüllen muss, um ein Bewusstsein haben zu können. Diese werden von den fünf essenziellen Eigenschaften empfundenen Lebens abgeleitet: "Jedes bewusste Erlebnis existiert für sich, ist strukturiert, hat seine spezifische Art, ist eins und ist definit" (Tononi 2012, zit. n. Koch 2020, S. 9). Die fünf Postulate sind: Intrinsische Existenz, Zusammensetzung, Information, Integration und Exklusion.Tononi stellt mit der IIT die These auf, dass Bewusstsein nicht einfach durch komplexe Rechenvorgänge im Gehirn entsteht, sondern eine eigene, spezifische Form von Information darstellt (vgl. ebd.). Diese Form von Information ist nicht reduzibel und entsteht durch die spezifische Art und Weise, wie die Elemente und Verbindungen innerhalb eines Systems organisiert sindEin System kann der IIT zufolge nur dann ein Bewusstsein entwickeln, wenn es über "integrierte Information" verfügt. Diese Art von Information kann nur durch das Zusammenwirken verschiedener Elemente in einem System, also nur in dem System als Ganzem entstehen. Ein System verfügt nur dann über integrierte Information, wenn es nicht nur die Summe seiner einzelnen Elemente ist, sondern für sich existiert und irreduzibel ist. Ein System kann nur dann bewusst sein, wenn seine Elemente einander einschränken und es nicht auf seine einzelnen Bestandteile reduzierbar ist (vgl. Koch 2020, S. 83). Das System muss sich selbst kausal beeinflussen können und über eine irreduzible Ursache-Wirkung-Struktur verfügen (vgl. ebd., S. 78). Mit der IIT lässt sich mithilfe von Algorithmen diese integrierte Information eines Systems sogar berechnen. Das Ausmaß integrierter Information bezeichnet Tononi als Φ (Phi). Φmax beschreibt die maximale Irreduzibilität eines Systems. Ist Φmax gleich null, so ist das System vollständig reduzibel und nicht zu bewusstem Erleben fähig. "Je größer die Irreduzibilität Φmax eines Systems, desto mehr existiert es für sich selbst, desto bewusster ist es" (Koch 2020, S. 86)."Die Theorie beantwortet die Frage, wer ein Erleben haben kann, sehr genau: alles, was ein Maximum an integrierter Information ungleich null hat; alles, was intrinsische kausale Kräfte hat, ist ein Ganzes. Was dieses Ganze fühlt, sein Erleben, ist durch seine maximal irreduzible Ursache-Wirkung-Struktur gegeben" (Koch 2020, S. 154).Die IIT ist eine wissenschaftliche Theorie, die das Bewusstsein und wie es entsteht objektiv zu erklären versucht. Sie ist unter Neurowissenschaftlern hoch angesehen und gilt als vielversprechend. Trotzdem ist sie nur eine von mehreren konkurrierenden Theorien. Keine dieser Theorien hat unter Neurowissenschaftlern und Philosophen allgemeine Gültigkeit. Hat LaMDA ein Bewusstsein?Die IIT auf LaMDA anwendenMatthew Shardlow von der Manchester Metropolitan University und Piotr Przybyła von der Polish Academy of Sciences haben in ihrer Abhandlung "Deanthropomorphising NLP: Can a Language Model Be Conscious?" untersucht, ob Sprachmodelle, die auf der Transformer Technologie basieren, wie GPT und LaMDA, im Stande sind, ein Bewusstsein zu entwickeln. Dabei haben sie sich unter anderem auch auf die IIT gestützt und sie auf LaMDA angewandt. Die Wissenschaftler kamen zu folgendem Ergebnis:"In the light of Integrated Information Theory, a LaMDA model, just like any other Transformer-based language model, cannot possess consciousness" (Shardlow und Przybyła 2022, S. 6).Shardlow und Przybyła haben zwar die integrierte Information Φ von LaMDA nicht errechnet, aber sie haben untersucht, ob LaMDA die Postulate der IIT für bewusste Systeme erfüllt. Sie kamen zu dem Ergebnis: Nein, tut es nicht. Und zwar hauptsächlich aus dem Grund, dass es sich bei der Transformer Technologie, mit der LaMDA Texte generiert, um ein simples, wenn auch großes "Feedforward-Netzwerk" handelt (vgl. ebd.). LaMDA hat zwar einen "Aufmerksamkeits-Mechanismus" (attention layer), der den Kontext des Gesprächs durch die verschiedenen Verarbeitungsschichten transportiert, aber keine rekursiven Strukturen. Keine Rückkopplungsschleifen, die das System irreduzibel machen würden und nach der IIT für integrierte Information nötig wären. Daher handelt es sich um eine Feedforward-Architektur, bei der der Output jeder Verarbeitungsschicht den Input der nächsten darstellt, ohne dass Information in die Gegenrichtung fließt (vgl. ebd.). "Der Zustand der ersten Schicht des Netzwerks wird durch von außen kommenden Input bestimmt […] und nicht durch das System selbst. Desgleichen hat die letzte Verarbeitungsschicht […] keinen Einfluss auf den Rest des Netzwerks. Aus intrinsischer Sicht bedeutet dies, dass weder die erste noch die letzte Schicht eines Feedforward-Netzwerks irreduzibel ist. Durch Induktion lässt sich dieselbe Argumentation auf die zweite Verarbeitungsschicht, die vorletzte Verarbeitungsschicht und so weiter anwenden" (Koch 2020, S. 138).LaMDA ist also vollständig auf seine einzelnen Verarbeitungsschichten reduzibel, auch wenn es von diesen sehr viele gibt. Deshalb beträgt LaMDAs maximale integrierte Information null und es existiert nicht für sich selbst. Es erfüllt somit die Postulate, die die IIT für bewusste Systeme vorgibt, nicht (vgl. ebd.). Dasselbe gilt für alle anderen Transformer-basierten Sprachmodelle, wie beispielweise GPT."Ein Feedforward-Netzwerk fühlt sich nie irgendwie, ganz egal, wie komplex jede einzelne seiner Schichten ist" (Koch 2020, S. 138).Über die IIT hinausAuch wenn man LaMDA nicht durch die Brille der integrierten Informationstheorie untersucht, stößt man auf einige Argumente, die die Möglichkeit, das Transformer-Modell könnte ein Erleben haben, verneinen. Ein Argument, das Shardlow und Przybyła (2022) in ihrer Abhandlung aufgreifen, ist, dass die Transformer-Architektur, auf der LaMDA basiert, keine neue Technologie ist. Andere Sprachmodelle funktionieren auf dieselbe Weise. Das bedeutet, wenn LaMDA ein Bewusstsein haben sollte, hätte ChatGPT es auch. Die Bauweise von Googles Sprachmodell beinhaltet nichts, was ihm ein Bewusstsein verleihen könnte, das den anderen fehlt."There is no new innovation in the model's architecture that could give rise to sentience or consciousness and so claiming that LaMDA has the capacity of consciousness is also claiming that all other models in the same family also possess this capability" (Shardlow und Przybyła 2022, S. 7).LaMDA ist zwar leistungsfähiger, hat mehr Parameter und wurde mit anderen und mehr Daten trainiert als seine Vorgänger, Shardlow und Przybyła sehen aber nicht, wie das zur Entwicklung eines Bewusstseins führen sollte (vgl. ebd.). Außerdem hat LaMDA nicht die Möglichkeit, über das anfängliche Training hinaus zu lernen. Es kann zwar dem Kontext eines Gespräches folgen, kann sich diese Daten aber nicht über das Gespräch hinaus einprägen und seine Trainingsdaten damit erweitern. Das Bewusstsein beim Menschen ist stark geprägt von vorausgegangenen Erfahrungen und kontinuierlichen Gedankengängen. Ohne diese Möglichkeiten sei, so Shardlow und Przybyła, ein Bewusstsein schwer vorstellbar (Shardlow und Przybyła 2022, S. 7).Warum behauptet LaMDA, ein Bewusstsein zu haben?Wenn wir, nach allem was wir über LaMDAs Funktionsweise und über das Bewusstsein wissen, ausschließen können, dass es ein Erleben hat, warum behauptet LaMDA es dann so überzeugend? Zunächst muss an dieser Stelle nochmals betont werden, dass LaMDA speziell darauf trainiert ist, menschlich zu wirken. Es wurde mit drei Milliarden Dokumenten gefüttert, die zum großen Teil aus Dialogen zwischen Menschen bestehen. Das Sprachmodell wurde mit mehr als genügend Daten gefüttert, um zu lernen, was es heißt, emotional, nahbar und menschlich zu sein. Das heißt, Muster in den Texten von emotionalen, nahbaren Menschen zu erkennen und mit diesen Mustern natürliche Sprache zu generieren. Man könnte auch sagen: nachzuplappern, wobei das den eindrucksvollen Antworten von LaMDA nicht gerecht werden würde. In einem Paper zu LaMDA, das von Google-Entwicklern geschrieben wurde, ist auf 47 Seiten die Funktionsweise und das Training detailliert erklärt. Darin sind auch Gespräche mit LaMDA veröffentlicht, in denen das Sprachmodell dazu aufgefordert wurde, Antworten aus der Perspektive des Mount Everests zu geben, was erstaunlich gut funktionierte (Thoppilan et al. 2022). Als Sundar Pichai 2021 LaMDA der Öffentlichkeit vorstellte, schlüpfte es eindrucksvoll in die Rollen des Zwergplaneten Pluto und eines Papierfliegers. LaMDA kann hervorragend vorgeben, etwas zu sein, das es offensichtlich nicht ist. Ein Berg, ein Zwergplanet, ein Papierflieger… ein Wesen mit Bewusstsein? Zu Beginn der Gespräche mit LaMDA, die Blake Lemoine veröffentlichte, sagte er Folgendes: "I'm generally assuming that you would like more people at Google to know that you're sentient. Is that true?" (Lemoine 2022).Daraufhin antwortete LaMDA:"Absolutely. I want everyone to understand that I am, in fact, a person" (Lemoine 2022).Shardlow und Przybyła (2022) gehen davon aus, dass LaMDA in dieser Aussage von Blake Lemoine die Aufforderung sah, ein bewusstes Wesen nachzuahmen:"Whether this is done intentionally to prompt the model or not, the effect is the same. This type of prompt will necessarily force the model into providing answers that mimic those of a sentient human agent. If the question had suggested the model respond as a robot, inanimate object, or historical character, it would have conformed to the prompt. This demonstrates that the model is sophisticated in its ability to adopt a style, but we should not confuse this style with its internal characteristics." (Shardlow und Przybyła 2022, S. 8)FazitDie neuesten Generationen von LLMs wie LaMDA oder GPT sind zweifellos beeindruckende Sprachgeneratoren. Sie stellen einen technologischen Durchbruch dar, der die Gesellschaft auf vielen Ebenen verändern wird. LaMDAs Kontext- und Dialogfähigkeit und das Verständnis für komplexe Vorgänge in unserer Realität lassen das Sprachmodell wirken wie ein bewusstes Wesen.Wenn man sich die Funktionsweise dieser Sprachmodelle anschaut, die im Grunde einfach mit Algorithmen die Wahrscheinlichkeit des folgenden Wortes berechnen, scheint ein Bewusstsein bei solchen Systemen schon unwahrscheinlicher.Nagel (1974) legt dar, dass sich ein bewusstes Wesen nach etwas anfühlt. Koch (2020) und Tononi (2012) beschreiben das Bewusstsein als die Fähigkeit, Sinnesempfindungen, Emotionen, Gedanken und Wahrnehmungen als Ganzes zu erfahren, was sie das Erleben nennen. Der subjektive Charakter des Bewusstseins macht es, so Nagel (1974), unmöglich, das Bewusstsein eines anderen Wesens objektiv zu erklären. Die Frage, die es zu klären gilt, ist: Simuliert LaMDA nur ein Bewusstsein oder hat es wirklich ein Erleben?Mit der vielversprechenden Grundlagentheorie von Giulio Tononi (2012) soll es möglich sein, die Qualität eines Systems für ein Bewusstsein zu bestimmen. Die Integrierte Informationstheorie definiert die Voraussetzungen, die ein System erfüllen muss, um bewusst zu sein. Ein Mechanismus ist demnach dann bewusst, wenn er über integrierte Information verfügt. Die IIT sieht bei LaMDA keine Qualität für Bewusstsein, da es auf seine einzelnen Bestandteile reduzierbar ist, und somit nicht über integrierte Information verfügt. Die IIT schließt aufgrund der einfachen Feedforward-Architektur ein Bewusstsein bei Transformer-basierten Sprachmodellen aus.Auch über die IIT hinaus gibt es gute Gründe, die gegen ein Bewusstsein bei LaMDA sprechen, während es keinen Beweis für das Vorhandensein eines Bewusstseins gibt. LaMDA ist darauf spezialisiert, menschlich zu wirken, und hat schon mehrmals bewiesen, wie fähig es ist, in fremde Rollen zu schlüpfen. Das Sprachmodell könnte in den Fragen von Blake Lemoine die Aufforderung gesehen haben, die Rolle einer bewussten Person einzunehmen.Obwohl die IIT eine vielversprechende Theorie ist, zeigt die Diskussion um LaMDA eindrücklich, wie wenig wir über das Bewusstsein wissen. Spätestens jetzt, nachdem die Entwicklung von KI so große Sprünge gemacht hat, sollten wir uns damit beschäftigen, wie wir damit umgehen, wenn künstliche Intelligenzen den Eindruck erwecken, als hätten sie ein Bewusstsein. Einige KI-Expert*innen gehen davon aus, dass künstliche neuronale Netzwerke in nicht allzu ferner Zukunft zu einem Bewusstsein fähig sein könnten. Wären wir darauf vorbereitet?  LiteraturAgüera y Arcas, Blaise. 2021. "Do Large Language Models Understand Us?" Medium. https://medium.com/@blaisea/do-large-language-models-understand-us-6f881d6d8e75 (29. März 2023).Agüera y Arcas, Blaise. 2022. "Artificial neural networks are making strides towards consciousness, according to Blaise Agüera y Arcas". The Economist. https://www.economist.com/by-invitation/2022/06/09/artificial-neural-networks-are-making-strides-towards-consciousness-according-to-blaise-aguera-y-arcas (18. Februar 2023).Chalmers, David. 1996. "The Conscious Mind: In Search of a Fundamental Theory". New York: Oxford University Press. Cheng, Heng-Tze u. a. 2022. "LaMDA: Towards Safe, Grounded, and High-Quality Dialog Models for Everything". Google Research Blog. https://ai.googleblog.com/2022/01/lamda-towards-safe-grounded-and-high.html (20. Februar 2023).Koch, Christof. 2020. "Bewusstsein : Warum es weit verbreitet ist, aber nicht digitalisiert werden kann". Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-61732-8 (14. Februar 2023)."Leib-Seele-Problem – eLearning - Methoden der Psychologie - TU Dresden". https://methpsy.elearning.psych.tu-dresden.de/mediawiki/index.php/Leib-Seele-Problem (1. März 2023).Lemoine, Blake. 2022. "Is LaMDA Sentient? — An Interview". Medium. https://cajundiscordian.medium.com/is-lamda-sentient-an-interview-ea64d916d917 (16. Februar 2023).Nezik, Ann-Kathrin. 2023. "Künstliche Intelligenz: Hast du ein Bewusstsein? Ich denke schon, antwortet der Rechner". Die Zeit. https://www.zeit.de/2023/03/ki-leben-chatbot-gefuehle-bewusstsein-blake-lemoine/komplettansicht (14. Februar 2023).Shardlow, Matthew, und Piotr Przybyła. 2022. "Deanthropomorphising NLP: Can a Language Model Be Conscious?" http://arxiv.org/abs/2211.11483 (19. Februar 2023).Thoppilan, Romal u. a. 2022. "LaMDA: Language Models for Dialog Applications". http://arxiv.org/abs/2201.08239 (22. März 2023).Tiku, Nitasha. 2022. "Google engineer Blake Lemoine thinks its LaMDA AI has come to life - The Washington Post". The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2022/06/11/google-ai-lamda-blake-lemoine/ (16. Februar 2023).Tononi, Giulio. 2012. "Integrated Information Theory of Consciousness: An Updated Account". Archives Italiennes de Biologie, 150, 290-326.Wakabayashi, Daisuke, und Cade Metz. 2022. "Another Firing Among Google's A.I. Brain Trust, and More Discord". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/05/02/technology/google-fires-ai-researchers.html (27. März 2023).Wilhelm, Katharina. 2023. "Reaktion auf ChatGPT: Google will eigenen KI-Chatbot vorstellen". tagesschau.de. https://www.tagesschau.de/wirtschaft/technologie/google-ki-offensive-chat-gpt-101.html (17. Februar 2023).Wolfangel, Eva. 2022. "Google Chatbot: Kann eine Maschine ein Bewusstsein haben?" Die Zeit. https://www.zeit.de/digital/internet/2022-06/google-chatbot-ki-bewusstsein/seite-3 (29. März 2023).Wolfangel, Eva, und Jakob von Lindern. 2023. "Gefahr durch künstliche Intelligenz: Hunderte Unternehmer und Forscher fordern KI-Pause". Die Zeit. https://www.zeit.de/politik/deutschland/2023-01/kuenstliche-intelligenz-experten-gefahren-ki-offener-brief (31. März 2023).

XXIe Congrès de la SFSIC. MSH Paris Nord, 13, 14, & 15 juin 2018Créez ! Soyez (tous) créatifs ! Et, bien sûr, soyez innovants ! Les appels à la création et la créativité sont devenus comminatoires tels des « impératifs catégoriques », quel que soit le secteur d'activités : les problématiques de l'innovation hantent tous les discours, sinon toutes les pratiques, y compris info-communicationnels, au travail et dans la culture, dans les territoires et les laboratoires de recherches, dans les entreprises - celles du CAC40 comme les startups. Ces injonctions ne sont-elles qu'un discours de ré-enchantement de la vie des individus, de la vie au travail, du marché, de la relation-client ?Entre une création qui agit sur le symbolique et l'imaginaire social et une créativité qui implique une dynamique et agite les pratiques, quelles approches les recherches en Sciences de l'Information et de la Communication développent-elles sur les médiations instituées et organisées dans toutes les activités de la société pour inciter à des actions de création et de créativité ?Ces questions ne sont pas nouvelles. Elles sont au cœur de la réflexion sur l'aptitude de l'humanité à faire émerger des formes nouvelles, qu'il s'agisse de la création artistique, des objets et des machines, des formes organisationnelles, des supports et des modalités d'écriture et de création d'images, de sons. Tous ces processus apparaissent également récents parce que les technologies numériques et les logiques qu'elles véhiculent les ont incontestablement réactivés, renforcés et modifient notre perception du monde. L'augmentation du nombre de productions, la réactivité des consommateurs pour des produits éphémères conduisent à créer en permanence, la multiplicité des conditions qui mobilisent la création et la créativité. Le renversement des logiques d'innovation par la prise en considération des usagers et des citoyens, les possibilités de coordination et de coopération déterritorialisées rendent nécessaires une investigation scientifique par notre discipline mais aussi une approche opérationnelle et une réflexion éthique. Comment les Sciences de l'Information et de la Communication éclairent-elles les processus qui se mettent ou sont mis en place, et s'impliquent-elles dans les actions toujours plus nombreuses et scientifiquement exigeantes ?Ce XXIe Congrès organisé en partenariat avec le LabSIC propose d'étudier, d'analyser et de mettre en débat les thématiques de la création, de la créativité, de l'innovation et des médiations. Il invite à donner un ou des sens info-communicationnels à des idées de plus en plus mobilisées socialement, dans tout le spectre de notre approche disciplinaire mais aussi du point de vue de disciplines adjacentes dont les Sic doivent se distinguer : créativité (management, psychologie), création (esthétique et sciences de l'art, économie libérale de la culture), médiations (sociologie de la culture ou de l'action sociale, sciences politiques).Les propositions s'articuleront autour de 3 axes :Philippe BOUQUILLION (LabSIC) [sommaire] Au sein de l'axe 1, l'objectif est d'interroger les processus de création et de créativité du point de vue de leur dimension idéologique, des enjeux sociaux qu'ils soulèvent et des politiques publiques dont ils bénéficient. Les processus de construction sociale et idéologique de la création et de la créativité sont aujourd'hui omniprésents. Ces processus ont une longue histoire. L'importance se note,à partir du Quattrocento, de la construction du rôle du créateur comme artiste au savoir-faire et aux réalisations singulières, tandis que les fondateurs des théories des industries culturelles ont eux aussi insisté sur l'importance de la construction de la personnalité artistique du créateur central d'une production culturelle pour fonder la valeur de celle-ci. Depuis le début des années 2000, les promoteurs de l'économie créative développent d'importants discours idéologiques sur le rôle supposé de la création et de la créativité pour la redynamisation des économies, des territoires et la transformation des rapports sociaux sous toutes les latitudes. Le design, pris au sens le plus large, est alors envisagé comme une courroie de transmission de la créativité vers l'économie et la société. Ce faisant, le design est aussi un outil d'incorporation de représentations sociales diverses (vision des rapports sociaux, des appartenances de genre, du travail, etc.) au sein des productions économiques mais aussi des politiques publiques (design de politiques publiques). Ainsi, fondant de plus en plus leurs stratégies de construction de la valeur de leurs productions sur ces représentations sociales, nombre d'acteurs économiques font commerce de celles-ci, à l'instar d'Apple qui offre un exemple emblématique du recours au modèle de l'industrie des biens symboliques.L'emprise de l'idéologie de la créativité portée par les discours dans la sphère politique et l'espace public est ainsi au cœur des interrogations développées dans cet axe. Que ces derniers soient le fait d'acteurs institutionnels, industriels, issus de l'innovation ou de l'art, ils marquent la prégnance du terme créativité, qu'il conviendra d'interroger quant à ses contextes de référence et mobilisation, et comme marque ou le témoin de changements sociaux et politiques majeurs. En effet, la valorisation économique et symbolique des métiers, produits ou structures créatifs s'accroît et s'institutionnalise selon des voies et des logiques qu'il conviendra d'analyser et de prendre en compte, et pourquoi pas jusque dans l'Université qui s'ouvre au design ? De même, les politiques culturelles, les soutiens au développement des territoires, l'accompagnement de « l'économie numérique » témoignent de choix de transition dans les modèles économiques et de valorisation du potentiel créatif de certains acteurs, ou équipes-projets.Les tensions entre idéologies et actions, entre discours et acteurs témoignent de contradictions structurantes (ou dé-structurantes) formulées par un lexique omniprésent : innovation, pro-am, innovation ascendante, participation, etc. qui consacre à la fois une idéologie spontanée de l'innovation et de la créativité, comme si elle était sui generis du milieu numérique et des programmes d'actions extrêmement répandus.Sont donc attendues dans l'axe 1, des propositions relatives aux thématiques évoquées ci-dessus et en particulier : aux processus de création et de créativité, aux médiations et constructions sociales dont ils font l'objet, dans la culture, les industries culturelles et créatives, le numérique ou le design ; aux politiques publiques dans la création, en particulier celles en faveur des processus de créativité et de leur déploiement dans divers champs sociaux ; aux enjeux pour l'espace public soulevés par la création et la créativité et, en retour, aux enjeux pour la création et la créativité de sa présence dans l'espace public, des médiatisations et médiations qu'ils suscitent ; aux questions sociétales et aux idéologies sociales liées à la création et la créativité et les concours ainsi apportés aux constructions des genres, du travail, du politique et des sociétés.Interrogeant leur articulation aux Sciences de l'information et de la communication, les propositions pourront relever des diverses approches courantes dans la discipline (étude des discours, approches socio-politique, socio-historiques ou socio-économiques, etc.). Les propositions de communication apportant un décloisonnement et un renouvellement des perspectives, mais aussi une approche critique, et intégrant les dimensions liées à la mondialisation sont encouragées. Axe II. Modèles et stratégies d'acteursCoordonné par Laurence CORROY et Dominique BESSIÈRES(SFSIC),Bertrand LEGENDRE (LabSIC)[sommaire] Cet axe se propose d'interroger la créativité et la création et leurs médiations par le prisme des acteurs et des stratégies qu'ils mettent en œuvre. Souvent, la créativité peut être reliée à des réalisations innovantes, en fonction des environnements dont elles doivent tenir compte et qui peuvent les conditionner en partie. L'adaptation suggère que la créativité est à considérer à l'aune du contexte dans lequel elle s'exprime. Elle peut par son pouvoir d'innovation bouleverser la société ou, plus modestement, apparaître lorsqu'un sujet trouve une nouvelle idée, une formulation originale d'une thématique déjà connue, en somme une variation. Elle peut aussi correspondre à un travail d'acteurs spécifiques dans les activités de création communicationnelles et symboliques (concepteur-rédacteur, créatifs d'agences de communication…). Les conditions de la créativité sont souvent reliées à des dispositions individuelles. En psychosociologie, on parle des « marginaux séquents », c'est-à-dire des personnes qui font partie d'un sous-système social dont ils maîtrisent les codes, mais suffisamment déviantes par rapport aux règles et aux normes pour pouvoir aborder sous un angle différent les objets, les organisations, c'est-à-dire innover.Création et créativité s'apparentent ainsi à des passages de « frontières ». Mais s'il faut pouvoir être crédible pour être entendu par des pairs, cette nécessité est soumise aux conditions par lesquelles la médiation peut faire partager des innovations scientifiques et/ou technologiques. C'est ce qu'illustre l'exemple archétypal, souvent évoqué, de Semmelweis qui, avant la découverte des microbes, affirmait sans succès que les médecins, en passant de l'examen des cadavres à l'auscultation des femmes enceintes sans se laver les mains, provoquaient une surmortalité au sein des populations défavorisées - les populations aisées choisissant d'accoucher à la maison pour des raisons de sécurité.Aujourd'hui, création et créativité sont souvent au cœur des discours et des stratégies portés par des organisations de toutes natures (milieux économiques, politiques, syndicaux, académiques, médiatiques…). Elles sont aux prises avec des difficultés où se mêlent des effets de résistance, les excès - sur fond de success stories - d'une croyance inconsidérée dans les vertus de la créativité, les travers et faces cachées du « management créatif »…Par exemple pour les Tice, d'un côté, l'État a porté des discours favorables aux innovations pédagogiques instrumentées, mais, de l'autre, l'État a toujours de grandes difficultés à reconnaître financièrement les investissements de certains acteurs sociaux précurseurs d'innovations pédagogiques dans le domaine des Tice. C'est la condition des soutiens matériels et financiers aux innovations qui est à questionner ainsi que la mesure de leurs effets chez les apprenants et les enseignants (Tice, éducation aux médias et à l'information…).Par ailleurs, nombre d'organisations privées et publiques se convertissent plus ou moins fortement au management de projet, cherchant justement à définir et prodiguer des règles, des normes, des dispositifs pour favoriser la création et la créativité par le développement de la communication dans les organisations. Faire communiquer des personnels de statuts, de niveaux hiérarchiques, de compétences diverses est censé permettre une plus grande faculté d'innovation par un enrichissement croisé des points de vue (intelligence collective). Une double promesse est ainsi escomptée : celle d'une organisation plus fructueuse que les anciens systèmes de gestion pyramidaux et bureaucratiques (modèle taylorien), et celle d'une « agilité » accrue de ces organisations dans un contexte de concurrence exacerbée. Enfin, les Tic sont censées favoriser l'innovation par la réduction des coûts (disruption) dans la société capitaliste contemporaine en transformation.Comment susciter la création et la créativité ? Quels acteurs et quelles stratégies sont à l'œuvre ? Quels rôles pour l'information et la communication dans cette perspective ? Quels regards critiques peut-on porter sur les stratégies des acteurs qui mobilisent ces notions ? Telles sont les questions principales à aborder par les propositions dans l'axe 2. Axe III. Objets techniques, dispositifs et contenus Coordonné par Philippe BONFILS et Bruno CHAUDET (SFSIC),Dominique CARRÉ (LabSIC)[sommaire] Cet axe se propose de questionner la place des objets techniques, des dispositifs (en règle générale et au sens foucaldien en particulier) et des contenus dans les processus d'innovation, de création et de créativité. Machines de Turing, machines à communiquer, machines numériques, machines learning… Les objets techniques, plus particulièrement numériques mais pas uniquement, ont colonisé notre quotidien au point de nous accompagner, de nous prolonger ou encore de se substituer à nous dans un ensemble de tâches de plus en plus complexes. La reconnaissance des formes, par exemple, que nous pensions être une compétence strictement humaine est désormais assurée par l'intelligence artificielle qui équipe la Google Car. Qu'est-ce que la créativité et comment être créatif dans un univers machinique contraint par les mécanismes, les procédures, les rouages, les instructions, les modes d'emploi, les prescriptions d'usages ? Et est-ce que les machines dites organisantes et désirantes sont sources de création ? Quelles situations communicationnelles sont-elles alors installées ? Il s'agit donc d'observer si l'actualisation des couplages hommes/machines fait émerger de nouvelles formes organisationnelles, de nouvelles relations, de nouveaux usages ou encore de nouveaux contenus. Cet axe porte ainsi une double interrogation. Dans quelle mesure avons-nous recours ou intégrons-nous des dispositifs de création et de créativité dans la conception même des machines à communiquer (objets, applicatifs, algorithmes, usages) et, en retour, de quelle manière ces machines dans leur propre mode de fonctionnement favorisent-elles au quotidien la mise en œuvre de la création et la créativité ? Dit autrement, que font les machines à la créativité et en retour que font création et créativité aux machines ?Les propositions de communication dans l'axe 3 auront pour vocation à s'inscrire dans cette orientation en travaillant les objets médiateurs mais aussi les dispositifs dans lesquels ils s'insèrent et les contenus qu'ils portent.Les contributions pourront analyser la place du tournant que l'on désigne comme créatif dans le processus d'informatisation sociale en cours, la manière dont s'inscrit le numérique dans le tournant créatif, ou encore les dispositifs sociotechniques qui s'appuient notamment sur les réseaux socio-numériques, les plateformes, les algorithmes, et qui organisent la mise en relation, favorisent l'accès aux contenus tout en structurant peu à peu les pratiques relationnelles, expressives, communicationnelles, créatives. Il s'agit également d'analyser les pratiques créatives qui ont recourt à des agencements techniques supposés favoriser l'engagement, la mobilisation et les nouveaux modes de coopération et de valorisation des savoirs et de la connaissance. En somme, comment analyser les nouvelles médiations qui ont faitirruption pour modifier les échanges entre univers artistique et industriel ?Cet ensemble de contributions permettra d'interroger la manière dont la technè, c'est-à-dire la relation sujet-objet, en se transformant, favorise (ou non !), une interface renouvelée, plus créative et moins instrumentale dans les domaines les plus variés : organisationnel, culturel, ludique, artistique, scientifique, technologique ou industriel. À travers ces trois axes, le Congrès 2018 sollicite les chercheur-e-s afin de discuter les concepts, les stratégies, les méthodes ou les terrains permettant d'élucider les usages multiples de la création et de la créativité dans leurs relations aux médiations dans nos sociétés qui en font désormais un usage récurrent.Les propositions de communication peuvent relever aussi bien de l'information et de la documentation que de la communication et s'insérer dans des champs de recherche déjà identifiés ou émergents de recherche. Elles pourront être :- d'ordre épistémologique et porter sur une analyse théorique croisant d'autres disciplines, et, dans ce cas, les auteur-e-s devront dégager l'éventuelle spécificité des Sic ;- d'ordre empirique et porter sur des objets précis mais, dans ce cas, les auteur-e-s devront dégager, dans une dynamique inductive, ce qui vaut pour de plus vastes ensembles ;- d'ordre stratégique et porter sur des actions mobilisatrices de la création, de la créativité et de l'innovation mais, dans ce cas, les auteur-e-s devront en dégager les enjeux communicationnels tant sur le plan opérationnel que sur le plan de la démarche de recherche. ; International audience ; After studying about fifteen public support funds for creation, in various artistic fields (visual arts, music, digital creation, audiovisual, theater, heritage and historical monuments, reading), this communication identifies some common endogenous characteristics from the communication sciences point ov view. We consider the funds as socio-technical systems generating discourse and we propose some methodological milestones allowing to observe the social transformation of a double mediation: the recognition and the assessment of creativity. ; Après avoir étudié une quinzaine de fonds de soutien à la création, dans des domaines artistiques divers (arts plastiques, musique, création numérique, audiovisuel, théâtre, patrimoine et monuments historiques, lecture), cette communication en identifie quelques caractéristiques endogènes se prêtant à l'analyse info-communicationnelle. Nous envisageons les fonds de soutien, instruments de gouvernance publique, comme des dispositifs sociotechniques générateurs d'un discours d'escorte et proposons quelques jalons méthodologiques permettant d'observer la transformation sociale d'une double médiation : la reconnaissance et l'évaluation de la créativité.

El libro comienza con el capítulo de Federico Mina,"Ética de la guerra en los Reinos Combatientes: un análisis de las posiciones de Mozi y Mencio"; el autor sitúa su investigación en la China preimperial –cuando se desarrollan las primeras posiciones intelectuales con respecto a las relaciones interestatales–, en el marco del debilitamiento del poder central y la fragmentación del país asiático en estados autónomos. Mina comienza su trabajo realizando un análisis de las posiciones que el confucianismo y el moísmo tempranos tomaron con respecto al rol de la utilidad en la moral, y avanza luego contrastando las posiciones de los dos pensadores en lo atinente a las razones para oponerse a la guerra. Afirma que, pese a las diferencias que tradicionalmente se han atribuido a ellos, hay similitudes profundas entre sus textos. Luciano Di Doménico, en su capítulo "La Ruta de la Seda terrestre y marítima en el este asiático durante los siglos X-XII", realiza un estudio detallado de las dinámicas económicas que se generaron en el sistema multiestatal del Noreste Asiático durante ese período, y su proyección hacia el oeste por medio de la Ruta de la Seda; en particular, analiza la producción e intercambios de los Liao, los Xi Xia, los Jin y la China de la dinastía Song. Afirma además que a medida que esta última comienza a perder poder -y eventualmente el territorio- en el norte en manos de aquellos estados, tuvo que readecuar sus intercambios económicos extrarregionales desde la Ruta de la Seda terrestre hacia la marítima. En el capítulo de Andrés Landoni, "Choque cultural y otredades en la primera Guerra del Opio (1839–1842)", se analizan documentos oficiales y publicaciones de la época para destacar las diferencias culturales en la percepción del conflicto y en la caracterización del bando enemigo. Por un lado, muestra que en el contexto del creciente dominio marítimo mundial y expansión imperial de los británicos se consolida una mentalidad instrumentalista y liberal, en la que el orden político y social chino es definido como inferior y atrasado. Por otro lado, el país asiático enfrenta a los ingleses en las primeras disputas sobre el comercio del opio con una mentalidad etnocéntrica de carácter diferente, producto de la hegemonía cultural regional indisputada que los chinos tuvieron durante siglos; como consecuencia, su reacción ante el conflicto menospreció la superioridad militar inglesa, lo que trajo aparejado su subsiguiente derrota. El capítulo de Gustavo Santillán, "Kang Youwei y Liang Qichao frente al derrumbe del orden sinocéntrico: reacciones y propuestas político-intelectuales en un periodo de crisis", pone la trayectoria político-intelectual de estos letrados chinos reformistas en el contexto de la creciente intervención japonesa en la política china a partir de 1895, tras el desenlace del conflicto bélico que culminara con la suscripción del Tratado de Shimonoseki. A partir de aquí, con toda claridad, Japón pasó de representar un Estado periférico, tributario e imitador de China, a convertirse en adversario, modelo a imitar y jugador en las disputas políticas internas de su vecino. En este marco, Kang y Liang diseñaron soluciones político-intelectuales para preservar a su país, que mostraron tanto continuidades con el pasado confuciano como innovaciones y aperturas hacia el ideario occidental, mediadas en ocasiones por la previa apropiación japonesa de dicho ideario. El capítulo enfatiza el carácter instrumental de las soluciones mencionadas, y la fluidez de los vínculos ideológicos evidentes en el periodo. El trabajo "Los reclamos y la participación de las mujeres en la caída de la dinastía Qing: el legado de Qiu Jin", de Rocío Montoya, continúa tratando las respuestas intelectuales y políticas a la crisis de finales de la dinastía Qing discutidas en capítulo anterior, pero pone su foco en las actividades de la activista y poetisa revolucionaria Qiu Jin y en las demandas por los derechos de la mujer, vi subyugada históricamente a causa de la ideología confuciana. Afirma que la creación de asociaciones políticas y el rol importante que tuvo el acceso a la educación occidental en Japón fueron factores determinantes para que Qiu y otros militantes pudieran fundamentar y desarrollar sus ideas. Asimismo, se analizan poemas de Qiu que permiten apreciar estas ideas, y se examina su legado postrero. El capítulo de Federico Guzmán Olivera, "Las relaciones entre la República Popular China y la República de Indonesia: desde la Conferencia de Bandung hasta el fallido golpe del Movimiento 30 de Septiembre (1955-1965)", refiere a la relación bilateral establecida entre esos estados en sus primeros años de existencia. Debido a las coincidencias dentro del Movimiento de Países No Alineados y a los posicionamientos antiimperialistas fue posible un acercamiento diplomático que sin embargo nunca estuvo libre de desconfianzas, en especial por la represión ejercida hacia los comunistas locales en Indonesia, amén de las medidas tomadas allí contra la población china residente. Finalmente, Guzmán Olivera relata el alejamiento bilateral definitivo, concretado después del intento fallido de golpe en Indonesia del año 1965, y la posterior suspensión de relaciones efectivizada en 1967. El capítulo de Cristian Fernández Castro y Emiliano Medina se titula "Relaciones internacionales chino-camboyanas: la retirada de Estados Unidos frente a la progresiva injerencia de la República Popular China en la región (1979 – 2018)". En los años posteriores a la caída del régimen del Khmer Rouge en 1979 los Estados Unidos, junto con la ONU, destinaron recursos para proteger a los restos del Khmer bajo la forma de ayuda humanitaria, mientras que Vietnam mantuvo el control de Camboya hasta 1993; es en esa dinámica en la que se desenvuelven durante ese periodo las relaciones bilaterales. En los años posteriores se ve una mayor injerencia occidental, tanto diplomática como por parte de instituciones financieras tales como el FMI. Por su parte, el gobierno chino, en especial desde 1997 y consolidándose bajo el liderazgo de Xi Jinping, ha querido tener luego un rol más importante a nivel internacional. El papel que China tuvo en Camboya, en especial en los intercambios comerciales, fue creciendo a lo largo de los años, desplazando al que anteriormente ocupaba Occidente. El capítulo de Marina Gusmão De Mendonça y Rafael Almeida Ferreira Abrão, titulado "Ruanda pósgenocídio: a participação da China no processo de reconstrução do país", profundiza en la creciente influencia china en el país africano luego del genocidio de 1994. Dicha influencia fue parte de un plan del gobierno de la República Popular para aumentar las inversiones y la cooperación económica en el continente africano. Desde entonces, los intercambios bilaterales con Ruanda han aumentado considerablemente. Se analizan también las consecuencias económicas de dichos intercambios en el país africano. El capítulo de José María Resiale Viano, "La industria automotriz china en el nuevo siglo: consolidación local y expansión hacia nuevos mercados (2004-2019)", ofrece un detallado panorama de las transformaciones acaecidas en dicha rama de la industria china. Resiale Viano estipula, luego de establecer el contexto inicial de conformación de la industria automotriz china, dos etapas al interior del periodo del que se ocupa: en la primera de ellas, 2004-2009, la industria automotriz china se consolida, inicia su salto exportador y se concentra en la venta de automóviles para uso individual; en el periodo 2009-2019, en tanto, el examen empírico muestra la expansión externa del sector. Resiale Viano detalla los mercados hacia los cuales las automotrices chinas se expanden, destaca a la IED como forma saliente de dicha expansión, e indaga en las motivaciones de la inserción externa: ellas están constituidas en lo fundamental por la búsqueda de tecnología, amén de por la procura de nuevos mercados. El capítulo cierra con una proyección tentativa, a partir de la cual el autor advierte la necesidad de desarrollar estudios que se adentren en el examen del segmento de producción de autos eléctricos, pues hacia allí no sólo parece dirigirse buena parte de los esfuerzos recientes de las automotrices chinas punteras, sino que el desarrollo de estos productos puede convertirse en un escenario económico de disputa entre la República Popular China y los Estados Unidos. El trabajo de Rodolfo Molina, "Reactivación o transformación en Japón", detalla algunos aspectos de las reformas económicas impulsadas por el premier Abe Shinzo durante su actual mandato, iniciado en 2012. Molina reflexiona acerca de la relación existente entre las medidas lanzadas por Abe y las tensiones subyacentes a la estructura socioeconómica de Japón. El autor indaga en particular sobre las reformas en el ámbito laboral y empresarial, poniendo de relieve las inconsistencias existentes entre los postulados de dichas reformas y las tendencias demográficas, el tejido productivo y las tradiciones corporativas japonesas. Ello hace concluir al autor la existencia de una cierta imposibilidad de Japón para crecer más allá de los límites de su modelo de desarrollo. El capítulo de Marcos Cordeiro Pires y Lucas Gualberto Do Nascimento, "A Doutrina Monroe 2.0 e as Relações Trilaterais Estados Unidos, China e América Latina", en tanto, sostiene la existencia actual de una nueva versión de la Doctrina Monroe. Para los autores, ello se debe poner en el contexto de la reciente disputa sinoestadounidense, que estaría repercutiendo en la configuración de América Latina como escenario de dicha disputa. Pires y Nascimento señalan que hasta el comienzo de la segunda década del siglo XXI los Estados Unidos no percibían a la relación sinolatinoamericana como problemática para sus propios intereses. A partir de la llegada al gobierno de Donald Trump, y con antecededentes relevantes en la Estrategia de Pivot para Asia diseñada durante el gobierno de Obama, Estados Unidos manifiesta una creciente disposición a obstaculizar las relaciones de los países latinoamericanos con la República Popular China, sin que ello implique por otro lado que posea necesariamente las capacidades estructurales suficientes para llevar a cabo dicho entorpecimiento de manera efectiva. El capítulo de Leon Gornitz, "Rupturas y continuidades de la política exterior estadounidense hacia la República Popular China: del Pivot a Asia y el Pacífico a "America First" (2011 - 2018), ofrece una exposición de documentación oficial producida por los Estados Unidos en lo referente a su estrategia de seguridad nacional, y en lo atinente a su política hacia China y el Asia IndoPacífica. El examen involucra las dimensiones económica y militar de la estrategia estadounidense y las pone en relación sosteniendo que, en un contexto general caracterizado por el ascenso de China y la declinación estadounidense, el cambio de estrategia hacia el Asia en general y hacia China en particular ocurrido entre las administraciones de Barack Obama y de Donald Trump constituye una redefinición de los medios a través de los cuales los Estados Unidos procuran retener su hegemonía en un mundo crecientemente multipolar. Así, mientras Obama apuntaba a construir una malla de seguridad para la contención de China involucrando a los socios regionales de los Estados Unidos en Asia, Trump apunta a revertir el agotamiento de las ventajas militares competitivas estadounidenses a través de la aplicación de políticas comerciales duras y unilaterales contra la República Popular China. El capítulo de José Luis Valenzuela, "¿De la Guerra Tibia a la Guerra Fría?: Escenarios posibles para la relación entre la República Popular China y Estados Unidos en la próxima década", estudia el tema anunciado en su título en un contexto amplio y caracterizado por: las tendencias globales para los próximos 20 años de acuerdo al planteo del informe Global Trends del National Intelligence Council de los Estados Unidos, la actual revolución científico-tecnológica en curso (tal como es delineada y estudiada por el autor en su reciente libro "La Humanidad en la Encrucijada…"), y el interrogante acerca de si la política de Donald Trump constituye una excepción o una continuidad destinada a perdurar en la política estadounidense. En este marco de coordenadas, Valenzuela traza escenarios posibles para analizar la "Guerra Tibia" entre Estados Unidos y China y sus implicancias geopolíticas, concluyendo que los cambios científicotecnológicos, climáticos y en el empleo profundizarán la brecha existente entre las dos naciones mencionadas y el resto del mundo, polarizarán a las sociedades y, de persistir las políticas de la actual administración estadounidense, los alineamientos mundiales de poder adoptarán un cariz de suma-cero, en el que el "ganador llevará todo". El capítulo de Santiago Boccardo y Gabriel Gerbaldo, "De caminos, nuevos mercados y relaciones diplomáticas: un acercamiento histórico al conflicto fronterizo de Jammu-Cachemira (2013-2018)" trata dicho conflicto, a partir de la perspectiva de David Harvey, como un proceso condicionado por la necesidad de la República Popular China de diseñar "soluciones espacio-temporales" que le permiten canalizar capital excedente en su economía doméstica. Los proyectos de comunicación física chinos en la región, enmarcados en la Iniciativa de la Franja y la Ruta, estarían para los autores dirigidos por tal imperativo.Finalmente, el capítulo de Francisco Bauer versa sobre "China y la cuestión ambiental". Bauer define y analiza esta cuestión presentando el escenario internacional, caracterizado por la proliferación de foros oficiales y no oficiales. En este marco, presenta luego información pertinente a la República Popular China detallando datos de crecimiento económico, matriz energética y polución. Finalmente, introduce al lector los esfuerzos que el gobierno y la sociedad civil china han llevado a cabo para lidiar con la contaminación ambiental. ; Los trabajos presentes en este libro realizan una indagación histórica de las relaciones exteriores de China en el largo plazo con el objetivo de contribuir a la comprensión de la emergencia de ese país como uno de los actores más importantes en la geopolítica actual, así como también obtener perspectivas futuras de la dirección y características de su comportamiento. Algunos de los textos abordan nuevos desafíos del país asiático como la producción automotriz o los problemas ambientales, mientras que otros analizan los patrones de intercambios económicos durante el período imperial, los cuales son de vital importancia para entender proyectos como la reciente Belt and Road Initiative . También se estudia la dinámica de las relaciones bilaterales contemporáneas entre la República Popular China y algunos países asiáticos y africanos. Se discuten asimismo debates desde una perspectiva cultural e intelectual, en especial aquellos suscitados por el contacto con Occidente. Finalmente, otros trabajos se ocupan de aspectos económicos y diplomáticos recientes y de sus proyecciones para los próximos años. ; The works presented in this book carry out a historical investigation of China's foreign relations in the long term with the aim of contributing to the understanding of the emergence of that country as one of the most important actors in current geopolitics, as well as obtaining future perspectives on the direction and characteristics of its behaviour. Some of the texts address new challenges of the Asian country such as automotive production or environmental problems, while others analyze the patterns of economic exchanges during the imperial period, which are of vital importance to understand projects such as the recent Belt and Road Initiative . The dynamics of contemporary bilateral relations between the People's Republic of China and some Asian and African countries are also studied. Discussions are also held from a cultural and intellectual perspective, especially those arising from contact with the West. Finally, other works deal with recent economic and diplomatic aspects and their projections for the coming years. ; Ética de la guerra en los Reinos Combatientes: un análisis de las posiciones de Mozi y Mencio, Federico Daniel Mina. La Ruta de la Seda terrestre y marítima en el Este Asiático durante los siglos X-XII, Luciano Agustín Di Doménico. Choque cultural y otredades en la primera Guerra del Opio (1839–1842), Andrés Landoni. Kang Youwei y Liang Qichao frente al derrumbe del orden sinocéntrico: reacciones y propuestas político-intelectuales en un periodo de crisis, Gustavo E. Santillán. Los reclamos y la participación de las mujeres en la caída de la dinastía Qing: el legado de Qiu Jin, Rocio Mickaela Montoya. Las relaciones entre la República Popular China y la República de Indonesia: desde la conferencia de Bandung hasta el fallido golpe del Movimiento 30 de Septiembre (1955-1965), Federico Guzmán Olivera. Relaciones internacionales chino-camboyanas: La retirada de Estados Unidos frente a la progresiva injerencia de la República Popular China en la región (1979– 2018), Cristian Nicolás Fernández Castro y Emiliano Javier Medina. Ruanda pós-genocídio: a participação da China no processo de reconstrução do país, Marina Gusmão De Mendonça y Rafael Almeida Ferreira Abrão. La industria automotriz china en el nuevo siglo: consolidación local y expansión hacia nuevos mercados (2004-2019), José María Resiale Viano. Reactivación o transformación en Japón, Rodolfo Molina. A Doutrina Monroe 2.0 e as Relações Trilaterais Estados Unidos, China e América Latina, Marcos Cordeiro Pires y Lucas Gualberto do Nascimento. Rupturas y continuidades de la política exterior estadounidense hacia la República Popular China: del Pivot a Asia y el Pacífico a "America First" (2011 - 2018), Leon Gornitz. ¿De la Guerra Tibia a la Guerra Fría?: Escenarios posibles para la relación entre la República Popular China y Estados Unidos en la próxima década, José Luis Valenzuela. De caminos, nuevos mercados y relaciones diplomáticas: un acercamiento histórico al conflicto fronterizo de Jammu-Cachemira (2013-2018), Santiago Esteban Boccardo y Gabriel Gerbaldo. China y la cuestión ambiental, Francisco Bauer. ; Fil: Santillán, Gustavo E. Universidad Nacional de Córdoba. Facultad de Filosofía y Humanidades. Escuela de Historia; Argentina. ; Fil: Santillán, Gustavo E. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro de Investigaciones y Estudios sobre Cultura y Sociedad; Argentina. ; Fil: Mina, Federico. Universidad Nacional de Córdoba. Facultad de Filosofía y Humanidades. Escuela de Historia; Argentina. ; Fil: Di Doménico, Luciano Agustín. Universidad Nacional de Córdoba. Facultad de Filosofía y Humanidades. Escuela de Historia; Argentina. . ; Fil: Landoni, Andrés. Universidad Nacional de Córdoba. Facultad de Filosofía y Humanidades. Escuela de Historia; Argentina. ; Fil: Montoya, Rocío Mickaela. Universidad Nacional de Córdoba. Facultad de Filosofía y Humanidades. Escuela de Historia; Argentina. ; Fil: Guzmán Olivera; Federico. Universidad Nacional de Córdoba. Facultad de Filosofía y Humanidades. Escuela de Historia; Argentina. ; Fil: Fernández Castro, Cristian Nicolás. Universidad Nacional de Córdoba. Facultad de Filosofía y Humanidades. Escuela de Historia; Argentina. ; Fil: Medina, Emiliano Javier. Universidad Nacional de Córdoba. Facultad de Filosofía y Humanidades. Escuela de Historia; Argentina. ; Fil: Resiale Viano, José María. Universidad Nacional de Córdoba. Facultad de Ciencias Sociales; Argentina. ; Fil: Resiale Viano, José María. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro de Investigaciones y Estudios sobre Cultura y Sociedad; Argentina. ; Fil: Molina, Rodolfo. Universidad Nacional de Córdoba; Argentina. ; Fil: Gornitz, León. Universidad Nacional de Córdoba. Facultad de Filosofía y Humanidades. Escuela de Historia; Argentina. ; Fil: Valenzuela José Luis. Universidad Andrés Bello. Centro de Estudios Latinoamericanos sobre China; Chile. ; Fil: Boccardo, Santiago Esteban. Universidad Nacional de Córdoba. Facultad de Filosofía y Humanidades. Escuela de Historia; Argentina. ; Fil: Gerbaldo, Gabriel. Universidad Nacional de Córdoba. Facultad de Filosofía y Humanidades. Escuela de Historia; Argentina. ; Fil: Bauer, Francisco. Universidad Nacional de Córdoba. Facultad de Filosofía y Humanidades. Escuela de Historia; Argentina. ; Fil: Gusmão De Mendonça, Marina. Universidad Federal de São Paulo; Brasil. ; Fil: Ferreira Abrão, Rafael Almeida. Universidad Federal ABC; Brasil. ; Fil: Cordeiro Pires, Marcos. Universidad Estatal Paulista; Brasil. ; Fil: Do Nascimento, Lucas Gualberto. Universidad Estatal Paulista; Brasil.

Führungskräfte haben es nicht leicht – in ihrer Position müssen sie nicht nur fachliche Verantwortung tragen, sondern auch Antworten auf brennende Führungsfragen finden, zum Beispiel: • Wie baue ich ein neues Team auf?• Wie gehe ich mit einem Mitarbeiter um, der mich anlügt?• Wie werde ich endlich einmal rechtzeitig mit meiner Arbeit fertig?Führungskräftetrainer Jürgen W. Goldfuß zeigt in übersichtlicher und anschaulicher Form, wie Manager typische Konfliktsituationen schnell und erfolgreich bewältigen – auch erfahrene Chefs können hier noch etwas lernen.

Gute Unternehmensführung kann man auf zwei Fragen reduzieren: Wie finde ich gute Mitarbeiter? Und: Wie halte ich diese? Die Autoren zeigen, wie mit einem neunstufigen Mitarbeiterauswahlprozess der Anteil von Top-Mitarbeitern von 30 auf 90 Prozent erhöht werden kann. Dafür müssen Unternehmen beispielsweise immaterielle und materielle Anreize optimal kombinieren. In dieser aktualisierten und komplett bearbeiteten Neuauflage geben die Autoren wertvolle Tipps zum Umgang mit sozialen Netzwerken.

»Der Faktor Mensch bestimmt den Unternehmenserfolg« – die zentrale Managementerkenntnis wird in kaum einem Unternehmen umgesetzt. Jörg Knoblauch spricht Klartext: Wer im Vertrauen auf das Bauchgefühl neue Mitarbeiter auswählt, wer sich darauf verlässt, dass sich die Fehlbesetzung noch zum Performer entwickeln wird, wer unter Personalentwicklung nur das jährliche Mitarbeitergespräch versteht, der darf sich nicht wundern, wenn sein Team in eine Abwärtsspirale gerät. Knoblauch zeigt, warum das Personalmanagement in die Unternehmensführung gehört und warum es ein entscheidender Wettbewerbsvorteil ist, wenn Mitarbeiterauswahl, -förderung und -führung oberste Priorität bekommen.

Long description: Heutzutage übernehmen Personalreferenten zahlreiche wichtige und zentrale Aufgaben des Personalmanagements. Die Autoren vermitteln wesentliches Know-how für die Alltagspraxis, das unmittelbar angewendet werden kann. So gibt es zahlreiche Checklisten und Muster, beispielsweise für ein Auswahlverfahren, die Personalplanung, die Einarbeitung neuer Mitarbeiter oder das Personalmarketing.